INTEGRATED ALGA-CULTURE IN INUNDATED COASTAL FARMLANDSOF INDIAN SUNDARBANS AS A SUSTAINABLE ADAPTATION FORMARGINAL COMMUNITIES TOWARDS CLIMATE RISK REDUCTION
Dipayan Dey, South Asian Forum for Environment, India
Ashoka Maity, Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India, India
chair@safeinch.org
Algae has a great potential for quick capture of biological carbon and its storage in saltwaterinundated coastal wetlands and can also be introduced as a climate adaptive alternate farming
practice. An intervention with native algal flora Enteromorpha sp. in enclosed coastal
Sundarbans in India on two open water culture techniques, viz. U-Lock & Fish-Bone, showsthat growth in native algal stock is influenced by seasonal variations of salinity and otherlimnological factors. Sundarbans, facing the odds of climate change is fast loosing arable lands
to sea level rise. Algaculture in inundated coastal areas can be an adaptive mitigation for thesame. Perusal of results show that daily growth rate (DGR%) increases with increasing
salinity of the intruding tidal waters to an extent and biomass increment under salt stressresults in accumulation of metabolites those are having nutrient values and can yield bio-diesel
as well. Algal growth recorded mostly in post monsoon period, has impacts on pH and
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) of the ambient water to facilitate integrated pisciculture. The paper
suggests that alga-culture has unrealized potentials in carbon sequestration and can besignificantly used for extraction of Biodiesel.
Key words: alga-culture, enclosed coast, sustainable aquafarming, sundarbans, climate change, risk
reduction
I.INTRODUCTION
Deltaic villages in enclosed coasts of Indian Sundarbans, a world heritage site, are extremely
vulnerable to rising sea level and sea surface temperature, rendering farmlands of marginal coastal
communities non-yielding, owing to increasing soil salinity. The enclosed coastal habitat has natural
resources of mangrove forest and enriched biodiversity that extends several ecosystem services forsustaining life and livelihood. It is also one of the most ecologically threatened areas of the planet[5]. Available brackish water environment of Sundarbans provides favourable substratum for algal
communities [28]. Enteromorpha intestinalis, Ulvalactuca and Catenellarepens are the dominant
macro-algae growing naturally in this habitat and are ecologically important in accommodatingother living organisms as reported earlier [23], [24], [24], [29], [30].
These macro-algae have numerous usages, including production of food, feed, fodder,
fertilizer and as well,chemical feedstock and bio-fuel [20], [21], [22], [26], [27]. There is mention of
their polysaccharides being used in food, cosmetics, paints, crop, textile, paper, rubber andadditionally they are used in areas of pharmacology for their antimicrobial, antiviral, antitumor,
anticoagulant and fibrinolytic properties. However, culture methods for propagating these local algal

