Asian Disaster Reduction Center

Research Paper
Study on Disaster preparedness and
Early warning systems
Visiting Researcher 2011B in term of January 9- April 27 ,2012

Prepared By
Phatsita RERNGNIRUNSATHIT
Scientist, Professional Level
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Ministry of Interior
ThailandFinal Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Acknowledgement
I have been serving as Scientist, Professional level, Department of Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation, Ministry of Interior, Thailand. First of all I would like to express my gratitude to ADRC for
selecting me in this program to represent Thailand as Visiting Researcher. I would like to pay mysincere gratitude to Honorable Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Mr. Wiboon
Sangaunpong, DDPM Director-General, to give me this opportunity to serve my country. I would liketo thank all the staff members of the ADRC for providing me kind cooperation to conduct thesuccessful research program. It would be my great pleasure and happiness to extend my sincere
gratitude and respect to Ms. Miki Kodama, Senior Researcher, ADRC who always guided me on
research issues and given solutions to my problems instantly.
I am ever grateful to Ms Yumi SHIOMI, Researcher- ADRC who mentored and supervised me inoverall to achieve my target and also Ms. Tae Watanabe (Administrative Manager), Ms. Fujinaka
and Ms. Kawaguchi guided with the administrative matters and gave me a proper way to overcome
all the administrative matters. Also, I must extend my heartiest thanks to administrative staff
members of ADRC and Japanese Teacher Mr. Shoji Kawahara, for their valuable information andprudent suggestions and evergreen energies spent for me in many ways during my stay in Japan.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to the Government of Japan, ADRC both its
management and fellow researchers for their whole hearted support and cooperation that has been
extended to me to make my stay comfortable and also to the Government of Thailand for allowing
me to be benefited from practical experience in Japan. I would also like to extend my thanks to JICA,
Hyogo, for offering some valuable session on comprehensive Disaster Management.

(Phatsita Rerngnirunsathit)
Scientist
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Ministry of Interior
ThailandFinal Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Disclaimer
This report was compiled by an ADRC visiting researcher (VR) from ADRC
member countries.
The views expressed in the report do not necessarily reflect the views of
the ADRC. The boundaries and names shown and the designations usedon the maps in the report also do not imply official endorsement or
acceptance by the ADRC.

Chapter 1 Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC)

1.1 Background to the Establishment of the ADRC
The Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) opened its office in Kobe, Japan, on July 30,
1998. The major steps leading up to ADRC’s creation are outlined as follows:(1) International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (INDNDR)At its 42nd General Assembly in December 1987, the United Nations designated the 90’s
as the International Decade for National Disasters Reduction, and adopted a resolution aiming tosharply reduce damages caused by natural disasters around the world, particularly in developing
countries, through joint international actions.
(2) World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction
In May 1994, the UN organized the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction in
Yokohama, Japan, to conduct an interim review of the decade long initiative and propose an action
plan for the future. At the meeting, the “Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World” was adopted, which
pointed out the importance of international cooperation in regions that share common types ofdisasters and disaster reduction measures. Disaster Reduction activities have since been promoted
throughout the world based on this strategy.
(3) Ministerial-level Asian Natural Disaster Reduction Conference
As the first step in regional level cooperation as per the Yokohama Strategy, the IDNDRSecretariat organized a meeting in Kobe in December, 1995 to formulate a policy on disaster
reduction cooperation in Asia. Cabinet members in charge of disaster reduction from 28 countries
attended the meeting, which adopted the Kobe Disaster Reduction Declaration consisting of ideas forpromoting international cooperation in disasters, including a proposal by Japan to launch a feasibility
study on a system that would act as the disaster reduction coordinator in the Asian region.
(4) Asian Natural Disaster Reduction Experts Meeting
The Government of Japan and the IDNDR Secretariat co-organized an experts meeting in
October 1996 to hash out how a central disaster reduction system, as stated in the Kobe Disaster
Reduction Declaration, might be created for the Asian region. Key participants from disaster reduction
bureaus of 30 countries attended and agreed to study the creation of an “Asian Disaster Reduction
Center” (tentative name) that would serve as the secretariat for promoting activities of the proposedsystem.
(5) Asian Disaster Reduction Cooperation Promotion Meeting
The Government of Japan and the IDNDR Secretariat co-organized a meeting in Tokyo in
June 1997 to discuss specific activities of the proposed central disaster reduction system. Once again,
key personnel from disaster reduction bureaus of 23 countries attended the meeting, the overall goalof which was to promote cooperation in disaster reduction efforts through concrete action. It was
proposed at the meeting to create an office in Japan as the secretariat for the proposed system.
(6) ADRC’s Official startWith momentum gathering on this series of meetings, the Japanese government
discussed the organization, budget and other aspects of the proposed office with other countries
involved. Then, with the cooperation of Hyogo Prefecture, the Asian Disaster Reduction Center was
officially established in Kobe on July 30, 1998.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)1.2 Mission and Objectives(1) To Enhance Disaster Resilience of the Member Countries.
(2) To Build Safe Communities.
(3) To Create a Society Where Sustainable Development is
Possible.
The Asian Disaster Reduction Center was established in Kobe, Hyogo prefecture, in 1998,
with mission to enhance disaster resilience of the member countries, to build safe communities, andto create a society where sustainable development is possible. The Center works to build disaster
resilient communities and to establish networks among countries through many programs including
personnel exchanges in this field.
The Center addresses this issue from a global perspective in cooperation with a variety of UN
agencies and international organizations/initiatives, such as the International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (ISDR), the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and
the World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific (WHO/WPRO).

1.3 Composition
The ADRC had 29 member countries, 5 advisor
countries and observer organization. The member
countries were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan,
Papua New Guinea, Maldives, Philippines,
Russian Federation, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Kyrgyz,
Tajikistan, Thailand, Uzbekistan, Viet Nam, andYemen. The advisor countries were Australia,
France, New Zealand, Switzerland, and USA.

1.4 Activities(1) Information Sharing on Disaster Reduction
Learning from Disasters and Benefiting from Information
1.1) Provision of Information on the Latest Disasters, Disaster Preparedness of Member
Countries, and Good Practices
ADRC provides information on the latest disasters in Asia and the other part of theworld, disaster management in member countries, and good practices for disaster risk reduction. A
multilingual glossary on natural disasters is available in English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Korean,
and Japanese on its website.
1.2) Promotion of GLIDE (Global unique disaster IDEntifier)
ADRC proposed a globally common, unique identification scheme for disaster events,
as a tool for facilitating the sharing of disaster information archived by organizations around the world.
The idea was launched as the new initiative, "GLIDE", jointly with such organizations as the OCHA.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)1.3) Disaster Management Support System (Sentinel Asia Project)'Sentinel Asia' Project was launched in 2006 in order to establish a disaster risk
management system in Asia, using earth satellites. The Asian Disaster Reduction Center receives
emergency observation requests from the member countries and other organizations which
participate in collaborative projects. 'Disaster Management Support System' is a part of such 'Sentinel
Asia' project and offers maps and satellite images, as well as disaster information in the Asia Pacificregion from ADRC.

1.4) Organization of International Conferences
ADRC convenes an annual international conference participated by disaster officials
from the member countries and disaster experts from international organizations to promote
information sharing, exchange opinions, and enhance partnerships among participating countries andorganizations

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

(2) Human Resources Development
Disaster Risk Reduction begins with Capacity Building2.1) Organizing Conference, Workshops & Training on Disaster Risk Reduction
ADRC organizes and conducts various conferences, workshops and trainings forenhancing the human resources capacity of pursuing effective disaster risk management in member
countries.
- Workshop on Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM)*- Workshop on Flood Risk Management (Viet Nam)
- Workshop on Earthquake Disaster Management (Mongolia, Bangladesh, and Tajikistan)- Disaster Risk Management Training for Local Government Officials (Cambodia, Sri Lanka)- Urban Search and Rescue Training in Singapore- Training on Supply Management System (SUMA) in the Philippines- JICA Seminar on Disaster Management*ADRC, in cooperation with UN-OCHA (Kobe), developed the Total Disaster Risk
Management (TDRM) as an effective and strategic approach for disaster risk reduction, anddisseminates the concept to member countries and other countries in Asia. The concept of TDRM
centers around two crucial principles. They are; "involvement of all stakeholders" and "implementation of
measures during all phases of disaster," i.e. prevention/mitigation, preparedness, response andrehabilitation/reconstruction. The promotion of TDRM approach to minimize potential impact of natural
disasters is in line with the implementation efforts for achieving sustainable development
2.2) Program for Inviting Visiting Researchers from Member Countries
Each year, ADRC invites four officials in charge of disaster management from Member
Countries as visiting researchers for a term of about half a year. The researchers are provided with
opportunities to discuss challenges for disaster management of each country, enhance understandingof the disaster management system, disaster reduction, and international cooperation in Japan.
(3) Building Communities Capabilities
Community Participation is a Key to Effective Disaster Reduction
3.1) Development and Dissemination of Tools for Encouraging Community Participation
Risk reduction measures are most successful and effective when they involve thedirect participation of the community most likely to be exposed to hazards. ADRC undertakes various
efforts including increasing public awareness of disaster risk management, and development anddissemination of tools for reducing vulnerability of communities.
- Town Watching Program for Disaster Risk Management- Community-based Disaster Risk Awareness Program (Indonesia, Nepal, India)- Development and Distribution of Posters and Brochures for Disaster Risk Awareness(Papua New Guinea)- Program for Enhancement of Disaster Education Programs in Schools (Philippines,
Armenia)3.2) Support for the Activities of Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network (ADRRN)ADRC and UN OCHA agreed to form the Asian Disaster Reduction and Response
Network in 2002. Since then ADRC has supported the effort to improve networking among Asian
NGOs which play an important role in disaster reduction and response. This leads to more efficientand effective activities for the network members.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)1.5 How We Work
(1) Accumulation and provision of information on natural disasters and disaster reduction* Share data from each country andexchange information.
* Provide analysis on disaster
reduction programs.
* Distribute newsletters* Accumulate, organize and provide
data.
* Set up and manage websites.

(2) Studies on the promotion of disaster reduction cooperation* Provide study results, exchange
information.

* Provide materials and know-hows.
* Personnel cooperation to studies.

(3) Gathering of information on emergency relief during times of disaster* Provide information to eachcountry.

* Provide information on damages.
* provide information on emergency
relief.

(4) Developing of materials for dissemination of knowledge and raising of disaster reduction
awareness* Accumulate and provide materials
and data.
* Propose projects.

* Collect and provide public relations
materials.
* Collaborate in projects.

(5) Developing of education and training programs dealing with disaster reduction
information* Accumulate and provide materials
on education and training programs.
* Propose projects.

* Collect and provide materials on
education and training programs in eachcountry.
* Collaborate in projects.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Chapter 2 Disaster Management System in Thailand

2.1 General Information of Thailand
1. General Information
Thailand is located between 5º and 21º N latitude and between 97º and 106º E longitude.
It shares land borders with Myanmar (Burma) in the north and west, the Andaman Sea in the west,
Laos in the north and north-east, Cambodia and the Gulf of Thailand in the east, and Malaysia in thesouth. The weather is warm and rather humid with an average high temperature of 34ºc and the lowof 23ºc. As of December 2010, the total population stood at 65.9 millions.
1.1 Geographical Data
Thailand is situated in South-East Asia, covering an area of nearly 513,115 square kilometers(198,114 square miles), extends about 1,620 kilometers (1,007 miles) from north to south and 750
kilometers (482 miles) at its widest point from east to west, or approximately the same size as France,with a coastline of approximately 2,700 kilometers (1,143 miles) on the Gulf of Thailand and 865
kilometers (537 miles) along the Indian Ocean. It is roughly the size of France.
Lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m
Highest point: Doi Inthanon 2,576 m
Topography
Thailand is divided into four geographical regions: Central Thailand (including Bangkok),
Northern Thailand, Northeastern Thailand, and Southern Thailand.
The North Region The North Region is mainly
mountainous representing the most heavily forested
areas of the country. The region accommodates four
north-south flowing rivers namely Ping, Wang, Yom andNan. Most populated areas in the North are in the alluvial
valleys along these rivers. Chiang Mai, the second largest
city of Thailand, and Chiang Rai are among the wellknown cities.
The Northeast Region (Isarn) In terms of areasand population, Isarn is the biggest region of Thailand,
one-third of the country’s total areas. This region lies atopof Korat Plateau which is bound on the north and east by
Mekong River. There are two major rivers, Chi and Mun,
which run down to Mekong River.
The Central Region The Central Region(including Bangkok Metropolitan Region is situated in thebasin of the Chao Phrya River which runs from north tosouth and after crossing Bangkok flows to the Gulf ofThailand. This region is often referred as the "rice bowl" ofThailand being the most fertile area of the country.
The South Region The peninsular south consistsof the narrow Kra Isthmus that widens into the Malay
Peninsula. With a vast area of mountains, the SouthRegion has the highest rainfall in the country. It isconnected to the Indian Ocean in the west and to the
Pacific Ocean (Gulf of Thailand) in the east.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)1.2 Climate information
General Climatic Conditions
The climate of Thailand is under the influence of monsoon winds of seasonal character i.e.
southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon. The southwest monsoon which starts in May brings a
stream of warm moist air from the Indian Ocean towards Thailand causing abundant rain over thecountry, especially the windward side of the mountains. Rainfall during this period is not only causedby the southwest monsoon but also by the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and tropical
cyclones which produce a large amount of rainfall. May is the period of first arrival of the ITCZ to theSouthern Part. It moves northwards rapidly and lies across southern China around June to early Julythat is the reason of dry spell over upper Thailand. The ITCZ then moves southerly direction to lie
over the Northern and Northeastern Parts of Thailand in August and later over the Central andSouthern Part in September and October, respectively. The northeast monsoon which starts in
October brings the cold and dry air from the anticyclone in China mainland over major parts ofThailand, especially the Northern and Northeastern Parts which is higher latitude areas. In theSouthern Part, this monsoon causes mild weather and abundant rain along the eastern coast of thepart.
The onset of monsoons varies to some extent. Southwest monsoon usually starts in mid-May andends in mid-October while northeast monsoon normally starts in mid-October and ends in midFebruary.
SeasonFrom the meteorological point of view the climate of Thailand may be divided into threeseasons as follows:
Rainy or southwest monsoon season (mid-May to mid-October).The southwest monsoon
prevails over Thailand and abundant rain occurs over the country. The wettest period of the year is
August to September. The exception is found in the Southern Thailand East Coast where abundantrain remains until the end of the year that is the beginning period of the northeast monsoon andNovember is the wettest month.
Winter or northeast monsoon season (mid-October to mid-February). This is the mild period of
the year with quite cold in December and January in upper Thailand but there is a great amount of
rainfall in Southern Thailand East Coast, especially during October to November.
Summer or pre-monsoon season (mid-February to mid-May) This is the transitional period
from the northeast to southwest monsoons. The weather becomes warmer, especially in upper
Thailand. April is the hottest month.
1.3 Demographic data
Official Name: Kingdom of Thailand
Capital (and largest city): Bangkok (Thai : Krung Thep)
Population: 65.9 million (source: National Statistical Office, Ministry of Information andCommunication Technology: 2010)
Population density: 127.5 per sq.km. (Source: National Statistical Office.2010)
Languages: Thai, English (secondary language of the elite), ethnic and regional dialects.
Official script: Thai alphabet
Nationality : Thai 75%, Chinese 14%, other 11% Religions : Buddhist 94.6%, Muslim 4.6%,
Christian 0.7%,
Life expectancy: Male 69.9 Female 74.9 (source: Report on The 1995-1996 Survey ofPopulation Change, National Statistical Office.)
Major religion: Buddhism
Monetary unit: 1 baht = 100 satangs
1.4 Administrations
Thailand’s administrative system is constitutional monarchy with three types of government,
central, provincial and local, and composed of 76 provinces.
Type of government: Constitutional monarchy
Head of state: King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX).
Prime minister: Prime Minister
Administrative Divisions: Thailand has 76 provinces (changwat) and Bangkok municipality. The
provinces are divided into 998 districts (amphoe), 8,860 rural administrative subdistricts (tambon) .
Types of government administrations: the central, provincial and local.
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Provincial and Local Government: Local government is based on the principles ofdecentralization and self-government when certain legal conditions are met. Under the 1997
constitution, elected local assemblies and elected or appointed local administrative committees wereallowed four-year terms. Central government officials could not serve as local officials. Bangkok is aprovincial-level entity with an elected governor and the legislative Metropolitan Administration Council.
Supervision of provincial and local government takes place through the Department of Local
Administration of the Ministry of Interior.
2.2 Natural hazards in Thailand
Thailand is in a tropical zone which is subject to the influences of monsoons and tropicalhurricanes resulting in natural disaster impacts, such as floods, landslides, droughts, wildfires, etc.
Summaries of the hazard, vulnerability and disaster risks in Thailand have been extracted from astudy prepared by the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, the Asian Institute of Technology and theUnited Nations Development Program - “Strengthened Disaster Management Strategies in Thailand”,
a project of the Royal Thai Government, March 1994, (THA/88/004), are presented in Table 1.1 andTable 1.2 below.
Table 1.1: Relative Risks of Hazards, Vulnerability, Level of Management and DisasterOccurrence in Thailand
Types of Disaster
Flood
Typhoon/Hurricane
Earthquake
Landslide
Drought
Fire
ExplosionAccident
Epidemics
Pests
Civil Unrest
Refugee migration

Hazard
high
high
low
moderate
high
high
high
high
low
moderatelowmoderate

Vulnerability
moderate
high
low
low
moderate
moderate
moderate
moderate
low
low
low
Low

Management
Moderate
moderatepoor
poor
moderate
moderatepoor
poor
moderatepoor
poor
moderate

Disaster Risk
highmoderate
moderate
moderate
moderate
moderate
high
high
low
moderate
moderate
moderateThailand is faced with natural and man-made hazards such as flood, landslides, urban fire,bush fire, windstorm, drought, thunderbolt-induced disaster, hailstorm and disease epidemic. Amongthese, flood, tropical cyclone, drought, and fire are at high level of intensity.
Table 1.2: Rank Order of Risk of Disasters in Thailand
Type of Disasters
Flood
Accident
Explosive
TyphoonDrought
Fire
Land slide
Earthquake
Civil Unrest/Refugee Influx
Pests
Epidemic

Subjective
Rank
high
high
high
moderate
moderate
moderate
moderate
moderate
moderate
moderate
low

Numeric Weight
2.39
2.37
2.34
2.31
2.24
2.20
2.15
1.97
1.87
1.77
1.63

The occurrences of natural disaster in Thailand are subject to seasonal cycle such as cold
spell, drought, flood, landslide and storm.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)Table 1.3 Disaster Seasoning Calendar
Type of Disaster

Disaster/Event

Natural

1. Cold spell
2. Drought
3. Flood
4. Landslide
5. Tropical Cyclone
6. Earthquake
7. Storm surge

Natural/humaninduced

1. Forest fire

Periods of Time (month)
October – January
January – May
October – November and June –September
October – November and June –SeptemberMarch – May
Year – round surveillance
October – November
Year – round surveillance
Northern region April – May
Northeastern region November – May
Central region
Eastern region
March - May
Southern region

Source: Implementation Handbook 2009, Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
2.1 Natural Hazards likely to affect the country
Looking into the past major disasters happening in Thailand, it was not only the 2004 Indian
Ocean Tsunami that came to devastate the country. Long before that Thailand experienced othermajor natural disasters as well. These include Typhoon Gay in 1989 that hit a southern province of
Chumporn, claiming almost 500 lives, and landslide in a northern part of country in 2001 where 131
people perished.
Flood, landslide, forest fire, wind damage, drought, lightening, hail and epidemics are themajor disasters. Flood is by far the worst disasters in Thailand. Between 2002 and 2010 flood killed
more than 1,000 people and brought damage and loss in economic terms more than 40 billion Baht.
It out numbers the damage caused by all other disasters combined during the period.
Landslides occur frequently in Thailand due to the influence of monsoon rain. In most cases,
landslide would occur in the northern and southern parts of the country which are mountainous. The
table below provides information of large scale landslide events taken place over the past four
decades.
Although drought does not pose danger to human life but it does cause a great damage tothe economy and livelihood of the people especially in rural areas. Occasionally, Thailand
experienced tropical storms.
Thailand suffers quite often from these disasters; the occurrences of which are becoming
more often and more severe than before. The table below concludes the detail of natural disasteroccurrence in Thailand during 2005 – 2010.

