Bulletin of Glaciological Research ,0 (,**2) --ῌ.*ῌJapanese Society of Snow and Ice

Miaoergou Glaciers in the Kalik Mountains, western China: Report of areconnaissance for future ice core drilling and biological study
Nozomu TAKEUCHI+, Masayoshi NAKAWO,, Hideaki NARITA- and Jiankang HAN,
+ Department of Earth Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University, +ῌ--, Yayoicho, Inage-ku, Chiba-city, Chiba,,0-ῌ2/,,, Japan, National Institutes for the Humanities, Kamiyacho Central Place, .ῌ-ῌ+-, Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo +*/ῌ***+, Japan- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Kita-+3, Nishi-2, Kita-ku, Sapporo, *0*ῌ*2+3, Japan. Research Institute of Environment and Resources, Hunan Normal University, Changsha .+**2+, Hunan, China(Received July ,,, ,**2; Revised manuscript accepted September +, ,**2)

Abstract
Glaciological ﬁeld studies on Miaoergou Glaciers in the Kalik Mountains, western China werecarried out in ,**- and ,**. to investigate the possibility of future ice core drilling and biologicalobservation. Two glaciers, which have dome-shaped accumulation areas at an elevation of approximately ./** m a.s.l., were investigated. Radio-eco soundings showed that the ice thickness at the topof the two glaciers was .-.1 and ,3.0 m, respectively. Snow-pit observations revealed that superimposed ice appeared at ,*ῌ/* cm below the surfaces at the top of both glaciers, indicating thatsigniﬁcant melting had occurred during summer. Analyses of a ,-m-depth ice core drilled on one of
the glaciers showed that it consisted mostly of continuously refrozen ice and that the d+2O varied from
ῌ+/.1῍ to ῌ1.,῍ with a mean of ῌ+*.,῍. In the ice core were three visible dust layers, one of whichcontained various microbes including cyanobacteria. Whereas the d+2O record had proved rather
unsatisfactory as an air temperature proxy due to melt water runo#, a reconstruction of dust
deposition and biological activity on the glacier might be possible using an ice-core study.

+.

Introduction

Several ice cores have been drilled on glaciers inhigh Asian mountains since the late +32*s. These
cores have revealed environmental conditions datingback hundreds to thousands of years in this region
and have signiﬁcantly contributed to our understanding of the climate system in that region (e.g. Thompson
et al., ,**0). These cores have also revealed geographical variations in the climate history of the
Asian high plateau. For example, there have been
antisynchroneities in stable isotopes between the eastern and western Tibetan Plateau (Lin et al., +33/), as
well as in accumulations between the eastern andwestern Himalayas (Kaspari et al., ,**2) for the lastthousand years. In order to understand the spatial
variations in former environments and climates in the
Asian high plateau, more ice cores need to be recovered from new locations.
Geographical variations can also be made apparent by studying microbial communities living on
those glaciers. Recent studies have revealed diverse
biological communities on many glaciers across theworld (e.g. Kohshima, +321). Such communities usually consist of snow algae, bacteria, micro animals,
and insects. These are specialized species that haveadapted to live on snow and ice environments. Community structure and biomass vary among glaciers in
di#erent geographical locations. For example, snow
algal communities di#er on glaciers from northern
Asia (Altai), middle (Tibet), and southern Asia (Himalayas; Takeuchi et al., ,**0). The characteristics oforganic matter derived from such biological activities
also vary on di#erent Asian glaciers (Takeuchi, ,**,b). The biogenic material is usually composed of adark sediment called cryoconite (e.g. Takeuchi et al.,,**+a). These geographical variations in biologicalcommunities and biogenic materials may be due todi#erences in the physical and/or chemical conditions
on glaciers, but they need to be better understood for
future studies of glacial eco-systems and the usefulness of biogenic materials for ice core analysis.
The Kalik Mountains are located at the easternboundary of the Tien Shan Mountains of western
China at elevations up to approximately .2** m a.s.l.
There are more than -* small glaciers in this mountain range, some of which appear promising sites for34

Bulletin of Glaciological Research

ice core drilling. The geographical location of thismountain range is very important in terms of its
atmospheric circulation. This area is on a boundary
between two major sources of water vapor: east (monsoon vapor from the Paciﬁc or Indian Oceans) andwest (westerly vapor from the Arctic or Atlantic Oceans; e.g. Tian et al., ,**1). Therefore, ice cores drilledin this mountain range could provide valuable information on the Asian climate system.
We carried out two reconnaissance ﬁeld trips inthe in summers of ,**- and ,**.. This paper describes the physical, chemical, and biological conditions on the two Miaoergou Glaciers as a promising
ice core drilling sites based on our investigations.

