Traditional Textile Craft - an Intangible Cultural Heritage?
Edited by Camilla Ebert, Mary Harlow, Eva Andersson Strand and Lena Bjerregaard

ISBN 978-87-998798-0-9
Copyright © 2016 Centre for Textile Research, University of Copenhagen
Illustration on cover page:
Detail of textile from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress © Cécile Michel
Editors: Camilla Ebert, Mary Harlow, Eva Andersson Strand, and Lena Bjerregaard
With editorial help from: Camilla Luise Dahl
Logo created by: Sidsel Frisch © Sidsel Frish and CTR

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We dedicate this publication to Widad Kamel Kawar
in honour of her valuable contribution to keeping alive the rich heritageof traditional Arab dress.

2Participants from the “Traditional Textile Craft - an Intangible Cultural Heritage?” workshop, Amman, Jordan, March 2014
© Camilla Ebert.
3

Content
Introduction					

p.

Ameera Al Zaben/ Najd Sweidan: The Role of the Jordan
Museum in documenting the Jordaniantraditional costumes				
p.
69

6

THEME 1 – Definition of archaeological craft practice anduse of terminology

Anna Falk: Unfolding fashion - reconsidering
traditional patternmaking			Susan Jones: Visibility and invisibility, the dilemmas facing“traditional craft” workers in the contemporary context								
p.
15

THEME 3 – The use of traditional textile craft andcraftsmanship in the interpretation of ancient societies

Laila Tyabji: Thread and voices, traditional crafts
in a globalised world				p.

22

Birgitta Nygren and Kerstin Andersson Åhlin:
Hemslöjden -The National Associationof Swedish Handicraft Societies			

28

p.

THEME 2 – The relationship of traditional textile craft tomodern fashion studies
Susanne Lervad: Textile terminologies and relations
between key concepts in the context of myfamily’s story and my own life			p.

54

Toolika Gupta: Defining and redefining the
traditional in “Indian Fashion”			

65

p.

p.

75

Eva Andersson Strand: Experimental textile
archaeology - a link to the past?			

p.

85

Joanne Cutler: Interlacing threads of evidence
in the interpretation of textile production in
Bronze Age Crete 				

p.

101

Linda Olofsson: Spinning in the past andthe present					

p.

114

Cécile Michel: Estimating an old Assyrian household
textile production with the help of experimentalarchaeology: feasibility and limitations 		p. 125
Mary Harlow: Textile craft and history		

p.

137

Mary Petrina Boyd: The textile tools of Tall al ‘Umari 								
p. 146

4

Jeanette Boertien: Aspects of textile production in Iron
Age Transjordan 				p.
152THEME 4 – Preserving traditional textile heritage andmaking it visible
Nihad Hendawi/Fatma Marii:
Preserving techniques for the textile collections
at the Jordan Museum				p.

163

Maj Ringgaard: Preserving the Danish textile
heritage					

p.

166

Anna Karatzani: Metal threads, the historicaldevelopment					

p.

177

Gillian Vogelsang Eastwood: North Africanand Middle Eastern embroidery			

p.

190

Jori Johnson: From ancient to anew;
felt making achievements			

p.

193

Kerstin Andersson: Why are people doing
textile tours?					

p.

211

A tribute to Widad Kamel Kawar 		

p.

216

Unless otherwise stated © belongs to the author.

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Introduction: Traditional Textile Craft – an
Intangible Cultural Heritage?
In March 2014 a workshop was held at the Museum of Jordan in Amman, Jordan, to discuss, debate and experiment the questions which surround the roles of traditional textile crafts in thetwenty-first century world. Scholars, practitioners
and craftspeople from across the globe met to exchange ideas and learn from each other. This online
publication is one of the outcomes of this project.
Textile craft and textile design have always had important social, cultural and economic impacts on individuals and communities. The cultural heritage of textiles is a living tradition inherited from our ancestors
and passed on to our descendants. It encompasses
the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts,
and the language and terminologies used to describe
both the activities and the material outcomes. All too
often in the twenty-first century, it enters the consciousness of a society primarily through its preservation in museums; our workshop aimed to heighten
awareness of the active but often invisible work that

continues and is still developing today.
The workshop brought together archaeologists,
anthropologists, artists, designers, heritage workers, conservators, business enterprise advocatesand craftspeople to examine and better understandthe varied approaches, uses, theoretical frameworks and the practical realities of craft creativity, labour and organisation. Discussions exploredthe use of traditional textile crafts across time andspace enabling exchange of knowledge and insights into the range of agendas which surroundtraditional textile craft and heritage frameworks.
While the workshop was focused on particular aspects of tangiblity and intangibility, two related issues
ran as underlying themes: the interaction between thepast and the present and the need for open and continued dialogue between the different interest groups.
Those who study textiles and textile production in
the past gain knowledge and insight from traditional
techniques practised in the present; and an under6

Theme 1: Definitions of traditional craft-practice andthe use of terminology
Today the use of traditional textile craft and designoften equates with a high end handcrafted product,encompassing the notion of excellent quality combined with complicated techniques. It embodies timeconsuming processes of production (the longer time ittakes to make an item, the higher the value) and craft
tradition. On the other hand, a historically traditional
design or craft technology can also be perceived as
old-fashioned, expensive and conserving the old for
its own sake rather than as part of a living, creative dynamic. Traditional textile design might be considered
conservative; textile crafts are often part of the identity of the community, and costume in particular is used
to express belonging and exclusivity. The language we
use to describe techniques can provide a semantic
map of craft skills and evolution. The retention andre-use of traditional terminology and the invention of
new terms can be used to track continuity and change.
Terminology can also be cross-cultural and used touncover shared cultural practices from the past.

Detail of textile from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress©Camilla Ebert.

standing of the history and heritage of traditional craft
can provide a framework for evolution in the future.
The definition of traditional craft should be as wide as
possible, encompassing historic techniques and modern innovations, ways of organising work and creativity, but retaining the sense of handicraft rather thanindustrial scale production.
The four themes of the workshop were as follow:
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Theme 2: The relationship of traditional textile craft
to modern fashion studies
Today we are conscious of the importance of preserving craft objects and the need to record and retain
craft skills for posterity. The tension between craft
production, the status of craftspeople and their work,and the need to make a living presents challenges. In
the industrial world, textiles are cheap and mass produced, with the sad consequence that traditional textile craft skill and knowledge are not always valued,
and often forgotten. It is time consuming to produce
a textile by hand, and such textiles are expensive if labour is fairly costed. The market for such work thus
becomes even more restricted with the result that it
becomes less advantageous for crafts people to maintain their skills. As old (traditional) designs go out offashion, it can be difficult for craftspeople to use traditional techniques to produce new designs. There isa negative circle of cause and effect which results inthe diminution of traditional textile craft and a lossof knowledge. This loss is often invisible. However,there is a shift in focus happening, which provides
hope: many designers are now exploiting the potential of traditional craft in their work and revitalizing
practices often with very ‘non-traditional’ ends. To-

Garment from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab
Dress © Camilla Ebert.

8gether with a concern for zero-waste and for re-cycling, a new dynamic is emerging between traditional
crafts and the modern fashion and creative industries.

their social, economic and cultural significance more
visible. The workshop discussed ideas for collaboration between different interest groups in order tosafeguard traditional crafts and to create new andexciting possibilities for making the intangible tangible. Textile researchers, museum curators, textile
conservators, craftspeople, textile designers and textile collectors, cultural heritage workers, co-operative organisations etc. need to create a platform forthe sharing and exchange of ideas and information.
We recognize the need for more dialogue that crosses the boundaries of economics, culture, heritage,
design, tradition and the simple need to make a living.

Theme 3: The use of traditional textile craft andcraftsmanship in the interpretation of ancient societies
Textile tools associated with various stages of manufacture often constitute the single most important
type of evidence for assessment of the scale of production and technology of the textile industry in thepast. By combining textual, iconographic and archaeological evidence with research on textile technology we have the potential to include textiles andtextile production in general archaeological research,even when no actual textiles survive. Understanding living, traditional textile crafts allow us to better
investigate the techniques and the textiles producedin the past, and also to understand the powerful,but often invisible, influence of craft on societies.
Theme 4: Preserving traditional textile heritage andmaking it visible
It is essential to preserve the knowledge and skills
that lie behind traditional textile crafts, and to make9

Further remarks
The questions raised at the workshop require global
thinking on a number of levels. We need to address issues faced in preserving, conserving, maintaining anddeveloping textile crafts and the culture they engender, embody and express. This online publication reflects the work of the conference and the evolution ofideas since then. The initial response to the workshop
blog, the interaction of participants and the wider interest it has garnered since, are expressed in the current presentations.

We hope this will inspire yet more collaborations, discussions and ideas.
We kindly thank all the participants for their important
contributions to the workshop and to this publication.
Each author has written from their own perspective,in their own tradition and the texts clearly demonstrate the multiplicity of viewpoints and approaches,
and the advantages of joining forces. We hope thatthe publication will inspire all those interested in Traditional Textile Craft and result in new and exciting
meetings and collaboration all over the world.
Copenhagen March 2016
Eva Andersson Strand and Mary Harlow

Garments from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab
Dress © Camilla Ebert.

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Headdress from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for
Arab Dress ©Camilla Ebert.

Garment with headdress from Tiraz Widad Kawar
Home for Arab Dress ©Camilla Ebert.

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We would like to thank all our sponsors and cooperators
without whom ’Traditional Textile Craft – an Intangible Cultural Heritage’ would not have been possible:

Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress, Amman, Jordan

Sponsors

Bani Hamida Weaving Project, Jordan

The Jordan Museum, Amman, Jordan

The Museum of the Lowest Place in the Earth, Jordan

The Danish National Research Foundation’s Centre for
Textile Research (DNRF64), University of Copenhagen,Denmark

Safi Weaving Project, Jordan

Iraq Al Amir Handicraft Village, Jordan

We especially thank
Her Royal Highness Princess Sumaya bint El Hassan
for her patronage of the workshop.

University of Leicester, UK
The Wenner-Gren Foundation, US
The Department of Antiquities of Jordan
Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress, Amman, Jordan
Cooperators
Jihad Kafafi, Jordan
Kinaresor, Sweeden
Hussam Tours, Jordan
The Jordan Museum, Amman, Jordan
The Department of Antiquities of Jordan

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13

Theme 1: Definitions of traditional
craft-practice and the use of terminology

14

Susan Jones
is a Visiting Research Fellow in the
Department of Anthropology atGoldsmiths, University of London. Aftermany years working with community
and textile projects around the world,but particularly in the Middle East, Susan
Jones edited a special edition of Textile:
The Journal of Cloth and Culture, with afocus on the Middle East.

15

Susan Jones: Visibility and invisibility, thedilemmas facing ‘traditional craft’ workers in
the contemporary context
got to know the women and their families, started
to do fieldwork and stayed with them in 1989/90.
Eventually (after disruptions from the first Gulf War) I
completed my PhD research – a 20 year longitudinal
study about the women and their traditional weaving. The women – especially the group of younger
weavers who have taken on the management of
the project - can show and tell you far more than I
can. This paper highlights some key features. This is
ground loom weaving, of long lengths sewn together.
Traditionally (mainly) women wove everything fortheir homes – the tent itself, the floor covering andcushions. It is warp faced weaving that could use
weft twining as decoration, particularly on the Sahaor dividing panel. The material used is mainly goatand sheep’s hair, though camel hair and even cotton

This reflection is mainly focused on the Bani Hamida
Weaving Project in Jordan as an example of the dilemmas facing craft workers. It is concerned withfour aspects - their ‘traditional‘ weaving, changes intheir weaving since 1985, a comparison with othertextile projects in Oman, Kuwait, Egypt and the Negev and finally reflecting on what this review cantell us about visibility and invisibility of craft workers – the theme of this section of the workshop.
My personal links with the Jabal Bani Hamida
women and their weaving project in Jordan goes backto 1985, when I first visited Makawir at the start of an
Income Generation project. I was working in Jordan
on a large urban World Bank project and by chance
was invited to see the rugs made, when the women
were given their first payment. I visited the project,
16

From the 1990s - set up as a business: The Weaving
Centre (Photo: © Sue Jones).

can be used. They used any local resources – including
the horn to beat down the wool and a simple wooden drop spindle. The loom is very simple, using local
branches, stones or even breeze blocks or petrol cans.
However a very simple loom means that the weaver
requires great skill and strength to keep the tension.
By 1985 most of the families in this remote andisolated mountain area overlooking the Dead Sea– Jabal Bani Hamida – had settled. They no longer
had large herds of goats and many of the men were17

employed in the army, travelling away to work. There
were only about four older women that had someweaving skills. The area was identified as very poorand Save the Children, USA, with support from HM
Queen Noor and small funding from USAID, set up
a series of initiatives to help – small loans to men
for goats, a health program for mothers and children, sponsoring school children and a weaving
project to provide income and empower women.
Only the weaving project, now run by the daughters of some of the original weavers, has survived.
Over the years there have been tremendous changes in the weaving project (set out in detail in Susan
Jones – Impact Assessment: Money in my Pocket).
Various institutions have helped this program – Save
the Children (1985), Jordan Society for Development (1996) and now it is under the umbrella of
Jordan River Foundation (1998), the NGO established by HM Queen Rania al Abdullah in 1995. Various donor agency funders have supported it - forexample USAID, Canadian aid and Austrian funding.
While the project began (and was supported) asa social empowerment project for women, it had tobecome self sufficient and try to develop as a business. The weaving project has searched for a market

niche in a changing market, affected by conflicts, inflation, changes in demand, other competitors andreversals in tourism in the Middle East. To do this all
sorts of technical and design changes have been tried.
These include:• Changes in production – using metal looms,
trying upright looms.
• Changes in resources – importing cheaper,cleaned, higher quality wool from New Zealand to reduce the huge water costs for cleaning local wool.
• The regularisation of production – from processing the wool in their homes to working at
Dyeing and Spinning Centres.
• Changes in design – In the early days of the
project they used traditional designs in new
combinations and with new colour combinations. They have created a vast range of designs, unrelated to the traditional rugs. At one
time even the Bani Hamida weavers themselves were encouraged to produce their own
designs.
• They piloted diverse products - these included
cushions, hangings, curtains and seat covers.

New style wall hanging (Photo: © Sue Jones).

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•
There has been diversification into candle
making and felt making
Changes in lives
There have been many changes in the womens’ lives
with the money from the weaving – although it wasnever sufficient as a full income. Many reports havebeen made on this. I was involved in 3 reports.
As an Anthropologist
My PhD research was concerned with whether and inwhat ways the project empowered the Bani Hamida
women. My conclusion was that it had (and continues
to be) a contested arena, in which women try to be
seen as skilled workers while business and financial
constraints result in their being seen as producers, if
not just the labour, for production. This is my focus inthis paper, as an aspect of Visibility and Invisibility in
Textile Production.
Examples from other Countries
Before setting out issues for discussion from this casestudy, a question to ask is, if this is a particular example? My recent studies involved further research withpractitioners considering other weaving

Weaving (Photo: © Sue Jones).

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Oman
(Photo: © Charlotte Heath).

and/or craft initiatives. I edited a special Middle Eastissue of Textile: The Journal of Cloth and Culture. This
involved case studies from Kuwait, Oman, Negev andEgypt, which provided evidence for some general conclusions.
Drawing some Conclusions
This paper is concerned with the Definitions of Traditional Craft-Practice, particularly some of the dynamics or conflicts – such as end products of high value,
time consuming processes, old fashioned and expensive products, or the conserving of the old for its
own sake. This paper is a reflection of some of these
dynamics but from the perspective of those making
these products.
For the purposes of discussion at this workshop
three questions seem important (discussed in detail inthe presentation).
1. What are women’s connections with products?
2. How important are historical connections?
3. How much are they seen as craft workers orlabour?
A final concluding statement for our discussions –linked to an exhibition I held at the Constance Howard Resource and Research Centre in Textiles at Gold-

Photo: © Sue Jones.

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smiths, University of London – is the end of a poem
about the Bani Hamida weaving project:
Is the invisibility of craft skills inevitable?
Pulled in every direction
The tensions are clearly visible.
Interwoven with their lives
The rugs are a partof the Bedouin’s past and present.
Can they still be part of their future?
Or does craftwork provide a temporary bridge
only to a more commercial market,
a more material world,a more global demand?

Hattu - weft wrapping technique (Photo: © Sue
Jones).

Who will replace the weavers?
What will replace the weaving?
Who will remember when
there is no one left to weave?
I will.
Photo: © Sue Jones.

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Laila Tyabji
has worked with crafts and craftspeople all overIndia for the past 40 years. Dealing with both theextraordinary potential of craft as a means of
empowerment and earning, as well as the
problems and stereotyping that often prevents
this potential from being realised.
She is Chairperson of DASTKAR Society for Crafts& Craftspeople.

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Laila Tyabji: Threads & voices – traditional
craft in a globalised world
My presentation is a personal journey, working withcrafts and craftspeople all over India for the past 35
years. It highlights, through history and case stories,
the communities behind the threads and stitches; illustrating both the extraordinary potential of craft
as a means of empowerment and earning, as well as
the problems and stereotyping that often prevents
this potential from being realized. The impressionsof global brands and international fashion icons havealso had their impact on Indian consumer tastes.
Traditional textile crafts in India carry their own
cultural, social and emotive baggage, with designs,
colours and motifs, each having their own significance, and different communities each having theirown distinctive techniques and styles. So adapting
these traditions to contemporary urban markets andglobal consumers has its own dangers and challenges.
It requires sensitivity and awareness – creating trust
and partnership between craftsperson and designer.

Craftspeople are not just a passive pair of hands, but
creative artists and professionals in their own right.
I am starting this presentation with a story: It’s
Stockholm airport in Sweden, and Shanta Bai, 23
years old and the youngest ever craftsperson to win
the National Master Craftsperson Award for her tribal
embroidery, stands on top of an airport escalator for
the first time in her life. She has flown in a plane, exhibited a major new work at one of Europe’s premier
Art Museums, danced and drunk wine with international artists, lectured at the Boras Design School, become the first Lambani to travel abroad. “Isn’t there aWorld Cup for Embroidery” she asks – I’m going to winit!” Why not? Embroidery (and other traditional textile skills) should be given due recognition - as a creative art as well as a competitive career opportunity.
Shanta, still in her 20s, is successfully practicing craft as an ECONOMIC rather than cultural activity, at a time when many young

23

craftspeople are leaving the sector in search of other more lucrative and stable employment. Sadly

this is because craftspeople in India have no status.
In India hand woven and hand embellished textiles
are an industry and a profession, often practiced in
sub-primitive conditions, without the support of pension, insurance, a fixed salary, medicare. The volume
is huge; there are between 20-30 million producers, generating over a billion rupees annually in export and domestic sales. Indian Handicrafts remain
the largest source of foreign exchange revenue.
The craftsman in India traditionally had the statusof an artist, tracing his descent from Vishwakarma,“Lord of the Many Arts, Master of a 1000 handicrafts,
Carpenter to the Gods, Architect of their Celestial
Mansion, Designer of all Ornaments, the First of all
Craftsmen.” Or in the Rig Veda and Upanishads, theholy texts of Hinduism, the Universe is imagined asa cloth woven by the Gods and the passage of day
and night as a weaver throwing a shuttle acrossa loom. A 17th century French traveller, Francois
Pyrard de Laval, wrote: Everyone from the Cape ofGood Hope to China, man and woman, is clothedfrom head to foot in the product of Indian looms.

Figure 1. Ganga enjoys working on large-scale pieces that showcases her skills in new ways - a patchwork appliqué and embroidery wallhanging for the Taj Hotel chain.

24

When Gandhi chose the spinning and wearing of khadi as a metaphor for indepdence, he wasdrawing on that ancient symbiotic connection. It’sa far cry to the lament of a handloom weaver today: “it’s the grave pit, not the loom pit.” More andmore handloom weavers (estimated at 15-18%
every decade) are leaving the sector. Paradoxically,
this is at a time when “hand-woven” and “handmade” have entered the environmentally aware
global consumer consciousness and when millionsof Indian handloom weavers continue to practicethe extraordinary hand skills of their forefathers.
A Dutch diplomat visiting a DASTKAR exhibitionand looking at the women’s intricate embroideries,
remarked sadly: “They are so skilled; why doesn’t
anyone train them to make electronic spare parts?”
An illustration of the relative value the urban educated elite plays on 21st century technology versus
traditional skills. But in India craft and handloom are
not just a production process - merely a mechanical, mindless, somewhat outdated form of earningand employment. They are a rural woman’s creativemeans to conquer her desert landscape and the confines of her limited income - her way of transcending
the dependence and drudgery of her arduous agrar-

25

ian and domestic life cycle. It is a creative skill andstrength that is uniquely hers - an individual statement of her femininity, culture and being.
Over 9 million textile craftspeople are still partof India’s living heritage, practicing hand skills unmatched by any other country. Weavers, embroiderers, printers and spinners create textiles in hundredsof different techniques and traditions unique toeach community and area – woven, waxed, embroidered, appliqued, brocaded, block-printed, painted,
tie-dyed, tinseled - a cultural and economic strength
whose full potential remains untapped and that still
have a contemporary and global appeal. Yet weavers and craftspeople are dismissed as primitive andredundant in developing economies, even as the developed world rues their own loss of these traditions.
Why is preservation important if we aren’t mourning its loss? My take on this is that eventually wewill realize that we have lost most of the colours,
textures, sounds, flavours, folklore and imagery thatmade us distinctive and special. Handlooms are apart of India’s history, economy, aesthetic and culture. If we lose them we lose a part of ourselves.
For a country with a 5000-year-old textile tradition
the story of the past 50 years is one of both continuity

and change. Indian textiles may occasionally becomeart, but they are primarily a traditional craft skill andtechnology - the largest single source of employment
after agriculture, geared to produce a market-driven
consumer product. Its creators are anonymous; its
motifs, techniques and styles incredibly diverse - anintegral part of our lifestyles, economy, aesthetic andculture. The Indian handloom sector is not just thelargest source of employment and income generation next to agriculture, it is also the one area of acknowledged skill, creativity and expertise where India
is not just on par, but unique in the rest of the world.
While international agencies, economists and activists agonize over the conflicting interests of unemployment, the depletion of natural energy resources and the degradation of the environment
through industrialization, handloom continues tobe a viable alternative. With a simple, inexpensive
spindle or loom, and the inherent skill of his hands,a spinner or weaver can both support a family andenrich the national economy and export trade.
Nevertheless, the handicraft sector loses more andmore people every year – an estimated 15 to 20% a
decade. Today’s Master Weavers don’t want their children to be craftspeople. The earnings are minuscule –26

most of India’s weavers still earn less than the stipulated minimum daily wage. They have no social security,
insurance or provident funds – or even social status.
Paradoxically, while weavers abandon their looms
for other secure, even if unskilled, jobs, the contribution of the handloom sector to employment and earning and GDP is still huge, showing its possible potential. FABINDIA, a retail house based in Delhi, consumes
11.2 million metres of handloom fabric a year, 10 lakh
metres a month at a total value of 112 crore rupees! It
generates 100,000 man days of employment and creates over 86,000 jobs, compared to 34 jobs for 24 lakh
metres in the mill sector. Many of these jobs are in therural sector, otherwise deprived of job opportunities.
At one of our Dastkar Bazaars, an 80 year-old
Manipuri woman wearing a worn handloom wrapping was asked whether she wasn’t cold. Why did
she not buy anyone of the warm synthetic mill woolies available on the market? Her reply reminds usof so many intangible things we disregard: “I’ve
spun this out of my own hands; my mother and sisters have woven it. My mother learnt it from her
mother, and her mother from her mother and hermother from her mother before her. The warmth ofso many fingers has gone into this. The generations

of the women of my family enfold me. How can I be
cold? How can a machine make anything warmer?”As the textile scholar Lotika Varadarajan once
said, “To sacrifice craft traditions at the altar ofmodernity is tantamount to adding yet another dimension to the poverty of the mind.” Losing traditional textiles, we lose the warmth of
our traditions, the uniqueness of being Indian.

Figure 2. Craft is a wonderful catalyst for employment, earning and empowerment for women inrural India.

27

Birgitta Nygren
has, since the beginning of the 1980’s, lived and worked in Visby,
Sweden. The Handicraft Association on Gotland has been her employer
and for the first six years she was the handicraft manager withresponsibility for the operation of the shop. She is also a handicraft
consultant. Cultural heritage, sharing of knowledge and crafting as abusiness are central tasks.
Kerstin Andersson Åhlin
has worked as director of the National Association of Swedish HandicraftSocieties since 1994. She has been working as both handicraft
consultant and manager of handicraft societies for many years. For
almost forty years the driving force behind her work has been to bringhandicrafts into everyday life and to make them contemporary.

28

Birgitta Nygren & Kerstin A. Åhlin:
Hemslöjden - The National Association of
Swedish Handicraft Societies

How it all started
The Swedish handicraft organization is more than one
hundred years old. The basic idea, when it was started by a woman, Lilly Zickerman, was to collect andtake care of the cultural heritage and develop it bycreating an opportunity for people in the countryside
to earn money outside farming.
In 1899 Lilli Zickerman started the first Swedish Handicraft Association in Sweden.
Her ideas were:• to take care of the old craft tradition
that was being removed with theadvent of industrialism.
• to learn from the old tradition andknowledge and transform it into
something current and contemporary.
• to provide opportunities for the rural

population to havean income from theircraft.

How did Lilli work,and how has it affected the whole handicraft organization?
A nationwide inventory of the handicraft
was performed by Lilli
Zickerman. She traveled herself to photograph the old objects,
mainly textiles.
24,000 hand-painted pictures are preserved from theinventory. These pictures have been the foundation29

Laces for use on caps. This was how the old textiles were shown in exhibitions, as inspirations for the new.

30

The National Association of Swedish HandicraftSocieties
The Swedish Handicraft Association is a non-profit organization with members. The National Association isfinanced with funds from the state, membership subscriptions and in some cases project funds.
Regional financing: the regional handicraft societies finance their work with membership fees, funds
from the region and in some cases project funds. The
main part of the work is done by volunteers.
Gotland is one of 24 regional associations that arepart of the national society. The Swedish handicraft
organization is unique with all its regional associations.

for the development of collections for the Swedishhandicraft shops. This has also created a model for
how we have worked in the organization. We learn
from the old crafts and develop them with time.
The importance of the shops
The first handicraft shop was started in 1899. It was
the model for other handicraft shops all over Sweden.
During the 20th century there was at least one handicraft shop in each of the regions of Sweden; about
25. Theese have made a contribution to making thehandicraft known in Sweden. From the shops a lot of
the activity and product development was done incooperation with textile artists. Crafts such as basketmaking, smithing, and woodwork from independent
craftsmen.
Today there are 21 shops connected to the organization.
Once a year the members choose their board, andat the yearly meeting the members give their approval of the work done during the year. By writing a
motion for the board each member can influence themovement. Proposals can, of course, also be given ina more informal setting as well.

GotlandGotland is the largest island in Sweden. With its location in the middle of the Baltic Sea it has historically
been very important and rich. Trade has been donewith the countries around the Baltic Sea, in Russia
and down to Istanbul. In the year 1361 the King Valdemar of Denmark invaded the island and for about
300 years the island was Danish. Visby is the only city
on Gotland.
31

32

There are still many buildings from the medieval times
in the city and it is listed on Unesco’s World Heritagelist.

the state and the region.
The importance of the cultural heritage
Handicraft as cultural heritage is important. The crafted products show material, technique and design.
The knowledge of craft has been passed down, which
has made the evolution go slowly, and sometimes it
has stagnated. New inventions have seldom been implemented.