Table 1.4 Thailand’s Disaster Situation Summary in 2010
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

year
2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

Disastertype
Flood
Drought
Cold Spell
Storm
Fire
Flood
Drought
Cold Spell
Storm
Fire
Flood
Drought
Cold Spell
Storm
Fire
Flood
Drought
Cold Spell
Storm
Fire
Flood
Drought
Cold Spell
Storm
Fire
Flood
Drought
Cold Spell
Storm
Fire

Frequency

KilledInjured

7
n/a
n/a
2,192
1,903
5
n/a
n/a
1,348
5,127
6
n/a
n/a
1,995
1,696
13
n/a
n/a
2233
1,901
6
n/a
n/a
1,883
1,734
12
n/a
n/a
1,313
1,559

266
0
0
30
29
53
0
0
24
83
113
0
0
15
30
36
0
0
10
45
446
0
0
29
37
75
0
0
13
48

1,665
0
0
174
83
22
0
0
26
312
16
0
0
30
92
17
0
0
71
156
1,462
0
0
39
66
0
0
0
0
68

Total
affected
13,485,963
4,077,411
10,609,301
407,271
8,912
8,881,758
17,353,358
10,588,881
360,1546,549
7,921,127
13,298,895
9,554,992
242,944
8,392
2,326,179
16,754,980
5,910,339
245,619
9,761
6,050,674
11,862,358
2,303,703
142,849
9,708
2,874,673
11,147,627
3,742,793
61,42923,250DamagedDamaged(Baht)(USD)
16,338,772,341 536,577,088
1,415,223,466
46,476,961
n/an/a
198,845,340
6,530,244
1,283,787,066
42,160,494
5,252,613,976 172,499,637
108,346,716
3,558,184n/an/a
207,373,975
6,810,311
817,334,839
26,841,866
7,601,796,302 249,648,482
103,900,841
3,412,178n/an/a
227,549,741
7,472,897
1,424,889,050
46,794,385
1,687,865,982
55,430,738
198,304,732
6,512,470n/an/a
234,547,154
7,702,697
875,791,793
28,761,635
9,627,418,620 316,171,383
495,275,738
16,265,213
n/an/a
92,244,108
3,029,363
1,083,845,622
35,594,273
5,982,283,276 196,462,504
7,565,861,139 248,468,346
n/an/a
148,871,750
4,889,055
931,191,005
30,580,985(1 USD = 30.45 Baht)

Source: Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM)
2.2 Recent major disasters
2011: Severe flooding occurred during the 2011 monsoon season in Thailand. Beginning at
the end of July triggered by the landfall of Tropical Storm Nock-ten, flooding soon spread through theprovinces of Northern, Northeastern and Central Thailand along the Mekong and Chao Phraya river
basins. In October floodwaters reached the mouth of the Chao Phraya and inundated parts of thecapital city of Bangkok. Flooding persisted in some areas until mid-January 2012, and resulted in a
total of 815 deaths (as of JAN. 17, 2012) (with 3 missing) and 13.6 million people in 4 regions affected.
Sixty-five of Thailand's 77 provinces were declared flood disaster zones, and over 20,000 square
kilometers (7,700 sq mi) of farmland was damaged. The disaster has been described as "the worst
flooding yet in terms of the amount of water and people affected."The World Bank has estimated1,425 billion baht (US$ 45.7 Bn) in economic damages and losses due to flooding, as of 1 December
2011. Most of this was to the manufacturing industry, as seven major industrial estates wereinundated by as much 3 meters (10 feet) during the floods.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.1: Flood in 20112010: In 2010 the impacts of tropical storms together with the influence of the active monsoon
trough lying over Thailand has brought losses and damages to the country, particularly in the sector of
agriculture, fishery, tourism, and to overall activities of the people. During the year 2010, Thailand wasaffected by the influence of 2 main tropical storms, namely Tropical Storm Mindulle (22-28 August2010) and Tropical Depression (31 October – 2 November). Besides the influences from Typhoon
related disaster, this year Thailand was also suffered from the flooding crisis from the vigorousmonsoon clouds poured heavy rainfall over Thailand which occurred in over 51 provinces of Thailand.
More than 8.9 million people and 2.6 households had been affected by flooding since the flood hit on
October 10, 2010. The death toll has reached 257 in 29 provinces and the economic loss wasestimated to be more than USD 1.5 Billion.
The Tropical Storm “Mindulle” was moving over the East of Donghoi, Viet Nam. On August 24,
2010 the monsoon then increased its intensity as Severe Tropical Storm and expanded acrossThailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia and Viet Nam. The effects of Midulle caused heavy rainfall and flood in
the north and northeastern parts of Thailand until September 15, 2010. The total affected areas
covered more 39 provinces and affected over million populations. For 712 people were evacuatedand there were 2 deaths due to the flood.
The estimated damages were over USD 185 million with damages to 87,000 hectare of
agricultural areas, more than 57,000 livestock, 5,881 roads, 186 bridges, 44 schools, and 80 mines.
In the beginning of October 2010 the low pressure area, moving over Southern, Central,
Eastern part coupled with South East Monsoon has caused damage to 19 provinces, 94 districts, 716
sub-district, 5,474 villages, 545,447 households and 1,694,199 persons.
Those provinces include 1 province in Northern part (Nakornsawan); 9 in Northeastern part
(Nakornratchasima, Chaiyaphum, Srisakes, Surin, Khonkaen, Kalasin, Mahasarakham, Roi Et andUbonratchathani; 9 Central Provinces (Chainart, Singburi, Angthong, Suphanburi, Pra NakhonSi Ayutthaya,Lopburi, Saraburi, Nonburi and Pathumthani). It is estimated that 6,316,156 rai of farmland (2,497,210
acres) are destroyed.
In addition, on October 31, 2010 the Tropical Depression moved into the Gulf of Thailand over
the Southern part of Thailand, causes heavy rainfall and flooding which affected in 12 provinces, 133
districts, 874 sub-districts, 6,197 villages, 609,511 households and 1,932,405 persons. There were 78
casualties in 8 provinces, 1,499 injuries. The estimated losses were USD 104 million.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.2: Flood in 2010
2004: December 2004’s Tsunami: the Most Catastrophic Disaster in Thai
At 07.58 a.m., of 26 December 2004, the massive earthquake magnitude of 9.0, the strongest
in the world since 1964, struck deep under the Indian Ocean off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia,
and triggered the cataclysmic tidal wave that slammed on the Andaman coastal provinces, southern
Thailand. The catastrophic incident devastated 6 provinces namely, Phuket, Trang, Phang Nga, Krabi,
Ranong and Satun.
Right after the tsunami waves ebbed, the relief activities were immediately and continuously
activated. It is widely accepted that Thailand had led an effective relief efforts and response
immediately on the day of tsunami strike. As the consequence, Thailand had achieved the rapid
success in relief operation within a few months later. The key factors in the effectiveness of relief
response can be delineated as follows;- The synergy of Thai people from all walks of life to provide all kinds of assistance to theirsuffered countrymen.
- The close and integrated collaboration and cooperation among the civil, military, police,
NGOs, charitable foundations, civil defence volunteers etc.
- The influx of endless support and humanitarian assistance from international communities,
organizations, NGOs near and far.
The Royal Thai Government, private sector and NGOs, have continuously launched
restoration activities to enhance livelihoods and rebuild the environments of the affected people andareas following the initial phase of rescue and humanitarian relief. Simultaneously, has conductedpreparedness activities so as to reduce the vulnerability and increase the resilience in the tsunami hit
communities. The international communities, NGOs and United Nations mechanisms also continue toendlessly support Thailand in these humanitarian assistance activities.
2007: Cyclone Lekima hit Thailand between 4 and 6 October 2007 killed 17, affected
1,552,936, and whose total loss was US$ 30.8 million.
2008: Cyclone Mekkahla hit between 31 September and 1 October 2008. The cyclone caused
torrential rains which killed 32, affected 2,864,484 and whose total loss was US$ 21.6 million.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.3: Tsunami in Thailand
3. Disaster Management system
3.1 Disaster Management Law , Legal system, legal framework
3.1.1 The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007:
The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007 (DPM Act) has replaced the old and outdated
1979 Civil Defense Act and the 1999 Fire Prevention and Suppression Act. Entering into force on 6
November 2007,
It stipulates the Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) as the core
government department in handling national disaster management work. Also it authorizes local
governments to take responsibility of disaster management in their respective areas, in line with theProvincial Plan.
The Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007 (DPM Act) has 4 prominent features, including
1) Introducing 3 main policy - making and planning bodies including National, Provincial and
Bangkok Metropolitan,
2) Having Prime Minister or an designated Deputy Minister as the National Commander,3) Empowering Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) as the core
government agency in handling national disaster management work, and
4) Authorizing local governments to take responsibility of disaster management in theirrespective areas, in line with the Provincial Plan.
According to the new DPM Act, disaster can be classified into 3 categories namely:
1) Man-made and natural disasters;2) Disaster resulted from air raid during wartime; and
3) Disaster resulted from sabotage or terrorist attack.
Government Organization Ministerial Statuette, Meteorological Department, Ministry ofInformation and Communication Technology 2002
In the first section, the Meteorological Department was designated to take responsibility in
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

field of meteorological management, including monitoring and reporting on weather and natural
phenomena, accurately and rapidly forecasting and warning natural disaster, to meet the most benefit
of socio-economic, agricultural and industrial side, as well as to protect the loss and damage of
people, private and government sectors from natural disaster.
Government Organization Ministerial Statuette, Water Resource Department, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment 2002
In section 3, the Water Crisis Protective Center, Water Resource Department, has
empowered in take action in(1) Analyzing and pointing the risky areas resulting from water;(2) Recommending guideline and master plan for water resource management.
In terms of policy making, there are 3 levels:
1) National, which is chaired by the Prime Minister or a designated Deputy Minister
2) Provincial, which is chaired by Provincial Governor
3) Bangkok Metropolitan Administration level, which is chaired by the Bangkok Governor.
Each of three policy - making organs is composed of the committee as follows:
1) The National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee (NDPMC)
2) The Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee
3) The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Committee
The National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee (NDPMC): Members of thecommittee come from various Ministries relevant to disaster management, i.e. Ministry of Interior,
Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Ministry of Transportation andCommunications, Ministry of National Resources and Environment, Ministry of Information,
Communication and Technology, Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Finance, and so on. The Prime
Minister or designated Deputy Prime Minister is a chairperson, and Director-General of Department ofDisaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) is the secretariat of the committee. The Committee hasprominent tasks and responsibilities for proposing the policy to formulate the National Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation Plan, and effectively integrating the development on disaster prevention
and mitigation mechanism among government agencies, local administrations, and other relevant
private sectors.
The Provincial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee: The Provincial Governor
as the Provincial Director is, according to the Act, responsible for disaster prevention and mitigation in
the province area. The responsibilities include appointment of the Provincial Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation Committee, which come from representatives from other provincial disaster management
agencies. The Secretariat of the provincial committee is the Chief of Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation Provincial Office. Their main duty of the provincial committee is to formulate the provincial
disaster management plan under the guideline of national plan.
The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Committee: Just the same as Provincial
Director, Bangkok Metropolitan Governor as the Bangkok Director is responsible for disasterprevention and mitigation in Bangkok and to be the person to appoint the Bangkok Metropolitan
Committee composing of delegates from government agencies including Bangkok Metropolitan,
DDPM, Universities, and public charities and communities in Bangkok. The Committee has powers indrafting the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan for Bangkok which shall be consistence to the
National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan, and other handling the disaster management
related activities.
3.1.2 Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) as the Secretariat of the National
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee (NDPMC), has the responsibility to devise the National
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan. This is to be done by conferring with relevant government
agencies, local administrations, and private sectors.
Once the National Plan is approved, it will be used as a master plan, upon which theprovincial and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration will be based. The national plan will be in service
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

for the period of 3 years. DDPM is to make sure that the new plan for the next 3 years is ready for use
accordingly.
According to the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007, the three - level plan
shall have substantial parts as shown in the following table.
National plan

Provincial Plan

BMA Plan(1) Guide lines, measures and adequate(1) The setting up of(1) establishment ofbudget to support disaster prevention andSpecial Command

command center

mitigation operations systemically andCenter when everwhere disaster

continuously

disasters strike, that

occurred forcenter shall be

construction andconstructed and has

authorization forauthorities to commanddisaster prevention

and oversee disasterand mitigation

prevention and mitigation

operation

operations and activities(2) Guide lines and methods for providing(2) Plan and procedures(2) plan and process

aids and mitigate the impacts of disasters infor local administrations

to procure materials ,both short and long term, together withfor procuring tools,

tools , equipment, andevacuation procedures of effected people,

equipments, materials,

vehicle for disastergovernment services, and other local

hardware and vehicles inprevention andadministrations, supports effected people

disaster prevention andmitigationon their public health, public utilities andmitigation operations

communication system(3)Relevant government agencies and local(3) Plan and procedures(3) plan and processadministrations shall proceed all operations

for local administrations

to procure signaling

under (1) and (2), and shall seek forfor procuring an early

devices or others foravailability and mobility of fundwarning system andnotifying theother equipments tooccurrence andinform people andexpectation of acommunities on

disasterincoming disasters(4)Preparedness perspectives on support(4) Operation plan for(4) Bangkok Disasterpersonnel, equipments and other materials

disaster prevention andPrevention andto deploy upon disaster prevention andmitigation at local

Mitigation Action

mitigation operations, and capacity building

administrations

Operation Plan

(5) Guide line on fixing, recovery and(5) Cooperation plan to(5) Coordination Plan

restoration to community right after disasterother relevant publicwith Public Charity

charities.