,.

Study site and methods

These investigations were carried out on two
Miaoergou Glaciers (.-῎*-ῌN, 3.῎+2ῌE) in the Kalik
Mountains, which are located north of Hami City in
the Xinjyang Uygur autonomous region of China (Fig.
+ (a)). The Miaoergou Glacier is named after a small
village in that area. There are more than -* small
glaciers in this mountain range (Fig. + (b)). The term
“Miaoergou Glacier” does not denote one speciﬁc glacier, but rather refers to all the glaciers in the mountain range covered in this paper. There is a serious
dearth of glaciological information on these glaciers.
There have been only a few reports on the glaciers inthis mountain region, all of which were published in
Chinese (e.g. Li et al., ,**1).
Two of the glaciers (A and B in Fig. + (b)) were
investigated in this study, and were selected because
they have a dome-shaped accumulation area and are
relatively accessible (Fig. ,). Elevations of the top of
the glaciers are ./+* m a.s.l. for Glacier A and ./-* ma.s.l. for Glacier B. Both glaciers ﬂow mainly westward
down to their terminus at .,** m a.s.l. for Glacier A
and .,-* m a.s.l. for Glacier B. Field studies werecarried out from / to +* September ,**- on Glacier A,
and from ,1 August to . September ,**. on Glaciers A
and B. The local people (Uyghurs) of a village in thisarea refer to Glaciers A and B as Ailixibixi andKazaidabutai, respectively. Glacier A is accessible
from the village of Badashi, and Glacier B from Shuiting Village.
Ice thickness was sounded using two icepenetrating radar systems. One system designed by
Matsuoka et al. (,**.) was used on Glacier A in ,**-;
its pulse amplitude and the center frequency of its
transmitted signal were about 33* V and / MHz, respectively. The system included a controller, whichsets the measurement parameters, and displays andstores data. Further speciﬁcations of the system aredescribed in Matsuoka et al. (,**.). The measurements were continuously conducted from SA- to the
top of the glacier (SA1) via SA., SA/, SA0 in Fig. -.

Fig. +. Location (a) and map (b) of the Miaoergou
Glaciers in the Kalik Mountains, China. Twostudied glaciers (Glaciers A and B), and campsites
are shown on the map.

The second system using radar was manufactured by Ohio State University, and employed on
Glacier B in ,**.. It was powered by a +, V battery,and produced a short pulse signal of a few hundred
volts in amplitude which was radiated using a resistively loaded dipole antenna. The center frequencyof the transmitted signal was about / MHz. A dipole
antenna identical to that of the transmitter was used
for a receiver. The transmitted and returned signals
were recorded by an oscilloscope (Tektronic Digital
Storage Oscilloscope) and photographed; travel time
was then measured. The measurements were conducted at 0 sites on the glacier (SB+-SB0 in Fig. .).
The ice thickness (d) was calculated by the following
equation:d῍ῑ ῏῎ ΐ ῐ῍ῌ῕ ῒ ῌ ῔ῌ(+)

where v (m msῌ+) is the velocity of the radio wave, TTakeuchi et al.

Fig. ,. Pictures of the surface of Miaoergou Glaciers(a) View of top of the Glacier A from site SA-. (b)View of Glacier B on the way to camp site.

Fig. -. Map of Glacier A showing study sites forradio-eco sounding and surface ice sampling.

Fig. .. Map of Glacier B showing study sites forradio-eco sounding and surface ice sampling.