Population Sweden - 9, 644, 864
Population Gotland - 57, 161 (2011)
Gotlands läns Hemslöjdsförening
The handicraft association of Gotland was founded in
1925. Anyone can become a member by paying theyearly membership fee. The handicraft association of
Gotland has 600 members and a lot of different activities.
In the board of the association there are representatives from the whole island, the region, thecounty administrative board and the county museum.
Two handicraft consultants are employed by the association.
The handicraft consultants
Today there are about 50 handicraft consultants
working all over the country. The consultants’ tasks
include the cultural heritage of crafts, craft as an industry, transfer of knowledge and working with children and youths. The consultants’ work is financed by

The tacit knowledge
The cultural heritage of handicraft is also connectedto the making - the tacit knowledge.
An old bolster used when travelling by carriage has
been recreated. In the handicraft shops both pattern
and material are for sale. It is also possible to buy abolster that has already been embroidered.
The old bolster can also inspire new interpretations in today’s community.

33

Hemslöjd textiles on exhibition.

34

The moving image
The challenge of collecting and transferring the creation of an object, is a challenge and a process. The
moving image has simplified the work and today
there is a lot of information published and explainedon YouTube.

Material
The domestic materials consist today of wool andflax. Large quantities of hemp were previously grown
on Gotland and other places in Sweden. Today this isprohibited to avoid production of cannabis.
Flax
Cultivation of flax has been done for household requirements. The flax has been processed for textiles
for home decoration and clothing.
Each summer a small quantity of flax is grown tokeep the knowledge of flax-dressing alive. Flax days
are arranged at the Bunge museum during the summer.

The collection
The shops and each association have their own collections gathered over 100 years.
The handicraft associations made inventories of
the crafts and one of the first measures that the handicraft association took was to find out what crafts had
been traditional on Gotland. An inventory was madeof different geographic areas on the island.
The objects were described in writing, photographed and sometimes a small textile sample was
acquired. After each inventory an exhibition of theobjects was held to give them new attention. Sometimes the old objects where donated to the handicraft
association.
Over time objects have also been saved from theshops and these have also been added to the collections.

Wool
On Gotland an old sheep breed with horns, Gutefåret,still exists. It is one of the native Swedish breeds, andhas a long ancestry. The wool consists of three layers:
underwool, guard hair, and marrow hair. However,Gutefåret is not popular in today’s wool market. The
hides have straight hair and - at times - displays in a
mottled pattern, which lowers their economic value.
3536

In the 1940s, only a small number of these sheep
existed. Today, there exist around 3000 females(ewes.) Now, Gutefår are mainly bred as picturesquelandscape animals!
From Gutefåret a new breed of sheep was bred in
the beginning of the 20th century, Gotlandsfåret (theGotlandic sheep). The sheep is kept for the fleece,
which is curly and silver-grey. The wool is in different
shades of grey and has a high shine. It consists of under wool and guard hair that dominates. The wool is
spun into knitting yarn and is used for felting but does
not bring a great income. Today the breed exists in
Denmark, Norway, Germany and New Zealand - andin Sweden.
The hides, which are economically viable, are processed both for interiors and are used in fashion.
Our traditional Swedish sheep breeds provide
very different types of wool. This is something weappreciate in the handicraft associations and the textile handicrafts. This can, for instance, be fine wool
(finull), Gotlandic wool (Gotlandsull), wool from the
Gutefår (Guteull) and Rya wool (Ryaull).
The sheep gives us material for knitting, felting andfurcrafts.
37

38

39

Craft techniques
In the Swedish handicraft societies most textile techniques have been presented, both as finished products for sale, and as courses.
Most textile techniques have been used on Gotland for the needs of the family. Some have also had
an economic significance, both historically and in present times. As an example, we show some techniquesfrom Gotland.
Knitting
In the early 1900s knitted goods and patterns werecollected by Hermanna Stengård. In 1925 she published her book Gotlandic knitting (Gotländsk sticksöm). It has inspired much innovation, both for hand
knitting and for industrially made fashion garments.
Several books with Gotlandic knitting have been published and today the patterns are still alive.
Knitting has been known on the island since the1600s. It has had a large economic impact and today
knitted products are produced for sale. These are produced in a small scale-industry.

40Felting
Since 1994, various projects to promote felting
have been done. Knowledge of technology is spreadthrough courses, training, and symposia. An academy
regularly meets where interested felters extend theirknowledge together. Currently felting has a strong position on Gotland but historically there has been no
documented felting.
Specific measures has been taken to encourage selected people to embrace felting. Yvonne Habbe wasawarded a stipend to examine the possibility of gilding the wool.
Barbro Lomakka, who after 20 years is still working
with wool, had her first experiences at the handicraft
society. She uses the felted wool amongst other things
as a part in sound absorbers and for rugs that get a
specific expression. Today the technique is known asfelted hooked rug. She also uses felt for fashion.
Weaving
When the shops were still active many woven fabrics
were sold. It was mainly home furnishings, towels,
table linen, curtains and upholstery fabric. Fabric forthe national costumes were woven for a period. The
weaving techniques were often simple, but damask

was also sold.
To refine the wool of the Gutefår, two sheep owners got the opportunity, through a scholarship, toproduce a tweed fabric, Gute Tweed. They sorted
the wool and spun it so that a slightly harder twisted yarn of top coat was used as warp. A smoother,loosely spun yarn of bottom wool was used as weft.
The fabric was woven in twill inspired by the costume41

Sätergläntan
The National association of handicraft societies has
its own school where courses in different handicraft
techniques are held. Some examples of courses aresewing, knitting, weaving, smithing and wood work.
The courses are up to three years long in the different orientations.
The courses take their starting-point in the traditional handicrafts and its manufacturing methods,
and the students learn to convert the old crafts intomodern objects.

of Bockstensmannen. From the fabric modern jackets
were tailored, with the soft side toward the body andthe fabric’s more durable side outward.
Transferral of knowledge
The tacit knowledge is part of our immaterial cultural heritage and important to transfer to the coming
generations. Historically the knowledge of crafts has
been passed down from one generation to the next.
The curriculum of Swedish schools contains both textile crafts and wood and metal work for both boys andgirls. Basic knowledge of crafting is acquired throughthe schools.
To deepen the knowledge and develop the skills,
the knowledge of crafts is taught through different
classes and levels of education.

The courses of the National Association of Handicraft Societies
The National Association of Handicraft Societies
gets funding from the state, which is transmitted tothe handicraft societies in the country, to fund theircourses in different handicraft techniques.

Leadership education at the University of Gothenburg
At the University of Gothenburg a three year course
is available that teaches leaders different types ofcrafts. Here theoretical knowledge about handicraft iscombined with courses in, amongst other things, project management.

Courses on Gotland
On Gotland both week-long courses and weekend
courses are arranged in different techniques. The participants pay a course fee to cover the cost of teachers, the premises, and administration.
42

Each participant pays for the material he or she is using. The courses offered are partly funded by the statethrough the National Association.

organizations in Sweden that receive funding fromthe state. Within the National Association of Handicraft Societies there is a National Consultant whose
assignment it is to stimulate the children and youth
activities in the handicraft societies.

Symposia
Each summer we organize a symposium in a textile
technique. We always include some international
teachers, but have a base of Gotlandic women teaching. The participants at the symposium are mainly
from the mainland of Sweden, or from abroad. We
need at least 50 participants for the symposium to befeasible. Symposia with themes of felting, knitting,and embroidery have been held.

The Craft Train
In 1994-95 a nationwide project was executed, The
Craft Train (Slöjdtåget). A train that was furnished
to receive school classes with students aged 1316 years. The train travelled across the country andmade stops for three or four days at different locations. The students were onboard for one - threehours and were taught different craft techniques. The
train travelled to Gotland.

Academies
For a number of years interested handicrafters have
met in different academies. There you get the opportunity to deepen your knowledge, explore a newtechnique or a new material. You learn from the otherparticipants, and teach them. We do crafts and have
fun together!
Children and young people
To expend more resources on children and young
people is a mandate from the state and goes for all

43

The Craft Train at Gotland
When the craft train got to Gotland it had to travel
by boat! There are no train tracks on Gotland, as thetrains were shut down in the 1960s. But for three
weeks the Craft Train visited us.
Each morning we received students aged around
13. They got to try different craft techniques. They
were also given a guided tour of the train and all thecraft exhibited. It was a unique opportunity to show

the handicraft, materials and techniques used in different parts of the country. To show both similarities
and differences. Handicrafts from other countries
were also exhibited on the train. One Saturday a festival was arranged and the Craft Train was visited bymore than 1800 people, which was a record for thewhole exhibition period.

The Handicraft Circus gave a lot of inspiration, and tosee and experience such high quality crafts from allover the country is valuable.
The Handicraft ClubThe Handicraft Circus was the start of a nationwide
children and youth work in the country, the Handicraft Club, Slöjdklubben.

The Handicraft Circus
In 2004 - 2005 another nationwide project was done,
The Handicraft Circus. This time the focus was on
children aged 7-14. The Handicraft Circus toured thewhole country for two summers. A special type of
pedagogy was developed at The Handicraft Circus.
Research was done on this pedagogy.

The Handicraft Club at Gotland
After The Handicraft Circus’ visit the interest in working with handicrafts with children and young people
was at its peak. We were able to start five different
crafts clubs around the island right away. We had
trained mentors and many interested children. Eachsemester the children in the Craft Club met two hours
a week for five weeks. Both textile and wood crafts
were taught. At the break, in the middle of the meeting, crafts were discussed. Unfortunately the interestof the children cooled after a year. We also had problems involving the mentors as the compensation wasperceived too low. Today one Handicraft Club is very
sporadically running on Gotland, but the interest in
Handicraft Clubs varies across the country.

The Handicraft Circus at Gotland
The Handicraft Circus came to Gotland in the summerof 2004. The new semester had just started and eachday 2-3 school classes visited the tent. During the evenings different groups and organizations visited, bothchildren and adults. At the weekend families could
come. We got good publicity in the newspapers.
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Youth Thing
For a decade we aimed our work at young people,
we called it “Youth Thing”. Young people between 14
and 25 years met one night a week to craft under thesupervision of adults. It was a completely voluntary
activity at no cost. The youth took part in planningand arranging the activities. Crafting was done in bothwood and textile. Several of the youths that took partin “Youth Thing” are using the knowledge received intheir working life today.

Each room had its own specific theme and weshowed the handicraft of today and tomorrow. Amongthese: crafts from the Lapps, modern birch bark crafts
and crafts from all over the world, the whole hall exhibited crafts inspired by the old folk art and crafts
from other cultures.
The Leaf Project
One large project that was part of the exhibition was
the Leaf Project. A project with 2000 leaf framesthat were to be decorated to create a forest at theexhibition. Anyone that wanted, could take part anddecorate a leaf. It was a mix made up of children andprofessional handicrafters and artists. The youngest
participant was 6 years old. The oldest 87. The leaves
were sold and made 60,000 Euro, or 78,000 USD, thatwere donated to charities.

Exhibitions
The Swedish Handicraft Association has from thestart, 100 years ago, arranged large exhibitions about
handicraft both within the country and in other countries.
The Jubilee Exhibition
In 2012 the organization celebrated 100 years withmore than 800 activities all over the country. The Jubilee Exhibition was held in one of the largest art galleries in Stockholm. In the 12 halls of the art gallery,craft from the whole country was shown. One of thehalls was transformed to a workshop where the visitors could try different handicrafts.

Weaving
Another big exhibition was held during the jubilee
year. It was a weaving exhibition at the large folk art
museum (Nordiska musset) in Stockholm.

45

46

47

The exhibition
Modern woven textiles showed the position of weaving techniques in today’s society as well as traditional
patterns.
In the exhibition there were looms where the visitors could try weaving.
Exhibitions at Gotland
Each year a number of exhibitions of handicrafts areshown at Langska huset (the house of the handicraft
society). Sometimes we show a specific crafting technique, at other times it is a sales exhibition.
Some exhibitions come to us from the mainland,
like here where we see “Krona och Krans” (Crown andgarland). It was produced by all handicraft consultants. The different textile crafting educations in theregion exhibit their products and knowledge eachyear and individual handicrafters often ask to exhibit
their crafts in a solo exhibition.
The work with the exhibitions is important to market the handicrafts but also for the crafters - both professionals and amateurs alike. It gives needed attention.
During the symposia several exhibitions are held, forinstance with the theme knitting - mittens and socks.

48

Network
To be able to successfully manage a non-profit organization a large network of interested members
throughout the country is required. The members areorganized regionally and locally in different ways. The
contact with like-minded is important.
Some examples from Gotland
Textil Gotland is an interest group working to promote
the textile development on the island. Many members are self-employed and have their own shops orother places of sales. The group is growing, which indicates that there is a large interest for textile workand a need for networking.

49

Wool on Gotland
Wool on Gotland, a network to promote small scaleindustrial development of the refining of wool produced on Gotland. The network contains representatives from companies that refine the fiber - washingand spinning - designers and shop owners, as well as
knowledge intermediaries. Many of them are sheep
owners. A trip is planned to northern Italy to look at
machines used for industrial handling of wool. The
Network was started quite recently.

Communication
To communicate your message is getting more andmore important as the competition in digital media
increases.
One of the most important media we have inthe handicraft association is our own magazine“Hemslöjd” (Handicraft). The magazine, which wasstarted in 1933, is a subscription magazine. In it you
can read about handicraft and crafters, get ideas on
how to craft and where to buy handicrafts. The magazine has awarded several highly regarded prizes inrecent years.
Another important communication and knowledge
channel is Hemslöjdens Publishing house.
The handicraft association publishes its own bookswith descriptions on how to make things by hand.
The shops and societies have their own collections,collected during 100 years. Today the collections canbe viewed in a digital museum.

the regions, which in turn distributes them to thebusiness. It is no longer assumed that there should be
two crafts consultants in each region. A greater synergy between handicraft and other cultural expressions
is sought after by the state.
Explore to deepen, develop and transmit
The techniques of the crafts have been explored fromthe foundation and up during the last decades. Textile
artists have researched different knitting and crochet
techniques and tried to develop them into new products. The results have been shown in exhibitions andbooks, for everyone to enjoy.
Re, rag, rug
Others are trying to figure out how to re-use today’s
overproduction of textiles to create new objects.
It gives us knowledge about textile techniques withnew areas of use. At the same time we get insight into
the huge waste of resources in the industrially madetextiles of today.

The future
The state has changed the distribution of funds to the
National Association of Handicraft Societies.
Funding for consultant business is today given to50

51

Blogs
The handicraft association’s blogs and websites for
DIY shows what is happening now, and what is up-todate both in Sweden and outside the country.
Creation remains alive over time, but the expressions change.
It is true, and it might be the strongest aim of thehandicraft association - like a chameleon we adapt toour surroundings, the fashions and trends - but still
keep our basic values.

52

Theme 2: Relationship of traditional textile
craft to modern fashion studies

53

55

Susanne Lervad
Susanne Lervad grew up in a loom building family andwas always surrounded by weavers and textile
terminology.
The subject of textile terminologies in the frame of theworkshop of textile crafts fits this theme: «The retention
and re-use of traditional terminology and the inventionof new terms». This paper will focus on the basic
concepts of craft and design and how to define suchconcepts in relation to each other as examples of bothpractices and products.

54

Susanne Lervad: Textile terminologies andrelations between key concepts in the context of
my family’s story and my own life
Terminology deals with concept analysis and its delimitation within a domain/subject field. I deal withthe concepts from the fields of historical crafts concepts (homecraft and handicraft) and with the more
modern concept of design. In this context I mean textile crafts which are generally characterized by stability and continuity as a contrast to design.

in bringing about industrialization of Europe in the
18th century. Textiles also play a major role in the globalization process of today, since they constitute oneof the most standardized and globally traded goods.
Textiles play a vital role in human environments andexpress, who we are, our tastes, affiliations and knowhow. A textile is the result of many choices taken at
every stage of the production. The term textile is here
used in its broadest meaning, including a varied rangeof materials and techniques, where weaving is one ofthe possibilities. Hide and leather are other important resources used for costumes and dress accessories and are therefore included in our research. Suchtextile and hide production has thus defined humaninteractions with the environment since the Late Palaeolithic Period”.
In my personal world, the most central concept
was the loom. The hand looms that my family pro-Why textile terminology? Why is this important?
What are textiles?
At the Centre for Textile Research in Copenhagen, we
use the concept of textiles in the broadest sense.
Here is a text from a research plan about textiles
and the environment 2010-2015: “Textile craft is oneof the most ancient human technologies, playing a
crucial role in societies world-wide throughout ourpast. Textile production has always been a fundamental part of economy and trade and was instrumental
55

duced for generations – the LERVAD looms.

While the old crafts were taught to the peasantsduring winter time when the soil was frozen, theyoung people in the countryside were also taught literature and philosophy which helped to democratize
Denmark in a good way. N.F.S.Gruntdvig was the pastor and teacher who was the father of this philosophy
for Danish education. The cooperative movement andNordic history are based on this principle regarding
production etc. – that every person can own his/herown production tools and have a say and a vote.

I come from Denmark, from a small village in Jutland
called ASKOV with a very strong folk high school tradition and handicraft/homecraft tradition that arose
after Denmark lost a large part of its territories toGermany in 1864. We looked into our own national
identity issues through skills like arts and craft, literature, philosophy etc. in newly established folk highschools -boarding schools not for rich people but forthe children of peasants. My personal story of theloom is a more than hundred-year-old story about theorigins of the Danish Homecraft Loom and the cradleof modern weaving in Denmark during the 20th century.

My great-grand father Anders Lervad founded the Lervad company in 1895 and began to make the loom,
the tool for the homecraft courses for young people
from villages and the countryside. He was engaged
to a handweaver and he was an assistant instructor
at the Home Craft School in Askov. He repaired andstarted building new ones.

An array of terms, techniques and concepts entered
my life from this local handicraft tradition in Askov
where they rebuilt a tool that had disappeared. There
was a resurgence of interest in the homecraft loom
partly due to interest from arts and crafts movementin England and the defeat to Germany in 1864. Thus
Denmark revived the tradition in craft schools andhigh schools. Askov was next to the then German border, the stream Kongeåen.

In order to stimulate the reuse of old handicraft traditions in Denmark, the first small black loom wasshown at the Exhibition of the Danish Homecraft Society in 1888. The society has been founded in 1873
and the first homecraft school had been establishedin 1872. The small loom was set up in order to weave
furniture fabric and had a prime spot at the exhibition
56

Jenny Lacour’s weaving school.

57

because the Society wanted to revive handweaving
in Denmark. Working Swedish and Norwegian looms
were also shown at this exhibition as the Danish handlooms did not exist.

A cottage industry was born and some looms evensold abroad and were sent to Anders’ sister-in-law,
Sanne Sørensen, in Chicago. She was a weaving teacher in a folk high school in Atterday, Chicago.

A visitor to the exhibition, Jenny Lacour, and herniece Johanne Siegumfeld (teachers of needle craftat the Askov High School), went afterwards to Scandia in Sweden in order to learn more about weavingand subsequently Jenny Lacour and the Home Craft
School joined forces for a summer weaving course.

This production no longer exists in Denmark. The
handloom from Askov is not produced anymore but
is still in use in some ateliers or workshops such as“Væveværkstedet” at Frederiksberg, Copenhagen,where I live. Back to the concept of craft because myhometown actually had two craft schools: The Jenny La cour weaving school and the homecraft schoolfor men doing “Sløjd” – carved wood products. Bothare located next to Askov Folk High School which was
founded by Schrøder in 1865 and which still exists.

The Society bought some looms and installed themin Jenny Lacour’s home in Askov and here she gave
the first course in 1894. Homecraft journals advertised the courses at the folk high school nearby. My
greatgrandfather, Anders Lervad, started building
new looms for sale to the participants of the weavingcourses. In the beginning he built around 20 a year
and later, as the principle of the Homecraft School
spread, he built up to 60 looms a year. There were
two kinds of customers:

The different concepts of craft in Danish are husflid
and håndværk
The conceptology is very relevant here: Pascaline
Dury and I wrote about this in an article for the Centre
de Recherche en Terminologie et Traduction (“Terminologie multilingue: “De la mesure dans les termes,”
sous la direction de Henri Béjoint et Francois Maniz,
Travaux de CRTT, PUL, Lyon 2005): “In a given culture
with a given language and within a special domain,
we consider the concept to be reconstituted of/by

1. wealthy ladies who would weave for pleasure
2. ordinary housewives who needed to weave forthe household
58

smaller elements and that the concept belongs to a
structured system where we propose a different distribution (“decoupage”) according to the cultures.”
And the consequence from a linguistic point of view:“It is not possible to reconstitute all the conceptual
elements of a concept from the term.
To know the terms does not necessarily mean to know
the things/objects.”
The denomination is limited to a short version of thedefinition – a sort of a subgroup of the characteristicsof the concept. Therefore, we always need to give adefinition of the concepts so that one will realize its
meaning.
If we take the example of hand(i)craft:
Danish term: håndværk/husflid
French : artisanat, métier d’art
Svensk : Hemslojd
The constituents of the denominations of the concepts are only possible elements to be “named” inthe term and none of the studied terms include all

Jenny Lacour’s weaving school.

59the elements:

am Webster Unabridged Dictionary, “especially handcrafts (as weaving) that may be practiced at home”.
In Wikipedia homecraft is not represented but handicraft as a craft that become very popular for a certain
time and then disappears and resurges.

1) (handmade) production2) idea of home3) person

The collective terms like handicraft, artisanship, crafting, craftsmanship, arts and crafts are synonyms orpartly synonyms and are often negatively defined forwhat they are not and where they are placed in modern education. Educational systems and handicraft(s)are often seen as the skills of and creative interest of
the students, sometimes towards a particular craft or
trade.

4) skill
These elements are often called characteristics interminology theory and are themselves concepts
relating to each other.
A definition of handicraft/handicraftsmanship, handwork, handiwork (as synonyms related terms).

Handicrafts are often integrated in the educational
systems both formally and informally.

These nouns refer to work produced by hand labour.
As a verb “handcraft” means to make something byhand and with much skill. Other definitions: to makeby handicraft a work produced by hand labour. To
make something by manual skills.

Back to my personal story
My father Simon and his brothers, my grandfather
Harald and his brothers, and my great-grandfather
Anders produced handlooms for this purpose – in a
family based company where beech wood was the basic material used for the looms as well as for the production of work benches for use in the local schools.

Example: The artisan crafted a complicated tool (aswas the case of my great grandfather).
A definition of home craft is, according to the Merri60

From my own personal perspective, I grew up witha grandmother who received me in her house fromwhen I was about 4 years old and taught me the different weaving techniques on a small red table loom.
So my whole life has been accompanied by the soundof the loom, the shafts, the shuttle and my grandmother’s voice and explanations and stories aroundthis work. It was perhaps rather the tale of the loom
because my grandmother Johanne Margrethe, notonly showed me the techniques, but she also gaveme nice materials from her life, and used them tomake “rag rugs ” from my grandfather’s old ties, fromthe old curtains of the summer house, etc.
This vertical tapestry loom (with treadles) (photoloom nr. 14) was easy to weave on as a child and you
could constantly follow the process.
During my teenage years when my grandmotherwas a widow, she retold me the story of her life andlove story through these clothes items, and I recycled
them in the “tapestries and rag rugs”. Re-cycling fabric was a basic concept in her life with seven children.

61

She came from a family of pastors - so she played
music with me and sat next to me by the loom or wesang and played together at the piano.

The processes of warping, heddling, beaming, andweaving – preparing the shuttles etc. are for me thesong of the loom, and weaving meaning into my life
from early childhood and getting to know a woman’slife by this; how she met my grandfather, how sheinterrupted her studies and had many children anda very hard working life with her husband who was
10 years older, how her sons took over the family
production of looms and workbenches. There was alight and a dark ”weft” in all that – and my parents
and cousins were often astonished by my extensive
knowledge of the details of her life. I heard the storyof her life at the same time as the vocabulary of spinning and weaving… her dreams, her love stories, herdisappointments and struggles.
Terminology is about names and naming – and myfather named me after his aunt Sanne Sørensen, theweaving teacher who had emigrated to the UnitedStates and never came back. She asked her brothers
to produce looms for her schools in Solvang and Chicago.
My father has lived all his life in Askov where his parents lived, and it was his brother Tue who took meabroad to present the looms at fairs and I worked
62with them during my studies in order to make manuals or guides in several languages – so I named theparts of the loom in many languages and describedthe different techniques such as direct warping inFrance compared to separated warping on warping
tools in Denmark. My aunt Nanna – my father’s sister
was also a weaver and she helped me too.

The French woman with whom I did direct warping
reports when I was 19 years old also became Sophie’s
weaving teacher. And Suzel who was also a Frenchteacher taught me the French language in parallel inher kitchen by means of literature, music and grammar. Her apartment was my private boarding school
as it has been later for Sophie. So Sophie can namethe processes and the tools and continue our knowledge and identity in the field with a new language
dimension – French as she was born in France.

She showed me how to do this and wrote about it inFrench reports for instance, which I learned from a
French colleague and friend, Suzel. My father and his
family were very busy during these years exportinglooms to other European countries.

In the 1980s Suzel had a shop called “les petits
vieziers”, where she sold looms and we listened toFrench music and texts like Brel, Brassens and Barbara while the flying shuttle made mechanical sounds
in the big room. She lived like the “canuts” weavers
in Lyon on the mezzanine/ first floor of this apartment, and so we literally lived the weaver’s life. And
she also sold the fabrics made on the looms and thelooms themselves.

I got my own big loom on my 18th birthday and still
keep it in my summer house by the sea where mydaughter Sophie has also learned how to weave on it.
I am actually the only person in the family weaving today, and it has been important for me to transmit thisknowledge to my daughter Sophie along with the basic concepts leading to an understanding of the techniques and processes – for instance how to make thebasic weaves like plain weave/tabby, twill and satinon my loom.

I learned about the traditions of linen techniques andtools in the northern part of France and afterwards I
went to Lyon to study the silk weaving and the Jacquard looms, which my parents’ family also partly
produced. The transmission of knowledge about all63these concepts and relations from the fibres to theyarns and techniques and finished results from thetools have been at the heart of my life in Denmarkand France. Variations of the plain weave, twill andsatin are integrated parts of my life and in my academic life, I work with the representation of these basic concepts and their infinite derived structures andtheir many different forms of verbal and non-verbal
presentation.

textile terminology conferences and publish volumes
like “Textile terminologies in the Ancient Near Eastand Mediterranean from the third to the first millennia BC” (eds. C.Michel & M-L.Nosch, Oxford: Oxbow
Books, 2010). I organized a ToTh workshop on verbal
and non-verbal representation in terminology in Copenhagen 2013 and proceedings are to be published.
This occasion to present my life with the looms (andthe weaving) is a precious opportunity, and I would
be happy to continue to work with you all in this teamand in this network on the development of the concepts of the craft field. We could, for instance, continue with a more hands- on based session on textile
terminology in a practical workshop. My personal experience with weaving and the tools clearly showedme how it is important to be precise in representing
the concepts and using the correct terms – not only inthe textile field, but in any other subject field.