Organizations inof those personnel and other people shallbe included

Bangkok

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

3.1.3 National Civil Defense Plan 2005
This is another core disaster management plan that serves as the master plan foragencies responsible in disaster management in providing guidelines or formulating their operational
plans. The Plan has been developed from the same plan yearly 2002 by the authorized National Civil
Defense Sub-committee to improve plan. The plan will be reviewed and updated by DDPM every
three year before proposed for approval by the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Committee. Two main components of the plan involve disaster prevention and mitigation, and theother is Civil Defense for Security (Rear-Area Protection). The details of each component are as
follows:
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Components: comprises 3 parts:
Part I: Civil Defence Master Plan: This part comprises 9 chapters, including(1) Disaster Cycle and Civil Hazard Situation(2) Objectives, Scope and Principles of Civil Defence(3) Establishment of Civil Defence Commanding Unit
(4) Civil Defence Preparedness(5) Disaster Response(6) Coordination of Civil Defence Operation(7) Rehabilitation(8) Communications and(9) Evaluation
Part II: Civil Defence Procedure in Disaster Management: This part comprises 11 chapters:(10) Objectives and Principles of Implementation(11) Flood, Tropical Cyclone and Mudslide Prevention and Mitigation(12) Fire Prevention and Mitigation(13) Earthquake and Building Collapse Prevention and Mitigation(14) Drought Prevention and Mitigation(15) Forest-Fire Prevention and Mitigation(16) Chemical and Hazmats Prevention and Mitigation(17) Cold Spell Prevention and Mitigation(18) Communication and Transportation Accident Prevention and Mitigation(19) Animal Epidemics Prevention and Mitigation(20) Agricultural Pests and Diseases Prevention and Mitigation, andPart III : Related Laws and Regulations
Civil Defense for Security (Rear-Area Protection) Component
This component comprises 6 chapters:(1) Civil Defence for Security(2) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation during War-Time (Rear-Area Protection)(3) Sabotage Prevention and Suppression(4) Prevention and Mitigation of Disaster Resulted from Landmine and Torpedo(5) Air-Raid Disaster Prevention and Mitigation(6) Civil Unrest Prevention and Suppression
3.2 Structure of Disaster Management
Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act B. E. 2550 (2007) has explicitly prescribed andexplicated disaster management arrangement that encompasses the types of disaster, policy
guideline, operating procedure as well as coordinating procedure as illustrated in chart 1.1 :(1) The Prime Minister is a chairman of National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Committee. In case of extreme large – scale disaster the Prime Minister has been empowered tocommand National Commander, Director, state agency, and local administration organization tohandle disaster situation.
(2) National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee, which is chaired by the Prime
Minister or the entrusted Deputy Prime Minister is obligated to lay down a policy for the formulation of
National Disaster Prevention Mitigation Plan and integrate the development of disaster management
system. Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation as the Secretariat of National Disaster
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)Prevention and Mitigation Committee has been tasked to formulate the aforesaid plan in conjunction
with relevant government agencies including the representatives from local administration
organization.
(3) The National Safety Council of Thailand is the main body responsible for formulating theaccident – related policy and developing safety mind. Department of Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation as well functions as the Secretariat of National Safety Council of Thailand.
(4) All disaster operations related command, order and management at national,
provincial/Bangkok Metropolis and local levels must precede according to the Act as illustrated inchart 1.1

The Prime
Order

ReportCoordinate

NDPMC

NSCT
AssistCoordinate

RequestNC

DDPM
International
AgencyOrder

DPMRC 1-18
(Director)

CD
Order
PD or BMD

RequestAssistOrder

AssistAssistNear by
PD

Order

AssistRequesRequestSupportNear by

Order

DD/LD

Response
Unit

Response/Relief
Unit

Coordinate(Order – incaseof MOD

RequestArmed Forces

AssistRequest

DD/BMDA/LD

Order

Ministry/
Department

Monitoring

Order
Mobilize
Civil Defence
VolunteerPrivate Sector/
Foundation

Order

SupportResponse Unit
Disaster Stricken Area

Chart 1.1 Current Disaster Management Arrangements in Thailand

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Response
Unit

Response
UnitTable 1.5: Component of National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee and its roles
National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee and its roles
Committee Members
Mission
1. Chairman:- Prime Minister or Deputy
1. Establish the National Disaster
Prime Minister as assigned
Prevention and Mitigation
2. Vice Chairman 1- Minister of Ministry of Interior;
Policy for establishing the master
Vice Chairman 2- Permanent Secretary plan.
Ministry of Interior
2. Approve the National Disaster3. Committee:- Permanent Secretary Prevention and Mitigation Plan
Ministry of Defence;
before submission to the cabinet.
- Permanent Secretary 3. Integration and develop the
Ministry of Social
Disaster Prevention andDevelopment and Human
Mitigation Plan of government
Security;
agencies, local government- Permanent Secretary agencies and private agencies.
Ministry of Agriculture and4. Provide advice, consultation andCooperatives;support the implementation of- Permanent Secretary Disaster Prevention and
Ministry of Transportations;
Mitigation’s mission- Permanent Secretary 5. Regulate the rules of
Ministry of Natural Resources
remuneration, compensation andand Environment;
any expenses of the Disaster- Permanent Secretary - Ministry
Prevention and Mitigationof Information andimplementation
Communication Technology;
6. Perform other missions as- Permanent Secretary - Ministry
mentioned in this Act or otherof Public Health;Acts or assigned by the Cabinet.
- Director of the Bureau of the
Budget;- Commander-in-Chief of theRoyal Thai Police;- Supreme Commander;- Commander-in-Chief of theRoyal Thai Air Force;- Commander-in-Chief of theRoyal Thai Army;- Commander-in-Chief of theRoyal Thai Navy;- Secretary-General National
Security Council;- and not more than five qualified
persons appointed by the
Cabinets as committee members.
4. Secretary:
The Director General, DDPM,
5. Assistant Secretary: 2 DDPM Officers

3.3 National Safety Council of Thailand (NSCT)
Apart from National Civil Defence Committee, Thailand has another disaster management
related mechanism which has highlighted its tasks and responsibility on man-made disastermanagement only, that is “The National Safety Council of Thailand” (NSCT). The NSCT has been
established in 1982 on the ground of the problem of road traffic accidents in Thailand which annually
resulted in the tremendous loss of lives, properties and national economy. Later on, its responsibilities
have been extended to cover the prevention of chemical accident, occupational accident, accident inhome and public venues, considering preventive measure of fire in high-rise building, accident
prevention in subway tunnel construction, providing education of safety etc.
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

3.4 National Disaster Warning Center
The National Disaster Warning Center was established under the Order of the Office of thePrime Minister. It is to protect lives and properties of Thai people and foreign visitors by setting up the
National Warning Center as soon as possible.
The major task of the National Disaster Warning Center is to detect earthquake and toanalyze seismic data to determine the possibility of a Tsunami generation before issuing notification
messages to the public and related authorities and rescuers for evacuation of people into safe places.
This is to prevent the loss of people’s lives and properties as much as possible. From now on, theNational Disaster Warning Center will be developed, upgraded of its early warning system andextended its telecommunication networks to be able to cope with multi-hazards disasters apart fromTsunami. Now, NDWC had transferred to be under of the Ministry of Information and Communication
Technology
3.5 Implementing Mechanism Arrangement
The following implementing mechanisms will be established to undertake disastermanagement responsibilities.
3.5.1 National Command Headquarters
The power and duty of National Command Headquarters are to direct, control, oversee,
supervise, and coordinate disaster operations undertaken by Emergency Operations Centers of alllevels. The Headquarters is headed by the Minister of Ministry of Interior as National Commander andother functioning staffs which comprise permanent secretary for Ministry of Interior as the Deputy
National Commander, director general of Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation as theCentral Director, the representatives from every government agency, public enterprise and thedesignated private entity. The main administration staffs of the headquarters will be the personnel
from Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation.
3.5.2 Local Command Center
This category of center includes :(1) Tambon Administration Organization Command Center is headed by chief
executive of tambon administration organization (TAO) as the Director, other functioning staffs of thecenter comprise TAO clerk as the Deputy Local Director, sub - district headman, village headman and therepresentatives from private sector located within tambon jurisdiction. This first response mechnism is
responsible for disaster operations within tambon jurisdiction.
(2) Municipality Command Center is headed by the mayor as Director; otherfunctioning staffs of the center comprise municipal Clerk as the Deputy Director, chiefs of different
divisions of municipality and the designated private sector’s representatives. This first response
mechanism is responsible for disaster operations within its jurisdiction.
(3) Pattaya City Command Center is headed by Pattaya City mayor as the Director,
other functioning staffs of this center comprise Pattaya City clerk as the Deputy Director, chiefs ofdifferent divisions of Pattaya City office and the designated private sector’s representatives. This first
response mechanism is responsible for disaster prevention and mitigation operations within its jurisdiction.
(4) District Command Center is headed by district chief as the District Director, otherfunctioning staffs of this center comprise district clerk, chiefs of different divisions of district office,representatives of the local administration organization and private sector located in districtjurisdiction. The main function of this center is to carry out disaster operations within the districtjurisdiction and to assist the provincial disaster operations.
(5) Bangkok Metropolitan District Command Center is headed by each Bangkok
Metropolitan District Director as the Bangkok Metropolitan Assistant Director. This center is
responsible for conducting disaster operations within district jurisdiction as well as assisting Bangkok
Metropolitan Director. All officials of divisions and sectors of Bangkok Metropolitan district office andthe representatives from public sector within its jurisdiction are the functioning staffs of this center.
In addition, this center is obliged to assist Bangkok Metropolitan Administration in managing adisaster within Bangkok Metropolitan jurisdiction.
(6) Provincial Command Center is headed by provincial governor as the Provincial
Director, and deputy provincial governor whom entrusted by provincial governor including chief
executive of provincial administration organization are Deputy Provincial Directors. The functioning
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

staffs comprise the chiefs of different government offices located in the province and therepresentatives from designated public and private enterprises.
(7) Bangkok Metropolitan Command Center is headed by Bangkok Metropolitan
governor as the Bangkok Metropolitan Director, and a permanent secretary for Bangkok Metropolitan
Administration as the Bangkok Metropolitan Deputy Director. This center is responsible for disaster
operations within Bangkok Metropolitan jurisdiction.
Tasks of Local Command Center(1) Direct, control, perform and coordinate disaster management activities within the area
under responsibility.
(2) Provide support to adjacent and other Command Centers upon request.
(3) Coordinate with government agencies and other relevant public enterprises located in thearea under responsibility including private sector for cooperation on disaster management.
When a disaster occurs or is imminent in area under responsibility, the respective
Command Center is obliged to establish Emergency Operations Center to provide assistance to thepeople in short notice.
The structure of implementing mechanism arrangement is illustrated in chart 1.2
Chart 1.2 Implementing Mechanism Arrangement

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)3.6 Priority on disaster reduction management
Priority on disaster risk management
Thailand urgently needs to reform disaster management systems and mechanisms as follows:
1) Public Awareness and Education. Improve public safety of every sector particularly those
who are living with risk by enhancing people’s understanding of the threats posed by various types ofdisasters.
2) Materializing Early Warning Systems: Following the catastrophic tsunami disaster in 2004,
Thailand took immediate action to establish National Disaster Warning Center, which covers thewarning of both natural and man-made disasters.
3) Establishing More International Disaster Management Networks: Thailand needs to enhance
the country’s disaster management capacity and efficiency through the mobilization of technicalassistance from foreign countries, particularly from developed and advanced countries.
4) Effective Damage Assessment: Remote Survey technology must be introduced toeffectively assess the damages caused by large scale disaster. The staff of the agencies concerned
needs to be trained to enhance their capacity in applying satellite images to assess the damage.
5) Application of Community-Centered Approach: Local Authority and community are in thefront line in the event of disaster occurrence, consequently, they are the most vulnerable and effected.
It is indispensable to enhance their potentials in responding to disasters, and to equip them withawareness and preparedness.
6) Highlight on Preventive Approach: The new approach of disaster management has shifted
its focus from “assistance” or “relief” to “prevention”. In this regard, risk reduction to be vigorously
taken into account. So as to reduce the risk, both structural and non-structural measures should bematerialized, thus, the cost of risk reduction will yield invaluable rate of return when compared with thecost of disaster damage.
7) The Focus on Prevention: Proactive disaster management can reduce the damage andimpact substantially.
8) The Focus on Public Participation: The past disaster management in Thailand had
underlined the roles of government agencies and simply ignored private sectors, non – governmentorganization, communities and even the public. Unfortunately, there has been a lack of cooperation
among agencies concerned. This is a real challenge for DDPM to bring these stakeholders together.
9) The Focus on Unity in Management: The application of the Incident Command System(ICS) will demonstrate unity in management.
10) The Focus on Efficient Communication: The efficient communication system consists ofthe major system and the reserved system, which are vital for disaster management.
11) The Focus on Human Resource Development: Human resource development is a key
factor for disaster management.
12) Livelihood Rehabilitation: Livelihood rehabilitation activities such as community development,
vocational training, improving the standards of living should be immediately materialized to normalize
disaster victims’ means of living.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)3.7 Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM), according to the Bureaucrat
Reform Act 2002, has been formed by different organizations responsible for disaster prevention andmitigation as follows:(1) Civil Defence Division of Department of Provincial Administration;(2) Department of Accelerated Rural Development;(3) Department of Social Welfare, Department of Community Development; and(4) Office of National Safety Council
According to Article 11 of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Act B.E.2550, DDPM is
mandated to be central government agency under the umbrella of Ministry of Interior to undertake thework on disaster prevention and mitigation at a national level. Aside its Head Office in Bangkok,
DDPM has thoroughly 76 DDPM provincial offices, and 18 regional centers. The locations of DDPM
regional centers namely;
1) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 1 Pathum Thani
2) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 2 Suphan Buri
3) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 3 Prachin Buri
4) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 4 Prachuap Kiri Khab
5) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 5 Nakhon Ratchasima
6) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 6 Khon Kean
7) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 7 Sakhon Nakhon
8) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 8 Kamphaeng Phet
9) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 9 Phitsanulok
10) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 10 Lampang
11) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 11 Surat Thani
12) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 12 Songkhla
13) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 13 Ubon Ratchathani
14) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 14 Udon Thani
15) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 15 Chaing Rai
16) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 16 Chainat17) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 17 Chanthaburi18) Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Regional Center, Zone 18 Phuket
In 2004, Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Academy (DPMA) has been established and 6
campus in Prachinburi, Songkhla, Chiang Mai, Khon Kaen, Phuket, Phitsanulok which is currently
conducting training for its own staffs, some government stakeholders and private organization.
DDPM’s responsibility:
1. Materializing disaster and civil emergency prevention and warning Systems and creating
preparedness in all areas.
2. Directing and implementing disaster and civil emergency mitigation activity systematically,
rapidly, equitably and thoroughly.
3. Procurement of materials, equipments, and vehicles, indispensable for disaster prevention,
mitigation, suppression and for relief operation.
4. Rehabilitation of damaged public utilities, physical and mental recuperation of disaster victim, andrestoration of livelihood. All these activities are carried out on thorough, equitable and rapid basis, andbe in harmony with the needs of the victims.
5. Mainstreaming and collaborating disaster prevention and mitigation system, programme,
the implementation evaluation with other national and international agencies.
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Disaster Management in DDPM’s main activities
Disaster Management comprises 3 phases as follow;
1. Preparedness Phase: DDPM has supported the provinces to carry out preparedness
related activities as follow;(1) Formulating disaster prevention plan.
(2) Training the officials and Civil Defence Volunteer.
(3) Educating the general public.
(4) Procuring equipments, vehicles and other amenities and safety temporary shelters.
(5) Conducting annual drills and exercise in different levels.
2. Prevention and Mitigation Phase: In the event of disaster or the potential disaster,
DDPM will implement the following activities.
(1) Early warning: After receiving the information of potential disaster from Department ofMeteorological and Department of Mineral Resources, DDPM will immediately relay to the risk
province to further warn the people of the hazard or evacuate the people.
(2) Directing Unit: The National Committee will set up “Operation Center” to manage
disaster(3) Providing relief operation to the affected people thoroughly and rapidly.
(4) Coordinating: In the event of large-scale disaster, DDPM will coordinate with allagencies concerned to mobilize relief efforts to affected areas.
(5)Telecommunication: The Director of National Committee is authorized to utilize all
telecommunication facilities in the affected areas. DDPM will coordinate with telecommunication
concerned agencies to provide the substitute facilities in case the telecommunication system in theaffected area broke down.
(6) Public Relations: At national level, DDPM is responsible for disseminating the disaster
related information to the public continuously to protect the life and property of the citizens. Moreoverto alert the possibility of disaster just before a strong tremor is expected to strike as “a warning”
3. Recovery Phase: DDPM is responsible for(1) Providing relief to affected people: Provincial/District/Local authorities assess thedamages and losses and enlist the affected persons. DDPM will carry out to pay cash compensation
the victims.
(2) Clean-up: DDPM will coordinate with all agencies concerned to mobilize theequipments to conduct clean-up activities.
(3) Long-term Rehabilitation: DDPM is responsible for coordinating with all agencies
concerned to collect all relevant information on long-term rehabilitation projects and further submit forcabinet’s approval
4. Budget Size on National Level
Year

THB

USD(ml)JPN(ml)2003

1,066,412,900

35.02

2,797

2004

1,312,578,500

43.10

3,443

2005

1,685,362,700

55.34

4,421

2006

2,437,850,700

80.06

6,395

2007

1,948,805,800

64.00

5,112

2008

2,184,972,800

71.75

5,734

2009

2,315,783,900

76.05

6,074

2010

2,541,163,000

83.45

6,666

2011

2,541,163,300

83.45

6,666

2012

3,918,637,000

128.6910,279Source: DDPM (1 USD = 30.45 THB, 100JPN= 38.12 THB)
Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Chapter 3 Disaster Management System in Japan

3.1 General Information
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean,it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North
Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in thenorth to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters thatmake up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan issometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected
governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture isfurther divided into cities, towns and villages.
Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands,
from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryūkyū Islands, including Okinawa,
are a chain to the south of Kyūshū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago. About
73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use.
As a result, the habitable zones, mainly located in coastal areas, have extremely high population
densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.
The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are primarily
the result of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian
to the Pleistocene as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental
Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south, and subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk
Plate to the north. Japan was originally attached to the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The
subducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago. Japanhas 108 active volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times eachcentury. The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people. More recent major quakes are the 1995
Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, a 9.0-magnitude quake which hit Japan on
March 11, 2011, and triggered a large tsunami.
A major feature of Japan’s climate is the clear-cut temperature changes between the four
seasons. In spite of its rather small area, the climate differs in regions from a subarctic climate to a
subtropical climate. The side of the country which faces the Sea of Japan has a climate with much snow
in winter by seasonal winds from the Siberia. Most of the areas have damp rainy season from May to Julyby seasonal winds from the Pacific Ocean. Japan is frequently visited by typhoons from July to
September.

3.2 Disaster Management in Japan
Natural Hazards in Japan
Japan is located in the circum-Pacific mobile zone where seismic and volcanic activities occur
constantly. The number of earthquakes and distribution of active volcanoes is quite high. The geologicalformation with plate boundaries of the Pacific plate, the Philippine Sea plate, the Eurasian plate, and theNorth American plate make Japan an earthquake-prone country. Also because of its geographical,
topographical, and meteorological conditions, it is subject to other frequent natural disasters such as
typhoons, torrential rains, and heavy snow.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Every year there is a great loss of people’s lives and properties in Japan due to natural disasters.
Numerous large-scale typhoons and earthquakes caused extensive damage and thousands of casualties
in the past. However, with the progress of society’s capabilities to address disasters and the mitigation ofvulnerabilities to disasters by developing disaster management systems, promoting national landconservation, improving weather forecasting technologies, and upgrading disaster information
communications systems, disaster damage has shown remarkable declining tendency.
The disaster management system has been developed and strengthened following the bitter
experiences of large-scale natural disasters and accidents.