flora for commercial usage are recently known [17]and policy instruments are meager in promoting
it as a ‘REDD-plus’ implication in coastal areas for conservation of mangrove forests, since it can beused for bio-fixation of CO 2 and GHG abatement as it has an estimated potential of sequestering
multifold times of CO 2 it emits by respiration.
This paper attempts to assess the bio-economic potentials of integrated alga-culture as analternative livelihood for marginal communities in inundated coastal areas, who have lost farmland
to intruding seawater, in assuring sustainable change management towards poverty alleviation in themilieu of climate change.Reports on eco-physiological studies of brackish water algae of
Sundarbans and impact of seasonal variation on the biochemical composition of the green weeds
have already been reported [19], however, there is substantial knowledge gap in recommending thecommercial utilization of these algae in Sundarbans. Similar research on the nutritional evaluationof the seaweeds has been conducted elsewhere and evaluation of varied species of weeds for
multiple industries has been reported [38] as well.
Hence the objective of the present study remains toestimatethe seasonal growth of the flora
in biomass and simulate the accumulation of the bioactive components in Enteromorpha and Ulva
that has nutritional values and as well, has potentials for bio-energy alternatives. Further, theintervention also assesses the sustainability of production in alga culture and as well the carbon
mitigation potentials of such aquafarming. Reference of this preliminary work would entail
developing and establishing the production processes for a range of products in the food andpharmaceutical sector and as well, a newsource for bio-energy, towards creating carbon smart
economic alternativesand opportunities for the relinquished community.
II. METHODOLOGY
Experimental Design & Sample: Algal samples of free floating Enteromorpha intestinalis,Enteromorpha prolifera were collected every month in pre-monsoon (March to June), monsoon(July to October) and post-monsoon (November to February) seasons of the year, from 2012 to2015, grown from their natural habitat of enclosed coasts of Sagar (21⁰48’N, 88⁰5’59.9”E),
Jhorkhali (22⁰13’20”N, 88⁰56”43”E) and Saatjelia (22⁰8’39”N, 88⁰52’40”E)islands in Gosaba
block of Indian Sundarbans, and as well from aquaculture ponds, where alga-cum-fish culture is
improvised in (a) U-Lock Mass Culture ponds of U-shaped interlocking landscapes in enclosed
coasts allowing inundation during high tides and split with fine nylon net partitions for making penculture enclosures and (b) Fish-Bone Mass Culture techniques, modified from Organization for
Marine Conservation Awareness and Research (OMCAR) model for restoration of mangroves in the
coastal habitat, wherein a channel of inflowing tidal water is bifurcated in lateral outlets like a fishbone structure and partitioned with nylon net. The samples were washed with water and prepared forphysical and biochemical studies and as well some sun-dried for a few days, since water inhibitstransesterification.
Daily Growth Rate (DGR%): DGR% was calculated using a formula [8]DGR% = ln (Wf / Wo) / t X 100;
Wherein t is the number of culture days. Wo is the initial fresh weight (g) and Wf is the final fresh
weight (g) after culturing for t number of days.
Biochemical Analysis: Limnological parameters of water in the growth ponds were estimated bystandard methods following APHA & NEERI (2012). Compositional analysis of algal filaments andfrond was done followed by official methods of analysis of AOAC International (19th edition,2012).Afterwards, dried algae were crushed and extracted in n-hexane in a Soxhlet apparatus as per
UNE-EN 734-1 (2006). The transesterification process was conducted simultaneously with theextraction in order to avoid the previous step of oil extraction and purification of obtainedoil(Karaosmanoglu et al., 1996; Lang et al., 2001). The protein and carbohydrate content of freezedried alga was determined spectrophotometrically[1]. Lipids were extracted from the samples [39]and Fatty Acid Methyle Esters (FAME) &Linolenic acid content was estimated using gas
chromatographic (GC) methods conforming to the UNE-EN-12424 (2003) standards, using Bruker
450-GC. GC control and data handling was done using BrukerGalaxie™ Software.
Carbon Mitigation Potential: Algae have the ability to fix carbon dioxide efficiently [35], [2]. The
carbon content varies with algal strains, media and cultivation conditions. The CO 2 fixation rate canbe calculated by applying law of conservation of mass:
Total CO 2 fixation = K × biomass productivity X fixation efficiency (wherein K is the rate constantwith a value 1.89).
Statistical Analysis: Data were analyzed statistically using ANOVA in <excel>to determine thedifferences in seasonal growth and composition with different initial seed density along with various
seasons of culture period.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Green seaweed Enteromorpha intestinalis (L. Link) have high rate of carbon sequestration
potentials. It can also withstand the salinity up to 136 ppt[33] and it has been used to determine thenitrogen sources to estuaries [6]. This was also used as an indicator of nutrient enrichment in coastal
estuaries and lagoons [10]. The effect of different salinity regime and varying salinity in the growthrate of E. intestinalis has been studied [13]. The positive and negative effect of riverine input in thegrowth rate of E. intestinalis has been published in Hydrobiologia [18]. Herein, the comparative
growth rates, components of nutrient values and seasonal changes in carbon mitigation potential are
substantiated with data tables and graphs in the following paragraphs of the text.
Perusal of result shows that in culture ponds the DGR% varies with the initial inoculation
volume and the season of growth as well (Fig 1(a) & 1(b)), whereas, selected limnologicalparameters of the culture ponds have been seen to vary seasonally and have a correlation with thevarying DGR% during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon period (Fig.2).