My PhD thesis deals with language for special purposes (LSP) within the textile field and analyzing thelanguage of silk fabrics and weaves as a language. It is
often said in terminology work that we should strive
to be unambiguous, but it is not always the caseand the rich variety of synonyms and variation in the
textile field clearly shows this tendency. At the sametime I made a multilingual database in the textile fieldand still today go to France regularly to collaborate
with museums, universities, documentation centres,
fashion universities and ateliers about the subject. In
Denmark, I work as a terminologist for the Danish museums in the “Textilnet.dk” project in order to makea TermWiki about textiles and costumes in DK from17th century until today. I am involved in many textile
terminology activities in the CTR where we organize64Toolika Gupta
is doing fashion oriented studies, which
are a rather new field in India. She
explores “How Traditional Is Traditional
After All?”65

Toolika Gupta: Defining and Redefining the
Traditional in ‘Indian Fashion’
Dress history or Fashion history is a relatively new fieldin academia. History has been studied for its wars andeconomics and not much emphasis has been given tomaterial culture until the last three decades.
As a PhD Student in Dress History my area of research is ‘The influence of British Rule on Indian
Fashion.’ Fashions change, they are not static or permanent. They change because of certain influences.
These influences could be political, technological,
geographical, religious and many more. Textiles are
manufactured and fashion is created through clothing. The product that comes out is a dress that is fashionable at a given point in time.
A study of fashion and dress history is a study ofthe tangible and the intangible; dress being tangible
and fashion being intangible. Food, clothing and shelter are the three basic necessities of life and each canbe highly fashionable, however fashion is mostly displayed by dress or clothing. Every culture has somebasic form of adornment, even if people do not wear

clothes. As Rouse mentions in ‘Understanding Fashion’, fashion is not only about looking good, but also
about looking ‘right’, socially correct and proper (Elizabeth Rouse, Understanding Fashion, Oxford London:
BSP Professional Books, 1989). Clothing or what one
wears forms the core and crux of this issue.
The word ‘traditional’ signifies lack of change.
So – “Traditional Costume” seems to be fossilized intime. The question is ‘How traditional is traditional
after all?’ When do we call something traditional? Is
it when we want it to become traditional, create animage or identity, or is it because it actually is?
Traditional Indian menswear as referred to in today’s context is the ‘Sherwani’ or Achkan. Sherwanias a garment seems to have appeared in the mid-19th
century. The miniature paintings of the Mughal era do
not show this garment being worn (the Mughal era
lasted from 1526 to 1857).
A study by Jane Workman shows the difference inapproach to fashion by men and women. According66

to her, men have a need-based approach to fashion
where-as women have a want-based approach. This
holds true for my study as well.
After discussing the proposed methodology (whichcannot all be written here as it is yet to be published),
and applying it to this case study, we come to the following conclusions that:•

A thorough research of the Indian environment of the time period shows that by the endof 19th century Indian men of upper classes(socio-economic) had completely adopted theWestern attire – the three piece suit.

•

This was a radical way of dressing in the Indian society, where men wore loose garments
during the Mughal rule, just preceding the
British Rule.

•

They wanted nothing to do with Indian traditions, and then we notice that with the coming
in of the freedom movement, dressing habitschange and we ‘create’ traditional garments.

•

Thus there is reason to believe that the Traditional Indian menswear has its roots in British

Figure 1. Nehru Jacket. Jawaharlal Nehru’s
Garment from Teen Murti Bhawan, New
Delhi (© T. Gupta).

67

Rule (which lasted till 1947). As mentioned earlier – men have a need-based approach to fashion, and politics plays a major role.
•

The new Indian man wanted his own identity
it had to be new yet rooted in tradition. They
did not want to look completely western, yetthey did not want to go back to the days of
Mughal rule, so they created a ‘NEW TRADITION’.

Figure 2. Jawahar lal Nehru India’s First
Prime minister, Jawaharlal and Jinnah 1946. National Archives, New Delhi.

68Ameera Al Zaben & Najd Sweidan
are curators in The Jordan Museum, andare both very concerned about
documenting Jordanian traditional
costumes to preserve a part of thecultural heritage.

69

Ameera Al Zaben & Najd Sweidan:
The role of The Jordan Museum in documenting
the Jordanian traditional costumes
This paper describes the role of The Jordan Museum
in documenting Jordanian traditional costumes topreserve a part of the inherited cultural heritage.
Jordanian costume is characterized by its elegance,
originality, and practicality. The Jordanian costumeis also remarkable for its vast diversity, despite Jordan's relatively small geographical area. This variation reflects different styles of living, for example, theagricultural societies of the north and the Bedouin
nomadic and settled communities of the south. The
modernization of society led to the abandonment oftraditional ways, and the wearing of distinctive often
exquisitely crafted costumes has diminished or disappeared altogether.
As one of the organizations responsible for preserving the cultural heritage of Jordan, The Jordan

Museum feels responsible for both the tangible andintangible heritage inherited from previous generations. It took upon itself the role of documenting
the traditional costumes of Jordan: this particularresearch was conducted with collaboration of the
Women's Museum in Denmark and Mrs. Kawar.
The documentation was done through a review ofrelated literature about the Jordanian traditional
costume, visiting experts concerned with the preservation of the Jordanian cultural heritage, meeting
researchers to gather information about the environmental effect on the costumes as well as the effectof neighboring countries; photographic and video
graphic documentation, digital photos concentratingon the details of the costumes and finally registering
the available costumes through first hand examina-

70

tion, and completing the designed registration form.
The results obtained can be summarized as follows: costumes vary according to age and social level,
women’s costumes in particular differ according toand clarify the ways in which art and material culture
mirror and inform the present.
1.3 Create new audiences and inform, entertain andinspire the existing audience in new ways.
1.4 Promote better relations between people of differing origins and beliefs.

the marital status of the woman and costumes worninside the house differs from those worn outside.
The Role of The Jordan Museum in Documenting
the Jordanian Traditional Costumes:“Costumes tell stories”
The Jordan Museum has taken on itself the responsibility to document different aspects of the cultural
heritage of Jordan for purposes of:• Acquiring knowledge• Ensuring that the cultural identity of the small
country of Jordan is not only well safeguarded,
but also accessible.
• Raising heritage awareness.
Purpose of Acquisitions:
The Museum makes acquisitions in order to:
1.1 Maintain and improve its cultural and historical
record.
1.2 Generate public interest in the past and present

What to collect: The Everyday.

71What to collect• The Everyday• Accessories• The Whole outfit• Material to represent diversity• Male and Female costumes• Young and Adult people’s dress• Comparative items (the weave of the Jordaniansociety)• Dress for Special occasions

Knowledge
Documentation Process
Basically we look for what we have where it is andwhat condition it is in.
• Most of the information we need to record is thesame for every item in our collections including
costume, like Identifying stitches, identifying patterns and measuring.
• Documentation is an extended cataloging as basefor further research
Then this is integrated into the Adlib a softwarethat offers a completely ‘open’ platform for managing
and publishing collections data, which includes multilingual operation and support, and is the software
used for the museum’s database
Labeling•
Accession numbers need to be legible,
durable non damaging and removable•
Each dress has two numbers: Museum number and cataloging number which identifies the area
the garment came from•The number is hand written on cotton tapewhich is then stitched into the garment placed where

Accessories.

72

Couching stitch.

Cross stitch.

Double cross Stitch.

Laff Manajel stitch.

Manajel with Raqma stitch.

73

Photography•
Good quality photographs reduce the needfor handling and examining objects•
We take two photos for each dress - a front
and a back photoit minimizes the handling of the object and is easy tolocate.
Left: Accessories

Conservation
We work with the conservators and environment control colleagues to achieve good storage conditions,environmental monitoring of temperature, relative
humidity, air quality and light, integrated pest management, which all aims to minimize deteriorationand damage of the fabrics.

Textile from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress© Camilla Ebert.

74

Anna Falkis a Swedish fashion designer with an
educational background in Italy and
Denmark. She is interested in sustainable
design and patternmaking.

75

Anna Falk: Unfolding fashion – reconsidering
traditional patternmaking
This paper arises from my MA project called “Unfolding Fashion”, a work which draws on the idea that traditional patternmaking – and the cultural values on
which it is based – is capable of being embedded incontemporary fashion design not only as a source ofinspiration, but rather as a vehicle for addressing in a
new way, issues of sustainability and ethical integrity
within the fashion system.
“Unfolding fashion” does not simply refer to thegarments of the collection that can all be unfolded
to a square piece of fabric: its broader significanceis rather expressed by the metaphor “unfolding the
fashion system” - namely, discovering how a designer
can work differently with it, yet being part of it.
The four themes that I will discuss throughout thispresentation are the following:
AIM AND CONCEPT OF UNFOLDING FASHION
TRADITIONAL PATTERNMAKING/ CULTURAL-VALUES AS INSPIRATIONDEVELOPING UNFOLDED GARMENTSSUSTAINABILITY + CULTURE +FASHION

The aim and concept of unfolding fashion
My aim with the project was to create a commercial
collection that would create none or as little waste as
possible, yet being part of the running fashion system.
I had come to a point where I felt that I could notcontinue working with fashion and contribute to thedevastating effects produced by fashion industry. So
what could I do? I could say no to the fashion system
and work outside it with niche products, local production and the local market. But how would this makethe running fashion system a better and more sustainable industry? I had to stay within it and negotiate an
acceptable way to change it from the inside.
My starting point was to use a strategy for sustain76

Figure 1. 3 miniatures of basic unfoldable garments.

77

ability: I therefore adopted the 10 point list from TED– Textile Environment and Design to minimize waste.
Given my strong interest in patternmaking, working
with zero waste patternmaking was the base for thecollection, but there was especially one point that I
wanted to focus on and develop, particularly because
I had noticed how poorly designers were considering it in their agenda – “Design for Recycling/Upcycling”. There are excellent contemporary zero waste
patternmakers such as Timo Rissanen and Julian Roberts: however, since in their work all the garments aresewn together, they are not convenient for upcycling.

As mentioned above this was to be a commercial fashion collection placed in the current fashion industry,rather than a patternmaking experiment, therefore
the conceptual coherence of the project was important.
The conceptual universe around the project can be
described as follows: an androgynous women’s collection, where the western classic men´s garments suchas white shirt and black suit are reshaped by using the
Asian simplicity in the patternmaking and silhouettes– this being a feature that allows for big areas of thefabric uncut, and thus facilitates future upgrading of
the garment.

At the time of starting working on this collection I
happened to be moving to a new apartment. One day,while packing all my things, the idea suddenly cameto me that I wanted to make clothing that worked justlike a cardboard box!
The cardboard box can be folded together to a 3D
shape and unfolded to its flat 2D shape again. If I managed to apply these structural features to a garment,
the fabric could be used again after the lifetime of thegarment and given a second life as another clothing
piece, or even a different object.

Traditional patternmaking as inspiration
Besides Asian models - in particular the Japanese costume – I have been looking at models in history that
illustrate the concept of zero waste patternmaking as
relevant from a technological and cultural point ofview. My aim with this was twofold: I wanted to try
finding visual inspiration and ideas for cuts, but mostof all I was interested in investigating the reasons andthe values embedded in traditional zero waste patternmaking.
In my research I looked closer at Scandinavia – both

78

Figure 2. Illustrations of the collection.

79

the local history and traditions, and the way the Scandinavian shirts were made: here every centimetre of
the fabric was used when placing the pattern pieces,and the whole width of the fabric, including the selvedge, was to become part of the finished shirt. The
value associated with this practice was, as in manyother cultures, that the fabric was expensive and laborious to produce - and thus every centimetre of it
worth using. A partial downside of this model whenapplied to the concept of my collection was that the
fabric was cut in parts and sewn together: therefore it
could not be used for upcycling, neither for the cardboard box idea.
I continued looking at the Scandinavian models
and eventually found an earlier shirt that was cut injust one piece of fabric, thus reducing the seams at
the bare minimum - which was probably a heritageof how fur was cut. This was the kind of cultural valuethat I was looking for!
However, it was the Japanese costume tradition thatprovided me with most values and inspiration. For example the kimono emphasizes the beauty of straightlines. The whole width of the fabric is used and all
the sewing lines are horizontal, except the neckline.

Being sewn along straight lines makes it possible totake it apart and re-sew it into the shape of the single
piece of material it originally was, as well as re-sew
the kimono any given number of times. There existed
even fine kimonos whose seams were opened before
washing, so that it could be easily ironed and thensewn together again.
People have endeavoured to wear kimono andhandle them with the utmost care. An example ofthis, we can see by only studying the way in which
the kimonos are folded together for storage, then, before use, opened up without ironing every time as thecreases from the folds lie in a specific and correct way.
These where other cultural values I wanted to use– the value and respect for the fabric, together withthe subtle relationship between the fabric and its
wearer.
With this as background I will move on to explain how
I developed the zero waste patternmaking for unfolding fashion.

80

Developing the folded garment
We can compare my idea of the fabric and the garment with that of the fur. When creating the patterns

Figure 3.

81it has been impossible to imagine the body as front
and back and place the fabric over. I have instead
imagined the body from the bird perspective, wherea square piece of fabric need to fall over like a poncho or a fur, and then it follows the arms and drapes
around the waist with as few cuts as possible – yet,with the aim to create garments that correspond to
the idea of the western classic men´s wear.
I first created three unfoldable base models: a white
shirt, black trousers and a black jacket (Fig. 1). I used
these three models and manipulated them in illustrations (Fig. 2) to create a variety of styles for the collection. Now I had my visual guideline – the illustrations
and my base patternmaking technique and out of thisI worked out the single zero waste foldable/unfoldable patterns for each piece (Figs. 3 and 4).
Sustainability, culture and fashion
We have so far seen the aims and concepts of the “Unfolding Fashion” collection. Now I would like to share
my view as a fashion designer on how traditions, culture, fashion and sustainability can work together.
I believe it is possible to make a fashion collection
inspired only by traditional garments - it is indeed
something that is being done all the time. I believe

as well that it is possible to make a sustainable collection.
However, what marks a discontinuity with current
fashion practice is to design a collection, and base it
upon cultural values: you can manage to include traditions, sustainability and culture in one collection –and this is what I have tried to do with my “Unfolding
Fashion”. Working in this way, the winner will be not
only the Earth, not only designers and consumers,
but rather the very fact that, by being re-negotiatedas core concepts of contemporary fashion practice,
our culture and traditions become more than justmuseum objects. When contemporary designers andartists use cultural values as inspiration and translatethem into today’s society and needs these same values acquire new significance, and they give in turnmeaning to designers’ work.

82

Figure 4.

83

Theme 3: The use of traditional textile
craft and craftsmanship in theinterpretation of ancient societies

84

Eva Andersson Strand
is Associate Professor in textile archaeology at the
SAXO Institute, Copenhagen University. Her
special fields of interest are archaeology in Viking
Age Scandinavia as well as Bronze Age Aegean,
experimental archaeology, craft and organisation,
trade, gender, and archaeology and politics.

85

Eva Andersson Strand: Experimental textile
archaeology - a link to the past?
Textile archaeology is a research field which covers
many different aspects of the past. Textiles and textile
production has always had an economic, social andcultural impact on societies despite time and region
and it is important to include this in our general interpretation of the past, if not, a large part of our history
is lost.
Archaeological textile research began by focusing
on preserved textiles and techniques but more recently has considered textile tools and production.
In textile research it is often stated that “textile researchers have the advantage that many of the tools
are still in use by crafts people today” and we know,for example, how to spin with a spindle or weave on
a warp-weighted loom. However, the challenge is totransfer this knowledge to the interpretation of tools
and production in ancient societies and one can never presume that the tools and the techniques were

exactly the same 1000 or 2000 years ago. A method
based on traditional craft is experimental archaeology.
Archaeological finds of textile tools have been reconstructed and tested and the results used to interpret
which types of textiles could have been produced ata specific site, but the method always provide a range
of interpretations and answers. Over many years I
have, together with crafts people, conducted several
experiments with different types of reconstructed
tools. In the following I will discuss the possibilities
and limitations in using this method in textile archaeological research.
BackgroundThe study of tools, textiles and production is complex
but textile tools often constitute the most important
type of evidence of textile production and technology
during prehistory. A textile tool represents a single ar86

tefact and can be examined as such. Tools and textiles
can be examined from different approaches, separately or together. The numbers of methods which
can be chosen are endless and will undoubtedly givevarious results depending on the questions asked andthe material under study.
From my perspective archaeological objects are actively and meaningfully used in daily life. The textile
tools revealed by excavations are not things in themselves, nor are they just artefacts - things made by
man - they are representations of ideas.
A textile is a result of complex interactions between
resources, technology and society. Therefore equallyimportant is to put the results of the analyses of textile tools in their context. What type of settlement?
Or is the tool from a burial? What types of textiles
are found, what access did the people have to different types of raw materials? Which region and whattime period? And depending on the answers one willof course gain different results (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Essential parameters to include when discussing andinterpreting textiles and textile production in ancient societies(after Andersson et al. 2010).

87

From 1994-1999 I recorded ca 10,000 tools from 15
settlements dated to late Iron/Viking age 400-1050
AD. The majority of the sites were dated to Viking age
750-1050 AD. The research question was very simple:
can detailed registration and analyses of textile tools
provide us with a better understanding for the production of textiles?I started to study 7 settlements insouthern Sweden, five of the settlements interpreted
as ordinary agrarian settlements, small villages while
two places were different (Fig. 2) (Andersson 1996,
1999, 2000, 2003b). Åhus is a port of trade with a
specialist craft production like comb and bead making. Löddekopinge is interpreted as a market place inthe 9th century with a small permanent settlement.
During the 10th and 11th century there was a permanent settlement with large farms probably witha strong connection to the Danish king who built aring-fort just nearby. However, no traces of a specialist production of craft has been found - instead thefocus has been on a large scale iron smith work andtextile production.
Textile tools were of course found on all settlements in study and the majority of the tools wherefrom pit houses. Of the total number of 392 houses,
textile tools were found in floor layers 202 and in 141
houses, loom weights or fragments of loom weights
were found (in floor layers) (Fig 3).

Figure 2. Settlement in Scania. Andersson 1996.

88

Top left: Figure 3. Textile tools from pit house 261 Löddeköpinge, Scania, Sweden. Loom weights, spindle whorls,
pinbeaters and a tooth from a wool comb.
Bottom left: Figure 4. a. Birka; b. Hedeby.

Later I also studied tools from Birka, 6 agrarian settlements in the Mälar valley and finally Hedeby (Fig.
4). Birka and Hedeby are both trade ports or rather
Viking towns with evidence for trade and specialist
craft. It should be noted that actually over 50% of alltools I studied are from Hedeby and 25% from Birka,
however, it is clear that many tools do not necessarily equal a large production (Fig.4 and 5) (Andersson
2003a; Andersson Strand 2011). These were sites
where many people lived, people that all needed
textiles.
The most common finds are spindle whorls and loom
weights, which of course only can be considered as
parts of a tool. Other types of tools included in the
study were, for example, bone needles, teeth fromwool combs, pin beaters, weaving beaters, needle
boxes, fine metal needles, tablets, weaving combs,
smooth stones, smooth boards except bone needles
89BirkaHedebySpindlewhorls

429

939

Loom
weights

Complete
70
Frag 1406

Complete
520
Frag 3480

414

302

140

0

2459

5241

Bone
needles
Needleboxes
Total- there were in general very few of these objects
preserved. Further, there was a clear difference in the
distribution of tools. Spindle whorls, loom weights
and bone needles were with some exceptions foundon all sites while the other types of tools in general
were from the trade ports and from the rich burials
in Birka.
It is obvious that spindle whorls and loom weights
are only parts of tools and that the parts made ofperishable materials in general are missing: such as
spindle rods or the wooden parts of the loom. However, in Hedeby there is a very good preservation for
perishable materials, so here I also had the possibility
to study a large number of spindles, distaffs, tools forplant fibre processing etc.
In order to get as much information as possible thetools were recorded in detail and several observations were made, for example:• The shape of the spindle whorl clearly depends onthe material it was made of.
• If one or more spindle whorls are found in thesame house they are in general of different sizes.
• Clear difference in weight distribution of spindle
whorls between different types of sites.

Figure 5. Number of the most commonly
findings of textile tools from Birka and Hedeby(Andersson 2003a).

90•The loom weights were generally very fragmentary.
• When loom weights were found in pit houses,
most of the fragments in floor layers were fromthe north east part of the house which might indicate the place for the loom.
• There were also different weight distributions –the number of smaller/lighter loom weights werehigher in Åhus, Birka and Hedeby.
• The clay quality of the loom weights was better inÅhus, Birka and Hedeby.
• Same type of decorations on loom weights inÅhus, Birka and Hedeby, decorations very rare on
agrarian sites.
• Both loom weights and spindle whorls from Åhus,Birka and Hedeby gave a more standardised impression, especially the tools from Hedeby.
From an archaeological perspective these observations clearly indicate a different type of production
and/or organisation of production at the trade ports/
Viking towns. In order to get a better understandingof the differences and similarities and to come closer
to the production, the products and the producers,
I decided to combine the results with knowledge oftextile techniques and the use of textile tools and toadapt experimental archaeology as a method.
Experimental textile archaeology
Experimental archaeology is a method that has beenused in archaeology for a very long time. It has andwill always be considered as controversial and debated. It is clear that the results will always be hypothetical; still they can be applied and discussed in relation
to an archaeological material and a context.
In textile research the advantage is that many of
the tools are still in use by crafts people today andwe know, for example, how to spin with a spindle or
weave on a warp-weighted loom. However the tools
used are slightly different from the tools used in ancient societies and the types of textiles produced
today were in general not the same types of textiles
that were produced then. An important part is therefore the testing of function and efficiency of textile
tools and fibres similar to the fibres used.
I have, during the years together, with a team ofcraft people conducted several tests on spinning andweaving with reconstructed tools (Fig. 6).

91

From the beginning I have worked according to somevery general guidelines:

Year

Tools

Number of
sheep breeds

Type of fibres

Textile technician

spinning tests

1994

5 spindle whorls

2

mixed and wool

Carina Holm

test of tools
reconstructedfrom pithouse
1007

1996

2 spindle whorls, loom
weights, iron weaving
beater1

hair and wool

Anne Batzer, Carina
Holm

spinning tests

1997-98

4 spindle whorls andspindles reconstructedfrom find from Hedeby

1 but 2different
fleeceshair, wool, mixed

Anne Batzer, Maria
Jirborn

spinning tests

20052006

3 spindle whorls
reconstructed from findfrom Nichoria

1hair/mixed

Anne Batzer Linda
OlofssonExperiments in research program Tools and Textiles - Texts and Contexts at CTR
20052006

loom weights recorded
from Troia

spinning/weaving
2006
test

loom weights recorded
from Troia

weaving test

2006

weaving test

2007

weaving test

yarn spun with the thespindles from Nichoria

Anne Batzer Linda
Olofssonyarn spun with the thespindles from Nichoria

Anne Batzer Linda
Olofssontested loom weights same
weight different thickness

machine spun wool yarn
similar to our spinning
tests

Anne Batzer Linda
Olofssontwo types of spoolrecontsructed after spools
from Khania

machine spun wool yarn
similar to our spinning
tests

Linda Olofsson

flax

Experiments in research program Vorbasse at CTR
fibre preparation

prepared fibres, blindtest

1 but 3different
fleeces

Linda Olofsson/Lise
Raeder Knudsen

Spinning

tested a metal spindle
whorl

1

Linda Olofsson

weaving test

reconstructed loom
weights from Vorbasse

machine spun yarn similar
to the spinning test

92

Linda Olofsson

Figure 6. Various textile
tool experiments conducted by the author (Holm
1996; Andersson 1999,
2000, 2003.
Andersson et al. 2008;Mårtensson et al. 2006a;Mårtensson et al. 2006b;
Mårtensson et al. 2006c;
Mårtensson et al. 2007a;Mårtensson et al. 2007b;Mårtensson et al. 2009;
Andersson Strand 2012;
Olofsson in press; Olofsson
et al. 2015).

•
The test should be made by skilled textile
technicians with training in prehistoric textile
techniques and/or who have been working with textile production professionally.
•
The test should be made with reconstructed
tools - as far as possible.
•
The fibres should be carefully chosen and if
possible chosen in accordance with archaeologicaltextiles.
•When using a machine spun yarn, this should
always be chosen after comparison with either theoriginal fibres or our spinning tests.
•
Also the fibre processing has been done withreconstructed tools.
•
All tests are based on observations relating to
the archaeological material.
Today a number of spinning tests with reconstructed spindles have been made. Different types and sizesof spindle whorls and spindle rods have been reconstructed after archaeological originals and wool fibres
have been carefully chosen, if possible in accordance
to archaeological textiles (Fig. 7). All experiments
clearly indicate that it is the fibre, the preparation of
the fibre and the size of the spindle whorls that affectthe output – the spun yarn.

As demonstrated in figure 9 the test demonstrated
that the type of fibre affected the output , but further
it was clear that also the size of the whorl affected theoutput of spun yarn (Figs. 9 and 10).

Figure 7. Reconstructed spindles used in the experiments 1998.
The reconstructions are based on originals from Hedeby(Fig. 8).

93

The tests show that the output of metre yarn per 100gwool is larger when using a light spindle. The conclusion is that it is the fibre quality and the size of thespindle whorl that determine the output of meters ofyarn spun from a specific amount of fibres. The lighter
the whorl, the higher the output of meters of yarn.
The conclusion is that with a light spindle one spinsa thin and light yarn and a heavier spindle is usefulwhen spinning a thicker and heavier yarn. The spinner’s experience is of course also of importance, but
our hypotheses is that spinners in general were highly
skilled in ancient societies. It is not possible to saythat a particular spindle was used to spin exactly one
type of yarn, the variables are too many; for example
the use of different fibres. Further, there will always

Figure 8. spindle whorls from Hedeby (Andersson 2003).

Figure 9. Output, metre of yarn/ 100 g wool spun with spindle
whorls weighing 5, 10 20 and 30 g and two different fleeces.
Fleece 1; fleece 2. The wool was chosen after analyses of
Viking Age textiles (Andersson 1999, 2003).

94

2000
1750

meter yarn/100g wool
1696

1609

meter

1500
1250
1000
750

960

1102
582

665

500
250
0

Figure 11. Groups of spindle whorls from floor layers in different pithouses ( Andersson 1996).
Figure 10. Output, metre of yarn/ 100 g wool spun withspindle whorls weighing 4, 8 and 18 g and two spinners. Since
there were no fibre analyses on Bronze Age Mediterraneanwool when the experiment started the wool type was chosen after discussion with fibre speciailist Carole Christensen(Mårtensson et al. 2007a).