35(ms) is delay time, and , L (m) is antenna-separation
distance.
To measure annual net accumulation (mass balance) on the glacial surface, / bamboo stakes each ,-min length were installed at sites SA-, SA., SA/, SA0,and SA1 on Glacier A in ,**-. These stakes wereburied about /* cm below the snow surface. Two oldstakes at SA+ and SA,, which were found during ourﬁeldwork in ,**- and may have been installed before
by other researchers, were also measured in ,**- and,**.. The change of stake height above the glacialsurface between ,**- and ,**. was measured.
Snow pits were dug at SA- on Glacier A in ,**and at the top (SB0) of Glacier B in ,**.. Stratigraphy was recorded and density measured every +* cm.
Snow samples were collected at every +* cm of thesnow pits and put in plastic bags (Warlpak). In addition to the snow-pit study, a ,-m-deep ice core wasdrilled at the top (SB0) of Glacier B. Stratigraphy
was recorded, and weight was measured for density
immediately after drilling. The ice core was then cut
into /-cm sections, and each one was stored in a plasticbag (Warlpak). When the snow-pit and ice-core samples were melted in the bags, pH and electrical conductivity were then measured (D-/., Horiba, Japan).
Then, the samples were poured into glass vials forisotope analysis, and into plastic bottles for particle
and microbial analyses. Formalin was added to theplastic bottles to arrest biological activity. All samples were then transported to the Research Institutefor Humanity and Nature in Kyoto, Japan.
The samples were analyzed at Nagoya University
for oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopes with a mass
spectrometer (Finnigan Delta XP). The analyticalprecision of d+2O and dD measurements were *.*/ and*./῏, respectively. Deuterium excess (D excess) was
obtained from a deﬁnition by Craig (+30+) as d῎dDῌ
2.* d+2O. Particle concentration was measured by visual counting under an optical microscope (E0**,
Nikon, Japan). ,** mL of the samples was ﬁlteredwith a hydrophilized membrane ﬁlter (pore size *./ mm,+- mm diameter, Advantec, H*,*A*+-A). The particles on the ﬁlter were observed with an optical microscope. Particles more than , mm in diameter werecounted, and particle concentration was obtained.
Microbes on the ﬁlter were also examined using aﬂorescent microscope.
Surface ice on the ablation area of both glaciers
was collected in order to quantify dust and to describe
microbes on the glaciers. Ice on the surface layers
was collected with a stainless-steel scoop (approximately +* cm῍+* cm in area and +ῌ- cm in depth) in
the bare ice areas from one site on Glacier A and twosites on Glacier B (SA2, SB+, SB,, Figs.- and .). Fivesamples were collected from randomly selected surfaces at each study site. Collection areas on the surface were measured to calculate the amount of dust

36

Bulletin of Glaciological Research

per unit area. To arrest biological activity, the collected samples were melted and preserved as a -ῌ
formalin solution in clean -*-ml polyethylene bottles.
All samples were transported for analysis to a laboratory of the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, in Kyoto, Japan. The samples were dried (0*῍,,. hours) in pre-weighed crucibles. The amount of
dust per unit area of the glacier was obtained based on
measurements of the dry weight and the samplingarea. The dried samples were then combusted for hours at /**῍ in an electric furnace, and weighedagain. The amount of organic matter was calculated
from the di#erence in weight between the dried andcombusted samples, this method is slightly modiﬁed
from Dean (+31.). After combustion, only mineralparticles remained. To investigate the compositionof the surface dust, other samples of surface ice/snow
were collected and examined with optical microscopes(Leica MZ+,/, and Nikon E0**).

-.

Fig. /. Time series of received voltage at the site SAon Glacier A.

Results-.+ Radio-echo soundings
Radio-echo soundings showed the ice-thickness
variations of Glaciers A and B. Figure / depicts an
example of a time series of received voltage (SA- on
Glacier A); reﬂection signals were clearly observed in
the wave. The result of continuous measurements
along a glacial longitudinal line from SA- to SA1 on
Glacier A was shown in Fig. 0. The ice thickness
ranged from ,+., to /-.0 m, while that at the top of theglacier, which was a potential drilling site, was .+.1 m;
the thickest ice was found near site SA0 (/-.0 m).
The results of radio-echo soundings on Glacier B
were shown in Table +. The thickness ranged from
,3.0 to 10./ m, while that at the top of the glacier was,3.0 m. The thickest ice was found at site SB, (10./ m).

Fig. 0. Ice thickness proﬁle along the study sites
showing in Fig. -. The thickness was calculated
based on a radio propagation speed of +03 m m secῌ+.

Table +.

Results of radio radar sounding on the Glacier B-., Stake measurement
All ﬁve stakes installed on Glacier A in ,**- could
not be found the following year, ,**.. They most
likely fell on the glacial surface due to signiﬁcantablation (more than /* cm) in summer of ,**., andwere buried in new snow. Thus, the stakes could not
be used for net accumulation measurements. However, the two old stakes (SA+ and SA,) found at the
middle of Glacier A in ,**- were still intact and could
be re-measured in ,**.. The mass balance between,**- and ,**. at both stakes was negative. The heightchanges were 0, cm for SA+ and 03 cm for SA,.
-.- Snow pit and ice core
A *./0-m deep snow pit at site SA- on Glacier A
showed a stratigraphy with a mix of snow and ice
layers (Fig. 1). Beneath the bottom of the snow pit
was a thick ice layer. Snow density ranged from ,33
to /+1 kg mῌ-, and three visible dust layers were foundFig. 1. Stratigraphy, d+2O, D excess of a *.0-m-snow pit
at site SA- on Glacier A.