Daily Growth Rate %

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
MonsoonPost
MonsoonPre Monsoon

Initial Wt (50gm/Mt.Sq)

2,637

4,054

1,703

Initial Wt (75gm/Mt.Sq)

2,839

4,879

2,728

Initial Wt (100gm/Mt.Sq)

3,338

5,542

3,454

Initial Wt (125 gm/Mt.Sq)

2,935

3,91

1,747

Initial Wt (150gm/Mt.Sq)

2,281

4,056

1,673

Fig. 1(a): Daily Growth Rate E. intestinalis

Daily Growth Rate %

3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
MonsoonPost
MonsoonPre
MonsoonInitial Wt (50gm/Mt.Sq)

2,362

3,325

1,874

Initial Wt (75gm/Mt.Sq)

1,798

2,317

1,504

Initial Wt (100gm/Mt.Sq)

1,427

2,186

1,489

Initial Wt (125 gm/Mt.Sq)

1,223

1,89

1,138

Initial Wt (150gm/Mt.Sq)

1,413

1,591

0,987

Fig. 1(b): Daily Growth Rate E. prolifera

Ambient temperature is maximum during pre-monsoon phase and minimum during winters,
showing a negative correlation with salinity. A comparison of variability in DGR% across theseseasons and other limnological parameters show direct positive correlation of DGR with salinity.
Similar study has reportedly been found in Cyanobacteria that can tolerate higher osmotic stressuntil salinity reached a PSU of 16 with enhanced growth and synthesis of zeaxanthin[16], [4].
Though, green algae and cyanobacteria from freshwater system shows considerable acclimation
towards fluctuating pH, the variability of pH in this case was not as dramatic as salinity. Consistentcurves of pH and DO hint a sharp compensation of CO 2 release and its utilization buffering the pHwith bicarbonates and subsistent release of oxygen through photosynthetic activities [4],[7]. Thesefindings are environmentally relevant to understand the likely impact of salt water intrusion and pH
variation on phytoplankton communities in a tropical freshwater system in general and for fish cum
algae culture in particular wherein stabilized pH and DO are significant for getting better yield.

The results showed that in post-monsoon season, available oil in Enteromorpha intestinalis
was maximum ranging up to 0.37% which declined to 0.31% during monsoon when average watersalinity lowers down, since vegetative growth rate also decreases during monsoon as found in recent

studies [17]. However, convertible biodiesel was as high as 93.27% and Linolenic acid content was
0.24% only (Fig. 3) as also reported earlier [14] [15]. Interestingly, the findings of chromatographic
analysis also showed that this particular variety of green seaweed is rich in protein, carbohydrate
and omega fatty acids which are nutritionally significant. It has been found that the protein content
of Enteromorpha intestinalisis as high as 12.9-15.79 %. Also, it reveals that these species contains
53% carbohydrate at an average, which does not show much variation across the seasons, asreported earlier [19], [34]. (Table 1).
Table 1: Average Biochemical Composition of Enteromorpha
Biochemical Components
Pre Monsoon
MonsoonPost Monsoon
Total Lipid (% dry wt)
12.25±0.57
4.58±0.33
14.91±1.03
Protein (% dry wt)
14.66±1.94
12.9±1.58
15.79±1.33
Carbohydrate (% dry wt)
52.6±2.26
53.69±0.91
53.66±1.25

Mitigation Potential(T-CO2/hec/yr)

Thus, it is presumed that utilisation of this species as a part of the human diet after
conducting toxicity tests may cater to the acute nutritional deficiency in the region. Its extensive
utilisation can parallel and bring a radical change in the lives of Sundarbans inhabitants.
Perusal of Carbon Mitigation Potentials data showed that the maximum optimistic
carbonaceous biomass fixation capacity is 2392 Metric Tons per hectare per year, obtainable in ULock culture technique during post monsoon season in E.intestinalis, whereas it is lowest in E.
prolifera during pre-monsoon season nearing to 442 Ton of algal biomassper hectare per year only.
This estimate is drastically higher than carbonaceous biomass fixation capacity of terrestrial plants[32]. It is therefore evident that the accrued biomass through algal growth is a direct evidence ofcarbon capture by aquatic flora in inundated waters (Fig. 4), as evidenced earlier [3], [7], [12].
150
100
50
0

MonsoonPost Monsoon
E. intestinalis

Pre Monsoon

E. prolifera

Fig.4: Seasonal Carbon Mitigation Potentials of Algae

The potential for carbon mitigation in Algal biomass was theoretically assessed [36]. Although,they implemented their assessment for microalgae, we estimated theoretical carbon fixation
efficiency of the macroalgae, Enteromorpha intestinalis in three categories: i) optimistic / maximum
yield (11.42%), ii) most likely / probable yield (6%) and iii) pessimistic / minimum yield (3%) [37].
Applying the three categories of theoretical efficiency during winter, we observed that the CO 2
fixation rate was estimated 14.91, 7.84 and 3.92 g CO 2 / m2 / day for maximum, probable andminimum yield respectively. On the other hand, during summer, the rate was 2.88, 1.51 and 0.76
CO 2 / m2 / day for maximum, probable and minimum yield respectively.

