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MPIDR Working Paper WP 2023-039 l September 2023
https://doi.org/10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2023-039
Revised September 2023

Sex- and Gender-based Differencesin the Migration Process:
A Systematic Literature Review
Athina Anastasiadou l anastasiadou@demogr.mpg.de
Jisu Kim l kim@demogr.mpg.de
A. Ebru Sanlitürk l sanlituerk@demogr.mpg.de
Helga de Valk
Emilio Zagheni l oﬃce-zagheni@demogr.mpg.de© Copyright is held by the authors.
Working papers of the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research receive only limited review. Views or opinions expressedin working papers are attributable to the authors and do not necessarily reﬂect those of the Institute.

Sex- and Gender-based Differences in the Migration Process:
A Systematic Literature Review
Athina Anastasiadou1 , Jisu Kim1 , A. Ebru Sanlitürk1 ,Helga de Valk2 , Emilio Zagheni1
1

2

Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research
University of Groningen, Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic InstituteMigration scholars agree that migration is a highly gendered process. While the literature on this topic is increasing, the knowledge produced remains fragmentary and has
not been synthesized systematically yet. This literature review aims at summarizing thecurrent findings of quantitative migration research comparing migration patterns between
genders and highlighting gaps and patterns in the literature over time. Following a reproducible and systematic approach, 6,032 articles have been scanned and 170 were considered
for in-depth content analysis. The review of the literature revealed that women have alower propensity than men to realize their migration aspirations conditional on migration
intentions. Moreover, many articles analyzing migration flows by sex do not support thecommon narrative of a feminization of migration. Finally, evidence from the migration
literature supports the assumption that migrant women experience a double burden of
discrimination in the destination country labor market based on their gender and on theirmigration status. It becomes apparent that gender-based comparisons between migration
outcomes have received most attention in the literature followed by the comparison of determinants. The stage of the journey received only little attention. This literature review
also focuses on the data sources used to produce our knowledge on gender- and sex-based
differences in the migration process. Thereby, it stands out that the majority of papers
rely on survey data for the analysis. Digital trace data is a promising source for genderdisaggregated data and can potentially complement the scarce aggregate migration data
landscape.

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INTRODUCTION

1Introduction

2

Migratory movements are highly gendered processes. Migrant women and men exhibit
different migration aspirations and determinants, report different experiences throughout
their journeys and at the destination, rely on different network structures, and their integration outcomes vary (Van Praag, 2022; Buján, 2015; Meyer et al., 2019; Ager, Ager,& Long, 1995; Curran & Rivero-Fuentes, 2003; Hoang, 2011; Treuren, Manoharan, &Vishnu, 2021; Salikutluk & Menke, 2021; Pérez & Freier, 2022). While some of themechanisms for these differences are known, as they have been discovered mainly throughqualitative research, quantifying the heterogeneity in migration patterns remains mostly
under-explored.
In the late 20th century and early 2000s, there has been a growing effort to better understand women’s migration and its unique characteristics. The development ofresearch on women’s migration underwent several stages. Initially, there was a lack of
research on female migration until the mid-1970s. This was followed by a period whenfamily migration gained attention, but women’s presence received limited focus. In the
1980s, significant works emerged highlighting women’s agency in migration while recognizing gender differences in the process and settlement. Finally, in the late 1990s onward,
the term “feminization of migration” became commonly used to describe the increasing
participation of women in migration flows (Casas & Garson, 2005).
In the realm of academic journals, several special issues have emerged over the years,
highlighting specific topics within the field of migration studies on gender differences.
It began in 1984 with the International Migration Review on female labor migration(Morokvasic, 1984). Then, in 2006, the same journal released another special issue, thistime dedicated to gender in migration studies (Donato, Gabaccia, Holdaway, Manalansan,& Pessar, 2006). Building upon this trend, the Asian and Pacific Migration journal joined
the fold, producing its own special issue (Sim, 2009). This particular edition showcased
various works examining labor migration and the mobility of women in East and South
Asia. Later, in 2013, the Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies released a special issue
that explored gendered mobilities within the context of Europe (Andall, 2013). Theseand other works have drawn increasing attention to female migrants. At the same time,a growing body of literature has aimed at discovering and contrasting female and malemigrants’ migration patterns. The interdisciplinary nature of this growing field resulted
in relevant publications appearing in various journals addressing different audiences.
The present work aims at connecting and structuring the current state of this research.
Thereby, it contributes to the field of migration studies by providing an overview of thealready existing knowledge and by synthesizing the key findings of this heterogeneous
research area.
Several works have aimed to synthesize the research on gender and migration, including those by Chant (1992); Donato and Gabaccia (2015), and more recently, Christou andKofman (2022). Changes in sex compositions of migration flows to the US using data
has been analysed in the work of Katharine Donato and Donna Gabaccia’s (Donato &Gabaccia, 2015). Chant (1992) investigate why migration is always gender-selective in2

SELECTION PROCESS

3

developing countries based on various case studies of which some found their way into
the present review. However, Fleury (2016) highlights that migration has the potential toempower women through increased autonomy, access to education and economic opportunities, and the promotion of gender equality. Despite these positive outcomes, challenges
such as the reversion to traditional norms, strains on families, and discriminatory barriers
can hinder the empowerment of women through migration.
This systematic literature review is divided into two thematic parts. In the first part,we aim at outlining what quantitative research has found about sex- and gender-based
differences that persist throughout the migratory process and summarizing them according
to the stages of the migration process (pre-, during, and post-migration stage as definedby Boyd and Grieco (2003)). In the second part, we provide an overview of the existingsex- and gender-disaggregated migration data sources and carve out the most widely useddata types. Therefore, this study aims to address the following questions: (1) What has
quantitative research revealed about the impact of sex and gender on migration? (2)What are the primary data types and sources that have contributed to our knowledgeof gender-based differences in the migration process experienced by migrant women? Asystematic approach to answer this question is crucial for understanding the knowledge
gaps persisting in the migration literature as well as the underlying data gaps preventing
researchers from closing those gaps.
The gender and sex of migrants can influence the migration process in many possible
ways. For the demographic structure of the origin and destination countries, the sexselection into migration has a direct impact. In order for demographers to incorporate
migration into demographic projections, they need to understand also its gendered dimension and composition which has a direct impact on fertility and mortality in origin anddestination countries. Female migration has been found to contribute to higher population redistribution than male migration, even though male migration rates are higher (He& Gober, 2003). Moreover, migrant women tend to choose different destinations compared to men due to different employment and integration opportunities based on their
networks (Davis & Winters, 2001). Therefore, it would be informative for policy-making
purposes to follow long voiced claims of incorporating gender in migration theories andconceptualizing its impact on selection, realization, and outcomes of migration processes.

2

Selection Process

To ensure transparency and facilitate reproducibility, we employed a systematic approachin our study. This section aims at explaining the decision-making process we employed ateach step, offering a clear understanding of our methodology.
First, we retrieved articles from the literature databases Scopus 1 and Web of Science 2
that matched the following search query.
Title: (women* OR woman* OR female* OR gender* OR sex) AND (migra* OR im1

https://www.scopus.com
https://clarivate.com/products/scientific-and-academic-research/research-discovery-and-workflow-solutions/webofscience-platform/web-of-science-core-collection/
2

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SELECTION PROCESS

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migra* OR emigra* OR mobilit* OR relocat* OR mov* OR displac* OR refugee*
OR ”asylum seeker*”) AND NOT (nutr* OR medic* OR migraine OR nurs* OR
health* OR diet* OR contraceptiv* OR fertil* OR sexuality)
Abstract: (women* OR woman* OR female* OR gender* OR sex) AND (migra* OR
immigra* OR emigra* OR mobilit* OR relocat* OR mov* OR displac* OR refugee*
OR ”asylum seeker*”)
Keywords: (women* OR woman* OR female* OR gender* OR sex) AND (migra* OR
immigra* OR emigra* OR mobilit* OR relocat* OR mov* OR displac* OR refugee*
OR ”asylum seeker*”) AND NOT (nutr* OR medic* OR migraine OR health* OR
sexuality)
During a first round of scanning, the lead author read the titles and abstracts of theretrieved articles. Based on the information contained in the abstracts and titles, we
decided in line with the pre-defined eligibility criteria whether to keep the studies for asecond round of scanning or not.
Year: No time restriction.
Publication type: Primary research, peer-reviewed and published scientific articles andbook chapters.
Subject area: Social sciences broadly conceived (excluding health sciences, social work).
Language: No language restrictions.
Migration: The definition of migrant and migration applied in this review is based on to
the combined definitions of migrants as developed by the United Nations Departmentof Economic and Social Affairs (Recommendations on Statistics of International Migration, Revision 1 , 1998) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM,
2019). Accordingly, “a person is considered a migrant when they leave their place ofusual residence (within or across national borders) temporarily or permanently for aperiod of at least a year”(IOM, 2019; Recommendations on Statistics of International
Migration, Revision 1 , 1998, p.132, p.9).
Method: This review focuses solely on quantitative approaches to assess the differencesin migration patterns based on sex or gender (applied in full-text scan).
In a second round of scanning, the remaining articles were subjected to a full-text examination. Thereby, the complete text of each article was consulted to determine its inclusionin the analysis. To ensure consistency in the article selection process, a random subsample
comprising 20% of the results was independently reviewed by two of the authors different
from the lead author. The flow chart 1 below illustrates the selection process that led tothe inclusion of 168 articles in this review.

