United States Department of Agriculture

ADAPTATIONRESOURCESFOR AGRICULTURE

Responding to Climate Variability and Change
in the Midwest and Northeast

A product of the USDA Midwest, Northeast, and Northern Forests Climate Hubs

2

USDA ClimAte HUbSAdaptation Resources
for Agriculture:
Responding to Climate Variability andChange in the Midwest and Northeast
Maria K. Janowiak, Daniel N. Dostie, Michael A. Wilson, Michael J. Kucera,
R. Howard Skinner, Jerry L. Hatfield, David Hollinger, and Christopher W. Swanston

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, DC
Technical Bulletin 1944
October 2016

Published in cooperation with the USDA:
Midwest, Northeast, and Northern Forests Climate Hubs
Agricultural Research Service
Natural Resources Conservation Service
Forest Service

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe3

Abstract
Janowiak, M., D. Dostie, M. Wilson, M. Kucera, R. Howard Skinner, J. Hatfield, D. Hollinger, and C. Swanston. 2016.
Adaptation Resources for Agriculture: Responding to Climate Variability and Change in the Midwest andNortheast. Technical Bulletin 1944. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Changes in climate and extreme weather are already increasing challenges for agriculture nationally andglobally, and many of these impacts will continue into the future. This technical bulletin contains information andresources designed to help agricultural producers, service providers, and educators in the Midwest and Northeast
regions of the United States integrate climate change considerations and action-oriented decisions into existing
farm and conservation plans. An Adaptation Workbook provides producers a flexible, structured process to
identify and assess climate change impacts, challenges, opportunities, and farm-level adaptation tactics andcontinuously evaluate adaptation actions for improving responses to extreme and uncertain conditions. A
synthesis of Adaptation Strategies and Approaches serves as a “menu” of potential responses organized toprovide a clear rationale for making decisions by connecting planned actions to broad adaptation concepts.
Responses address both short- and long-range timeframes and extend from incremental adjustments of existing
practices to major alterations that transform the entire farm operation. Example adaptation tactics—prescriptive
actions for agricultural production systems common in the region—for each approach guide producers, service
providers, and educators to develop appropriate responses for their farms and location. Four Adaptation
Examples demonstrate how these adaptation process resources are used.
Keywords: climate change, adaptation, agriculture, adaptive management, Midwest, Northeast

4

USDA ClimAte HUbSContents
Abstract

4

Contents

5

Introduction

6

Chapter 1: Climate Change Effects on Agriculture and Natural Resources8

Climate Change and Agriculture in the Midwest and Northeast

9

Chapter 2: Adaptation in Agriculture

12

What is climate change adaptation?

12

Chapter 3: Adaptation Strategies and Approaches

18

A Menu of Adaptation Responses

19

Strategy 1: Sustain fundamental functions of soil and water.

21

Strategy 2: Reduce existing stressors of crops and livestock.

22

Strategy 3: Reduce risks from warmer and drier conditions.

24

Strategy 4: Reduce the risk and long-term impacts of extreme weather.

25

Strategy 5: Manage farms and fields as part of a larger landscape.

26

Strategy 6: Alter management to accommodate expected future conditions.

27

Strategy 7: Alter agricultural systems or lands to new climate conditions.

29

Strategy 8: Alter infrastructure to match new and expected conditions.

30

Chapter 4: Adaptation Workbook

32

Step 1: DEFINE management goals and objectives.

34

Step 2: ASSESS site-specific climate change impacts and vulnerabilities.

36

Step 3: EVALUATE management objectives given projected impacts and vulnerabilities.

37

Step 4: IDENTIFY adaptation approaches and tactics for implementation.

39

Step 5: MONITOR and evaluate effectiveness of implemented actions.

41

Next Steps

41

Chapter 5: Adaptation Workbook Examples

42

Dryland Farming in Nebraska

42

Beef Grazing in Missouri

51

Corn and Soybean Production in Iowa

54

Confined Dairy in Pennsylvania

57

Glossary

60

Literature Cited

61

Appendix 1: Methods for Developing the Adaptation Strategies and Approaches

65

Adaptation Workbook Worksheets

66

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

5introduction
This publication provides perspectives, information, resources, and tools to producers, service
providers, and educators in the Midwest and Northeast regions of the United States forresponding to climate variability and change. Broadly defined, climate change adaptation
includes all adjustments, both planned and unplanned, in natural and human systems
occurring in response to climatic changes and subsequent effects (Parry et al. 2007; Smit etal. 1999). Since the effects of climate change are complex and far-reaching, and the scope,
severity, and pace of future impacts are difficult to predict, numerous government agencies,
universities, and private partners are working together to develop information, resources, andtools that support adaptation across all sectors of society. Of particular interest to agricultural
producers and other land managers, the USDA is providing coordinated climate change
assistance through the Regional Climate Hubs. The USDA Climate Hubs develop and deliverscience-based, region-specific information and tools to land managers to enable climate
informed decision making and provide access to USDA resources to implement
those decisions.
In this publication, we focus on the deliberate integration of climate change information
into short-term management (< 5 years) and long-range planning (5 to 20 or more years),decisionmaking, and implementation actions within the control of agricultural producers (BoxI.1). As newer, more precise information becomes available to improve decisionmaking, farmers
should consider modifying long-range plans. While it is beyond the scope of this publication
to comprehensively address all potential adaptations within the agricultural system, such as
new technologies or changes in tariffs or the use of crop insurance programs, it is possible toextend the use of scientific information about future climate change impacts to the scale ofindividual farms. Individual farms have unique goals in the areas of profitability, productivity,
land stewardship, or any combination thereof, depending on unique needs, and many climatechange adaptation actions can benefit these farm-wide goals while also adjusting systems tochanging conditions.
The contents are organized as a set of interrelated chapters, each of which serves as anindependent resource to help incorporate climate considerations into on-farm agricultural
practices and develop adaptation actions that can be used to respond to climate variability
and change.

6•

Chapter 1: Climate Change Effects on Agriculture and Natural Resources briefly
summarizes the effects of climate change on agriculture and natural resources of theMidwest and Northeast regions of the United States.

•

Chapter 2: Adaptation in Agriculture describes the role adaptation plays to help
agricultural producers respond to the challenges and opportunities associated with climate
variability and change.

•

Chapter 3: Adaptation Strategies and Approaches provides a synthesis of on-the-ground(i.e., farm- and landscape-level) climate adaptation strategies and approaches as a “menu”
of potential responses.

•

Chapter 4: Adaptation Workbook presents a structured process for integrating climatechange considerations and action-oriented decisions into the farm’s long range and annual
operation plans.

•

Chapter 5: Adaptation Workbook Examples demonstrates how to use the Adaptation
Workbook together with regional Adaptation Strategies and Approaches to develop
tactics for real-world farm operations within the Midwest and Northeast regions of theUnited States.

USDA ClimAte HUbSBox I.1:
About the Adaptation Resources for Agriculture
The Adaptation Resources for Agriculture:• Supports producers, service providers, and educatorsin the Midwest and Northeast Regions of the UnitedStates.

grazing, orchards, and small fruit and vegetableproduction systems.

– midwest: Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri,
Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota,
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa.

– A five-step process outlined in the Adaptation
Workbook (Chapter 4) to help producers
incorporate climate change considerations into
existing plans and develop adaptation actions at
the scale of farms and fields .

– Northeast: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware,West Virginia and the District of Columbia.

– Examples where climate change has been
considered in real-world agricultural situations
using the Resources provided by this publication(Chapter 5).

• Helps producers consider both short-term adaptive
management actions (< 5 years) and long-range
strategic plans (5 to ~20 years, subject to farm type)• Promotes adaptation through multiple resources,
including:– A “menu” of many adaptation strategies andapproaches (Chapter 3) and example tactics forrow cropping and forages, confined livestock,

The Resources in This Publication Do Not:
• Recommend specific management actions or policy.
• Address the non-climate-related risks of an
agricultural enterprise, such as production, marketing,financial, human resource, and legal factors.
• Attempt to list all possible climate adaptation actions
that a producer might implement.

Leaves harness sunlight to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into life-sustaining food and energy.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

7

CHAPteR 1:
Climate Change effects on Agriculture and Natural Resources

C“Climate change poses unprecedented
challenges to U.S. agriculture because of thesensitivity of agricultural productivity andcosts to changing climate conditions.”

hanges in climate and extreme weather havealready occurred and are increasing challenges for
agriculture nationally and globally. Many of the impacts
are expected to continue or intensify in the future. The
effects of a changing climate and enhanced climate
variability are already being seen across the Midwesternand Northeastern United States; over the past century,
temperatures have risen across all seasons, growing
seasons have become longer, precipitation patterns havechanged, and extreme precipitation events have increasedin frequency and severity (Hatfield et al. 2015; Hatfield
et al. 2014; Tobin et al. 2015). Because of the sensitivityof agriculture to weather and climate conditions, these
impacts can have substantial direct and indirect effects onfarm production and profitability.

extreme rainfall events are expected to be more common
to the north and east (Kunkel et al. 2013). One analysis
in the Midwest projected that major commodity crops,
including corn, soybeans, and wheat, will be increasingly
susceptible to lower crop yields without significant
adaptation (Gordon et al. 2015).

Ongoing changes in climate have substantial impacts
on the $98 billion agricultural sector in the Midwest andNortheast (Hatfield et al. 2015; Tobin et al. 2015). Diversity
across these two regions, both in terms of climate andin agricultural commodities produced, indicates that
potential responses to climate change will vary by locationand commodity (Hatfield et al. 2015; Tobin et al. 2015;
Gordon et al. 2015). In the south of this region, agriculturalcommodities are expected to be more vulnerable where
the full effects of warmer temperatures and associatedchanges will be strongest (Gordon et al. 2015), while

Although some regions and sectors may have improved
yields, the overall impacts of climate change are generally
expected to be negative (Ainsworth and Ort 2010; Hatfield
et al. 2014). Individual producers may experience increased
risks from heat stress on crops and livestock, damage
to commodities and infrastructure from extreme events,and long-term challenges as current systems, practices,
crops, and breeds become increasingly less suited toclimatic conditions. Ecosystem services may also be alteredor disrupted (Box 1.1). As changes in the mean climate
and climate variability become more pronounced, it will

Source: Climate Change and Agriculture in the United States:
Effects and Adaptation. (Walthall et al. 2012)

Box 1.1:
Effects on Ecosystem Goods and Services
Agriculture is an essential activity that supports hu­
man life. While agriculture supplies the food, fibers, andother materials used in everyday life, it also provides amuch wider array of ecosystem services and goods that
support human well-being. These ecosystem services
are numerous and complex (Ahmed 2002), and it is
not possible to assess all of the ways in which they arepotentially affected by changes in weather and climate(Walthall et al. 2012). For these reasons the effects of cli­mate change on agriculture must always be consideredwithin the context of other changes happening within
natural and socioeconomic systems.

ecosystem services provided by agroecosystems include:• Provisioning services, which provide food,
pharmaceuticals, fiber, and fuel products.
• Regulating services, which regulate ecosystemprocesses such as groundwater flow; erosion control;
flood protection; water purification and temperature
control; pollination, weed, insect, disease, andparasite pest control; air quality and greenhouse gas
emission control; carbon sequestration; local climate
modification; and biodiversity.
• Cultural Services, which provide non-material
benefits such as spiritual enhancement, tourism andrecreational opportunities, and aesthetic experiences.
• Supporting Services that include basic soil aggregate
arrangement, hydrological cycling, atmospheric andmineral nutrient cycling, and wildlife habitat.

8

USDA ClimAte HUbS

become increasingly important to address potential risks
to agricultural production and food security (Howden et al.
2007; Walthall et al. 2012).

Direct Effects of Changing Climate Conditions on
Crops and Livestock•

Annual average and seasonal air temperatures are
increasing. Average annual air temperatures haveincreased by 1 to 4 °F (2 °C) over the past century(Kunkel et al. 2013b; Kunkel et al. 2013a). The greatest
warming has occurred along coastal margins and in thenorth, including the upper Great Lakes, and during thewinter season. Temperatures are projected to increase
another 4.5 to 9.5 °F by 2085. Changes in expected
average annual temperatures greatly affect the selectionof perennial crop species and varieties, livestock species
and breeds, and engineering design criteria for livestockbuilding construction, and energy supply.

•

Seasons are shifting. The length of the frost-free season
has increased by 9 to 10 days across the Midwest andNortheast, and it is expected to increase by 18 to 30
days by 2055 (Kunkel et al. 2013b; Kunkel et al. 2013a).
Earlier spring thaws and later first frosts in autumn
could result in greater growth and productivity, but only
if temperatures do not exceed upper limits for growth,
there is enough water and nutrients, and disease
and pathogens are not constraints (Fuhrer 2003).
However, earlier spring thaws can be detrimental to fruit
production if early bud development increases exposure
to late spring frosts. Growing degree-days for crops are
shifting, creating opportunities to experiment with newcrops, varieties, and markets. Heating or cooling degreedays for livestock and energy use are similarly shifting.

Climate Change and Agriculture in the
Midwest and Northeast
Numerous assessments describe both the observed andanticipated global, national, and regional changes in climate
and associated effects on agriculture (Box 1.2). This section
summarizes some of the most important changes thathave already occurred and their effects relevant to thecrop and livestock production systems typically found in
the Midwest and Northeast regions of the United States.
Changes in temperature, precipitation, concentration ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and other climatic
factors directly affect production either positively or
negatively, while severe weather and other climate-related
hazards increase the risk of damage and adverse economic
impacts. Already the number of weather- or climate-related
disasters costing more than 1 billion dollars is increasing(Smith and Katz 2013, Walthall et al. 2012). Shifts in weeds,
insects, or disease infestation, and their range, frequency,
and intensity may in turn indirectly affect agriculture andamplify or counteract the direct effects of climate change.
As these changes continue to intensify into the future,they may add new stress, exacerbate existing stressors
in agroecosystems, or result in new opportunities for
agriculture production.

Water runoff from a heavy rain negatively impacts crop production and downstream water bodies.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

9

•

•

The number of hot days and hot nights are increasing.
Nighttime temperatures have persistently increased
during the 20th century, and this trend is expected
to continue (Kunkel et al. 2013a; Kunkel et al. 2013b).
Extreme high temperatures (defined as greater than 900
F) and heat waves are also projected to increase (Walshet al. 2014). Without a cooling off period at night,
animals become more subject to heat stress, especiallywhen coupled with higher relative humidity. Warmer
summers may shorten the period for small grain tomature, and high nighttime temperatures can adversely
affect plant biomass accumulation, crop yields, andquality.
Precipitation patterns are changing. Annual
precipitation has increased in the Midwest andNortheast, and there has been a shift toward larger
precipitation events (Kunkel et al. 2013a; Kunkel etal. 2013b). Future precipitation amounts have a highdegree of uncertainty, but point toward the potential
for increased cold-season precipitation and relatively

less change in precipitation during the growing season.
More intense and concentrated precipitation events are
expected to create wetter soils under these conditions,while at the same time, increased temperatures andevapotranspiration may lead to drier soil conditions
between precipitation events (Bryan et al. 2015; Hatfield
et al. 2014). This could lead to increased frequency ofsoil moisture stress or drought and suppressed crop
yields.
•Higher concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide
may disproportionately benefit plant species. Morethan 95 percent of the world’s plant species assimilate
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using the C3
pathway, while the rest use the C4 pathway. The mostrecognizable crop species in the C4 category include
sugarcane and corn. Under elevated carbon dioxide
concentrations, C3 plants are often better able toincrease production in response to additional carbon
dioxide than C4 plants (Walthall et al. 2012). Many
confounding factors in the environment, such as
interactions with tropospheric ozone pollution, influenceplant response to changing climate.

Box 1.2:
Climate Change Assessments
Climate change assessments are important resourc­
es that summarize and detail climate impacts acrossvarious sectors, regions, and ecosystems. Through themultitude of reports, it is clear that the climate is alreadychanging with visible consequences at State, regional,
national, and international levels.
• Walthall, C.L., et al. 2012. Climate Change andAgriculture in the United States: Effects andAdaptation. United States Department of Agriculture.
186 p. Available atwww.usda.gov/oce/climate_change/effects.htm.
• Melillo, J.M., T.C. Richmond, G.W. Yohe, (eds.). 2014.
Climate Change Impacts in the United States: theThird National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global
Change Research Program. 841 p. Available atwww.nca2014.globalchange.gov/downloads.

10

USDA ClimAte HUbS

• Tobin, D., M. Janowiak, D. Hollinger, R.H. Skinner, C.
Swanston, R. Steele, R. Radhakrishna, A. Chatrchyan.
2015. Northeast Regional Climate Hub Assessmentof Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and
Mitigation Strategies. United States Department ofAgriculture. 65 p. Available from the USDA Northeast
Climate Hub atwww.climatehubs.oce.usda.gov/northeast.
• Hatfield, J., C. Swanston, M. Janowiak, R. Steele, J.
Hempel, J. Bochicchio, W. Hall, M. Cole, S. Hestvik,
J. Whitaker. 2015. Midwest and Northern Forests
Regional Climate Hub Assessment of Climate
Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and Mitigation
Strategies. United States Department of Agriculture.
55 p. Available from the USDA Midwest Climate Hubat www.climatehubs.oce.usda.gov/midwest.

Hazardous Risks to Agriculture From
Weather and Climate•

An increase of extreme precipitation events increases
risk of damage to crops, soils, and infrastructure. In the
Northeast, the region has experienced a greater than70 percent increase in extreme precipitation since themid-1900s (Walsh et al. 2014). Intense rainfall eventsand excessive rain caused by multiple events passing
over the same area in a short period of time can erodesoils; damage crops and infrastructure; overtop waste
storage facilities; delay planting or harvesting; transport
sediment, nutrients, and pesticides offsite; and result ingreater expenses and/or lower yields.

•

An increase of flood damage is also expected. Areas of
the Northeast and Midwest are vulnerable to increased
flooding due to changes in the frequency or intensity of
extreme precipitation events including thunderstorms,
tropical storms, and coastal storm surges (Melillo et al.
2014). Often flood damage occurs well downstreamof the area receiving the extreme precipitation, agreater concern in the Midwest due to the extent ofagricultural lands located in flood-prone areas. Flooding
may also cause more erosion along flashy streams
in steep mountainous areas and in coastal areas of
the Northeast subject to storm surges. Floods may
render crops unsuitable for market, delay planting, anddamage young plants. They may also increase risks ofsoil compaction from using heavy equipment on wet
soils; transport of sediment, nutrients, and pesticides;
and contamination of agricultural fields with pollutants
carried from upstream sources.

•

Severe wind and storm hazards may increase.
Thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, lightning, strong winds,
severe snow, and ice storms currently occur in the
Midwest and Northeast, and it is unclear whether these
events will become more common in the future. Severe
storms cause human and livestock fatalities and injuries
and damage to crops and infrastructure. The Northeast
has already experienced an increase in severe tropicalstorms and hurricanes compared to other regions andcan expect the risk of hazards from them to continue
increasing.

•

Warmer temperatures increase the potential for soil
moisture stress and drought. Higher temperatures drive
water losses from evaporation and plant transpiration.
A large amount of agriculture in the Midwest andNortheast is not irrigated, increasing vulnerabilityof these crops to summer drought and associatedeconomic impacts (Hatfield et al. 2015; Tobin et al.
2015). Droughts may cause declines in crop yield andquality and shortage of forage supply on pasture. In
addition to agricultural impacts, droughts affect watersupplies, resulting in potential water use restrictions inmetropolitan areas and may result in competition oflimited water resources by urban and agricultural users.

Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture•

Competition from weeds and invasive plant species
may increase. The complexity of the system and how
direct and indirect effects of climate change influenceplants makes projecting net outcomes challenging.
Complex interactions between elevated carbon dioxide,
higher temperatures, and altered precipitation may
influence the success of weedy and invasive plant
species within plant communities (Walthall et al. 2012).
Extreme climatic events, such as drought, flooding, andstrong storms, which are predicted to become more
frequent with climate change, may also be a factor.

•

Populations of many damaging insects may increase.
Insects that overwinter in the Northeast, such as cornearworm, flea beetle, and the spotted-wing Drosophila,
are already present at higher levels earlier in the season
and this trend is expected to continue as temperatures
warm (Tobin et al. 2015). Shorter winters bring an earlier
arrival of migratory insects, allowing more generationsof pests to develop within a season (Walthall et al. 2012).

•

The risk of plant pathogens may rise. Increased
temperature can increase pathogen survival over
winter, can increase the period of infectivity, allow for
more infection cycles in season, and result in pathogen
populations expanding into new areas (Elad andPertot 2014).

•

The risk of pressure from pathogens and parasites of
livestock may rise. Earlier springs and warmer winters
may allow for greater proliferation and survivability ofanimal pathogens, parasites, and disease vectors. Hotter
weather has the potential to increase the incidence ofseveral health issues affecting dairy cows or increase thepotential of toxin-producing fungi in forage (Gaughan etal. 2009).

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

11

CHAPteR 2:
Adaptation in AgricultureAs the scientific understanding of the effects andconsequences of climate variability and change
improves, agricultural producers are searching for ways toapply this information to planning and decisionmaking andput it into action. Broad descriptions of climate change
effects are widely published in scientific literature, but eachfarm will be uniquely impacted and require customized
responses (Box 2.1). This chapter describes the role ofadaptation in agriculture in responding to the challenges
and opportunities associated with climate variability andchange and provides context for the Adaptation Strategies
and Approaches presented in the next chapter. Oftenthese responses can simultaneously provide co-benefits
towards multiple goals, such as soil health improvement,water quality protection, wildlife habitat management, or
greenhouse gas mitigation (Box 2.2), and may or may not
be distinguishable from on-farm practices already plannedor underway.