When combining the results from the tests to the recording of the tools from the sites studied, various
observations can be made. The results indicate thetype of production on different sites. If the spindles
were of different sizes one could suggest a production of many types of yarn, while clusters of spindle
whorls within the same size group could indicate amore specialist production. When applying thoseresults to the results of the tools from the different
sites, this makes sense. The observation that spindles
from the same house were of different sizes suggests
a production of different types of yarn (Fig. 11). The
cluster of lighter and smaller spindle whorls on the

be a range of different types of yarns even if using
the same spindle. However, the results clearly suggest that different types of spindles could have beenused in the production of different types of yarn, andthe results can be applied on archaeological spindle
whorls and contexts.
95

18

Spindle whorls from Scanian settlement sites in the Late iron Age,
number per weight, N=236
LöddeköpingeÅhusLate Iron Age

16
14
12
number

10
8
6
4
2
0

weight, g

Figure 12. Spindle whorls number/weight Löddeköpinge N=89, Åhus N=72, Late Iron Age/Viking
Age settlements N=75.
Birka and Hedeby, spindle whorls, number per weight, N=1064
250

HedebyBirka

200

number

150

100

50

0

weight, g

Figure 13. Spindle whorls number and weight from Birka
N=289 and Hedby N=755.

96

trade port/Viking towns indicate a larger productionof special qualities of thinner yarns (Figs. 12 and 13).
We have also done several test with different types ofloom weights. The aim was to identify which parameters affect the outcome, the finished fabric (Mårtensson et al. 2009; Olofsson et al. 2015). The weavers
knew from their experience that the weight of a loom
weight dictates how many threads of a particular typecan be fastened to it. In the warp weighted loom theloom weights are used to keep the threads tight during
weaving. Too much or too little tension will make theweaving unnecessary complicated. Different threads
need different tension, a thin light thread might needno more than 5 g tension while hard spun coarse andheavy thread needs 50 g. In the new tests we wanted
to understand how and how much the thickness of
the loom weights affected the finished products. The
results clearly demonstrated that the thickness of aloom weight controls how closely the warp threads
will be spaced in the finished fabric. According to myopinion by recording the loom weight’s weight andthickness it is possible to calculate the range of different types of fabrics that could be produced with a
specific loom weight and a specific thread. Important,however, is that one loom weight can have been used

to produce not only one type of fabric, but a range ofdifferent types of fabrics (Mårtensson et al. 2009, Andersson 2012; Olofsson et al. 2015). Additionally the
results can indicate a specific production and if possible be compared with contemporary textiles fromthe same site. The analyses of the loom weights fromBirka and Hedeby demonstrated that a range of fabrics could have been produced including fabrics that
often are considered imports. The production on theagrarian sites seems more limited in the number ofdifferent types of textiles produced.
Conclusion
The experiments form, via traditional craft knowledge, a link between textiles and textile tools and contribute to a better understanding of textile production
and its complexity. The results from experiments form
an important basis for the interpretation of the function of different tools and for the evaluation of what
textiles have been produced at different sites and regions. These results can further help visualising textiles in places, where none have been preserved.
The results can be confirmed or dismissed by archaeological textile analyses. In Viking age Scandinavia textile analyses demonstrate that many different

types of textiles in various qualities have been usedand produced. This is also confirmed by the tool analyses. However, experimental archaeology is one ofseveral methods that are applied to the archaeological material, the textile tools, and it is the combination of methods, which are essential.
Acknowledgement
I kindly thank my colleagues Mary Harlow and Jo Cutler for their support, encouragement and constructive criticism. I also warmly thank all colleagues whoover the years have taken part in this work. The article
was written with support from Wenner-Gren foundation and the Danish National Research Foundation’sCentre for Textile Research (DNRF 64).
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Danish National Research Foundation’s Centre for
Textile Research, University of Copenhagen. http://
ctr.hum.ku.dk/research/tools_and_textiles_/Mårtensson, L., Andersson, E., Nosch, M.-L., andBatzer, A. 2007a, Technical Report Experimental Archaeology, Part 3: Loom weights, 2007. Tools and Textiles – Texts and Contexts Research Program. The Danish National Research Foundation’s Centre for Textile
Research, University of Copenhagen. http://ctr.hum.
ku.dk/research/tools_and_textiles_/Mårtensson, L., Andersson, E., Nosch, M.-L., andBatzer, A. 2006a, Technical Report, Experimental Archaeology, Part 1, 2005-2006. Tools and Textiles –Texts and Contexts Research Program. The Danish
National Research Foundation’s Centre for Textile
Research, University of Copenhagen. http://ctr.hum.
ku.dk/research/tools_and_textiles_/Mårtensson, L., Andersson, E. and Nosch, M.-L. 2007b,
Technical Report Experimental Archaeology, Part 4
Spools, 2007. Tools and Textiles – Texts and Contexts
Research Program. The Danish National Research
Foundation’s Centre for Textile Research, Universityof Copenhagen. http://ctr.hum.ku.dk/research/tools_
and_textiles_/Mårtensson, L., Andersson Strand, E., Nosch, M.-L.,
and Batzer, A. 2006b, Technical Report Experimental
Archaeology, Part 2:1 flax, 2006. Tools and Textiles– Texts and Contexts Research Program. The Danish
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ku.dk/research/tools_and_textiles_/Mårtensson, L., Andersson E., Nosch, M.-L., andBatzer, A. 2006c, Technical Report Experimental Archaeology, Part 2:2 Whorl or bead? 2006. Tools andTextiles – Texts and Contexts Research Program. The

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Olofsson, L., Andersson Strand, E. and Nosch, M.-L.
2015. Chapter 4.1 Experimental testing of Bronze Age
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eds., Tools, Textiles and Contexts. Investigating Textile
Production in the Aegean and Eastern MediterraneanBronze Age. Oxbow, Oxford. Ancient Textiles Series X.

100

Joanne Cutler
is an archaeologist, specialising in the
Bronze Age Aegean. She is currently aMarie Curie/Gerda Henkel
Intra-European Postdoctoral Research
Fellow at the Danish National Research
Foundation’s Centre for Textile Research,
University of Copenhagen. Her researchinterests include the role of textile
production in the economy and societyof southern Aegean communities in the
Neolithic and Bronze Age.

101

Joanne Cutler: Interlacing threads of evidence
in the interpretation of textile production in
Bronze Age Crete
The first palatial societies in Europe emerged on
Crete in the early second millennium BC, most notably at the sites of Knossos and Malia on the northcoast of the island, and at Phaistos on the south coast(Fig. 1). This ‘Minoan’ palatial civilisation reached its
height in the Neopalatial or Second Palace period (c.
1750/1700-1490/1450 BCE). During this period, thepalatial buildings reached their final form (Fig. 2) and

Figure 1. Satellite map of Crete, showing the main sites mentioned in the text (satellite image: NASA Visible Earth).

Figure 2. View of the palace of Knossos (photo: © J. Cutler).

102

a high level of skill and elaboration is evident in a range types of cloth – as well as textiles of different coloursof material culture features, including stone vessels, and cloth with different kinds of decoration – are repottery, and wall-paintings.
corded in the tablets. Most of these textiles are madeBut what can we say about textile production dur- of wool, and the texts also list up to 100,000 sheep.
ing this period? The wall-paintings from both Crete Groups of textile workers, made up of women andand the site of Akrotiri on the island of Thera, which some children, were given quotas of wool in order towas destroyed by a volcanic eruption in the early part make a set quantity of different varieties of cloth, andof the Late Bronze Age, depict individuals, mostly received rations in return.
women, wearing elaborate costumes (Fig. 3).
The earlier Cretan script, known as Linear A, has
Textiles would also have been needed for a wide to date not been deciphered, and very few texts haverange of purposes other than clothing, such as sails, survived. Nevertheless, these earlier texts do indicate
wall-hangings and other coverings, bags, sacks and that the Mycenaean period textile industry on Cretewrappings. Some of these textiles are also shown in grew out of a pre-existing Minoan textile production
the wall-paintings. However, unfortunately, only a system. The Linear B sign, or logogram, representing
very few fragments of actual textiles have survived a textile, as well as the logograms for sheep, wool andfrom Bronze Age Crete.
certain types of cloth, were already present in the LinIn the later part of the Bronze Age (the Final Pala- ear A documents (Fig. 4).
tial or Third Palace period, c. 1490/1450-1300 BCE),
Although there is only very limited textile or textual
a mainland Greek Mycenaean administration was in evidence for textile production in the Neopalatial peplace at the palace of Knossos, and a large number of riod, the presence of large numbers of loom weights
texts, written in an early form of Greek, provide infor- in many different locations provides archaeologicalmation about different aspects of the administrative evidence for textile production in this earlier period.
system. These texts show that in this period, a large- Thanks to the recent advances in textile experimenscale, specialised textile industry on Crete was con- tal archaeology pioneered at the Danish National Retrolled by the palace (see e.g. Killen 2007). Different search Foundation’s Centre for Textile Research at Co103

Figure 3. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, reproduction of the “Ladies in Blue” fresco from Knossos, Emile Gilliéron fils, 1927
(http://www.metmuseum.org).

104

penhagen University (CTR), it is now possible to analyseloom weights in order to gain insight into the types
of fabric they would have been suitable to make (seee.g. Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009;
Andersson Strand 2012; Cutler, Andersson Strand
and Nosch 2013; Andersson Strand and Nosch 2015).

Figure 5. The warp-weighted loom (drawing: Annika Jeppsson© Annika Jeppsson and CTR).

Figure 4. Variations of the Linear A logogram for cloth, andlogograms for different types of textiles (drawing: after Del
Freo et al. 2010, 351, with references).

The CTR experiments showed that both theweight and thickness of a loom weight have aneffect on the textiles produced with it. On the
warp-weighted loom, the loom weights are used105

to apply tension to the warp threads (Fig. 5).
Different types of thread need different amounts oftension, and generally speaking, a thin thread needs
less tension than a thick thread, because it contains
fewer fibres. The weight of a loom weight affects how
many threads needing a particular tension can befastened to it. For example, a loom weight weighing
500 g could have 10 warp threads requiring a tensionof 50 g attached to it, or 25 warp threads requiring atension of 20 g. It is generally considered by weaversthat it is not practical to fasten less than 10 or morethan 30 warp threads to one loom weight. This makes
it possible to assess the different types of thread that a
particular loom weight would be optimal for use with.
Two rows of loom weights are used to weave a tabby
or plain weave on the warp-weighted loom (this is themost basic weave, in which the horizontal weft runs
over one warp thread, under the next, and so on). The
CTR experiments demonstrated that it is optimal forthe loom weights in each row to hang close together,and for the width of each row of loom weights to beapproximately the same as the width of the textile
that is going to be made (Fig. 6). The loom weight’s
thickness, combined with the number of threads tied

Figure 6. An optimal loom setup, in which the loom
weights hang close together, and the width of the rowsof loom weights is approximately the same as the widthof the fabric being woven (photo: © CTR).

106

to it, and the number of rows of loom weights used,
control how closely the warp threads will be spaced in
the finished fabric.
Since a loom weight’s shape influences the fabrics
that are made with it, different types of loom weights
are best suited for making different types of cloth. Thiscan be used to help us assess what types of textiles
could have been made using loom weights found inarchaeological contexts.

Figure 7. Examples of Bronze Age loom weight types found on
Crete (drawings: after Barber 1991; Dabney 1996; Evely 2000).

On Crete, a number of different loom weightforms were used during the Neopalatial period,
suggesting that a variety of cloth types were being
manufactured on the warp-weighted loom (Fig. 7).
The most common types were discoid, spherical andcuboid shapes, but other shapes, including pyramidal, cylindrical and other forms have also been found.
At the palatial site of Knossos, the Neopalatialloom weights recovered from various buildings were
almost all spherical in shape (Fig. 8). These spherical weights would produce fabrics with quite widely
spaced warp threads, and they would be best-suitedfor making weft-faced textiles; that is, fabrics thathave a higher number of, and/or thicker, weft threads
than warp threads per cm. They include a number ofheavier weights, weighing over 350 g, indicating thatthe fabrics being woven included textiles made withthicker warp threads, although they would work wellwith a range of thread types, needing c. 10-30 g tension on the loom (Cutler 2011).
The palatial site of Phaistos and the nearby settlement of Ayia Triada also had predominantly spherical weights in the Neopalatial period, suggesting a107

fabrics being woven included textiles made with thicker warp threads that needed more tension (seeCutler 2011; Cutler, Andersson Strand and Nosch2014a; Cutler, Andersson Strand and Nosch 2014b;
Militello 2014; Militello et al. 2015a; Militello et al.
2015b.

Figure 8. Neopalatial spherical weights fromthe site of Knossos (photos: © J. Cutler).

similar focus on the production of weft-faced textiles.
These loom weights have been analysed as part of the
CTR ‘Tools and Textiles’ research project. The spherical loom weights from Phaistos and Ayia Triada, as at
Knossos, include a number of heavier weights, weighing over 350 g, suggesting that at these sites also the108

Figure 9. Neopalatial discoid loom weights(photos: © J. Cutler).

In contrast, the port sites of Kommos (e.g. Dab- with very fine thread. More textile varieties were beney 1996; Shaw 2006) and Pseira (e.g. Betancourt ing woven at the palatial sites of Malia and Zakros,
1998) have produced only discoid weights, while and at Palaikastro. Although we do not know exactthe port site of Mochlos (e.g. Soles et al. 2004) ly what these textiles looked like, looking at modern
has also produced predominantly discoid weights textiles woven with thread needing a similar tension(Fig. 9). In general, these weights would have and with a similar number of warp and weft threads
been best suited for making dense, probably bal- per cm can help us to visualise these different fabanced, fabrics with very thin to thin thread need- rics (Fig. 10a and b), and these can be compared toing only c. 5-15 g tension on the loom (Cutler 2011). the few textile fragments that have survived. By exOther sites on Crete, such as the palatial sites amining the wall-paintings, we can also get a goodof Malia (e.g. Deshayes et Dessene 1959, 73) and idea of the colours that some of these textiles may
Zakros (e.g. Hogarth 1900/1901), and the settle- have been dyed, and the kinds of decorative patment of Palaikastro (e.g. Evely 2012), have a wider terns that might also have been woven into them.
range of loom weight types. This indicates that a
Figure 10a. A weft-faced
fabric with 6 warp threads
wider range of textiles was being produced on theand 15 weft threads per cm,
warp-weighted loom at these sites (Cutler 2011).
woven with c. 10 g tension
The different types of loom weights in use at thethread, similar to the warp
different settlements suggest that not all the sites
thread count of fabrics thatwere making the same types of textiles. At Knossos,
could be woven withc. 10 g tension thread withthere appears to have been a focus on the productionsome of the Neopalatialof fabrics that are likely to have been weft-faced, in a
spherical loom weights. The
range of thread types. This was also largely the casefabrics could also have hadat both Phaistos and Ayia Triada. At Kommos, Pseira
many more weft threads per
and Mochlos on the other hand, the discoid weights
cm (photo: © CTR).
indicate a focus on making denser, balanced textiles,
109many other different regions and periods.

Figure 10b. A dense balanced
fabric, with 14 warp threads and
14 weft threads per cm, similar
to the fabrics that could be woven with some of the Neopalatial
discoid loom weights (photo: ©
CTR).

Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to Eva Andersson Strand and Mary
Harlow for the invitation to take part in the workshop,
and to Eva Andersson Strand and Marie-Louise Noschfor the opportunity to collaborate with them in the‘Tools and Textiles, Texts and Contexts’ research project. I am also extremely grateful to the Ephorates of
Antiquities on Crete, the British School at Athens andother Foreign Archaeological Institutes, and the directors of numerous excavation projects on the island,
who have kindly given me permission to record andanalyse the textile tools from various Bronze Age Cretan sites.

Using the results of textile experimental archaeology
and drawing on the knowledge of expert craftspeople
in order to interpret archaeological assemblages ofloom weights, we can get a picture of the types of tex- References
tiles that could have been made, even when we have Andersson Strand, E. 2012. From spindle whorls andvery few examples of the textiles themselves. We can loom weights to fabrics in the Bronze Age Aegean andalso get an idea of the amount of time it is likely to Eastern Mediterranean. In M.-L. Nosch and R. Laffhave taken to make these textiles (see for example the ineur (eds), KOSMOS. Jewellery, Adornment and Texarticle by Cécile Michel in this ebook). By combining tiles in the Aegean Bronze Age. Liège: Université dethis information with other strands of evidence, it is Liège, 207-14.
now possible to gain new insights into the nature of
textile production in Neopalatial Crete, as well as in110Andersson Strand, E. and Nosch, M.-L. (eds) 2015.
Tools, Textiles and Contexts. Investigating Textile Production in the Aegean and Eastern MediterraneanBronze Age. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
Barber, E. J. W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles. The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with
Special Reference to the Aegean. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Betancourt, P. P. 1998. The clay weights. In C. R. Floyd,
with contributors, Pseira III. The Plateia Building. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum, 99-110.
Cutler, J. 2011. Crafting Minoanisation: Textiles, Crafts
Production and Social Dynamics in the Bronze AgeSouthern Aegean. PhD thesis, University College London, UK.

Cutler, J., Andersson Strand, E. and Nosch, M.-L. 2014aTechnical textile tools report on Ayia Triada, In P. Militello, Festòs e Haghia Triada. Rinvenimenti Minori I:
Materiale per la tessitura (revised edition). Padova:
Bottega D’Erasmo, 299-306.
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Linda Olofsson
specializes in the combination of archaeology andcraft. She has been trained in traditional techniques
in Sweden and has practiced several of them. She isalso an archaeologist. Having this background, she
has often been engaged as a teacher in prehistorictechniques. Now, she is working at the Viking
museum, Trelleborg in Sweden.
She has also planned and conducted tasks in the fieldof experimental archaeology at the Danish National
Research Foundation's Centre for Textile Research
together with Eva Andersson Strand and the rest of
the team at the Centre for Historical-ArchaeologicalResearch and Communication at Lejre in Denmark.

114

Linda Olofsson: Spinning in the past andthe present
I will present some examples from the following projects in order to highlight aspects of the subject ofspinning. The common aim in these projects was toinvestigate the function of textile tools. The point of
departure for reconstructions of tools were archaeological finds of what was thought to be spindles, spindle whorls and loom weights. Questions of interest
were: Why does a tool have a specific size and shapeand in what ways is it most optimal to use? However,it can be very individual, how one wants to work witha tool, I will come back to this later.
In order to conduct the tests, first one has to gain
insight into the “chaine operátoire” of producing textiles. The choices made in the process of making textiles is of course tightly linked to what is going to be
produced and thus this can vary to a great extent.

Chaine operátoire
It starts with the selection and preparation of fibers.
This includes: plucking or shearing, cleaning,115

sorting out dirty and too felted parts, spliting thefleece into different types depending on how it will
be used.
Then, the actual preparation begins…there areseveral methods for this:Beating the wool, teasing it by opening it up byhand, mixing it, and combing or carding it. Also, thefibre should be organized before spinning, onto a
distaff or made into “roves” or pre-yarns ready to be
spun.
The yarn is spun
Spinning can be done with almost anything, a stone, astick or entirely by hand, without any tools. However,spinning on a suspended spindle with a whorl placedin the top or bottom area of a wooden stick is one of
the most usual ways of spinning. And lots of ancientwhorls, made out of ceramic, stone, bone and antler
have been found, in different sizes.
Production of cloth
The most frequent archaeological evidence of looms
is loom weights, which are tightly linked to the use of
the warp weighted loom - and ceramic loom weights
have been found in a great variety of sizes and shapes.
116

Other types of looms were most probably in use, suchas two beam looms, ground looms and back strap
looms. Leaving rare or no archaeological evidence.
The warp weighted loom
In ordinary tabby weaving, every other warp thread istied to a heddle rod. The warp threads are attached toa row of loom weights and the other warp threads areattached to a second row, thus preferable two rows ofloom weights all in all. By changing the position of therod, two different sheds appear. For every change, aweft thread is inserted. In twill weaving, the way ofsetting up the loom as well as weaving differs fromtabby and is more complicated, but can absolutely be
done.
A homogenous set of loom weights facilitates the
setup. Each warp thread should be given a suitabletension, which is evenly distributed.
Loom weights should be selected based on theirweight and thickness in relation to the chosen yarn
type, threads per cm and weaving technique … amathematical challenge!
Experimental archaeology
Insight into the “chaine operátoire” can be gained117What tools were used? Were they reconstructions?
from studying traditional textile craft and by input
from other modern craftsmen with knowledge of ba- What materials were used? and so on. The answers to
sic textile technicalities. Around the world, there still these questions can be of crucial importance for our
exists knowledge of textile techniques which we be- understanding of ancient textile production. And iflieve were used in prehistoric times. Different tech- the research questions change, choices like the onesniques have been used in different places and in dif- just mentioned will be of utmost importance to takeferent ways, depending on what was to be produced, into account in the new context of interpretation. The
but also depending on traditions and local habits and problem of lacking documentation could to some exskills. Some have changed over time but are still re- tent be excused because of difficulties of transformgarded as traditional. Also modern craftsmen are ing different craft processes into descriptive material.
marked by their education and school of thought aswell as available modern tools. Thus, we can presume One of the challenges of intangible heritagethat traditional craft today does not exactly mirror Guidelines, designed for the specific experiment, andreporting of the realization of them, helps clarify howwhat was once conducted using similar tools.
Experimental archaeology, if understood as an um- results were achieved and thus make them easier tobrella for different ways of accomplishing compara- relate to. In the projects, I was involved in using exble sources, is a common and appreciated approach perimental archaeology at CTR, the establishment ofin textile archaeology. However, fairly often there is such guidelines was one of the first tasks we accoma lack of published reports of how experiments were plished.
These guidelines were used for investigations on
conducted and what aspects were taken into consideration. When conclusions have been communi- the function of textile tools in 2005 and 2006. Now,cated orally between academics and craftsmen and some years of conducting experiments using thesein the transformation from practical experiences into guidelines have past. I will continue this paper, reflectacademic texts, important elements might have been ing upon how it has been, applying to some of themin practice. I will not go into detail concerning specific
lost.
118

experiments, but rather give some examples.
The primary parameter to be investigated is thefunction of tools
This guideline expressed the working perspective relevant to our study aims, when investigating spindle
whorls and loom weights and so we did not make reconstructed textiles.
Raw materials, such as wool and flax, were selectedaccording to our knowledge of fibres and work processes of the period in study
It is clear that the quality of fibres varies a lot among
different sheep, within each breed and even in a single
fleece. And flax fibre can be very different dependingon where it was cultivated and when it was harvested. Furthermore, the preparation of fibres affects theoutcome in a great way. For this reason, it is of importance to come as close as possible to the same type offibres and the same work processes as the ones in use
during the time and area of study. Let´s take wool as
an example. The wool available on today’s market isoften mixed and machine carded. Therefore we havespent hours selecting wool. Unfortunately, fibres fromsurviving textiles are not always analysed.
119And sometimes there are no fibres to analyse. A as similar as possible to the findings, in order to findlack of such information makes it problematic to ap- out what wool should be used in the experiments.
ply these guideline to experiments. This was the case Samples from three different sheep, one of them awhen we made test spinning with different kinds of lamb, were selected and sent for fibre analysis at thespindle whorls from Bronze Age Greece. We had, Conservation Centre at Vejle in Denmark. Before they
however, written information on the use of wool were sent, each of the three modern wool samples
and flax for textile production through Linear B in- were separated into three different samples, one
scriptions. We therefore decided to use wool from with reduced amount of wool, another with reduced
Shetland sheep with a variety of fibres, which is rec- amount of hair and in the third a mix of wool and hair;ognized as a characteristic for primitive sheep. By us- nine samples all in all. Each of the nine samples was
ing wool from the same sheep in every test, it was prepared separately using wool combs as if it were topossible to repeat the test and to compare the results be spun directly. The results from the analyses werefrom spinning with different tools. However, we can- then compared to results from equivalent fibre analynot draw any conclusions as to what kind of yarn was ses of wool found at Vorbasse, which was very thinonce spun, since the fibres, among other things, afect and fine.
spinning and the result.
The analyses demonstrated that the lamb’s wool,
In spring 2009 I was involved in another spinning and where the amount of hair was reduced, was the closweaving project directed by Ulla Lund Hansen at the est, in terms of diameter, to the fibre found at VorUniversity of Copenhagen, investigating textile pro- basse. Not at all corresponding to what is usuallyduction at a Roman Iron Age site in Denmark called demonstrated when prehistoric wool preparation andVorbasse. Finds of fibres are rare. However, at Vor- spinning are showed at museums. The primary aim ofbasse both some textiles and some remains of tools the work with the Vorbasse finds was to investigate
are represented. This made it possible to estimate if spinning as well as weaving based on finds from theand how it would be sufficient to produce such a yarn same site. However, it also demonstrated clearly thewith a reconstructed spindle using fibres that were influence of wool selection and preparation.
120

Tools must be reconstructed as precise copies of archaeological artefacts
It is of great importance that if the function of thetools, in our case spindle whorls and loom weights, isto be investigated they must be as true to the originals as possible. This, however, is not always possible.
Have we been working with half a reconstruction andhalf a construction? The answer is yes.
We could reconstruct only the whorls, since noneof the shafts have been preserved in the same context. The shafts were made of wood in a way that we,based on our experience, felt would fit. Other tools
were also in use during the experiments, tools that
we knew would be needed, but which were not recognised in the archaeological record, such as warping
frames, looms and wool combs. Still, it is of importance to document all tools in use.

an experiment. By working with two craftspeople withdifferent textile backgrounds, their skills will probably
affect the individual outcome to some degree, such as
the type of spun yarn.

To what extend is it the spinner or the spindle that
affects the outcome?
Anne Batzer and I conducted most of the tests mentioned. Batzer is a professional weaver with many
years of experience in working with prehistoric textile
techniques in Denmark. I am several years younger
than Batzer and was less experienced in weaving.
We had never spun together before and had not had
the same training. When spinning on spindles withwhorls weighing 4 g, 8 g and 18 g using wool, the result indicated that the tools, rather than us as spinners, influence the amount of wool per meter. The
outcome yarn was more similar between us than beAll processes must be performed by at least two tween the spindles with different weights of whorls.
skilled craftspeople
In general, light whorls are suitable for spinning thin
It is, of course, important that the craftsperson is and fine yarn and heavier whorls are suitable for spinskilled in the technique and the material to be in- ning thicker and coarser yarn. A light whorl will notvestigated. This knowledge, will affect the results. It manage to spin a thick and coarse thread and a thinis therefore of importance to document the artisans’ thread might break because of the weight of a heavy
background as a part of the contextual description of whorl, if it is spun suspended. We know that it is pos121

sible to spin with just a simple stick and that one spindle, with great effort, can be used to spin all kinds ofyarns. Our starting point, however, was to spin in a
way that felt most optimal, not pressing the tool inan uncomfortable way. Our tests confirmed earlier results made by only one spinner: Different weights ofwhorls suggest production of different types of yarns,
the lighter the whorl, the thinner and finer yarn if it isspun suspended.
However, there are many techniques for spinning.
This is confirmed by observations of spinning all over
the world and also by ancient iconography.
Thanks to Lejre Historical-Archaeological Experimental Centre’s Research Grant, I have been able totest different techniques using different types of spindles that occur in the archaeological record and different types of fibres. In conclusion, spinning technique,as well as spinner and the design of the spindle, does
have a major impact on what type of yarn is suitableto produce with what kind of spindles. And as such,also spinning technique is a determining variable toconsider when using results for interpretations in archaeology.

All processes must be documented
A great challenge! I know it sometimes can be difficult
to both have your hands in fuzzy bundles of warp andat the same time work systematically, recording every
effort made to reduce the lively twist of the yarn. Still,
without documentation it is challenging to use the result in research. I would suggest that another person
was responsible for documenting.
The results from some of the mentioned projects
have been used for interpreting prehistoric produc-122

Gutewool.