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SELECTION PROCESS

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Figure 1: PRISMA flow chart of the article selection.
In order to ensure that the analysis is focused on sex- and gender-based differenceswith a comparative perspective, it is required that the articles include the outcomes forboth females and males. Papers that analyse samples that only include women or men
were categorically excluded from this review.
There are many possible ways in which gender influences the migration process. Boydand Grieco (2003) provided an overview of how migration theories have incorporated
gender over time. Thereby, the authors describe potential entry points of gender along
the three stages of migration processes, namely the “Pre-Migration Stage”, the “PeriMigration Stage”, and the “Post-Migration Stage” and the optional stage of return. This
literature review is structured along these stages of migratory processes, aiming to provide
a comprehensive overview of the extensive body of quantitative research conducted inrecent decades. By synthesizing this research, our goal is to fill in the gaps in knowledge
and address unanswered questions in the field.
In this review, 28 out of the 170 papers included in the analysis refer to the term “sex”
while 156 use the term “gender”. We use the terms “gender” and “sex” in accordance with
the World Health Organization’s (WHO) definition. According to the WHO, gender isdistinct from sex, and the two terms have different meanings. Sex refers to biological andphysiological characteristics, whereas gender refers to socially constructed characteristics.
By adhering to this definition, we recognize the distinction between biological attributes
and socially constructed roles and identities3 . Since most migration data either captures
the attributed or the self-reported gender of the migrant (usually only allowing for binaryclassification), both terms will be referred to in the remainder of this review.
3

WHO definition: https://www.who.int/health-topics/gender#tab=tab 1

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GENDERED MIGRATION PATTERNS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

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Gendered Migration Patterns: A Literature Review

3.1

Pre-migration stage

6

At the start of every migration process, there is a stage called the pre-migration stage.
During this stage, various factors at both macro and micro levels come into play, shaping
the decision of individuals or households to migrate. These factors include broader aspects
like living standards, gender roles, and more specific aspects like personal motivations,skill levels, and education. Together, these factors influence the decision-making process
behind migration. The extent of such factors and the impact they exert on the decisionand realization of an individual’s migration can vary by gender Boyd and Grieco (2003).
Regarding the preparatory stage of migration, literature found that women’s motives
for primary migration differ from those of men, as women react differently to adverse
labor market conditions in their home community. What serves as a clear push factor for
male emigration can constitute a pull factor for the primary migration of women (Greefs& Winter, 2016; Yang & Guo, 1999; Singhanetra-Renard & Prabhudhanitisarn, 1992).
However, despite sharing similar intentions to migrate, independently migrating womenare hindered by challenges such as rigid gender norms and limited access to resources, resulting in a lower likelihood of actually undertaking migration compared to men. Anotherstriking difference between the two genders is the use of networks for facilitating one’s
migration (Chort, 2014; Litchfield & Reilly, 2009). It stands out that migrant women rely
mainly on longer-established family networks, while migrant men rely on connections toacquaintances in the destination country. This points at different security considerations
and precautions undertaken by women and men (Curran & Rivero-Fuentes, 2003; Toma
& Vause, 2014; Heering, van der Erf, & van Wissen, 2004). The following section covers
selected literature about the pre-migration stage thematically organized along the threemain findings. In particular, it covers findings on the gendered nature of push effects oflabor markets in the migrant’s origin, on gender-specific obstacles to making a move, andfindings on the gendered effects networks have on migration decisions.
3.1.1

Are there gendered push effects of labor markets?

The neoclassical theories of migration assume that wage differentials between the origin
determine individual’s migration decisions. Accordingly, individuals weigh their benefits
from migrating over the costs and decide to migrate based on the returns they obtain.
However, these are macro level theories that only take into account labor markets in
disequilibrium and disregard other structural and economic factors that might drive sucha decision. Thereby, such theories also disregard gendered factors that specifically impact
women’s migration experiences. For instance, they do not consider female-specific pushfactors, such as gender-based discrimination in the local labor market. Similarly, femalespecific pull factors, like employment opportunities in the service and care sectors at thedestination, are often not accounted for.
The reason why theories neglect the effects of gender-segregation in economic sectors
is because they were developed based on the perception of migrant women as secondary

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GENDERED MIGRATION PATTERNS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

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movers who move mainly for family reasons (Pedraza, 1991). This presumption has not
only changed simultaneously with changing the gender roles over time, but it has also beenquestioned by historical evidence. Analyses of historical migration flow data have revealed
that women have been participating actively in migration, also independently (Greefs &Winter, 2016; Donato & Gabaccia, 2015).
One of the most theorized and studied types of migration is labor migration (also inthe present sample, see Table 3). Despite the coinciding motivations of the migrants,
this is a highly gendered process due to gender-stratified labor markets and expectations
based on gender norms in the communities of origin and in the destination. This has
been supported by findings of Yang and Guo (1999) who studied internal labor migrationin China and found that individual characteristics like marital status play an importantrole in women’s migration decision while men respond stronger to community level pushfactors. Characterizing migration of women compared to men in the second half of the 20th
century in Indonesia, (Hugo, 1992) finds that women migrate predominantly as dependents
and mainly for education, concluding that female migration in Indonesia was of greater
volume and complexity than previously thought. In order to understand sex-selectivityof rural-urban migration in Thailand of the same time period, (Singhanetra-Renard &Prabhudhanitisarn, 1992) finds that women move for work in different sectors than men.
Women tended to migrate independently to regions with stronger service- and tourism
sectors and sex work demand, while men moved to regions with larger manufacturing andconstruction sectors. The agricultural transformation and industrialization in countries
like Thailand has led to a loss of livelihoods for rural women and therefore forcing them tofind employment in cities (Singhanetra-Renard & Prabhudhanitisarn, 1992). Such societal
and economic transformations are likely to have caused similar feminization of migration
streams in other settings and countries.
Besides different employment prospects, another dominant motive for women to undertake independent moves is to obtain education. Several studies conclude that women tend
to state education as motivation to migrate more often than men. This pattern seems tohold especially for rural to urban migration in low-income countries like Ethiopia (Yilma& Regassa, 2019), Cuba (Rodriguez Rico, 2018), and Nepal (Williams, 2009). Yilma
and Regassa (2019) also found that women make more planned migratory moves, involving household decisions and family reasons, while men mainly migrate for business andeconomic-related reasons. A similar finding holds for the case of Mexico where Cerrutti
and Massey (2001) found that women tend to migrate together with family members but
daughters of migrants exhibit a similarly independent migration agency like their fathers
and brothers. This result hints at a possible intergenerational transmission of migration
and agency. This is a topic that would benefit from further research.
Such differences in migration motives can indirectly translate into sex ratios of emigration rates. Different motivations between migrant men and women have also translated
into higher levels of women emigrating from Fiji since the early 1980s where women constituted a large share of highly-skilled emigrants. Besides their high educational attainment, women also stated personal and physical security concerns as reasons for their move
(Chandra, 2004). Across different studies the pattern emerges that highly-skilled women

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are more eager to emigrate than their male counterparts (Heering et al., 2004). In thecase of reunified Germany, Kroehnert and Vollmer (2012) explore the high female sharein migration flows from rural East to West Germany. They find that the reasons for thisgender gap are the comparably higher educational attainment of East German women,a labor market structure in rural areas that favored men, and the implications of these
discrepancies on partner selection behavior (Kroehnert & Vollmer, 2012).
Macro-level gender inequalities and the resulting differences in access to financial andnatural resources can motivate or prevent women’s migration and thereby affect thegender- and sex-compositions of migration flows from a certain origin area. Neumayer
and Plümper (2021) explore international migration to Germany and find that higher economic rights in the origin countries of the migrants reflect in a higher share of womenin the sex-composition of migration to Germany (Neumayer & Plümper, 2021). The results suggest that lower gender-based inequality in the migrants’ origin country translates
into more agency over women’s migration action and control over resources that can besteered into realizing the move. All in all, these findings allow us to conclude that women
do indeed respond differently to push effects of labor markets then men when making thedecision to migrate for work.
3.1.2

Are female and male migrants subject to different obstacles when leaving?

As elaborated in the previous subsection, women and men are subject to different obstacles
and drivers when they decide about their migratory move. A dominant theme crystallizing
across the literature indicates that women are less likely than men to realize their migration
intentions. However, no mainstream migration theory addresses this phenomenon. Somestudies have turned to discover what is hindering women from realizing their moves (Chort,
2014; de Jong, 2000; Smith & Floro, 2020). It is likely to be a result of an interplay betweensocially ascribed roles as caretakers and lower access to economic and social resources andcapital to undertake the move.
While gender-inequalities on a macro-level can be assumed to drive emigration of
women out of a certain place, Baudassé and Bazillier (2014) reach the conclusion thatit rather impacts the selection into migration. Improving gender equality is positively
correlated with high-skilled women’s migration while it is negatively associated with lowskilled men’s migration (Baudassé & Bazillier, 2014).
For one of the largest migration corridors in the world, namely the Mexican-US corridor, Chort (2014) found that gender influences intentions and actual migration behaviorof Mexican potential migrants. Women’s probability to carry out their migration plans is
systematically lower than that of Mexican men due to gender-specific constraints. Thisfinding is particularly important for forecasting migration where intentions are treated as
good proxies for actual migration behavior. However, they are at risk to overestimate
female migration (Chort, 2014). Such gender-specific constraints can result from persisting gender norms and roles in society. Similarly, Litchfield and Reilly (2009) reached theconclusion that observable characteristics alone are insufficient to completely explain thegender disparities in migration attempts among Albanians. According to their findings,

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women demonstrate a much weaker response to adverse labor market conditions compared
to men. This discrepancy can be attributed to traditional gender roles and societal expectations. Also, having younger or elderly dependents in the household limits women’s
migration while it is positively associated with male migration, again reflecting traditional
female roles as caretakers (de Jong, 2000). One specific factor affecting migration intentions and preparations are food insecurities, which can act as a constraint rather than apush factor toward migration for women from low- and middle-income countries. Sociallyascribed roles and differences in access to resources and employment opportunities arelikely influencing this relationship (Smith & Floro, 2020).
In the literature, the question of why women choose not to leave despite having migration intentions is under-explored. Migration theories struggle to provide sufficient explanations for why potential migrants do not move as predicted or intended. Security
considerations and limited access to financial means are very probable causes for thesedifferences (Curran & Rivero-Fuentes, 2003; Chandra, 2004). Nevertheless, no study included in this literature review is concerned with gender differences in determinants ofconflict-induced forced migration. Gendered effects of climatic change might play a rolein migration intentions and are currently under-explored in the literature. Few works included in this literature review actually analyse how climatic changes impact the migrationof women and men differently (Barbieri & Carr, 2005; Amuakwa-Mensah, Sam, & Kihiu,
2019; Weinreb, Stecklov, & Arslan, 2020). These works agree that women are more responsive to climatic and environmental changes than men but the underlying mechanisms
and effects remain to be further explored. Considering all the preceding findings, we canconclude that potential migrants do face gendered obstacles when planning and undertaking
a move. Conditional on migration aspirations, women seem to have a lower propensity torealize their migratory moves compared to their male counterparts.
3.1.3

What gendered effects do migrant networks have?