What is climate change adaptation?
Climate change adaptation can help to reduce the risks
from climate variability and change, increase the resilienceof systems to potential disruptions, and even alter systems
to be better able to take advantage of future conditions.
Climate adaptation includes all adjustments, both planned
and unplanned, in natural and human systems occurringin response to climatic changes and subsequent effects(Smit et al. 1999; Parry et al. 2007). Adaptation actions are
generally intended to address the greatest risks brought
about by climate variability and change, but they can also
spur innovative solutions and opportunities (Walthall et al.
2012).
It is important to acknowledge that agricultural producers
continuously adjust to changing conditions. These may
include market price fluctuations, increasing input costs,
new neighbors, labor shortages, pest invasions, andadverse weather conditions. These adjustments to farmoperations are critical to maintaining production, profit,and stewardship levels. At the same time, producers mayneed to make additional adjustments to respond to a wider
potential for extreme weather events, increased variationsin climate, and changes in long-term climate trends.

Box 2.1:
Principles of Adaptation
Agricultural producers have many tools available to be­
gin addressing climate change; however, a new perspec­tive is needed to expand management considerations
to new issues, spatial scales, timing, and prioritization ofefforts. The following principles can serve as a start­
ing point for this perspective (Swanston and Janowiak
2012):• Prioritization and triage: Prioritize actions for adaptation
on resources that are vulnerable and the likelihoodthat actions to reduce vulnerability will be effective.
• Flexible and adaptive management: Maintain adecisionmaking framework that is flexible andincorporates new knowledge and experience overtime, in this case with impacts from climate variability
and change.

12

USDA ClimAte HUbS

• “No regrets” decisions: Look for actions that result in awide variety of benefits under multiple scenarios andhave little or no risk.
• Precautionary actions: Where vulnerability is high,taking precautionary actions to reduce risk in the nearterm is extremely important.
• Support mitigation: Many adaptation actions arecomplementary with actions to mitigate greenhousegas emissions. Practices that help adapt farms tochanging conditions may also reduce emissions orsequester carbon (Box 2.2).

Applying Adaptation Concepts to Agriculture
Greater climate variability and change increases the needfor producers to be able to cope with changing, uncertain,
and increasingly novel situations. Within the agriculture
sector, adaptation can occur at a variety of scales ranging
from sector-wide changes, (e.g., trade policies, government
programs, insurance options, and technologies) to sitespecific responses, (e.g., production system inputs, tillage,crop species, crop rotations, and harvest strategies)(Walthall et al. 2012; Hatfield et al. 2014; Smit and Skinner2002). Further, adaptation strategies for agriculture can bedivided into broad categories: farm production practices,farm financial management, farm infrastructure, newtechnological developments, and government programs
and insurance. The first three categories involve enterprisescale decisionmaking by producers while the last two
address the broad socioeconomic system and are typicallythe responsibility of public agencies and agribusiness(Walthall et al. 2012; Smit and Skinner 2002).
This document provides information to work on the scaleof farms and fields where an agricultural producer has
control for decisionmaking and action. First steps arelikely to focus on incorporating climate considerations into
existing decisionmaking and planning activities, changing
management as appropriate to respond to new challenges
and opportunities, and increasing capacity to cope withmore change in the future. It’s important to recognize thatthe scales used to present climate change information(e.g., for regions or States, or for the middle or end of the
century) are not the same as those used to make farmlevel decisions (e.g., for farms or fields, or for the next
season, year, or decade (Schmidt et al. 2014; Howden et al.
2007). For this reason, local experience and professional
judgement is critical for interpreting climate information
and adaptation options.
Importantly, many actions that producers currently
implement are likely to have climate adaptation benefits,
and actions to promote climate change adaptation
can complement producer motives as well as improve
ecosystem services (Figure 2.1). The Adaptation Strategies
and Approaches presented in Chapter 2 can be consideredwhen enhancing existing farm or conservation practices oreven adopting new structures, practices, or systems.

Figure 2.1 shows how actions for adapting agricultural systems toa changing climate complement producer motives and enhance
ecosystem services. The first step for planning and implementing
climate change adaptation is to look for these “win-win-win”
opportunities.

Autonomous and Intentional Adaptation
The agricultural sector is dynamic and constantly changing.
Although there is an increasing emphasis on adaptation
to address climate variability and change, producers
are always changing their actions in response to thechanging environment around them. Farm practices andinfrastructure are often adjusted in response to changing
biophysical conditions, such as pests and diseases, as well
as socioeconomic changes in markets, policies, and tariffs(Anwar et al. 2013; Smit and Skinner 2002).
Because of this continuous learning and improvement
within many agricultural settings, many actions may haveclimate change adaptation benefits even if climate was not
an explicit consideration in the decisionmaking (Schmidt
et al. 2014). For example, a dairy farmer may decide to
improve a barn to increase the building’s cooling capacity
based upon expected gains in milk production; this action
may reduce the effects of rising temperatures even though
the increased frequency of hot weather resulting fromclimate change was not a deliberate consideration. Many
producers are likely to implement these “autonomous”
adaptations (Anwar et al. 2013; Smit and Skinner 2002;
Smit et al. 1999).

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

13

Box 2.2:
Adaptation and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Benefits
Climate change adaptation and greenhouse gas mitiga­
tion present two different, yet interrelated, human re­sponses to climate change. As discussed in this chapter,
adaptation actions work to reduce the vulnerability ofnatural or human systems to expected climate change
effects and enable agriculture systems to cope withnew and future conditions. Mitigation, in the context ofclimate change, results in the reduction of greenhousegases present in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gas
mitigation is particularly relevant to agriculture becauseof the emissions produced by the sector as a whole;
agriculture accounted for 9 percent of national emis­
sions in 2013 (U.S. EPA 2015). Greenhouse gas mitigation
also presents opportunities for agriculture to sequester
more carbon in healthy soils, which regulate water andnutrient cycling, buffer against adverse impacts such as
erosion, and ultimately increase plant biomass produc­
tion.

14

Greenhouse gas mitigation is a necessary componentof an integrated climate change response sometimes
referred to as climate smart agriculture. Moreover, it
can help to reduce the amount of adaptation needed in
the future by reducing the degree to which greenhousegases disrupt the climate system. While this document
focuses on actions that agricultural producers can taketo enhance the ability of farms to adapt to changing
conditions, it is important to note that many practices
that help adapt farms to changing conditions also havemitigation benefits.
When evaluating adaptation responses, producers candecide to place additional emphasis on actions that
also mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. For example,
a producer using the Adaptation Workbook (Chapter4) can identify management objectives for greenhousegas mitigation, such as increasing soil organic carbon or
reducing the use of nitrogen fertilizers that can convert
to nitrous oxide, a powerful greenhouse gas.

Farm Practice

Adaptation Benefits

Mitigation Benefits

Use of cover crops

Increased soil cover and organic matter
reduces water loss and the potential for
drought stress; increased cover reduces
erosion associated with extreme weather

Increased carbon sequestration in soils

Adjust nitrogen application rates toaccount for precipitation rates and local
conditions (Moebius-Clune et al. 2010)

Reduces nitrogen leaching anddenitrification that may occur withincreasing amounts of spring precipitation

Lower levels of nitrogen fertilizer application
reduce nitrous oxide losses from thefertilizer, as well as carbon dioxide emissions
from fertilizer production

Use tree cover or silvopasture systems
for livestock production (Schoeneberger
et al. 2012)

Increases shading of livestock to reduceheat stress

Trees provide carbon sequestration

USDA ClimAte HUbSThe intentional consideration of observed and expectedchanges in climate can help to further reduce risks to the
productivity and profitability of farms and improve thestewardship of natural resources. Effective adaptation
requires that producers and other land managers be
intentional in the selection and implementation ofadaptation actions (Stein et al. 2014). This intentionality
specifically considers climate change impacts andvulnerabilities for the particular area of concern, and allows
producers to design responses appropriately. For example,
beef producers may recognize that the occurrence ofdrought is likely to continue increasing in their region andhave their water well drilled deeper to ensure adequate
livestock drinking water, or they might reduce their
herd numbers to lower the drinking water demand. The
Adaptation Workbook (Chapter 4) describes one processthat can be used to explicitly consider climate change
and develop intentional actions. Additional resources andtools may also be useful for assessing the future effects
of climate change or for adapting agriculture and natural

resource management planning and activities to expected
future conditions (Box 2.3).

Short- and Long-Term Timeframes
It is important to identify actions for both near-term andlong-term timeframes that help farmers adapt to changes
in climate, as is done for changing markets, feed supply,
regulations, and nearly all other farm operations (Schmidt
et al. 2014; Takle et al. 2014). Producers typically rely on
weather forecasts to make day-to-day decisions suchas planting annual crops, pruning tree crops, managing
nutrients and pests, and harvesting. Climate forecasts havethe potential to play a large role in the decisionmaking
and planning process especially for farmers’ long termplans such as crop rotations, market and product changes,
investments in infrastructure, farm succession, etc. (Takle
et al. 2014). For example, corn growers may need to makeseed purchases several months ahead of knowing field
conditions at planting time while needing to secure rental

Box 2.3:
Additional Adaptation Resources and Tools
The Adaptation Workbook outlined in Chapter 4 pro­vides a structured but flexible process to consider the
potential effects of climate change and variability inorder to make climate-informed decisions for agricultur­
al production and associated activities. Some decisions
require specific tools to assess the effects of climatechange over different future timeframes. Additionally,
several other adaptation resources lay out similar pro­
cesses or provide decision-support tools for adapting toclimate change in agriculture as well as natural resource
management:• The Livestock and Poultry Environmental Learning
Center offers guidance through the Animal
Agriculture in a Changing Climate project. Adapting
to a Changing Climate: A Planning Guide is available
through eXtension at www.articles.extension.org/
pages/69055/adaptation-and-risk-management.
• The U.S. Agency for International Development(USAID) and Catholic Relief Services offer guidance
through the Climate Change Adaptation Pocket Field
Guide: Extension Practice for Agricultural Adaptation
available atwww.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training.

• USDA’s National Climate Hub hosts the Climate Hubs
Tool Shed, which provides access to tools from acrossthe country to assist producers in adapting to climate
variability and change available at www.climatehubs.
oce.usda.gov/content/tools-and-data.
• An Adaptation Workbook for Forest Management andConservation outlines a similar process for managing
forests and other natural ecosystems. Access theonline version of this workbook at
www.adaptationworkbook.org.
• The National Wildlife Federation also has a Guide
to Climate Smart Conservation to design and carryout wildlife conservation measures in the face of a
rapidly changing climate. This guide is available atwww.nwf.org/What-We-Do/Energy-and-Climate/
Climate-Smart-Conservation/Guide-to-Climate-Smart­
Conservation.aspx.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

15

incremental adaptations, which will eventually have alimited effectiveness under severe climate change, tomore systemic and transformational change.

contracts or finances to purchase land a year or more
before cropping takes place (Figure 2.2).
Several different frameworks exist for thinking about
adaptation at multiple temporal scales, but all identify theneed to consider both short-and long-term adaptation
options and identify ways to accommodate increasinglevels of change over time:• Anwar et al. (2013) describe climate adaptation
as a continuum of actions that range from shortterm incremental change toward more substantive
transformational actions. In this way, the short-term
initiatives can inform longer term strategy through a“learn by doing” approach.
•

Stokes and Howden (2010) describe a transition from•

Jarvis et al. (2011) describe a short-term focus on risk
management to address issues related to food security,with a longer term shift toward progressive adaptationthat facilitates change.

•

Easterling (1996) describes an emphasis on short-term
resilience to increase the capacity of systems to recoverfrom disruptions, followed by long-term adaptation
where the form and function of a system is deliberately
altered.

•Schmidt et al. (2014) suggest that producers identify
short-term “quick fixes” that utilize management or
technology to reduce impacts, as well as long-range
planned adaptations.

Midwest Corn Growers’ Decision Calendar

Figure 2.2 the Midwest Corn Grower’s Decision Calendar shows an example of considerations over short- and long-term timeframes.
Source: Takle et al. (2014).

16

USDA ClimAte HUbSManaging for Persistence and Change
Adaptation responses will vary widely, from actions
that maintain existing conditions all the way through totransformational changes to the farm, such as changing
production systems or even the lands used to produce
commodities. This continuum can be roughly categorized
into two contrasting options for responding to climatechange: managing for persistence versus managing forchange (Stein et al. 2014) (Figure 2.3).
• Managing for persistence generally focuses onmaintaining the current system by reducing the climatechange impacts that are pushing it in an unproductive
direction. This includes actions to increase the resistanceof a farm or agricultural system to change, as well as
actions that increase its resilience (i.e., ability to bounceback) from disruptions.
•Managing for change moves farm activities toward the
new conditions created by climate change. Managing forchange can range from small changes such as trying out
new crop or livestock species that are better suited towarmer climates, to major changes that fundamentallytransform farm operations.
Managing for persistence and for change are notmutually exclusive ideas, and any farm enterprise may
do some of both. Further, there are instances where anearer term focus on managing impacts and maintaining
current conditions sets up a longer term plan to change
management goals and practices. For example, afarmer could focus on maintaining the current rotationof field crops and use cover crops to build better soils
before shifting to an entirely new cropping system. The
Adaptation Strategies and Approaches presented in
the next chapter describe a diverse menu of adaptation
responses that producers can use to intentionally develop
customized actions based on their needs.

Figure 2.3. An illustration of adaptation options to manage for persistence and change, as well as no adaptation, over short- and long­term timeframes. Note that producers can switch options at any point, such as managing for persistence until conditions meet a thresholdwhere change is preferable.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

17

CHAPteR 3:
Adaptation Strategies and ApproachesO

ne of the major challenges of adapting agricultural
systems to climate change is translating broad
science-based concepts of climate adaptation (Chapter
2) into specific, tangible on-farm actions. This chapter
addresses that challenge by providing a synthesis ofadaptation responses from the literature, which areorganized in a tiered structure from broad concepts tospecific actions (Figure 3.1). Eight broad strategies, eachwith their own more specific approaches, were synthesizedfrom dozens of scientific papers that discussed adaptation
actions at a variety of scales and locations. The strategies
and approaches were reviewed by a diverse pool ofproducers, researchers, and other professionals fromacross the Midwest and Northeast (Appendix 1) and arebroadly applicable across a diversity of commodities andproduction systems. These strategies and approaches aredesigned to serve as “stepping stones” to enable producers
to understand the rationale for making decisions and taking
appropriate actions to adapt to climate variability andchange (Box 3.1).

The adaptation strategies and approaches are presented
as a menu of possible adaptation responses that producers
may consider. By using the Adaptation Workbook (Chapter4), producers can select relevant adaptation strategies andFigure 3.1. Adaptation strategies, approaches, and tactics address
different levels of specificity and decisionmaking.

Box 3.1:
Using the Adaptation Strategies and Approaches Menu
The adaptation strategies and approaches menu canprovide:• A full spectrum of possible adaptation responses
that can help sustain viable agricultural systems ortransform unviable ones to meet the challenges ofclimate change,• A menu of adaptation strategies and approaches fromwhich producers can better understand the rational
for making decisions and develop tactical actions best
suited to meeting their goals and needs,• Examples of tactics to implement an approach,recognizing that the producer will design specificactions, and• A platform for discussing climate change-related
topics and adaptation methods.

18

USDA ClimAte HUbS

The adaptation strategies and approaches do not:• Make recommendations or set guidelines for
management decisions. It is up to the producer todecide how this information is used.
• Express preference for any strategies or approaches
within a particular agricultural system, location, or
situation. Rather, a combination of location-specificfactors and professional/landowner expertise informs
the selection of any strategy or approach.

approaches, and adjust and refine these to develop theirown prescriptive tactics to achieve a specific management
objective in a specific location. Examples of tactics areprovided in order to convey a sense of the diverse ways
in which the adaptation strategies and approaches may
be implemented, with an emphasis on actions relevant tofarms and expected climate change in the Midwest andNortheast.

A Menu of Adaptation Responses
Information on how to increase resilience to or takeadvantage of the anticipated effects of climate change
in agricultural systems is rapidly growing (Howden etal. 2007). Much of this information, however, remains
broad and generic, providing insufficient detail to enableproducers to identify specific actions that facilitate
adaptation while meeting production goals and objectives.
Because agriculture encompasses an immense diversityof commodities, crops, and practices across even morediverse geographic and environmental conditions, potential
adaptation responses are equally numerous (Howden et al.
2007).
Adaptation responses vary in specificity, from general
concepts to specific actions (Janowiak et al. 2011) (Figure3.1). Adaptation strategies are abundant in recent literatureand can be broadly applied in many ways across a numberof landscapes and systems. Approaches are more specific,
describing how strategies can be employed. Differencesin application among different agricultural systems andlandowner goals start to become evident. Ultimately,
tactics are the most specific adaptation responses,
providing prescriptive direction about what actions canbe applied on the ground, and how, where, and when. We
have provided examples of tactics for each approach, but
we do not intend that they be implemented without due
consideration of all relevant factors. Tactics are developed
in relation to the particular system or crop, site conditions,landowner goals, markets, and other factors.

Managing fields and farms at the landscape scale.

This set of adaptation strategies and approaches serves
as a menu of potential adaptation responses derived
from the literature and expert feedback (Box 3.2). It helps
producers identify their adaptation intentions and supports
them in developing and implementing their own specificadaptation actions that are most suitable to their particularsituation. Although menu items can be applied in various
combinations to achieve desired outcomes, not all itemson the menu will work together. Furthermore, actions
that work well in one location or with a particular cropor system type may not work in another; it is up to the
producer to decide what actions will work best for them.
Importantly, the adaptation strategies and approaches
included in this resource build upon current farm practices
and conservation actions that work to sustain and conserve
working lands over the long term. Many conservation
activities already promote system health and resilience.
Likewise, many adaptation actions are consistent withsustainable management and efforts to restore system
function and integrity. A changing climate may compel
some producers to enhance existing practices or adopt
new ones, but it can also underscore the importance ofsustainable practices that may already be in use.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

19

Box 3.2:
Menu of Adaptation Strategies and Approaches

20

Strategy 1:

Sustain fundamental functions of soil and water.

Approach 1.1:
Approach 1.2:
Approach 1.3:

Maintain and improve soil health.
Protect water quality.
Match practices to water supply and demand.

Strategy 2:

Reduce existing stressors of crops and livestock.

Approach 2.1:
Approach 2.2:
Approach 2.3:

Reduce the impacts of pests and pathogens on crops.
Reduce competition from weedy and invasive species.
Maintain livestock health and performance.

Strategy 3:

Reduce risks from warmer and drier conditions.

Approach 3.1:
Approach 3.2:
Approach 3.3:

Adjust the timing or location of on-farm activities.
Manage crops to cope with warmer and drier conditions.
Manage livestock to cope with warmer and drier conditions.

Strategy 4:

Reduce the risk and long-term impacts of extreme weather.

Approach 4.1:
Approach 4.2:
Approach 4.3:

Reduce peak flow, runoff velocity, and soil erosion.
Reduce severity or extent of water-saturated soil and flood damage.
Reduce severity or extent of wind damage to soils and crops.

Strategy 5:

Manage farms and fields as part of a larger landscape.

Approach 5.1:
Approach 5.2:
Approach 5.3:

Maintain or restore natural ecosystems.
Promote biological diversity across the landscape.
Enhance landscape connectivity.

Strategy 6:

Alter management to accommodate expected future conditions.

Approach 6.1:
Approach 6.2:
Approach 6.3:

Diversify crop or livestock species, varieties or breeds, or products.
Diversify existing systems with new combinations of varieties or breeds.
Switch to commodities expected to be better suited to future conditions.

Strategy 7:

Alter agricultural systems or lands to new climate conditions.

Approach 7.1:
Approach 7.2:
Approach 7.3:

Minimize potential impacts following disturbance.
Realign severely altered systems toward future conditions.
Alter lands in agricultural production.

Strategy 8:

Alter infrastructure to match new and expected conditions.

Approach 8.1:
Approach 8.2:
Approach 8.3:
Approach 8.4:

Expand or improve water systems to match water demand and supply.
Use structures to increase environmental control for plant crops.
Improve or develop structures to reduce animal heat stress.
Match infrastructure and equipment to new and expected conditions.

USDA ClimAte HUbSStrategy 1:
Sustain fundamental functions of soil
and water.

