2023 | 023
Joint development of the bearing
system for AVL's new high-speedengine platform
Engine Component Developments - Components

Gunther Hager, Miba Gleitlager Austria Gmbh
Gareth Estebanez, AVL
Heinz Flesch, AVL
Martin Rustler, AVL
Johannes Reisenberger, Miba
Daniel Lahner, Miba

This paper has been presented and published at the 30th CIMAC World Congress 2023 in Busan,
Korea. The CIMAC Congress is held every three years, each time in a different member country. The
Congress program centres around the presentation of Technical Papers on engine research anddevelopment, application engineering on the original equipment side and engine operation andmaintenance on the end-user side. The themes of the 2023 event included Digitalization &Connectivity for different applications, System Integration & Hybridization, Electrification & Fuel Cells
Development, Emission Reduction Technologies, Conventional and New Fuels, Dual Fuel Engines,
Lubricants, Product Development of Gas and Diesel Engines, Components & Tribology,
Turbochargers, Controls & Automation, Engine Thermondynamis, Simulation Technologies as well as
Basic Research & Advanced Engineering. The copyright of this paper is with CIMAC. For further
information please visit https://www.cimac.com.

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ABSTRACTAs human-driven climate change is a fact, drivetrain developments have evolved. Car and truck
applications are shifting from ICEs to BEV and FCEVs, although the overall benefit (cradle to grave
approach) is heavily discussed. The situation is different for the so-called large engine segment (highspeed, medium and low speed) as the power density of batteries and the upscaling of fuel cell
technology are still obstacles.
AVL`s development of a new high-speed engine platform (HSLE) focusing on maximum efficiency androbustness for standard (diesel and natural gas) as well as upcoming CO2 neutral renewable fuels (efuels, H2…) will prove the sustainability of the ICE concept.
To meet the major development target of 35bar BMEP, in combination with a robust design several
development stages are implemented specifically on the power unit.
Bearing systems (BEB, SEB) capable of high peak firing pressures up to 340bar need specific designand simulation efforts to ensure maximum performance and robustness.
In addition to the technical requirements, future bearing systems must apply to upcoming regulations
concerning hazardous materials.
The paper therefore deals with the development of the bearing systems for the described HSLE
engine power unit starting with the design and simulation, and the verification within a SCE
demonstrator. Specific attention has been placed on the bearing system (in a joint approach between
AVL & Miba), focusing on the hydrodynamic layout, the influence of the system oil supply, theappropriate material selection and measurement verification, as the BEB and SEB are a key successfactor combining maximum performance with necessary robustness.

1

INTRODUCTION

As a result of human-driven climate change,
drivetrain developments continue to evolve to
reduce consumption and emissions. Car and truck
applications are shifting from ICEs to BEV and
FCEVs, although the overall benefit (cradle tograve/ well to wheel approach) is heavily
discussed. The situation is different for the socalled large engine segment (high speed, medium
and low speed) as the power density of batteries
and the upscaling of fuel cell technology containsignificant obstacles.
AVL`s development of a new high-speed engine
platform (HSLE) focusing on maximum efficiency
and robustness for standard (diesel and naturalgas) as well as upcoming CO2 neutral renewablefuels (e-fuels, H2…) will prove the sustainability of
the ICE concept.
To meet the major development target of 35bar
BMEP, in combination with a robust design, several
development stages are implemented specificallyon the power unit.
Bearing systems (Big End Bearing, Small End
Bushing) capable of high peak firing pressures up
to 330bar need specific design and simulation
efforts to ensure maximum performance androbustness.
In addition to the technical requirements, future
bearing systems must apply to upcoming
regulations concerning hazardous materials.
This paper therefore deals with the development of
the bearing systems for the described HSLE engine
power unit starting with the design and simulation,and the verification within a single cylinder (SCE)
demonstrator. Specific attention has been placedon the bearing system (in a joint approach between
AVL & Miba), focusing on the hydrodynamic layout,
the influence of the system oil supply, theappropriate material selection and measurement
verification, as the BEB and SEB are a key successfactor combining maximum performance withnecessary robustness.