3.3 Recent Major Disasters in Japan
3.3.1 Great East Japan Earthquake/ Tsunami (March 2011)
The 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tohoku,
also known as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake or the Great
East Japan Earthquake, was a magnitude 9.0 (Mw)undersea megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that
occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on Friday, 11 March 2011,
with the epicenter approximately 70 kilometers (43 mi) east of
the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku and the hypocenter at anunderwater depth of approximately 32 km (20 mi). It was themost powerful known earthquake ever to have hit Japan, andone of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overallsince modern record-keeping began in 1900. The earthquake
triggered powerful tsunami waves, which reached heights of up to 40.5 meters (133 ft) in Miyako in
Tōhoku's Iwate Prefecture, and which in the Sendai area travelled up to 10 km (6 mi) inland. In addition
to loss of life and destruction of infrastructure, the tsunami caused a number of nuclear accidents,
primarily the ongoing level 7 meltdowns at three reactors in the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
complex, and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.
The Japanese National Police Agency has confirmed 24,000 people as dead or missing as of April
2011 across eighteen prefectures, as well as over 125,000 buildings damaged or destroyed. The
earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and severe structural damage in Japan, including heavy
damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse. Around 4.4 million
households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water. Manyelectrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors suffered explosions due tohydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings after cooling system failure.
Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6.2 mi)radius of the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated. In addition, the U.S. recommended thatits citizens evacuate up to 80 km (50 mi) of the plant.
Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion. The
Bank of Japan offered ¥15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March in an effort tonormalize market conditions. The overall cost could exceed US$300 billion, making it the most expensive
natural disaster on record. The earthquake moved Honshu 2.4 m (8 ft) east and shifted the Earth on its
axis by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in).
3.3.2 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (January 1995)
On 17 January 1995, an earthquake with a 7.3 magnitud e on
the Richter scale occurred at Awaji Island of Hyogo Prefecture inWestern Japan. It killed 6,434 people; injured 43,792; destroyed
104,906 houses; half destroyed 144,274 houses; and partiallydestroyed 390,506 houses. The fires that broke out because of theearthquake burned down an area of 835,858 square meters.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)Restoration Process and Efforts Toward “Creative Reconstruction”
Despite difficult conditions, including severed traffic networks and paralyzed urban functions, steady
restoration took place through the dedicated efforts of those involved and with generous assistance fromaround the world. In only six days following the Earthquake, provisional supply of electricity was restored,with water and gas reconnected in three months.
The Priority Three-Year Reconstruction Plan was implemented to press forward the urgently needed
reconstruction of living quarters for the victims, and also the restoration of industries and infrastructuresuch as roads, harbors, and railways. In addition, the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Reconstruction
Plan (Hyogo Phoenix Plan) was formulated with the aim of achieving “creative reconstruction” over a
period of ten years. The Phoenix Plan called for not only mere restoration but also the creation of urban
communities that meet the needs of the increasingly aging society and Japan’s highly maturing economy.
With the extent of restoration in housing, industries, and urban infrastructure accomplished thus far,the quantitative targets set in the Priority Three-Year Reconstruction Plan were successfully achieved.
On January 17, 2005, the 10th Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Memorial Service was held in thepresence of Their Majesties The Emperor and Empress of Japan.
Hyogo continues to exert its utmost efforts to support disaster-hit elderly citizens to regain theirself-reliance, create sources of communal vitality, and establish safe and secure communities.
3.3.3 Typhoon No. 23 (TOKAGE) (October 2004)
On 20 October 2004, Typhoon No. 23 landed on Japan andcaused floods and landslides triggered by record-breaking torrential
rain and high wave. Ninety-five (95) people were killed; 555 injured;909 houses were totally destroyed; more than 18,000 houses weredamaged; and about 55,000 were inundated.
Natural Disasters in Japan from 1900 to 2011

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

3.4 Disaster Management System in Japan
Japan is located in the Circum-Pacific mobile Belt where seismic and volcanic activities occur
constantly. Although the country covers only 0.25% of the land area on the planet, the number ofearthquakes and active volcanoes is quite high. Also, because of geographical, topographical andmeteorological conditions, the country is subject to frequent natural disasters such as typhoons, torrential
rains and heavy snow.

Every year there is a great loss of people’s lives and property in Japan due to natural disasters.
Up until the 1950s, numerous large-scale typhoons and earthquakes caused extensive damage andthousands of casualties. However, with the progress of society’s capabilities to address disasters and themitigation of vulnerabilities to disasters by developing disaster management systems, promoting national
land conservation, improving weather forecasting technologies, and upgrading disaster information
communications systems, disaster damage has shown a declining tendency.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.1: The Number of Deaths and Missing Persons in Disasters

Figure 3.2: The Number of Deaths and Missing Persons by Type of Disaster

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.3: Amount of Damage to Facilities Due to Disaster
Source: Prepared by the Cabinet Office based on data from related ministries.

In spite of such efforts, in 1995, more than 6,400 people dies of the Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake Also in 2009, some 100 people died or went missing due to storms, flooding or heavy
snowfall. There is also a high probability of the occurrence of large-scale earthquakes in the coming
decades. As such, natural disasters remain a menacing threat to the safety and security of the country.

Figure 3.4: Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)Table 3.1: Major Disaster in Japan since 1945

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

3.5 Progress in Disaster Management Laws and Systems
In Japan, the disaster management system has been developed and strengthened following thebitter experiences of large-scale disasters and accidents.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.5: The experiences of large-scale natural disasters and accidents

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Disaster countermeasures are taken based on the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act andvarious disaster management related laws.
Basic Acts
1) Disaster countermeasures Basic Act (1961)
2) Act on Prevention of Marine Pollution and Maritime Disaster (1970)
3) Act on Disaster Prevention in Petroleum Industrial Complexes and other Petroleum Facilities(1975)
4) Act on Special Measures for Large-scale Earthquakes (1978)
5) Act on Special Measures for Nuclear Disasters (1999)
6) Act on Special Measures for Promotion of Tonankai and Nankai Earthquake Disaster
Management (2002)
7) Act on Special Measures for Promotion of Disaster Management for Trench-type Earthquake inthe Vicinity of the Japan and Chishima Trenches (2004)
Disaster Prevention and Preparedness
1) Erosion Control Act (1897)
2) Building Standard Law (1950)
3) Forest Act (1951)
4) Act on Temporary Measures for Disaster Prevention and Development of Special Land Areas(1952)
5) Meteorological Services Act (1952)
6) Seashore Act (1956)
7) Landslide Prevention Act (1958)
8) Act on Special Measures for Disaster Prevention in Typhoon-prone Areas (1958)
9) Act on Special Measures for Heavy Snowfall Areas (1962)
10) River Act (1964)
11) Act on Prevention of Steep Slope Collapse Disaster (1969)
12) Act on Special Measures for Active Volcanoes (1973)
13) Act on Special Financial Measures for Urgent Earthquake Countermeasures Improvement Projects
in Areas for Intensified Measures (1980)
14) Act on Special Measures for Earthquake Disaster Countermeasures (1995)
15) Act on Promotion of the Earthquake-proof Retrofit of Buildings (1995)
16) Act on Promotion of Disaster Resilience Improvement in Densely Inhabited Areas (1997)17) Act on Promotion of Sediment Disaster Countermeasure for Sediment Disaster Prone Areas(2000)
18) Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act (2003)
Disaster Emergency Response
1) Disaster Relief Act (1947)
2) Fire and Disaster Management Organization Act (1947)
3) Japan Coast Guard Act (1948)
4) Fire Services Act (1948)
4) Flood Control Act (1949)
3) Police Act (1954)
3) Self-Defense Forces Act (1954)
Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction
1) Forest National Insurance Act (1937)
2) Act on Temporary Treatment of Rental Land and Housing in Cities (1946)
3) Agriculture Disaster Compensation Act (1947)
4) Act on Interim Measures for Subsidizing Recovery Projects for Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries Facilities Damaged Due to Disasters (1950)
5) Small-Medium Business Credit Insurance Act (1950)

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

6) Act on National Treasury Share of Expenses for Recovery Projects for Public Civil
Engineering Facilities Damaged Due to Disasters (1951)
7) Public Housing Act (1951)
8) Fishing Boat Damage Compensation Act (1952)
9) Railway Improvement Act (1953)
10) Act on National Treasury Share of Expenses for Recovery of Public School Facilities
Damaged Due to Disasters (1953)
11) Act on Interim Measures for Financing Farmers, Woodsmen and Fishermen Suffering fromNatural Disasters (1955)
12) Airport Act (1956)
13) Small-scale Business Equipment Installation Financial Support Act (1956)
14) Act on Special Financial Support to Deal with Extremely Severe Disasters (1962)
15) Fisheries Disaster Compensation Act (1964)
16) Act on Earthquake Insurance (1966)
17) Act on Special Financial Measures for Group Relocation Promotion Projects for Disasters
Mitigation (1972)18) Act on Payment of Solatia for Disasters (1973)
19) Act on Special Measures for Reconstruction of Disaster-stricken Urban Areas (1995)
20) Act on Special Financial Measures for Reconstruction of Jointly Owned Buildings in Disasterstricken Areas (1995)21) Act on Special Financial Measures for Preservation of Rights and Profits of Victims ofSpecified Disasters (1996)22) Act on Support for Livelihood Recovery of Disaster Victims (1998)23) The Japan Finance Corporation Act (2007)

3.6 Establishment of Comprehensive Disaster Management System: Disaster
Countermeasures Basic Act
To protect national land as well as citizens’ lives, livelihoods, and property from natural disasters
is a national priority. The turning point for strengthening the disaster management system came after theimmense damage caused by the Ise-wan Typhoon in 1959, and led to the enactment of the Disaster
Countermeasures Basic Act in 1961, which formulates a comprehensive and strategic disastermanagement system. The disaster management system has been further strengthened following thelessons learned from large-scale disasters such as the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake.
Japan’s disaster management system addresses all of the disaster phases of prevention,
mitigation and preparedness, emergency response as well as recovery and rehabilitation. With clear
roles and responsibilities of the national and local governments, the relevant stakeholders of the public
and private sectors cooperate in implementing various disaster countermeasures.
Main Contents of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act
1) Definition of responsibilities for disaster management
2) Disaster management organizations
3) Disaster management planning system
4) Disaster prevention and preparedness
5) Disaster emergency response
6) Disaster recovery and rehabilitation
7) Financial measures
8) State of Disaster Emergency

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.6: Outline of the Disaster Management System

3.7. Basic Legal Frameworks of Disaster Management in Japan
In applying to all of the disaster phases of prevention, mitigation and preparedness, emergency
response as well as recovery and rehabilitation, relevant laws and regulations were enacted
including Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act (1961) which is the cornerstone of legislation ofdisaster management which set out the basic for measures for disaster risk reduction, emergency
response, post-disaster recovery and reconstruction. It was formulated in 1961, after the happening of
Typhoon Ise-wan in 1959 that caused more than 5,000 fatalities. Following acts are the other relevant
acts associated with disaster countermeasures Basic Act (1961);- Erosion Control Act (1897), Disaster Relief Act (1947), Building Standard Law (1950)- Landslide Prevention Act (1958), River Act (1964), and Act on Special Measures for Largescale Earthquakes (1978).
(1) Erosion Control Act 1897:
To clearly define the responsibilities of the national and local governments and other publicorganizations to take necessary measures for preventing sediment-related disaster from thegeneration and discharge of unstable sediment due to natural events, such as heavy-rain induced
landslides and river-bed erosion, to ensure a sound environment and maintain the function of river inflood control and water use, and thus to contribute to the conservation of the national land and thestability of the people‘s livelihood.
(2) Disaster Relief Act 1947:
The purpose of this law is to allow the national government to take necessary emergency relief
measures in case of disaster in cooperation with local municipal governments, the Japan Red
Cross, and other relevant organizations. Distribution of foods and drinking water, Supply of clothing,

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

bedding, and other basic necessities, Medical and natal care, Rescue of disaster victim ,Emergency repairs of housing subject to disaster, Distribution and/ or loan of funding, equipment,
and materials required to maintain livelihoods, Distribution of school supplies , Interment and othermatters as specified by government ordinance.
(3) Building Standard Law 1950:
In Article 39 of the law, the municipal government is allowed to designate the area withconsiderable risk due to tsunami, storm surge, and flood and so on as disaster prone areaǁ by its local
ordinance. And it shall be determined in the above ordinance that necessary items for disaster
Prevention in the disaster prone area such as prohibition against building a residence or restriction
concerning to build a building.
(4) Land slide Control Act 1958:
To provide the measures for preventing landslides or slag heap collapses to avoid or mitigate
damage from those hazards, and thus to contribute to the conservation of the national land and thestability of the people‘s livelihood.
(5) River Act 1896:
The law is to clearly define the responsibilities of the national and local governments and otherpublic organizations to take necessary measures for comprehensive river management, through which
disaster due to floods and storm surges will be prevented, rivers will be in proper use, theregular functions of river water will be maintained, and river environment will be improved andconserved, which will contribute to the conservation and development of the national land, andthus ultimately to enhance public welfare. This law specifies the administration’s responsibilities about
river management.

3.8 Mission of the Cabinet OfficeAlong with a series of reforms of the central government system in 2001, the post of Minister ofState for Disaster Management was newly established to integrate and coordinate disaster reduction
policies and measures of ministries and agencies. In the Cabinet Office, which is responsible for securing
cooperation and collaboration among related government organizations in wide-ranging issues, theDirector-General for Disaster Management is mandated to undertake the planning of basic disastermanagement policies and response to large-scale disaster, as well as conduct overall coordination.
Additionally, taking into account the lessons learned from the Great Hanshin-Awaiji Earthquake,
the Cabinet Secretariat system was also strengthened, including the appointment of the Deputy Chief
Cabinet Secretary for Crisis Management and the establishment of the Cabinet Information Collection
Center, to strengthen risk management functions to address emergencies such as large-scale disasters
and serious accidents. Thereby, the Cabinet Office has a role in supporting the Cabinet Secretariat
regarding disaster management matters.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.7: Organization of National Government and Cabinet Office (Disaster management)

3.9 Central Disaster Management Council
The Central Disaster Management Council is one of the councils that deal with crucial policies of
the Cabinet, and is established in the Cabinet Office based on the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act.
The council consists of the Prime Minister, who is the chairperson, Minister of State for Disaster
Management, all ministers, heads of major public institutions and experts. The council promotes
comprehensive disaster countermeasures including according to requests from the Prime Minister or
Minister of State for Disaster Management.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 3.8: Organization of Central Disaster Management Council

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)3.10 Disaster Management Planning System
Disaster Management Planning System
1) Basic Disaster Management Plan: This plan is a basis for disaster reduction activities and isprepared by the Central Disaster Management Council based on the Disaster Countermeasures BasicAct.
2) Disaster Management Operation: This is a plan made by each designated governmentorganization and designated public corporation based on the Basic Disaster Management Plan.
3) Local Disaster Management Plan: This is a plan made by each prefectural and municipal
disaster management council, subject to local circumstances and based on the Basic Disaster
Management Plan.
Basic Disaster Management Plan
The Basic Disaster Management Plan states comprehensive and long-term disaster reduction
issues such as disaster management related systems, disaster reduction projects, early and appropriate
disaster recovery and rehabilitation, as well as scientific and technical research.
The plan was revised entirely in 1995 based on the experience of the Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake. It now consists of various plans for each type of disaster, where tangible countermeasures
to be taken by each stakeholder such as the national and local governments, public corporations andother entities are described for easy reference according to the disaster phases of prevention andpreparedness, emergency response, as well as recovery and rehabilitation.

Figure 3.9: Structure of Basic Disaster Management Plan

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)Table 2.2: History of Basic Disaster Management Plan

Figure 3.10: Change in Disaster Management Related Budget by Field

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)3.11 Disaster Management Structure
Disaster Management of Japan is categorized into 3 levels including national, regional andmunicipal level. The significance of each level is delineated as follows:
1) National Level: The Prime Minister is the National Commander through the National Disaster
Management Council, and the designed government organizations (23 ministries and agencies), anddesignated public cooperation (63 organizations including independent administrative agencies, Bank ofJapan, Japanese Red Cross Society, NHK, electricity and gas companies and NTT). In this connection,
the national council is responsible for formulation and promoting the implementation of the Basic Disaster
Management Plan. Meanwhile, the other two designed agencies of government and public cooperation
are responsible for formulation and implementation of the Disaster Management Operation Plan.
2) Prefectural Level: The Governor is the commander ordering via the Prefectural Disaster
Management Council, and designed government organization and public corporations in local. The
prefectural council will conjunctionally work with the mentioned designed agencies to formulate andpromote the implementation of Local Disaster Management Plan.
3) Municipal Level: In this level, the Mayor of City, Town and Village is the commander, as thesame of Governor in prefectural level, will take function through Municipal Disaster Management Council
to formulate and promote the implementation of Local Disaster Management Plan.
3.12 Disaster Management Related Budget
The national budget for disaster management is approximately 1.2 trillion yen (Initial budget
2010FY). The percentage for each field is: i) Scientific Technology Research, 0.6%:ii) Disaster
Prevention and Preparedness, 17.5%, iii) National Land Conservation, 62.4%; and iv) Disaster Recovery
and Rehabilitation, 19.5%)

Figure 3.11: Change in Disaster Management Related Budget

3.13 Earthquake Disaster Countermeasures.
(1) Earthquake Disasters in Japan
Japan is located at a point on the earth’s surface where four of more than 10 tectonic plates
covering the globe are crushed against each other, making it earthquake prone. More than 20% of theworld’s earthquakes (magnitude 6 or greater) have occurred in or around Japan.
Japan is well acquainted with the massive inter-plate earthquakes produced by plate subduction(such as the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923) and the inland crustal earthquakes caused by platemovements (such as the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995)

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

(2) Observation system
In order to constantly monitor seismic activity, the Japan Meteorological Agency ((JMA) and otherrelevant organizations install and maintain seismometers that are used for estimating the location of theepicenter and magnitude of an earthquake as well as for tsunami warnings, and seismic intensity metersthat measure the intensity of ground motion, in numerous places nationwide. As soon as an earthquake
occurs in or around Japan, the JMA analyzers P-wave at seismometers placed close to the hypocenter. If
an earthquake of intensity 5 or greater is forecasted, Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) information isissued. Within about two minutes, it issues a seismic intensity information report for earthquakes ofintensity 3 or greater, and within about five minutes issues an earthquake information report indicating
the epicenter and magnitude of the earthquake and the seismic intensity in the municipalities wherestrong shaking was observed.