Climate has the potential to disrupt critical functions ofsoil and water, and many management actions will beneeded to work both directly and indirectly to maintainthe integrity of agricultural systems in the face of climatechange. Many existing guidelines and conservation
practices describe actions to reduce impacts to soil andwater; many of these actions are also likely to be beneficial
in the context of adaptation, either in their current formor with modifications to address potential climate change
impacts.
Approach 1.1: Maintain and improve soil health.
Healthy soils are necessary to ensure the productivity andprofitability of diverse agricultural enterprises. Healthysoils provide for many functions (Freidman et al. 2001)
and ecosystem services (Palm et al. 2014), including:sustaining biological activity and diversity, regulation ofwater quality and quantity, provision of nutrients, andcarbon sequestration. These functions and services dependon the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
or properties of the soil, some of which are dynamic
and easily altered, while others are inherent and moreresistant to change. Climate change creates multiple direct
and indirect threats on soil health, which in turn creates
challenges for agricultural productivity. Practices that
improve soil health help to buffer many of these impacts.
For example, crop residues and soil organic matter can help
protect against both dry and wet precipitation extremes;
increased organic matter can improve water infiltration andreduce nutrient losses during extreme precipitation events
as well as retain moisture in the soil during dry conditions(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
2007; Anwar et al. 2013). Altering the land use production
system or infrastructure may also maintain and improve
either dynamic or inherent soil properties. Approaches
for Strategy 7 (Alter agriculture systems or lands) and
Strategy 8 (Alter infrastructure to match new and expectedconditions) provide examples of these types of adaptation
tactics.
Example Adaptation Tactics
For all farming activities at risk of causing soil
disturbance, usually typical of annual field, forage,
vegetable, and small fruit production, as well as during
establishment of pastures, orchards, vineyards, orplantations:• Minimize soil disturbance by avoiding or
reducing tillage for planting, weed control, orother purposes• Provide nearly year-round ground cover ofresidue or plants to reduce soil exposure toerosive forces of water and wind (Derner et al.
2015)• Increase soil organic matter to improve soil
water-holding capacity, soil structure, and water
infiltration, and to reduce erosion (use covercrops and mixes, crop or livestock residues,
compost, mulch, biochar, or other organic
amendments) (Shea 2014)• Diversify crop rotations to include plant speciesof different functional groups for improving
below-ground conditions for soil life andaddress threats from disease, weed, and insect
pests.
• Shift planting dates to avoid field operations
during wet conditions (Wolfe et al. 2011)• Control vehicle traffic to minimize soil
compaction by equipment• Integrate grazing to further improve soil biology• Consider windbreaks where soil erosion by wind
is a concern• Consider land leveling or subsurface drainage
under the Approaches listed for Strategy 8:
Alter infrastructure if altering inherent soil
properties like soil surface topography anddrainage are feasible.
Additional example tactics for established pastures orother perennial crop land use systems:• Manage grazing rest periods, stocking densities,
and rotational intensity• Manage rates and timing of harvesting hay,biomass, or other similar herbaceous perennial
crops
Approach 1.2: Protect water quality.
Fresh clean water is vital to all living things. Because
agricultural practices can affect aquifers and water
sources, on-farm as well as downstream from the farm, it
is important that practices protect water quality throughthe entire cycle. Anticipated alterations of the water cycle
due to climate change will have wide-ranging effects on
agricultural production, depending on the farm location,
the type of agricultural system, and the type of change.
For example, increases in precipitation during some timesof the year could increase runoff of fertilizers or effluents,
increasing issues with excess nitrogen or other nutrientsin downstream water bodies. This approach focuses on
additional agricultural practices needed in the field beyond
those listed in Approach 1.1 (Maintain and improve soil
health). Strategy 4 (Reduce the risk and long-term impactsof extreme weather) suggests responses specifically for
extreme precipitation events.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

21

Example Adaptation Tactics
For all cropping activities at risk of causing waterpollution, usually typical of nutrient and pesticide
applications in annual and perennial field and forage
crop, vegetable, tree, berry, and vine fruit production:• Reassess nutrient applications and ensurethat use of organic materials, fertilizers,
amendments, and all sources of nutrientsis matched to changing climate conditions(Howden et al. 2007)• Reassess pesticide risk and ensure that all
pesticide applications consider changing climate
conditions (Donald et al. 2005)• Manage water to prevent ponding, running,erosion, and nutrient leaching where rainfall
increases (Howden et al. 2007). Typical water
management practices include diversions,terraces, waterways, grade stabilization
structures, etc.
Confined animal agriculture, greenhouse, nursery, andmushroom production:• Divert clean water from areas at risk forcontamination• Minimize the effects of agricultural waste on
surface and ground water resources
Approach 1.3: Match management practices to watersupply and demand.
The agriculture sector uses a substantial amount ofground and surface water resources in the United States.
Agriculture also sometimes competes for the same water
resources as urban and industrial demands, and climatechange has the potential to alter both water availability
and demand (Elliott et al. 2014; Taylor et al. 2013). Warmer
temperatures increase water loss through evaporationand plant transpiration such that more water is generally
needed to maintain productivity under warmed conditions.
Further, altered precipitation patterns have the potential toincrease water demand where the amount of precipitation
decreases or where precipitation is concentrated into
fewer, more intense events. On-farm water stewardshipcan extend the availability of water under changed climate
conditions. (Ames and Dufour 2014 ). To be effective, thisapproach must build upon the practices used in the field
to improve the water infiltration function of the soil as
listed in Approach 1.1 (Maintain and improve soil health.).
This approach emphasizes practices and technologies for
on-farm water management to improve the efficiency ofwater use in order to sustain water supplies over the longterm. More substantial changes may require investments
in new infrastructure, which are described in Strategy 8(Alter infrastructure to accommodate new and expectedconditions).

22

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Example Adaptation Tactics
For all cropping activities using substantial water
quantities, typical of irrigated cropping systems:• Where soils have adequate infiltration rates
and evaporation rates are minimized, increase
irrigation capacity, particularly for high-value
crops (Wolfe et al. 2011)• Improve irrigation efficiency for water
conveyance and application with latest
technology such as micro or drip irrigation(Ames and Dufour 2014, Derner et al. 2015)• “Water-bank” by using less irrigation in nondrought years, saving water for use in droughtyears, and creating markets to lease conserved
water to municipalities to balance agriculturaland municipal water needs. (Derner et al. 2015,
Schwabe and Connor 2012)• Increase planting density with irrigation andimproved soil fertility management (Blanc andReilly 2015)• Wider use of technologies to ‘‘harvest’’ water,conserve soil moisture (e.g., crop residue
retention), and use and transport water more
effectively where rainfall decreases (Howden etal. 2007)• Use new technology for subsurface irrigation,and irrigate with gray or reclaimed water toreduce water use. (Derner et al. 2015)

Strategy 2:
Reduce existing stressors of crops
and livestock.

Climate change is likely to increase stress on agricultural
systems through a variety of direct and indirect effects(Walthall et al. 2012). Changes in temperature and otherclimatic conditions will have numerous impacts on
agricultural systems (Pryor et al. 2014; Horton et al. 2014).
Systems may already be performing poorly becauseof stressors like insect pests, pathogens, or competing
species, which can make agricultural commodities more
susceptible to impacts from climate change. Reducing
stressors of agricultural commodities that are presently
unaffected or indirectly affected by climatic stressors willoften increase the ability of the system to cope with futurechanges in climate.
Approach 2.1: Reduce the impacts of insect pests andpathogens on crops.
Even modest changes in climate may cause substantial
increases in the distribution and abundance of many insect
pests and pathogens (Hatfield et al. 2015; Tobin et al. 2015),
potentially leading to reduced productivity or increased

plant stress and mortality. Climate change impacts
may exacerbate other stressors, site conditions, andinteractions among these factors and increase vulnerability
to these agents. This approach emphasizes actions to betaken on site within the field, while Strategy 5 (Manage
farms and fields as part of a larger landscape) suggests
complementary tactics needed across the landscape.
Example Adaptation Tactics
For all cropping activities at risk to adverse impacts from
insect pests and pathogens:• Increased scouting for pests and pathogens(Schmidt et al. 2014)• Enhanced use of integrated pest management(IPM) (Wolfe et al. 2011, Tobin et al. 2015)• Improved rapid response plans and regional
monitoring efforts to allow for targeted controlof new pests before they become established(Wolfe et al. 2011)• Use of varieties and species resistant to pests
and diseases (Howden et al. 2007)• Altering crop rotations (Shea 2014; Schmidt etal. 2014)• Longer cropping systems (greater diversity andlonger rotations)
Approach 2.2: Reduce competition from weedy andinvasive species.
Climate change is expected to increase the potential
habitat for many weedy and invasive plant species(Hatfield et al. 2015; Tobin et al. 2015), which may increase
competition among plants for light, water, and nutrients.
Although plant productivity may increase because of thepositive effects of carbon dioxide fertilization and longer
growing seasons, not all species will be able to take equal
advantage of these positive impacts (Rosenzweig et al.
2014; Ziska et al. 2012), and the competitive relationships
between weeds and crops may change with some weeds
gaining an advantage (Ziska and Bunce 1997; Valerio et al.
2013). Reducing competition for resources can enhance
the persistence of desired species and increase the abilityof systems to cope with the direct and indirect effects ofclimate change. Management of highly mobile invasive
species may require increased scouting and coordination
across property boundaries, and it will likely require an
increasing budget for control efforts.

Example Adaptation Tactics
For all crop production activities (field, forage, small
fruit and vegetables, orchards, etc.) at risk for increased
competition from weeds and invasive species:• Increased scouting for weedy species• Increased use of integrated pest management(IPM) strategies (prevention, avoidance,
monitoring, and suppression) to prevent
economic crop damage from weeds, minimize
resistance in weeds, and prevent or mitigate
unnecessary risks to natural resources andhumans• Eradication of noxious weeds• Control or eradication of other invasive plant
species adversely impacting desired plantcommunity
Approach 2.3: Maintain livestock health and performance.
Climate change is expected to affect livestock production
by increasing animal stress from diverse changes that
include higher temperatures, changes in forage quality andquantity, and increases in pest and pathogen incidence(Walthall et al. 2012). This approach works to reduce therisks associated with livestock production systems by
maintaining animal performance levels and reducing thenegative impacts of environmental changes that increaseanimal vulnerability. The risks to livestock systems increase
when performance levels drop, for any reason, making
them more vulnerable to other changes in environmental
parameters (Hahn et al. 2005). Maintaining adequate
livestock health and performance prepares animals to cope
better with changing and extreme conditions.
Example Adaptation Tactics
For animal production activities (dairy, beef, poultry,
swine, other) vulnerable to normal environmental
parameters and as applicable to the species:• Maintain adequate nutrition and access toadequate exercise, clean housing, water, andfeed supplies.
• Prevent infectious disease and control parasites
by preventing contact with wildlife.
• Follow recommended veterinary practices andbiosecurity procedures.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

23

Strategy 3:
Reduce risks from warmer and drier
conditions.

Many of the key climate variables affecting agricultural
productivity are directly tied to increases in temperature(Hatfield et al. 2014). A longer growing season, warmer
daytime and nighttime temperatures, and drier conditions
are all expected to have important effects on agricultural
crops and livestock, and in many areas of the Midwest,
effects are already being observed (Hatfield et al. 2014).
Increasingly, producers will need to consider and address
the unique effects of higher temperatures on individualcommodities. In some locations, drier conditions will havegreater impacts.
Approach 3.1: Adjust the timing or location of on-farmactivities.
As the climate changes, consider adjusting farm practices
to take into account altered seasonality. Producers havealways made adjustments to cope with variable weather
conditions by changing the timing or field operations(Hatfield et al. 2014), and many of these types of changes
are already occurring autonomously as conditions change
and without specific consideration of longer term climate
trends (Smit and Skinner 2002). In fact, evidence suggeststhat decisions about the timing of many agricultural
practices are more likely to be based upon recent years’
weather than the longer term trend for a particular place(Smit et al. 1996). This approach emphasizes alterations in
the timing and location of on-farm activities that take into
account long-term trends and projections in climate, as
well as inter-annual variation of weather. Although broader
scale changes in location and timing will also be needed,such as northward shifts of crops to new landscapes(Ainsworth and Ort 2010), these are beyond the scope of
this approach.
Example Adaptation Tactics
Field and forage crops and vegetables, nursery, tree,
berry and vine fruit production as applicable:• Adjust timing of planting, such as earlier
planting dates to take account of longer
growing season (Anwar et al. 2013,
Wolfe et al. 2011, Tobin et al. 2015, European
Commission 2009)• Adjust timing or sequencing of cropping
operations, such as altering amount of timing ofirrigation or fertilizer application(Howden et al. 2007)• Match crops to local conditions, such as on
slope, aspect, or microsite (Ames andDufour 2014)• Plant two successive crops to take advantage ofa single growing season (double-cropping) andincrease annual production
24

USDA ClimAte HUbS

• Adjust synchronization of crop nitrogen (N)needs and application for improved nitrogen use
efficiency (Kanter et al. 2015)
Animal agriculture:• Adjust the timing of grazing and pasture use toforage availability for livestock (Howden et al.
2007, Derner et al. 2015)• Alter the timing of animal reproduction to match
suitable temperatures and feed availability(Howden et al. 2007, Derner et al. 2015)
Vegetables, nursery crops, tree, berry, and vine fruits:• Implement techniques to prevent frosting,recognizing that cold temperatures andextremes will still occur (Tobin et al. 2015)
Approach 3.2: Manage crops to cope with warmer anddrier conditions.
Since the Midwest and Northeast regions of the UnitedStates can expect to see warmer temperatures andseasonal changes in precipitation, it is reasonable to expectthat soil moisture regimes will also shift. Although there
is substantial variation among model projections, longer
growing seasons and warmer temperatures are generally
expected to result in greater evapotranspiration losses andlower soil-water availability later in the growing season(Hayhoe et al. 2007; Gutowski et al. 2008; Kunkel et al.
2013b; Kunkel et al. 2013a). Further, increases in extreme
rain events suggest that greater amounts of precipitation
may occur during fewer precipitation events, resulting
in longer periods between rainfall (Karl et al. 2008).
The effects of warmer temperatures on photosynthesis
is one of the biggest determinants of crop yields, andtemperatures only slightly above optimum can cause mildheat stress and begin to inhibit photosynthesis (Ainsworth
and Ort 2010). This approach emphasizes the managementof existing crops while Strategy 6 (Alter management toaccommodate new and expected conditions) presents
example actions to diversify crops or switch to new crops.
The effectiveness of actions under this approach are highlyinterrelated and dependent on adequately functioning soil
and water crop resources addressed by actions in Strategy
1 (Sustain fundamental functions of soil and water).
Example Adaptation Tactics
For cropping activities :• Select longer growing-season, heat-resistant, or
drought-resistant varieties of crops(Wolfe et al. 2011)• Adjust timing of planting, such as earlier
planting dates, to avoid heat stress during
critical periods of plant development (Anwar etal. 2013, Wolfe et al. 2015)• Alter plant population density to reduce crop
demands for water or nutrients• Increase the efficiency of irrigation systems
and water transportation (Derner et al, 2015,
Howden et al. 2007)• Increase soil cover (mulch, cover crop)
to conserve soil moisture and reduce soil
temperatures (Ames and Dufour 2014, Howden
et al. 2007)• Improve use of seasonal and short-term weather
forecasts (World Meteorological Organization(WMO) and Global Water Partnership (GWP)
2014)
Approach 3.3: Manage livestock to cope with warmer anddrier conditions.
As with crops, altered climate conditions will affectlivestock production. Climate can affect animal agriculture
through changes in feed grain production, pasture andforage crop production, animal productivity, and disease
and pest issues (Hatfield et al. 2014). In particular, livestock
respond to changes in temperature by altering their core
body temperature, metabolic rates, or behavior, all of which
can lead to increased stress and disrupt their growth,
production, or reproduction. (Hatfield et al. 2014). Thisapproach emphasizes actions that manage the current
livestock systems. Strategy 6 (Alter management toaccommodate new and expected conditions) describes
actions to transition to new breeds or systems while
Strategy 8 (Alter infrastructure to accommodate new and
expected conditions) describes the use of infrastructuresuch as fans or misters to cool animals.
Example Adaptation Tactics
For animal agriculture:• Provide partial to total shelter to reduce heatstress associated with extreme heat. (Derner et
al. 2015)• Increase available shade for pastured animals(25x’25 Alliance Adaptation Work Group 2013)• Alter grazing management practices orrotations to match stock rates to forage
production, such as by moving cattle to fresh
pasture at night (Derner et al. 2015, Tobin et al.
2015, Howden et al. 2007)• Use grass or fodder banks (resting of pastures
for >1 year) to provide forage during dry periods(Derner et al. 2015, Anwar et al. 2012)• Alter the timing or placement of feeder animals
and subsequent finishing time of these animals
to reduce stress associated with heat waves(Derner et al. 2015)• Alter livestock stocking rates (Anwar et al. 2012)• Select more heat-tolerant breeds (25x’25
Alliance Adaptation Work Group 2013)• Increase herd disease surveillance in livestock(25x’25 Alliance Adaptation Work Group 2013)• Make additional fresh, clean water available(25x’25 Alliance Adaptation Work Group 2013)• Alter animal diets, such as by switching rations
from forage to other feed, use of supplementary
feeds and concentrates, or feed conservation(25x’25 Alliance Adaptation Work Group 2013,
Anwar et al. 2013, Howden et al. 2007)• Monitor animal temperatures to provide early
warning of stress

Strategy 4:
Reduce the risk and long-term impacts ofextreme weather.

Climate change increases overall climate variability(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2012;
Kunkel et al. 2012; Peterson et al. 2013). In addition, climatechange is expected to increase the likelihood of extreme
weather including extreme precipitation and storms, which
will increasingly challenge agricultural activity (Walthall
et al. 2012). Further, extreme cold, snow, and other winterconditions will continue to persist—or even increase,such as with mid-latitude snow in some areas—for many
decades into the future. Even as trends continue to emerge,
responses will need to adjust appropriately to the changes
in extreme weather. Adaptation actions that improve thecapacity to adapt to enhanced weather variability, andextreme events in particular, will generally improve overall
climate change preparedness (Bradshaw et al. 2004).
Approach 4.1: Reduce peak flow, runoff velocity, and soil
erosion.
The number of weather- or climate-related disasters
costing more than $1 billion is increasing nationwide, andmany of these disasters involve extreme precipitation
or resulting floods. An increase of extreme precipitation
events increases risk of damage to soils, crops, andinfrastructure. Increases in runoff flow volume and velocity
following severe precipitation events can lead to anincrease in soil erosion, although the risk of soil erosion,
nutrient runoff and other impacts on a specific site
ultimately depend on local soil and landscape conditions.
To reduce impacts of extreme precipitation events on soil
and water resources, take actions to reduce their flashinessand slow the flow of water across the landscape. Thisapproach builds on actions developed under Strategy 1(Sustain fundamental functions of soil and water) in orderto maintain and improve soil health and protect water
quality in response to higher peak flows, runoff velocities,
and soil erosion resulting from increasingly severe storm
events. If the cost of these enhancements or risks of failure
become prohibitive, actions to alter management, systems,
or infrastructure (Strategies 6, 7, and 8) may also be
suitable.
ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

25

Example Adaptation Tactics
For annual cropping activities:• Diversify existing annual cropping systems withnew combinations of annual crop species orvarieties more resistant to higher peak flows,
runoff velocities, and erosion.
• Convert in-field areas at high risk of flow erosion
and pollution transport to perennial crops(grass, shrub, or tree crops); pasture/grazing
lands, forest cover, or conservation buffers
suitable to conveying water.
Animal agriculture and associated agriculture lands:• Diversify existing forage crops with new
combinations of forage species or varieties
more resistant to higher peak flows, runoff
velocities, and erosion.
• Use wetlands, buffer strips, swales, and otherlandscape features to buffer against hydrologic
variability and increase infiltration after extreme
precipitation events (Ames and Dufour 2014;
25x’25 Alliance Adaptation Work Group 2013).
• Maintain or improve infrastructure (water
conveyances, lanes, roads, culverts, ponds,
waste storage facilities, rooves and covers,
roof runoff structures, heavy use areas, etc.)
to accommodate more intense precipitation
events.
Approach 4.2: Reduce severity or extent of watersaturated soil and flood damage.
More extreme precipitation events also increase thefrequency for flooding or standing water in low-lying andsusceptible areas (Walsh et al. 2014). Extended periods ofexcess water during the growing period can lead to yield
declines or crop losses. Wet soils can also hinder field
operations and animal agriculture activities like grazingor exercise. This approach builds on actions developedin Strategy 1 (Sustain fundamental functions of soil andwater) in order to maintain and improve the soil’s function
to infiltrate water and protect water quality in response
to higher peak flows, runoff velocities, and soil erosion
resulting from increasingly severe storm events. If thecost of these enhancements or risks of failure become
prohibitive, actions to alter management, systems, orinfrastructure (Strategies 6, 7, and 8) may also be suitable.

26

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Example Adaptation Tactics
Cropping and animal agriculture activities:• Shift production zones away from flood-prone
areas (Tobin et al. 2015)• Shift to more flood-tolerant varieties or crops(Wolfe et al. 2011)• Use new field drainage practices to reduce
excess seasonal soil water conditions, such as
tile drainage or flashboard risers, to adjust waterdrainage outlets (Derner et al. 2015, Wolfe et al.
2011, 25 by ’25 Alliance, Morton et al. 2015)
Approach 4.3: Reduce severity or extent of wind damage
to soils and crops.
While wind events and the ensuing effects on agricultural
crops and systems may become more frequent andsevere under climate change, there are many challenges in
predicting the size, frequency, and intensity of these events(Kunkel et al. 2012; Peterson et al. 2013). Some lands may
be particularly susceptible to projected increases in storm
intensity. Conservation techniques exist to reduce theexposure of sensitive crops to wind.
Example Adaptation Tactics
Cropping activities:• Maintain crop residues to reduce exposure ofyoung sensitive crops to damaging winds• Cover the soil with crop residues or cover crops
to protect it from erosive winds• Install windbreaks, hedgerows, or vegetative
wind barriers to reduce wind exposure forsensitive crops

Strategy 5:
Manage farms and fields as part of alarger landscape.

Individual farms, fields pastures, and grazing lands are partof a larger, landscape-level agroecosystem that provides
critical ecosystem services and non-commodity goodsin addition to agricultural products (McGranahan 2014).
Because of the global nature of climate change, impacts
will be observed across landscapes and regions. Actions toincrease landscape diversity and connectivity can increase
the ability of systems to adapt to changing environmental
conditions and stresses (Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations 2007; Liebman and Schulte
2015; McGranahan 2014). While the ability of individual
producers to affect landscape-level change will vary widely,
the integration of landscape considerations into farmmanagement may help to increase adaptive capacity of the
agriculture sector in the long term.