Takeuchi et al.

37

Fig. 2. Stratigraphy, d+2O, D excess, electrical conductivity of a ,-m-ice core drilled at site SB0 on
Glacier B.

in the pit. The d+2O ranged from ῌ3.,2 to ῌ0.+/ῐ
(mean: ῌ1..,ῐ), and D excess ranged from +-.. to,,.+ῐ (mean: +2..ῐ).
The stratigraphy and density proﬁle of a ,-m deep
ice core drilled at SB0 (.//* m, the top of Glacier B)
showed that there was a snow layer only above *.,. m,while the remainder below that depth was refrozen ice(Fig. 2). Three visible dust layers were apparent in
the stratigraphy. The d+2O proﬁle showed a range ofvariations with a maximum (ῌ1.,+ῐ) at +.1+ m andminimum (ῌ+/.1.ῐ) at +..0 m. The mean d+2O wasῌ+*.,+ῐ, with D-excess ranging from ++.. to ,*.0ῐ(mean: +/.2ῐ). Electrical conductivity varied from-... to .0./* mS cmῌ+ (mean: +1.32 mS cmῌ+), and particle
concentrations in the core from ,.1῎+*- to /.1῎+*/
numbers mLῌ+ (mean: ,.2῎+*. numbers mLῌ+). There
was a distinctive peak of particle concentrations at*./. m. Observation with ﬂuorescent microscopy revealed that abundant microbes including ﬁlamentous
and unicellular cyanobacteria were contained in thisdust layer (Fig. 3).
Dust on the ablation surface
Table , shows the characteristics of surface dust
collected from the bare ice areas on Glaciers A and B.
The amounts of dust in dry weight ranged from 1-.0 to,*/ g mῌ, (mean: +., g mῌ,, standard deviation (SD)῏/+) on Glacier A, and from ,1.+ to ,3/.0 g mῌ, (mean:32., g mῌ,, SD῏23) on Glacier B. The surface dust
contained levels of organic matter ranging from 1.0 to++.,ῌ (mean: 3.0ῌ, SD῏+.+) in dry weight. The amounts of organic matter per unit area on the ice surface
ranged from ,.1 to -+.+ g mῌ, (mean: +*.3 g mῌ,, SD῏
2.+).
A microscopic study of the surface dust revealed
mineral particles, amorphous organic matter, and living cyanobacteria. Brown organic granules, whichwere the main component of the dust, were sphericalin shape and contained an abundance of ﬁlamentous
cyanobacteria and mineral particles (Fig. +*). The
size of the organic granules ranged from *.,, to +.2 mm

Fig. 3. Microbes in an ice core sample on Glacier B(*./. m from the surface) observed with a ﬂuorescent microscope. (a) a green alga, (b) ﬁlamentous
and unicellular cyanobacteria.

Table ,. Amount of cryoconite, mineral particles, andorganic matter on the ablation surfaces on the
Miaoergou Glaciers.

-..

(mean: *.1/ mm, SD῏*.,,) for SA2 on Glacier A, andfrom *.,* to ,.3 mm (mean: +.* mm, SD῏*...) for SB+
on Glacier B. Observation with a ﬂuorescence microscope revealed at least three taxa of ﬁlamentous cyanobacteria with autoﬂuorescence densely covering
the surface of the granules. The cell size (diameter)and characteristics of the three taxa were: (+) ..1῍*.13
mm (mean῍SD) with a sheath, (,) ,.,῍*.,0 mm with asheath, and (-) +..῍*.+. mm without a sheath (Fig. ++).
The mineral particles in the dust were brown, white,or transparent, and were microscopically observed to38

Bulletin of Glaciological Research

Fig. +*. Surface dust (cryoconite granules) at SA+ on
Glacier A.

Fig. ++. Photos of three taxa of ﬁlamentous cyanobacteria observed on Glaciers A and B.

range from -.+ to 0- mm (mean: +*.1 mm, SDῌ1.+ for
those larger than -.* mm) in diameter. The minerals
appeared to be quartz, feldspar, mica, calcite, and clay
minerals, although more detailed analysis will be required.