(3) Outline of Countermeasures against Large-scale Earthquakes
It has been pointed out with a great sense of urgency that Japan can be struck by large-scale
earthquakes in the next few decades, in areas such as Tokai, Tonankai, Nakai, the Japan and Chishima
Trenches, and directly below Tokyo and the Chubu and Kinki regions.
Regarding trench-type earthquakes, based on the related laws and regulations, appropriate
actions where various countermeasures need to be strengthened, the reinforcement of observation

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)systems, and the formulation of a plan of action by relevant government organizations and private
corporations. In addition, preparations such as improvements in evacuation sites and firefighting facilities
are being promoted based on laws specifying special financial measures.
With regard to each large-scale earthquake, including the Tokyo Inland Earthquake, the Central
Disaster Management Council has conducted examinations to clarify the characteristics of theearthquake, estimate the damage and identify necessary countermeasures. The following set of plans
and strategies for each large-scale earthquake are now being developed: the “Policy Framework,” amaster plan that includes a range of activities from preventive measures to post-disaster response andrecovery; the “Earthquake Disaster Reduction Strategy, ”to determine an overarching goal of damage
mitigation and strategic targets based on the damage estimation; and the “Guidelines for Emergency
Response Activities,” which describes the actions to be taken by related organizations. It is necessary
to keep working on countermeasures nationwide, as has been witnessed by the examples of the major
earthquakes of Hanshin-Awaji and Niigata-ken-Chuetsu, because such a disaster can occur anywhere in
Japan. Committee on Earthquake Disaster Reduction in Local Cities is examining possible
countermeasures.
(4) Countermeasures against Tokai Earthquake
Strain on the earth's crust along the Suruga Trough has been building up for approximately 160
years, ever since the Ansei-Tokai Earthquake in 1854. Therefore, it is believed that there is a highpossibility of a Tokai Earthquake occurring.
A Tokai Earthquake is the only earthquake at present with a possibility of being predicted justbefore it occurs. The areas for intensified measures against earthquakes (160 municipalities in eight
prefectures as of April 2010) were designated under the Act on Special Measures for Large-scale
Earthquakes, where the observation system has been reinforced and the earthquake response systemin the case of a prediction report being announced has been developed.
Data presumed to be eﬀective for earthquake prediction are monitored in real-time by the Japan
Meteorological Agency. Upon detecting any abnormality in the data, observation, caution and prediction
information regarding an earthquake in the Tokai region will be announced. The Prime Minister will thenissue a warning declaration based on the earthquake prediction report and implement necessary
measures including establishment of the Earthquake Disaster Warning Headquarters.
The Central Disaster Management Council drew up the "Earthquake Countermeasures Basic
Plan" containing basic policies for actions to be taken in response to a warning declaration based on theact, and relevant organizations have their own plans accordingly. When relevant local governments carryout urgent projects to improve facilities for mitigating possible damage caused by the Tokai Earthquake
based on their own plans, special measures will be taken such as increasing national government
subsidies and fiscal measures for the local governments based on the Act on Special Financial
Measures for Urgent Earthquake Countermeasure Improvement Projects in Areas for Intensified
Measures."
Regarding countermeasures against Tokai Earthquake, the Central Disaster Management
Council reviewed the probable epicenter area in 2001, and the areas forintensified measures wereexpanded in 2002, based on various observation data and scientific expertise accumulated over the pastquarter of a century following the enactment of the Act on Special Measures for Large- scale
Earthquakes.
Furthermore, the Central Disaster Management Council published the outcome of its damage
estimation in 2003, which made it clear that there may be extreme and wide-area damage including
about 9,200 people killed in the case of no forewarning.
In the same year, the council also decided the "Policy Framework for Tokai Earthquake,"containing such main issues as implementation of urgent earthquake-resistant construction measures,
reinforcement of community capabilities against disasters, and establishment of a tangible disastermanagement system in the case of a warning declaration.
Based on this policy framework, the Tokai Earthquake Disaster Reduction Strategy wasformulated in 2005. These guidelines set clear goals: a 50% reduction in the number of deaths and thevalue of economic losses from earthquakes in the region and an increase in the number of earthquakeresistant homes to 90% of the housing stock, within 10 years.
Furthermore, the "Guidelines for Tokai Earthquake Emergency Response Activities" were
formulated in 2003 (revised in 2006), and the activities of each disaster management related organization

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

were determined in terms of each level, such as at the time of caution information, warning, declarationand disaster occurrence. Based on these guidelines, a detailed plan of action was formulated for units
engaged in search and rescue, firefighting and medical activities when a warning declaration is made oran earthquake suddenly occurs.

(5) Countermeasures against Tonankai and Nankai Earthquakes
Tonankai and Nankai Earthquakes with a magnitude of 8 or greater have occurred at intervals of
100 to 150 years. Most recently, the Tonankai Earthquake and Nankai Earthquake occurred in 1944 and1946, respectively, and therefore it is anticipated that the next ones will occur in the first half of thiscentury. The Central Disaster Management Council announced a damage estimate in 2003 after
examining the possible epicenter zone, strength of tremors and distribution of tsunami wave height. It
said that the maximum number of deaths could be approximately 18,000, of which about 8,600 may be
attributable to tsunamis.
In the same year, the council established the "Policy Framework for Tonankai and Nankai
Earthquakes," the contents of which included establishing the tsunami disaster management system
and wide-area disaster management support system, and promoting the planned urgent prevention
countermeasures as the main items.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Additionally, based on the Act on Special Measures for Promotion of Tonankai and Nankai
Earthquake Disaster Management, the countermeasures promotion areas for the Tonankai and Nankai
Earthquakes were designated in 2003 (21 prefectures and 403 municipalities as of April 2006) . The"
Tonankai and Nankai Earthquake Countermeasures Basic Plan" was also drafted in 2004.
The relevant organizations have their own plans accordingly.
In 2005, the Central Disaster Management Council drafted the "Tonankai and Nankai
Earthquake Disaster Reduction Strategy," which sets forth an overarching goal of halving theestimated deaths and economic loss within a 10-year period, as well as the strategic targets to create atsunami hazard map in all the relevant municipalities in the same period. In 2006, the "Guidelines for
Tonankai and Nankai Earthquake Emergency Response Activities" were drafted. In 2007, a plan
was drafted to decide specific details of such activities, based on the 2006 Guidelines.
(6) Countermeasures against Trench-type Earthquakes in the Vicinity of the Japan andChishima Trenches
There have been many large-scale earthquakes of M7 or M8 scale occurring in the vicinity of theJapan Trench, extending in the oceanic areas from oﬀ of Eastern Chiba to Sanriku, and in the vicinity of
the Chishima Trench, extending from the areas off Sanriku, Tokachi and Etorofu Island. There are many
types of earthquakes in this area, such as the Meiji-Sanriku Earthquake Tsunami in 1889, which caused
enormous damage from a giant tsunami, and the Miyagi-ken-oki Earthquake, which occurs at intervals of
approximately 40 years. The Central Disaster Management Council chose eight of these earthquakes as
subject matter for strengthening disaster countermeasures and examined the strength of tremors anddistribution of tsunami wave height, and announced the estimated damage in 2006. In the same year, thecouncil established the "Policy Framework for Trench-type Earthquakes in the Vicinity of the Japanand Chishima Trenches," focusing on issues such as the promotion of tsunami disastercountermeasures, the construction of towns capable of withstanding tremors, and addressing problems
unique to snowy or cold areas. Additionally, based on the Act on Special Measures for Promotion ofDisaster Management for Trench-type Earthquakes in the Vicinity of the Japan and Chishima
Trenches, the countermeasures promotion areas for these earthquakes were established (5 prefecturesand 119 municipalities included as of April 2006), and the "Countermeasures Basic Plan for Trenchtype Earthquakes in the Vicinity of the Japan and Chishima Trenches" was drafted. The relevantorganizations have their own plans based on the basic plan.
These measures were followed by the drafting of the “Guidelines for Emergency Response
Activities in the Countermeasures for Trench-type Earthquakes in the Vicinity of the Japan andChishima Trenches” in 2007 and the “Disaster Management Strategy for Trench-type Earthquakes
in the Vicinity of the Japan and Chishima Trenches” in 2008.
(7) Countermeasures against Tokyo Inland Earthquakes
It is believed that in the capital area (Tokyo), massive trench-type earthquakes with a magnitudeof 8 or greater, like the Great Kanto Earthquake (1923), will occur at intervals of 200-300 years.
Additionally, it is presumed that several Tokyo Inland Earthquakes of M7 scale will occur before a M8
scale earthquake, and the imminent possibility of such an event in the first half of this century has been
pointed out.
Many types of Tokyo Inland Earthquakes are assumed due to various possible epicenters and thecomplicated mechanism of the occurrence. The Central Disaster Management Council has carried out
damage estimations for 18 types of Tokyo Inland Earthquakes, and assumed extensive damage
including a death toll of approximately 11,000 people, total collapse of 85,000 buildings and a maximum
economic loss of 112 trillion yen in the earthquake with an epicenter in the northern part of Tokyo Bay(assumed scale of M7.3).
In 2005, the Council established the Policy Framework for Tokyo Inland Earthquakes, with themain items being to secure the continuity of the capital functions and countermeasures to reduce
massive damage. In 2010, this policy framework was revised to include specific measures to handle
large numbers of evacuees or travelers unable to return to their homes. Additionally, in 2006, the council
drafted the Tokyo Inland Earthquake Disaster Reduction Strategy, with general goals of halving thedeath toll and reducing the economic loss by 40%, as well as strategic goals such as increasing the
proportion of earthquake-resistant houses and buildings to 90% of total housing stock and increasing the
fixed furniture rate to 60% within 10 years.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

That same year, the Council also drafted the Guidelines for Tokyo Inland Earthquake
Emergency Response Activities. Plans specifying specific activities were then drawn up on the basis ofthese guidelines.

(8) Countermeasures against Chubu and Kinki regions inland earthquakes
It is thought highly probable that earthquakes will strike the Tonankai and Nankai regions in thefirst half of this century. Seismologists believe a broad area of central Japan from Chubu to Kinki hasentered an active period, raising the risk of increased seismic activity. Based on past examples, seismic
activity in inland western Japan regions tend to both presage and follow earthquakes in the Tonankai andNankai regions.
In the Chubu and Kinki regions, which are densely urbanized, the damage from a large-scale
earthquake would be extremely extensive. When the Central Disaster Management Council drafted
estimates of probable damage from five types of earthquake in the Chubu region and eight in Kinki, it
concluded that an earthquake in the Uemachi fault zone would cause horrific devastation: an estimated
42,000 deaths, almost a million collapsed buildings and economic damage of 74 trillion yen. The toll froma major tremor in the Sanage- Takahama fault zone could reach 11,000 dead, 300,000 collapsedbuildings and economic damage of 33 trillion yen.
To prepare for such a disaster, in 2009 the Central Disaster Management Council launched the
Chubu and Kinki regions Inland Earthquake Countermeasures Basic Plan. This scheme seeks
chiefly to grapple with the unique challenges of minimizing harm in the event of a major quake in Chubu

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

or Kinki, including disaster countermeasures in areas of dense concentrations of wooden homes andsteps to minimize damage to cultural assets.
(9) Earthquake-proofing of Houses and Buildings
More than 80% of the casualties in the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake were caused by building
collapse. Similarly, damage estimates assume that building collapse will be the cause of a large numberof deaths in future large-scale earthquakes. Unfortunately, it is estimated that some 21% of existing
residences are insufficiently earthquake-resistant, as they were built before 1981, when stricter
earthquake-resistant building codes were introduced. Also, about 30% of schools and 40% of hospitals
lack adequate earthquake-resistant construction.
In view of this situation, the Central Disaster Management Council drafted the “Urgent
Countermeasures Guideline for Promoting the Earthquake-resistant construction of Houses andBuildings” in 2005, which stipulates that earthquake-resistant construction throughout the country should
be urgently and strongly enforced in close cooperation with related ministries as a national priority.
In line with this, the Act on Promotion of the Earthquake-proof Retrofit of Buildings was amended
to strengthen measures such as the development of a promotion plan for improving earthquake-resistantconstruction by local governments. Additionally, the subsidy system that provides financial support topromote earthquake-resistance diagnosis and retrofit has been expanded, and tax reduction measures topromote earthquake-resistant retrofit of residences and commercial buildings have been established.
The Cabinet Office has released the “Map of Weak Subsurface Layers Nationwide,” indicating
weakness against earthquake tremors in 1km2 blocks throughout Japan. It has also summarized amethod for each municipality to produce an “Earthquake Disaster Hazard Map” that indicates subsurface
layer weakness in 50m2 blocks and the danger of building collapse, and is working on disseminating thismethod.
(10) Tsunami Countermeasures
Surrounded by water on all sides with long andcomplex coastlines, Japan is highly vulnerable toearthquake-generated tsunamis. In reality, there has been severe damage caused by various tsunamis in
the past, including the Meiji-Sanriku Earthquake Tsunami (1896), Nihon-kai-Chubu Earthquake (1983),
and Hokkaido Nansei-oki Earthquake (1993).
In addition to local tsunamis generated by earthquakes near the coast, Japan has also sufferedmajor damage from the onslaught of distant tsunamis generated by open-sea earthquakes. In 1960, atsunami generated by the Chile Earthquake crossed the Pacific Ocean and reached the shores of Japan
about 22 hours later, killing 142 people.
When a tsunami is expected to cause coastal damage, the Japan Meteorological Agency issues
a tsunami warning or advisory within 2-3 minutes after the earthquake and then follows up withannouncements about the estimated height and arrival time of the tsunami. The information is transmitted
immediately to disaster management organizations and media outlets, and further forwarded to residents
and maritime vessels.
Tsunami countermeasures, such as expediting the announcement/transmission of tsunami
forecasts and improving coastal embankments (tidal embankments) and tide prevention gates, havebeen carried out. The Cabinet Office, in cooperation with relevant ministries has prepared guidelines forthe creation of a tsunami hazard map and the designation/development of tsunami evacuation buildings
by local governments, and is working on disseminating the guidelines.
(11) Volcano Disaster Countermeasures(1) Volcano Disasters in Japan
Japan is a highly volcanic country. Poised on the Circum-Pacific Volcanic Belt or “Ring ofFire,” the Japanese islands are home to 108 active volcanoes̶ 10% of the Earth’ total. In the past,
eruptions and others volcanic activity have caused heavy damage. In three recent examples, theeruptions of Usuzan and Miyakejima in 2000 and Kirishimayama (Shinmoedake) in 2011 caused
thousands of residents to flee their homes.
The phenomena associated with volcanic eruptions are extremely varied, and once a
volcano begins to erupt there is often little time to evacuate. Naturally, authorities place the greatestemphasis on protecting against the most life-threatening situations, such as volcanic cinders, pyroclastic
flows, snowmelt and volcanic mudflows. The most important approaches to protecting residents’ lives

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

against volcanic disasters are the accurate reading of the precursors to volcanic eruptions, broadcastingof appropriate information, and wide-area networks to ensure rapid and orderly evacuation in the event ofan eruption.
(2) Continuous Monitoring of Volcanoes and Broadcasting of Eruption Alert
JMA deploys a network of seismometers, telephoto cameras and angle meters ranged
around 47 volcanoes throughout Japan (selected by the Coordinating Committee for Prediction ofVolcanic Eruptions, an organization of academics and related government agencies), and monitors thevolcanoes continuously, 24 hours a day. If an eruption affecting the caldera periphery or populated areas
is predicted, an eruption warning is issued. For a group of 29 of these volcanoes (as of February 2011)that are especially close to populated areas, five volcano alert levels are assigned according to the status
of volcano activity, each clearly connected to a specific set of disaster countermeasures: Evacuate;
Prepare to Evacuate; Entry Restricted, and so on.
(3) Volcano Disaster Management Councils, Volcano Hazard Maps, Evacuation
Plans
Based on the Policy on Volcano Management Related to Evacuation in the Event of
Eruption, compiled in March 2008 by the Cabinet Oﬃce, the following actions are being taken.
1) Volcano Disaster Management Councils, a wide-area coordinating framework
consisting of various volcano- related government agencies, are established at 24 volcanoes. Core
groups, consisting of prefectural and local government officials, meteorological observatory personnel,
the Sabo (Soil Erosion Control) Department, and volcanologists, lead the activities of the Volcano
Disaster Management Councils.
2) Based on a variety of eruption scenarios, the Volcano Disaster Management Councils
draft volcano hazard maps pointing out areas at risk of dangerous eruption phenomena for 40
volcanoes.
3) The Volcano Disaster Management Councils promote the drafting of specific andpractical evacuation plans. These plans specify when to begin evacuation, areas likely to requireevacuation, and evacuation routes and methods.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

(4) Measures based on the Act on Special Measures for Active Volcanoes
In areas that are, or have the potential to be, especially hard-hit by volcanic phenomena,
special measures are implemented under the Act on Special Measures for Active Volcanoes. These
measures include the provision of facilities based on designation of areas requiring emergency provisionof refuge facilities and areas requiring removal of volcanic ash. As of February 2011, measures based on
this law have been implemented in the areas around Sakurajima, Asosan, Usuzan, Izu-ooshima,
Tokachidake, Unzendake, Miyakejima and Kirishimayama.