Gender differences in propensities to realize migration intentions can stem from different
preparations and precautions undertaken by men and women. According to the network
theory of migration, women and men who plan to migrate rely on different networks tofacilitate and realize their migration plans. Networks in the destination are seen as social
capital that reduces monetary and psychological costs of the migrant. For the Mexico-US
migration corridor, Davis and Winters (2001) found that same-sex networks were not more
influential than male networks for facilitating female migration. However, for the choiceof destination female networks were stronger determinants for migrant women. While
women may rely on male networks for safety considerations during the perilous journeyto the US, they often opt for destinations with a presence of female networks to secure
employment opportunities and access information (Davis & Winters, 2001). Curran andRivero-Fuentes (2003) reveal for the same migration corridor that male migrant networks
are indeed more important for male migrants than for female migrants and vice versa.
A gendered perspective on family networks among Moroccan emigrants revealed thathaving family networks abroad increased women’s migration intentions while the same did
not hold for men (Heering et al., 2004). Moreover, among Moroccan women, particularly

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those who are more modernized and educated, there is a greater intention to migrate.
For men, on the contrary, family networks and higher education seem less important but
local migration culture seems to matter more (Heering et al., 2004). In the context of
Ecuadorian migration Gray (2010) found that women’s migration is most influenced byfamily structure and that networks have ambiguous effects on out-migration of women.
Consequently, access to natural capital plays an important role in selectivity into migration and households seem to influence women’s migration decisions (Gray, 2010). In asimilar manner, the effects of gendered social capital on US immigration from four Central
American countries indicate that ties to men play a more important role for women who
migrate from countries with low gender equity, while ties to women are more importantfor migration from countries where gender equity and the number of female-led families
are high (Côté, Jensen, Roth, & Way, 2015). In the case of Congo and Senegal, Tomaand Vause (2014) confirm that men and women rely on different ties suggesting that themechanisms through which networks affect mobility differ across genders.
Curran and Rivero-Fuentes (2003) also include a comprehensive comparison of therole of networks between international and internal migration in Mexico concluding thatfemale family migrant networks are more important for moves within Mexico than male
networks. This opens possible avenues of research exploring how migrant networks matterfor internal migration compared to international migration and how their influence varies
by gender. All the above referenced studies point to the importance of gendered social
capital and network structures for the decision to migrate. Close-kin networks abroad do
influence female migration positively while leaving male migration unaffected.

3.2

Peri-migration stage

The gendered decision making process in the pre-migration stage influences the transitionof migrants across borders and thereby shapes the sex-composition of migration flows.
Furthermore, national restrictive or protective policies of the origin country as well as
immigration laws and regulations of the country of destination influence the gender composition of migration flows additionally to the factors that influence the decision to migrate(Boyd & Grieco, 2003). Quantifying these transitions is only possible with accurate origindestination migration data which is rarely provided by statistical offices and has limited
geographic and time coverage. The scarcity of data sources from which flows can be derived lead to a homogeneous and narrow quantitative literature strand on the migrationtransition process.
The main findings of the literature on the transition stage of migration suggests that
there was no significant feminization of migration observed towards the end of the 20th
century. The sex-composition of flows merely mirrors the immigration policies if thedestination countries as well as demand for female labor force (Zlotnik, 1995). Some
specific cases like the increased out-migration of highly-skilled women from former Eastern
Germany to the Western part of the country have created the popular perception thatskilled women are more migratory than their male counterparts (Kroehnert & Vollmer,2012). However, skilled women are in general not found to be more migratory than skilledmen (Docquier, Lowell, & Marfouk, 2009; Docquier, Marfouk, Salomone, & Sekkat, 2012).

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Another major finding highlighted by this review is that migrant women and men tend
to respond differently to labor market factors both in their home countries and at theirdestination (Greenwood, 2008; Hofmann & Reiter, 2018). The remainder of this section ispresenting findings from the literature that support the above made conclusions. Thereby,
it will answer the questions of whether a notable feminization has taken place in migration
and whether this hold true also for highly-skilled migrants. Moreover, it seeks to lay
out evidence whether traditional pull- and push-factors have a gendered impact on the
migration process.
3.2.1

Is a feminization of migration taking place?

One of the earliest assumption about female migration was formulated by RavensteinRavenstein (1889). Based on the British censuses from 1871 and 1881, he derived a numberof hypotheses which formed the basis of migration theory in the past century. In one of theso-called “Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration” he stated that females are more migratory thanmales. After female migrants have been overseen or disregarded as dependents of men,many researchers have started wondering about the actual sex-composition of migratory
moves. Many scientific papers written in the late 20th century aimed at identifying a
potential “feminization” of migration flows. However, in this review 5 out of 170 papers
use the term “feminization” in the abstracts.
One of these is the work of Zlotnik (1995). Comparing migration flows from the
Global South to Belgium, Germany, the UK and the US, she found that the proportion of
women in gross immigration is lower from developing origin countries than from developed
countries. Nevertheless, women surpassed men in terms of net migration but at relatively
low levels in the period from 1975 to 1984. Therefore, she concluded that no notablefeminization of migration can be traced in the data. These observed trends might bestrongly influenced by the immigration policies of the receiving countries as well as theexpatriate population in the destination country (Zlotnik, 1995). The pioneering work of(Zlotnik, 1995) plays a crucial role in quantifying the patterns of female migration.
Donato, Alexander, Gabaccia, and Leinonen (2011) adopted a historical perspective
by using data dating as far back as 1850 to analyze immigration to 27 countries, including
the US. The authors note that over time, there have been dynamic and complex shifts
in the sex ratios of immigrants to the US and worldwide, rather than a consistent trend
towards feminization. However, the authors recorded upward shifts of the female share in
immigration for most world regions, except for Africa and North America, from 1960 on(Donato et al., 2011). Gender selectivity of international migration has clearly transformed
over time and world-wide immigrant populations became more female (Donato et al.,2011). This can be due to gender-selective admission policies as well as gendered obstacles
and motivations as argued in the section on the pre-migration stage.
The post-Soviet space with its special gender dynamics and major migration channels
was studied by Becker, Musabek, Seitenova, and Urzhumova (2003); Hofmann (2017).
For the case of Kazakhstan, Becker et al. (2003) examined sex-ratios in emigration rates
ten years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Their analysis revealed that a slightgender imbalance in emigration rates, with women from urban areas outnumbering men in3

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the emigration process. However, instead of concluding that women were more migratory
than men in this period in Kazakhstan, this gender imbalance in emigration rates mightreflect demographic imbalances due to premature male mortality (Becker et al., 2003). A
work by Hofmann (2017) is looking at the broader picture and profiles of migrants from
Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Vietnam to Russia. The author finds noclear evidence that migration flows from these origins to Russia are feminizing over time.
However, the sex-composition varies depending on the origin as well as on destination
country factors (Hofmann, 2017). A more recent study by Florinskaya (2022) arrives
at a similar conclusion, stating that labor migration to Russia is unlikely to undergo
feminization in the foreseeable future.
In order to provide a more clear answer to the question whether migration has feminized over the years, it is critical to have complete time series of migration flow data
disaggregated by sex which only very few countries can provide. Nevertheless, in somemigration corridors women are increasingly participating in migration but an overall feminization cannot be proven with the current state of data.
3.2.2

Are the gender-based discrepancies in migration trajectories of thehighly-skilled?

Overall, men continue to outnumber women in international migration, indicating thatwomen have not yet surpassed men in terms of overall migration numbers. In the specificcase of high-skilled migration, researchers have argued that women play a significant rolein brain drain, especially from low-income countries (Dumont, Martin, & Spielvogel, 2007).
This motivated Docquier et al. (2009) to develop a dataset that provides emigration stocks
and rates broken down by educational attainment and gender.
Based on this dataset, Docquier et al. (2012) aim to answer the question whether
skilled women are more migratory than skilled men. Despite the increased participationof women in international migration and their advancements in education, the authors’conclusion suggests that skilled women are less likely to migrate internationally compared
to men (Docquier et al., 2009, 2012). The disparity in the rate of highly skilled migration
between genders is closely tied to the discrepancy in educational attainment within thesource population, indicating unequal opportunities for education (Docquier et al., 2009).
Even though education crystallized as a stronger driver for female migration than formale throughout the literature, the country of origin as well as the legal requirements atthe country of destination play a gendered role in the gender discrepancies of migration(Hofmann, 2017; Donato, 2010). One of such origin-destination country factor could betrade. It appears that there is a strong positive association between the intensity of trade
and the migration of high-skilled women (Uprety, 2020). Uprety (2020) analyzed thedrivers of the gender- and skill-composition of migrants from developing countries. The
results indicate that trade seems to have a positive correlation with female highly-skilled
emigration from that country than it has for male (Uprety, 2020).
To address data limitations and explore the migration patterns of scholars, researchers
have utilized bibliometric data. This innovative data source is generated by reconstructing
scholars’ migration histories based on their publications’ meta data. Utilizing this data

3

GENDERED MIGRATION PATTERNS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

13

source, Malakhov (2019) compared the international mobility of Russian researchers bygender. The author found that female scientists tend to stay in Russia and their academic
networks seem to be less international than those of their male colleagues. Female scientists
seem to be held back in pursuing international academic careers by their care-taking roles
and by their lower participation in STEM disciplines which are more demanded in theinternational labor market (Malakhov, 2019). Bibliometric data opens many new avenues
for research of the migration trajectories of scholars and allows for a gender and sex
classification based on names. It has been utilized only by one other work included in thisreview (Zhao, Aref, Zagheni, & Stecklov, 2022).
In contrast to the findings stating high-skilled women are not more migratory thantheir male counterparts, UK female graduates have been found to be indeed more migratory than their male counterparts. Based on survey data from 1997-2000, Faggian,
McCann, and Sheppard (2007) concluded that female UK graduates engage more in migratory behavior partially to compensate for gender biases in the labor market. This might
contrast the previously mentioned findings but considering that young graduates are notexperiencing yet gendered mobility constraints due to caring responsibilities and the like,the findings do seem complementary. Overall, the majority of the literature concludes thathighly-skilled women are not more migratory than men likely driven by gender-based labormarket discrimination and caring responsibilities.
3.2.3

Do traditional pull and push factors play a different role for migrant
women and men?

Traditional gender roles and societal expectations play a significant role in shaping thetypes of work that women engage in. As a result, the labor market structure in origin
and destination country can impact the sex-composition of the flows (Boyd & Grieco,2003). The Neoclassical Migration Theory takes into account differences in the return tohuman capital when undertaking migration (Bircan et al., 2020). But it does not take into
account, like many other theories, the gender pay gaps in the destination and origin of
the migrant as well as gendered access to education. Models incorporating pull and pushfactors therefore neglect the different effect these might have on migrant women compared
to men. For instance, migrant women have been found to be less sensitive to traditional
determinants such as distance between origin and destination (Beine & Salomone, 2013).
Job opportunities are also found to be gender-sensitive in migration patterns (He & Gober,2003). Women tend to be more responsive to perceived economic disparities in different
regions, particularly in rural areas. Male migrants, on the other hand, are more drawn
to job prospects in urban areas and opportunities offered by foreign enterprises. The
presence of previous migrants and the development of light manufacturing industries arefactors that attract female migrants more than their male counterparts (He & Gober,2003).
Consequently, such factors can shape the sex-composition of migration flows by influencing the sex-selectivity of migration corridors. Greenwood (2008) focuses on immigrationfrom Europe to the US in 1870-1910 and finds that the sex-composition of migration flows
from European countries to the US depended on the labor market structure in the origin

3

GENDERED MIGRATION PATTERNS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

14

country at that time. Where the service sector was well established, female labor force
was demanded and that incentivized men to move abroad in search for traditionally male
employment (Greenwood, 2008). Using later data on immigrant populations in the US,
Hofmann and Reiter (2018) identified sources of the geographic variation in sex ratios.
The variations could be, in some cases, explained by the migrants’ age or country of origin
but this explanation is insufficient. The authors conclude that potential drivers of thesepatterns might be gendered networks, the type of jobs available in the destination, thelegal status of the migrants, and the quality of life (Hofmann & Reiter, 2018).
When reviewing the peri-migration literature on gender differences, it crystallizes thatthe usual assumptions about pull and push factors in a migration process do not apply
in the same way for women as they do for men. An opportunity for future research
could be to further enhance our understanding of gender-sensitivity of traditional pull andpush factors. Such work can contribute to improving the performance of currently usedmigration forecasting models.