2
2.1

AVLS HSLE2025+ ENGINE PLATFORM
Development targets

To cope with the demand for future emission andfuel consumption targets as well as highest power
density the New HSLE2025+ (high speed large
engine) was design for a BMEP of 35bar in a range
from 1200 to above 1800rpm as well as in cylinderpressures up to 330bar. With focus on later serial

CIMAC Congress 2023, Busan

production capability the layout of the power unit
was focused on realistic boundary conditions inview of a potential multi cylinder engine (MCE),
producibility (design for forging and casting),
weight, packaging and lifetime resulting inchallenging thermal and mechanical load.
2.2

Approach

For maximum flexibility in view of development thedesign considered different combustion systemvariations as there are direct injection Diesel, active
and passive gas pre-chamber, direct injection H2,
etc. [5] The cooling and lubrication system consider
flexibility in view of conditioning for various subsupplies. Based on this approach AVL designed,
procured, and assembled the HSLE 2025+ SCE.
2.3

Development partners and Funding

The research engine testing was performed as partof the COMET competence center program andwas supported by the federal government and theprovinces of Styria, Tyrol and Vienna. In addition,industry partners for the main engine components
MIBA (plain bearings), KS (pistons) and MWH(valve train components) have participated andsupported. Further partners providing support were
TENNECO (piston rings), GIENANTH (castcylinder head and block), and HYTORC (cylinder
head bolting system).

3

MIBA´S LEAD FREE HS ENGINEBEARING PORTFOLIO

Based on the regulations for Pass car applicationsin the late 1990s, Miba already started in the early
2000s with the development of lead-free bearing
solutions for large bore engines. In line with the
SoP (Start of production) of the Daimler HDEP
Platform with the OM 470-473 series Miba supplied
the first lead free bearing solution for Truck
applications. To achieve the performance goals in
combination with sufficient robustness, the socalled Miba 69 was introduced, consisting on alead-free Cu based lining (on a standard steel shell)
with an AlSn20 Sputter coating a polymer runningin layer. This combination has excellent
performance characteristics concerning load
capabilities and bearing life but is sensitive
concerning adaptability and dirt ingress.
Nevertheless, special care had to taken on thesystem layout, production quality and assembly
cleanliness. To improve the overall robustness theSynthec® running in layer has been introduced.
Miba produced and supplied the OM47x series formore than 10 years. Millions of bearings proved theviability of a lead-free high-performance bearing
solution.

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a. History of bearings materials (loadlimitations)
Besides the serial release of a lead-free plain
bearings for heavy duty truck applications all theother large bore engines with a bore diameter >140mm were and are still based on leaded lining
materials and partly lead based coatings. In
addition, Al-bimetals are used for medium loaded
applications and in the so called Medium and low
speed engine segment.
Starting with the classic Steel-lead bronze – highleaded electroplated overlays to lead free plated
overlays and Polymer coatings (as running layers)
to Sputter and Sputter Polymer coated overlays
Miba covers all the application needs using Diesel,
Marine Diesel, HFO fuels and Gas.
b. Next generation fuels & implications tolubrication & bearing system
Ongoing developments for efficiency leading toincrease of PFP (peak firing pressure) and theneed for avoidance of deposit formation within the
combustion chamber, forced a significant changeof additive formulation especially for high end gas
engine application.

already fulfill the upcoming legal requirements.
With the serial release of the SnSbCu coating arobust lead-free electroplated layer is available aswell, combining excellent emergency runningcapabilities with adequate long-term performancecovering medium bearing loads [3].
As mentioned earlier, nearly all big bore engines(>140mm bore) using Tri-metals, run on leadbronze lining material. The actual lead-free lining(Gen I) had some deficits concerning robustness as
lead is an excellent tribological active material.
Therefore, the target for the Generation II was the
improvement of emergency running capabilities
and dirt resistance, keeping the pure performance(load capability) on the same level.
The final solution combining all the aspects is a
CuSbZn Matrix with excellent fatigue behavior
replenished with Sulfur particles to substantially
improve the tribological behavior. Cross sections of
the Gen I and Gen II materials are depicted in
Figures 1 and 2. The Sulfur particles are clearlyvisible in Figure 2. Besides also the machining
properties could be enhanced, resulting in scrap
rate reduction, improved surface quality and longer
tool life.