Approach 5.1: Maintain or restore natural ecosystems.
In the context of climate change, actions to maintainand restore natural ecosystems can help to protect key
ecosystem features on the landscape, fostering a diversityof species and ecological functions (Stein et al. 2014). Whileland that is maintained in natural systems is not available
for farm production, there is evidence that the integrationof natural ecosystems with agricultural production lands
can have notable benefits to soil and water quality without
substantially reducing agricultural production (Schulte
Moore 2014). Farm operations often include incidental
areas, such as idle center pivot corners, odd areas, ditches
and watercourses, riparian areas, field edges, seasonal
and permanent wetlands, and other similar areas not
purposefully managed for food, forage, or fiber production.
These incidental areas are typically near to and associatedwith agriculture production or conservation lands. They
may be functional natural ecosystems, but more typicallyare degraded and have substantial opportunity to diversify
and improve ecosystem services.
Example Adaptation Tactics
Nearby non-agricultural lands:• Maintain or restore riparian areas, wetlands,
bottomlands, and floodplains• Maintain and enhance species and structural
diversity by promoting diverse vegetation types
and retaining natural ecosystems and biologicallegacies (Swanston and Janowiak 2012)• Restore or maintain fire in fire-adapted
ecosystems. (Swanston and Janowiak 2012)
Approach 5.2: Promote biological diversity across thelandscape.
A diversity of species and structures across a landscape
may help to reduce the susceptibility of its individualcomponents to climate change, as well as other changing
environmental conditions and stressors (Peterson et al.
1998; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations 2007; Liebman and Schulte 2015; McGranahan2014). Although many agricultural systems are inherently
low in diversity to maximize production, risk can be
reduced by fostering diversity across landscapes (Liebman
and Schulte 2015; Schulte Moore 2014). At a landscapelevel, natural ecosystems and naturalized settings (e.g., fieldborders, native plantings, etc.) can increase environmental
services such as water quality, wildlife abundance,
pollinator habitat, and carbon sequestration (Liebman
and Schulte 2015). Trade-offs to consider include good
agricultural practices (GAP) required to prevent bird andsimilar wildlife disease vectors and as required for foodsafety inspections.

Example Adaptation Tactics
Nearby non-agricultural lands:• Increase managed habitats across a range oflandscapes (Swanston and Janowiak 2012b,
Stein et al. 2014)• Protect at-risk species and habitats (Swanston
and Janowiak 2012b, Stein et al. 2014)• Maintain or create refugia (Swanston andJanowiak 2012b, Stein et al. 2014)• Create habitat for pollinators or other beneficialorganisms
Approach 5.3: Enhance landscape connectivity.
Connections across natural ecosystems also enablelarge-scale adaptation by creating a mosaic of habitats
to support natural and facilitated migrations of plants,
animals, and other organisms across the landscape (Steinet al. 2014). While species migration is a critical factor
in the maintenance of natural ecosystem function in achanging climate, the fragmentation of landscapes and lossof habitat may restrict species movements and gene flow
(Davis and Shaw 2001; Iverson et al. 2004a). Many species
are not expected to be able to migrate at a rate sufficient
to keep up with climate change and associated range shifts(Davis and Shaw 2001; Iverson et al. 2004a). Increasinglandscape connectivity may help species to migrate
without additional assistance by allowing for easier species
movement, reducing lags in migration, and enhancing theflow of genetic material (Heller and Zavaleta 2009; Stein etal. 2014).
Example Adaptation Tactics
Nearby non-agricultural lands:• Use landscape-scale planning and partnerships
to reduce fragmentation and enhanceconnectivity (Swanston and Janowiak 2012b)• Maintain and create naturalized habitat corridors

Strategy 6:
Alter management to accommodate
expected future conditions.

As climate change impacts and risks increase, there will
be a greater need to move from short-term, reactive
adjustments toward more intentional, planned adaptation
responses that are likely to create significant shifts inmanagement (Smit and Skinner 2002). While adaptation
actions vary widely in intent, timing, and scale, this strategyemphasizes a clear shift toward more substantial changes
that ultimately transform the activities for a particular farmor producer.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

27

Approach 6.1: Diversify crop or livestock species, varieties
or breeds, or products.
Farm-level diversification can reduce the risk of climatechange impacts on a farm, thereby lowering the economic
risks associated with lower yields or market fluctuations(Bradshaw et al. 2004; Ames and Dufour 2014). At
the same time, there can be costs to diversification,
especially in the near term, due to the start-up costs andlearning needed to initiate a new crop, as well as reduced
economies of scale (Bradshaw et al. 2004). This approach
may be used by diversifying commodities that are
currently used within a current geographic area, or used inconjunction with the approaches below to diversify farms
using plants and animals that are to be better adapted tofuture conditions.
Example Adaptation Tactics
All agriculture as applicable:• Add additional farming activities or new
commodities to diversify farm products andrevenue• Increase the representation of varieties, breeds,
genetic sources, or species among commodities(Derner et al 2015)• Diversity animal products or ages, such as
including both cow-calves and yearlings (Derner
et al 2015)• Diversify varieties or breeds for different
tolerances of cold hardiness, drought and heat
tolerance, or other attributes (Ames and Dufour
2014, Anwar et al. 2015)
Approach 6.2: Diversify existing systems with new
combinations of varieties or breeds.
Along with diversification of crop varieties and livestock
breeds themselves (see previous approach), it may also be
useful to diversify systems to include new combinationsof varieties or breeds. For example, a pasture system that
includes a combination of both currently common andpotentially future-adapted varieties and breeds can reduce
the risk associated with one variety or breed performing
poorly and provide time to gain experience with using new,future-adapted varieties and breeds. At the same time,
there is risk in anticipating which combinations may be
future-adapted, as climate variability can have a greater
impact on production than the long-term trend.

28

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Example Adaptation Tactics
Field and forage crops:• Plant multi-species cover crop mixtures
including species currently adapted to warmer
or drier climates• Integrate livestock into cropping enterprises toutilize aftermath grazing on crop residues andcover crop grazing (Derner et al 2015)
Animal agriculture:• Integrate livestock into cropping enterprises
to access additional forage, reduce feed costs,
eliminate manure concentration areas, or
improve overall farm efficiency• Alter mix of grazing species (Anwar et al. 2012)• Plant multi-species pasture mixtures including
species currently adapted to warmer or drier
climates
Integrated agricultural systems:• Diversify and expand farm production to include
a greater number of annual crops, perennial
fruits or nuts, timber or other forest products,
livestock, or other commodities (may or may
not include agroforestry approaches)• Use excess heat from methane digestion toprovide heat for other enterprises associatedwith the livestock operation such as greenhouseplants or aquaculture production (25 by ’25)
Approach 6.3: Switch to commodities expected to bebetter suited to future conditions.
As climate conditions change, it may become necessary
to switch to new plants, animals, or systems in order tomaintain a viable farm under new conditions. This is not a
new idea, and agricultural producers have a long historyof changing practices in response to changing markets,
technologies, and environmental conditions (Olmsteadand Rhode 2011; Walthall et al. 2012). The degree ofanticipated climate change, however, may require greater
investment and experimentation of new plants, animals,
and other commodities and at a much larger scale, andfarms may need to change to different systems altogether.
For agricultural producers to successfully shift to newcommodities and systems, it will also be important that
accompanying advances in technologies (e.g., alternative
crops/livestock, decision-support tools, etc.) and markets
be made as well (Walthall et al. 2012).

Example Adaptation Tactics
Cropping systems:• Use new cultivars and new species that seemto match a changing climate (Ames and Dufour
2014)• Shift to more water-efficient crops or cropping
systems (Derner et al 2015)(Ames and Dufour
2014)• Preserve genetic resources by relocating atrisk varieties to locations that are expected toprovide future habitat or reserving seed for
future use• Shift crops to types that can be grown in acontrolled environment, using hoop and hightunnel houses or greenhouses
Animal agriculture:• Switch to alternative livestock breeds, class,or species, especially those with a higher heat,drought, and parasite tolerance (Derner et al
2015)• Preserve genetic resources by relocating at-risk
breeds to locations that are expected to provide
future habitat or reserving seed for future use

Strategy 7:
Alter agricultural systems or lands to newclimate conditions.

Beyond deliberate changes in farm commodities andpractices, there may be a need for wholesale change
within agricultural systems due to the degree of change
observed in a particular place. While agriculture has
been able to largely adapt to recent changes in climate,substantial pressures from climate change and associatedsocioeconomic changes will create substantial challenges
in coming decades (Hatfield et al. 2014). This strategy
touches on actions to respond to severely changed
conditions in a way that anticipates continued change anduncertainty in the future.
Approach 7.1: Minimize potential impacts following
disturbance.
Potential increases in the frequency, intensity, and extent
of large and severe disturbances, such as extreme
precipitation or storm events, may disrupt vegetation
and result in the loss of plant cover, productivity, orfunction. Changing conditions are expected to increase
the risk of crop losses and failures. Prompt remediation
and revegetation of sites following disturbance helps toreduce soil loss and erosion, maintain water quality, anddiscourage weedy species in the newly exposed areas.

Because many of the best opportunities for addressing
disturbance-related impacts are likely to occur immediately
after the disturbance event, having a suite of pre-planned
options in place may facilitate an earlier and more
flexible response. Where a particular event exceeds theresilience of a particular location or system and a returnto previous conditions is no longer feasible, this approachcomplements Approach 7.2 (Realign severely alteredsystems toward future conditions) that follows.
Example Adaptation Tactics
Cropping systems:• Seed short-term cover crops to protect andstabilize soils• Remove or prevent establishment of invasiveplants and other competitors following
disturbance through the use of herbicides,
tilling, or other control measures• Convert severely impacted areas or areas at riskof repeat disturbances to plants that are lesssusceptible to disturbance, such as other crops,
perennial forage, or native plantings.
• Reshape damaged areas prior to replanting
Associated agriculture lands:• Ensure that emergency response actions do
not do more damage to resources than theemergency itself
Approach 7.2: Realign severely altered systems toward
future conditions.
Agricultural lands may face significant impacts becauseof climate change-related disruptions, including drought,
severe weather events, and invasive species (Hatfield
et al. 2014; Walthall et al. 2012). Some systems may
experience significant disruption and decline such thateven intensive management may be insufficient to maintain
desired conditions or achieve intended goals (Millar etal. 2007). This approach fundamentally allows producers
to “reset” their management to select new commodities
or production systems that are expected to be better
matched to current and anticipated conditions.
Example Adaptation Tactics
All agricultural systems:• Convert affected areas to plants or animalcommodities that are expected to be suitable tofuture conditions• Shift agricultural production spatially, matchingcommodities to areas with better climate
conditions or water availability

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

29

Approach 7.3: Alter lands in agricultural production.
Ultimately, lands may become more or less suitable for
agricultural production in the future. Some lands may
become unsuitable for agriculture, particularly in areasthat become substantially hotter or drier, necessitating achange to other land uses (Rosenzweig et al. 2014). At thesame time, warmer conditions may increase the viability ofagricultural commodities in other areas, particularly farther
north, and allow for expanded production (Rosenzweig
et al. 2014). While many of these changes will occur atlarge spatial scales and be affected by national and global
policies, individual producers and landowners will make thedecisions about site-level production (Smit et al. 1999; Neil
Adger et al. 2005).
Example Adaptation Tactics
All agricultural systems:• Shift agricultural production spatially, matchingcommodities to areas with better climate
conditions or water availability• Convert agricultural lands to new commodities
based upon altered climatic conditions, such as
converting row crops to perennial forage wherewater availability decreases• Remove lands from agricultural production• Add lands to agricultural production,
recognizing the potential of negative impacts onnatural ecosystems or environmental benefits.

Strategy 8:
Alter infrastructure to match new and
expected conditions.

Altering infrastructure is a strategy that supports the entire
menu of adaptation responses. Because infrastructure
generally has a high cost and long life span relative to otherfarm practices and activities, there is a greater need toconsider the long-term implications of these investments.
Changes and upgrades in farm infrastructure represent a
specific opportunity for agricultural producers to consider
deliberately expected future climate conditions, risks,and opportunities that could affect farm productivity andsustainability. Changes in infrastructure can be used toresist the effects of climate change and maintain current
practices in place for a longer period of time, such as
through the use of increased irrigation to offset reductionsin precipitation. On the other end of the spectrum, altering
infrastructure may facilitate a transition to entirely new
systems, such as through the purchase of new facilities or
equipment necessary for the production of a new, futureadapted commodity.

30

USDA ClimAte HUbSApproach 8.1: Expand or improve water systems to match
water demand and supply.
Increasing temperatures will likely increase water
demand through enhanced evaporation from soils andtranspiration from plants. Agriculture in the Midwest is
likely to be affected where increased temperatures are
not offset by a corresponding increase in precipitation,
causing moisture stress, dry spells, and drought (Hatfield
et al. 2014). In addition to practices to increase soil
water retention and adjust plant crops or animal breeds
to match drier conditions (described earlier), it may benecessary to expand infrastructure to increase the amountof water available to plants and animals. Because of thecost associated with many of these practices, efforts toincrease the extent, capacity, or efficiency of water systems
may be best suited to high-value or less water-intensive
commodities (Wolfe et al. 2011; Blanc and Reilly 2015).
Example Adaptation Tactics
Animal agriculture:• Construct ponds and swales, dig wells, collectrainwater {Ames, 2014 #38}
Cropping systems:• Increase irrigation capacity or land underirrigation, particularly for high-value crops(Wolfe et al. 2011, Walthall et al, 2012, Blanc andReilly 2015)• Improve irrigation efficiency with latest
technology such as micro or drip irrigation or
using subsurface irrigation or irrigation withgray or reclaimed water (Ames and Dufour 2014,
Derner et al. 2015)• Expand water storage, irrigation, and drainage
using deeper wells, cisterns, farm ponds, andmore efficient irrigation (Ames and Dufour 2014,
Tobin et al. 2015)• Construct ponds and swales, dig wells, collectrainwater to maintain water on the landscape(Ames and Dufour 2014)• Install or enhance drainage systems (Morton etal. 2015)• Dig deeper wells and install more cisterns,
farm ponds, and more efficient irrigation toaccommodate hydrologic change (Ames andDufour 2014)

Approach 8.2: Use structures to increase environmental
control for crops.
Excess precipitation, heat stress, and other changes inclimate pose substantial challenges for crops. Previously,
Approach 3.2 (Manage crops to cope with warmer anddrier conditions) describes actions to manage current crop
systems for reduced heat stress by modifying plant density,
soil moisture availability, or plant genetics or variety. Thisapproach focuses on changes to infrastructure that reduce
the effects of altered climate on crops, including heatstress and extreme weather events. In some instances,
technological solutions may help transition to a new,future-adapted commodity in anticipation of future climatechanges; for example, hoop or high tunnel houses may
create warmer conditions at northern sites for crops thatcurrently grow in southern locations but which may growlocally without protection in the future.
Example Adaptation Tactics
Cropping systems:• Move crops into a controlled environment, suchas hoop and high tunnel houses or greenhouses(Tobin et al. 2015)• Enhance energy efficiency in greenhouses toreduce heat loads and heat stress (Tobin et al.
2015)

Approach 8.4: Match infrastructure and equipment to newand expected conditions.
Beyond water conveyance structures, irrigation, andwatering systems, alter other farm infrastructure tooperate under new and expected conditions or to matchother changes in management practices. Tactics under
this approach may vary widely depending upon the farmoperation, and could include adding new machinery to
implement new practices or grow new commodities, or
upgrading buildings and facilities to handle increased snow
or wind loads.
Example Adaptation Tactics
All agricultural systems:• Update farm machinery to match new andfuture farm practices and commodities• Consider precision nutrient and pesticide
application systems• Upgrade to more energy efficient equipment or
integrate on-farm renewable energy generation(e.g., manure and biomass conversion andcombustion, wind, solar) enterprises• Upgrade building facilities to handle expected
increased snow or wind loads• Use technologies to protect orchards from frost,such as sprinklers, heaters, and wind machines,
to allow for more cold-sensitive varieties tobe grown
Approach 8.3: Improve or develop structures to reduceanimal heat stress.
Heat stress poses substantial challenges for animal
agriculture. Approach 3.3 (Manage livestock to copewith warmer and drier conditions) described earlier
outlined actions to manage current livestock systems for
reduced heat stress by modifying stocking density, forage
availability and type, and animal genetics or breed. Thisapproach focuses on changes to infrastructure that reduceheat stress on animals.
Example Adaptation Tactics
Animal agriculture:• Build new barns with adequate cooling capacity
for future heat loads (Wolfe et al. 2015)• Improve climate control in facilities using fans,misters, soakers, and other features (25 by ’25)
• Enhance energy efficiency in facilities using
light-emitting diode (LED) lights and otherfeatures to reduce additional heat sources• Design and implement new housing for animal
agriculture with consideration for extreme
weather events and future climate

Conservation cover improves soil and water functioningin an orchard.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

31

CHAPteR 4:
Adaptation Workbook

C

limate change is becoming an increasingly importantconsideration in land management planning anddecisionmaking at a variety of spatial scales. The
Adaptation Workbook outlines a flexible five-step process
to help agricultural producers, service providers, or
educators consider the potential impacts of increasingclimate variability and change and identify actions thatfacilitate adaptation to changing conditions (Box 4.1).
The process of adapting to climate change begins withdefining current goals and objectives for agricultural
production, profitability, and natural resource stewardshipin a particular location (Figure 4.1). The next step
assesses potential climate change impacts to the region
and incorporates them as an additional consideration“filter” through which to evaluate critically the goals andobjectives. Once appropriate adaptation actions are
identified, monitoring and evaluation is used to determine
if expected outcomes are being achieved. This flexible
process draws upon locally relevant information resources
about anticipated climate change impacts, such as thenational, regional, and State-level assessments as well as
the Adaptation Strategies and Approaches described in
Chapter 3.

Figure 4.1. Use the process of adapting to climate change to incorporate considerations into long-range and annual operation plans.
Climate change-related informational resources and tools support the adaptation decisionmaking process. Adapted from Janowiak
et al. (2014).

32

USDA ClimAte HUbSBox 4.1:
Using the Adaptation Workbook
The Adaptation Workbook can help producers, service
providers, and educators:• Incorporate climate change considerations into
long-range and annual operations planning anddecisionmaking based on experience and expertise.
• Incorporate adaptation responses into revision ordevelopment of farm or project plans.
• Discuss climate change-related topics with projectstakeholders.
• Continuously learn by doing and evaluating
incremental changes that inform longer term
strategies.

• It may take several hours to move through all thesteps of the Adaptation Workbook, especially if
you are just getting familiar with climate change
information or if you have a complex operation.
• Print the blank worksheets provided at the end of thisworkbook for use alongside step-by-step instructions.
You may want to use this workbook in facilitated small
group settings or with an advisor to help identify andaccess additional resources needed to complete theworksheets.
Step-by-Step Instructions:

The Adaptation Workbook does not:• Follow the five steps in order, although you canalways go back to add or clarify earlier responses.
Review workbook items and key questions for eachstep and then fill out each item in the worksheet.
Some steps have additional details.

• Make recommendations or set criteria for making
decisions.

• Where applicable, see additional guidance under theheading Slow Down To Consider . . . .

• Provide specifications for implementing response
actions.

• When you have completed all the steps in the
Adaptation Workbook, you will have a set ofworksheets to combine with or add to your existingplans for the farm or project.

• Document considerations, decisions, and outcomes
regarding climate change adaptation.

• Establish a plan for implementation of the selectedactions and monitoring efforts.
Getting Prepared:• Before you begin, it will be helpful to review
information about your farm or project area such as
business or project plans, conservation plans, maps,
and production and land management records fromthe last 5 years.

• You can work toward implementing adjustments
or transformations through time, either on yourown or with your trusted financial, production, andconservation advisors and service providers.

Vegetable grower getting help from a trusted advisor.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

33

Step 1:DEFINE management goals and objectives.
About This Step
This step records fundamental information about thefarm or project area. Because it serves as a starting
point for the subsequent steps, it is very important todefine clearly the current farm management goals andobjectives. This information may already be available aspart of management plan or other planning document.
If you will be going through the workbook as part of agroup, it may be most efficient for one or two people tocompile information for this step in advance of any group
discussions.
Key Questions:• Where are you located?
• What do you care about?

Description of Workbook Items
Farm or Project Area – Name of the farm or the project
area. Projects can be individual farms and properties or agroup of multiple lands in a geographical area such as awatershed, landscape feature, or community.
Location – Describe the geographic location of the farm or
project area (e.g., county, township, or watershed).
Management Unit – List any management units (e.g.,properties, fields, or groups of fields) that are relevant toyour farm or project area.
Management Goals – List the management goals for thefarm or project area (Box 4.2). These may include short andlong-term goals for products or services provided from theland, business profitability, and or stewardship of natural
resources.
Management Objectives – List any management objectives
for the farm or project area (Box 4.2). These will explain
how to achieve management goals. There may be multiple
objectives for a single management goal.
Timeframes – List approximate periods for achieving farmor project goals and objectives. As a default, identify the
point in both the short term (within the next 5 years) andthe long term (5 to 20 or more years) that you can use toconsider and monitor how things may change over time.

Climate variability and change are likely to adversely impact dairy livestock and crop production and may also provide opportunities.

34

USDA ClimAte HUbSBox 4.2:
Goals and Objectives
management Goals
Management goals are broad, general statements,
usually not quantifiable, that express a desired state oroutcome to achieve. They are often not attainable in the
short term and provide the context for more specificobjectives.

management Objectives
Management objectives define specific, measurable,
achievable, results-oriented, and time bound actions
needed to achieve desired outcomes expressed by thebroad management goals. Objectives commonly include
information on resources or methods to use, and they
form the basis for further planning to define the precise
steps to take.