3.3

Post-migration stage

Every migratory move ends (at least temporarily) with the post-migration stage. In the
post-migration stage, the integration outcomes of migrants can be influenced by several
factors, like the migrants’ entry status, employment opportunities, and occupational status(Boyd & Grieco, 2003). All of these factors have different effects by gender and areintertwined with the overall migration experience and outcomes.
While reviewing the literature on sex- and gender-based differences in the post-migration
stage, it crystallized that the gender gaps in occupational status persist after granting legal status to migrants as women are more likely to stay employed in the informal sector(Kreisberg & Jackson, 2023; Powers, Seltzer, & Shi, 1998; Powers & Seltzer, 1998; Donato,
Wakabayashi, Hakimzadeh, & Armenta, 2008). Moreover, migrant women experience a
double disadvantage on the labor market in some countries - a penalty on their earnings
for being a woman as well as for having migrant status (Ryazantsev, Rostovskaya, &Peremyshlin, 2019; Lopez, 2012; Hayfron, 2002). The literature agrees that despite thediscrimination they experience on the labor market, migrant women tend to remit relatively more in form of goods and money to their dependants back in their place of origin
compared to their male counterparts (Khamkhom & Jampaklay, 2020; Osaki, 1999). In
the following, this sections covers selected literature supporting the above stated findingsin the post-migration literature. In particular, this includes findings on gender differencesin the effect of legal status on migrants, gender-based labor market discrimination, anddifferences in the remittance-sending behaviors of migrants by sex.
3.3.1

Does legal status have a gendered effect on migrants?

As migrant woman generally tend to work in more precarious and oftentimes informal
occupational arrangements, they seem to not benefit as much in terms of earnings, occupational status, and occupational mobility from authorization as migrant men do (Powers
et al., 1998; Powers & Seltzer, 1998). The durable disadvantage resulting from being un-

3

GENDERED MIGRATION PATTERNS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

15

documented prior to authorization also varies by gender. Kreisberg and Jackson (2023)
confirm that women have a smaller disadvantage when undocumented than men comparedto their documented counterparts, while their predicted durable disadvantage after authorization widens rather than persisting as it does for men. Explanations for this observation
can be different depending on the legal pathways and human capital.
Whether migrants start off with unauthorized status in the destination country’s labormarket depends highly on the respective immigration policies. In the case of Mexico-US
migration, Donato et al. (2008) find that when legal avenues to visas disappeared, femalemigrants experienced a larger wage deterioration and a stronger push toward informal
sector employment than male migrants. Such findings indicate a gendered effect of immigration policies on migration outcomes and thus an increase in migration costs for women.
A closer look at the working conditions of mostly unauthorized women migrants reveals
that many suffer from not being registered by a lack of access to social protection andhealth care, especially reproductive health care. This leads to the conclusion that migrant
women experience a double burden of discrimination on the labor market of the destination
country, one for being a women and one for being a migrant (Ryazantsev et al., 2019).
Gaps in the literature persist as most data used for analysis is about 20 years old.
Furthermore, it is challenging to study a population that is as invisible in records as
undocumented migrants.
3.3.2

What are the differences in labor market discrimination based on gender?

Upon arrival in the destination country, women and men exhibit different integration
trajectories in the labor market. The majority of papers included in this sample analyze
labor market outcomes of migrants, namely 68 only in the post-migration stage. One
commonly observed pattern is a double penalty on earnings first due to the migrant status
and second due to gender discrepancies in wages. Across many destination countries,
namely Norway, US, Russia, and the Gulf states, consistent findings point at a double
earnings penalty experienced by migrant women (Lopez, 2012; Hayfron, 2002; Alfarhan& Al-Busaidi, 2020). In the US, highly skilled immigrant women have been found to
experience a disadvantage in earnings of which a larger share can be explained by theirimmigrant status and only the smaller share can be attributed to the gender (Lopez,2012). On the contrary, for Norway Hayfron (2002) found that a larger share of disparities
was explained by the gender component. Alfarhan and Al-Busaidi (2020) investigated thecontribution to the earnings gap across the income range in the Gulf states and foundthat the wage gap at the lower end of the earnings distribution can me attributed mainly
to immigrant status while at the higher end of the distribution this effect is decliningbalanced by the gender effect. Rebhun (2008, 2010) refutes the notion of a double earnings
disadvantage on the Israeli labor market. Beyond the gender disadvantage, immigrant
women do not experience discrimination on the labor market in Israel. However, this isdependent on their region of origin and their labor force participation there.
As the findings for Israel show, such results highly depend on the status of the immigrant on the labor market and the human capital that a person acquired before migrating.

3

GENDERED MIGRATION PATTERNS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

16

Nevertheless, such relationships should be further investigated as they have the potential to not only improve policy making but also to improve migration predictions by sex
assuming potential migrants take such disadvantages into account. The findings point consistently toward gender differences in labor market integration of immigrants experienced
through a double burden on migrant women’s earnings. This is information that could be
useful in predicting and forecasting migration flows.
3.3.3

Are there differences in the remittance-sending behavior of migrants
by sex?

Literature in development studies has investigated the relationship between remittancesending patterns of migrants and their gender for a long time. The studies consistently
indicate that women tend to be more reliable as remittance senders. Women consistently
remit a larger proportion of their income, which is typically smaller in comparison to men’s
income. And they remit more frequently than male migrants (Khamkhom & Jampaklay,
2020; Mizanur Rahman, 2013; Osaki, 1999). Possible explanations argue with women’scultural obligations and social pressure as mothers. Moreover, women are more committed
senders due to their ability and the societal expectation to sacrifice for the family and savemore (Khamkhom & Jampaklay, 2020; Mizanur Rahman, 2013). In accordance with the
New Economics of labor migration theory, households in the Global South use migration
as a strategy to ensure their survival (Osaki, 1999). Based on the above studies, migrant
women have been found to be more active remittance senders than their male counterparts
despite earning less on the destination labor market.
Since many major migration theories include the labor market and potential outcomesas crucial determinant in the decision making process in migration selectivity (NeoclassicalMigration theory, New Economics of Labor Migration, Dual Labor Market Theory), these
economic considerations become important also for demographic projections. The employment prospects in sectors that are traditionally more occupied by women (for instance,service and care) can attract more female labor migrants than men. As work constitutes
one of the key motivations for migration (Labour migration, 2022), the sex-composition
and its demographic implications on the destination countries are understudied. However,in the post-migration stage, research to date focuses almost entirely on the labor market
integration of migrants while social integration, domestic violence victimization, and othercomponents of vulnerability receive less attention.

4

THE ROLE OF DATA

17

migration types

PRE

PERI

POST

RETURN

climate migration
forced migrationlabor migrationinternal migration
family migration
demography reference

3
0
19
4
2
7

0
0
12
1
0
8

0
8
68
7
4
6

0
1
4
1
0
0

total = 170

n = 45n = 33n = 87n=5

Table 1: Number of articles focusing at the respective types of migration and containing
associated keywords in the abstracts. Clearly many gaps int he literature persist. (Demography reference means any word containing “demograph”.)

4

The Role of Data

The findings of the literature reviewed for this article reflect the scarce gender- and sexdisaggregated migration data availability. The need to collect and provide migration databy sex or gender has been acknowledged by researchers and international organizations.
The United Nations Secretariat recognized that the “lack of readily available informationon the participation of women in international migration is probably at the root of theconventional view that the typical migrant is a young, economically motivated male”(United Nations, 1995, p.56). Moreover they acknowledge that the deficiencies of migration
statistics make it difficult to challenge such false conclusions. In 2004, the UN World survey
on the role of women in development produced a report with special attention to women ininternational migration. The report repeatedly points out the dearth of data on migration
classified by sex and age which hampers a thorough understanding of the female migration
process (United Nations, 2004).
Migration data disaggregated by sex or gender are required by the Global Compact
for Safe and Orderly Migration (United Nations General Assembly, 2018). Unfortunately,
the availability of harmonized aggregated migration data is scarce. Recently, there has
been a growing emphasis on the importance of collecting sex-disaggregated data to better
understand vulnerabilities, mobilities, and gender-specific outcomes, and to inform genderresponsive policy-making (Kofman, 2019; Christou & Kofman, 2022; Hennebry, KC, &Williams, 2021). Multiple studies, including those by Morokvasic (1984); Donato andGabaccia (2015); Zlotnik (1995), have contributed to this focus on female migrants, while
a separate body of literature has emerged that examines and compares the migration
patterns of both female and male migrants.
This increase in attention also mirrors the availability of sex-disaggregated data for
migration studies. The first paper presenting data to analyze a potential feminization of
migration was written by Zlotnik (1995). These sex-specific migration data provided by
the UN Population Division became available to the public in 2002 (Boyd, 2021). Gender
statistics are necessary for thorough gender analyses, however, sex-disaggregated data are
the best alternative at this stage and an essential first step toward gender statistics but
they come with availability and quality issues (Bircan & Yilmaz, 2022).

4

THE ROLE OF DATA

18

There exist four major data sources on sex and international migration at the global
level (Hennebry et al., 2021). Namely, the United Nations Department of Economic andSocial Affairs’ (UN DESA) estimates of international migration stocks for the years 1990
- 2019, the Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative providing information on human trafficking cases from the 2000s to 2020, the International Labor Organization’s statistics oninternational migrant workers for the years 1991 - 2018, and lastly, the Refugee Data
Finder containing estimates of refugees, asylum seekers, other displaced populations from1951 - 2019 (Hennebry et al., 2021). Besides that, there exists the OECD databank on
immigrant populations and international migration flows for the 28 member countries ofOECD. This dataset also includes some demographic and labor market characteristics ofthe migrants (Bircan & Yilmaz, 2022).
Such datasets can have quality limitations, as countries apply different definitions ofinternational migration in their methodologies for official statistics (Sı̂rbu et al., 2021).
Moreover, such methodologies can change over time creating inconsistencies in the measurement. Also, different sources of data can lead to different estimates and measures for
similar phenomena. However, compatibility and consistency is crucial to measure inequalities between female and male migrants. That said, striving for improved sex-disaggregatedstatistics can only be the first step to collect data rather on gender than on biological sex
alone (Boyd, 2021).