Consequently, oil aging accelerated significantly
impacting the long-term stability of the bearing
system. Especially lead is washed out by acidicoils.
For reaching the required TbO targets (Timebetween Overhauls) a change of bearing materials
has been a must for the described gas engine
applications. As a lead-free bearing solution wasavailable and in serial production already for many
years, Miba 69 has been introduced. Performancewise this transition gave the opportunity to further
increase TbOs, on the other hand short term
failures after assembly and especially after service
increased, as the overall robustness against earlylife and externally induced failures is lower
compared to the well-known leaded compounds.
For the upcoming changes towards zero impact
fuels on climate change as e-Methanol, NH3 andH2 impacts on the lubricant have to be expected aswell. In addition, legislations prohibiting hazardous
materials (as lead) are in negotiation and will get
effective within the next 5 years.
c. Next generation bearing portfolio
Therefore, Miba is developing a consistent (leadfree) bearing portfolio trying to cover all different
aspects as performance, robustness and design.
For the coating (= running layer) most of the layers(AlSn SnCuSb Sputter, Polymer (Synthec®)

CIMAC Congress 2023, Busan

300µm

Figure 1. Cross section of CuSnZn Lead freebronze Bimetal (Gen I)
300µm

Figure 2. Cross section of CuSnZnS Lead freebronze Bimetal (Gen II)
For covering all bearing positions, the prescribedprefab material will be available in a strip casted aswell as in a spin casted version. In combination withthe well-established coating options (Sputter, Eplating and Polymer) for half shells and as a Bimetal and E-plated version for the bushings, allbearing locations within an engine can be covered,Paper No. 023

Page 2

taking the performance as well as robustness
needs into consideration.

Figure 3. Alternate Bending test results of Steelbronze materials – Miba 01 lead bronze, Miba 49
lead free bronze Gen I, Miba 2C lead free bronze
Gen II

For prequalification of the base material specifictests (seizure load and dirt shock – see Figures 4
and 5) have been performed on the Bi-metals, inaddition to the Miba internal qualification standard[2]. Figure 4 shows significantly improved seizureload level of the Gen II material in contrast to Gen
I, comparable to the lead-based lining material.
Concerning the number of survived dirt shocks
depicted on Figure 5 a substantial increase to ~2
dirt injections could be achieved. In addition, thepure fatigue limit of the new Gen II alloy (2C) isslightly higher than the previously used material(49) and significantly higher than the lead-based
lining (01), visible in the Wöhler chart on Figure 3.
To prove and verify the capabilities of this new leadfree portfolio Miba provided all the relevant bearing
types for the connection rod (BEB and SEB) for thetarget AVL HSLE platform. Concerning the SEB aspin casted Bimetal version of the CuSnZnS alloy
has been used. For the BEB 3 different types havebeen provided and tested. 2 Sputter versions
AlSn20 / Synthec® (Miba 6G), SnCuSb (Miba 3H)
and a SnSbCu electroplated version (Miba 4B) all
based on a strip casted lead-free bronze (Miba 2C).
Details of the bearing validation are described in
Chapter 6.

4
4.1

Figure 4: Test rig seizure load result of Miba 01 leadbronze, Miba 49 lead free bronze Gen I, Miba 2C
lead free bronze Gen II

Figure 5: Dirt shock rig testing result of Miba 01
lead bronze, Miba 49 lead free bronze Gen I, Miba
2C lead free bronze Gen II

CIMAC Congress 2023, Busan

DEVELOPMENT OF POWER UNIT &BEARING SYSTEM
Design process

In a single loop design and analysis front loading
development approach AVL has used its internalbenchmarking, design and analysis capabilities toimplement a multi-cylinder capable single cylinder
demonstrator unit. To reduce time and cost forvalidation and testing AVL followed the frontloading
approach and reached a functional unit withinshortest time demonstrating the full target.
achievement
withoutmechanicalfailures.

Figure 6. Frontloading and virtual development
versus traditional development

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In order to further push design and analysis
capabilities ahead, the telemetric measurements
and additional sensor across the engine have beenused to confirm the predicted / frontloaded data.
For the bearing system in detail the temperatures
on bearing shell back have been monitored live via
a telemetric system and compared to the predictedbearing temperatures based on simulation.
4.2

shape and dimensions of piston pin and pistonbosses is confirmed as well.
During the dynamic simulation of the bearing /bushing system the limiting curve for cylinderpressure versus speed had been developed toestablish the mechanical boundaries for
combustion development.