(12) Storm and Flood Countermeasures(1) Storm and Flood Disasters in Japan
Japan is prone to a variety of water and wind-related disasters including flooding,landslides, tidal waves and storm hazards, owing to meteorological conditions such as typhoons andactive weather-front systems and geographical conditions such as precipitous terrains and steep rivers,
as well as settlement conditions in which many of the cities are built on river plains. One-half of the
population is concentrated in possible inundation areas, which account for about 10% of the national land.
Although there has been a large reduction in the area inundated by floods owing to soil
conservation and flood control projects over many years, the amount of general assets damaged inflooded areas has increased in recent years. Additionally, as a long-term trend, there is an increasing
tendency of downpours throughout the country.
(2) Observation System
The Japan Meteorological Agency observes meteorological phenomena that cause storm
and flood disasters using the Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (AMeDAS), which
automatically measures rainfall, air temperature and wind direction/speed, weather radar, andgeostationary meteorological satellites. These are used to announce forecasts and warnings to prepare
against disasters (weather warnings and advisories for individual municipalities began in May 2010).
The rainfall and the water levels in rivers are observed by the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and prefectural governments utilizing visual observation methods,
mechanical observation equipment, and a wireless telemeter system that transmits automaticallyobserved data from remote locations. Flood forecasts and water level information are provided
utilizing the Internet and mobile phones.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

(3) Comprehensive Storm and Flood Countermeasures
In order to reduce damage caused by severe weather disasters, structural measures suchas improving rivers, dams and sewage systems, and non-structural measures such as preparing hazard
maps and providing disaster information, must be promoted in an integral manner.
As non-structural countermeasures, the warning and evacuation systems of the possible
inundation areas and landslide prone areas have been developed in accordance with the Flood Control
Act and the Act on Promotion of Sediment Disaster Countermeasures for Sediment Disaster
Prone Areas. Both laws were amended in 2005 to intensify measures including the familiarization of
hazard maps and the identification of a method to disseminate disaster information to facilities caring for
those who require assistance at the time of a disaster like elderly people in the municipal disastermanagement plans.
Based on the Flood Control Act, some 368 rivers subject to flood warning and 1,488
rivers subject to water-level notifications are designated. Of these, inundation risk areas are currently
designated and published for 1,768 rivers and streams (as of February 2010). Moreover, municipalities
that include such areas are encouraged to prepare and disseminate flood hazard maps. Currently some
1,137 municipalities are doing so (as of February 2010).
(4) Countermeasures against Large-scale Floods
In light of a rising trend in heavy downpours in recent years, a strong need exists to fortify
measures for rapid, effective evacuation and relief, in anticipation of large-scale flood disasters. The
Central Disaster Management Council published a series of disaster scenarios in 2008, detailing the
anticipated damage in the event of a number of possible cases. These included heavy downpourscausing destruction of the fortified weirs along the banks of the Tonegawa and Arakawa Rivers in theTokyo metropolitan area. At worst, such a catastrophe could leave up to 2,600 people dead and another
1.1 million people stranded. To minimize the damage in such an event, the Central Disaster Management
Council is moving forward with the formation of a network for countermeasures against flood disasters.
(13) Snow Disaster Countermeasures(1) Storm and Flood Damage in Japan
Japan is a bow-shaped archipelago filled with steep mountain ranges. When cold winds
blow in from Siberia in winter, the warm current flowing up the eastern coast from the south brings heavy
snowfalls to the Sea of Japan side of the country. Among the seasonal problems that result every year
are falls by people removing snow from their roofs, avalanches, and obstruction of traﬃc and city
functions due to snow accumulation.
In the winter of 2005‒06, ferocious winds brought tremendous snowfalls to every part of
the Sea of Japan coastline. Many people were injured from falls as they cleared snow from their roofs,
while others were pinned by snow falling from rooftops or even by collapsing roofs. The death tollreached 152̶the second-worst total for snow-related deaths since the end of World War II. Fatal accidents
continued in subsequent years, with 47 people perishing in the winter of 2006‒07, 21 in 2007‒08 and 56
in 2008‒09.
(2) Outline of Snow Disaster Countermeasures
Measures are being taken to prevent accidents that result in injury, improve theavalanche warning system, and remove snow for securing road traffic networks at the time of heavy
snowfall.
Against avalanches, comprehensive measures including avalanche prevention projects
for protecting communities, risk communication efforts about dangerous locations among residents, andimprovement of the warning and evacuation system, are taken.
Furthermore, as heavy snowfall areas account for approximately half of the national land,
based on the Act of Special Measures for Heavy Snowfall Areas, measures have been introduced to

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)secure traffic and communications, protect agricultural and forestry industries, and improve living
environmental facilities and national land conservation facilities.
In recent years deaths from snow removal operations, especially removal of snow fromroofs, have grown numerous, and a disproportionate number of the fatalities have been people 65 years
and over. The Cabinet Oﬃce has responded by advising on how to avoid accidents while clearing snow,
and conducting public-awareness campaigns through various related organizations and agencies,
particularly municipal governments.

3.14 Disaster Reduction Awareness Enhancement and Disaster Knowledge Dissemination(1) Promotion of Eﬀorts for Disaster Reduction
In order to reduce disaster damage, there must be close combination of self‒help efforts
rooted in the awareness of people and companies; mutual-help eﬀorts of various community-based
stakeholders; and public-help eﬀorts made by the national and local governments.
To deploy efforts wherein individuals, families, communities, corporations and othervarious groups and entities participate in continuous activities and investments for mitigating disasterdamage, in 2006 the Central Disaster Management Council published a Basic Framework for a
Nation-wide Movement for Disaster Reduction - Actions with Added Value to Security and Safety.
(2) Disaster Reduction Week Campaign
The national government has designated September 1st of each year as Disaster
Reduction Day, and the period from August 30th to September 5th as Disaster Reduction Week. A
variety of events such as the Disaster Reduction Fair, various seminars, disaster reduction drills andexercises, and disaster management poster contests are held throughout the country to disseminate
disaster knowledge.

（3）Disaster Education
Disaster education in schools is important for learning necessary disaster knowledge fromchildhood. It is therefore taught in various school curriculums. Social education at community level
including town-watching and hazard-mapping programmes in which residents participate are also
important. The Cabinet Office promotes disaster education including through sharing good examples ofdisaster education programs.

3.15 Improvement of Environment for Disaster Reduction Volunteer Activities
The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake launched an enormous outpouring of volunteer
assistance activity, from both within and outside the afflicted areas. In the following disasters, large
numbers of volunteers have rushed to aid and comfort the victims and assist in the reconstruction andrestoration of disaster-stricken regions.
The government has designated each January 17 Disaster Reduction and Volunteer
Day,”and the week from January 15 to January 21“Disaster Reduction and Volunteer Week.”During thisone-week period, seminars, lectures, exhibitions and other events are held to promote the spread ofvolunteer and autonomous disaster reduction activities when disasters occur. These events take placethroughout Japan, with the close cooperation of local governments and other related entities.
To provide a supportive environment for disaster reduction volunteer activities, theCabinet Oﬃce provides information volunteers can use in their eﬀorts, as well as facilities for theexchange of information and views. The Cabinet Oﬃce also provides local government receiving
volunteer assistance with information and expertise, and promotes wide-area collaboration among
disaster management volunteer activities when disasters strike.

“

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)3.16 Disaster Reduction Activities of Corporations
In response to disasters, corporations are required to secure the safety of their customers
and employees, and continue their business activities which contribute to mitigate social and economic
difficulties in disaster situation. The Cabinet Oﬃce promotes the enhancement of disaster reduction
activities of corporations.
(1) Promotion of Business Continuity Plans of Corporations
When earthquakes and other disasters cause enterprise activity to stagnate, the impact
aﬀects not only individual companies, but also employment levels and the overall economy of the stricken
region. Through trade and commerce with businesses in other areas, the economic damage can aﬀect
other regions as well. In this context, promoting the drafting and implementation of business continuity plans(BCPs) is extremely vital. By outlining a management strategy for ensuring the continuation of business inthe event of a disaster, BCPs can ensure the stability of Japan’s society and economy while creating animage of reliability for Japanese companies abroad.
In 2005 the Japanese government, through a special committee of the Central Disaster
Management Council, drew up and began circulating a set of “business continuity guidelines.”The
government set a target of convincing “virtually all large companies and 50% of medium-sizedcompanies” to draft BCPs (as stipulated in Earthquake Disaster Management Strategies and Newgrowth Strategy and Plans). In this way Japan's central government has played a critical role inencouraging the drafting and implementation of BCPs in the private sector.
(2) Encouraging the Evaluation of Corporate Disaster Reduction Activities
For private enterprises, recognizing the role of companies in the event of a disaster(ensuring the safety and security of employees, preventing secondary disasters, maintaining business
continuity, contributing to and living in harmony with local communities) and working to promote disastermanagement activities is of crucial importance.
To encourage companies to engage in disaster management activities, markets and local
communities must give appropriate recognition to enterprises that take an active part in these activities.
The government is disseminating information for this purpose. It has prepared a selfevaluation table entitled Business Measures for Disaster management,” as well as “Disclosure on
Disaster management Measures: Explanations with Examples.” Using an evaluation system based on
the items in the self-evaluation table, the Development Bank of Japan (DBJ) has developed a lending
facility with a rating system for operations that promote disaster management. The DBJ is implementing
this system as an incentive to encourage companies to conduct disaster management activities.

“

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Chapter 4 Early Warning System in Japan

4.1 MINISTRY OF LAND, INFRASTRUCTUE, TRANSPORT AND TOURISM
The MLIT conducts disaster management policy at national level in relation to flood andsediment disasters as well as town development with regard to safety for both natural and man-madedisasters. Alongside with other phases of emergency management the ministry also actively involved in
response phase and to this end Disaster Prevention Center was established.
Disaster Prevention Center established in the MLIT performs the following functions: Mobilizing leaders, staff members and related department members
 Observing and distributing meteorological information, site images, etc.
 Collecting and sharing information (integrating damage information)
 Exchanging information with ministers' offices, other ministries and agencies, local departments, etc.
 Providing information to the public Regional assistance, assistance to local governments
In order to achieve the "zero victim" goal in the face of increasingly intense floods and localized
heavy rains caused by climate change, flood forecast centers (provisional name) will be established inregional development bureaus to strengthen risk management measures in, for example, monitoring
floods and providing information to municipal governments, the mass media, etc. Flood forecast centers
are to perform such tasks as climate change monitoring, flood risk evaluation and the development of anadvanced flood prediction system. To the end following activities are implemented:
 Collection of point data (e.g. rainfall amounts, water levels and water quality)
Rain observation by ground gauges and telemetry system – the data obtained by telemeters areconsolidated in one site, such as a regional bureau and a prefectural office, through the linking station.
Then, they are sent to each office to update the real-time flood prediction calculations.
 Collection of area data (rainfall amounts)
Radar rain gauges have been installed at 26 locations throughout the country. The information of 1-km
mesh resolution is updated every half an hour and available on the Internet. The radar data are calibratedusing the ground data.
 Collection of image data.
CCTV Network - Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Regional Development Bureaus
and River Offices have real-time access to 3,900 CCTV images available on IP (Internet protocol)
network. CCTV images are used for developing disaster control plans. Fiber-optic network - River Bureau
and Road Bureau have jointly laid fiber optics network lines with the total length of 12046 km (as of 2006).
River information systems developed by individual regional development bureaus have been integrated
into a national river information system. Regional development bureaus can customize the system
according to their requirements.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

4.2 Japan Meteorological Agency
JMA is the key body in prediction major natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis,
typhoons and volcano eruptions while MLIT is for flood and sediment disasters and cooperation withthem is essential for municipalities and other disaster response organizations. It must be noted thatapplication of latest technologies for disaster warning and communication by JMA had greatly improved
disaster response system in Japan. In addition, state lifeline agencies, railway companies, NHK has
established quick information sharing with JMA and other relevant bodies as well as response
mechanism within respective fields of activity.
Massive numbers of voluntary response organizations and people involved in voluntary disaster
response shows high level of disaster awareness and social responsibility for disaster reduction in the
country. During disaster times acting in collaboration with the professional responders, voluntary teams
demonstrate remarkable efforts in psychological support of the affected people and provided basic
utilities.
The existing Early warning system, although, has been form during relatively short time period put
in place sophisticated mechanism which enables Japan to mobilize forces and resources and respond in
a comprehensive manner any large-scale disasters promptly, considerably decreasing damage and loss.
Comprehensively elaborated coordination enables to relevant bodies take concerted actions to increases
response efficiency. In turn hierarchical supervision granting response bodies with great independence
keeps accountability of them high.

JMA is semi-autonomous agency of the MLIT. Besides, function as central
weather service agency of Japan, the agency has established comprehensive
surveillance and awareness providing mechanism with regard to earthquake,
typhoon and volcano hazards. Regarding flood forecast Director-General of Japan
Meteorological Agency (JMA) In the event of the imminence of a flood or storm
surge, the Director-General of JMA informs the Minister of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism and the prefectural governors concerned of the present
state.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 4.1 The role JMA in Disaster Management System of Japan
MLIT informs, jointly with the Director-General of JMA, for a class A river (excluding designatedsections), the prefectural governors concerned of water level or discharge if the possibility of flooding is deemed high or water level or discharge, or the flood hazard area and the flood water depth if flooding has alreadyoccurred.
Prefectural governors communicate the information received as described above to the flood protection
managers and stage gauge managers.

Figure 4.2 Joint flood warning by MLIT and JMA

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Japanese Meteorological Agency is playing the major role in forecasting natural disasters throughits advanced monitoring network including satellites. The whole role of activities implements with thefollowing goals in compliance with the Act of Ministry and meteorological services act,
• Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters.
• Safety of transport.
• Development and prosperity of industry.
• Improvement of public welfare.

Framework of Forecast Operation (JMA)
National Forecast Centre

Regional Forecast
Centres(11)Local MeteorologicalObservatories(47)Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

JMA’s Meteorological Services
1. Space-based Observation
2. Upper-air Observation
3. Radar Observation
4. Surface Observation
5. Ocean Observation
6. International Data Exchange
LMO is responsible for issuance of information on weather disaster prevention such as
warnings/advisories for each prefecture.
Main Objective of Local Meteorological Observatories:
Disaster Forecasting to save lives– Collecting weather and EQ data
– Analysis and Prediction of Weather– Issuing Warnings and Meteorological Information

4.3 Utilization of Earthquake Early Warning Information

Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) information announces the estimated hypocenter andmagnitude of an earthquake as well as the estimated arrival time of the S-wave (the principal shock) of
the earthquake and seismic intensity in each area. This information is made possible by detecting the Pwave near the epicenter and immediately processing the data since there is a difference in the speed of
the P-wave, which arrives faster, and the principal shock, which arrives later and causes more severely
destructive phenomena. In the case of a large-scale ocean trench-type earthquake, there may be a timelag (several seconds to several tens of seconds) between the issuance of the EEW information and thestart of severe shaking (when the S-wave arrives). This can be a critical time to be used for mitigating
damage by stopping trains and elevators, extinguishing flames or crawling under tables.
The issuance of EEW information by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) began in October
2007. The JMA initiated the service to provide earthquake warning as mandated under a 2007 revision of
the Meteorological Service Act.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure 4.2: Outline of Earthquake Early Warning Information
4.4 Observing, Forecasting and Warning of Disaster Risks
Observation systems that can accurately detect disaster risks in real-time have been
progressively improved for establishing early warning systems, supporting the early evacuation ofresidents and response activities of disaster management organizations, and thereby reducing disasterdamage. Organizations involved in disaster reduction, especially the JMA, use 24-hour systems tocarefully monitor various natural phenomena and weather conditions.
In addition to announcing observed information related to natural phenomena, the JMA issues awide range of forecasts, warnings and advisories regarding earthquake-generated tsunamis and severe
weather events such as heavy rain.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure4.3: The Outline of Early Warning Systems
4.5 Information and Communication Systems
The development of a quick and accurate communications systems is essential for the effective
use of disaster early warning information. For this purpose an online system has been built, linking the
JMA with disaster management organizations of the national and local governments and media
organizations.
Disaster management organizations have also been developing radio communications networks
exclusively for disasters: the Central Disaster Management Radio communications System, whichconnects national organizations; the Fire Disaster Management Radio Communications System, whichconnects firefighting organizations across the country; and prefectural and municipal disastermanagement radio communications systems, which connect local disaster management organizations
and residents.
The Cabinet Office has established the Central Disaster management Radio Communications
System to link with designated government organizations, designated public corporations and local
disaster management organizations, providing communications by telephone, fax, data transmission, TV
conferencing and transmission of pictures of disaster situations from helicopters.
Furthermore, to provide backup for terrestrial communications, services such as a satellite mobile
telephone communications system for municipal governments have been launched in 2011.
Simultaneous wireless communications systems using outdoor loudspeakers and indoor radio
receivers are used to disseminate disaster information to residents. Tsunami and severe weather
warnings are widely provided to citizens via TV and radio broadcasts.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Figure4.4: The Outline of Central Disaster Management Radio Communications System� � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

4.5.1 How to use warnings and Information for Disaster Prevention.
Japan is one of the most earthquake-prone countries in the world, and has repeatedly suﬀered
serious damage caused by earthquakes and tsunamis.
What would happen if there were no earthquake/tsunami information when a tremor hits? The
absence of information on areas that are at risk of tsunami strikes or subject to strong shaking would
delay evacuation and emergency response by disaster prevention agencies, and may result in extensive
damage.
The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) promptly issues warnings and information onearthquakes and tsunamis to mitigate disasters and protect life and property.
Examples:In the event of large earthquakes, JMA announces earthquake alerts before strong tremors
arrive (Earthquake Early Warnings).
In the event of large earthquakes in ocean areas, JMA announces estimated tsunami heights
and their arrival times in advance (Tsunami Warnings/Advisories).
In the event of earthquakes, JMA announces hypocenter, magnitude and where strong shaking
has been felt (Earthquake Information).
To utilize above information, it is very important to understand the announcements made by JMA
and to have a certain level of awareness in regard to earthquakes and tsunamis.
There is brochure explained about various types of information and warnings and outlines JMA's
monitoring network. Basic facts about earthquakes and tsunamis are also included.
The resource aims to help people understand the various types of information issued by JMA toprevent and mitigate disasters caused by earthquakes and tsunamis.

●●●

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

4.5.2 Earthquake&Tsunami Warnings/Information in Japan
1) Earthquake and Tsunami Warnings
When JMA anticipates damage from an earthquake, it issues warnings and forecasts using
observed data.
JMA has two kinds of warnings on earthquakes: one is an Earthquake Early Warning, which
predicts strong motion, and the other is a Tsunami Warning, which predicts tsunamis. The Agency also
issues public advisories and forecasts if the expected level of damage is below the criteria for thesewarnings to be issued.
2) Earthquake Early Warnings
Earthquake Early Warnings (EEWs) are warnings (or forecasts) of strong motion to be issued
several seconds to several tens of seconds before its arrival.
If the estimated seismic intensity is above 5-lower, an EEW is issued to areas where theestimated seismic intensity is 4 or greater through media such as TV and radio.
The main benefit of EEW is that they are issued before the arrival of strong shaking. Strong
tremors caused by earthquakes strike suddenly. However, notice of their arrival several seconds toseveral tens of seconds in advance allows people to take action to protect themselves, such as promptly
moving away from windows and shelves or taking cover under a sturdy table. As there are only a few
moments before strong tremors arrive, after the issuance of EEW there may be no time to consider how
to react on hearing EEW; this makes it important to carry out emergency response drills so thatappropriate action can be taken as soon as a warning is given. In areas close to the focus of theearthquake, however, an EEW may not be transmitted before the tremors hit and errors of ±1 or so may
be included in the estimated scismic intencity of EEW.
It should be noted that there are such limits to the accuracy of EEW.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)3) Tsunami Warnings/Advisories and Tsunami Information
Tsunamis are one of damaging phenomena caused by earthquakes. If a tsunami strikes a coastal
area, it can cause death or serious injury to people and damage to buildings.
When an earthquake occurs, JMA estimates whether a tsunami has been generated. If adisastrous tsunami is expected in coastal regions, JMA issues a Tsunami Warning/Advisory for eachregion (66 individual regions are defined to cover all coastal areas of the country).
Tsunami Warnings/Advisories are categorized into three levels ‒ Tsunami Warning (Major
Tsunami), Tsunami Warning (Tsunami) and Tsunami Advisory ‒according to the estimated tsunami
height. JMA also issues information on tsunami details such as estimated arrival time and height. If nodamage is expected, a Tsunami Forecast is issued.
Warnings/Advisories may be changed or updated based on observed tsunami heights.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)4) Earthquake Information
JMA issues predictive information such as Tsunami Warnings/Advisories and Earthquake Early
Warnings as well as earthquake information based on the results of observations.