Shetlandwool.

123tion processes as demonstrated in the Tools, Textiles matter if the experiment is more experience based or
and Contexts research programme at CTR.
if it is a well- considered systematic test.
Training in techniques and knowledge of the archaeological finds together with written sources, ethnographic observations and iconography form a mixtureof sources which in different combinations constitutes
the platform in our attempts to revitalize ancient textile techniques today. And also a platform in experimental archaeology. One must sometimes also invent
new techniques and practices; playful testing can lead
you to the best approach. In this sense, traditional
textile craft becomes a form of my own personal fusion of others´ traditions, trials and errors. Furthermore a short term project in experimental archaeology will never correspond to the life long experienceof an ancient weaver.
Finally, we must bear in mind that the results of experimental archaeology will never explain exactly how
something was done in prehistoric times, but rather
work as eye-openers and indicators. Results should be
used with source criticism in mind. In establishing aprocedure, such as the mentioned guidelines, where
it is necessary to record and argue for different steps
in the process, we have a tool to use for making thework transparent and somewhat understandable. No
124

Cécile Michel
CNRS (National Centre of Scientific Research,
Nanterre, France)
is working with cuneiform texts that detailthe textile production in private context
during the Old Assyrian period (19th century
BCE) and in large palace workshops during
the Old Babylonian period (18th cent. BCE).

125

Cécile Michel: Estimating an old Assyrian
household textile production with the help ofexperimental archaeology: feasibility andlimitations
Cuneiform texts document three millennia of theancient Near Eastern history. They include details
about textile production in large workshops, andin the domestic sphere. This contribution focuses on the private textile production at Aššur during the 19th century BCE, (Old Assyrian period).
Old Assyrian levels have not been excavated at
Aššur, so we lack texts and archaeological remains for this city. To reconstruct the textile production there, we rely on the hundreds of letters sentby the Assyrian women to their family members in
Anatolia, especially at Kültepe, the ancient city of
Kaneš. There, excavations also provided textile tools.
The textile production of the Aššur women

had two goals: clothing household members, andfueling the long distance trade. The sale of textiles in Anatolia generated silver revenues for them.
Hands-on experience, based on traditional textile crafts and archaeological textile tools, carried out at the Centre for Textile Research, provides data which can be used together with thetextual documentation to estimate the number of textiles produced by a household in Aššur.
This paper investigates the methodology to
be used when combining the results of experimental archaeology with textual data, and thelimitations of this interdisciplinary research.

126

Map giving the distribution of Cuneiform tablets descoveries in the Near East. © X. Faivre and M. Sauvage.

127

Sources for a female private textile production
Textile remains are very rare in Mesopotamia because of bad climatic conditions. The same applies towood, and thus, we have no traces of looms. However, new micro-excavation practices have provided
some very tiny pieces of textiles. For the Old Assyrian
period there are only small fragments of a white textile decorated with blue faience beads found on thefloor of a room at Acemhöyük (south of the Tüz Gölü).
But this piece would have been imported from Egyptor the Levant.
Textiles are better preserved in the form of imprints
on clay. Numerous imprints of textiles on clay labels,
tablets, pots or sealing of doors and containers havebeen found at Kültepe. Indirect archaeological datais also provided by textiletools. Loom weights havebeen uncovered in some of the Kültepe lower town
private houses, showing both pyramidal and crescentshapes; there were also several spindle whorls. Someloom weights were found in houses belonging to Assyrian families, but it is not clear if they reflect techniques from Anatolia or from Assyria.
As for the iconography, our main sources are
the hundreds of miniature scenes engraved on cyl-

The trade between Aššur andKaneš.

According to M. T Larsen, OCAP, p. 172
adapted by K. R. Veenhof, AoF 15, 1988,
p. 244.

inder seals which reflect both Assyrian and Anatolian styles. One of these shows a woman presenting to the god a spindle with thread wound on it.
Other seals show dressed figures, and we could
perhaps distinguish garments of Mesopotamiansmade of tabby fabrics and garments of Anatolian twill.
22,500 Old Assyrian cuneiform tablets were discovered in the houses of merchants at Kaneš. The letters, dated to the first half of the 19th century, weregenerated by the long distance trade which provoked
the geographical break-up of families; those belonging to the correspondence between women and theirmale relatives settled in Anatolia, tackle many aspectsof daily life.

128

Crescent loom weights and spindle,
spindle whorls from Kültepe (Anatolia),
beginning of IInd millennium BCE.

Textile tools from Kültepe.

Old Anatolian style. ©
Kültepe Archaeological
Mission.

129

Female private textile production
Assyrian women did not follow their husbands in Anatolia but stayed in Aššur, at the head of their household. There, they wove textiles to dress members of
the household, but the most important part of theirproduction was exported to Anatolia.
Spinning and weaving were the main activitiesof all the household women, including girls, elderly
women and female slaves, perhaps in all a dozen of
weavers in wealthy houses.
Texts give data about the dimensions of the produced textiles, variety, quality, number and prices,
but they do not tell much about the organization of
the production and technical aspects.
The know-how of the Assyrian women was ap- Kültepe mound and low town. © Kültepe Arcaheological Mission.
preciated and from time to time their husbands gavethem technical advice. One sent a letter insisting on Thus, the size of such a textile was 4.5 × 4 metres.
the thinness of the textile and its density: “Add per This implies that it was not woven in one piece. Theirpiece one pound more of wool than you used for the remarks about the textile qualities could be quoted
previous textile you sent me, but they must remain by the women while answering back, showing somethin! (…) A finished textile that you make must be nine times some misunderstanding. When Lamassī wrotethat she had reduced the size – i.e. put less wool
cubits long and eight cubits wide.”– in her textiles that was not what her husband intended; he wanted denser, i.e. warmer textiles:
130sheep, then cleaned and prepared it for spinning.
According to a text from the 21st century BCE, a
craftsperson would only prepare for spinning about
125 g of wool a day. To obtain the 5 pounds necessary for a textile, it would have taken 20 days.
Experiments made at the CTR have shownthat it is possible to spin some 35 to 50 meters of
thread per hour. To weave a square meter of fabric, one needs some 2 km of thread, plus 2 to 5 %for the setting of the loom. A person had to spinfor 5 days (5×8 hours) to obtain 2 km of thread.
Sheep at Aššur city gate drawing by W. Andrae.
The Assyrian textiles were 4 × 4.5 meters(18 m2), they required 36 km of thread for the“As for the textiles about which you wrote to me
weaving, and some 3 months of spinning for a sinas follows: ‘They are (too) small, they are notgle woman. And the setting of the two or three
good!’ Was it not at your own request that I relooms required some 1.8 km, and 4 days of work.
duced the size? And now you write (again), sayAccording to the CTR experiments, one pering as follows: ‘Process half a pound (of wool) more
son is able to weave about 50 cm per 8 hours dayin each of your textiles.’ Well, I have done so.”of work, depending naturally on the width of the
Merchant accounts dealing with the transloom. If we suppose that the fabric was woven
port of textiles to Anatolia indicate that each piecein two strips of 2 meters each (which were thenweighed about 5 pounds (2.5 kg); but letters show
sewn together) two women could set up the twothat it could be plus or minus one pound of wool.
looms over some 4 days, and two women could
Women bought raw wool at the city gate of Aššur
finish the textile in 10 days. If we suppose the fabto the nomads coming each year to pluck their
ric was woven in three strips of 1.35 meters each,131

two women could set up the three looms over some 6
Woman’s letter.
days, and three women would finish the textile in 9 days.
Supposing that textile production was performed
throughout the year, a woman would have been able toweave at most 2 ½ textiles a year. A healthy household
could then have been able to produce a maximum of
25 textiles a year. Out of these, some 5 pieces would benecessary to dress the household members and there
were at most 20 textiles sent to be sold in Anatolia.
A large part of the textiles produced by the women of Aššur was sold on the Anatolian market by
their male relatives, thus assuring them an income.
The current kutānum-textile was sold for 15 shekels
at Kaneš. Once all the taxes deduced, women could
hope to get back 10 to 12 shekels a piece. From thisTasks/number of day
price, one has to deduce the price of the raw matework for one woman
rial. A royal inscription of Šamšī-Adad (18th century)
Cleaning and combing
indicates that for one shekel of silver, one could buy
Spinning
in Aššur 15 pounds of (raw) wool. Taking into account
Setting of the loom(s)that during the cleaning process there could be a
Weaving
waste of 30% of the original wool, with 1 shekel of
Total of working days/
silver it might have been possible to acquire about
woman
10 pounds of cleaned wool, which could be used to
Textiles/woman/year
weave 2 textiles. With the income of 1 textile, corresponding to 10-12 shekels of silver, a woman could132

In two strips

In three strips

20

20

94

96

8

12

20

27

142
[4 3/4 months]

155[5 1/5 months]

2½

2 1/3

buy wool to produce 20 to 24 textiles. But usually, atmost a third of the sale price of a textile was invested in the purchase of wool to produce 6 to 7 pieces.
According to these estimations, a household producing yearly some 20 textiles sent for trade in Anatolia would receive between 3 1/3 and 4 pounds of silver
per year as gross income, which corresponded to theprice of a little house in Aššur. With this silver, women could buy wool to make more textiles, but spentsome silver on food and daily life goods. The reminder was sometimes invested in financial operations.
Limits and uncertainties
In such computations, each parameter is basedon assumptions and we still lack a lot of data.
The number of persons per household, and moreover the number of active women, is based on archive and prosopographical studies. It concerns
wealthy household in Aššur which are documented by the letters discovered in the houses ofthe male family members settled in Kaneš. Reconstructed family trees often lack female members.
Another important parameter is the time period
during which women were producing textiles. It has

Part of an archieve excavated in the lower town
during the 1993 excavations. Photo: C. Michel.
© Archaeological Mission of Kültepe.

been suggested that it could have been seasonal inancient Mesopotamia, linked to the agricultural calendar. Such an organization may be possible in villages
where families were producing textiles for their own

133consumption. However in a context of palatial manufactures or in the context of Aššur private production
linked to the international trade, it seems more probable that the production was running throughout theyear. As well, how many hours were they weaving eachday: 8 hours or more, like the women of Central Anatolia(http://www.traditionaltextilecraft.dk/355733320),
or 6 hours like the ladies in Bani Hamida (Jordan)(http://www.traditionaltextilecraft.dk/355733307)?
The size of the textiles may also be questioned: are
all the textiles exported from Aššur 4.5 × 4 metres?
Are these the dimensions of textiles before or after
washing? The caravan accounts show that textiles tobe exported had a regular weight of 5 pounds;
so commercialized textiles may have been of standard size. But those produced for internal consumption
Tabby 20 thread/cm thread diameter 0,3-0,4 mm.
could have been smaller, and thus faster to produce.
In this paper, I have made the hypothesis that Aššur
ladies were using a warp weighted loom just like the average of the results of the experiments conAnatolian ladies of Kaneš. It has been written that in ducted by the CTR. According to the Old Assyrian
Mesopotamia, such a loom was not used before a late letters, it was possible to add 1 pound of wool perperiod. But Catherine Breniquet proved that it was textile without changing its size. So according toknown in Mesopotamia since the 3rd millennium BCE. the type of the textile, the thickness of the thread
Last but not least, the density of a textile var- varied and the weaving was more or less dense.
New studies will help to answer some of theseies a lot and the proposed data are based on an134questions. Eva Andersson Strand, Catherine Breni- household and of the income for Aššur women, evenquet and I have started a study of textile imprints if they need to be adjusted, are very important forfound at Kültepe, in a building dated to the early evaluating the role of women in the economy of anBronze Age. These bullae show imprints of textiles, cient Aššur. Their production has some echoes in thetwisted cordages, strings, wood and mainly basket- traditional craft projects visited during this fascinating
ry. They were attached to bags and containers used conference.
for storage or transport. On some textile imprints,
it is possible to measure the thread which is gener- Bibliography
ally quite thin, and to count the number of threads Andersson Strand, E. 2012. The Textile chaîne opéper centimeter. Among the weaving techniques, ratoire: Using a Multidisciplinary Approach to Textile
tabby and 2-1 twill were observed. Such imprints Archaeology with a Focus on the Ancient Near East. In
also exist for the Middle Bronze Age. Some of the C. Breniquet, M. Tengberg & E. Andersson (eds), withbullae were applied to the merchandise brought the collaboration of M.-L. Nosch, Prehistory of Textiles
from Aššur on donkey loads, and thus witness physi- in the Ancient Near East, Paléorient 38, 21-40.
cal traces of the textiles documented by the texts.
Despite the uncertainties listed before, the esti- Breniquet, C. 2008. Essai sur le tissage en Mésopomated number of textiles produced per household tamie, des premières communautés sédentaires à lais quite realistic since it can be confirmed by the fin du IIIème millénaire avant J.-C., Travaux de la Maitextile shipments made by Lamassī to her husband son René-Ginouvès 5, Paris.
Pūšu-kēn. Four texts linked together show that during an unknown limited period, Lamassī sent a to- Grayson, A. K. 1987. Assyrian Rulers of the Third andtal of 25 textiles to her husband. We do not know Second Millennia BC (to 1115 BC). The Royal Inscripthe origin of these textiles, but it is most probable tions of Mesopotamia Assyrian Periods 1, Toronto.
that they have been produced by her household.
The estimation of the production of textiles per
135

Michel, C. 2001. Correspondance des marchands deKaniš au début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. LAPO 19.
Paris.

in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean from theThird to the First Millennia BC, Ancient Textiles 8. Oxford – Oakville, 210-271.

Michel, C. 2006. Femmes et production textile à Aššur
au début du IIe millénaire avant J.-C. Techniques etculture 46, 281-297. (http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/halshs-00821277).

Veenhof, K.R. 2011. Houses in the ancient city of Assur, in B. S. Düring, A. Wossink & P. M. M. G. Akkermans, Correlates of Complexity. Essays in Archaeology and Assyriology. Dedicated to Diederik J. W. Meijer
in Honour of his 65th Birthday, PIHANS 116, 211-231.

Michel, C. 2014. Wool Trade in Upper Mesopotamia
and Syria According to Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian Texts. In C. Breniquet & C. Michel (eds) Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean: From
the Beginnings of Sheep Husbandry to Institutional
Textile Industry, Ancient Textiles 17, Oxford – Oakville,
p. 232-254.
Michel, C. In press. Women in Aššur and Kaniš according to the private archives of the Assyrian merchants
at beginning of the IInd millennium B.C., Writingsfrom the Ancient World, SBL, Baltimore

Waetzoldt, H. 1972. Untersuchungen zur neusumerischen Textilindustrie. Roma.
Waetzoldt, H. 2010. The Colours and Variety of Fabrics
from Mesopotamia during the Ur III Period (2050 BC).
In C. Michel & M.-L. Nosch (eds), Textile Terminologies
in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean from theThird to the First Millennia BC, 210-271. Ancient Textiles 8. Oxford – Oakville, 201-209.

Michel, C. & Veenhof, K. R. 2010. The Textiles Tradedby the Assyrians in Anatolia (19th-18th centuries BC).
In C. Michel & M.-L. Nosch (eds), Textile Terminologies
136

Mary Harlow
is Senior Lecturer at the University of Leicester and Guest
Professor at CTR. She works on Roman dress and textiles
and would like to see textile production become one ofthe ‘big themes’ in ancient history.

137

Mary Harlow: Textile crafts and history
The main focus of my research is Roman dress.
When we imagine the Roman past, one of the images
most conjured up is a statue of a man in a toga. Roman authors (always men) wrote about the clothing
in ways that expose the social codes associated withcertain garments but reveals little about textile production or the relative economic value of either the
textiles or the finished garment. If they do talk about
cost, it is mostly to complain about women desiring
expensive and exotic fabrics such as silk. Alongside
this rather partial literature, a huge volume of surviving images in a variety of media show clothed individuals allowing us to stock the Roman wardrobe witha number of different garments. However, it is often
hard to match the literature with the images and toalign the idealising and stereotyping that they embody to the lived reality of producing and wearing theancient wardrobe.
Roman dress was essentially very simple: a tunic (orlayers of tunics) of very basic rectangular or T-shape,

covered with a mantle which could be of varying size
and rectangular (the pallium/palla) or eliptical (thetoga). The large terminology of Roman clothing suggests that all other garments were a variation on thisbasic theme. There are lots of words for cloaks, forinstance, but the shaping was essentially straight or
curved edged and fits into the basic model.
Tunics were sewn along the side seams and made to
fit with belts and tucks, and the mantle was wrappedaround the body; clothing was not cut to shape but
made in single pieces on the loom.
My research takes the quintessential Roman garment, the toga, and asks some more basic questionsof it.
These answers come partly from texts – we know
the toga was made of wool and that the Romans
prized certain breeds of sheep for their fine, whitewool. Texts also imply that a Roman could judge thequality of another man’s toga by its colour and wool
type. I have made a series of calculations based on138

Toga, Statue from the Archaeological Museum,
Madrid.

the toga size as suggested by H.R. Goette extrapolated from his comprehensive study of togate statues.
It may be slightly on the large side but it has beenshown, when wrapped round the body, to create theeffect as in the picture here.
This is a very large piece of cloth measuring approx.
4.20m x 4.80m. To produce it requires the space to
set up the loom, time to spin a quantity of fine quality yarn and enough skill to set up the warp, weave acurved edge – and, of course, the time to weave it.
I have calculated, based on experimental work
done at the Centre for Textile Research, that such a
toga would require about 40km of yarn – which, depending on the skill of the spinner, could take up to
900 hours to spin and then up to nearly 200 hours
of weaving for a single spinner/weaver. As it needs aloom at least 5m wide, it is unlikely that a single weaver would be involved (100 hours x 2 weavers). So, allin all, if this is the work of a single Roman matron,
production would take about 1000-1200 hours – at
10 hour days that’s 120 days if you do nothing else allday. And these calculations do not include the shearing of the sheep or the preparation of the wool prior
to spinning.
This type of thinking about ancient textiles raised
all sorts of other issues. Some of these are specific to139

the toga, how often it was worn, how precious a garment it was, if it took so much time to make; did an
individual need more than one in a lifetime etc. Perhaps even more importantly, the project raised issuesof production: how many sheep might it take to makea single toga? Well, one answer would be – it depends
on the size of the toga and the fineness of the weave.
However, the problem raises far more fundamental issues about resources and their use in antiquity.
Textile production, despite the absolute importanceto the lives of people at all levels of society, has neverfeatured as one of the ‘big themes’ of ancient history.
Those of us who study textile production in thepast tend to stick to our disciplines: archaeology, history, iconography, philology (terminology) – some ofus study the texts, some look at images, others lookat the textile remains and tools – we rarely get time
to discuss areas of common interest or overlap – evenmore rarely do we get to talk to anthropologists orcraftspeople – whom we know are essential to ourunderstanding of what we are seeing/reading/finding– but when we do get the chance, as here in Amman
this week, the results tend to be rather explosive –traditional assumptions come tumbling down, newideas develop.

I want to talk for a few minutes about the history oftextiles and how we need to make it one of the big
themes of historical thinking – to sit alongside thestories of big men, big wars and political narratives.
In the last few decades, the environment, landscapeand climate have all come to the fore in both modern and historical thinking, but still the place of textile
production – even in histories of the landscape – gets
relatively short shrift.
There are perhaps two basic reasons why textile
production is often omitted from large scale studies ofthe past: one, is that textiles are often perceived simply as clothing (or furnishing) and thus not deemedworthy of ‘serious’ scholarship; the second that clothproduction and textile work have traditionally been
associated with the domestic world, the realm of
women. More recent scolarship has nuanced boththese views, but until the late twentieth century, it
was social anthropologists and occasionally economic historians who looked closely at textile production
and its social and cultural implications. Once ancienthistorians encountered approaches from anthropology, ethnology and gender studies, they saw first thevalue of a study of dress and adornment as part of theexpression of identity, and secondly recognized140

the cultural values of looking closely at modes of pro- In the west, most people are far removed from theduction. Interaction with a range of different but cog- process of textile production and few understand thenitively ralated disciplines has opened up whole new principles of spinning and weaving, and of those few,
areas of study for antiquity.
a minimal number are academics. In the west the
The erroneous reading of the gender divide in tex- production of textiles has moved from being a fundatile production is perhaps also the reason that it has mental, indeed essential, part of the industrial econobeen historically marginalized. To this I might add, it my to a predominantly female craft activity. This has a
is noticeable that most people working with textiles, place in the communal economy, but unless perceived
textile production and dress today are women. In the as a part of the fashion industry, is considered to havetwenty-first century I wouldn’t like to admit that this is little value. In the very recent past, perhaps as a result
also a reason why the subject is easily side-lined, but of the changing global economies, hand weaving has
I suspect the association with the ’female’ and ‘fash- entered haute couture fashion. This brings it into theion’ is one of the reasons we still have to fight to be public domain as a high-end product, where again, littaken seriously. If we can progress our slow move into tle thought is given to the labour and skill involved in
the mainstream, so basic observations will become its production.
part of the common body of knowledge of antiquiAs the west has outsourced its industrial textile
ty - and the present: that people have been covering production, so other economies have benefitted. In
their bodies with textiles for over 10,000 years; that both China and India and in developing nations, texthe production of quite complex weaves preceeded tile production is exploited as a means of growing thethe production of pottery, and certainly of metals. economy. In some areas, particularly in India and also
Splicing, spinning, binding, plaiting and weaving were in Jordan, textile craft is also exploited as a means ofused long before other technologies. The language of creating a local economic base for communities; susspinning and weaving, the sense of meshing systems tainable production and corporate social responsibilitogether to make a whole, of tensions and of design ty are becoming themes which shape the new textile
provided a language for early mathematics, for music consumer literacy (see UNESCO’s Intangible Culturaland for ways of describing the cosmos.
Heritage initiative: cf. http://www.unesco.org/cul141

ture/ich/doc/src/20435-EN.pdf(accessed 5.7.2013). ter supply; transhumance create a particular pattern
See Tyabji 2008 for some projects in India; Layla Tyab- of land use and social behavior. Without the need for
ji’s paper in this collection).
textile production ancient physical and cultural landThe concept of the ‘fibre revolution’ as expressed scape would have had a very different shape. Studies
by Elizabeth Barber and Joy McCorriston considered of communities where traditional, non-industrialized
among other matters, how the very early production textile production is still in place, together with earlyof fibres into spun thread influenced gender roles, ethnographic studies of European village behaviour
the division of space both in dwellings and commu- has provided approches by which we might accessnities and the evolution of specialized crafts. We now production processes and their social implications
need cross period work to recognize the progress and in antiquity. Even the predominantly male voices ofamplifiication of this revolution throughout history ancient literature make it clear that an often implias increasingly complex societies required more and cit understanding of textile production, particularly
more textiles. The Roman army, for instance, was a of spinning and weaving was very much part of themass consumer of textiles, not all of which can be ac- common body of knowledge in the general populaticounted for in domestic production. Building a fleet on of antiquity. In everyday life men, women and chilrequired long term planning as woven sails required dren (free and slave, rich or poor) were either activelarge amounts of raw material and time to produce. ly engaged in, or close observers of these activities.
The raw materials needed to be bred, pastured,shorn Textiles were ubiquitous, as clothing, soft furnishings,
or grown, harvested, and processed before they rea- saddles, bags, nets, sails - and even shelter.
ched the spinners. Textile production for both domeThis ubiquity is witnessed by the often unnoticed
stic and wider needs demanded time and planning. use of textile and clothing language as both narraThe effort of production competed in both time and tive tool, description and metaphor in classical texts.
land use with edible crops, and would have created In every form of literature, from love poetry to epic,
a distinct pattern in the landscape. The environment, forensic speeches to satire, from tragedy to comedy,
too, would have been affected by land use and proces- references to the production of textiles toses. Retting flax can affect the potential for fresh wa142

articles of clothing abound. The Fates spin the thread and women are sometimes associated with differof life; time passes as Penelope weaves and unweaves ent types of looms, for instance, that local sheep are
her tapestry while she awaits the return of her hus- not the preferred raw material and that high quality
band; the cosmos is a woven fabric; songs and plots goods use imported wool – these are all questions
are woven; garments tell stories; clothing symbolizes which need answers and looking at the practice ofcharacter; we count in a binary system that recalls the traditional craft should speak to our imaginations as
relationship of warp and weft: textile terminology is historians. Traditional techniques might enlighten our
everywhere, once one starts to recognize it.
understanding of the implicit assumptions in the writThese examples demonstrate that textile craft was ings of ancient societies and techniques might give us
very visible in the past, it has only slowly become in- insight into what we find in the archaeological record.
visible. Industrialization removed textile work fromThe discipline of experimental archaeology has
the craftsperson to the factory, often reducing the made an equally significant contribution to researchelement of individual skill. This close association be- in this area. It is now possible through many tests andtween methods of production and finished article is experiences to gain a deeper understanding of how
something modern society has lost sight of when it textiles were made and to answer such questions as:
comes to clothing and textiles. From an academic per- how long might it take to make a garment; what level ofspective, a major drawback of the loss of craft knowl- skill was required; what quality of raw material used;edge is that we lack an understanding of technical and what resources and techniques were required.
language and knowledge, and thus often miss an es- Furthermore, archaeologists working together withsential part of the information
experienced craftspeople have produced reproducOne way to solve these issues is to look where tions which have given new insights into how textiles
traditional techniques are still in play – we are not were made and how they might have been used. Thissuggesting that direct analogy is a good or accept- allows us to ask how long a garment could last, howable methodology but we can learn much about the often it needed mending and where wear or degradastories behind the textiles – we might learn that men tion is first visible. Good knowledge of archaeological143

textiles has clarified terms and techniques, although the type of garment had been decided. This creates
the persistence of misunderstandings remain strong a novel dynamic between all those involved in thegiven the frequent lack of inter- or cross- diciplinary chaîne operátoire. Was a thick, felted garment reknowledge. For instance, it is now accepted by most quired, or a light, loose woven one? This dynamic ispeople ‘in the know’ that embroidery as a decorative not one that we in the west are au fait with unless wetechnique is a relatively late development: Greek and make our own clothing. For the most part, we simply
Roman weavers wove their patterns in, they did not shop and buy what others have deemed fashionableembellish finished textiles with needle and thread. this season. Even the concept of draped clothing has
Despite this, the term embroidery is often found in an element of the exotic and foreign to us.
descriptions of ancient patterned clothing. Colour is
To understand the past, and its relationship to ouralso an element which is fast becoming a major inter- varied presents, requires an open approach to interest among those who study ancient dress. Archaeo- disciplinarity. It is essential, to work and learn fromlogical textiles have revealed a wide range of coloured craftspeople, archaeologists, anthropologists, econogarments; papyri dye recipes and even previously mists, artists – and endless other ‘–ists’, and it must
thought of as pure white marble statues of antiquity become central to further research – as proved, so efare now being shown to have been extensively and fectively by our gathering in Amman.
skillfully painted. Also, we might add the productionof dye plants and minerals to our image of the ancient Acknowledgments
landscapes.
Parts of this paper are taken from joint work withAncient clothing is often talked about in terms of Prof. Marie Louise Nosch (Danish National Research‘drapery’ and it is the relationship of the type of tex- Foundation’s Centre for Textile Research, Copenhatile and its properties combined with the techniques gen), and I thank her and all my colleagues at CTRof its construction that create drape. Most clothing from whom I learn so much. Also to Eva Andersson
in antiquity was made-to-shape on the loom. This Strand and the one night in 2013, at her home in Swemeans that even before the raw material was spun, den when we conceived this workshop – and what an144

adventure it has become! I would also like to thankthe Werner Gren Foundation for granting the fundingthat made all this possible.
Bibliography
Barber, Elizabeth J. W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles: The
development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze
Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Tyabji, L. 2008. Threads and Voices. Behind the Indian
Textile Tradition. Mumbai: Marg Publications.
See also the research project The Textile Revolution:
http://www.topoi.org/group/a-4/
UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage initiative:
http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/20435EN.pdf- 1994. Women’s Work – the First 20,000 Years. New
York: Norton.
Goette, H.R. 1990. Studien zu römischen Togadarstellungun. Mainz.
Harlow, M. & M-L Nosch 2015. Weaving the Threads:
methodologies in textile and dress research for the
Greek and Roman World - the state of the art and thecase for cross-disciplinarity. In M. Harlow and
M-L. Nosch (eds). Textiles and Dress in the Greek andRoman Worlds. An Interdisciplinary Anthology. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
McCorriston, Joy 1997 The Fiber Revolution. Current
Anthropology 38:4, 517-549.
145

Mary Petrina Boydis part of the Madaba Plains Project, Tall al‘Umayri, where she is excavating textile tools.
She is especially interested in needles.