Table 5.3—Examples of a management goal and its corresponding management objectives.

Management GoalManagement Objectives

Maintain and improve farm production andrevenue• Monitor herd health through annual veterinary check ups• Expand herd from 800 to 950 animals over next 5 years

Protect water quality and quantity of waterin local streams, groundwater sources, andother water bodies.

• Reduce annual nitrogen load in runoff by 10 percent• Prevent annual soil erosion rates from exceeding tolerable loss on all cropland• Convert all highly erodible lands to perennial crops within 5 years• Improve water infiltration and soil moisture retention by increasing soil organic
matter to 5 percent within 10 years.

Mitigate greenhouse gases• Increase carbon sequestration in plants and soil organic matter by fertilizing
perennial crops annually• Reduce annual nitrogen fertilizer use and associated nitrous oxide emissions by
avoiding applications on wet soils and applying them as close to the period of crop
uptake as possible

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

35

Step 2:ASSESS site-specific climate change
impacts and vulnerabilities.
About This Step
Climate change will have a wide variety of impacts,
both potentially negative and positive, on agricultural
production. For this reason, it is critical to not only think
about the general (e.g., regional or statewide) effects
and potential impacts of a changing climate, but also to
consider how your farm and agricultural production system
may be uniquely affected.

Key Question:• How might the area be uniquely affected byclimate change?

In this step, you will consider broad-scale scientificinformation about the expected effects of climate change
in your region using vulnerability assessments or otherpublished sources. After identifying these relatively generalimpacts, you will use your expertise and experience toevaluate how your farm or project area may be affectedby climate change. Because there is a great deal ofvariation among different locations, your understandingof specific local conditions will help you identify the more
relevant response actions in later steps. Some of thethings you will want to consider include soils, topography,

past management, current infrastructure and equipment,
current access to technology or markets, or other factorsthat increase or reduce the ability of the farm or project
area to cope with change. Importantly, this step focuses on
the effects of climate change on the farm or project area,
while Step 3 considers how management objectives may
be affected.

Description of Workbook Items
Management Unit – Insert the management unit that you
identified in Step 1.
Regional Climate Change Impacts and Vulnerabilities–
Begin by creating a list of relevant climate change impacts
and vulnerabilities for the region or area that you areworking in. You may also want to identify the source of
this information. Some of it may be relevant to the entire
project area, while other information may only apply to
specific locations on the farm as identified in Step 1.
Many resources on climate change impacts andvulnerabilities exist, such as reports and peer-reviewed
papers on climate change. Several regions and States havevulnerability assessments that provide this information for
an entire area, as well as by sector.
Climate Change Impacts and Vulnerabilities for the Farmor Project area– As you consider the regional impacts andvulnerabilities (above), draw upon your experience andknowledge to define the specific ways that your farm or
project area may be affected by a changing climate (Box4.3). For example, a field may have greater vulnerability
to anticipated increases in the frequency and intensity ofstorm events because of steeper slopes or less vegetative
cover.

Box 4.3:
Climate Change and Your Farm or Project Area
Most of the available information on the potential effects
of climate change has likely been developed for spatial
scales that are larger than your farm or project area. It is
important to consider not only this broad-scale infor­
mation, but also how your particular location may beuniquely susceptible to these effects. Factors that may
influence the risk to a specific location include:• Landscape pattern, such as topographic position,slope, or aspect

36

USDA ClimAte HUbS

• Soil characteristics, including texture, nutrient levels,and organic matter content• Management history• Current management, land cover, or land use• Presence of or susceptibility to pests, disease,or nonnative species that may become more
problematic under future climate conditions.

Step 3:
EVALUATE management objectives given
projected impacts and vulnerabilities.
About This Step
In earlier steps, you defined management goals andobjectives for your farm or project area (Step 1) andconsidered climate change impacts and vulnerabilities
for this area (Step 2). In this step, you will identify
management challenges and opportunities associatedwith climate change. You will also evaluate the feasibilityof meeting your management objectives under current
management and consider altering or refining them toaccount better for changes in climate.

Key Questions:• What management challenges or opportunities
does climate change present?
• Can current management goals and objectives be
met? Or do they need to change?
• What other considerations affect your decision?

Note: It is inevitable that discussion will jump ahead attimes to identifying approaches or developing tactics that
can help agriculture cope with the anticipated impacts;
rather than lose these ideas or skip critical steps in theprocess, be sure to record any ideas that will be useful inlater steps.

Description of Workbook Items
Management Unit – Insert the management unit(s) thatyou identified in Step 1.
Management Objectives – Insert the management
objectives that you identified in Step 1.
Challenges To Meeting Management Objective With
Climate Change – List ways in which climate change
impacts and associated site-specific vulnerabilities may
make it more difficult to achieve each management

objective. For example, warmer temperatures and drier
conditions may limit the ability to bring a specific productto market economically. Focus on concerns related to onfarm challenges, since other considerations (e.g., insurance,
government programs) will be included later in this step.
Opportunities for Meeting Management Objective With
Climate Change – List ways in which climate change
impacts and associated vulnerabilities may make it easierto achieve each management objective or create new
management opportunities. For example, longer growing
seasons may increase the opportunity for more production.
Focus on farm challenges, since other considerations (e.g.,
insurance, government programs) will be included later inthis step.
Feasibility of Meeting Management Objective, Under
Current Management – Consider how the challenges andopportunities that you have identified may affect thefeasibility of meeting objectives using actions within thecurrent management trajectory (i.e., without intentional
climate change adaptation). Feasibility can be determined
for individual or multiple timeframes (e.g., short-term
versus long-term).
• High – Existing management options can be used toovercome the challenges for meeting management
objectives under climate change. Opportunities likely
outweigh challenges.
•

Moderate – Some challenges to meeting management
objectives under climate change have been identified,
but these can likely be overcome using existing
management options. Additional resources or enhanced
efforts may be necessary to counteract key challenges
or promote new opportunities.

•

Low – Existing management options may not
be sufficient to overcome challenges to meeting
management objectives under climate change.
Additional resources or enhanced efforts will benecessary to counteract key challenges or promote newopportunities.

Other Considerations – List any other considerations thatyou may have, such as social, financial, administrative, orother factors that are part of your decision to pursue orchange your management objectives but that may not bewithin the purview of farm-level decisionmaking.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe37

Slow Down To Consider…
Climate change may make some management goals andobjectives more difficult to achieve in the future, and there
may be situations in which they need to be altered orrefined to better account for anticipated climate change
impacts. After completing Step 3, you should have a muchbetter idea about whether your management objectives arefeasible, given the current management options that areavailable to you. You have also identified social, economic,
or other considerations that may affect your decision to
pursue certain management objectives.
Are you going to continue with the management
objectives you have identified?
If you have high feasibility of meeting your management
objectives and these objectives are still sound, given
projected climate change impacts, you can proceed to Step
4 to explore adaptation actions.

38

USDA ClimAte HUbS

If some or all of your management objectives havemoderate or low feasibility, or if they no longer seemsensible under climate change (e.g., managing a crop that
may not be viable in the long term), you may reconsider
your management objectives or your broader management
goals. You can record any potential issues or changes inthe “Other Considerations” section of Step 3 or return toStep 1 to alter your management goals and objectives. Use
the information that you have gathered up to this point tocreate goals and objectives that are more likely to succeed,
given projected impacts from climate change.

Step 4:IDENTIFY adaptation approaches andtactics for implementation.

Description of Workbook Items

About This Step

Adaptation Actions• Adaptation Strategies and Approaches – Review the
Adaptation Strategies and Approaches (Chapter 3) andselect any strategies and approaches that you think may
be applicable. Also, include any additional approaches
that you devise.

In order to address the challenges or opportunities brought
about by climate change, it may be necessary to adjust
existing practices, try out completely new ones, or start a
new system. The Adaptation Workbook helps you identify
and evaluate specific actions that can help prepare forchanging conditions given the challenges and opportunities
that were identified in Step 3. In doing this you will
generate a custom set of adaptation tactics—prescriptive
actions specifically designed for your farm or project areaand your unique management objectives.

Key Question:

Management Unit – Insert the management unit(s) thatyou identified in Step 1.

•

Adaptation Tactics – Describe specific actions that you
can take on your farm or project area using your own oryour advisor’s experience and expertise.

Because adaptation strategies and approaches provide
long-range context for specific tactics that will be
implemented, we encourage you to identify both; however,
you may find it easier to list tactics first and then go backto identify the corresponding strategies and approaches.

• What actions can enhance the ability of yourproperty or project area to adapt to anticipatedchanges and meet management goals?

The step also helps you create a clear rationale foryour suggested tactics by connecting them to broader
adaptation ideas. Chapter 3 of this publication contains
a menu of Adaptation Strategies and Approaches (Box3.2) for agriculture. As you brainstorm and evaluate ideas
for adaptation tactics, you will also link these specificideas to the list of more general adaptation strategies andapproaches. These links will provide important context andrationale to justify your adaptation tactics. If you need help
brainstorming specific adaptation tactics, you can use theAdaptation Strategies and Approaches as a springboard
to develop specific tactics that can help achieve yourmanagement objectives.

This sequence is flexible. Start with Approaches or Tactics, but besure to relate them to each other.

Timeframe(s) – List the approximate timeframe(s) in which
the new tactics would be implemented. The nature of theaction can help determine an appropriate timeframe. Someactions may occur in the short term (i.e., next 5 years),
while others may not occur for several decades or will
occur only in certain situations (such as after a large storm
event).
Benefits – For each tactic, list any benefits associated withusing this tactic. For example, note if a tactic addresses
your biggest challenge, addresses multiple challenges, or
has a side benefit, such as improving overall ecosystem
health.
Drawbacks and Barriers – For each tactic, list any
drawbacks that may arise, such as negative ecosystem
impacts, or any barriers to implementing the tactic,
including legal, financial, infrastructural, social, or physicalbarriers.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

39

Effectiveness and Feasibility of Tactic – An adaptation
tactic is practicable if it is both effective (it will meetthe desired intent) and feasible (it is capable of being
implemented). Both of these characteristics increase thelikelihood of success. Consider the benefits, drawbacks, andbarriers associated with each tactic in order to determine
the practicability of meeting your management goals andobjectives using that tactic.
• High – The tactic is expected to be both effective
and feasible. Benefits of the tactic clearly outweighdrawbacks and barriers.
•

•

40

Moderate – There are drawbacks or barriers that
could reduce the effectiveness or feasibility of thetactic. Some drawbacks or barriers may be able to be
overcome through the use of other adaptation tactics or
management actions.
Low – The tactic does not appear to be effective or
feasible. The drawbacks and barriers are insurmountableor the benefits are too small relative to the required
effort. The tactic may need adjustment to be mademore effective or feasible.

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Recommend Tactic? – For service providers and educators,
consider the timeframe, benefits, drawbacks, barriers, andpracticability for each tactic and select the tactics thatyou recommend for consideration in future management
decisions. Identify tactics that overcome or avoid
challenges, have high practicability, or have major benefits.
For each tactic, determine whether you would recommend
it for consideration in future management decisions:• Yes – This tactic will likely be helpful in overcoming
management challenges from climate change andmeeting management objectives, and it should beconsidered in future management decisions. If needed,
note any barriers that need to be overcome to use thistactic.
•No – This tactic is not helpful, and it is notrecommended for current consideration in future
management activities.

As you identify recommended tactics, consider how theywork together as a set of actions. The goal is to identify
a set of actions that are complementary and help toovercome the barriers identified in the previous step inorder to achieve your management goals and objectives.

Step 5:
MONITOR and evaluate effectiveness of
implemented actions.
About This Step
Monitoring is critical for understanding what changes are
occurring as a result of climate change as well as whether
selected actions were effective in meeting management
goals and adapting your farm to future conditions.
This step helps to identify metrics that will be used tomonitor whether management goals are achieved in
the future and to determine whether the recommended
management tactics were effective. The outcome of thisstep is a realistic and feasible monitoring scheme that canbe used to help determine whether management shouldbe altered in the future to account for new information andobservations.

Key Questions:• How will you know if the selected actions wereeffective?
• What can we learn from these actions to informfuture management?

Consider what existing monitoring information is available(such as farm records) and if it needs to be modified tobetter monitor the results of your adaptation actions. Also,
consider what new monitoring items may be needed toevaluate whether you have met your management goals.

Description of Workbook Items
Management Unit– Insert the management unit(s) that you
identified in Step 1.

Next Steps
By using this Adaptation Workbook, you have considered
the effects of climate change on your farm or project
area. You have also identified management tactics andmonitoring efforts to help you meet your management
objectives under a changing climate. Now that you havecompleted this step toward improving the ability of yourfarm or project area to adapt to the anticipated effects ofclimate change, you can work to integrate the informationfrom the workbook, especially Step 4 and Step 5, into
existing management plans and decisionmaking processes.
As you work toward this integration, it is important to keep
in mind that the tactics you developed by completing
the Adaptation Workbook have been recommended
for further consideration (Step 4). Taking this step does
not necessarily mean, however, that the tactics must be
implemented or that the recommendations must supersede
other considerations. The workbook is designed to lead you
through a process for considering climate change, and it
is up to you and your organization to determine the ways
in which you will use the information and ideas you havedeveloped.
Finally, the workbook is designed as part of an adaptive
management process, which, by definition, needs tobe able to incorporate new information as it becomes
available. When developing a plan to implement youradaptation tactics and then monitor the results, also
make plans to revisit this workbook as often as necessary
to evaluate whether any changes are needed to yourmanagement strategy. Consult with experts wheneverpossible to gather new information and further refine yourmanagement decisions. As new information becomes
available through scientific research, monitoring activities,
or other avenues, use that information to consider how it
may change your expectations regarding future conditions
and whether it is appropriate to adjust your management
or monitoring to help the systems adapt to a changing
climate.

Adaptation Monitoring Variable – Identify monitoring
items that will be used to evaluate whether you haveachieved your management objectives and goals, orwhether you have achieved a milestone that indicates thatyou are working toward your goal. When possible, selectmonitoring items that will also help you to understandwhether the adaptation tactics recommended in theprevious step were effective in working toward yourmanagement goals under climate change.
Criteria for Evaluation – Identify a value or threshold that ismeaningful for this monitoring item.
Monitoring Implementation – Describe how and when thisinformation will be gathered.
ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

41

CHAPteR 5:
Adaptation Workbook examplesT

he purpose of this publication is to assist agricultural
producers with integrating climate change
considerations into their plans and activities rather
than providing specific recommendations. This chapter
illustrates how the Adaptation Strategies and Approaches(Chapter 3) and the Adaptation Workbook (Chapter 4)
can be used together to translate broad-scale climatechange information into specific actions to adapt tochanging conditions while meeting goals for productivity,
profitability, and stewardship. Examples of real-world farms
in the Midwest and Northeast regions of the United States.
describe some of the diverse ways in which producers
adapt to climate change.

Dryland Farming in Nebraska
Step 1:
Define management goals and objectives.
The five-step adaptation workbook process (Chapter 4)
was tested for an agricultural setting using a portion of
a 160-acre farm outside the town of Lawrence, in southcentral Nebraska. The farm is owned by Mike Kucera,agronomist with the USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. Kucera and representatives from USDA’s Northeast,
Midwest, and Northern Forest Climate Hubs worked
together to evaluate the process and consider how climatechange might affect the activities occurring on the farmover the next several decades and beyond.

Figure 5.1. Left: Location of the Kucera farm in Nuckolls County, Nebraska. Right: Aerial photo of the Kucera farm with outlined soil types.
Images courtesy of Mike Kucera.

42

USDA ClimAte HUbSMike Kucera has owned the farm for 25 years,
implementing a wide variety of conservation activities.
The overall goals for the Kucera Farm are to (1) maintainagricultural productivity, and (2) protect wildlife habitat(Table 5.1). The adaptation analysis focused on the 61 acresof cropland on the farm, which has been in continuous
no-till (no cultivation) for the past 25 years. The farm uses
dryland management techniques because the geologyof the aquifer under the farm is unsuitable to irrigation

development, a common practice across other parts of
Nebraska. The cropland is currently in continuous no-tillwith a crop rotation of corn, soybean, and wheat (1 yeareach). Some of the cropland is enrolled in the Conservation
Reserve Program, which includes small areas of grassed
waterways, quail buffers, and about 13 acres of restored
prairie. Additionally, another family member utilizes 90
acres of pasture for grazing 18 beef cow-calf pairs in a fourpasture rotational grazing system, for which the Adaptation
Workbook was not used.

Table 5.1. Farm management goals and objectives for the Kucera Farm.

Farm or Project Area:

Kucera Farm

Location:~2.5 miles northeast of Lawrence, Nebraska

Management UnitManagement Goals

Management Objectives

EntireProperty

Maintain productivity of agricultural Maintain diverse land use including
pasture, cropland, and Conservation
systems (yields)
Reserve Program
Wildlife habitat (hunting,recreation)

Cropland(61 ac)Continuous
no-till corn-soybean­
wheat (1/1/1)

Conserve soil moisture by reducing
evaporation and increasing
infiltration, especially from highintensity rainfall events
Improve soil health

Maintain or even increase crop yields
Utilize a residue and cropping
management system that maximizes
ground cover to reduce soil temperatureduring droughts
Maintain high organic matter levels
and soil life to protect and enhance soil
structure for optimum water infiltration

Includes CRP lands:
grassed waterways, quailbuffers, prairie restoration

Timeframes

Transition to a wellfunctioning management
system took 7 years(improved soil structure,
aggregate stability, andinfiltration);
Future soil improvements
will be gradual and may take10 years or more.

Maintain lands in CRP programs forconservation (if possible to reenroll)
Pasture(90 ac)Four-pasture rotation –beef cow/calf herd

Maintain productivity of cows andcalves

Maintain productive cow herd while
maintaining good vegetation

Annually

Maintain and increase plant vigor of Reduce negative impacts to vegetationfrom hot/dry periods during the grazing
pasture grasses
seasonAdjust the size of foraging herd to match
vegetation conditions based on moistureavailability

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

43

Step 2:
Assess site-specific climate change impacts andvulnerabilities.
Vulnerability assessments provide useful information
about the anticipated effects of climate change for aregion. A vulnerability assessment for Nebraska (Bathke
et al. 2014) was used to identify potential climate change
effects across the region (Table 5.2). This information was
combined with knowledge of the local landscape, including
actual impacts from extreme heat and precipitation inrecent years, to identify attributes of the property thatwould make it more or less vulnerable to climate change
than the region as a whole.
Across the Northern Plains, climate change is expected
to have substantial effects on agricultural production
as a result of longer, hotter growing seasons, increased
drought, and extreme weather events (Derner et al. 2015).
Evidence of enhanced climate variability is already visible
in increased extreme weather events that have been seen
across the region, such as the extreme drought of 2012
(Derner et al. 2015).

The projected impacts across Nebraska and the Northern
Plains were largely applicable to the Kucera Farm (Table
5.2). At the same time, several factors associated with thelocal site conditions and past management history wereidentified that may reduce the vulnerability of the farm to
climate change. Most notably, the practice of no-till farming
and other conservation-oriented techniques to increasesoil organic matter have greatly improved soil quality andmade the site more resilient to hydrological extremes—
both drought and extreme precipitation. Maintaining crop
residues on the surface conserved moisture and reduced
soil temperature during the severe drought of 2012 andduring a dry spring and early summer in 2013. This system
also paid dividends by reducing runoff, especially during
an extreme 5-inch rain event in September 2012 and 4.5­
inch rainfall event in June 2015 (Figure 5.2). Maximizing theamount of infiltration from these extreme events is crucial
to capture rainfall in order to maintain yields when soil
moisture is lacking later in the growing season. While theserainfall events had extensive runoff losses in the area, theadverse impacts were less on the Kucera farm because ofincreased infiltration due to the use of a continuous no-till
management system.

Figure 5.2. Left: Corn planted into wheat stubble during the severe drought of 2012. Right: Evidence of an extreme precipitation event in
September 2012. Photos courtesy of Mike Kucera.

44

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Table 5.2. Site-specific climate change impacts and vulnerabilities for cropland on the Kucera Farm. Regional climate change impacts andvulnerabilities were derived from a statewide assessment of climate change impacts in Nebraska (Bathke et al. 2014).

Regional Climate Change
Impacts and Vulnerabilities

Climate Change Impacts and Vulnerabilities
for the Farm or Project Area

Warmer temperatures: Big impact in 2012. Warmer temperatures
Warmer temperatures: Nebraska temperatures have warmed about
1°F since 1895 and are projected to increase another 4–5°F to 8–9°F by and reduced soil moisture killed cover crop; reduced yields.
2071–99. More extreme heat days & waves are also expected.
Cropland is most affected by changes in precipitation:• drought
Longer/warmer growing seasons: two more weeks by mid-century• extreme precipitation events
Increased potential for drought: due to higher temperature and
The Kucera property is less vulnerable to both drought andincreased temp variability
runoff than the local average because of the no-till system andAltered precipitation: Little change in winter/spring; Potential forwork done to date to improve soil quality and infiltration anddrier summer
reduce evaporation
Increased extreme precipitation events resulting in increased runoff
Crops are each affected differently based on their biology—
influenced by annual rainfall patterns
Reduced soil moisture: Across NE projected to decrease from 1-5
percent to 5-15 percent by end of century due to warmer temperatures
and altered precipitation
Increased soil erosion potential: from extreme rainfall events

Site is relatively flat, but erosion can still occur on slightly sloping
areas or on field borders where soil is compacted from traffic
particularly during severe rain
Field borders prone to erosion and runoff were placed in CRP CP33
quail buffer program

Altered streamflow: reduction in snowpack or altered precipitation
may greatly reduce flows on Platte and Missouri rivers

Not applicable here

Flood magnitude: Expected to increase with extreme rain events
Severe storms and tornadoes: high uncertainty about future changeWind, heavy rains, and hail have the potential to impact crops.
Hail damage severe enough to collect on crop insurance has only
occurred once in the last 25 years.