4.1

Data in the pre-migration stage

By reading the literature, it becomes clear that more than half of the papers included in
the pre-migration stage literature review study countries in the Global South. This reflects
the South-North dimension of migration and the emphasis on labor migration among all
forms of migratory movements in the scientific literature. When assessing the state of a
research area, we should also inspect the data sources used by the studies to generate theknowledge. A general observation is that data availability dictates the area under study
and data scarcity is the main obstacle, as it is usually the case for research on migration.
The study areas covered by the papers include a notable number of countries in the
Global South, unlike the peri- and post-migration stage literature. Especially for countries
in the Global South, authors relied on small-sample survey data (Yilma & Regassa, 2019;
Gray, 2010) but also longitudinal survey projects like the Mexican Family Life Survey andthe Mexican Migration Project (Hughes, 2019; Chort, 2014; Côté et al., 2015; Curran &Rivero-Fuentes, 2003; Cerrutti & Massey, 2001). While survey data are prominent anduseful for establishing causal relationships and answering narrower research questions, theircoverage is usually low and their representativeness threatens the external validity of thefindings. Census data as well as register data are used rarely. No study uses social media
data such as Twitter or Facebook data. However, two works make use of bibliometric data
as novel data source to understand patterns of scholarly migration (Malakhov, 2019; Zhao
et al., 2022). Two papers in the sample employ online surveys as data collection method(Orosová, Benka, Hricová, & Kulanová, 2018; Akopova & Ignatjeva, 2012). Some studies
combine several data sources for their analysis such as national administrative or survey
data combined with migration datasets from international organisations (Grönlund &4

THE ROLE OF DATA

19

Fairbrother, 2022; Neumayer & Plümper, 2021; Hanmer, Rubiano, Santamaria, & Arango,
2020; Kim, Yang, & Torneo, 2012).

4.2

Data in the peri-migration stage

The sex-composition of migration flows both internal and international, has direct implications on the demographic structure of the origin and destination regions. So-called left
over men in rural areas of China and Germany or marriage squeezes in urban areas are
results of such gendered movements (Wang, Zou, & Fan, 2019; Leibert, 2016). That said,
it is difficult to capture migration flows accurately as data collection on movements, especially across international borders, highly depends on the level of border control and thedefinition of migration applied by each country. So far, the data landscape allows for snapshots in the place of origin and destination and these have been utilized by researchers toderive migration flows from in order to visualize gendered patterns and trends and to produce data that enables gender-sensitive analyses. Data on migrant stocks, which resemble
rather long-term population effects of the migration process, is used to infer flows.
Attempts to overcome data limitations have been undertaken by several researchers.
Docquier et al. (2009) used immigration and emigration stocks for the included country
and the share of the educated population in the origin country to develop a dataset thatprovides emigration stocks and rates by educational attainment and gender between 1990
and 2000.
Nawrotzki and Jiang (2015) estimated international net migration flows and generated
the Community Demographic Model International Migration Dataset (CDM-IM). Thisdataset is based on bilateral migrant stock input data from the United Nations Global
Migration database on various countries from two years around 2000 and data on fertility
and mortality rates. According to the authors, at the time of creation the CDM-IM
dataset was the only data source that would allow for a detailed multi-country analysis
of a migration response by specific age- and gender-subpopulations (Nawrotzki & Jiang,2015).
By deriving flows from stocks in 10-year intervals between 1960 and 2015 by gender for
226 countries, Abel (2018) finds that the overall trends in global migration flows for men
and women followed similar paths with slightly higher male shares and regional variations(Abel, 2018). Moreover, Raymer and Wiśniowski (2018) developed a model to forecast
international migration flows by age and gender and applied their method to three different
country situations and data types to evaluate its performance.

4.3

Data in the post-migration stage

As will be outlined in more detail in the literature review section, literature on the postmigration stage mainly analyses gender differences in the labor market integration of
migrants. Therefore, the data underlying their findings stems predominantly from labor
force or household surveys, register data, and censuses. Consequently, the countries andareas covered for analysis usually concentrate on the Global North. Due to data availability and choices of the authors this concentration of data results in an accumulation

4

THE ROLE OF DATA

20

of knowledge on labor market integration of migrants in wealthier destination countries
while a large number of migrants reside in the Global South. This leaves a giant gap ofknowledge about sex-differences in migration outcomes in developing countries yet to be
explored.
Digital trace data, data that are generated by the interaction of humans with theirdigital devices, bear the potential to inform migration research by complementing existing
official data sources. The recent launch of the Scholarly Migration Database opens ample opportunities for researchers to study high-skilled migration. Combined with national
data it could be used to understand education as push determinant for women’s migration
and as a pull factor for men. Other digital trace data, including migration stocks derived
from Facebook and Instagram, can also potentially complement analyses for countries withlimited data availability as they have been used in settings of sudden population movements (Zagheni, Garimella, Weber, & State, 2014; Zagheni, Weber, & Gummadi, 2017).
Nevertheless, such data have to be used with caution. Their promises and pitfalls havebeen thoroughly discussed in recent migration literature (Sı̂rbu et al., 2021; Rampazzo,
Rango, & Weber, 2023).
Figure 2 attempts to summarize the above elucidated points. From the many surveys
used by the reviewed literature only 12 are actually panels surveying the same individual
or household at several points in time. The category “other” encompasses bibliometricdata, shipping records, and other non-traditional data sources for migration research. It
also stands out that a notable number of the surveys, censuses and registers used are
not provided by official statistics providers like national statistics offices or internationalorganizations. Many widely used surveys like the Mexican Migration Project have been
conducted and are provided by academic institutions. While not compromising on thedatasets’ quality, this fact highlights the urgent need for richer migration data on the individual level. Universities set up their own data collections for specific migration corridors
because these crucial data collections have not yet been institutionalized by policy-makers.
The gaps in the literature along the different stages of migration require different types ofdata to be closed. Research questions regarding the preparatory stage will benefit from
representative surveys as many small-scale surveys have been used to study potential migrants. In order to answer research questions about the sex-composition of migratory
moves sufficiently, gender-disaggregated flow data is indispensable. In this case, harmonized migration definitions across statistical offices would improve the quality of the data
for this exercise. The post-migration literature is characterized by a richer data landscape.
However, this holds true mainly for Global North countries and consequently research
explores mainly South-North migration. Therefore, labor force survey or equivalent representative surveys that encompass the migrant population and their characteristics areurgently needed for migration destinations in the Global South. As capacities of official
statistics providers remain limited to provide a wider geographic coverage, digital trace
data is currently being explored by researchers to fill those gaps.

5

CONCLUSION

21

surveyDATA TYPES

70

censusadministrative

other

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

PRE
20

PERI

24

28

STAGES

Official Statistics

n = 45PRE

FINDINGSGender differences in migration motives
Propensity to migrate is lower for
women than for men
Migrant women rely on different
networks to prepare their moven = 33

POST
65

5

21

Other

PERI

n = 87POST

No notable feminization can be detectedwith the available data

Different effect of legal status acquisition
on migrants by gender

Highly-skilled women are not moremigratory than highly-skilled men

Labor market discrimination based on
gender and on migrant status

Sex-selectivity into migration due togendered effects of determinantsMigrant women found to send relatively
more remittances than men

Figure 2: Number of articles employing the respective data type by migration stage.
Official statistics refer to data bases collected and provided by official entities like national
statistics offices or international organizations.

5

Conclusion

The body of research on sex- and gender-based differences in the migration process hasgrown considerably over the course of the past decades. This systematic literature review summarizes the main findings of the literature and presents them together with an
overview of the available data sources. By doing so, we show that quantitative studies haverevealed substantial differences between migrant women and men across the preparatory,
the transition, and the integration stages of the migration process. The main conclusion isthat noteworthy differences between migrant women and men throughout their migration
trajectories have been discovered by the literature. Nevertheless, these insights have not
yet translated into migration theories.
In the pre-migration stage, it was found that women’s motives and propensities forprimary migration differ from those of men due to gender norms and limited access toresources. Furthermore, women rely more on family networks while men rely on acquaintances in the destination country for migration facilitation. In the peri-migration stage, nosignificant feminization could be proven also not among highly educated migrants. In the
post-migration stage, gender differences arise in the occupational status and labor market

References22

integration of migrants, where migrant women are more likely to be employed in the informal sector. The primary data source are surveys, followed by census and administrative
data.
These findings reveal important necessities and opportunities for further research. Especially, gender-based differences in refugee migration, climate migration, and internalmigration are currently underexplored. However, research can only be carried out withavailable data sources that allow for gender-disaggregated analyses. Questions like whether
a feminization of migration took place can only be answered with reliable migration flow
data disaggregated by sex. The voids in the data landscape of sex-disaggregated migration data determines the research questions analyzed by the literature and consequently,
shapes its findings. As this review has shown, survey data is the dominant data type used
for comparing determinants and outcomes of migration by gender. However, deriving accurate flows based on such data is challenging if not impossible. Overall, the researcharea would benefit tremendously from enhanced gender-disaggregated data collection andprovision.
To develop policies that effectively support migrants of all genders, there is a crucial
need for the collection of sex-disaggregated data. Such data would provide a deeper
understanding of the specific challenges and needs faced by migrant women, enabling
policymakers to formulate targeted interventions and support mechanisms. In the wordsof Hania Zlotnik “the quantification and characterization of female migration is at mosta first step on the path to a better understanding of the forces that shape both theinternational migration of women and international migration in general” (Zlotnik, 1995,
p.230).

Acknowledgements
The project has benefited from a workshop on systematic literature reviews at the MPIDR
led by Celine Miani. We are grateful to Esther Denecke for her constant support andexchange throughout all stages of this review. Furthermore, we want to thank Sophie
Lohmann and Antonino Polizzi for sharing their experiences in carrying out systematic
reviews. We are especially grateful to the support of the librarians at the MPIDR andthe administration who supported us by collecting articles and obtaining API access. We
gratefully acknowledge the resources provided by the International Max Planck Research
School for Population, Health and Data Science (IMPRS-PHDS).