Seismic Intensity Information and Information on seismic intensity at each site
When seismic intensity is 3 or greater, JMA issues Seismic Intensity Information within two
minutes to allow emergency action to be taken.
The seismic intensities are disseminated to disaster management organizations and are used
as a trigger for their emergency operation. They are also broadcast to the public by TV, radio and othermedia. For example, the Cabinet Secretariat will call a meeting of the designated emergency response
team in the event of a quake with seismic intensity of 6-lower or greater.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Shake Map (Estimated Seismic Intensity Distribution Map
To enable prompt emergency measures to be taken by disastermanagement authorities, JMA analyzes seismic intensity taking into account thesurface geology for each grid space, and draws an Estimated Seismic Intensity
Distribution Map that shows estimated seismic intensity in places without seismic
intensity meters. As the analyzed values have a margin of error, users should
focus on the extent and distribution of strong ground motion areas rather than therespective estimated value for each grid.
Estimated Seismic Intensity Distribution Map The Mid Niigata prefecture Earthquake in 2004)

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)5)Tokai Earthquake Prediction and Information
Information about Tokai Earthquake
In Japan, a large-scale earthquake with a magnitude of around 8 (referred to as the Tokai
Earthquake) is widely expected to hit the Tokai region in the near future. In order to predict theoccurrence of the Tokai earthquake, JMA has developed a seismic and crustal deformation observation
network throughout the region in conjunction with related organizations, and observes data coming fromthem on around-the-clock basis (see p.16). If anomalous data are detected, JMA issues Information on
the Tokai Earthquake bulletins to allow preparatory action and emergency measures for earthquake
disaster prevention. These are categorized into three types:Tokai Earthquake Report, Tokai Earthquake
Advisory, and Tokai Earthquake Warning .

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)6) Information on Large Earthquakes and Tsunamis
Prompt Report of Occurrence of a Large Earthquake News Release
When a large earthquake occurs, JMA issues a rompt Report of Occurrence of a Large
Earthquake and Tsunami (hypocenter, magnitude, possibility of tsunami, areas of strong motion,
historical earthquake activity around the hypocenter). If there is possibly serious damage, the Agency
announces information on the earthquake and issues important notices to the public through the news
media (News Release).

（）

Prospect of Aftershock Activity
When a large earthquake occurs, a sequence of smaller earthquakes usually follows it.
The largest earthquake is called the mainshock, while the smaller ones are referred to as aftershocks. In
the event of a large earthquake, JMA announces the prospect of aftershocks to the public to enableappropriate measures to be taken.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Regular reports on earthquake activity
JMA announces summary of earthquake activities on a weekly and monthly basis. Weekly andmonthly reports are published on the JMA website. In addition, the Agency issues the monthly summary
as news releases to the public in the beginning of the month.

Distant Earthquake Information and International Tsunami Advisories
JMA monitors seismic activity not only around Japan but also worldwide. If a tsunami
generated by a distant earthquake is expected to hit the Japanese coast and possibly cause disastrous
conditions, JMA issues Tsunami Warnings/Advisories in the same way as for local tsunamis. When a

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)major earthquake occurs somewhere far from Japan, the Agency issues Distant Earthquake Information
to the public.
Tsunamis spread ocean-wide regardless of the borders of countries, and can cause serious
damage in multiple coastal areas. In order to protect human life and property against tsunami hazards,
we must work together with overseas related organizations. Within a worldwide framework for a tsunami
warning system, countries exchange observational data and information to enable earthquake/tsunami
detection and measures against expected tsunamis as early as possible. Japan has a wealth ofexperience and knowledge on tsunamis, and JMA, in such an international partnership role, plays amajor part in contributing to tsunami disaster management measures in other countries. When a large
earthquake occurs in the Sea of Japan, the northwestern Pacific region or the Indian Ocean, the Agency
analyzes the related observation data and quickly provides International Tsunami Advisories to thecountries in each region. These advisories contain information on the earthquake and the possibility oftsunamis, and are used in the recipient countries for the implementation of emergency action such as
nationwide tsunami warnings and oﬃcial evacuation.

Earthquake and Tsunami Monitoring
JMA collects real-time data from seismometers, seismic intensity meters, gauge stations andother instruments to monitor earthquakes and tsunamis around the clock. When an earthquake causes
serious damage, the Agency dispatches the JMA Mobile Observation Team ( JMA-MOT ) to assess thesituation.
Seismometer Network
When an earthquake occurs, it is important to know its location and magnitude. To achieve this,we need to observe its waves and analyze its hypocenter and magnitude; an instrument used to observe
earthquake waves is called a seismometer.
JMA operates a seismic network consisting of about 200 seismometers and collects seismic
waveform data in real time around the clock. The Agency also uses seismometers belonging to the
National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED), and issues Earthquake
Early Warnings, Tsunami Warnings / Advisories and Earthquake Information.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

JMA also collects and analyzes seismic data from NIED, universities and related institutes inorder to conduct comprehensive assessment of seismic activity for the promotion of research activities incooperation with the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The
products of this analysis are shared with the relevant organizations.

Seismic Intensity Network
A seismic intensity meter is an instrument that measures and records the seismic intensity ofground motion. JMA has installed about 600 seismic intensity meters throughout the country, and alsocollects seismic intensity data from another 3,600 stations (as of Apr. 1, 2009) operated by local
governments and the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED).
These data are used for Earthquake Information issued by JMA.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Tsunami Monitoring Network
When tsunamis are observed, JMA issues tsunami observation information including
observation points, tsunami heights and expected times of arrival. The Agency operates about 70 tidal
gauge stations and also collects real-time sea-level data from stations operated by the Ports and Harbors
Bureau (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism), the Geographical Survey Institute and
the Japan Coast Guard. Currently, JMA issues tsunami information using data from about 170 stations.

Observation systems for the Tokai Earthquake
Various kinds of instruments, including seismometers, strainmeters and GPS equipment, areinstalled in and around the assumed focal region of Tokai Earthquake (see the figure below). The
observational data in collaboration with related institutes are continuously transmitted to JMA.
Strainmeters play an important role in detecting potential pre-slip movement that may be a precursor to
the Tokai Earthquake. They measure very minute expansions and contractions in underground rock. A
cylindrical sensor is set at the bottom of a borehole several hundred meters in depth. A strainmeter can
detect a relative change of one part in a billion of crustal expansion or contraction. This is equivalent tomeasuring the volume change caused by a glass marble in a swimming pool.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

A Data Collection and Processing System for Assured Communication
JMA monitors seismic activity and issues Warnings/Advisories and information on a 24-hourbasis. To provide these resources urgently and precisely, JMA needs to collect various seismic data andanalyze them quickly. To this end, the Agency operates a comprehensive system called EPOS (theEarthquake Phenomena Observation System). This is responsible for issuing Earthquake Early Warnings,
Tsunami Warnings/Advisories, Earthquake Information and Information on the Tokai Earthquake.
Warnings/Advisories and information issued by JMA are transmitted to disaster management
authorities, local governments and the broadcasting media over a nationwide computer network
immediately. Disaster management authorities and local governments take action to mitigate disasters
based on these resources. Such action is also announced to the public through the media and theInternet.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)Basic knowledge about earthquake and tsunami
Earthquakes and Shaking
What is an earthquake? When people feel the ground shake, they exclaim, "It's anearthquake!" Strictly speaking, what they are feeling is ground motion caused by an earthquake. As atechnical term, ground motion is used to distinguish this movement from the earthquake itself. An
earthquake is a destructive slip movement inside a rock plate deep under the ground. We call the planeof this movement a fault , and the point at which a destructive slip movement starts is called the
hypocenter.
Such destructive slip movements cause vibration that propagates in every direction. Since
vibration travels in a wave formation, its movement is called a seismic wave. When the vibration reaches
the ground surface, people become aware of earthquake motion. Thus, not all places on the surface ofthe ground shake at the same time. Locations closer to the hypocenter shake first, while distant areas
shake later.
Seismic waves
Seismic waves can be either primary waves (P-waves) or secondary waves (S-waves). Swaves propagate more slowly than P-waves, but have a high amplitude and cause damage. P-waves
travel at about 7 km/s (25,200 km/h), while S-waves move at about 4 km/s (14,400 km/h). At a point 50
km from the hypocenter, for example, a P-wave will arrive at about 7 seconds after the start of the quake,and an S-wave will arrive at about the 13-second point.
Catching seismic waves
How can we find out where an earthquake occurs ? Vibration propagates as a wave, so thefarther a point is from the hypocenter,the later the wave arrives. As a result, if we can pinpoint where

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

earthquake motion appears first among many monitoring sites (seismometers),the hypocenter can beassumed to near that site. In fact, hypocenters are located by considering the subterranean structure (i.e.,the structure of the earth s crust) and comparing diﬀerences in the appearance times of P-waves and Swaves.
Seismic Intensity and Magnitude
Seismic intensity and magnitude are easily confused because both have similar values. In thissection, we explain the diﬀerence between them. Seismic intensity describes the scale of the groundmotion at a particular location. It varies with the distance from the epicenter and the surface geology ateach point. JMA s seismic intensity scale has 10 degrees (0 (imperceptible), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5-lower, 5-upper,
6-lower, 6-upper, 7). Magnitude is a numerical value that represents the scale of a fault slip underground.
Large earthquakes have high magnitude.

Principle of Earthquake Early Warnings
Earthquake Early Warnings (EEWs) are issued slightly after an earthquake occurs. They are
not earthquake predictions which tell us occurrence of earthquake in advance.
As soon as an earthquake occurs, the EEW system uses seismometers located near the
epicenter to calculate the hypocenter, magnitude and P-wave data detected by the area that will be
subjected to strong shaking, and provides a first announcement. EEWs are transmitted promptly. A
sophisticated observation system to detect seismic waves quickly, technology that enables forecastingfrom very weak shaking and communication technology for prompt dissemination are the elements thatenable JMA to issue EEWs.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Tsunamis
When large earthquakes occur in ocean areas, the sea floor rises or sinks. Accordingly,
massive amounts of water on the sea floor also move up or down, and this movement spreads out in all
directions in the ocean. The resulting waves are called tsunamis. Tsunami waves become slower as thesea becomes shallower. As a result, trailing waves catch up with those ahead near the coast, and thetsunami grows much higher. Even if a tsunami does not seem very high in oﬀshore areas, it can turn into
a big wave near the coast. If you feel an earthquake in a coastal area or if a Tsunami Warning is issued,
evacuate immediately to high ground. Under no circumstances should you go to the seashore to see thetsunami.
Method of Tsunami Warning
When a large earthquake occurs in a sea area, JMA issues a Tsunami Warning/Advisory. A
numerical simulation technique is used to estimate tsunami potential and propagation. After anearthquake occurs, Tsunami Warnings/Advisories must be issued immediately to enable evacuation before
the wave strikes coastal areas.
To enable immediate issuance of Tsunami Warnings/Advisories, JMA has conducted computer
simulation of tsunamis with earthquake scenarios involving various locations and magnitudes, and theresulting information on tsunami arrival times and heights is stored on a database. If a large earthquake
occurs, the operation system quickly calculates its hypocenter and magnitude, searches the tsunami
database referring to these calculations, and selects the closest-matching results from the database.
Using the estimated height of the tsunami for each coastal region, JMA issues a Tsunami
Warning/Advisory.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Earthquakes around Japan
Around Japan, oceanic plates called the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate subductbeneath the continental plates (the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate) several centimeters
annually. These plate movements cause forces to act in various directions around the country, which is
the reason behind the extremely high seismic activity in the area. Around Japan, therefore, oceanic
plates subduct beneath continental plates. These continental plates are dragged down as a result, andstrain energy is accumulated. When this strain exceeds a certain level, it causes the continental plates tojump up, and tremors known as interplate earthquakes occur. Conversely, tremors generated by strain
forces within a plate are called intraplate earthquakes. They occur in subducting plates and shallow
underground areas of continental plates. Compared to interpolate earthquakes, intraplate earthquake
occurring in shallow underground areas are relatively small, but can cause serious damage if they occur
directly below populous areas.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

The Tokai Earthquake
The Tokai Earthquake is expected to occur in the near future along the trench near Suruga Bay,and is considered to be as large as M8-class. Large earthquakes of this magnitude have occurred
historically every 100 ‒150 years in the area from the Suruga Trough in Suruga Bay to the trough oﬀ
Shikoku Island, and are known as Tonankai/Nankai Earthquakes. However, when the last Tonankai
Earthquake (1944, M7.9) and Nankai
Earthquake (1946, M8.0) occurred, the crust along the Suruga Trough did not move. Since thetrough (in region E of the figure below) has remained motionless for more than 150 years, the Tokai
Earthquake is widely expected to occur in the near future.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

How is it possible to predict the Tokai Earthquake?
In relation to the Tokai Earthquake, a pre-slip phenomenon (see the figure below) is expectedjust before the quake itself, and observation systems are in place to detect this slip. If it actually takes
place and is successfully detected, JMA will issue warning information on the Tokai Earthquake.
However, there is a possibility that the pre-slip could be too slight to be detected by the sensors, so itcannot be said with certainty that the Tokai Earthquake will be predicted.
Why it is thought possible to predict the Tokai Earthquake scientifically●It is expected to be accompanied by precursory phenomena.
●Observation systems are in place to detect these phenomena.
●There are guidelines on deciding based on the pre-slip model whether detected anomalous

phenomena are precursory in nature or not.

Tokai Earthquake Generation Scenario①

The Tokai Earthquake is expected to occur with the following sequence: Accumulation ofstrain,Deceleration of subsidence, Pre-slip, Occurrence of Tokai Earthquake .Pre-slip is aphenomenon where part of the hypocentral region (the hard bonded plate boundary in the case of theTokai Earthquake) peels oﬀ and begins to slip.

②

③

④

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

The key to predicting the Tokai Earthquake is the detection of signs of pre-slip. JMA monitors
unusual movement that may accompany pre-slip using strainmeters to predict its occurrence.

6. Earthquake Early Warning

緊急地震速報 (Kinkyu Jishin Sokuho) in Japanese)

What is an Earthquake Early Warning? (The Earthquake Early Warning system provides advance announcement of the estimated seismic
intensities and expected arrival time of principal motion. These estimations are based on prompt analysisof the focus and magnitude of the earthquake using wave form data observed by seismographs near the
epicenter. The Earthquake Early Warning is aimed at mitigating earthquake-related damage by allowing
countermeasures such as promptly slowing down trains, controlling elevators to avoid danger andenabling people to quickly protect themselves in various environments such as factories, offices, houses
and near cliffs.
The Earthquake Early Warning system provides advance announcement of the estimated seismic
intensities and expected arrival time of principal motion.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

When a major earthquake occurs, the following information is broadcasted
through wireless loudspeaker:

Examples of Response to an Earthquake Early Warning

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Chapter 5 Early Warning System in Thailand

5.1 National DRR Institutions
The Thai Government altered its approach to disaster management in 2002 and shifted froman emphasis on relief and rehabilitation to a more proactive integration of mitigation andpreparedness. The Bureaucratic Reform Act of 2002 restructured the institutional arrangements andresulted in new roles for state agencies and the creation of the Department of Disaster Prevention
and Mitigation (DDPM) under the Ministry of Interior. Brief descriptions of key governmentorganizations in EWS and DRR are given below
The National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC) was established in May 2005 under the
Office of the Prime Minister’s Secretariat and is responsible for end-to-end multi-hazard warnings
including earthquakes and tsunamis. A cabinet resolution dated 3 April 2007 transferred the NDWC
to the Office of the Minister of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The NDWC waslater transferred again to the Thai Meteorological Department of the Ministry of ICT by thegovernment of former Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont. The major task of the NDWC is to detect
earthquakes and to analyse seismic data to determine the possibility of a tsunami generation before
issuing notification messages to the public, related authorities and rescuers for evacuation of people
to safe places. The NDWC is currently upgrading its EWS, extending its telecommunications network
to ultimately issue multihazard warnings with a special emphasis on floods.
The Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM), established in 2002
under the Ministry of Interior, is the main agency for disaster management coordination and serves
as the Secretariat to the National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Committee (NDPMC). It resulted
from the consolidation of various departments with disaster management programmes such as the
Accelerated Rural Development Department. The DDPM’s description of duties includes studying,
analysing, researching and developing information technology systems for prevention, warning anddisaster mitigation. The DDPM is also responsible for mobilizing, awareness raising, and arranging
training and exercises in disaster prevention and mitigation. The DDPM is not in charge of structural
measures to prevent the occurrence of disasters or to mitigate their effect. In 2004, the DDPM set up
a Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Academy with training offered in several locations. The DDPM
engages in continuous capacity development of its departments, receiving technical support from
UNDP and the Japanese and German governments, among others.
The Thailand Meteorology Department (TMD) under the Ministry of ICT monitors
meteorological and seismic instruments throughout the country, and weather satellites as well as
telemeters in Thailand’s 25 river basins, providing daily, weekly and monthly forecasts.
The Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) covers all major functions affiliated with thedevelopment of mineral, petroleum and groundwater resources. In October 2002, the DMR was
moved to the newly established Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. The DMR
undertakes geological mapping, research and training. With 1,000 geologists to cover the entire
county, the DMR joins forces with other agencies, particularly the DDPM. The DMR also contributes
significant resources in staff time and ICT applications to the NDWC.
The Department of Water Resources (DWR) was established in 2002, under the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment, as the main agency for formulating management plans as well
as monitoring, coordinating and implementing water resources conservation and rehabilitation
measures. It is also the lead agency for flood control and mitigation in the river basins in the country
and formulates ‘river basin organization’ as part of its strategy. The Department is responsible forsetting up a water crisis management centre.
The Royal Irrigation Department (RID), Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, has along history of development interventions and is responsible for water provision, storage,
maintenance and allocation. It participated in the design, construction and operation of major water

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

projects for Bangkok. It carries out initiatives relevant to DRR including the development of asustainable water usage plan, forecasting of water storage and drainage systems to prevent floodand drought disasters, and launching of publicity campaigns for water use.
Hydrographic Department of the Royal Thai Navy (HDRTN) provides services fornavigational safety, defence and country development, and is responsible for the survey andproduction of navigational charts, marine forecasting, and navigational procurement andmaintenance. Routine inspection, calibration and maintenance of sea-level stations are theresponsibility of the Royal Thai Navy.