146

Mary Petrina Boyd: The textile tools of Tall al‘UmayriThis paper surveys the tools of textile production at
Tall al ‘Umayri, outside of Amman Jordan. Our database analyses the materials collected during the period of 1987-2010.
The textiles have long since vanished, but the tools
used in their production remain, evidence of human
work, largely women’s work. They reflect hours of
production necessary to make the textiles that clothea family, shelter them beneath tents, wrap and protect food and other items. The biblical poem, Proverbs
31:1-31 reflects the importance of a valiant woman asa producer of textiles, as she sought wool and flax (v.
13), reached out to the spindle (v. 19), clothed her family in scarlet garments (v. 21) made her own bedcoverings and garments of fine linen and purple (v. 22), provided linen garments and a sash to the merchant forsale. Indeed she worked in the delight of her hands (v.
13). The poem concludes: “Give to her of the work ofher hands; let her works praise her in the gates (v. 31)”

The evidence from ‘Umayri suggests that this wasa place of domestic textile manufacture. While indeed, we find textile tools in every field there are nocollections of loom weights indicating the presenceof looms, or dye vats. Instead we find loom weights,

147

spindle whorls, spatulas and needles scattered acrossthe site.
The most common artifact is the spindle whorl. The
great majority of those (466) are reworked sherds,
fashioned into perforated discs. An additional 92 areceramic, but made as whorls rather than reworked.
Other materials include varieties of stone (basalt-31,
limestone-20, chert-1, sandstone-1, steatite-1, tuff-1,
unspecified stone-15). Animal materials, bone (14)and ivory (2), account for a small number of whorls.
There is a single wooden spindle whorl in the collection. We find far fewer loom weights at ‘Umayri. Thirteen are identified as ceramic or clay.
Five are stone (basalt-2, limestone-2, “stone”-1)
and the material of an additional loom weight is unspecified.
Excavation produced 29 bone spatulas, thought topick up threads in pattern weaving.

and tent makers would sew reinforcing bands to protect the fabric from the tent poles holding the tent up.
Other fabric was sewn into bags for the collection andstoring of agricultural materials. Sewing with needles
performs the following functions: 1. join two pieces offabric together, 2. gather fabric with a running stitch,
After spinning, dying, and weaving
3. hem the raw edges of fabric, 4. reinforce the edge
Some fabric was sewn. Here the needle is the primary of fabric, 5. decorate with embroidery, 6. mend holes
tool. Garments might consist of simple unsewn panels and worn spots in fabric, 7. attach something to awrapped around the body or draped over the shoul- piece of fabric.
ders. Panels for tents would be sewn together,
I would like to look more specifically at the twenty
needles that excavation has produced.
148

Of these three are bone and seventeen are bronze.
Six of the bronze needles (B981646, A020004,
A040017, A080066, A080067, A080161) were foundin topsoil or sift debris, so their dating is uncertain.
Three appear to be completely preserved and range inlength from 6 cm to 15 cm.

was found in 1987 on a Hellenistic surface. Unfortunately no data exists as to the dimensions of theneedle. Excavation in field L produced fragment of abronze needle (A040142) dating to the same periodwith an estimated length of 8.3 cm and estimatedweight of 1.3 grams.
A single bronze needle B871356 was found in material dating to the Persian Period in Field A. It is 7.69
cm long, but the weight was unrecorded.
Excavators found five needles in loci dating to theLate Iron 2/Persian Period. Four are bronze (B966147,
B040003, A06077, A06031). One is bone (A080449).
Two of the bronze are fully preserved with lengths of
15.5 cm and 11.3 cm. B040003 weighed 4.7g.
The preservation of A06077 is estimated to be 55%
which would result in an estimated length of 8.3 cm
and an estimated weight of 3.8g The preservationof A0631 is not recorded, but it has a length of 7.12
cm and weighs 6g. A single needle from this period isbone (A080449), 9.1 cm long and weighs 2.4 grams.
Excavation in Late Iron 2 material produced a bronze
A bone needle (A080347) from field L dates to needle fragment (B891813) 5.4 cm long. (Preservation
the classical period. Estimated to be 70% preserved. and weight is not recorded.) B945109 is a bronze neeIt would have been 5.6 cm long and weighed 3g. A dle that is bent, dating to Early Iron 1. No further databronze needle from field R (no registration number) is available for this needle.
149

Excavators found a bone needle (A080040) in Iron 1
material. The fragment, 7.7cm long and weighing 3.1g
is estimated to be 90% preserved, which suggests acomplete length of 8.5 cm and a weight of 3.4 g.
Material from the Middle Bronze included twobronze needles. Excavation in Field C revealed a complete, curvilinear bronze needle (B871346) 11.7cm
long. Excavators also found a bronze needle (B966030)
in an earth layer part of the excavation of the dolman
in Field K associated with skeletal remains. Thus,

excavation at Tall al ‘Umayri from 1987-2010 unearthed
20 needles, 3 bone and 17 bronze, in material datingfrom the Islamic era through the Middle Bronze. The
length of the bone needles ranges from 5.5 cm (est.)
to 9.1 cm. The length of the six completely preserved
bronze needles ranges from 7.6 cm to 15.5 cm. Only
three of these have weight recorded: 2g, 4.7g, 12.4g.
Archaeologists find what is left behind. These finds
represent only a fragment of what was used over the
centuries that Tall al ‘Umayri was occupied. Given
their perishable nature some were destroyed: boneneedles broken into unidentifiable fragments, bronze
needles corroded completely away. Given their portability and their usefulness, needles would have been
carried with them as populations moved away.
As we study these textile tools, especially the needles, we touch lives of people living thousands of years
ago. For them, textile production was necessary forsurvival. Textiles were highly valued. Yet as we touch
our own needles in a time vastly different from theirs,
we are connected, touching across the millennia.

150Mary Petrina Boyd, The House that Wisdom Wove:
Analysis of the Functions of Household in Proverbs
31:10-31. Ph.D. dissertation, Union Theological Seminary and Presbyterian School of Christian Education,
Richmond VA, copyright 2002, 149-152

151

Jeanette Boertien
works at the University of Groningen, Netherlands. She
researches into the possibility of local weaving oftemple textiles in Iron Age Jordan and thereby sheds
light on the life of women in public and religious life.

152

Jeannette H. Boertien: Aspects of textile
production in Iron Age Transjordan
Archaeological finds from different sites in Jordan
demonstrate the role textile production played in Iron
Age society. Today I wil present some results from myarchaeological research on loom weights and textile
fragments from Jordan. I will present some results oftextile production in Ammon and Moab during theIron Ages between (800-600 BC). First I will concentrate on three sites in the Central Jordan Valley. And
then I will discuss textile finds, loom weights and an
inscription from a temple complex in a small fortification in Moab.
Central Jordan Valley
In the central Jordan Valley, Deir Alla, Mazar and Saidiyeh can be seen as a row of sister sites, situated close
to each other, whose fate was linked (Yassine and Van
der Steen 2012:81). Textile production in this part of
the Jordan Valley was probably inter153

connected, each site making textiles on a different
scale and producing various different types.
Mazar
Large public buildings have been found in Mazar strata V and III (Iron Age). In and around these buildings
textiles were woven on a small scale. The production
was limited and meant for the use of the inhabitantsof the fort.
Stratum V dated to 7th-6th century BC revealed
one large group of loom weights and large tubs. It
has been suggested (Mazow 2010) that these ‘bathtubs’ were used for the fulling of wool. Another possible function would be for dying yarn or cloth. But
the ‘bathtub’ could also have been used as a bin to
store grain. Stratum III– revealed 8 different groupsof loom weights centred in the northern part of thefort, in and on the roof of public buildings. Later in the
Persian Period (Stratum II) there were no public buildings any more at Mazar. In this period private houses
have been found, in which textiles were produced ona small scale. The small numbers of loom weights suggest that the production was intended for their own
household use (Boertien 2012).

Deir Alla
The southernmost of the three settlements was Deir
Alla. In Iron IIB here, the production of textiles wasthree times more than in most of the other sites in
the Southern Levant. It was a small, un-walled settlement, with the houses built close together around atemple complex.
From phase IX some 650 loom weights have been
excavated and 24 looms could be reconstructed within the 15 households living at Deir Alla phase IX. The

154

village was destroyed in ca. 800 BC by an earthquake
followed by a fire. The loom weights were found insitu on the place, where they fell from the loom. Fromthe stratigraphy it could be concluded that most of
the households had more than one warp-weighted
loom set up in the house, in the courtyard or on theroof of the house.
The shrine was a plastered benched room, on thewall of which was a long text about the seer Balaam
and the disasters that he predicted. The text mentions a female deity whose name was Shagar, and in
the sanctuary compound inscribed artefacts mentions the name Shera, and in the surroundings of thebenched room some very unusual statuettes of females have been discovered. The finds and architec- a religious inscription raises the question whether
ture reflect cultic use. The benched room was part of this special kind of cloth could have had a cultic use.
Textile production at Deir Alla phase IX was high,a cultic structure in which weaving and cooking were
important activities. At Deir Alla a fragment of fine which may have been due to the liturgical use ofhemp fabric was found amongst the loom weights textiles in and associated with the temple, such asof the loom on which it was woven. The discovery of flags, banners, curtains or clothing, and possibly also
several fragments of hemp cloth and yarn in phase IX clothes for the deity. It is also possible that textiles
is very unusual, as hemp cloth has never before been were traded through the temple.
reported from Iron Age levels in the Levant. Linen is
the most commonly used plant fibre. The presence offine hemp fabric in a complex around a cult room with
155

Moab
Khirbet al-Mudayna is an Iron Age site in the Wadi athThamad, on the northern border of ancient Moab. It
was a fortified compound measuring 140 x 80 m surrounded by casemate walls. A huge six-chambered
Sa’idiyeh
gate with two towers protected the northern entrance
Tell es-Sa’idiyeh the northernmost of the three sis- to the settlement. Behind the gate there was an open
ter sites, was about 800 BC a major settlement with plaza and a broad road leading into the settlement.
rows of identical houses. From the hundreds of loom To the east of the plaza was a temple complex. To theweights could be seen that weaving was performed south of the temple complex on the east side of theon a large scale (Pritchard 1985; Burke 2010).
road were two pillared buildings. The entrances to
The architecture of the settlement and the finds, the different buildings were alongside the road.
including hundreds of loom weights, exhibit a striking
Mudayna yielded many unique discoveries, insimilarity to Gordion in Anatolia – which is dated to cluding pieces of textile, textile impressions, loom
around 800 BC – where many loom weights and tex- weights, spinning bobbins, spatulas and large limetile fragments have also been found. Amongst the tex- stone vessels.
tile fragments from Gordion some seem to be madeThe temple was located directly behind the big sixof hemp. The loom weights from Tell es-Saidiyeh are chambered gate and was part of a temple complex
comparable in size and weight to those from Deir Alla with a cistern, a weaving room, a kitchen and a courtand Mazar.
yard with ovens.
It is very likely that textiles were produced in
The temple complex of Khirbet al-Mudayna had
Sa’idiyeh on an industrial scale. The settlement was a weaving room, a kitchen and a courtyard with ovprobably a central place for textile production and ens. This is a unique combination suggesting cooking,trade within a network of cities situated in the central baking and weaving in association with the shrine. In
Jordan Valley east of the River Jordan.
the weaving room stood a warp-weighted loom with
156
Given the exceptional quality of the hemp fabric andthe patterned textiles, the profits from the textiles
produced at Deir Alla must have been relatively high(Boertien 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009).

more than 50 donut shaped loom weights. The posi- incised pendants and crosses and painted with a redtion of the loom weights makes clear that four rows and black pattern of triangles. One face of the shaft isof loom weights were used on this loom. Next to the decorated from top to bottom with diagonal red lines.
loom stood a basket made of coiled reed plaited with Some paint is preserved on the petals of the altar’s
linen yarn. Textiles were probably produced to cover upper cone. The inscription is mounted on the upper
the needs of the temple, such as liturgical vestments. cone of the altar (Daviau 2002). The inscription reads
However, other woven products needed for worship, ‘Incense altar made by Elishama for Josefa the daughsuch as banners, flags, rugs and curtains, could also ter of Awat’. It is a unique inscription, firstly because
have been produced at the site.
for the first time it is clearly stated that the object is
The temple was identified as such because of an incense altar. Until then, no one knew what suchthe architecture and the finds (Daviau and Steiner altars looked like. Secondly, the inscription on the al2000:1). The sanctuary at Khirbet al-Mudayna meas- tar tells us who the maker was. And thirdly, the altarures 5.50 x 5.50 m and is divided by a freestanding was made for a woman. In addition, this woman isbench into a main room and an annex at the north- also referred to as the daughter of a person named
eastern side of the room. The freestanding bench was Awat, which is most likely a woman’s name (Dion andplastered, as were the benches running alongside the Daviau 2000). In pillared building 200, the limestone
walls of the building. A large, smoothly polished flat basins stood in between the pillars. The floors of thestone formed a small podium in the southeastern cor- aisles were paved and a thick layer of plaster had
ner of the room. Three lime stone altars were found been applied around the bins. This kind of large public
on and around this podium: an inscribed incense al- building with pillars was until recently considered totar, a decorated libation altar, and an undecorated fire be exclusively Jewish, but apparently they were also
altar. The incense altar is well made, and unique in used in Moab. Such a building has even been foundshape. It is 96 cm high, conical and consists of five in Ebla (Tell Mardikh) in Syria (Matthiae 2004). In Eblasegments. On top is a cup-shaped depression stained this building is regarded as a stable, an interpretation
with soot. The altar is made of fine limestone, with157

also advocated by some archaeologists for a similarbuilding at Megiddo in Israel. For a long time thisbuilding was known as ‘the stables of Solomon’. The
remains of Khirbet al-Mudayna convincingly demonstrate that the tripartite pillared buildings at this site
did not function as stables. Weaving was performed
inside the buildings and on the roofs. The basins situated between the pillars were probably used for thedyeing of fabrics. This is indicated by the thick layersof plaster on the structure around the basins between
the pillars and the many freestanding limestone basins. One of these large limestone basins bore incised
motifs depicting a palm tree, an animal and patterns
suggesting the structure of looms. The various minerals that were found in the buildings and a pallet withcopper residue were probably used for making paint.
The textiles produced were meant for common (public) use and/or benefit. Whether the weaving output
outside the temple complex, in the large public buildings, had something to do with the temple is not clear.
In any case, the textiles made at Khirbet al-Mudaynaand the proceeds were not intended for private use(Boertien 2013).

Loom weights and textiles
At Khirbet al-Mudayna, a total of 278 loom weights
were registered of which 250 could be studied. The
loom weights indicate that 8 looms, at the most, could
have been operated at the site. The spindle whorls
found at Mudayna are limited in number, only 33
whorls were found in area A and B. Several fragmentsof textile and yarn have been found at Mudayna. A
fragment of wool fabric was found in pillared building
200. The fabric was used to cover the contents of asmall bowl. The material from inside the bowl has notbeen analysed.
In the weaving room of the temple complex fragments of plaited linen thread were found together
with basketry, all belonging to a basket made of coiled
reed and plaited with linen. The material was foundnear a warp-weighted loom.

158

159

The location of the site and the communal activities
performed within the public buildings suggests that
textiles were sold to the local population (living outside the enclosure), or to traders passing by Mudaynaon the north-south route. However, because of thevery limited production capacity it is more likely thatyarn was spun and textile was woven and probably
dyed at the site to be used within the fortification of
Mudayna.
The textile finds from Deir Alla and Khirbet al-Mudayna is of great importance for our knowledge oftextile production in Iron Age Transjordan. They are aunique source for the study of textiles in the archaeology of the entire Southern Levant.

der Steen. Sacred and Sweet; Studies on the Material
Culture of Tell Deir ‘Alla and Tell Abu Sarbut. Ancient
Near Eastern Studies, supplement 24. Peeters, Leuven, Paris, Dudley:135-151.
Boertien, J.H. 2012. Weaving at Tell Mazar; The Loomweights. In: K. Yassine and E. van der Steen. Tell elMazar II. Excavations on the Mound 1977-1981, Field
1. BAR International Series 2430. Archaeolpress, Oxford: 59-72.

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the Tell., 1964-1966. University Museum Monographs
60. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Yassine, K. and E.J. Van der Steen. 20012. Tell el-Mazar
II; Excavations on the Mound 1977-1981, Field I. BASOR
International Series 2430. Archaeopress, Oxford.

Daviau, P.M.M. and Steiner, M.L. 2000. A Moabite
Sanctuary at Khirbat al Mudayna. BASOR 320:1-20.
Mazow, L. 2013. Throwing the Baby Out with the
Bathwater: Innovations in Mediterranean Textile Production at the End of the 2nd/Beginning of the 1st
Millennium BCE. In: M.-L. Nosch, H. Koefoed and E.
Andersson Strand (eds), Textile Production and Consumption in the Ancient Near East. Archaeology, Epigraphy, Iconography. Ancient Textile Series 12. Oxbow
Books, Oxford, p. 215-223.

161

Theme 4: Preserving
traditional textile heritageand making it visible

162

Nihad Hendawi & Fatma Marii
are conservators at the Jordan Museum andwork with the curators of the museum onpreserving and maintaining the textile
collections of the museum.

163

Nihad Hendawi & Fatma Marii: Preserving
techniques for the textile collections at the
Jordan Museum
The Jordan Museum (JM) presents the history and cultural heritage of Jordan in an engaging and educational way. Presenting Jordan’s traditional life and its modern life requires the possession of different collectionsof artefacts including textile collections which include
clothes, rugs and other traditional accessories. Mostof these textiles were brought to the museum collection either by purchasing or as donations from private
individuals or societies. Usually these resources would
have previously stored the textiles in unsuitable environments for their preservation; some of these textiles were in damp and dark storage and others were
exposed to dust and direct light. In general, the textile
collection requires special attention for its preservation once the textiles become part of the museum collection.

Condition
While collecting these textile artefacts, they werestored in dark rooms with a high humidity level foraround eight months. This environment was the perfect breeding place for cloth moths. Moth larvae werein the majority of the rugs, which mainly were madeof wool. Dresses were in a better condition, and aremade of different fabrics including wool and silk.
Later, the textile collection was transported fromthe temporary building to the museum building,which is the permanent place for the collection, eventhough it was by then not prepared for storing artefacts. Each single textile artefact was checked for condition. Many of the rugs were damaged by the cloth
moths and their larvae.

164

Treatment
Cleaning the rugs that were damaged from the cloth
moths was an essential procedure before transporting
the textile collection to the new building.
Each textile was spread out in the sun light outdoors
to get rid of the flying moths. They stayed under the
sunlight for several hours before cleaning them withthe vacuum cleaner. This thorough cleaning was donefor each individual rug and dress and every other textile object. Later on, textile artefacts were kept in afreezer at around -40° C for almost 3 – 4 weeks.
The new plastic boxes that were used to store thetextile artefacts while transporting them were sterilized by rubbing the box using cotton wool and ethanol. Then in each box small pockets of silica gel andnaphthalene were packed with the textile artefacts.
In the new building, a case of flat drawers was used
for storing the flat rugs. Acid-free boards were used tocover the metal drawers inside to separate the textiles
from the metal surface. Each drawer also got pockets
of silica gel and naphthalene.
At the final stage in the storing of these textiles,
permanent cabinets were designed - suitable to theirsizes and numbers - to store the textile collections.

Case Study Jubba Conservation
The Jubba is almost 70 - 100 years old, and it is oneof the textile collections that were purchased by JM
from its owner Mr Ali Mahmoud Sulaiman. It is madeof wool, silk and camel hair. The Jubba was stored
in the same dark room with the high humidity level,
which was a suitable environment for cloth moths togrow and breed. The moth caused high damage to the
Jubba; thread deterioration and loss of fabric.
When moving the Jubba to the new storage room,
the same preventive conservation treatments mentioned earlier were applied for the Jubba. Furthermore, the damaged silk fabric in the Jubba were replaced with a fabric of the same material and colour.
The new fabric was applied by sewing it to the old textile.
Jubba was wrapped with acid-free tissue and wasstored separate from the other textile artefacts in thestorage of the Jordan Museum.

165

Maj Ringgaard
is a Textile-conservator at the National
Museum of Denmark. Her PhD was on
decomposition of fibres and dyes intextiles. Her research also concentrates
on 17th century knitwear and on
preserving the textile heritage.

166

Maj Ringgaard: Preserving Danish textile
heritage
Assembling a collection that represents textiles, which
through time has been significant for the culture ofa country, is not done only by collecting the chosen
textiles. The collection must also be registered, stored
and treated so the textiles can be maintained for the
future.
This presentation illustrates how we as conservators contribute to preserve the Danish Textile Heritage. In this case the Danish textile heritage stored in
the National Museum of Denmark. This includes preparing for exhibitions, cleaning, conserving, and doing
scientific research and analyses of fibers, dyes, textile
techniques, storing, packing, and dealing with pest
and climate control.
The National Museum of Denmark
The museum collections in the National Museum of
Denmark cover both Danish prehistory, Danish andEuropean history up to the present time, as well as
ethnographic collections from all over the world, butwith a special focus on the Arctic. The textile collections include an excellent collection of archaeologicaltextiles as well as a historic dress and costume collection of almost 100,000 historic textiles.
The collection was started in 1650 as the Danish
King Frederic III’s Kunstkammer (collections of artsand national wonders). This means that the National
Museum now contains many 17th centurytextiles andother artifacts with known proveniences and dates.
Among them objects from places that were considered exotic at the time like Africa and South America.
An example is a large Prestige Panel of raffia from Congo (282 x 160 cm), which was contemporary, when it
entered the Kunstkammer in the 17th century.
Many of the historic textiles were collected aroundthe turn of the 19th century; clothing and decorative167

textiles were collected from a rural culture that was
vanishing at the time. A few of the museum curators
had special focus on different kinds of white embroidery, and a number of these are considered typically
Danish – our textile heritage. This means that the museum has a larger collection of these white embroideries – compared to the collection of multi-colored
embroideries from the same time and culture.
The costume collection covers daily wear from prehistory up until today – mostly from late 1600 until
now. Apart from costumes the textile collection includes household textiles like tablecloths, curtains,
pillows, sheets etc.

consists in safeguarding the museum artifacts fromenvironments that can deteriorate the objects’ preservation; i.e. avoiding materials evaporating harmful gasses in store rooms and exhibitions and always
keeping the artifacts in a stable, appropriate and pestfree environment.
In the storage and in exhibition spaces there should
be strict climate control, so humidity and light is kept
according to the recommended values (for textiles between 40% and 60% relative humidity, temperatures
under 24 C, and light at maximum 50 lux). Light causes
extreme deterioration on textile fibers and dyes, and it
is very important to keep the damaging UV light awayfrom the textiles. A stable climate protects the texConservation
tiles from both microorganisms and insects. A high orConservation can be active or passive. The passive, changing humidity and temperature causes good conpreventive conservation is at least as important as the ditions for mould and fungi, which can lead to massive
active “hands-on” conservation.
destruction of the collection and is toxic to humans asPreventive conservation is extremely important for well.
maintaining cultural heritage. It prevents the textiles
IPM (Integrated Pest Management) is actively infrom deteriorating further after entering the museum. corporated in the National Museum. Insect traps in
Lately the tendency of museum conservators is to fo- the museum storage and exhibition spaces are regucus more on preventive conservation and less on ac- larly monitored to avoid harmful insects. All textiles
tive conservation.
are frozen before they enter the collections in order
Preventive conservation, among other things, to kill insects. All materials used in storage and exhi168

bitions are analyzed, to avoid materials evaporating
harmful gasses. Emergency plans in case of disasters
like fire or flooding have been made.
Registration – labeling
Registration is important in order to be able to use thecollections for research and for the understanding of
cultural heritage. Each artifact – in this case textiles –is in the National Museum thoroughly registered andlabeled. The conservation treatments, the exhibitions
that the artifact has been part of in the museum aswell as the general information about the collected
item, is noted down.
The textiles are labeled with accession number, sothey always can be identified. Most often this is doneby writing the accession number with a light- and waterproof pen on a piece of washed cotton tape, which
is sewn to the textile. Some museums use tags withbarcodes, but as these need a device to read, they
may cause unnecessary difficulties in daily use.
No materials that can harm the textile should be
used for labeling. Never use a marker pen with wa- Figure 1. This jacket from the 18th centurt was labeled by
ter soluble ink that could stain the textile in case of writingwith ink directly on the object. Over the time the ink
high humidity or ink that can etch the fibers and make has etched holes in the linen © The National Museum of
Denmark.
them brittle.
169

Today we would never write directly on the textile,
but in the 19th century this was sometimes done, andin the National Museum’s collection there are textiles
that have been labeled by writing directly on to them.
Sometimes the numbers here have been changed
over the years according to new number systems orinformation, and several of the textiles have variouslines of letters or numbers that have by now etchedholes in the textiles.

Storage
Textiles that are not on exhibition are kept in the museum’s storage. Here it is important that the textiles
are not stressed, i.e. folded or hanging themselves todeath by their own weight. The textiles must be kept
as flat as possible in boxes made from acid free cardboard. Acid free tissue paper is placed between thelayers of the textiles. If it is necessary to fold the textile, acid free tissue can be loosely folded and placed
inside the fold to avoid sharp folds that will over th-

Figure 2 and 3. Very deteriorated textiles are stored in boxes of Kapa sheets (acid free cardboard with foam at centre) in individual cut outs, and closed with a lid of acid free cardboard © The National Museum of Denmark.