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Zagheni, E., Garimella, V. R. K., Weber, I., & State, B. (2014). Inferring international and internal migration patterns from twitter data. In Proceedings of the 23rd
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Zagheni, E., Weber, I., & Gummadi, K. (2017). Leveraging facebook’s advertising platform
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Zhao, X., Aref, S., Zagheni, E., & Stecklov, G. (2022, December). Return migration of German-affiliated researchers: analyzing departure and return by gender,
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Zlotnik, H. (1995, February). The South-to-North Migration of Women. The International

6

APPENDIX

32

migration review , 29 , 229–54. doi: 10.2307/2547003

6

Appendix
Scopus(TITLE(women* OR woman* OR female* OR gender* ORsex)) AND (TITLE(migra* OR immigra* OR emigra* OR
mobilit* OR relocat* OR mov* OR displac* OR refugee*
OR ”asylum seeker*”)) AND (ABS(women* OR woman*
OR female* OR gender* OR sex)) AND (ABS(migra* OR
immigra* OR emigra* OR mobilit* OR relocat* OR mov*OR displac* OR refugee* OR ”asylum seeker*”)) AND(KEY(women* OR woman* OR female* OR gender* ORsex)) AND (KEY(migra* OR immigra* OR emigra* OR mobilit* OR relocat* OR mov* OR displac* OR refugee* OR”asylum seeker*”)) AND NOT (TITLE(nutr* OR medic*
OR migraine OR nurs* OR health* OR diet* OR contraceptiv* OR fertil* OR sexuality)) AND NOT (KEY(nutr*
OR medic* OR migraine OR health* OR sexuality))

Web of Science

TI = ((women* OR woman* OR female* OR gender* ORsex) AND (migra* OR immigra* OR emigra* OR mobilit*
OR relocat* OR mov* OR displac* OR refugee* OR ”asylum seeker*”) NOT (nutr* OR medic* OR migraine OR
nurs* OR health* OR diet* OR contraceptiv* OR fertil*
OR sexuality)) AND AB = ((women* OR woman* OR female* OR gender* OR sex) AND (migra* OR immigra* OR
emigra* OR mobilit* OR relocat* OR mov* OR displac*
OR refugee* OR ”asylum seeker*”) AND AK = ((women*
OR woman* OR female* OR gender* OR sex) AND (migra* OR immigra* OR emigra* OR mobilit* OR relocat*
OR mov* OR displac* OR refugee* OR ”asylum seeker*”)
NOT (nutr* OR medic* OR migraine OR health* OR sexuality))
Table 2: Search strings according to databasemigration types

PRE

PERI

POST

RETURN

climate migration
forced migrationlabor migrationinternal migration
family migration
demography reference

3
0
19
4
2
7

0
0
12
1
0
8

0
8
68
7
4
6

0
1
4
1
0
0

total = 170

n = 45n = 33n = 87n=5

Table 3: Number of articles focusing at the respective types of migration and containing
associated keywords in the abstracts. Clearly many gaps int he literature persist. (Demography reference means any word containing “demograph”.)

6

APPENDIX

33

Article information

Analysis
MethodData

Results

Title
Authors
Publication year
Publication type
Outlet nameResearch question(s)Type of method
Name of method
Data source
Data type
Data source
Official data (Yes/No)
Time period
Geographic area
Findings
Conclusions
Future research

Table 4: Data extraction template
Table 5: Articles included in the analysis (pre-migration stage).
For non-English articles, the title translation is presented as listed
in the WoS and Scopus search results.
Authors

Title

Year

Journal/Book

Hidrobo M., Mueller V.,
Roy S.

Cash Transfers, Migration, And Gender
Norms

2022

American Journalof Agricultural Economics

Neumayer E., Plümper T.

Women’s Economic Rights In Developing Countries And The Gender Gap In
Migration To Germany

2021

IZA Journal of Development and Migration

Latukha M., Shagalkina
M., Kalinina E., Khasieva
D.

Does Gender Matter? Gender Talent
Migration And Its Implication For Talent Management

2021

Journal of Global
Mobility

Lien D., Zuloaga E.

The Effects Of Language On The Gender Patterns Of Highly Skilled Migration

2021

International Trade
JournalSmith M.D., Floro M.S.

Food Insecurity, Gender, And International Migration In Low- And MiddleIncome Countries

2020

Food Policy

Weinreb A., Stecklov G.,
Arslan A.

Effects Of Changes In Rainfall And
Temperature On Age- And Sex-SpecificPatterns Of Rural-Urban Migration In
Sub-Saharan Africa

2020

Population and Environment

6

APPENDIX

34

Hughes C.

Reexamining The Influence Of Conditional Cash Transfers On Migration
From A Gendered Lens

2019

Demography

Yilma M., Regassa N.

Gender Differentials In Internal Migration Decisions: The Case Of Dilla
Town, Southern Ethiopia

2019

Kontakt

Amuakwa-MensahF.,
Sam V.N., Kihiu E.N.

Gender Dimension Of Migration Decisions In Ghana: The Reinforcing RoleOf Anticipated Welfare Of Climatic Effect2019

International
Journal of Computational Economics
and Econometrics

Chen C., Fan C.C.

Gender And Generational Differences
In First Outward- And First InwardMoves: An Event-History Analysis Of
Rural Migrants In China

2018

Environment
Planning A

andOrosová O., Benka J., Hricová L., Kulanová M.

Gender, Rootedness, Normative Beliefs
And Emigration Intentions Of Slovak
University Students

2018International
grationMi-

Lin Y., Kingminghae W.

Intimate Relationships And Mobility
Intentions Of Thai International Students In Chinese Universities: A Gendered Analysis

2018

Population, Spaceand PlaceRico, RR

Gender Differences In Internal Migration To Havana During The Second
Half Of The 20th Century

2018

RevistaInternacional De Estudios
Migratorios

Maclin B.J., Kelly J.T.D.,
Perks R., Vinck P., PhamP.

Moving To The Mines: Motivations Of
Men And Women For Migration To Artisanal And Small-Scale Mining Sites In
Eastern Democratic Republic Of The
Congo
For Sensation’s Sake: Differences In Female And Male Expatriates’ Relocation Willingness To Dangerous Countries Based On Sensation Seeking

2017

Resources Policy

2017

Journal of Global
Mobility

Xu X., Sylwester K.

The Effects Of Foreign Direct Investment On Emigration: The Roles Of
FDI Source Country, Education, And
Gender2016

Economic
ellingGreefs H., Winter A.

Alone And Far From Home: Gender
And Migration Trajectories Of Single
Foreign Newcomers To Antwerp, 18501880

2016

Journal of Urban
HistoryCôté R.R., Jensen J.E.,
Roth L.M., Way S.M.

The Effects Of Gendered Social Capital
On U.s. Migration: A Comparison Of
Four Latin American Countries

2015

Demography

Stoermer S., Davies S.E.,
Bahrisch O., Portniagin F.

Mod-

6

APPENDIX

35

Toma, S., Vause, S.

Gender Differences In The Role Of Migrant Networks: Comparing Congolese
And Senegalese Migration Flows

2014

International Migration Review

Baudassé T., Bazillier R.

Gender Inequality And Emigration:
Push Factor Or Selection Process?

2014

International Economics

Camlin C.S., Snow R.C.,
Hosegood V.

Gendered Patterns Of Migration In Rural South Africa

2014

Population, Spaceand Place

Chort I.

Mexican Migrants To The Us: What
Do Unrealized Migration Intentions
Tell Us About Gender Inequalities?

2014

World
ment

Bevc M.

The Emigration Of Scientists From
Slovenia In The 1995-2009 Period By
Gender2013

Teorija in PraksaKröhnert S., Vollmer S.

Gender-Specific Migration From Eastern To Western Germany: Where Have
All The Young Women Gone?

2012

International
gration

Chiang Y., Hannum E.,
Kao G.

Who Goes, Who Stays, And Who Studies? Gender, Migration, And Educational Decisions Among Rural Youth In
China

2012

International Journal of Chinese Education

Akopova I., Ignatjeva S.

Gender Aspect Of Labor Migration In
A Two-Community State: The Case Of
Latvia2012

International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences

Kim J., Yang S.-B., Torneo A.R.

Marriage Immigration And Gender In
South Korea: Accounting For Gender
Disparities in International Marriages

2012

Asia-Pacific Social
Science Review

Gray C.L.

Gender, Natural Capital, And Migration In The Southern Ecuadorian Andes

2010

Environment
Planning A

Litchfield J., Reilly B.

Modelling Migration Attempts And
The Role Of Gender In Albania

2009

Economic Annals

Williams N.

Education, Gender, And Migration In
The Context Of Social Change

2009Social Science Research

Develop-

Mi-

and

6

APPENDIX

36

Barbieri A.F., Carr D.L.

Gender-Specific Out-Migration, Deforestation And Urbanization In The
Ecuadorian Amazon

2005

Global and Planetary ChangeWhite K.J.C., Crowder
K., Tolnay S.E., Adelman
R.M.

Race, Gender, And Marriage: Destination Selection During The Great Migration

2005

Demography

Heering L., van der Erf R.,
van Wissen L.

The Role Of Family Networks And Migration Culture In The Continuation Of
Moroccan Emigration: A Gender Perspective

2004

Journal of EthnicandMigration
Studies

Chandra D.

International Migration From Fiji:
Gender And Human Development Issues

2004

Asian and PacificMigration Journal

Davis B., Winters P.

Gender, Networks And Mexico-US Migration

2001

Journal of Development Studies

Curran, S.R.,
Fuentes, E.

Rivero-Engendering Migrant Networks: The
Case of Mexican Migration

2003

Demography

Cerrutti M., Massey D.S.

On The Auspices Of Female Migration
From Mexico To The United States

2001

Demography

De Jong G.F.

Expectations, Gender, And Norms In
Migration Decision-Making

2000

Population Studies

Yang X., Guo F.

Gender Differences In Determinants Of
Temporary Labor Migration In China:
A Multilevel Analysis

1999

International Migration Review

Shauman K.A., Xie Yu.

Geographic Mobility Of Scientists: Sex
Differences And Family Constraints

1996

Demography

Radcliffe S.A.

Mountains, Maidens And Migration:
Gender And Mobility In Peru

1992

Gender and migration in developing
countries

Hugo G.

Women On The Move: Changing
Patterns Of Population Movement Of
Women In Indonesia

1992

Gender and migration in developing
countries

6

APPENDIX

37

Singhanetra-Renard A.,
Prabhudhanitisarn N.

Changing Socio-Economic Roles Of
Thai Women And Their Migration

1992

Gender and migration in developing
countries

Momsen J.H.

Gender Selectivity In Caribbean Migration

1992

Gender and migration in developing
countries

Asis M.M.B.

To The United States And Into The
Labor Force: Occupational Expectations Of Filipino And Korean Immigrant Women

1991

Papers - EastWest
Population
Institute

Table 6: Articles included in the analysis (peri-migration stage).
For non-English articles, the title translation is presented as listed
in the WoS and Scopus search results.
Authors

Title

Year

Journal/Book

Florinskaya Y.F.

Female Labor Migration To Russia:
Number, Donor Countries, Niches In
The Labor Market

2022

Studies on Russian
Economic Development

Abel G.J., Cohen J.E.

Bilateral International Migration Flow
Estimates Updated And Refined By
Sex

2022

Scientific Data

Uprety D.