Simulation Process

The virtual release and development of thecomponents for the challenging next generationneeds careful application of the CAE toolchain(available at AVL) in an early development stage asshown in Figure 6. Most challenging is the wide
range of target application in combination with thetarget of 35bar BMEP resulting in highest demands
for each single component in terms of mechanicaland thermal loading. The focus is on the piston
cylinder unit.
a. Conrod bearings
The challenge of 330bar firing pressure in a wide
range on the speed profile is to balance overall
dimensions between reduced structural stiffness
and sufficient remaining strength.
The small end bushing is implemented without
forced lubrication and hence needs withstand highload under poor lubrication. Reaching a unit load of
123MPa demands an excellent load distribution
over width and matching between the piston pin
stiffness, small end form shape and small end
structural support. To ensure functionality for thesystem from the beginning, a form shape defined
based on EHD simulation (Figure 7) maximising theload distribution area in the bush center for load
carrying capability. A feature including a smoothtransition to a strong relief on the edges was also
implement.
Similarly, the big end bearing needs be defined withan accurate micro-geometry to meet thesurrounding structure’s demands. Avoiding highedge contact and ensuring a proper circumferential
and axial load distribution. The results show thatsufficient softness at the thrust faces towards thewebs is required to achieve safe results on the big
end bearing and avoid the demand for high run-in
layers on the bearing running face.
Such a simulation using AVL Excite Power unit
MBD software [3] requires detailed modelling of thepiston, piston pin and conrod (shown in Figure 7)
as flexible bodies to allow for correct interaction
between the structural components. As side effectof the dynamics, simulation of the small end the

CIMAC Congress 2023, Busan

Figure 7. 3D representation of the virtual twin forthe bearing system
b. Main bearings
The main bearings for the single cylinder havebeen defined to ensure safe and long-lasting
operation without demands and have been slightly
over-dimensioned in diameter. Nevertheless, themulti-cylinder bearings have been virtuallyconfirmed up to V20 in 3D EHD simulation toensure the engine can meet the overall targets interms of balance of crankshaft length, bearing
width versus web width and cylinder spacing for the
35bar BMEP target.
4.3

Conrod: Mechanical layout and bearing
assembly test

Two of the main tasks for on the powertrain design
are the layout and design of the Conrod big end
bearing (BEB) and small end bushing (SEB). For
the SEB a layout with a microgeometry defined by
MBD / EHD simulation for achievement of harmonicpressure distribution has been chosen. Besides
that, special care has been taken designing the oil
pockets and grooves to achieve an adequate oil
supply by splash oil collection without an oilchannel through the conrod shaft for pressurized oil
supply.
To ensure a precise ID shape the final small end
machining including a form bore has been done
after bushing assembly.
Concerning the BEB layout a standard design has
with an overall half shell wall thickness of ~5mm

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Page 4has been selected in combination with a crush of~0.15mm (per shell) to guarantee an adequate
press fit. For final definition of the wall thickness
shape, an assembly test has been performed on
the first conrod available. As shown in Figure 8 aslight ovality has been measured, therefore a wall
thickness “correction” of 0.03mm has been
specified on the final drawing.

development engines, with limited operation time
due to limited electric capacity of the battery. The
applied system uses an induction system for power
supply. The whole system consists of a telemetricsystem including an induction system and thetemperature sensors mounted on the conrod(Figure 10) and a permanent magnet mounted on
the crankshaft (CAD mock up see Figure 9). The
relative motion between the induction system andthe magnet supplies the power for the electronics
which transfers the measurement data to a receiverunit mounted on the engine crankcase [1].

Figure 8. Assembly test result using bearings withconstant wall thickness

5

SCE SET UP AND INSTALLATION

5.1

Quality check of parts with focus on
bearing system

To reduce the risk of severe engine failures, inadvance of engine assembly and in addition to
conducted simulation tasks, the connecting rods
have been validated by fatigue testing. The qualityof all components was proven and documented
with a 100%-dimensional measurement andmaterial inspection for relevant components suchas cylinder head, block, bolts, conrods, etc.
5.2

Power unit assembly & engine built up

During the assembly, in addition to the part quality
checks, geometrical measurements on relevant
assemblies influenced by the assembly loads as
the bearing systems were performed to prove theinfluence in view of deformation. This was to avoid
any later engine issues and to prepare a basis forlater wear assessment for the relevant tribologicalpairings e.g., the valve-to-valve seat ring interface,by documenting the valve recess in assembled
condition.
5.3

Figure 9. Design mock up of power train unit
including Telemetric system / Detail of Magnet
mounting
For an optimal measurement position 10 to 15mm
deep drillings from the bearing side face have beenmachined 1.5mm underneath the running surface
in the high loaded zone.
In addition to the energy-harvesting system and thepositioning of the sensors, a main design focus has
been a minimum impact on the structural integrityof the connecting rod, as well as easy systemassembly. As shown in Figure 10, the system fits
on the conrod with only minor additional machining(transition slot for the wires from bearing shell toelectronics). Overall, the whole set up proves ageneral feasibility for future pre-serial / serial
applications.