170

Figure 4. Archaeological textiles packed with several boxes
made of acid free Kapa boards on top of eachother.

years break the textiles fibers. Large, flat textiles are
stored rolled on tubes of acid free cardboard with acidfree tissue between the layers of the textile. Larger
tubes of cardboard can be heavy, so Ethafoam tubesof an appropriate diameter are used instead (of thetype used for isolating pipes). The tube with the rolled
textile is packed in washed cotton fabric and tied with Figure 5. Karen Jacobi is creating individual mannequins from
cotton ribbons. Textiles with pile (Persian carpets etc.) chicken wire and bandages covered with acid free tissue paper
are rolled with the pile towards the outside.
© The National Museum of Denmark.
Very fragile textiles like archaeological textiles are171

best kept in “boxes” made of three to four layers offoam cored acid-free cardboard (KAPA sheets). Everybox is made to fit the textile to be stored with a niche
cut out according to the dimensions of the textile.
The accession number and other needed information
are written on the outside top lid of the box. The box
and the lid are kept together with cotton tapes. Severalof these custom-made boxes are then stored in larger
boxes, so that each layer can be lifted separately.
Mounting costumes for an exhibition
A textile needs a support when on exhibition. Old andfragile textiles are best supported lying flat, but this is
not always possible or required, when the function of
the textile has to be illustrated.
For 3-dimentional textiles a 3-dimentional support
Figure 6. Individually made mannequins for a costumemust be made – i.e. a head for exhibiting a hat or aexhibition© The National Museum of Denmark.
mannequin for exhibiting costumes. Tailors dummies
can be hard to acquire in the right sizes, as historicalcostumes are normally much smaller than contem- For the National Museum’s costume gallery the manporary costumes with completely different waist and nequins were made individually for each costume, butbreast measurements. The mannequin must always for smaller exhibitions of a shorter duration readybe smaller than the costume to be fitted onto it, as made styrofoam mannequins are used. These are thenthe mannequin can’t breathe in or move while being adjusted for the costume by cutting and/ or stuffedwith polyester fiberfill, Ethafoam and cotton jersey; ordressed.
172

special supports made of Fosshape.
Conservation of archaeological textiles
Mannequins are also sometimes made from chick- Denmark has a unique collection of wet excavated preen wire, supporting only the costume, without neck, historic textiles. These textiles not only document thehead or extra arms. The chicken wire net is covered way the prehistoric men and women were dressed –by plaster bandages and Japanese paper. In this way, they also illustrate the many beautiful and skillful texan individual mannequin is made, fitting the costume tile crafts as they were produced in the past. We haveperfectly. Nowadays the mannequins are mostly made a long experience in the preservation of wet archaeoof Fosshape, which is an easier material to work with. logical textiles and have made several copies in order
Minimal handling of the fragile textiles is as impor- to find out how exactly they were made and worn.
tant as the conservation process. It is a big challenge
Most of our archaeological textiles are found into handle a brittle archaeological textile when it is go- bogs or are from burials. They are recovered from waing on an exhibition tour. The aim is to create a sup- terlogged, anoxic areas, which prevent rot and decay
port that allows the textile to have a natural shape, and therefore have a unique ability to preserve theas when worn, without the risk of harming the brittle fibers until they are again exposed to oxygen. We do
textile and breaking fibers in folds.
thorough research of different conservation methods
For fragile costumes a form that is horizontal, but and are regularly optimizing the treatments, looking
shaping the folds of the textile, is used. The support is for the best way of preserving the fragile textiles.
made from a brass net covered with polyester fiberfill,
An archaeological textile has survived by reachingor of shapeable Fosshape, covered with a soft textile equilibrium with its surroundings. When excavatedlike Moleskinn which is dyed in the same color as the this balance is disrupted, and deterioration will start.
dress. The support is fixed on a board and the dress Therefore it is important to keep the textile in a cliis arranged in the appropriate way for a dress to be mate close to the one it was preserved in. If found dry,fully supported. The board can then be lifted, without it should be kept dry (and not be washed), if anoxic it
handling the dress. During exhibition the plate can be should be kept away from the air, etc.
mounted at a 40-degree angle.
When drying an archaeological textile found in a173

Figure 7. This Bronze Age dress is exhibited with the body inthe oak coffin, where it was found. The folds of the dress aresupported by soft rolls of fiberfill to prevent the fragile fibers
from breaking © The National Museum of Denmark.

wet environment it is important to avoid shrinkage
and deformation. Freeze drying allows the water tosublimate directly from ice to vapor, without passing
the water stage. By freeze drying textiles can be preserved that would certainly be destroyed by normal
drying (wet linen textiles for instance). In recent years
a slow freeze-drying at atmospheric pressure has been
introduced, as this minimizes the risk for an over-drying of the fibers.

To minimize damage by cleaning, the textiles are
only loosely rinsed before drying. Only after the drying process are sand and soil removed using a micro
vacuum cleaner with a hose made from a pipette. Thisis done under a microscope.
Analysis
During and after the conservation archaeological textiles are analyzed, and structure, technique, dye, fibers and fleece type are identified.
The structure of the textile is studied closely, andthe techniques used to produce the textile are identified. A textile structure can sometimes be produced174

by different techniques, and here relevant literature sections you need a very thin, 90 degree cut of a fiber,
and experience of identifying textile techniques are which is done using a special device, a microtome.
used. Certain looms, for instance, could produce cer- The surface of the fibers can be investigated by thetain cloth, and here it is important to know from other help of SEM Scanning Electron Microscope. This canarchaeological finds of looms and weaving equipment, help you distinguish between different animal fibers
if these existed at the time and in the area where the by different patterns of the outer scales.
textiles were found. Otherwise the textiles found could
be imported from other areas. So trade and distribu- Conservation researchtion can be identified by technological knowledge of In the Conservation department of the National Mutextile manufacturing.
seum we are conducting continuous research of differThe dyes – even if no longer detectable for the eye ent conservation methods. For instance we try to op– can be chemically identified. The best means for that timize the freeze dry process, as mentioned. Anotheris HPCL – high performance liquid chromatography – example is the Borhydride treatments of white textiles
that splits the dye in small chemical compounds that with signs of degradation caused by oxidation, seen as
show up as graphs to then be identified in order to be brown spots or yellowing of the textile. This treatmentcompared with the content of known dyestuffs.
is a bleaching based on a reductive chemical reaction,
Fiber identification is done in a high resolution which restores the chemical compounds in the fibers.
light-microscope. It is rather easy to recognize aniWe have also investigated and researched into
mal fibers from plant fibers, and also to detect cotton the use of Vacuum Suction Table in textile conservafrom other plant fibers. When it becomes difficult is tion. Washing textiles on a suction table supports thewhen you need to determine WHICH plant fiber (flax, textile when rinsed and reduces the time the textile
hemp, nettle etc.) or which animal fiber (human hair, is wet, and thus also reduces the danger of its being
sheep, alpaca, camel etc.). Then you sometimes need damaged.
not only to look at a fiber lengthwise but also to look The conservators are the museum people closest to
at a cross section of the fiber. For making good cross- the objects – studying the textiles from macro- to mi175

croscopy. They detect the little details, like slight differences in color or the stitching holes left in a textile after it has been changed for reuse. These things
can be important for the understanding of a historic
textile. So it is very important that conservators, researchers and curators are working closely together
and exchanging knowledge, in order to interpret an
object and put it into the right context.

Textile from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress © Camilla
Ebert.

176

Anna Karatzani
is Assistant Professor at the Technological
Educational Institution in Athens, Greece.
She is researching into the use of metal threads
used in the decoration of ecclesiastical andsecular textiles in Greece.

177

Anna Karatzani: Metal threads, the historicaldevelopment
Precious metals have always been used in combination with fibres in order to produce luxury fabrics forpolitical and religious elites.
Metal threads
The metal threads are divided in two basic types, cut
strips and wires-rolled strips.
These types have been used for the productionof combined threads. Based on their morphologicalcharacteristics the combined threads can be (Fig. 1):•
Thin strips of gold or silver wound around asilk or fine linen thread (filé).
•Gold or silver wire which is wound creating aspiral, also known by the Turkish term tir-tir.
•
Gilt membrane strips. In this case very finegold sheets are beaten on to an animal membrane, cut into lamellae (strips) and also woundaround a core yarn.

a

b

c

Figure 1: Types of metal threads: a) metal strip, b) wire,c) strip wound around a silk yarn, filé; d) spiral wire,
tir-tir; e) gilt membrane strip spun around a silk yarn, andf) gilt leather strip wound around a silk yarn. OM images, (mag.
x40).

178

•
Gilt leather or gilt paper strips. These are narrow strips of gilt leather or paper produced by thesame method as the gilt membrane strips.
The metals mainly used are gold, silver and copper,
either alone or combined; while zinc occurred frequently as a component of copper alloys. The organic
supporting material could be cellulose based (paper)or protein based (leather, parchment and animal gut).
The fibrous core could be a protein-based fibre suchas silk, wool or hair, although so far wool has not been
identified. The cellulose-based fibre could be linen,
cotton or hemp. Since the beginning of the 20th century new materials such as man-made fibres and aluminium are used.

in the fine linen, with cunning work.” Old Testament,
Exodus, 39: 2-3.
The first and most ancient type of thread was a narrow strip cut from a hammered gold foil. This techniqueof hammering a foil, which is described in the passageof the Bible, was already known to the Egyptian goldsmiths by the 5th millennium BC and presumably they
were also able to produce narrow strips to be usedin textiles. However, the earliest example of this typeof thread (according to the author’s knowledge) is the
textile found in a Macedonian royal tomb in Vergina,
dated from the 4th century BC. It was made “of puregold hammered into about 0.03-0.04 mm thin foil andcut into strips about 0.3-0.4 mm wide”.
The winding of the gold strip around a fibrous core
Historical development of metal threadsof vegetable or animal origin marked the first major
The first written record about the use of gold wires change in metal thread production (Fig. 2a). Althoughand strips for the decoration of textiles comes from the exact date of this innovation is not known, it was
the Bible; it describes the decoration of Aaron’s vest- used during the late Roman period and according toment for service (ephod), explaining the technique Wild (1970), was achieved by the use of a spindle. The
used during the 12th/13th centuries BC .
spindle was rolled manually on the thigh producing“And they made the ephod of gold, blue and purple, an S or Z-twisted thread, but no further information isand scarlet, and fine twined linen. And they did beat given. These round metal threads have a similar shape
the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires, to work as organic yarns and became very popular because
it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and they were much easier to handle.
179

Metal threads of the type of gold strip wound wound tightly around a core thread and is not comaround a fibrous core have been identified in Spain monly found in textile works of that period. The spiralin a textile fragment excavated at the ancient Roman wires found are made either of gold or of silver. Acnecropolis of Cádiz. The burial, where the textile was cording to her this unusual technique was known tofound, is dated to the Augustan period, between the the Lapps of Northern Sweden, who used it in theirend of the 1st century BC and the beginning of the dresses, but their wires were made of pewter. Howev1st AD and belongs to a young woman. The strip is er, trade contacts between the Lapps and merchants
0.2 mm wide and 3.6 microns thick and was made of from Birka brought the technique into the Viking arpure gold, indicating 23.4 carat gold. The thread was Z eas, where it was further developed using precious
twisted and unfortunately no core thread was present metals in their production.
since the burial was from a cremation.
Gold wires have been employed in textile decoration since at least the 2nd century BC; these early examples are part of fabrics found at the Han-tombs at
Man-Ch’eng in China. The earliest dated examples ofabcwires used for the decoration of textiles in Europe arefrom Birka (9th/10th century), and are drawn wires. A.
Geijer, suggests that the wires used at Birka were imabcported from Byzantium via Russia. M. Járó also claims
that other early examples of wires found in Western
Figure 2. Images of file threads a) gold b) silver (tarnished)
European textiles might have been imported from thec) copper/brass (a) scale 4mm and b,c ) mag. X40).
East.
Geijer has also identified a rare type of thread
among the samples examined from Birka, the spiralwire, which is a kind of tir-tir thread. This is a fine wire
180

Silver based threads
with gold threads during the 14th century, but by theThreads made of silver or silver alloys were also used 16th century they were used less frequently, as a newfor the decoration of textiles (Fig. 2b). Silver threads technique appeared. In this new method gilt threads
were probably used by the Greeks to decorate textiles, were made of gilt silver wires, which were flattened to
but Járó does not give any date, while the Romans are form strips that are gilt on both sides. Nevertheless,said to have used them in the 1st century AD. Howev- threads made with the single side gilt sheet techniqueer, the first dated examples come again from Birka and continued to be used in rare cases.
are dated to the 9th/10th century. Gilt silver threads,
made from a strip wound around a fibrous core, were Gilt and silvered organic strips
already in use during the 9th century. Their use spreadthrough Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries, primarily for embroidery. Two types of gilt threads havebeen identified; those that are gilt on the external surface only and those that are gilt on all surfaces. The
first type of threads were made by gilding sheets ofsilver, which were then hammered until a very thincabsheet was produced and fine strips could be cut formaking the spun thread. The second type was made Figure 3. a, b) gold leaf stripsc) SEM photomicrograph of theby hammering/flattening a gilt wire. Biringuccio de- gold leaf (mag. X3000).
scribes how the silver wire is gilded to produce a wirethat looks like being made of pure gold.
Strips that are gilt on the external surface only havebeen used for the decoration of textiles since the 9th
century. These are usually described as “or de Milan”
or Milanese gold threads. Such threads were used181

During the 11th century the membrane thread also silver threads were incorporated into velvet weavappeared. This thread was made by gilding organic ing with the design created in relief. The membranematerial (leather, animal gut, or paper), cutting it threads were no longer appropriate for the weight of
into narrow strips and using these strips either flat or these fabrics and the velvet brocade weavers once
wound around a fibrous core (Fig. 3a). This new inven- again began to use the flattened gold and silver wires.
tion reduced the price and the weight of the fabrics. It This was also one of the reasons why gilt organic strips
became very popular and was used in large quantities. disappeared from Europe after the 16th century.
In the beginning the “organic threads” appeared
Gilt and silvered leather strips were used for theas imports from the East and were usually known as decoration of brocade fabrics in the Far East, and were
Cyprus gold threads or Byzantine threads, because used as untwisted wefts for the fabrics. Chinese fabricsof their place of origin (Braun-Ronsdorf; Járó 1990). with this kind of decoration became popular in WestThese threads were made of membrane gilt with gold ern Europe during the 14th century and influenced
leaf, but the membrane threads of Byzantine origin Italian silks. During the same period (14th century)
were wider and heavier gilt than the Cyprian ones. Chinese weavers adopted the use of strips cut from
Furthermore, a yellow silk core was used throughout gilt mulberry paper used as flat threads. The winding
Byzantium, while the core of Cyprus gold threads was of these paper strips around cotton or silk cores was
yellow or red, and always white in silver threads. From practiced only rarely.
the 13th century onwards such threads were also produced in European workshops. Instead of membrane, Copper based metal threads
a very thin animal gut was used as organic support and The use of copper in European metal thread making
gilt silver leaves were applied for the gilding. These can be traced back to the 15th and 16th centuries.
threads were only wound around a linen core, and These threads were cast, drawn and rolled in the same
were used only rarely in embroideries because the manner as silver and silver gilt filaments and are typigold was worn off easily.
cally spun around cotton core threads (Fig.3c). Such
From the early 15th century onwards gold and threads were much cheaper to produce as much less182

precious metal was required. During the earliest peri- the solid metal strips were still used for embroidery.
od of their introduction gilt or silvered copper threads
were only used for the decoration of vestments by Manufacturing techniquesless wealthy people who could not afford the cost of Strips
the precious metal threads. Some countries had intro- Solid metal strips can be produced either by cutting
duced laws against the use of copper based threads, them from a sheet of metal, or by flattening a wire.
allowing their use only for the production of theatrical The average width of the strips used for making metal
costumes and second quality objects.
threads is between 20 and 40 μm, and the average
A book from the 16th century written by Biringuc- thickness varied between 6 to 30 μm. Unfortunately,
cio refers to wires made from gilt copper as a great there is a lack of information concerning the length
fraud. He also mentions that the wire produced with of these strips or the methods used for joining themthis technique can be drawn so fine so that it cannot to obtain the necessary length. Joining by overlapping
be seen with the naked eye, and it is indistinguishable has been suggested as well as the creation of a longer
from gold wire. In the same book he also refers to sil- sheet of metal by cold hammering before cutting itver coated copper drawn into thin wires. Such threads into strips.
are recorded from the 16th century onwards and are
However, since gold and silver foils (thickness > 1
typically found with copper threads that are first sil- μm) are typically only about 10 cm long, too manyvered and then gilt.
joins would be required to obtain the length necessary
Brass has also been used to imitate gold since the for the production of threads. Another method that
14th-15th centuries and similar threads were also has been suggested is the elongation of a cut strip. A
used until the 20th century. From the early 20th cen- strip may have been stretched using a tool similar totury new materials began to be used, namely lami- that depicted in the Mendelschen manuscript from
nated metal threads made by combining transparent the 14th century.
or pigmented plastic materials with aluminium. These
The first strips were made of gold, but these threads
threads are primarily interwoven into fabrics, while were very fragile and difficult to work and additionally183

they were very expensive, so they were soon replaced come together.
by silver and gilt silver strips. The production of gilt
The production of metal strips by flattening a drawn
silver threads is more complicated than those made of wire (by hammering or passing between rollers) was
pure metals. Theophilus in the 12th century describes a simpler and more practical method. The strips prothe technique for the production of gilt silver; first the duced were longer and no joins were needed. Tímársilver is hammered into a rectangular piece and is cov- Balázsy also argues that since the length of the wires
ered with gold, and then the two metals are soldered needed for the manufacture of metal thread is much
together with a soldering material containing copper. greater than that needed for jewellery making, only
He also describes how gilt silver was hammered to a drawn wire was employed in metal thread production.
narrow band, from which fine strips were cut for mak- According to Járó et al. a wire with a diameter of about
ing spun thread, used for weaving of less expensive 0.05 mm was needed for the production of the strips.
fabrics.
However, they suggest that such a diameter was difBiringuccio in his ninth book refers in detail to the ficult to be achieved until at least the 12th century
method used for the production of gold and silver for when wire drawing was introduced more widely.
spinning. He describes the gilding of the silver, whichis then hammered into foils (thickness > 1 μm) or Wires
leafs (thickness <1 μm), depending on the thickness The study and analysis of jewellery has provided derequired. The strips are then cut with a long pair of tailed information concerning the manufacturing
scissors. He also specifies that women were involved techniques of wire and has shown that most of thesewith this job because they are more patient than men. techniques remain the same from the Roman period
These strips would have been as long as the gilded and throughout the medieval period, when the use of
sheet and were wound around a linen thread either the draw plate finally replaced them. The main methwith a spindle or by some other means. He also men- ods for producing wire were:tions that the width of these strips is enough to cover• by hammering out a metal ingot until a wire withthe thread without any excess when the cut edges
a more or less round section was obtained.
184

•

•

•

by block twisting. The wire is produced by hammering out a metal ingot until a rod of the required thickness and a square section is obtained.
The rod is then twisted as tightly as possible andis rolled between two flat pieces of wood,by strip drawing, this involves the drawing of a
strip, cut from a metal foil, through holes of decreasing diameter causing the metal to curl on
itself and form a hollow tube. The tube can bepulled through subsequent smaller holes so thatthe hollow centre gets narrower and,by strip twisting, it also involves a metal strip cut
from a foil, which is twisted around a mandrel oran existing wire. The wire produced is then tightened and gently extended by hand.

a number of dies until it is reduced to the requiredsize.
The location and exact date when wire drawing
was first used have not yet been identified. Specialists
dealing with this issue still argue about the exact date,since draw plates have been recorded well before theevidences of drawn wires.

Figure 4. Wire drawing.

The principle of wire drawing.
Drawn wire
The technique of wire drawing involves the gradual Duczko, who has studied Viking filigree work, hasreduction of the thickness of a metal rod by pulling it shown that wiredrawing was known by the 9th centhrough a series of holes with decreasing diameter, so tury AD. Geijer has also made the same claim whenthat after each pass the length of the wire is increased studying the textile objects from Birka, which also
and its thickness is reduced (Fig. 4). For the production date to the 9th/10th century. In Achaemenid Persia
of such fine wires to be used as metal threads the ap- (c. 559-330 BC) only gold wire was produced with
propriate reduction per pass of the die is between 15 the use of draw plates, implying that harder metals
and 25%, indicating that the wire was passed through could not be drawn. A survey of gold jewellery car185

ried out at the British Museum, states that the earliest pieces of drawn wire date to the 6th/7th century and originate in Sweden and Egypt for example,
suggesting that this was an independent invention.
Rolling
Rolling is a process of plastically deforming a metal bypassing it between a pair of rollers revolving in opposite directions. During rolling, compressive forces are
involved and the final result is an increase in length
due to the reduction of the section of the metal. The
invention of the rolling mill is attributed to Leonardo
da Vinci who first provided a sketch of it. However,
Glover states that Augsburg was the place where flattened wires were first used for the production of metal threads. She gives the 16th century as a date for the
introduction of this technique and mentions that thetechnique was kept secret so the details of this method are not well known. She also suggests that flattening of wire was performed manually during the 15thand 16th centuries.

jects. In order to reduce the quantity of this noble
metal that was required for their objects, goldsmiths
produced alloys of gold with silver and copper and invented methods of gilding less precious metals. Furthermore, they were always trying to develop newtechniques that would allow them to use even thinner coatings in order to minimise the precious metal
consumption. Nonetheless, the surface coatings could
also have been used for decorative purposes in combinations with other metals.
Gilding can be defined as the application of a layerof gold on the surface of a less precious metal thatcan be attached either mechanically or physically. The
origin of gilding can be traced back to the late 4th
or early 3rd millennium BC, and very soon it spreadthroughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. Metal threads seem to have been made of pure metals
and alloys only in very early times. Gilt silver threads
were already used before the 10th century AD, andwere made by gilding rods of silver. The rod was hammered so thin that fine strips could be cut for making
spun threads.

Surface coatings and finishing methods
Due to its rarity, the supply of gold has been always
insufficient to satisfy the great demand for gold ob186

Silvering
Silvering is another method that has been used as asurface coating on base metals such as copper, bronze
and brass. The history of silvering is as long as the useof silver metal, although silver plating is not as commonly found as gilding. Silver foil is more fragile thangold foil and tends to tarnish. These two characteristics put a limitation to the fineness of plating. Moreover, the optical similarities with various coatings madefrom other white metals such as tin and arsenic makethe identification of silvering difficult. The basic methods used for the application of silver coating are similar to those used for gold La Niece (1990 and 1993).

edly carried out either with gold leaf or gold powder,applied with the help of a binding medium or ironing(Fig. 3b). The information given from the gilding ofmanuscripts implies the use of a ground bole on thesurface of paper before gilding and silvering (red forgilding and white for silvering), and it is supposed thatthe same method has been used for leather and paper
threads. In the case of European membrane threads,
animal guts covered with a metal, investigations haveshown the application of very thin sheets (gilt silver
leaves hammered from gilt silver foils) with the help of
a binding medium. Járó also describes the use of gold
and gilt silver leaves for gilding leather and membrane
strips, but without giving any information about thebinding medium used. The same author has also identified the use of gold powder.

Gilding and silvering of organic materials
The weight of the finished object was another problem that craftsmen had to solve. During the 11th century much lighter strips made of metal-coated organic Conclusionmaterial were used. These consist of gold-leather, sil- All the developments related to metal thread prover-leather, gold-paper, silver-paper or metal-coated duction aimed to create lighter and less expensive
animal gut (membrane threads). Generally the leath- threads. Pure gold threads were only used during theer, paper and animal gut were gilded before being earliest times, and these were soon replaced by gilt
cut into strips. The strips could be used either flat or silver threads and gilt organic strips. Copper based
wound around a fibrous core.
threads which were coated with gold and silver to
The gilding of leather and parchment was suppos- imitate precious threads were occasionally used from187

the 15th century onwards, but only for second quality
objects. More recently brass and brass coated copper
threads were also used to imitate gold threads and insome rare cases the brass threads were also gilt. During the 20th century even cheaper materials and modern coating techniques have been introduced in the
manufacturing of metal threads, creating some new
types.
Bibliography
Braun-Ronsdorf, Margarete 1961. Gold embroideryand fabrics from medieval to modern times, Ciba Review, 3, σ. 2-16.
Duczko Wladyslaw. 1985. Birka V: The filigree andgranulation work of the Viking period. Stockholm:
Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien.
Geijer, Agnes, 1983. The Textile finds from Birka, in
N.B. Harte and K.G. Ponting (eds), Cloth and clothing
in Medieval Europe: Essays in memory of Professor
E.M. Carrus-Wilson, Heinemann, p. 80-99.

Hawthorne, John G. and Smith, Cyril Stanley., 1979.
Theophilus: On Divers Arts. The Foremost Medieval
Treatise on Painting, Glassmaking and Metalwork.
New York: Dover Publications.
Járó, Marta. 1990. Gold embroidery and fabrics in Europe XI-XIV centuries. Gold Bulletin, 23, 40-57.
Járó, Marta. and Gondár, Erzsébet., 1988. Mediaeval
Membrane threads used for weaving and Embroidery,in M. Járó and L. Költõ (eds), Archaeometrical Researchin Hungary, National Centre of Museums, Budapest, p.
255-266.
Karatzani, Anna., 2007. The Evolution of a Craft: The
use of metal threads in the decoration of late and post
Byzantine ecclesiastical textiles. Unpublished PhD thesis, Institute of Archaeology, University of London.
Smith, Cyril Stanley and Gnudi, Martha Teach, 1959.
The Pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press.

Glover, Elizabeth., 1979. The gold and silver wiredrawers. Phillimore.
188

Tímár-Balázsy, Agnes and Eastop Dinah., 1998. Chemical principles in textile conservation. London: Butterworths-Heinemann.
Wild, J. P., 1970. Textile Manufacture in the Northern
Roman Provinces, Cambridge University Press, p. 3940.

189

Gillian Vogelsang Eastwoodis the Director of the Textile ResearchCentre in Leiden and has published anencyclopedia with a detailled study ofembroidery from Marocco to Iraq.

190

Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood: North Africanand Middle Eastern embroidery
The title of the talk: North African and Middle Eastern
Embroidery is slightly misleading as two main themes
are discussed. Firstly, attention is focused on the question ‘What is embroidery?’ and secondly there is asurvey of the many types of embroidery to be foundwithin the Arab world. The time period covered isfrom the earliest known archaeological samples fromthe tomb of the famous ancient Egyptian pharaoh,
Tutankhamun, to the present day: a period of about
4,500 years. The work presented is based on researchcarried out while writing ‘Encyclopedia of Embroidery
from the Arab World,’ (Bloomsbury, London, March
2016).
The first part of my paper ‘de-constructs’ embroidery to see what are the main technical and social elements (in the widest sense of these words). The firstpoint considered is the difference between structuraland decorative sewing/stitching. Then a mental list
must be presented of all the choices made, while preparing a piece of embroidery. These choices can bemade very quickly - or they may take many months
to make. The decisions to be made include technicalaspects concerning the end product and function, basis material, yarns, equipment, design considerations,what is locally available, and so forth. Four importantelements are highlighted in this section, namely:

191

•
•
•
•

Function of the finished product (cushion, garment, wall hanging)
Domestic/professional work
Time (needed, allowed)
Availability of materials in the local markets

By making different choices, a very wide range of embroidery forms were and are possible.
The second half of my paper is a visual survey of themany different types of embroidery styles to be foundin North Africa and the Middle East. There were andare over 150 forms from this part of the world of
which a few are illustrated here. The main question
raised is ‘What is Arab Embroidery?’ The conclusion
was - a little surprising for some - that there was andis no such thing as ‘Arab Embroidery.’ There are simply
so many different forms found within the Arab World.
How can one type be classed as Arab and representative of the diversity of cultures and embroidery styles
to be found in this vast area of the world?