The Impact Of International Trade On
Migration By Skill Levels And Gender
In Developing Countries

2020

International
grationWang Q., Zou Y., Fan D.

Gender Imbalance In China’s Marriage
Migration: Quantitative Evidence And
Policy Implications

2019

Economic
ellingMalakhov V.A.

Gender Aspect Of International Academic Mobility Of Russian Scientists

2019

Woman in RussianSociety

Abel G.J.

Estimates Of Global Bilateral Migration Flows By Gender Between 1960
And 2015

2018

International Migration Review

Raymer J., Wiśniowski A.

Applying And Testing A Forecasting
Model For Age And Sex Patterns Of
Immigration And Emigration

2018

Population Studies

Hofmann
E.M.

Geographic Variation In Sex Ratios Of
The US Immigrant Population: Identifying Sources Of Difference

2018

Population
Research and Policy
Review

E.T.,

Reiter

Mi-

Mod-

6

APPENDIX

38

Hofmann E.T.

Who Goes To Russia? Understanding
Gendered Migration Patterns

2017

Eurasian Geography and Economics

Todd G.J.N., Clark B.,
Marston M., Urassa M.,
Todd J.

Gender And Youth Migration For Empowerment: Migration Trends From
Tanzania

2017

Migration Letters

Goldberg A., Günther T.,
Rosenberg N.A., Jakobsson M.

Ancient X Chromosomes Reveal Contrasting Sex Bias In Neolithic And
Bronze Age Eurasian Migrations

2017

Leibert T.

She Leaves, He Stays? Sex-Selective
Migration In Rural East Germany

2016

Proceedings of the
National Academyof Sciences of theUnited States ofAmerica
Journal of Rural
StudiesNawrotzki R.J., Jiang L.

Indirectly Estimating International Net
Migration Flows By Age And Gender: The Community Demographic
Model International Migration (CdmIm) Dataset
Migration In The Intermediate Cities
Of Minas Gerais And Its Effects On
Population Growth And Sex And Age
Composition In The Period 1980-2010

2015

Historical Methods

2015

Revista BrasileiradeEstudosdePopulacao

Beine M., Salomone S.

Network Effects In International Migration: Education Versus Gender

2013

Scandinavian Journal of Economics

Docquier F., Marfouk A.,
Salomone S., Sekkat K.

Are Skilled Women More Migratory
Than Skilled Men?

2012

World
ment

Donato K.M., Alexander J.T., Gabaccia D.R.,
Leinonen J.

Variations In The Gender Composition
Of Immigrant Populations: How They
Matter

2011

International Migration Review

Donato K.M.

U.S. Migration From Latin America:
Gendered Patterns And Shifts

2010

AnnalsoftheAmerican Academyof Political andSocial Science

Docquier F., Lowell B.L.,
Marfouk A.

A Gendered Assessment Of Highly
Skilled Emigration

2009

Population and Development Review

Greenwood M.J.

Family And Sex-Specific U.s. Immigration From Europe, 1870-1910: A Panel
Data Study Of Rates And Composition

2008

Explorations
inEconomic History

de Carvalho R.C., Rigotti
J.I.R.

Develop-

6

APPENDIX

39

Faggian A., Mccann P.,
Sheppard S.

Some Evidence That Women Are More
Mobile Than Men: Gender Differences
In U.k. Graduate Migration Behavior

2007

Journal of Regional
Science

Agesa R.U., Agesa J.

Sources Of Gender Difference In Rural
To Urban Migration In Kenya: Does
Human Capital Matter?

2005

Applied Economics
Letters

Becker C.M., Musabek
E.N., Seitenova A.-G.S.,
Urzhumova D.S.

Short-Term Migration Responses Of
Women And Men During Economic
Turmoil: Lessons From Kazakhstan

2003

Eurasian Geography and Economics

He C., Gober P.

Gendering Interprovincial Migration In
China

2003

International Migration Review

Liaw K.L.

Distinctive Features In The Sex Ratio
Of Japan’s Interprefectural Migrants:
An Explanation Based On The Family
System And Spatial Economy Of Japan

2003

International Journal of Population
Geography

Firman T.

Metropolitan Expansion And The
Growth Of Female Migration To
Jakarta

1999

Asia Pacific Viewpoint

Liaw K.L., Hayase Y.

Rural/Urban Migrations In Zimbabwe
In 1982-92: Selectivity By Gender,
Place Of Birth, And Educational Attainment.

1997

Jinkōgaku kenkyū /Nihon Jinkō Gakkai
henshūZlotnik H.

The South-To-North
Women

Of

1995

International Migration Review

Service Class Migration In England
And Wales, 1980-1981 - Identifying
Gender-Specific Mobility Patterns

1995

Regional Studies

Robinson V.

Race, Gender, And Internal Migration
Within England And Wales

1993

Environment
Planning A

Brosnan P., Wilson M.

Differentials In Australian Interstate
Migration 1911-21 To 1961-66 By PlaceOf Birth, Sex And Age

1989

Journal of the Australian Population
Association

Watkins J.F.

Gender And Race Differentials In Elderly Migration

1989

Research on Aging

Slater P.B.

Origin And Destination Entropies Of
U.S. 1965-70 Age-Sex-Specific Intercounty Migration Flows

1984

Mathematical
Social Sciences

Boyle,K.H.

P.J.,

Halfacree,

Migration

and6

APPENDIX

40

Table 7: Articles included in the analysis (post-migration stage).
For non-English articles, the title translation is presented as listed
in the WoS and Scopus search results.
Authors

Title

Year

Journal/Book

Kreisberg A.N., Jackson
M.

Durable Disadvantage: Gender And
The Mark Of Unauthorized Status In
Immigrants’ Occupational Trajectories

2022

Sociological
spectives

Palencia-Esteban A.

Occupational Segregation Of Female
And Male Immigrants In Europe: Accounting For Cross-Country Differences

2022

International
Labour Review

Peng J., Chen J., Zhang L.

Gender-Differentiated Poverty Among
Migrant Workers: Aggregation And
Decomposition Analysis Of The Chinese Case For The Years 2012–2018

2022

Agriculture(Switzerland)

Preston V., McLafferty S.,
Maciejewska M.

Gender, Immigration And Commuting
In Metropolitan Canada

2022

Tijdschriftvoor
EconomischeenSociale Geografie

Busk H., Jauhiainen S.

The Careers Of Immigrants In Finland:
Empirical Evidence For Genders And
Year Of Immigration

2022

Journal of International Migration
and IntegrationGrönlund A., FairbrotherM.

No Escape From Tradition? Source
Country Culture And Gendered Employment Patterns Among Immigrants
In Sweden

2022

International Journal of Sociology

Cobas-valdés
Fernández-macho J.

Gender Dissimilarities In Human Capital Transferability Of Cuban Immigrants In The Us: A Clustering Quantile Regression Coefficients ApproachWith Consideration Of Implications
For Sustainability
The Labour Market Impacts Of Female
Internal Migration: Evidence From The
End Of Apartheid

2021

Sustainability(Switzerland)

2021

Regional
Scienceand Urban Economics

Al-Dalahmeh M., Sarihasan I., Dajnoki K.

The Influence Of Gender And Educational Attainment Differences On International Migrants’ Occupational Status
In Oecd Countries

2021

Economies

Wessel T.,
Turner L.

Magnusson

The Migration Pathway To Economic
Mobility: Does Gender Matter?

2021

Population, Spaceand Place

Treuren G.J.M., Manoharan A., Vishnu V.

The Gendered Consequences Of SkillDiscounting For Migrants

2021

Journal of Industrial Relations

A.,

Sharp M.

Per-

6

APPENDIX

41

Wu Y., Pieters J., Heerink
N.

The Gender Wage Gap Among China’s
Rural–Urban Migrants

2021

Review of Development Economics

Popoola K.O., Oladehinde
G.J., Animasaun E.

Gender Differentials In Poverty Among
Migrants In Rural Border Communities
Of Oyo State, Nigeria

2021

Acta
Universitatis
Carolinae,
Geographica

Perales F., Lee R., Forrest
W., Todd A., Baxter J.

Employment Prospects Of Humanitarian Migrants In Australia: Does Gender Inequality In The Origin Country
Matter?

2021

Journal of Immigrant and RefugeeStudies

Eriksson B., Stanfors M.

Industrious Migrants: Gender And The
Earnings Of Migrants In Swedish Manufacturing Around 1900

2021

Scandinavian Economic History Review

Rai A., Choi Y.J.

Domestic
Violence
Victimization
Among South Asian Immigrant Men
And Women In The United States

2021

Journal of Interpersonal Violence

Colombelli A., Grinza E.,
Meliciani V., Rossi M.

Pulling Effects In Immigrant Entrepreneurship: Does Gender Matter?

2021

Economic Geography

Salikutluk, Z; Menke, K

Gendered Integration? How Recently
Arrived Male And Female Refugees
Fare On The German Labour Market

2021

Jfr-Journal
Of
Family Research

Khamkhom N., Jampaklay A.

Gender Differences In Remittances Behavior Among Migrants In Thailand

2020

Kasetsart Journalof Social Sciences

Seibel V.

Contact To Natives Among Recent
Turkish Migrants In Germany: GenderDifferences And Potential Explanations

2020

Frontiers in Sociology

Montero E.L.G.

Eurostat Gender Indicators’ Utilities
And Limitations: Sociodemographic
Profiles Of Migrant Women

2020

Migraciones

Carrasco
CarpioC.,
Garcı́a-Serrano C., Hernanz V.

Work Trajectories Of Female And Male
Immigrants In Spain [not sure whether
to keep it or not as it focuse on migrants’ gender only on the side]

2020

International
gration

Alfarhan U.F., Al-Busaidi
S.

Women’s Earnings Between Migration
Status And Glass Ceilings: A Double
Penalty?

2020

Applied Economics
LettersMi-

6

APPENDIX

42

Leibbrand C.

Unequal Opportunity? Racial, Ethnic,
And Gender Disparities In The Returns
To Internal U.s. Migration

2020

Social Currents

Hanmer L., Rubiano E.,
Santamaria J., Arango
D.J.

How Does Poverty Differ Among
Refugees? Taking A Gender Lens To
The Data On Syrian Refugees In Jordan

2020

Middle East Development Journal

Bjørneseth F., Smidt M.,
Stachowski J.

Gender, Parenthood And Feelings Of
Safety In Greek Refugee Centres

2019

Journal of RefugeeStudies

Rufai M., Ogunniyi A.,
Salman K.K., Oyeyemi
M., Salawu M.

Migration, Labor Mobility And Household Poverty In Nigeria: A Gender
Analysis

2019

Economies

Eryar D., Tekgüç H., Toktas S.

Does
Migration
ContributeTo
Women’s Empowerment?
Portrait
Of Urban Turkey And Istanbul

2019

Turkish Studies

vonBerlepsch
Rodrı́guez-Pose
Lee N.