Installation of Conrod BEB incl.
monitoring system

For an adequate monitoring of the powertrain
especially of the BEB a newly developed
Telemetric system has been used. In contrast to
state-of-the-art systems which are used for

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lubrication system. Due to this setup, thetemperature, pressure and volume flow can be
adjusted and also measured for parameter studies.

Figure 10. Connecting rod incl. bearing shell andmounted Telemetric system

66.1

SCE SYSTEM MONITORING AND
VALIDATION
Rig set up and LEC testing environment

The complete single cylinder power unit as shownin the CAD assembly in figure 11 consists, from left
to right, of the power unit, an intermediate shaft
assembly and an active dyno sitting on a commonbase frame. The single cylinder engine wasassembled at AVL and then installed on andconnected to the test rig at the Large Engine
Competence Center (LEC) in Graz in combination
with an active dyno as well as external, controllable
and conditioned media supply for fuel, air, coolant
and oil. In figure 12 the interfaces for the external
coolant as well as the various lube oil supplies areshown.

Figure 12. Engine on test bed P1 at LEC incl. thelube oil and coolant interfaces
6.2

Engine start up & running in

To avoid any early failures by improper adaptationof tribological interfaces the engine was put throughan extended run-in program to allow allcomponents enough adaption time. In parallel thevalve lash in operation was measured and the cold
setting values were optimized in view of dynamic
valve train conditions, maximum lift and sufficient
wear reserve.
After successfully passing the run-in program adetailed performance and emission development
test program was executed followed by a 50hrs
durability screening test.
6.3

Bearing monitoring and verification

During operation, the condition of the completeengine was monitored by continuous monitoring of
the overall friction and the plain bearing condition
on top by an automated comparison of the bearing
and bearing shell back temperatures with the target
values.
Figure 11. SCE and dyno assembly
To ensure and to measure the condition of the lube
oil supply for the piston group (piston cooling jets)
and the conrod big end bearing, the oil feeds tothese are separated from the overall engine

CIMAC Congress 2023, Busan

The reduction of the lube oil supply pressure
towards the BEB showed low sensitivity. The
bearings maintain a hydrodynamic condition
without excessive asperity contact as long as oil is
supplied towards the bearing. As depicted in figure

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13 the temperature gradient rises for low supply
pressures. This indicates a further reduction of
supply pressure lower than 1.5 bar is notrecommended, as thermal instability might occur.

Figure 15. Big end bearing (Miba 6G incl.
temperature telemetry) inspection after max. BMEP
tests

Figure 13. BEB and SEB back temperatures vs.
lube oil supply pressure
6.4

Post test Power unit inspection

At every change of hardware for different
combustions system investigations all relevant
components have been assessed and documented
including the conrod bearings. The small end
bushings did not show any indications of local
overloading or lube oil starvation as visible in figure
14. Especially the high loaded edges don´t indicate
any signs of wear or material deformation / scuffing,
due to the crowning of the bushing.

Figure 16. Big end bearing (Miba 3H) inspection
after max. BMEP tests -The conrod big end bearings showed minor signs
from run-in but didn’t show any signs of local
overloading as shown in figures 15-17. A few tracesfrom foreign particles could be observed at someinspections, but the bearings were able to embedthem and there were no follow up damages on theoverall engine.
Figure 17. Big end bearing (Miba 4B) inspection
after alternative fuel tests (H2, NH3)
Overall an excellent adaption and wear behavior(as documented in the Figures 15 to 17) has beenachieved for the different bearing types. For the
Sputter bearing types 6G (AlSn20 / Synthec®) &3H (SnCuSb) the test focus has been on theperformance under high BMEP level. In contrast
Miba 4B with the softer SnSbCu e-plated overlay,
the functionality under medium load in combination
with alternative fuels has been the main testing
objective.
Figure 14. Excellent behavior of the small end
bushing after max. BMEP tests (Miba 2A)

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6.5

Simulation validation

6.6

After several hours of full load operation at 330bar
firing pressure at different speeds and lubrication
conditions the big end bearing and small end
bushing have been inspected for wear marks andrun-in profiles (shown in the figures 14 to 16). The
inspection revealed an excellent match of load
distribution across the big end bearing width.