5.2 The National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC)
Role and Responsibility
NDWC is responsible for end-to-end multi-hazards including earthquake and tsunami :1) Receiving data
2) Analysis
3) Dissemination of Warning Message4) Coordinating and Planning5) Supervising the Preparedness and Response, and the recovery.

Fig. 5.1 NDWC Logo
NDWC and other departments, such as Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation(DDPM), Thai Meteorological Department (TMD), Department of Mineral resources (DMR) and Thai
army together developed the handbook called the concept of operation for an early warning system.
The concept of operation consists of input, evaluation and decision and output. For earthquake andtsunami warnings, NDWC gets input and information from seismic networks, of course form both
inside and outside of Thailand, such as Thai Meteorological Department, Royal Thai Navy, Electricity
Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT), Thai Royal Irrigation Department, Pacific Tsunami Warning
Center (PTWC) in Hawaii, U.S.A., Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) in Japan and etc. This
information is then analyzed by NDWC experts before making the decision, there is a tsunami or not.
If there is, NDWC first have to check with the Hydrographic Department of the Royal Thai Navy
which uses tide gauges to detect sea level change located at the Similan Island and to confirm
tsunami generation. Then the warning messages will be sent out to VIPs, rescue units and to the
public by Short Message Service (SMS), electronic mail (e-mail), and FAX for example. The warning
messages will be announced simultaneously through warning tower, radio stations and the
Television Pool of Thailand. In addition, NDWC provides a call center to serve 24 x 7 to provide
information if somebody wants to monitor the situation.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Fig. 5.2 the Concept of Operation

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Fig. 5.3 the Concept of Operation

5.3 Inter-agency mechanisms
The National Early Warning Committees. Representatives of the departments within
NDWC form a National Early Warning Committee to make a decision as to when a warning should
be issued. The Committee on National Disaster Warning Administration deals with technical advice
to improve the speed of the operation of the NDWC. The Committee on Policy of the National
Disaster Warning System formulates guidelines, policies, measures and plans pertaining to the
management of the national disaster warning system for the Cabinet. It also coordinates these withcommissions, appointed by law or a cabinet resolution, that have intersecting duties andresponsibilities. Other committees are the Steering Committee – Committee on the Study of Disaster
Early Warning System and Sub-Committee on the National Disaster Warning Center Administration.

5.4 Monitoring and Warning System
Thailand is making significant progress towards strengthening hazard monitoring anddisaster EWS. While investments in information and communication technology have already
improved the reception of warning information from regional and international monitoring networks,
more needs to be done to improve transfer and exchange of relevant information within the country,
across agencies, and to and from remote and vulnerable areas.
The Thai Meteorological Department (TMD), which is the main recipient and provider of hazard
data to national counterparts, requires further capacity strengthening to process input informationand issue more timely warnings. Due to a combined impact from climate change, environmental
degradation and changes in land use, disasters – floods, landslides and droughts in particular – areon the increase. Setbacks caused by these disasters threaten to overtake the pace of development.
Monitoring and early warning capacities at local levels are not ready to deal with these challenges
and require urgent capacity development, particularly in vulnerable communities.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Diagram of Tsunami Early Warning by TMD

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Seismic Network in Thailand

Generally to face with earthquake disaster or establish for tsunami warning system in the
country , several measures of earthquake-tsunami prevention and mitigation including early warning
need to have high efficiency input and good results from reliable standard class of seismic monitoring
system and from the latest technology of digital data and real time telecommunication . Seismologicaltasks, Geological works and Earthquake engineering research mainly utilize these data andinformation as well. Consequently Seismological Bureau, Thai Meteorological Department established an
Automatic Earthquake Monitoring System to serve all the need of raw ground motion data, sea levelchanges, displacement and analyzed seismic data for the public interest and multi users. The system
consists of 40 seismic stations, 26 accelerograph stations, 9 tidal gauge stations, 4 GPS stations.
The operational works are 24/7 basis to continuously monitor, watch and disseminate of relevant
information, messages and warning regarding to earthquake and tsunami hazard.
Generally earthquake prevention and mitigation measures are dealed with several agencies bothin governmental and private sectors that responsible to plan , operate, monitor, research and implementin advance for operational procedure of pre events , during events, or after events in order to attain thelast goal of safety and wealthy of people. This Seismological Bureau WEB site is initially one of the line toserve this objective for all users and people to directly access data, information and warning including
basic knowledge of seismology and tsunami. Furthermore it will reveal that earthquake phenomenon
are normal natural events that occurred everyday. Even though luckily, Thailand is not in the active
area but it is not mean that Thailand is safe for earthquake and tsunami disaster. Then to face withthese disasters the best scientific preparing in advance must be performed to gain sustainable safety
and mitigation.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Royal Irrigation Department (RID) and Water Resource Department (DWR) of Thailand
are responsible for water management. DWR’s main functions relates to water policy, planning andstrategy. RID is responsible for water source development, water management, including flood anddrought relief, especially in floodplains and downstream watershed, whereas DWR takes care ofnatural rivers and steep-slope upstream watershed.
The Royal Irrigation Department (RID) RID implements strategies for flood prevention and relief.
The Aims are to decrease the loss of lives and property especially in urban and agricultural areas.
The Water Watch and Monitoring System for Warning Centre (WMSC) was set up to monitor flood
situations on a 24 hourly basis. There is also collaboration with other related organizations to plan
flood prevention. Local flood protection systems were set up in important economic areas where
severe floods may occur. In addition, early warning systems using various technologies were
established. This includes a telemetry and flood forecasting system for water management.
The RID to date has installed and operated about 208 telemetric stations in 13 of 25 river
basins in Thailand. In addition, 555 manual river gauges and 2,294 manual rain gages were installed
and operated all over country. As part of the local flood warning system, DWR has developed andinstalled early warning systems in 458 villages of the total 2,370 villages in Thailand and included
with automatic flood-warning sirens are being operated.
Flood Forecasting and Warning System for protecting in 25 basins are being developed. For
this system, To mitigate and reduce the risk of floods, the flood warning system is carefully managed
in the following process.
First, telemetry system is used as a method for flood forecasting in different river basinscovering nearly the whole country.
Second, the forecasting situation is then announced to public with different ways like website
or radio broadcasting or networks. For network mentioned above it means regional offices whichtake part in communicating in the local areas with other methods or media.
Third, after flooding situation, pumping for water drainage has to be prepared in order toreduce the height of water level or inundated areas.
Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) DMR has established local warning networks or selfprotection networks in risk areas. The networks include local people working for their communities orvillages as volunteers. They were trained to have knowledge on landslide behavior and how to
observe the upstream warning signs. During the monsoon season they will be the guards at checkpoints or at the foot of mountains where they can clearly see stream water. When they detect signsof landslide development such as distinct rumbling sound, they will warn other people in risk areas
downstream. Moreover, DMR established the Geohazards Operation Center in Bangkok to monitor

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

landslide activity and to coordinate with the local networks and relevant agencies. When heavy rain isapproaching landslide prone areas, the center will disseminate landslide watch bulletin and informthe networks through television, radio, facsimile and mobile phone. The local networks can also callthe center to get more information and the real time situation from their areas. Furthermore, thecenter coordinates closely with the Thai Meteorological Department (TMD) concerning rainfall
prediction and with the Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) and provincial
governors on landslide management. DDPM and Governors who have authority in disastermanagement are also alert to support villages in risk areas.

5.5 Dissemination and Communication
In Thailand, gaps include the lack of formalization of institutional roles in multi-hazard early
warning. Responsibilities for information exchange across government, with civil society and the
media, as well as for informing the general public, require clear centre(s) of authority and standard
operating procedures (SOP). Current confusion over government roles and inadequate cooperation
amongst various information holders and providers threatens to undermine the credibility of warnings
with the media and the public. Due to a lack of general awareness and understanding, central andprovincial authorities are nervous to issue warnings that may prove to be false and expose them tocriticism and public outrage. There is a lack of decision support systems that could help to avoid
overcautious and inefficient cross-checking of data.
This includes the need for real time connections rather than reliance on the Internet. In
general, information and communication systems are not yet up to international standards for
efficient exchange of data. The dissemination system relies largely on a system of warning towers
but the additional use of non-technical means and the involvement of social networks are required toreach all at risk.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

Chapter 6 Conclusion
People-centered early warning systems empower communities to prepare for and confront thepower of natural hazards. However, the efficiency of such systems is to be measured in terms of lives
saved and reduction in losses, which is directly related to the execution of an anticipated response by
the people and institutions once a warning is issued.
The four elements of people centered Early Warning Systems
A complete and effective, people-centered early warning system – EWS – comprises fourinter-related elements, spanning knowledge of hazards and vulnerabilities through to preparedness
and capacity to respond. Good governance is encouraged by robust legal and regulatory frameworks
and supported by long term political commitment and integrated institutional arrangements. Major
players concerned with the different elements should meet regularly to ensure that they understand allof the other components and what other parties need from them.
Effective early warning systems require strong technical foundations and good knowledge ofthe risks. But they must be strongly people centered – with clear messages, dissemination systems
that reach those at risk, and practiced and knowledgeable responses by risk managers and the public.
Public awareness and education are critical; in addition, many sectors must be involved. Effective
early warning systems must be embedded in an understandable manner and relevant to thecommunities which they serve.
Risk Knowledge. Risk assessment and mapping will help to set priorities among early
warning system needs and to guide preparations for response and disaster prevention activities.
Warning Service. A sound scientific basis for predicting potentially catastrophic events isrequired. Constant monitoring of possible disaster precursors is necessary to generate accurate
warnings on time.
Communication and Dissemination. Clear understandable warnings must reach those atrisk. For people to understand the warnings they must contain clear, useful information that enables
proper responses. Regional, national and community level communication channels must be identified
in advance and one authoritative voice established.
Response Capability. It is essential that communities understand their risks; they must
respect the warning service and should know how to react. Building up a prepared community
requires the participation of formal and informal education sector.
JAPAN
As one of the public corporations designated for disaster management under the Disaster
Countermeasure Basic Act, NHK plays the key role in disaster broadcasting and emergency .JMA is
the key body in prediction major natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons andvolcano eruptions while MLIT is for flood and sediment disasters and cooperation with them isessential for municipalities and other disaster response organizations. It must be noted thatapplication of latest technologies for disaster warning and communication by JMA had greatly
improved disaster response system in Japan. In addition, state lifeline agencies, railway companies,
NHK has established quick information sharing with JMA and other relevant bodies as well as
response mechanism within respective fields of activity.
- Crucial collaboration with JMA and MLIT - JMA is the key body in prediction major natural
hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons and volcano eruptions while MLIT is for flood andsediment disasters and cooperation with them is essential for municipalities and other disaster
response organizations.
- Comprehensive mechanism of emergency broadcasting by national television –Close
collaboration with JMA and established automated emergency warning, huge facilities andequipments in its disposal NHK plays central role in disaster broadcasting and emergency warning.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

- Massive numbers of voluntary response organizations and people involved in voluntarydisaster response shows high level of disaster awareness and social responsibility for disaster
reduction in the country. During disaster times acting in collaboration with the professional responders,voluntary teams demonstrate remarkable efforts in psychological support of the affected people andprovided basic utilities.
- The existing Early warning system, although, has been form during relatively short time
period put in place sophisticated mechanism which enables Japan to mobilize forces and resources
and respond in a comprehensive manner any large-scale disasters promptly, considerably decreasing
damage and loss. Comprehensively elaborated coordination enables to relevant bodies takeconcerted actions to increases response efficiency. In turn hierarchical supervision granting response
bodies with great independence keeps accountability of them high.
-Changes and advancements driven by previous large-scale disasters -based on the lessonsof previous national disasters system has undergone both organizational changes and enhancements.
Large-scale natural disasters in recent decades, such as, Isewan Typhoon, Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake have influenced currents disaster response system in Japan. The system has undergone
some organizational changes, new disaster response forces – DMAT, and disaster response
mechanisms – ex, Phoenix System and Emergency Medical Information System in Hyogo Prefecture– has been introduced and integrated.
- Multilevel emergency response – Depending on the scale of disaster emergency response isconducted on local ,prefectural and national levels.
- Effective lifeline crisis management system – recent disasters proved high level of emergency
response preparedness and capabilities by lifeline – electricity and gas – providers. integration ofadvanced technologies for disaster prediction, control and resilience and comprehensive collaboration
with other relevant bodies are the key reasons
THAILAND
Although the Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation is a major organization in
charge of disaster management, other public organizations are also actively involved in this importanttask.
Provinces and local governments also have emergency management offices. The Provincial
Office of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation is responsible for emergency management at theprovincial level . Thailand now has 75 provincial offices of disaster prevention and mitigation acrossthe country. The tasks and responsibilities of these offices and centers are basically similar. However,
the organizational structure can a bit vary dependent on the nature, priority, and management
strategy of each province.
There has been an increasing awareness in the national Government regarding emergency
management. Thailand also has a good legal foundation for emergency management. Both theDisaster Prevention and Mitigation Act 2007 (B.E. 2550) and the National Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation Plan 2010-2014 (B.E. 2553-2557) can be used as the framework and guideline for
emergency management. These two pieces of legislation can help related agencies work to achieve
their goals in preventing and mitigating the impacts of disasters. The improvement in communication
system/network can be sources for improving emergency management system as well.
Weakness- The framework for disaster management in Thailand adopts a multi-stakeholder approachwith the involvement of many institutions at the national, provincial and local levels. However, this is
not altogether complete, with some gaps and some overlaps.
- Management system at national, provincial and local levels is not clear and unity. It causes
problem on coordination and create inefficient works for government agencies, state enterprises,
private agencies and other respected agencies.
-The new institutions such as DDPM and NDWC have disaster management as their role
responsibilities, and the various long-standing departments and technical agencies that have somerole in different phases of the disaster management cycle.
-Having too many laws and regulations confines work management

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)

The causes for Early warning problem are1) inadequate political commitment,2) weak coordination among various actors,
3) Lack of public awareness and lack of public participation in the development and operationof early warning systems.
4) Lack of decision support systems that could help to avoid overcautious and inefficient
cross-checking of data.
5) The need for real time connections rather than reliance on the Internet
6) Insufficient budget allocation of DRR
7) One way communication of Early warning, No feedback evaluation from community
8) Warning Message understood and trusted but do not know how to respond.
































Thailand Challenges and Future Plan
Development of multi-stakeholder partnerships and citizen participation
Improvement of information sharing and management
Promotion of education and public awarenessIntegration of disaster reduction concepts into development planning
Promoting continuous efforts among the government and various stakeholders on publicawareness and preparedness
Strengthen partnership of Government and Private Sector
Develop a comprehensive policy and legal framework to cover EWS in structural andoperational detail, and define roles and responsibilities of governmental and nongovernmental
actors.
Develop a mechanism for assigning resources to cover the needed inputs.
Ensure feedback into the EWS development process by sharing results from evaluations of
EWS activities and outputs of workshops.
Enhance the critical role of the media in the dissemination of early warning messages.
Analyze the effectiveness of warning messages by using feedback from the community.
Enhance data reliability and interagency data sharing by assessing and prioritizing needs foreach organization participating in the system to improve access to real time data and toprovide effective analysis to decision makers.
Develop a Warning alerts and messages that are geographically-specific to ensure warnings
are targeted to those at risk only.
Enhance technology to support interagency data sharing by assessing and prioritizing theneeds of each participating organization to improve access to real time data and provide areliable analysis to decision makers.
Prepare early warning guide or handbooks that collect all the currently fragmented pieces of
information in a practical format for use by government staff, communities, NGOs, media andthe private sector.
Strengthen communication networks, particularly to and from and within communities,
Also strengthen and map feedback communications from relevant agencies and communities
Support development of media partnerships in EWS, such as with the NDWC and at local
levels.
Set up Mister Warning in communities and Disaster Warning Network
Design standard and practical guidebook for community leaders.
Create warning system in communities
Strengthen participation skills for disaster management with planning skill, creating network,
giving knowledge and disseminating information.
Provide trainings to situation commanders, operation staff, community leaders, planners, andgeneral people
Improve database system and risk maps for risk areas/communities
Enhancing and improving on local wisdom for disaster warning
Cooperate warning system from respected agencies
Connect early warning system from respected agencies
Improve overall disaster forecast system
Connect disaster information system from respected agencies
Evaluate and improve the responsibilities and authorities of government agencies periodically
Add knowledge on disasters into educational curriculum of primary to university levels

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)including community level and all management levels
 Strengthen people’s participation in planning and networking. Encourage them to use
museum for disseminating information on disasters
 Build up coopration with mass media such as television, newspaper and radio for building
culture on safety and flexible community
 Strengthen early warning system - Create standard guidebook, set up method and steps to be
guidelines for community leader used for emergency response after receiving warning alarm.
Although continuing safety campaigns have been utilized, Thai people still pay less attention
to the impact of disaster and the way to prevent it to happen. Thailand should continually build thesafety culture and educate the public about disasters. The lack of integration among national agencies
responsible for disaster management can sometimes lead to fragmented action/effort which canmitigate the effectiveness and efficiency of disaster management. Thailand should find a more
effective way to integrate these national agencies.
Disaster risk management is a multi-sectorial and cross-cutting issue. Early warning as an
essential element of risk management can be successful if all related sectors in local, national,
regional and global level work together effectively. Working together requires common objectives andvision, strategic directions, integrated and harmonized approach, and commitment by all actors.

Final Report ADRC Visiting Researcher (9 January – 27 April 2012)