V.,A.,

A Woman’s Touch? Female Migration
And Economic Development In The
United States

2019

Regional Studies

Ryazantsev S.V., Rostovskaya T.K., Peremyshlin S.N.

Gender Aspects Of Labor Migration In
Russia: Trends, Implications, Regulation

2019

Woman in RussianSociety

Villalobos L.D., Grossman F.B., Bolaños I.N.

Educated Mexican Migrants In The
United States: Analysis Of Gender Inequalities

2019

Estudios Fronterizos

Ala-Mantila
chmann F.

Gender Differences In Labour Market
Integration Trajectories Of Recently
Arrived Migrants In The Netherlands

2018

Journal of EthnicandMigration
Studies

Minor O.M., Cameo M.

A Comparison Of Wages By Gender
And Region Of Origin For Newly Arrived Refugees In The Usa

2018

Journal of International Migration
and Integration

Li W.

Migration And Marital Instability
Among Migrant Workers In China: A
Gender Perspective

2018

Chinese Journal of
Sociology

Socioeconomic Achievement Among
Arab Immigrants In The Usa: The Influence Of Region Of Origin And Gender

2018

Journal of International Migration
and Integration

M.,

Kusow A.M.,
K.J., Corra M.

Fleis-

Ajrouch6

APPENDIX

43

Bowen H.P., Pédussel Wu
J.

Immigrant Gender And International
Trade

2018

Mondes en Developpement

Ramos, RM

Immigration And Employment In
Costa Rica: An Analysis With A
Gender Perspective Based On The
Continuing Employment Survey

2018

Revista Economia
Y Sociedad

Transnational Occupational Mobility
And Gender Inequality: The Case Of
Argentine Immigrants In Spain

2018

Studi Emigrazione

Basu S.

Intermarriage And The Labour-Force
Participation Of Immigrants: Differences By Gender

2017

Applied Economics
Letters

Rocheva A., Varshaver E.

Gender Dimension Of Migration FromCentral Asia To The Russian Federation2017

Asia-Pacific Population Journal

Cheung S.Y., Phillimore
J.

Gender And Refugee Integration: A
Quantitative Analysis Of Integration
And Social Policy Outcomes2017

Journal of Social
PolicyEdo A., Toubal F.

Immigration And The Gender Wage
Gap

2017

EuropeanEconomic Review

Lacroix J., Gagnon A.,
Lortie V.

At The Intersection Of Gender And National Origin: The Career Trajectories
Of Selected Immigrants In Quebec

2017

Population

Li Z., Liang Z.

Gender And Job Mobility Among Rural
To Urban Temporary Migrants In The
Pearl River Delta In China

2016

Urban Studies

Matsuo M.

Gender Differences In Mobility Of Hispanic Immigrants

2016

Transport Policy

Donato K.M., Perez S.L.

A Different Hue Of The Gender Gap:
Latino Immigrants And Political Conservatism In The United States

2016

RSF

Wang C., Zhou X., Zhang
C.

The Impact Of Social Capital On
Wages Of Rural Migrants And Its Gender Difference In China

2015

Journal of Macromarketing

Esteban
A.G.

F.O.,

Ingellis

6

APPENDIX

44

Salas Dı́az R.J.

Incidence Of Migration On Urban Gender Wage Gap In Colombia

2015

Ensayos Sobre Politica Economica

Joassart-Marcelli P.

Gender, Social Network Geographies,
And Low-Wage Employment Among
Recent Mexican Immigrants In Los Angeles

2014

Urban Geography

Mizanur Rahman M.

Gendering Migrant Remittances: Evidence From Bangladesh And The
United Arab Emirates

2013

International
grationOso L., Catarino C.

From Sex To Gender: The Feminisation Of Migration And Labour-Market
Insertion In Spain And Portugal

2013

Journal of EthnicandMigration
Studies

Vlase I.

Potential Factors Of Gender Inequalities In Migration Flows. The Case Of
Romanian Roma In Italy And Spain

2013

Calitatea Vietii

Wang Z.

Empirical Study Of Gender Occupational Segregation Of Rural-Urban Migrant Workers In China

2012

Advances in Gender Research

Magnani E., Zhu R.

Gender Wage Differentials Among
Rural-Urban Migrants In China

2012

Regional
Scienceand Urban Economics

del Rı́o C., Alonso-VillarO.

Occupational Segregation Of Immigrant Women In Spain

2012

Feminist
nomicsBradatan C.E., Sandu D.

Before Crisis: Gender And Economic
Outcomes Of The Two Largest Immigrant Communities In Spain

2012

International Migration Review

Lopez M.J.

Skilled Immigrant Women In The Us
And The Double Earnings Penalty

2012

Feminist
nomicsLogan J.R., Rivera Drew
J.A.

Human Capital, Gender, And Labor
Force Incorporation: The Case Of
Immigrants From The Former Soviet
Union

2011

International Journal of Comparative
Sociology

Huh Y.

The Effect Of Home-Country Gender
Status On The Labor Market Success
Of Immigrants

2011

Journal of Human
Development andCapabilities

Mi-

Eco-

Eco-

6

APPENDIX

45

Vause S.

Gender Differences And Labor Mobility Of Congolese Migrants (Drc) In Belgium

2011

EspacePopulationsSocietes

Zaiceva A.

East-West Migration And Gender: Is
There A Differential Effect For Migrant
Women?

2010

Labour Economics

Croes H., Hooimeijer P.

Gender And Chain Migration:
Case Of Aruba

The

2010

Population, Spaceand Place

Rebhun, U

Immigration, Gender, And Earnings In
Israel2010

European Journal
Of
PopulationRevue Europeenne
De Demographie

Batista N.N.F., Cacciamali M.C.

Wage Differences Between Men And
Women According To Condition Of Migration2009

Revista BrasileiradeEstudosdePopulacao

Rebhun U.

A Double Disadvantage? Immigration,
Gender, And Employment Status In Israel

2008

European Journalof Population

Livingston, G

Gender, Job Searching, And Employment Outcomes Among Mexican Immigrants

2006

Population
Research And Policy
Review

Liang Z., Chen Y.P.

Migration And Gender In China: An
Origin-Destination Linked Approach

2004

Economic Development and Cultural
ChangeCacopardo M.C., Maguid
A.M.

Migrants And Gender Differneces In
The Labor Market Of Metropolitan
Buenos Aires

2003

Desarrollo
nomicoHayfron J.E.

Panel Estimates Of The Earnings Gap
In Norway: Do Female Immigrants Experience A Double Earnings Penalty?

2002

Applied Economics

Nilsson K.

Migration, Gender And The Household
Structure: Changes In Earnings Among
Youth Adults In Sweden

2001

Regional Studies

Djamba Y.K., GoldsteinS., Goldstein A.

Migration And Occupational Changes
During Periods Of Economic Transition: Women And Men In Vietnam

2000

Asian and PacificMigration Journal

Eco-

6

APPENDIX

46

Osaki K.

Economic Interactions Of Migrants
And Their Households Of Origin: Are
Women More Reliable Supporters?

1999

Asian and PacificMigration Journal

Powers M.G., Seltzer W.,
Shi J.

Gender Differences In The Occupational Status Of Undocumented Immigrants In The United States: Experience Before And After Legalization

1998

International Migration Review

Chattopadhyay A.

Gender, Migration, And Career Trajectories In Malaysia

1998

Demography

Meng X.

Gender Occupational Segregation And
Its Impact On The Gender -Wage
Differential Among Rural-Urban Migrants: A Chinese Case Study

1998

Applied Economics

Gender And Ethnic Concentration And
Employment Prospects For MexicanAmerican Migrants

1998

GrowthChangePowers M.G., Seltzer

Occupational Status And Mobility
Among Undocumented Immigrants By
Gender

1998

International Migration Review

Cooke T.J., Bailey A.J.

Family Migration And The Employment Of Married Women And Men

1996

Economic Geography

Beach C.M., Worswick C.

Is There A Double-Negative Effect On
The Earnings Of Immigrant Women?

1993

CanadianPublicPolicy/Analyse dePolitiques

Lee S.M.

Female Immigrants And Labor In Colonial Malaya: 1860-1947

1989

International Migration Review

Gronlund, A; Nordlund,M

A Maternal Wall For Refugees? Gender And Labor Market Establishment
In Sweden

2022

Nordic Journal Of
Working Life Studies

Eckhard J., Stauder J.

Migration And The Partner Market:
How Gender-Selective Relocations Affect Regional Mating Chances In Germany

2018

European Journalof PopulationNúñez-Antón V., OguizaTovar A., Virto-Moreno J.

Effects Of The Economic Crisis On Employment Among The Immigrant Population In The Basque Country: An
Analysis For Sex, Qualification And
Geographical Origin

2018

Papeles de Poblacion

Shumway
T.J.

J.M.,

Cooke

and

6

APPENDIX

47

Krieg R.G.

Does Migration Function To Reduce
Earnings Differentials By Race And
Gender?

1990

The Annals of Regional Science

DonatoK.M.,
Wakabayashi C., Hakimzadeh
S., Armenta A.

Shifts In The Employment Conditions
Of Mexican Migrant Men And Women:
The Effect Of U.s. Immigration Policy

2008Work and Occupations

Huang Y.

Gender, Hukou, And The Occupational Attainment Of Female Migrants
In China (1985-1990)

2001

Environment
Planning A

Beiser M., Hou F.

Gender Difference In Language Acquisition And Employment Consequences
Among Southeast Asian Refugees In
Canada2000

Canadian
Policyand

PublicTable 8: Articles included in the analysis (return-migration
stage). For non-English articles, the title translation is presented
as listed in the WoS and Scopus search results.
Authors

Title

Year

Journal/Book

Allard J., Jagnani M.,
Neggers Y., Pande R.,
Schaner S., Moore C.T.

Indian Female Migrants Face Greater
Barriers To PostCovid Recovery Than
Males: Evidence From A Panel Study

2022

eClinicalMedicine

Ward T.

Return Migration From NineteenthCentury Australia: Key Drivers And
Gender Differences

2021

Australian
Economic
History
Review

Yueping S., Hantao W.,
Xiao-yuan D., Zhili W.

To Return Or Stay? The Gendered Impact Of The Covid-19 Pandemic On Migrant Workers In China

2021

Feminist
nomicsKumari J., Sharma R.

Gender Migration, Return And Development: Emerging Trends And Issues
With Special Reference To India

2016

Dynamics of AsianDevelopment

Zhao X., Aref S., ZagheniE., Stecklov G.

Return Migration Of German-AffiliatedResearchers: Analyzing Departure And
Return By Gender, Cohort, And Discipline Using Scopus Bibliometric Data
1996–2020

2022

Scientometrics

Eco-