Corn loss due to drought.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

45

Step 3:
Evaluate management objectives given projected
impacts and vulnerabilities.
Climate change is expected to create numerous challenges
to maintaining productivity of cropland on the Kucera
Farm (Figure 5.3). These challenges generally reflected
the greatest anticipated changes in climate, and thegreatest challenges were associated with increasing
variability in rainfall patterns (Table 5.3). Drier conditions
due to warmer temperatures and/or reduced precipitation
have direct negative effects on crop productivity andyields by reducing soil moisture. Additionally, lower plant

productivity or enhanced decomposition can reduce theamount of residue cover increasing soil moisture loss andsoil temperature while reducing long-term accumulationof soil organic matter. Conversely, extreme precipitation,wind, and hail events could cause increased crop damage.
Moreover, the specific effects from either drought or
extreme precipitation are impossible to predict in advancebecause the outcome will vary greatly depending upon
the severity of the event, when during the year the event
occurs, and the timing of the event relative to the 3-year
crop rotation of corn-soybean-winter wheat.

Cropland at the Kucera Farm planted to switchgrass forage. Photo courtesy of Mike Kucera.

46

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Table 5.3. Challenges, opportunities and feasibility of meeting current management objectives given projected impacts and risks forcropland on the Kucera Farm.

Management
Objective(from Step #1)

Challenges To
Meeting Objective With
Climate Change

Opportunities For Meeting Objective
With Climate Change

Maintain or increase
crop yields

Increasing variability ofrainfall: probably too little orat the wrong timeMore rainfall infiltration could increase
groundwater recharge (as long as not too
great)

Very extreme rainfall could
cause crop damage

Utilize high carbon-nitrogen ratio covercrops following wheat harvest to increase
the amount of residue cover during hot dry
summer months

Increases in pests anddiseases
Increase residue
cover and soilorganic matter inorder to maximize
soil moisture inorder to maintainreasonable levels of
productivity during
drought periods

Warmer temps result ingreater respiration, which
could impair yields reducing
the ability to increase OM
Multi-year impacts: low
productivity one year could
impact next year (residue on
surface affects yield)

Utilize a stripper header machine for small
grain harvest that maximizes standing coverand residue retention, or utilize high-carbon
cover crops following wheat harvest to capturesnowfall, increase infiltration, and reduce soil
moisture loss.

Feasibility
Under
Current
Other
Management Considerations
High

Maintain: highIncrease: moredifficult

Possibly utilize cool season cover crops due towarmer winters
Utilize a controlled traffic system to reduce soil
compaction by confining wheel traffic to thesame rows.

Maintain andimprove soil
structure, aggregatestability andporosity in order tocontinue improving
water infiltration

Increased number ofearthworms can increase thedecomposition of residue,
leading to less ground cover,which exposes soils to hot
weather, degradation, andreduced yields

Maintain lands in
CRP programs forconservation andwildlife benefits (ifpossible to reenroll)

Eligibility for program fundingor re-enrollment in CRP

Plant high-carbon cover crops following
wheat harvest such as sorghum Sudangrass or
millet, or use high-carbon crops such as corn,sorghum, or wheat in rotation to maximize
residue cover and retention

Maintain: highIncrease: a bit
harder…

Plan to re-enroll
quail buffers infiscal year 2016

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

47

Step 4:
Identify adaptation approaches and tactics for
implementation.
Within the challenges and opportunities identified in Step3, a number of potential adaptation actions were identified
with the overarching intent to maintain crop productivity
and soil organic matter over the long term, while also
addressing the potential impacts from climate change(Table 5.4). Given the limited nature of this exercise, only
a few potential adaptation tactics were evaluated fully;
several other adaptation responses were identified but
not evaluated. These tactics are associated with the list of
Adaptation Strategies and Approaches (Chapter 3).
It is important to note that many of the practices currently
being implemented on the farm increase resilience toclimate change, even though climate change was not a
factor in the decision to implement these actions. For
example, long-term efforts to increase soil organic matter
through crop rotation, no-till farming, residue retention,and other practices have increased the farm’s resilience
to both drought and extreme precipitation. This illustrates
how existing soil and water conservation efforts can haveimportant climate adaptation benefits. Another example
is the use of varieties of flex-ear corn, which produce asecond ear of corn and increase production in favorable
conditions.
While many current practices increase the farm’s resilience
to climate change, particularly in the near term, several
additional actions were developed to enhance the ability of
the farm to cope with changing conditions. These ranged
from “small tweaks” of current practices to major changes
in crops and systems. One example of a small adjustment
is to utilize varieties to better match the current year’s
rainfall and temperature or anticipated longer term climatechanges. This is a relatively easy action to implement,

48

USDA ClimAte HUbS

although it can be hard to get seed later in the year.
Additional adaptation actions were considered, some ofwhich would be a more substantial departure, including:• Change plant population – Adjust the density of plants
to match water availability•

Utilize controlled traffic patterns – reduce soil
compaction by confining it to the same row•

Utilize a stripper header to leave taller wheat stubble– maintain residue longer to reduce moisture losses andcapture more infiltration and snow•

Utilize high-carbon cover crops following wheat
harvest – to increase soil organic matter and residue
retention•

Diversify crops – A bigger farm could reduce the riskof production losses by planting multiple crops withvarying seasons of growth; it is not as practical on
smaller farms in many cases.

•

Substitute crops – As the climate changes, other crops
or rotations might be suitable. For example, sorghum
could replace corn in the rotation under warmer anddrier conditions.

•

Irrigation – Developing irrigation could provide more
options than dryland farming, but it is not a viableoption for the Kucera Farm given the local aquifer
geology and landforms.

•

Utilize grain sorghum in rotation – Sorghum is moredrought tolerant and adapted to higher temperatures.

•

Utilize low-water-use crops – Crops such as field peasor canola (not currently economically viable) could be
used if precipitation is consistently lower. Examples ofother crop rotations that could be adopted to replace
the wheat-fallow system include: winter canola/wheatwith continuous no-till (used in Oklahoma) and wheat/
spring canola or wheat/field peas/millet (used inwestern Nebraska, the Dakotas, and eastern Montana).

Table 5.4. Adaptation approaches and tactics for implementation on cropland of Kucera Farm.

Adaptation Actions
Approach

Tactic1.1: Maintain andimprove soil health.

Use legume
cover crops
after wheat
in years
that areprojected tohave wetter
conditions
to retain soil
moisture

3.1: Adjust the timing
or location of onfarm activities
6.2: Diversify existing
systems with new
combinations ofvarieties or breeds.
6.3: Switch tocommodities
expected to be better
suited to future
conditions.

Benefits

Drawbacks &Barriers

Effectivenessand Feasibilityof Tactic

Recommend
Tactic?

• Provides groundcover and forage
for grazing animals• Improves soil foodweb
• Can provide
nitrogen• Increase soilorganic matter• Improves soil
properties• Getting sufficientsoil water for
germination• Can draw water from
subsequent crops• More cost—does it
maintain/ improve
productivity• Curl mites andgreen bridge forwheat-streak mosaic
disease might get
worse

Moderate-High

Yes

Plant
sorghum
instead ofcorn during
the springwhen soil
moisture islow• Better adaptedUnder
to higher
warmertemperaturesand drierconditions • Responds well tolate Aug. rainfall (ifthey come)• Sorghum will use
soil moisture during
the late fall and will
not die until the first
frost, leaving lessmoisture for next
year; might needto terminate with aburn-down herbicide

High

Yes

Alternativerotations,such aswinter canola
and wheat(used in
Oklahoma)• Works in very dry
Underlocations
warmerand drierconditions• Not currently
economically viable• Not viable given thesmall size of this
farm

Low

No

• Not viable given
aquifer geology

Low

No

Diversify
6.1: Diversify crop
crops
or livestock species,
varieties or breeds, or
products.
3.2: Manage crops tocope with hotter anddrier conditions.

Timeframes

Switch toirrigatedsystems

Any

Any

Under
warmerand drierconditions• Would spread risk
across multiple
crops

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

49

Step 5:
Monitor and evaluate effectiveness of implemented
actions.
As adaptation tactics are implemented, it will be criticalto evaluate whether they had their intended effect and do
in fact help meet farm objectives in a changing climate(Table 5.5). In many situations, the current system ofrecording farm activities and production can be used
to provide information about the effectiveness of theadaptation actions. For example, as management changes,
crop yields can be compared to past yields (10-year or
longer timeframe) to see if they stay the same or increase.
Likewise, compare on-farm crop yields to county or local
averages to evaluate the performance of the farm relative
to neighboring farms, particularly those with similar soils
and management history. Also record and informallymonitor management adjustments such as the severity
or extent of soil erosion or runoff occurring after a highintensity rainfall event (e.g., 2-inch) rain event.

Evaluate soil health to determine the effectiveness ofadaptive management.

Table 5.5. Potential monitoring items to evaluate the effectiveness of implemented actions for cropland on the Kucera Farm.

Monitoring Item

Criteria for Evaluation

Monitoring Implementation

Crop productivity(bushels per acre per year)• Similar or better yields over a 10-year period

Continue current recordkeeping

Runoff after heavy storms, such as thedegree of erosion or runoff after a 2-inchor higher precipitation event• Times erosion or runoff is observed per season• Severity or extent of erosion and runoff insusceptible locations• Gullies or ephemeral gully erosion

Need to record

50

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Beef Grazing in Missouri
Step 1:
Define management goals and objectives.
Missouri has the second highest beef cattle population in
the Nation, with 1.8 million head of cattle (USDA, National
Agricultural Statistics Service 2016). This example describes
a small, 100-acre beef farm operation located in the
Ozarks region of Missouri. The operation includes a mix
of grassland in hay and pasture used for beef production,
cropland, and forest used for timber management, toprovide supplemental income to a family with off-farmwork (Table 5.6).

Altered precipitation patterns will increase the potential forboth extreme precipitation events and drought. There arefew site-specific variables that make this farm more or lessvulnerable to climate change relative to other farms in thesame part of Missouri, except that bottomland areas may
be susceptible to streambank erosion from extreme rain
events.

Step 2:
Assess site-specific climate change impacts andvulnerabilities.
Climate change and variability is expected to adversely
affect beef production in Missouri and across the Ozarks
although some positive effects are possible (Hatfield et al.
2015). Annual temperatures are projected to increase anadditional 2 °F to 7 °F through the end of the century in
the Missouri Ozarks region (Brandt et al. 2014). Increased
temperatures will result in longer growing seasons but
also a greater number of hot days and warm nights during
summer. Precipitation patterns are also expected tochange, with increased precipitation in winter and springand potential declines in summer (Brandt et al. 2014).
Adaptive grazing reduces risks from warmer and drier conditions.

Table 5.6. Existing management goals and objectives for a small farm in the Ozarks region of Missouri.

Management Unit
Beef production:
pasture and livestock(35 acres)Management Goals
Supplement family income
Maintain land and bequeath to family
Minimize labor requirements

Cropland: alfalfa or annual
forage(10 acres)
Forest: timber and wildlife
management(55 acres)

Maintain forest productivity
Improve recreational opportunities inforest land
Increase net revenue

Management Objectives

Timeframes

Increase livestock weight gain through dietary
improvement

Short

Maintain reliability of forage supply

Short

Increase efficiency of feeding

Short

Enhance soil resource on bottomland

Short to Long

Enhance riparian management

Short to Long

Harvest hardwoods for sustained income

Short

Manage riparian areas in bottomlands

LongManage forest for wildlifeLong

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

51

Step 3:
Evaluate management objectives given projected
impacts and vulnerabilities.
Several management challenges and opportunities wereidentified as a result of anticipated changes in climate(Table 5.7). For example, more days with extreme heat
and warmer nighttime temperatures could increase
the heat stress on animals or on forage, or even create
challenges with pollination of important forage plants.
Warmer temperatures and changes in annual precipitation,
especially potential decreases in available moisture during
the growing season, have the potential to decrease forage
quality and quantity. Some potential changes in climate,
however, such as longer growing seasons and fewer cold
days and nights, were identified as potentially beneficial
for plant growth, calving, and winter feed efficiency.
Management objectives related to the beef pasture,
livestock, and cropland are rated as having low feasibility
under current management because the potential positive
impacts of climate change (e.g., longer growing seasons,ability to plant cover crops in cropland) are not likely tooffset the negative impacts. The feasibility of managing
forest health and productivity is rated as moderate because
the impacts from reduced precipitation, drought, and pests
are expected to be less than on annual crops. An additional
consideration is limited time available for farming due tothe family having full-time jobs away from the farm.

Step 4:
Identify adaptation approaches and develop tactics
for implementation.
Several adaptation strategies, approaches, and tactics
can help this farm respond to identified adverse climatechange impacts and achieve its current goals as well as
take advantage of potential opportunities (Table 5.8).
Climate change considerations became another driver
to better manage natural resources and improve theoverall functioning of the agroecosystem. Adaptation
tactics for forest management were identified using alist of adaptation strategies and approaches for forest
ecosystems (Swanston and Janowiak 2012).

Table 5.7. Selected climate change-related management challenges and opportunities for a beef grazing operation in Missouri.

Management
Unit
Beef production:
pasture andlivestock(35 acres)

Cropland: alfalfa
or annual forage(10 acres)

Opportunities For
Meeting Management
Objective With Climate
ChangeFeasibility of
Objectives
Under Current
Management

Increase livestock weight Heat stress and lack of moisture will
reduce summer forage quality and yieldgain through dietary
improvement
Day and nighttime heat stress will
Maintain reliability ofdecrease feed intake
forage supply
More pests may slow weight gain
Increase efficiency of
feeding

Warmer winters could
increase winter forage
supply and feed efficiency

Low

Enhance soil resource onbottomland

Opportunities to plant covercrops may increase

Management
Objectives

Challenges To Meeting
Management Objective With
Climate Change

Streambank erosion and flooding may
damage crops and decrease croplandextentLow
Low

Enhance riparian
management
Forest: timber
and wildlife
management(55 acres)

Harvest hardwoods forsustained income
Manage riparian areas inbottomlands
Manage forest for
wildlife and hunting

Low
Drought could decrease growth rate,stress trees, and increase susceptibility
to pests or fire. Intense storms could
reduce quality
Extreme precipitation and stream flow
will increase risk of streambank erosion
Drought could decrease mast
production
Pests may increase

52

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Low

Drier weather could
increase timber harvest
windows

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Table 5.8. Selected adaptation tactics identified for a beef grazing operation in Missouri.

Adaptation
Approach

TacticTimeframes

Benefits

Drawbacks &Barriers

Effectivenessand Feasibility of
TacticManagement Unit: Pasture
1.1: Maintain and improve soil health.
6.1: Diversify crop or livestock
species, varieties or breeds, or
products.

Interseed legumes inpasture. Use limestone toneutralize soils, optimize
phosphorus and potassium
applications

1-2 yrs.

Higher forage
quantity andquality

Risk of seeding
failureCost of soil
analysis andamendments

High

3.1: Adjust the timing or location of
on-farm activities.
3.2: Manage crops to cope withwarmer and drier conditions.
8.1: Expand or improve water
systems to match water demandand supply.

Improve grazing system
by increasing from 4 to 8
paddocks

1-2 yrs.

Increased forage
availability,
utilization, andquality

Expense ofadditional fence
and water
distributionHigh

3.3: Manage livestock to cope withwarmer and drier conditions.
8.1: Expand or improve water
systems to match water demandand supply.

Water distribution to all
paddocks

5-10 yrs.

Reduce winterhay needs
and labor byextendinggrazing season(stockpiling)

6.1: Diversify crop or livestock
species, varieties or breeds, or
products.
6.2: Diversify existing systems withnew combinations of varieties or
breeds.

Establish warm season
grass paddock

1-2 yrs.

Increased forage
available underwarm and dry
conditions

1.2: Protect water quality.
5.1: Maintain or restore natural
ecosystems.
5.2: Promote biological diversity
across the landscape.

Convert cropland to
riparian buffer

3-5 yrs.

Takes some
Improve stream
land out ofquality; reduce
production
streambank
erosion; provide
emergency forage
source; reduce
labor

High

6.3: Switch to commodities
expected to be better suited tofuture conditions.
7.3: Alter lands in agricultural
production.

Convert cropland to
perennial pasture

1-2 yrs.

Time to establish
Improve stream
vegetation; costquality; reducefor fencestreambank
erosion; provide
emergency forage
source reduce
labor

High

Get a forest management
plan, follow therecommendations of aprofessional forester

5-10 yrs.

Increase income
opportunity

Delayed income,labor required tothin timber

Medium

Improve upland wildlife
habitat through thinning or
timber stand improvement

5-10 yrs.

Enhancedrecreation
opportunityfrom viewing or
hunting wildlife

Time andexpenseassociated withactions

MediumHigh

Expense of
establishment;
initial yielddrag during
establishment

MediumManagement Unit: CroplandManagement Unit : Forestland
Maintain or improve the abilityof forests to resist pests andpathogens.
Promote diverse age classes.
Maintain and restore diversity ofnative tree species.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

53

Step 5:
Monitor and evaluate effectiveness of implemented
actions.
Several monitoring items can help to determine if theadaptation actions actually implemented are effective atovercoming management challenges or taking advantage
of opportunities. In the beef pasture, adaptation monitoring
focuses on forage quality and production by recording thenumber of days of feeding livestock hay in the winter andthe weight gain of calves. Better forage production andutilization should reduce the number of days of feeding hayin the winter, while better forage quality should increase therate of weight gain. In areas designated as riparian buffers,
monitoring of streambank erosion consists of comparing
future locations of vegetation and soil loss or deposition
with pins inserted in the streambank and marked on aerial
photographs indicating the baseline location.

Corn and Soybean Production in Iowa
Step 1:
Define management goals and objectives.
More than 26 million acres of farmland were in corn andsoybean production in Iowa in 2009, serving as a mainstayof the State’s economy (USDA, National Agricultural
Statistics Service 2016). This example broadly illustrates
how to integrate climate variability and change into theplanning and activities of corn-soybean operations typicalacross Iowa and other Midwestern States (Table 5.9).

Step 2:
Assess site-specific climate change impacts andvulnerabilities.
Climate change and variability is likely to adversely affectcrop operations in Iowa and across the Midwest, althoughsome positive effects are possible (Hatfield et al. 2015).
Increased temperatures will result in longer growing
seasons but also a greater number of hot days andwarm nights. Altered precipitation patterns will increase
the potential for both extreme precipitation events anddrought. This particular farm is likely to experience impacts
similar to those projected to occur across the region, as
no site-specific factors increase or reduce its vulnerability
relative to other farms in the same part of Iowa.

Step 3:
Evaluate management objectives given projected
impacts and vulnerabilities.
Identified challenges and opportunities reflect projectedclimate change impacts and vulnerabilities for this cornand soybean crop operation (Table 5.10). Several key
management objectives have a low feasibility because
substantial challenges expected from adverse climatechange impacts are not likely to be offset by positive
impacts (e.g., longer growing seasons, ability to plant covercrops in cropland).

The risk of more erosion rises with an expected increase of extreme
precipitation events.

54

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Table 5.9. Management goals and objectives for a 320-acre farm near Ames, Iowa, focused on corn and soybean production.

Management
Unit
Cropland(320-acre farm)Management Goals

Management Objectives

Timeframes

Increase productivity

Increase corn and soybean yields

Short

Increase profitability

Decrease nitrogen use
Improve water use efficiency

Short

Improve soil health

Use cover crops
Increase soil organic matter from current levels (1-2%) to 4%

Short

Decrease profit volatility

Reduce soil erosion
Improve nitrogen use efficiency
Improve water use efficiency

Short

Decrease environmental footprint

Become carbon neutral
Minimize nitrogen loss

Long

Table 5.10. Selected climate change-related management challenges and opportunities for a farm producing corn and soybeans in Iowa.

Management Objectives

Challenges To Meeting Management
Objective With Climate Change

Opportunities For
Meeting Management
Objective With Climate
ChangeFeasibility of
Objectives
Under Current
Management

Beneficial effect fromcarbon dioxide fertilization

Moderate

Increase corn and soybean yields

Variable summer precipitation, excessive summer
precipitation, extreme heat, and warm summernights likely to reduce yields

Decrease nitrogen use
Improve water use efficiency

Variable spring and summer precipitation likely toleach nitrogen and slow crop growth.

Use cover crops
Increase soil organic matter

Extreme precipitation increasing risk of erosion andcrop damage

Longer growing season forcover crops

High

Reduce soil erosion
Improve nitrogen use efficiency
Improve water use efficiency

Variability in summer precipitation will enhancenitrogen volatility

Excess rain could be
captured in soil or reservoirs

Low

Become carbon neutral
Minimize nitrogen loss

Increased pests will require more chemicals.
Carbon dioxide fertilization
Extreme precipitation increases risk of nitrogen loss will increase carbon
sequestration

Low

Low

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

55

Step 4:
Identify adaptation approaches and develop tactics
for implementation.

Step 5:
Monitor and evaluate effectiveness of implemented
actions.