..
..+

Discussion

Suitability of glaciers as ice core drilling sites
Both of Glaciers A and B were dome-shaped witha ﬂat surface at the top, which seemed to be suitablefor ice core drilling since ﬂat annual layers with little
glacial ﬂow can be expected at such sites. However,results of our ﬁeld investigation showed some potential di$culties for ice core drilling. The ice thick-nesses measured by radio-echo sounding at the top of
Glaciers A and B were .-.1 and ,3.0 m, respectively,
which are generally shallower compared with ice
cores drilled on other Asian glaciers. For example,
ice cores of +.* m were recovered from the Dunde Ice
Cap in the Qilian Mountains (Thompson +323), while a-,*-m core was recovered from the Guliya Ice Cap in
the Kunlun Mountains (Thompson et al., +331). Shallower ice depths on glaciers suggest that they contain
only the ice from relatively shorter time periods or theice of thin annual layers (less amounts of annual net
accumulation). Moreover, signiﬁcant melting features observed in the snow pits and ice cores on
glaciers also imply analytical di$culties for ice core
study. Signiﬁcant melting at the top of the glaciers
is revealed by stake measurements and the stratigraphy of a ,-m ice-core sample. The stake installed at
top of Glacier A (./+* m a.s.l.) in ,**-, was found tohave fallen by the following summer. This indicatesthat the surface level has dropped by at least /* cm
due to summer melting. Percolating melt water canalter both the chemical and isotopic records in ice
cores (e.g. Li et al., ,**0; Hou et al., ,**0; Koerner et al.,+31-). Although some variations in a stable isotope
in a ,-m ice-core sample were observed (Fig. 2), therecord seems to imply di$culties in their usefulness
as an air temperature proxy, since continuous refrozen ice in an ice core suggests that some accumulation
has been lost due to melt water runo# (Koerner et al.,+31-). Thus, the suitability of chemical and isotope
information for ice core study on these glaciers appears questionable.
In contrast to chemical and isotopic records, however, insoluble particles are more likely to prove useful for such ice core studies. Microscopy of our ice
core samples revealed a clear dust peak at a depth of*./+ῌ*./0 m. The dust peak layer was probably formed by a spring maximum of airborne dust in thisregion. A variation in dust concentrations can beused for the dating of an ice core (e.g. Han et al., ,**0).
In addition, annual dust ﬂux derived from such concentrations would provide valuable data on environmental changes in a region. Moreover, microscopy
has revealed signiﬁcant numbers of microbes contained in dust layers. A layer *./+ῌ*./0 cm in depth
was found to contain unicellular and ﬁlamentous cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are among the most common microbes on glaciers in this region (Takeuchi etal., ,**/). Their biomass and community structure
can reﬂect environmental conditions such as radiationand nutrients, thus making their analysis a potential
source of valuable data for the reconstruction of pastenvironments from an ice core.
Ice cores were drilled in +33- at an elevation of.+** m on the Ürümqi No. + Glacier, which is locatedapproximately -** km west of the Miaoergou Glaciers.
The cores have been analyzed and revealed the history

Takeuchi et al.