Bearing Temperature

The BEB and SEB temperatures have been
simulated upfront to predict the temperature andtemperature distribution in the bearings under
different operating conditions. Excite Power unit
thermal slider bearing methodology (EHD+T) [4]has been used using different oil supply pressurelevels and load scenarios of the engine. Figure 20
shows the temperature distribution on the bearing
shell surface after stabilization of the temperature
calculation. Locally the measured values under thesame condition are shown. The given measured
values are taken at the bearing shell back andtherefore slightly lower.

Figure 20. Big End Bearing simulated surface
temperature under full load full oil supply condition
compared to measured values [7].
Figure 18. Big end bearing simulation resultscomparing to figure 16-17 [7].
For the small end bush the load is evenly
distributed and the edges are clear from material
deterioration or plasticity by local overloading
leading to the conclusion that the simulated form
shape meets the engine demands properly.
The essential part of the virtual phase that has been
applied successfully is to anticipate the loading andrequired form shape to avoid reverse engineering
requirements and drawing / hardware updates.

Figure 21 shows the temperature development fordifferent stabilized BMEP levels for 1500rpm andfor 1800rpm. Measurement and simulation arewithin a few degrees of each other for bearing
center and bearing side. This demonstrates thecapabilities of predicting temperature in the bearing
for different conditions. It is obvious that bearing
temperature is driven more by sliding speed thanby engine load for a well-designed bearing
environment. At lower speeds the load shows more
effect on bearing temperature as the load has direct
influence on asperity friction loss.
At all shown conditions the supply temperature andsupply pressure to the BEB has been held
constant.

Figure 19. Small end bush simulation resultscomparing to figure 14.

CIMAC Congress 2023, Busan

Figure 21. Big End Bearing simulated andmeasured temperature over BMEP for 2 engine
speeds.

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7

MBD: Multi body dynamics

CONCLUSIONSThe joint project was set up to prove the following:•

Robust power unit design up to a high
BMEP level of +35bar and PFP of 330barwith a power unit potential for further
increase.

•

The functionality of lead free BEB and SEB•

Validation and verification of the frontloaded analysis supported design, showing
the capabilities of AVL & Miba•

Functionality of Miba´s Telemetric system
for the measurement of Conrod BEB
temperatures
poweredbyenergyharvesting system•

Verification the bearing performance of the
newly developed Miba bearing types 2A(for the SEB), 6G, 3H and Miba 4B under
extreme load as well as alternative fuelcombustion conditions•

Investigation of oil pressure sensitivity on
BEB temperatures•

Engine testing and inspections indicate
representative TbOs, however this has tobe proven via DVP on an MCE engine leveltesting.

Overall, all the targets have been achieved. The
SCE shows major potential for top efficiency indiesel as well as in Hydrogen or Ammonia
combustion mode with no short-term influence on
the mechanical behavior on the crank train. In
addition, the functionality and robustness of leadfree materials for SEB and BEB has been shown.

8

DEFINITIONS, ACRONYMS,
ABBREVIATIONSICE: Internal combustion engine

EHD: Elasto hydro dynamic
TbO: Time between overhauls

9

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research engine testing was performed as partof the COMET Large Engines Competence Centerprogram and was supported by the federal
government and the provinces of Styria, Tyrol andVienna.

10

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY[1] Hager, G. 2019, A New Technological Approachto Onboard Bearing Condition Monitoringvalidation, Proceedings of 29th CIMAC world
congress, Vancouver, Canada[2] Zorn. K, Bearing Challenges on High
Performance Gas Engines, Proceedings of 29th
CIMAC world congress, Vancouver, Canada[3] Offner G., Knaus O. 2013. Friction Power Loss
Simulation of Internal Combustion Engines
Considering Mixed Lubricated Radial Slider, Axial
Slider and Piston to Liner Contacts, Tribology
Transactions. 56: 503–515.
[4] Lorenz N., Offner G., Jaitner D. 2021. Fast
Thermal Heat-Up Simulation of Hydrodynamic
Lubricated Journal Bearings. NAFEMS. Salzburg.
[5] Estebanez, G. 2023. GHG Reduction on High
Speed Large Engines, Proceedings of 30th CIMAC
world congress, Busan, Korea.
[6] ABAQUS. (2021), ABAQUS Theory Manual,Ver. 2021.
[7] AVL List GmbH. (2022), AVL-EXCITE, Theory,
Ver. 2022.2, AVL List GmbH. Graz, Austria.

BEV: Battery electric vehicle
FCEV: Fuel cell electric vehicle
SCE: Single cylinder engine
HSLE: High speed large engine
BEB: Big end bearing
SEB: Small end bushing
BMEP: Brake mean effective pressure
PFP: Peak firing pressure

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