Garment from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress ©
Camilla Ebert.

192

Jorie Johnson
is a textile designer and the director of JoiRae
Textiles, Kyoto. She is an adjunct lecturer atseveral universities in Japan and a researcher
with the 8.c Shoso-in Imperial Collection (Nara).
Jorie teaches workshops in felting and she createsfelt clothing and interior works which have beencollected by such institutions as The Victoria andAlbert Museum, Museum of Fine Art Boston and
The Cooper Hewitt Smithsonian Design Museum
among others.

193

Jorie Johnson: From ancient to anew, felt
making achievements
This article “From Ancient to Anew, Felt Making
Achievements” will be divided into several sections inorder to link the historical evidence of felt making to
its present use as an attractive and elemental textile
with diverse possibilities. I will introduce the range ofwork that my studio in Kyoto JoiRae Textiles is doing
for contemporary felt work, and, I will include several
ideas of ways to introduce the public to the basic concept of the ancient textile of felt in order to spike interest in keeping the practice alive for the future.
My personal interest in textile design stems frombeing raised in the household of a Boston wool andfiber merchant, brokering imported materials fromaround the world for the New England woolen mills
and manufacturers. In the mid-1960’s I saw a variety
of designer yarns, tweed fabrics and industrial felt
samples, and sat frustratingly during short sermons

about the high quality and special characteristics ofwool in the nervously changing textile environment
rapidly introducing the manmade fibers of nylon andpolyester. My first handmade felt studies came later,while I was an exchange student at a design institutein central Finland in 1977. There I joined a three-day
traditional felt boot-making class, which meant there
was no way around making less than two items of thesame size and quality. Halfway through the rigorous
session I was invited to join the head of the institutefor afternoon coffee who was host to the American
Ambassador and her Cultural Attaché. On reflection
I realize that was the day I was handed the baton andbecame an Ambassador of Wool and Felt Making.
From then on I started to travel and research the older
cultures still practicing felt making and to participate
in international conferences in order to bring more

194

Above: Turkmen Rug, Dagistan Ladies’ Boots.
Right: J. Johnson and K. Sasage Leg Covers and with Shoes.

195

Left: Hungarian Szur. Right: J. Johnson Ensemble.

information to the world about the lost technique.
My colleagues of a certain age and I joke that wewere raised in the RME period or Reed Mat Era, because now, tools have been replaced and we haveclearly progressed into the CEBW, Common Era of
Bubble Wrap. Out of necessity teachers and artisans
look for compatible equipment for work with the finer
merino wool and silk fabric combinations that the contemporary urban nomads are attracted to today.
The research expeditions I have joined have taken
me to various areas of the Silk Road to see what sheep
breeds exist and what that wool was traditionallyused for. Journeys through Hungary, Turkey, Republicof Georgia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, China
and now to Jordan in search of shepherds, examplesof traditional felt, common equipment, favored materials and techniques, before they might disappear.
Last year, in Hangzhou, China I was a member ofthe conference “Two Millennium BC Wool of the Silk
Road,” hosted by The China National Silk Museum(CNSM) in conjunction with the CTR, Copenhagen.
That was where I met Eva Andersson Strand among
others from the impressive CTR team.
196

It was very important for me to see the Danish examples from the western end of the silk road, as well as,
objects from the Chinese Tarim Basin burial site of
Small River Cemetery and to compare them to later
felt artifacts that were brought to Japan and now
found at the last depot to the East in Nara.
Let’s start with Scandinavian felt work. Important
Danish felts which are child-size animal masks of the
Hedeby vessel find dating to 1100 AD. Two unstructured felt masks, not really understood how they wereactually used, retrieved after being stuffed between
the tarred boards of the hull of a sunken ship. The Danish Felt Makers Association GRIMA have chosen oneof them as their association logo (Mask from Hedeby,
sheep and calf head).
This image from the CNSM exhibition running in
conjunction with the conference, “Buried Past in De- Above: J. Johnson and K.
sert, Textiles from the Small River Cemetery,” is both Yamamoto Hello China Blue;a sensational felt hat fashion from 4000 years ago and Rose.
an example of using the leftover, or coarser hair, kempand wool, from the separating process of the finer undercoat. The softer quality fiber was then spun into
yarn and woven into their only other clothing pieces
of belts and blankets, reserving and wanting to use theRight: Small River
Cemetery Hat.
finest wool closest to their skins.
197

In contrast to the mummies of the Small River Cem- late 1940s. The outstanding felt objects are done in an
etery finds of the Tarim Basin, and the famous female appliqué style, said to depict a war goddess meeting amummy known as “The Beauty of Xiaohe,” the New foreign emissary. I have seen this tomb wall-hanging
York City Museum of Modern Art chose to display fragment in person and can say the felt is so fine itsome relics of the performances staged by the Ger- looks like suede.
man artist Joseph Beuys almost as if they were laid
In the early 20th c. Mongol zurag-painting, which isto rest in a tomb. For instance his famous “Felt Suit” a style of painting depicting ethno-nationalist themes,
which was made in a multiple series of one hundred called “Day in the Life of Mongolia” we see the steps
units in the 1970’s. A partial quote from an earlier in- of felt yurt wall making from the shearing of the wool
stallation at the TATE London reads “...For Beuys the to the preparation for rolling the large wall section insuit was an extension of the felt sculptures, in which animal skins and drawn around for hours by horses as
the felt appeared as ‘an element of warmth.’ He ex- part of the hardening process of the felt. It shows how
plained: ‘Not even physical warmth is meant...Actually integrated the seasonal work of the nomadic tribes
I meant a completely different kind of warmth, namely were and the communal work surrounding daily life.
spiritual or evolutionary warmth or the beginning of
Now moving to the very last depot of the Silk Roadan evolution.’” Little did he know he contributed pos- to the Far East in Nara, Japan, where there is a sigsibly more than any other artist of his time in the mid- nificant 8th c. AD imperial collection of objects thattwentieth century to reconnecting the art world with were dedicated to Todaiji Temple by the Consort of
the ubiquitous material felt.
the deceased Emperor Shomu in 756 AD. Some are
Another noteworthy historical collection housed at devotional religious objects and many others the bethe Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg is referred loved and personal objects of the Emperor. Amongto as the Pazyryk Collection. It encompasses a broad the textile objects are thirty-three single colored andrange of preserved Scythian artifacts found in frozen floral design inlay felt carpets assumed to have been
tombs in the Altai Mountains of Siberia, c. 450-430 brought from the Asian continent (China) to Japan.
BCE, and excavated in part by Sergei Rudenko in the Perhaps at the time of the production they were meant198to be faster made versions of woven or embroidered the fiber (wool versus cashmere), explain the basics ofworks but as brilliantly preserved art objects of felt to- non-structured felt rug-making and to elaborate on the
day there are none that surpass this collection. Bright techniques employed in making the various patterns.
colors of Indigo blues, Madder and Sapponwood reds
In addition, I am researching colors and dyeing
and oranges, yellows and elegant beige. Leaf and flow- methods of the Tang Dynasty in China, from whereer petal designs of agilely cut, lightly fulled felt fabric, the rugs are expected to have come. Due to thereferred to as Prefelt, and intricate color gradations of geographic climate of Japan, and documentation refloral patterns produced by fine, untwisted yarn, or flecting the historical use of specific fibers, it is clear
Pencil roving, were worked into the white base wool that the humid land was not really suited for raisingduring the shrinking and entangling process.
sheep, although at zoos, specific family farms and on
Possibly through my repeated requests to borrow the drier island of Hokkaido sheep are raised today.
color images from the Office of the Shoso-in Imperial Japanese are very knowledgeable about dyes on silk
Household Agency over the years, necessary visuals and bast fibers, but even the well known workshops
for research articles destined to foreign publications, generally do not dye wool.
as well as Japanese textile journals (Minzoku Geijutsu
The large, substantial felt rugs, with an average
Gakkai, Japan 1998 Vol. 14), in 2012, I received an of- width of between 120-130 cm and length of 230-240
ficial invitation to join the team of researchers under cm, are designed mainly with elements of prefelt cut
the project title of “Animal Fiber of the Shoso-in” for outs and fine inlaid roving. In particular there is one
which an exhibition will be prepared in the autumn pair of double mandala lotus flower rugs designedof 2015. The main objects of interest are the callig- with an exceptional array of linear gradation of colors
raphy brushes made with fur, representational hair forming the petals on a natural white base. I am surand beard fiber in the ceremonial masks and the rare prised at how blue and bright the indigo remains. It
collection of non-structured felt rugs, called in Japa- appears it was the more common color to use, posnese Shikisen (single color, natural white, and dyed) sibly because it is like a fermenting pickle, which you
and Kasen (floral motif.) My work is to help identify keep feeding and does not need heating nor the use
199

Shosoin Kasen Rug (detail).

200

of a fuel source as other plant materials require to extract color to dye the wool. During the Tang Dynasty
there were three recorded Asian botanical indigos
plus European woad, thus creating a very wide rangeof blues.
I am trying to reproduce some samples to unravel
the history and process behind this collection fromfourteen hundred years ago. Luckily the rugs were
folded and stored above ground in insect resistantwooden boxes on temple grounds. It is clear that these
designs are not tribal but rather probably fashionable
patterns which appear to have been borrowed fromreligious art items, woven carpets, embroidered fabricor maybe even ceramic tiles. We assume there musthave been dedicated workshops with access to well
picked high quality wool, good dyeing and separating
facilities and artisans that could lay out a large rug motif with relative ease, remembering that the initial size
could have been easily twenty to thirty percent larger
at the start. The rugs are highly detailed and in generalvery impressive works to behold. To be honest, I havecried while standing in front of one of them.

covering the chilly Tea room tatami mats during thecolder months of the year and they are still widelyused today. Objects of adoration are also placed uponthem, such as sets of family dolls depicting the imperial couple with their numerous court attendants, during the month leading up to the famous annual Doll’s
Festival on March 3rd. Samurai helmets displayed on
red or navy mosen for the Children’s Day festival April
4th and on benches in front of tea sweet and soba
shops.
A wonderful Japan Travel Bureau promotional poster was produced to beckon Japanese tourists to visit
Kyoto. The “warm heart” of the Kyoto people layingout a safe resting place to view the fresh blanket ofsnow overlooking a garden of Kiyomizudera Temple
on the eastern slopes of the city’s foothills. Thus thecustom of the Hollywood red carpet treatment, I believe, stems from the history of these imported simple
Chinese felt rugs, dyed by Madder or Sapponwood,and laid out for the upper class, their guests and theirauspicious objects.

In addition they are also necessary accoutrements of
The Japanese have embraced the imported Chinese the calligrapher, who places the sheet of Washi paper
red wool felt rug, or mosen, as a cultural necessity for on top of the felt and while the brushed on Sumi ink is201

drying the wool fiber helps suspend the ink keeping it nificance and perhaps link cultures and materials in afrom running.
new way by showing respect for the traditional arts
The Jordan Museum also has several felt objects passed down from generation to generation. Congratin its’ own collection. Guarding the entrance to the ulations to the countries around the world, like Japan,
conference room, there are two brand new non-struc- who have a strong Department of Cultural Affairs that
tured felt Cherchen shepherd’s cloaks in black and seeks to recognize and praise, and above all, award
white versions (although the shoulders are stitched to dedicated artisans for their usually isolated and time
form the shape.) Between the two Cherchen cloaks is consuming artistic occupations.
a blue boiled wool Circassian coat. Another museum
My textile work involves designing in wool for theobject, this seamed felt rug was probably made in the JoiRae Textiles Studio, current museum research, andmid to late 20th c. by a Circassian artisan. The rug was teaching invitations which have kept me at the last stop
assembled like a jig-saw puzzle by taking two dyed and of the Silk Road in Japan for some twenty-five years.
hardened felts and cutting identical shapes from both, As the colder months dictate my exhibition season it isthen swapping the central areas and inserting them a busy schedule in a relatively short period. During theinto the opposite colors’s negative space; then sewing off-season I introduce contemporary, and traditional,
the seams together. To reinforce and hide the origi- felt making techniques, based on the amazing capabilnal seam usually another decorative cord was sewn ity of the wool fiber to university students, and to theon top. Similar versions of these cut and constructed public, including specialized groups such as teachers
felt rugs are also made in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, of children, the supporters of the challenged and helpwhere they are always designed in pairs.
ers employed at retirement homes.
It is essential, however, to inform and educate the
The JoiRae Textiles studio of Kyoto is running all
public in order to recognize the value in traditional year long with the help of several assistants who work
textiles, their craftsmanship and the dedication of the on current collections of limited edition items utilizmaker to her/his craft. Secondly, by doing, so it will ing the interesting felt making methods of entangling
spark interest in the genre, verifying the historical sig- wool fibers. The studio produces such items as hats,
202

Cherchen Cloaks, Circassian Coat, Collection Jordan Museum.

203accessories, shawls, and clothing pieces. I also very etal matter that industry insists on scouring out. I may
much like to design for interiors including rugs, table dye specific colors of wool tops before starting or derunners and framed fine art pieces. My interest in felt sign products to be after-dyed with special techniques
making combines many elements of which a few are to further enhance the product. I use a broad range
color techniques, shaping and forming during shrink- of wool from coarse South African Karakul to Finland’sage, joining parts, such as collars and sleeves without Finnrace which has a medium fineness and comes institching and an abundant variety of exciting surface a lovely range of natural colors, also the long and lusmanipulation by combining auxiliary materials with trous English Leicester from Australia and USA, andthe wool. Through my work I have been able to in- Merino blends from Europe. Investigating a wider vatroduce the unique capability of the wool fiber, on its riety of wool breeds and types offers opportunities forown, or in combination with other materials such as diverse expression in the range of the work I envision.
flax, skeletal leaves, Washi paper and airy auxiliary By studying the very old felt objects I recognize thatfabrics illustrating what the felt matrix can achieve industry has changed much of the way that artisanswith a little coaxing from me. I am very thankful to work with wool today.
be on the outside of the pasture fence where a more
While exhibiting in Japan I have partnered with othplayful approach to textile design with felt has led to er studios and artists for exciting limited edition works
an exciting career of research, documentation, and such as footwear, bag, glove and fashion designers
travel resulting in contemporary works showing proof and two lacquer craftsmen, as well. Collaboration althat this extremely old technique has even more po- lows each party to further study their own techniquetential today.
by the inspiration and expertise of the other.
I don’t start from raising my own sheep but when For me it certainly shows the versatility of felt and how
available I do buy right off the farm from shepherds I it is a wonderful fabric that is compatible with many
know well. It is lovely to get back to the source of the materials, like lacquerware or pottery, and even one
live fiber instead of only relying on the tired processed of my long running “contemporary nomad” favorites,
fibers from the factory. I enjoy adding back in the veg- black rubber.
204

J. Johnson Tokyo Tama Art University Students.

205

Now, focusing on a totally different arena, felt mak- the introduction of historical crafts to children moveing has become part of the foundation course in some ments, activities for the physically and mentally chalJapanese art university textile departments, and oth- lenged, as well as, various social events made availer institutes around the world. It brings a malleable, able to the retirement home population. One has tothree-dimensional, soft but hard textile technique to break down the process into what is most importantthe classroom while drawing on historical survival de- and purposeful for each of the three groups, but gensigns of the nomads who depended on felt for thou- erally you will find many overlapping points to considsands of years. But now more than ever before the er, such as physical capability, time limit of sessions,urban nomad of today, living in Tokyo, Paris and even attention span, class preparation needs, and so on. I
Ulan Bator, wants lighter weight, brighter colored ac- believe there is a lot to offer and still to be developed
cessories with a softer hand. Industry is coupling with in the area of Art Lessons through the medium of felt
animal breeding techniques, new DNA discoveries are making and of course, Art Therapy, too. Economicallysought and, as the will of the industrial sector develops speaking, part of the initiative is that in reality it isprocessing for finer textiles so the artisan and student quite inexpensive to collect simple tools used for feltcan raise the level of the medium through a broader ing, actually with just your two hands, a little wool andvariety of fibers selected either for sculptural works or some warm, soapy water anyone can get started.
refined fashion design. What can be done design-wise
In addition there are ways to link an entire schoolby handmade felt making far outweighs the industrial year calendar and all the classes together in praisecapabilities and is much more interesting for that mat- and celebration of the animal - the sheep. The historiter. I would also say in recent years that the hobby and cal roots bring a vision of how we lived in the past,craft sector has certainly gained renewed ground from including lessons about animal husbandry, shearing,
the hard working felt artist as evidenced by sections washing and coloring of wool, carding, and spinningin supply shops filling up with colorful wool packs and to make a yarn. There is then knitting, weaving andkits for the beginner enthusiast.
felt making to introduce a final product or art work
Other areas of application and great interest are in and the process of personal design that goes with it.
206

Tanpopo Studio, Kobe Japan.

207

Music can be added so that the monotony of the work this by the pleasure and excitement of the creation ofis given a lift by the rhythm of the melody as was of- a strong cord from soft, color-blended wool simply by
ten practiced in olden days. Also, the mathematics repeatedly rolling it inside a bamboo mat. Here it isand science teachers can find easy ways to introduce key to have a volunteer or staff member working side
calculations and percentage of shrinkage and explain by side with the maker.
why and where the fibers migrated to. I am sure the
The amazing transition of the wool fiber into a stasports coaches would lend a hand to the rolling and ble, durable fabric or three dimensional object, likekicking process as well.
a bag, is of great value in a world that is rushed andRemember, it is a community project and even has lost touch with its tradition of textile making. And
more so with the case of the retiree students, felt come to think of it, it must have been equally amazing
making can be used as a guise and soft approach to on another scale for nomadic tribes relying on survivmaking new friends and spending time together to al, even without the aid of the simple equipment weward off loneliness. Hidden movement exercise helps take for granted today.
with poor circulation in the body and when the end
Over that last thirty years I have witnessed theresult is a beautiful floral brooch, there will always be amazing acceptance and rebirth of the traditional art
a nice memory and proof of an afternoon well spent.
of felt making. It has opened many doors for many
With the special group of members in the chal- people. It has brought to light the older ethnic felt
lenged categories, it may be that just holding brightly that was quite often considered of lesser quality todyed, fluffy red wool in their hands is enough of a sen- woven work and forgotten; it has comforted womensation. Never under estimate what pleasure someone through difficult divorce scenarios and men throughelse can achieve from the very simple act of making, alcoholic addiction, and it has brought joy to theno matter what the age of the participant. Also, with hearts of physically challenged artists who by working
the physically challenged group we may actually be with their community have taken pride in their exhibimore concerned with giving them an activity related tions and helped generate extra income for the family.
to movement of the stiffening body and to disguise
The future looks to be an environment where more
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J. Johnson My Rising Sun Rug Series: Beige.

209art therapy and much more connection to the elementary, eco-friendly fibers of the past will be necessary.
The promotion of historical research about traditional ethnic textile making to show what was achieved
without electricity, eyeglasses, machines and chemical dyes becomes important as a gauge to what is
produced in village and city studios around the world
today.
This has been a short introduction to the various
applications I have found myself involved with in recent years. Thank you very much for your interest in
my work and teaching. Let’s start now to prepare for2015, the Chinese animal year of the Sheep.
To find further information: www.Joirae.com-Feltmaking and Wool Magic: Contemporary Techniques and Beautiful Projects, Quarry Books (editions:Japanese 1999, English 2006, Estonian 2009).
-Fabulous Felted Scarves: 20 Wearable Works of Art,
J.Johnson & C.A.Hagen, Lark Books, 2007.

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J. Johnson Reversible Clothing: Nest Series.

Kerstin Andersson
is a travelling textile expert from Kinaresor(Chinatravel), Sweden.
Since the middle of the nineties the agency has
co-operated with the National Association of
Handicraft Societies and organize textile andhandicraft tours all over the world.

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Kerstin Andersson: Why are people doing
textile tours?
Since the middle of the nineties we have cooperated
with the National Association of Swedish HandicraftSocieties and made roundtrips specialising in textiles
and other kinds of handicraft. We have, during thistime, made more than 30 different itineraries, but themost long-lived and the most famous one is the textile
tour in China.
The guests on these tours are mostly middle-aged
and older women, the few male guests are normally
travelling with their wives. Many are textile teachers (in Sweden handicraft is a compulsory subject inschools), some work with textiles as designers andcrafts persons. Most guests are just interested in thesubject and are weaving, embroidering, knitting andso on as a hobby. Over the years we have had many
guests and also many guests who keep coming back.
Some have become good friends after meeting duringa handicraft tour. They all have skills in many different
textile techniques and we learn a lot from each other.
All over the world handicraft skills are being ignored
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Blue dyers.

and much knowledge is lost when the old masters die
and nobody is interested in continuing the production.
I believe that we are doing something good when
we visit handicrafters who otherwise wouldn’t havereceived any encouragement at all. When they seethat westerners are interested in their craft and thatpeople want to buy their products they feel more
hopeful for the future. All the same, we have seenfactories closed down and handicrafters who have retired with nobody to take over and we have had tofind new places to visit.
The tours have developed over time. Originally thetour was 12 days long and consisted only of study visits, now it is 17 days and includes a full day embroidery course and a half-day workshop making a small
Chinese dress, qipao. The latter was added to the program when I worked in the factory for one week.
Blue dyeing.

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Embroidery.

Spinning.

Ikat.

Model making.

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215

A tribute to Widad Kamel Kawar
During our workshop in Amman, Jordan, we were
lucky to visit Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress.
The Tiraz Centre had been working really hard,
just to get ready for our visit, and we were the firstones to see it. And it was beautiful. We were actually
overwhelmed by the enormous amounts of dresses
from the Arabic world, and their beauty. It was amost interesting and informing visit, hosted by Mrs.
Widad Kamel Kawar herself, which ended in refreshments and canapés in the adjacent garden.
Tiraz is the new Home for The Widad Kawar Collection of traditional Arab dress. TIRAZ, which is thename brand of the Centre, refers to an Arabic word
describing ornamental, embroidered inscriptions on
woven fabrics worn in the Islamic world as symbols
of status. In modern Arabic Tarz refers to dress style.
Widad Kamel Kawar, founder of the Tiraz Centre,
started her collection out of a passion to preservea disappearing rich textile and embroidery heritage
from her homeland Palestine, and extended it to Jordan and other Arab countries with pieces from the19th and 20th centuries. Over a period of 50 years,
the collection has grown to include over 2000 costumes and weavings, everyday tools, house utensils,
jewelry and amulets. It represents the most comprehensive collection of Arab dresses from Palestine, Jordan, and other Arab countries in the world.
Widad Kamel Kawar has been a patron of the preservation and modernization of this art form for many
years, and has always supported artisans in both the
Arab region and outside it. She is a mentor to writers,
journalists, researchers and museums. Her home has

Widad Kamel Kawar © Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab
Dress.

216

always been open for anyone from around the world.
She has succeeded in raising the awareness of people for the value of Arab textile heritage through many
international exhibits. These exhibits have taken placein Bahrain, Denmark, France, Germany, Japan, Jordan,
Iceland, Norway, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Switzerland,
United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates.
She has also published several books and articles.
Over the years, she has become an icon for thepreservation and promotion of the disappearing Arabtextile heritage.
Mrs. Widad Kamel Kawar has received the following
awards:• Directorate of Heritage Award of the Governmentof Sharjah, 2014
• Prince Klaus International Award for culture and development, 2012
• Jordan Tourism Medal for her role in organizing theSeville World Expo, 1992
• King Hussein Medal, 1993
• Medal for Jerash Festival, 1986

Photo from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress ©
Sami Haven.

Collection, as well as to promote the vibrant Palestinian and Jordanian cultural heritage and living
Arab traditions. Tiraz will inspire people to learn
about these traditions and shape a better future,with greater cultural understanding and appreciation
for Arab heritage.

From a private collection to a public institution
After almost 50 years of personal dedication, it is
Vision of Tiraz Center
Tiraz is a Jordan-based, nascent institution which now the time to institutionalize The Widad Kawar
aims to preserve and protect The Widad Kawar Collection in a professional home.
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Tiraz Centre will serve as the main exhibition for
The Widad Kawar Collection, in addition to a cutting edge archive for the collection. Alongside thevarious costumes, Tiraz Centre will also feature othertextiles and publications.

And as part of Tiraz’s core mission to preserve theart of embroidery, educational activities will be held topass the knowledge to younger generations in orderto shape a better future.
The collection
The Widad Kawar Collection is the most elaborate andcomplete assembly of Arab traditional dresses fromdifferent areas in the Middle East, such as
Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Yemen and others.

Photo from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress ©Sami
Haven.

Textile samples from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab
Dress © Camilla Ebert.

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It contains wedding garments and traditional dresses,
alongside a variety of jewelry and accessories, such as
amulets, rugs, cushion covers, home utensils and religious robes.
And with over 2000 pieces collected over different
periods, some pieces date back to the 19th century.
The Centre’s aim is to preserve the heriage of a disappearing art of rich textiles, embroidery and traditional
artistry.
The costumes reflect comprehensive techniques intextile production, from brocade, Ikat, tapestry to tiedye fabrics created from the finest silk, linen,
cotton, and wool. And with the utmost attention todetails and delicacy, the origin of each dress clearlyshows in the personality and characteristics of embroidery techniques and choice of colors and materials, from simple patterns to gold and silver pleatedthreads.
The collection shows bespoke craftsmanship andrich history, and alongside the dresses, garments
and jewelry, the collection also includes photographs and books dating back to the era in which
the art of traditional embroidery was a big part ofpeople’s lives and memories.

Garments from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab
Dress © Camilla Ebert.

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The collection has exhibited at numerous exhibitionsin Asia, Africa and Europe.
Exhibitions• Bunka Costume Museum - Tokyo, Japan [1982 &1992]• The National Museum - Singapore [1985]• Rautenstrauch Joest Museum - Cologne, Germany[1987]• Institute du Monde Arabe - Paris, France [1988]• House of Culture - Berlin, Germany [1990]• Moesgard Museum - Arhus, Denmark [1991]• National Anthropology Museum - Gothenbourg,
Sweden [1992]• University Museum - Stockholm, Norway [1992]• National Museum of Mersyside - Liverpool, United
Kingdom [1993]• National Art gallery - Reykjavik, Iceland [1994]• Darat el Funun - Amman, Jordan [2002]• Ritterhausgesellscdhaft Museum - Bubikon, Switzerland [2003]• Stadt Museum - Lindau, Germany [2008]• Quai Bramly, Museum - Paris, France [2011]• National Gallery - Amman, Jordan [2011]• Historisches Museum - Basel, Switzerland [2012]• Naturhistorisches Museum - Nürnberg, Germany[2013 - 2014]
In addition to several other regional exhibits in Jordan,
Dubai, Bahrain, Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia.
As well as, other international exhibits, including, but
not limited to, the United Kingdom, France andLebanon.

Photo from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress© Amer Sweidan.

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Photo from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress© Amer Sweidan.

Garments from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress© Camilla Ebert.

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Photo from Tiraz Widad Kawar Home for Arab Dress © Bilal Jarekji.

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