of soluble ions and dust concentrations in the region(e.g. Lee et al., ,**-). However, the d+2O records of theice cores were found to be signiﬁcantly altered by melt
water, which rendered them unsuitable as an air temperature proxy (Hou et al., ,**0). The conditions ofintense melting on the Miaoergou Glaciers seemedsimilar to that at the drilling site of the Ürümqi No. +Glacier. Although the use of chemical and isotopic
records would be problematic on both the Miaoergou
and Ürümqi glaciers, a geographical comparison of therecords of dust ﬂux and/or microbes might provide
valuable information to improve our knowledge ofdust transportation and the variations of the biological community in this region.
.., Dust and microbes on the ablation surface
Surface dust in the ice areas of the both glaciers
contained high levels of organic matter and cyanobacteria. The percentage of organic matter on theglaciers (2.0ῌ+*./ῌ, Table ,) is comparable to those on
glaciers in the Tien Shan Mountains (mean ++.,ῌ,Takeuchi and Li, ,**2), and in the Qilian Mountains(mean: 2.1ῌ, Takeuchi et al., ,**/), and in the Himalayas(mean: 1.+-ῌ, Takeuchi et al., ,**+a), on which anabundance of microbes has been reported. Microscopy showed that the dust consisted mainly of minute
brown granules (Fig. 1). Their size, composition, andstructure resemble those of the cryoconite granules,
which grow as algal mats on the glacial surface (e.g.
Takeuchi et al., ,**+a). Such granules are therefore
likely to be the products of biological activity on theglacial surface.
The amount of total (organic plus inorganic) surface dust on the ice surface of the Miaoergou Glaciers is
less than on other Asian glaciers in China and theHimalayas, but is markedly greater than on glaciers inother parts of the world. According to previous studies, the average amount on the Ürümqi Glacier No. + in
the Tien Shan Mountains was --. g mῌ, (Takeuchi andLi, ,**2), while that on the July +st Glacier in the Qilian
Mountains was ,3, g mῌ, (Takeuchi et al., ,**/), andthat on the Yala Glacier in the Himalayas was ,,/ g mῌ,(Takeuchi et al., ,**+a). These amounts are roughly
two- to three-fold greater than those on the Miaoergou
Glaciers (3,ῌ+., g mῌ,, Table ,); the lesser dust amounts
on the latter may be due to low levels of airborne dust
deposition on the glaciers. In contrast, the amounts ofsurface dust are reported to be less than /* g mῌ, on
glaciers in the Canadian Arctic, Alaska, and Patagonia(Takeuchi, ,**,a; Takeuchi et al., ,**+b; Takeuchi etal., ,**+c), suggesting that the dust deposition on the
Miaoergou Glaciers is larger than those glaciers.
The surface dust on the glaciers is likely to signiﬁcantly reduce the surface albedo, as reported onother Asian glaciers. The surface dust on Chineseand Himalayan glaciers has been reported to substantially reduce surface albedo and to accelerate ablation

39of the glaciers (e.g. Kohshima et al., +33-; Takeuchi etal., ,**+b). Since the dust was visibly apparent on
the ice surfaces of our studied glaciers, its e#ect on
surface albedo is likely to be substantial, even although the amounts of dust were smaller than thoseon other Asian glaciers. Both the organic and inorganic components of dust seem to contribute to surface albedo reduction, though the quantitative contribution of each component to the total reduction is
uncertain.
Cyanobacterial dominance in algal communities
on the glacial surface in our study is similar to thosereported on glaciers in the Tien Shan and Qilian Mountains, but di#erent from those in the Altai and Himalayas. Filamentous cyanobacteria were dominant on
the glacial ablation surface of Ürümqi Glacier No. +and the July +st Glacier, and no green algae (Chlorophyta) were observed on those glaciers (Takeuchi andLi, ,**2, Takeuchi et al., ,**/). In contrast, algal communities consisting of cyanobacteria and green algae
were observed on the Akkem Glacier in the Altai andYala Glacier in the Himalayas (Takeuchi et al., ,**0;Yoshimura et al., +331). Our results showed that the
cyanobacterial dominance in snow algal communities
is common on the glaciers in the northern part of the
Tibetan Plateau from eastern Tienshan (Ürümqi Glacier No. + and the Miaoergou Glaciers) to the Qilian
Mountains (July +st Glacier), and that it di#ers fromthe one in Altaic and Himalayan glaciers. This geographical di#erence in algal communities may result
from physical and/or chemical conditions on the glaciers, and could prove valuable in understanding thecharacteristics of Asian glaciers. Further investigations of other glaciers in this region will be required toreveal the underlying factors responsible for such
geographical variation in glacial microbial communities.

Acknowledgments
We wish to thank the sta# and students (Xingping
Zhang, Chongyi E, Yong Wang, and Chao Lu) of Qinghai Normal University, Akiyo Yatagai of the ResearchInstitute for Humanity and Nature for their generous
ﬁeld assistance. We are also indebted to the sta# of
the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center ofNagoya University for their help in stable isotope
analysis. We also thank S. Kohshima for review ofthis manuscript. This study was a part of the Oasis
and the Ili Projects funded by the Research Institutefor Humanity and Nature, and was also supported by
the Japanese Government’s Special Coordination
Fund for the Promotion of Science and Technology.
Laboratory analyses were partly supported by a Grantin-Aid for Young Scientists (A, No. +202+**/) andby a Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research (No. +3-+**,*and +3,*+**/) from the Japan Society for the Promo-

40

Bulletin of Glaciological Researchtion of Science (JSPS).

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