Several adaptation strategies, approaches, and tactics
identified in the table below enable this corn and soybeancropping system to respond to potential adverse climatechange impacts and persist in achieving its current goals
as well as take advantage of opportunities (Table 5.11).
Climate change considerations became another driver tobetter manage natural resources and improve the overall
functioning of the agroecosystem.

Several monitoring items were identified that could informthe producer about whether the implemented adaptation
actions were effective in helping to overcome management
challenges or take advantage of opportunities (Table 5.12).

Table 5.11. Selected adaptation tactics for a farm producing corn and soybeans in Iowa.

Adaptation
Approach

Tactic1.1: Maintain and improve soil health.

Mixed cover crop

1 yr.

Increases soil health Water avail­abilityHigh

1.3: Match practices to water supply anddemand.
4.1: Reduce peak flow, runoff velocity,and soil erosion.

Improve water use
via cover crop andstrip till

1 yr.

Reduce production
volatility

Variable wa­
ter supplyHigh

3.2: Manage crops to cope with warmer
and drier conditions.
8.1: Expand or improve water systems tomatch water demand and supply.

Increase water
storage with either
increased soil waterholding capacity or
farm reservoir

5 – 10 yr.

Reduce production
volatility

ExpensiveLow

6.3: Switch to commodities expected tobe better suited to future conditions.
8.4: Match infrastructure and equipment
to new and expected conditions.

Switch commodity,
potentially to nichecrop

As market
oppor­
tunities
emergeIncrease diversity;
mitigate volatility

Marketuncertainty,
cost, newequipmentLow

1.1: Maintain and improve soil health.

Add manure

1-3 yr.

Affects 1.2
Improve soil; add
nitrogen andphosphorus in short
term; increase car­bon in long term.

1.1: Maintain and improve soil health.

Split application of
nitrogen

1 yearEnhanced nutrient
utilization

1.1: Maintain and improve soil health.

Incorporate biochar

1-5 yr.

Improve soil

Benefits

Table 5.12. Selected adaptation actions for a farm producing corn and soybeans in Iowa.

Adaptation Monitoring Variable

Criteria for Evaluation

Crop yields

Increase above statewide average

Protein content

Increase above current levels

Soil organic matter

Increase above current levels

Water runoff

Examine after heavy rain (Is erosion present?)

Nitrogen runoff

Reduce from current levels

Environmental footprint

Reach negative carbon balance

56

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Drawbacks& Barriers

Effectivenessand Feasibility of
TacticTimeframes

Moderate

High
ModerateConfined Dairy in Pennsylvania
Step 1:
Define management goals and objectives.
In 2012, sales of milk from cows in the United States totaled$35.5 billion, over one-third of which was from five States in
the region: Wisconsin, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota
and Michigan (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics
Service 2016). This example shows how a confined dairy
animal feeding operation in the Ridge and Valley provinceof Pennsylvania could respond to the effects of actualor expected changes in climate (Table 5.13). The overall
strategic objectives of the enterprise are to maintainprofitability and the family farm legacy. In order to produce
a steady supply of high-quality whole milk, farmstead
facilities house a herd of 800 dairy cows, store feed, andhandle wastes. Approximately 2,000 acres of crop fields
produce corn for grain and silage as well as alfalfa grass forhaylage and dry hay.

Step 2:
Assess site-specific climate change impacts andvulnerabilities.
Climate change and variability are likely to adversely affectdairy production in Pennsylvania and across the Northeast,
although some positive impacts are also possible (Tobin etal. 2015). Most dairies in the region manage both livestockand crop production. Increased summer temperatures
may cause more heat stress on dairy cattle. Earlier
springs and warmer winters allow for greater proliferationand survivability of pathogens and parasites. Extreme
precipitation increases the risk of gully erosion and waste
runoff from overtopping storage facilities. More severe
winter storms may impede feeding and waste removal
activities, while more severe summer storms increase therisk of damage to structures and injured livestock. Thisparticular dairy is typical of confinement operations, andimpacts are not likely to be greater than at others in theregion.
Dairy crop production in the region typically includes
corn silage and alfalfa grass, both likely to experience
adverse impacts as well as opportunities from climatechange and variability. More hot summer days andwarmer nights, declining soil moisture, and drought arelikely. Winter and spring precipitation patterns may limit
the number of days with suitable field conditions, while
severe storms in late summer and fall may limit harvest
conditions (Tobin et al. 2015). Wetter soils for longer
periods are also more susceptible to compaction. Bare or
poorly covered soil, fields with recent nutrient application,
and water conveyance structures are sensitive to intensestorms and excessive rain. Increasing risk from increased
weed pressure, higher levels of insect pest populations
overwintering or arriving earlier in the spring, and increased
winter survival rates of diseases are also concerns in theregion. A potential opportunity to grow more forage may
exist due to expected higher annual average rainfall, milder
winters, and longer growing seasons.
This particular dairy operates lands with site-specificconditions that may make it more vulnerable than otherdairies operating in the region. Over half of the fields havea south facing exposure, making corn and alfalfa more
vulnerable to extreme heat stress. Many fields in valley
areas have poor soil structure while fields on the ridges
have well-drained soils, both conditions that increase
the risk of crop damage from drought. Fields on steep
hillslopes and on soils with a silt loam texture are more
vulnerable to increasingly intense rainstorms, while those in
the valley next to the stream are more vulnerable to flood
damage. However, the farm has a few fields with a northfacing exposure and better soil structure, which are able toabsorb water and cope with extreme heat.

Table 5.13. Management goals and objectives for a confined dairy operation in the Ridge and Valley province of Pennsylvania.

Management UnitManagement Goals

Management Objectives

Timeframes

Farmstead:Livestock facilities
Dairy facilities
Waste management
facilities

Maintain family net income and farmlegacyMinimize overall expenses

Short- Long

Prevent water leaks and unnecessary lighting andventilation, minimize fuel use

Short

Minimize energy costs
Maintain herd health and milk productivity

Prevent stress in dairy herd

Short

Croplands:
Corn for grain
Corn for silage
Alfalfa grass for hay
and haylage

Maintain or improve crop productivity

Minimize erosion and prevent soil compaction
from heavy equipment

Short- Long

Apply nutrients not to exceed annual crop needand soil test recommendations. Follow nutrient
management plan to prevent non-point source
pollution.

Short

Comply with concentrated animal feeding
operation (CAFO) regulations
Maintain friendly neighbor relations andpositive community image

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

57

Step 3:
Evaluate management objectives given projected
impacts and vulnerabilities.
An evaluation of the dairy’s existing management
objectives for the farmstead found a few challenges, but
no opportunities presented by climate change. In general,most of the current management objectives for the
livestock, dairy, and waste management facilities were rated
as having a slightly declining feasibility. Negative impacts
from climate change (e.g., incrementally increasing costs ofventilation, veterinary services, and repairing infrastructure)
were not expected to be offset by any positive impacts but
were also not substantial enough to prevent achievementof farm profitability goals. However, impacts from increased
waste spills from overtopped storage facilities, (e.g., costs,
poor community image, and regulator inspection hassles)
do present substantial challenges especially to the farm’s
stewardship goals.
Additional climate change-related considerations for thisfarm are rising costs of purchased supplemental feed or
fertilizers due to negative climate change-related impacts
in the region where the purchased feed is produced orincreased cost of utilities rising due to weather disruptionsof electricity. At the same time, the farm may be able totake advantage of market opportunities if climate change
impacts increase production costs in other places, such asa long-term drought in California, and the farm is able tosell its milk at a higher price.
When taken together, the adverse climate change impacts
on this dairy farm are not significant enough to necessitatea change in long-range goals and objectives. Instead, an
adjustment of management tactics to maintain the current
farming system would be adequate. To increase the farm’s
adaptive capacity to prepare and recover from expected
adverse impacts, management objectives for the crop
fields are being refined to improve soil functioning, nutrient
stewardship, and fuel use efficiency, while on the farmstead
more transformative changes are needed to improve
nutrient stewardship.

Step 4:
Identify adaptation approaches and develop tactics
for implementation.
A review of the menu of adaptation strategies andapproaches found a number of approaches that enable thisdairy enterprise to respond to identified adverse climatechange impacts and achieve the management objectivesof improving soil functioning and nutrient stewardship,

58

USDA ClimAte HUbS

reducing fuel use, and reducing risks of adverse impacts
from extreme weather. (Table 5.14). Climate change
considerations became another driver to better manage
natural resources and improve the overall functioning of theagroecosystem.
The most transformative change occurs at the farmsteadwhere the waste storage facility can be covered to prevent
accumulation of rainfall and the risk of spills. In supportof the nutrient stewardship objective for crop fields, themanure collection and handling system can be improved toseparate liquids from solids to increase pumping efficiency,
reduce costs, and apply nutrient sources near the timeof crop nutrient uptake in locations best suited to utilize
the source. Liquid fractions with more available nitrogencan be surface applied to fields with higher infiltration
rates, higher organic matter, and low risk for phosphoroustransport, while solid fractions will be applied to fields low
in organic matter to stimulate soil biology. Another cobenefit of solid-liquid separation is the use of manure solids
for livestock bedding to offset expensive wood shavings. At
this time, methane capture from the covered waste storage
facility for electricity generation is not feasible.

Step 5:
Monitor and evaluate effectiveness of actions.
Monitoring activities and evaluation criteria were identified
for this dairy to determine whether the adaptation tactics
described above, if implemented, would be effective
actions to overcome the challenges of a changing climate
and meet the farm’s long-range goals and objectives.
On the farmstead, climate adaptation monitoring andevaluation criteria focus on maintaining the cover ofthe waste storage facility. A cover in proper condition
eliminates the risk of waste runoff overtopping the facility
during a rainstorm.
To monitor progress towards achieving new objectives
and evaluate outcomes on crop fields, recordkeeping canbe improved to include tracking of application rates andcosts of fertilizer and soil amendments, the soil’s infiltration
capacity and organic matter percentages within fields,
and gallons of fuel saved by pumping liquids comparedto hauling slurries. To supplement data collected, the farmvisually monitors storm water runoff at the edge of highrisk fields, taking photographic evidence during and shortly
following severe weather. At the end of the installation of
the waste storage facility cover and solid liquid separation
system and other supporting practices, all costs andbenefits will be evaluated compared to the business­
as-usual scenario to determine if the actions mitigatedexpected economic losses from climate change.

Table 5.14. Selected adaptation tactics for a confined dairy operation in the Ridge and Valley province of Pennsylvania.

Adaptation Actions
Approach

TacticTimeframes

Benefits

Drawbacks &Barriers

Effectivenessand Feasibilityof Tactic

Management Unit : Croplands
1.1: Maintain andimprove soil health

Follow corn silage
harvest with planting
small grains onfields with few
environmentallysensitive areas

1-2 yrs.

Protects soil from raindrop
impactAdds organic matter for soil
biology to more efficiently
cycle water and nutrients
Living roots over the winterimprove soil structure,
biology, and water infiltration

Requires moremanagement and labor
during busy fall harvest
seasonModerately High

Feed ration needs
adjustment toeffectively use different
source of forage

Provides another source of
foragePlant earlier maturing
4.1: Reduce peak flow,
runoff velocity, and soil corn grain varieties inincreasingly flooderosion
prone areas to allow
time for planting
4.2: Reduce severity
small grains or coveror extent of watercrop mixes
saturated soil andflood damage.
1.2: Protect water
quality

1-2 yrs.

Living cover tolerates flooding
near streams or high-velocity
water runoff better thanresidue from corn grain
Corn grain residue may be
harvested for use as fodder,
bedding, or fuelSmall areas removed
from corn grain
production reduce field
operation efficiency
and may require more
precision technology

Moderately HighSee same tactic
described for theFarmstead UnitManagement Unit : Farmstead
1.2: Protect water
quality

Cover waste storage
facility and flaremethane

3-5 yrs.

Risk of overtopping
eliminated and community
image protected
Less rainwater collected andhauledGas emissions prevented Moderately Low
from release
without financial
assistanceor increased
Maintenance cost of
consumer prices.
cover and methane
flaring
Purchase costs

1.2: Protect water
quality

Convert to solid
liquid separation andmanure injection
nutrient application
system

3-5 yrs.

Increased pumping efficiency

Purchase costs

Reduced hauling costs
More manure nutrientsavailable to crop

Requires moremanagement all year,
possibly during busy
spring planting season

Use of manure solids forlivestock bedding offsets
expensive wood shavings

Risk of equipment
failure and associatedmessesModerately Low
without financial
assistanceor increased
consumer prices

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

59

Glossary
Action—Something that is done or accomplished.
Adaptation (to climate change)—Adjustment in naturalor human systems in response to actual or expectedclimatic stimuli or their effects, which reduces vulnerability,
moderates harm, or exploits beneficial opportunities.
Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including
anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and public
adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007).
Adaptive capacity—The ability of a system to adjust to
climate change (including climate variability and extremes)
to moderate potential damages, to take advantage
of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007). This
concept may be applied to natural or human systems andis synonymous with the concept of resilience (Smit andWandel 2006).
Adaptive management—A decision process that promotes
flexible decisionmaking that can be adjusted in the faceof uncertainties as outcomes from management actions
and other events become better understood. Carefulmonitoring of these outcomes both advances scientificunderstanding and helps adjust policies or operations aspart of an iterative learning process (Walthall et al. 2012).
Climate—Average weather conditions in given locations
over time. The classical period for averaging climatic
variables as defined by the World MeteorologicalOrganization is 30 years. Climate influences a wide range oflong-term activities and strategic decisions, from the typesof crops grown to the design and construction of buildings,
water delivery systems, and other infrastructure (Walthall
et al. 2012).
Climate change—Statistically relevant changes in the meanstate of climate or in its variability and that persist overextended periods of time, typically decades, centuries
or longer. Changes may occur due to natural variations
or a combination of natural variation and humaninduced variation (National Atmospheric and Oceanic
Administration 2016).
Climate variability—The inherent fluctuations or cyclicalchanges within the climate system beyond that ofindividual weather events. Variability may be due tonatural internal processes within the climate system or
to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007).
Effects (of climate change)—A change that is a result orconsequence of climate change. The effects of climatechange on agricultural production can be classified aseither direct, indirect, or cumulative. Direct effects referto the biophysical effects of changing abiotic climate
60

USDA ClimAte HUbS

conditions on crop and livestock growth, development, andconditions (Walthall et al. 2012). Indirect effects include
biotic effects, such as those related to insect, disease,
and weed pressure, as well as induced effects on input
resources (land, water, soil) and market-mediated effects
on input and output prices. Indirect effects of climatechange may amplify or counteract the direct effects ofclimate change.
Impacts (of climate change)—Synonymous with “climatechange effects” and refers to the positive and negative
ways in which climate change will affect different systems.
Mitigation—With respect to climate change, an intervention
to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhousegases. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007).
Resilience—Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb
disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so
as to still retain essentially the same function, structure,
identity, and feedbacks (Walker et al. 2002).
Risk—The potential for adverse consequences where
something of value is at stake and where the outcome
is uncertain, recognizing the diversity of values(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007).
Social-ecological systems—A linked system of humans
and nature in which the flow and use of resources(ecological, socioeconomic, and cultural) are regulatedby the interaction of ecological and social systems.
Agricultural social-ecological systems are ecosystems
managed by humans to produce food and fiber for a set ofinterconnected markets (Walthall et al. 2012).
Uncertainty—A state of having limited knowledge where it
is impossible to exactly describe the existing state, a future
outcome, or more than one possible outcome (Walthall et
al. 2012).
Vulnerability—The degree to which a system is susceptible
to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climatechange, including climate variability and extremes.
Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, andrate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, itssensitivity, and its adaptive capacity (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change 2007).
Weather—The specific condition of the atmosphereat a particular place and time. It is measured in termsof parameters such as wind, temperature, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation(Walthall et al. 2012). Weather influences short-term
activities and tactical decisions like crop planting,grazing, irrigation management, timing of manure andother nutrient applications, timing of pest suppression,
harvesting, etc.

Literature Cited
25x’25 Alliance Adaptation Work Group. 2013. Agriculture
and Forestry in a Changing Climate: Adaptation
Recommendations. 25x’25 Alliance. 49 p. Available
at http://www.25x25.org/storage/25x25/documents/
Adaptation/agriculture_and_forestry_in_a_changing_climate_-_adaptation_recommendations.pdf
Ahmed, M.T. 2002. Millennium ecosystem assessment.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 9(4): 219­
220.
Ainsworth, E.A., D.R. Ort. 2010. How do we improve crop
production in a warming world? Plant Physiology. 154(2):526-530.
Ames, G.K., R. Dufour. 2014. Climate Change and Perennial
Fruit and Nut Production: Investing in Resilience inUncertain Times. In. ATTRA Sustainable Agriculture.
Butte, MT: National Center for Appropriate Technology
ATTRA. Available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=478. (Accessed July 28,2015).
Anwar, M., D. Liu, I. Macadam, G. Kelly. 2013. Adapting
agriculture to climate change: a review. Theoretical andApplied Climatology. 113(1-2): 225-245.
Bathke, D.J., R. Oglesby, C. Rowe, D.A. Wilhite. 2014.
Understanding and Assessing Climate Change:
Implications for Nebraska. University of LincolnNebraska. 72 p. Available at http://snr.unl.edu/download/
research/projects/climateimpacts/2014ClimateChange.
pdf
Blanc, E., R. Reilly. 2015. Climate ihange impacts on US
crops. Choices. 30(2): 1-4.
Bradshaw, B., H. Dolan, B. Smit. 2004. Farm-level
adaptation to climatic variability and change: crop
diversification in the Canadian prairies. Climatic Change.
67(1): 119-141.
Brandt, L., H. He, L. Iverson, F.R. Thompson, P. Butler,
S. Handler, M. Janowiak, P.D. Shannon, C. Swanston,
M. Albrecht, R. Blume-Weaver, P. Deizman, J. DePuy,
W.D. Dijak, G. Dinkel, S. Fei, D.T. Jones-Farrand, M.
Leahy, S. Matthews, P. Nelson, B. Oberle, J. Perez, M.
Peters, A. Prasad, J.E. Schneiderman, J. Shuey, A.B.
Smith, C. Studyvin, J.M. Tirpak, J.W. Walk, W.J. Wang, L.
Watts, D. Weigel, S. Westin. 2014. Central Hardwoods
ecosystem vulnerability assessment and synthesis: areport from the Central Hardwoods Climate Change
Response Framework project. Newtown Square, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern
Research Station. 254
Bryan, A.M., A. Karmalkar, E. Coffel, L. Ning, R. Horton, E.
Demaria, F. Fan, R.S. Bradley, R. Palmer. 2015. Chapter
1: Climate Change in the Northeast and Midwest
United States. In: M.D. Staudinger, T.L. Morelli and A.M.
Bryan, eds. Integrating Climate Change into Northeast
and Midwest State Wildlife Action Plans. Amherst,

Massachusetts.: U.S. Department of Interior, Northeast
Climate Science Center
Davis, M.B., R.G. Shaw. 2001. Range shifts and adaptive
responses to quaternary climate change. Science.
292(5517): 673-679.
Derner, J., L. Joyce, R. Guerrero, R. Steele. 2015. Northern
Plains Regional Climate Hub Assessment of Climate
Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and Mitigation
Strategies. In: T. Anderson, ed: United States Departmentof Agriculture. 57 p. Available at http://climatehubs.oce.
usda.gov/sites/default/files/Northern%20Plains%20
Vulnerability%20Assessment%205_1_2015_Compressed.
pdf
Donald, D.B., F.G. Hunter, E. Sverko, B.D. Hill, J. Syrgiannis.
2005. Mobilization of pesticides on an agriculturallandscape flooded by a torrential storm. Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry. 24(1): 2-10.
Easterling, W.E. 1996. Adapting North American agriculture
to climate change in review. Agricultural and Forest
Meteorology. 80(1): 1-53.
Elad, Y., I. Pertot. 2014. Climate change impacts onplant pathogens and plant diseases. Journal of Crop
Improvement. 28(1): 99-139.
Elliott, J., D. Deryng, C. Müller, K. Frieler, M. Konzmann, D.
Gerten, M. Glotter, M. Flörke, Y. Wada, N. Best. 2014.
Constraints and potentials of future irrigation water
availability on agricultural production under climatechange. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. 111(9): 3239-3244.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
2007. Adaptation to climate change in agriculture,
forestry, and fisheries: perspective, framework andpriorities. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations (FAO), Interdepartmental Working
Group on Climate Change. 32
Freidman, D., M. Hubbs, A. Tugel, C. Seybold, M. Sucik. 2001.
Guidelines for soil quality assessment in conservation
planning. Washington, DC: US Government Printing
Office.
Fuhrer, J. 2003. Agroecosystem responses to combinationsof elevated CO 2, ozone, and global climate change.
Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 97(1): 1-20.
Gaughan, J., N. Lacetera, S. Valtorta, H. Khalifa, L. Hahn, T.
Mader. 2009. Response of domestic animals to animal
challenges. In: K. Ebi, I. Burton, G. McGregor and (eds),
eds. Biometeorology for adaptation to climate variability
and change. Dordrecht; London.: Springer
Gordon, K., M. Lewis, J. Rogers, F. Kinniburgh. 2015. Heatin the Heartland: Climate change and economic riskin the Midwest. Risky Business: The economic risks ofclimate change in the United States: Risky Business. 53 p.
Available at http://riskybusiness.org/uploads/files/RBP­
Midwest-Report-WEB-1-26-15.pdf