IV. CONCLUSION
It is obvious that commercial cultivators and end-users for algae shall be interested in the
production potentials, availability of food supplements and bio-fuel. The productivity showedsustainable potentials, as may be evidenced in the seasonal rates (Table-2).
Table No 2: Comparative Growth Rates & Harvest Potentials of Free-floating Algae
COMPARATIVE GROWTH RATE & HARVEST POTENTIALS (NATURAL POND WATER)
Inoculation: Initial Wt=100gm & 50gm/Mt. Sq respectively; SALINITY 2-3 psu
E. intestinalis
CULTIVATION MODEL TYPE

MonsoonPost Monsoon

Pre Monsoon

E. prolifera

Av. DGR(%)

Yield per Week
(MT/Hec)

Av. DGR(%)

Yield per Week
(MT/Hec)

U-LOCK

3.805

7.63

2.789

6.67

FISH-BONE

1.982

6.55

1.65

5.93

FREE-FLOATING

2.806

7.29

1.645

6.06

U-LOCK

5.773

9.72

4.293

8.54

FISH-BONE

3.775

9.03

2.551

7.91

FREE-FLOATING

4.488

7.45

2.262

6.5

U-LOCK

3.972

6.26

2.011

7.25

FISH-BONE

3.481

6.59

1.832

6.47

FREE-FLOATING

2.261

8.81

1.398

5.73

COMPARATIVE GROWTH RATE & HARVEST POTENTIALS (TRAPPED COASTAL WATERS)
Inoculation: Initial Wt=100gm & 50gm/Mt. Sq respectively; SALINITY 17-18 psu
E. intestinalis
CULTIVATION MODEL TYPE

MonsoonPost Monsoon

Pre Monsoon

E. prolifera

Av. DGR(%)

Yield per Week
(MT/Hec)

Av. DGR(%)

Yield per Week
(MT/Hec)

U-LOCK

9.88

25.94

8.05

16.68

FISH-BONE

8.36

23.58

9.5

23.06

FREE-FLOATING

3.45

9.45

2.98

8.33

U-LOCK

18.72

45.79

17.23

43.65

FISH-BONE

16.71

41.22

17.56

43.12

FREE-FLOATING

7.79

12.34

3.36

10.24

U-LOCK

8.39

18.91

10.07

15.15

FISH-BONE

7.62

17.25

7.22

16.73

FREE-FLOATING

3.28

9.16

3.06

10.08

So, the greenhouse gas benefits from algae culture arise only as offsets when the algal use
displaces the combustion of a fossil fuel or used for the production of electricity. Earlier reports
from
FAO
2010
(http://www.fao.org/uploads/media/0903_CSIRO_Greenhouse_gas_sequestration_by_algae.pdf)
showed that it is possible to produce algal biodiesel at less cost and with a substantial greenhousegas and energy balance advantage over fossil diesel. However, the economic viability is highlydependent upon algae with high oil yields capable of high production year-round, which has yet to
be demonstrated on a commercial scale.
This paper substantiates the bio-economic potentials of aqua-farming of the algae
Enteromorpha intestinalis as a place based climate adaptive intervention in climate vulnerable
deltaic Sundarbans of India, since mangrove ecosystems in Indian Sundarbans are known sources
for methane, having very high global warming potential [11]. While higher optimistic carbonaceous
biomass fixation capacity of Enteromorpha can be considered as a direct indication of carbon
capture by this aquatic flora in inundated waters, as evidenced earlier [17],[12], perusal of resultsfrom the present study shows its estimable potential for being used as a source of both bio-diesel andfood supplement.
The relevance of this study finds its significance in the fact that the settlement areas of deltaic
Sundarbans has unusually high emission footprints in power and transport sectors as reported by
WWF (2012), since these desolate islands are not yet connected to the country’s national power
grid, whereas loss of agricultural land due to rapid coastal erosion and inundation [31] hasaccentuated the need for alternatives in food, feed and fodder. This research has all impending
merits to find a local need-based solution for combating impacts of global changes.
V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We sincerely acknowledge the support from Asia Pacific Network for Global Change
Research (APN-GCR) Japan and Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, Govt. of India
for sponsoring this study to SAFE. We also acknowledge the support and resource sharing of ourresearch collaborator Korea Green Foundation, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI)
of Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR) and the Indian Institute of Technology, IIT
Kharagpur, and West Bengal.
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