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe61

Gutowski, W.J., G.C. Hegerl, G.J. Holland, T.R. Knutson,
L.O. Mearns, R.J. Stouffer, P.J. Webster, M.F. Wehner,
F.W. Zwiers. 2008. Causes of observed changes inextremes and projections of future changes. In: Thomas
R. Karl, Gerald A. Meehl, Christopher D. Miller, Susan J.
Hassol, Anne M. Waple and W.L. Murray, eds. Weather
and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate. Regionsof Focus: North America, Hawaii, Caribbean, and U.S.
Pacific Islands. Washington, DC: U.S. Climate Change
Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global
Change Research
Hahn, G., T. Brown-Brandl, R. Eigenberg, J. Gaughan, T.
Mader, J. Nienaber. 2005. Climate change and livestock:challenges and adaptive responses of animals andproduction systems. 17th International Congress ofBiometeorology; Bavaria, Germany.
Hatfield, J., C. Swanston, M. Janowiak, R. Steele, J. Hempel,
J. Bochicchio, W. Hall, M. Cole, S. Hestvik, J. Whitaker.
2015. Midwest and Northern Forests Regional Climate
Hub Assessment of Climate Change Vulnerability and
Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies. In: T. Anderson, ed:
United States Department of Agriculture. 55 p. Available
at http://climatehubs.oce.usda.gov/sites/default/
files/pdf/Midwest%20Region%20Vulnerability%20
Assessment%203_20_2015.pdf
Hatfield, J., G. Takle, R. Grotjahn, P. Holden, R.C. Izaurralde,
T. Mader, E. Marshall, D. Liverman. 2014. Chapter 6:
Agriculture. In: J.M. Melillo, T.C. Richmond, G.W. Yohe and(eds.), eds. Climate change impacts in the United States:
the third National Climate Assessment: U.S. Global
Change Research Program: 150-174. Available at http://
nca2014.globalchange.gov/downloads
Hayhoe, K., C.P. Wake, T.G. Huntington, L.F. Luo, M.D.
Schwartz, J. Sheffield, E. Wood, B. Anderson, J.
Bradbury, A. DeGaetano, T.J. Troy, D. Wolfe. 2007.
Past and future changes in climate and hydrologicalindicators in the US Northeast. Climate Dynamics. 28(4):381-407.
Heller, N.E., E.S. Zavaleta. 2009. Biodiversity managementin the face of climate change: A review of 22 years ofrecommendations. Biological Conservation. 142(1): 14-32.
Horton, R., G. Yohe, W. Easterling, R. Kates, M. Ruth, E.
Sussman, A. Whelchel, D. Wolfe, F. Lipschultz. 2014.
Chapter 16: Northeast. In: J.M. Melillo, T.C. Richmond,
G.W. Yohe and (eds.), eds. Climate change impacts in the
United States: the third National Climate Assessment:
U.S. Global Change Research Program: 371-395. Available
at http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/downloads
Howden, S.M., J.-F. Soussana, F.N. Tubiello, N. Chhetri,
M. Dunlop, H. Meinke. 2007. Adapting agriculture toclimate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. 104(50): 19691-19696.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2012.
Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to
Advance Climate Change Adaptation. A Special Report

62

USDA ClimAte HUbS

of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. In. Cambridge, UK, andNew York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. 582.
Available at http://ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/images/uploads/
SREX-All_FINAL.pdfID - 722.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, I. 2007.
Glossary of Terms used in the IPCC Fourth Assessment
Report. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC Secretariat Geneva.
Available at https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/
publications_and_data_glossary.shtml
Iverson, L.R., M.W. Schwartz, A.M. Prasad. 2004a. How fast
and far might tree species migrate in the eastern UnitedStates due to climate change? Global Ecology and
Biogeography. 13(3): 209-219.
Janowiak, M.K., C.W. Swanston, L.M. Nagel, L.A. Brandt,
P.R. Butler, P.D. Shannon, L.R. Iverson, S.N. Matthews,
A. Prasad, M.P. Peters. 2014. A Practical Approach forTranslating Climate Change Adaptation Principles into
Forest Management Actions. Journal of Forestry. 112(5):424-433.
Janowiak, M.K., C.W. Swanston, L.M. Nagel, C.R. Webster,
B.J. Palik, M.J. Twery, J.B. Bradford, L.R. Parker, A.T. Hille,
S.M. Johnson. 2011. Silvicultural decisionmaking in an
uncertain climate future: a workshop-based explorationof considerations, strategies, and approaches. Gen. Tech.
Rep. NRS-81. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station.
14
Jarvis, A., C. Lau, S. Cook, E. Wollenberg, J. Hansen, O.
Bonilla, A. Challinor. 2011. An integrated adaptationand mitigation framework for developing agriculturalresearch: synergies and trade-offs. Experimental
Agriculture. 47(02): 185-203.
Kanter, D.R., X. Zhang, D.L. Mauzerall. 2015. Reducing
nitrogen pollution while decreasing farmers’ costs
and increasing fertilizer industry profits. Journal ofEnvironmental Quality. 44(2): 325-335.
Karl, T.R., G.A. Meehl, C.D. Miller, S.J. Hassol, A.M. Waple,
W.L. Murray. Weather and Climate Extremes in a
Changing Climate. Regions of Focus: North America,
Hawaii, Caribbean, and U. S. Pacific Islands. A reportby the U. S. Climate Change Science Program and the
Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Available at
http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap3-3/final­
report/.
Kunkel, K.E., T.R. Karl, H. Brooks, J. Kossin, J.H. Lawrimore,
D. Arndt, L. Bosart, D. Changnon, S.L. Cutter, N.
Doesken, K. Emanuel, P.Y. Groisman, R.W. Katz, T.
Knutson, J. O’Brien, C.J. Paciorek, T.C. Peterson, K.
Redmond, D. Robinson, J. Trapp, R. Vose, S. Weaver,M. Wehner, K. Wolter, D. Wuebbles. 2012. Monitoringand Understanding Trends in Extreme Storms: Stateof Knowledge. Bulletin of the American Meteorologicalsociety. 94(4): 499-514.

Kunkel, K.E., L.E. Stevens, S.E. Stevens, L. Sun, E. Janssen,
D. Wuebbles, S.D. Hilberg, M.S. Timlin, L. Stoeck, N.E.
Westcott, J.G. Dobson. 2013a. Regional Climate Trends
and Scenarios for the US National Climate Assessment.
Part 3. Climate of the Midwest U.S. Washington, DC:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration. 103
Kunkel, K.E., L.E. Stevens, S.E. Stevens, L. Sun, E. Janssen,
D. Wuebbles, J. Rennells, A. DaGaetano, J.G. Dobson.
2013b. Regional climate trends and scenarios for the
U.S. National Climate Assessment. Part 1. Climate of
the Northeast U.S. Washington, DC: US Departmentof Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. 87 p. Available at http://www.nesdis.
noaa.gov/technical_reports/NOAA_NESDIS_Tech_
Report_142-1-Climate_of_the_Northeast_U.S.pdf
Liebman, M., L.A. Schulte. 2015. Enhancing agroecosystem
performance and resilience through increased
diversification of landscapes and cropping systems.
Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene. 3(1): 000041.
McGranahan, D.A. 2014. Ecologies of scale:multifunctionality connects conservation and agriculture
across fields, farms, and landscapes. Land. 3(3): 739-769.
Melillo, J.M., T.C. Richmond, G.W. Yohe, (eds.). 2014.
Climate change impacts in the United States: the third
National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change
Research Program. 841 p. Available at http://nca2014.
globalchange.gov/downloads
Millar, C.I., N.L. Stephenson, S.L. Stephens. 2007. Climatechange and forests of the future: Managing in the face of
uncertainty. Ecological Applications. 17(8): 2145-2151.
Moebius-Clune, B., H. van Es, J. Melkonian, B. Schindelbeck.
2010. Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change
through Adaptive Nitrogen and Soil Health Management
Ithaca, NY: Department of Crop and Soil Sciences,
Cornell University. Available at http://adapt-n.cals.
cornell.edu/pubs/pdfs/Moebius-Clune_mitigating_and_adapting.pdf.(Accessed October 12, 2015).
Neil Adger, W., N.W. Arnell, E.L. Tompkins. 2005. Successful
adaptation to climate change across scales. Global
Environmental Change. 15(2): 77-86.
Olmstead, A.L., P.W. Rhode. 2011. Adapting North American
wheat production to climatic challenges, 1839–2009.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
108(2): 480-485.
Palm, C., H. Blanco-Canqui, F. DeClerck, L. Gatere, P. Grace.
2014. Conservation agriculture and ecosystem services:an overview. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 187:
87-105.
Parry, M.L., O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof. 2007. Climate
Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Technical Summary. Cambridge, UK: Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. 23-78 p. Available at http://
www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm
Peterson, G.C., R. Allen, C.S.Holling. 1998. Ecologicalresilience, biodiversity, and scale. Ecosystems. 1(1): 6-18.

Peterson, T.C., R.R. Heim, R. Hirsch, D.P. Kaiser, H. Brooks,
N.S. Diffenbaugh, R.M. Dole, J.P. Giovannettone, K.
Guirguis, T.R. Karl, R.W. Katz, K. Kunkel, D. Lettenmaier,
G.J. McCabe, C.J. Paciorek, K.R. Ryberg, S. Schubert,
V.B.S. Silva, B.C. Stewart, A.V. Vecchia, G. Villarini,
R.S. Vose, J. Walsh, M. Wehner, D. Wolock, K. Wolter,
C.A. Woodhouse, D. Wuebbles. 2013. Monitoring andUnderstanding Changes in Heat Waves, Cold Waves,
Floods, and Droughts in the United States: State ofKnowledge. Bulletin of the American Meteorologicalsociety. 94(6): 821-834.
Pryor, S., D. Scavia, C. Downer, M. Gaden, L. Iverson, R.
Nordstrom, J. Patz, G. Robertson, J. Melillo, T. Richmond.
2014. Chapter 18: Midwest. Climate Change Impacts
in the United States: The Third National Climate
Assessment. US Global Change Research Program,
Washington, DC http://nca2014. globalchange. gov/
report/regions/midwest.
Rosenzweig, C., J. Elliott, D. Deryng, A.C. Ruane, C.
Müller, A. Arneth, K.J. Boote, C. Folberth, M. Glotter,
N. Khabarov, K. Neumann, F. Piontek, T.A.M. Pugh, E.
Schmid, E. Stehfest, H. Yang, J.W. Jones. 2014. Assessing
agricultural risks of climate change in the 21st century
in a global gridded crop model intercomparison.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111(9):3268-3273.
Schmidt, D., E. Whitefield, D. Smith. 2014. Adapting
to a Changing Climate: A planning guide. Animal
Agriculture in a Changing Climate. 19 p. Available at
http://animalagclimatechange.org/wp-content/uploads/
Adapting-to-a-Changing-Climate1.pdf
Schoeneberger, M., G. Bentrup, H. de Gooijer, R.
Soolanayakanahally, T. Sauer, J. Brandle, X. Zhou, D.
Current. 2012. Branching out: agroforestry as a climatechange mitigation and adaptation tool for agriculture.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 67(5):128A-136A.
Schulte Moore, L.A. 2014. Prairie Strips: Bringing
Biodiversity, Improved Water Quality, and Soil Protection
to Agriculture. Missouri Prairie Journal. 35(1): 12-15.
Shea, E.C. 2014. Adaptive management: The cornerstoneof climate-smart agriculture. Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation. 69(6): 198A-199A.
Smit, B., I. Burton, R.J.T. Klein, R. Street. 1999. The Scienceof Adaptation: A Framework for Assessment. Mitigation
and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 4(3-4):
199-213.
Smit, B., D. McNabb, J. Smithers. 1996. Agricultural
adaptation to climatic variation. Climatic Change. 33(1):7-29.
Smit, B., M. Skinner. 2002. Adaptation options in agriculture
to climate change: a typology. Mitigation and Adaptation
Strategies for Global Change. 7(1): 85-114.
Smit, B., J. Wandel. 2006. Adaptation, adaptive capacityand vulnerability. Global Environmental Change. 16(3):282-292.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

63

Stein, B.A., P. Glick, N. Edelson, A. Staudt, (eds.). 2014.
Climate-smart conservation: putting adaptation
principles into practice. Washington, D.C.: National
Wildlife Federation. 262
Stokes, C., M. Howden. 2010. Adapting agriculture toclimate change: preparing Australian agriculture, forestry
and fisheries for the future. CSIRO publishing
Swanston, C.W., M.K. Janowiak. 2012. Forest Adaptation
Resources: Climate change tools and approaches forland managers Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-87. Newtown
Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Northern Research Station p. Available at http://
www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/40543
Takle, E.S., C.J. Anderson, J. Andresen, J. Angel, R.W.
Elmore, B.M. Gramig, P. Guinan, S. Hilberg, D. Kluck, R.
Massey, D. Niyogi, J.M. Schneider, M.D. Shulski, D. Todey,
M. Widhalm. 2014. Climate Forecasts for Corn Producer
Decisionmaking. Earth Interactions. 18(5): 1-8.
Taylor, R.G., B. Scanlon, P. Doll, M. Rodell, R. van Beek, Y.
Wada, L. Longuevergne, M. Leblanc, J.S. Famiglietti, M.
Edmunds, L. Konikow, T.R. Green, J. Chen, M. Taniguchi,
M.F.P. Bierkens, A. MacDonald, Y. Fan, R.M. Maxwell, Y.
Yechieli, J.J. Gurdak, D.M. Allen, M. Shamsudduha, K.
Hiscock, P.J.F. Yeh, I. Holman, H. Treidel. 2013. Groundwater and climate change. Nature Clim. Change. 3(4):322-329.
Tobin, D., M. Janowiak, D. Hollinger, R.H. Skinner, C.
Swanston, R. Steele, R. Radhakrishna, A. Chatrchyan.
2015. Northeast Regional Climate Hub Assessmentof Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation and
Mitigation Strategies. In: T. Anderson, ed: UnitedStates Department of Agriculture. 65 p. Available at
http://climatehubs.oce.usda.gov/sites/default/files/
Northeast%20Regional%20Hub%20Vulnerability%20
Assessment%20Final.pdf
U.S. EPA. 2015. Agriculture Sector Emissions. Available at
http://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/agriculture.html (Accessed October 12, 2015).
USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2016.
Statistics by Subject. Available at https://www.nass.usda.
gov/Statistics_by_Subject (Accessed June 29).
Valerio, M., M. Tomecek, S. Lovelli, L. Ziska. 2013. Assessing
the impact of increasing carbon dioxide and temperatureon crop-weed interactions for tomato and a C3 and C4
weed species. European Journal of Agronomy. 50: 60­
65.
Walker, B., S. Carpenter, J. Anderies, N. Abel, G. Cumming,
M. Janssen, L. Lebel, J. Norberg, G.D. Peterson, R.
Pritchard. 2002. Resilience management in socialecological systems: a working hypothesis for aparticipatory approach. Conservation ecology. 6(1): 14.
Walsh, J., D. Wuebbles, K. Hayhoe, J. Kossin, K. Kunkel, G.
Stephens, P. Thorne, R. Vose, M. Wehner, J. Willis. 2014.
Our changing climate. Climate Change Impacts in the
United States: The Third National Climate Assessment.
US Global Change Research Program. 19-67.

64

USDA ClimAte HUbS

In light of the same challenges and opportunities of increasingclimate variability, how will these cattle adapt?

Walthall, C., J. Hatfield, P. Backlund, L. Lengnick, E. Marshall,
M. Walsh, S. Adkins, M. Aillery, E.A. Ainsworth, C.
Ammann, C.J. Anderson, I. Bartomeus, L.H. Baumgard, F.
Booker, B. Bradley, D.M. Blumenthal, J. Bunce, K. Burkey,
S.M. Dabney, J.A. Delgado, J. Dukes, A. Funk, K. Garrett,
M. Glenn, D.A. Grantz, D. Goodrich, S. Hu, R.C. Izaurralde,
R.A.C. Jones, S.-H. Kim, A.D.B. Leaky, K. Lewers, T.L.
Mader, A. McClung, J. Morgan, D.J. Muth, M. Nearing,
D.M. Oosterhuis, D. Ort, C. Parmesan, W.T. Pettigrew, W.
Polley, R. Rader, C. Rice, M. Rivington, E. Rosskopf, W.A.
Salas, L.E. Sollenberger, R. Srygley, C. Stöckle, E.S. Takle,
D. Timlin, J.W. White, R. Winfree, L. Wright-Morton, L.H.
Ziska. 2012. Climate change and agriculture in the UnitedStates: Effects and adaptation. . Washington, DC.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 186
Wolfe, D., J. Beem-Miller, L. Chambliss, A. Chatrchyan,
H. Menninger. 2011. Farming Success in an Uncertain
Climate. In: C.C. Extension, ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University. 4. Available at http://climatechange.
cornell.edu/farming-success-in-an-uncertain-climate/.
(Accessed July 28, 2015).
Ziska, L., J. Bunce. 1997. Influence of increasing carbon
dioxide concentration on the photosynthetic andgrowth stimulation of selected C4crops and weeds.
Photosynthesis Research. 54(3): 199-208.
Ziska, L.H., J.A. Bunce, H. Shimono, D.R. Gealy, J.T. Baker,
P.C.D. Newton, M.P. Reynolds, K.S.V. Jagadish, C. Zhu, M.
Howden, L.T. Wilson. 2012. Food security and climatechange: on the potential to adapt global crop production
by active selection to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological
Sciences.

APPeNDix 1:
methods for Developing the Adaptation Strategies and Approaches
The Adaptation Strategies and Approaches described in
Chapter 3 of this publication provide a menu of responses
to help farm enterprises adapt to climate change. These
serve as stepping stones to enable producers to translatebroad concepts into targeted and prescriptive tactics for
implementing adaptation. The methods and processes
used to develop and refine this menu are described below.

Synthesis of Adaptation Literature
The compilation of adaptation strategies, approaches, andexample tactics presented in Chapter 3 was developed
using a process originally developed for identifying adapta­
tion actions in forest ecosystems (Swanston and Janowiak
2012). The first step was to compile adaptation actions
from a number of sources in both peer-reviewed and grayliterature. Adaptation actions pertaining to on-farm pro­duction practices and infrastructure were included in thiscompilation, while actions related to farm financial manage­
ment, technological developments (i.e., research and devel­
opment), and government programs and insurance wereomitted ((Smit and Skinner 2002; Walthall et al. 2012). The
adaptation concepts and actions compiled from the litera­ture were organized into a hierarchy of adaptation actions,from broad concepts to specific on-the-ground practices(see Figure 3.1). Based on expert review (see next section),
adaptation actions were refined and organized into 8 strat­egies, 25 approaches, and more than 100 example tactics.

Expert Comment Process
We drew upon the experience and expertise of scientists,
adaptation experts, and producers to provide input on

how this expanded menu of adaptation strategies andapproaches relates to a variety of agricultural commodi­
ties in the Midwest and Northeast, as well as other partsof the United States. We compiled a list of individuals withexpertise in a variety of agricultural commodities, seeking
representation from a variety of geographies and a bal­ance of science and management from a range of insti­
tutions. Overall, more than 10 experts provided feedback,which was collected primarily through web-based survey
software. For each adaptation strategy, experts were first
asked a set of questions about the applicability of each
adaptation approach under that strategy to agricultural
production in the Midwest and Northeast. Experts werethen asked to consider how effectively each of the associ­ated approaches helped support the broader strategy. The
questions were open-ended to allow reviewers to comment
freely. Experts were asked to evaluate every strategy andevery approach and to provide additional examples of ad­aptation actions (i.e., example tactics). This information wasused to revise the initial list of Adaptation Strategies andApproaches.

Testing With Agricultural Professionals andProducers
A workshop hosted by the USDA Midwest Regional Cli­
mate Hub in March 2016 was used to test both the list of
Adaptation Strategies and Approaches and the Adaptation
Workbook. Following the workshop, changes were madeto clarify important points and produce the final menu of
Adaptation Strategies and Approaches presented in thispublication.

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

65

ADAPtAtiON WORkbOOk WORkSHeetS
Worksheet #1: Define management goals and objectives.
Farm or
Project Area:
Location:Management
Unit

66

USDA ClimAte HUbSManagement Goals

Management Objectives

Timeframes

Worksheet #2: Assess site-specific climate change impacts and vulnerabilities.
Management Unit
(from Step #1)

Regional Climate Change
Impacts and Vulnerabilities

Climate Change Impacts and Vulnerabilities
for the Farm or Project Area

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

67

Worksheet #3: evaluate management objectives given projected impacts andvulnerabilities.
Management
Unit(from Step #1)

Management
Objectives(from Step #1)

Slow down to consider…

68

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Challenges To Meeting
Management Objective
With Climate Change

Opportunities for Meeting
Management Objective
With Climate Change

Feasibility of
Objectives
Under Current
Management

Other
Considerations

Worksheet #4: identify adaptation approaches and tactics for implementation.
Management
Unit(from Step #1)

Adaptation Actions
Approach

TacticTimeframes

Benefits

Drawbacks &Barriers

Effectivenessand Feasibilityof Tactic

Recommend
Tactic?

ADAPtAtiON ReSOURCeS FOR AGRiCUltURe

69

Worksheet #5: monitor and evaluate effectiveness of implemented actions.
Management Unit
(from Step #1)

70

Adaptation Monitoring Variable

USDA ClimAte HUbS

Criteria for Evaluation

Monitoring Implementation

In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department ofAgriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA,
its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participatingin or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender
identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability,
age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from apublic assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation
for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted
or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies
and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident.

To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA
Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, found online at
How to File a Program Discrimination Complaint and at any USDA
office or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letterall of the information requested in the form. To request a copy ofthe complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed
form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights,
1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2)fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.
USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender.

Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice
and TTY) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at(800) 877-8339. Additionally, program information may be madeavailable in languages other than English.