EUROPE AND
CENTRAL ASIAREPORT2018

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all those individuals and organisations who contributed to the production of this report.
In particular, the authors extend their sincere thanks to the authors of essays featured in the report and all external reviewers.
The sharing of new research, experiences, and informed opinions on current issues across the region are critical in deepening
our understanding of modern slavery in the region.

Recommended citation
Walk Free Foundation (2018). The Global Slavery Index 2018: Europe and Central Asia Report. Perth, Australia

Further readingThis report is part of a series that builds on the information presented in The Global Slavery Index 2018 to provide an in-depth
look at modern slavery at a regional level. The reports will be available from https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/resources/
downloads/ as they are released. The Global Slavery Index 2018 is now available to download.

Copyright © 2018. The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd.
All rights reserved.

DEurope and Central Asia Report

CONTENTS
Spotlight on progress

3

Executive summary

4

Estimating modern slavery in Europe and Central Asia

4

Key findings from the Global Slavery Index

5

Recommendations

7

About the Index

8

Methodology

10

Estimating prevalence

10

Measuring vulnerability

12

Measuring government response

13

Essays14

Modern slavery in Europe and Central Asia

20

Prevalence

24

Vulnerability

28

Importing risk: G20 countries in the Europe and Central Asia region
and import of products at-risk of modern slavery

32

Government responses

34

Regional response

40

Regional recommendations

42

Strengthen legislation

42

Improve victim support

42

Strengthen coordination and transparency

43

Address risk factors

43

Eradicate modern slavery from the economy

43

Appendix: Endnotes

44

1

2

Global Slavery Index 2018

EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA
REGION HIGHLIGHTSSlovakia

SwedenNorwayHungary Poland

FinlandLithuania

Estonia

Belarus

LatviaCzech Republic
Denmark

Moldova

Austria
Slovenia
Germany
Netherlands
Belgium
IcelandUnitedKingdom

RussiaLuxembourg
IrelandFranceUkraineKazakhstan

Switzerland

Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan

Italy

Turkmenistan

TurkeySpain

TajikstanPortugal

Georgia
Azerbaijan
Armenia
Romania
Bulgaria
SerbiaCroatia

Bosnia & Herzegovina

highMontenegro

Albania

Macedonia

IsraelCyprusGreeceKosovolow

Estimated Number ofPeople in Modern Slavery

91%

Forced labour
percentage

3,590,000
Regional Proportionof Global Estimate

9%

Forced marriage
percentage

9%

Average Vulnerability Score

28/100

Average Government Response Score

AAA

AA

A

BBB

BB

B

CCC

CC

C

D

Europe and Central Asia Report

3

SPOTLIGHT ON PROGRESS
While no government has a fully comprehensive response to modern slavery,
all countries in the Europe and Central Asia region have either maintained
or improved their response since the publication of the 2016 Global Slavery
Index. Most notably, the Netherlands has retained its position as having
the world’s strongest response to modern slavery, taking the most steps ofany nation to address the problem and, for the second consecutive time,
being the only country anywhere to receive an “A” rating. The Netherlands
national response is strong across indicators of victim support, criminal justiceresponses, and addressing risk, including social safety nets and protection for
migrants, a feature missing in many countries of destination. Netherlands was
closely followed by the United Kingdom, Belgium, Sweden, Croatia, Spain,
Norway, and Portugal, all of which took significant action against modern
slavery in the previous two years.

Other countries of note include the UK and France, both ofwhich have in place laws that seek to tackle forced labour
occurring in global supply chains. In the UK, Section 54of the 2015 UK Modern Slavery Act requires companies
that are fully or partially based in the UK and that have anannual turnover of more than GBP36 million to publish astatement each year describing the steps they have taken
to respond to slavery in their supply chains.1 While the
UK Modern Slavery Act has its weaknesses, namely thelack of a central, publicly available repository and a list of
businesses required to report, the legislation has been
instrumental in getting businesses to engage on the issue
at the board level and provides an important baseline fromwhich to build.

In France, companies with 5,000 employees domestically,or 10,000 worldwide, must establish and publish avigilance plan and annual implementation reports. 2
The plan must identify risks and how the company will act
to prevent serious human rights harm resulting from theactivities of the company, any other companies it controls
directly or indirectly, and any subcontractors and supplierswith whom it has established a business relationship.
These laws in the UK and France firmly bring the business
community into the response against modern slavery,
which is essential given that 16 million victims worldwide
are exploited in the private economy.

4

Global Slavery Index 2018EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Europe and Central Asia region encompasses both destination andorigin countries for modern slavery victims. Patterns of modern slavery reflectmigrant flows within the region, with individuals moving from less developed
areas to relatively more developed countries in search of work and economic
opportunities.3 This can be said of migrants moving from Eastern Europe
to Western Europe and those from former Soviet, Central Asian Republics
moving to the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan.4 In recent years, influxesof refugees escaping conflict and human rights abuses in the Middle Eastand Sub-Saharan Africa have led to increasing numbers of these individuals
fleeing to Europe and becoming vulnerable to exploitation.5

Moreover, as Eastern European migrants have moved andsettled in Western Europe, workers from Southeast Asia
have migrated to Eastern Europe to plug workforce gaps,
and these individuals are vulnerable to forced labour.6
Forced marriage also occurs across the region, including
bride kidnapping in Central Asia and the forced marriage ofEuropean citizens overseas.7 State-imposed forced labour
occurs in Central Asia, as shown by the exploitation ofcivilians in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.8 While migration ishighly relevant to understanding patterns of risk for modern
slavery, it is also the case that exploitation of nationals within
their home countries has increased across the region.9 As
many countries within the region become more inwardfacing and restrictive in their migration policies, it remains
to be seen what longer-term impact these policies will haveon migrants and citizens across Europe and Central Asia.

Estimating modern slavery inEurope and Central Asia
In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the International
Labour Organization (ILO), together with the International
Organization for Migration (IOM), produced the Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery, which estimated that 40.3
million people were living in modern slavery on any given
day in 2016. Of these, an estimated 3.6 million men, women,
and children were living in modern slavery in Europe andCentral Asia. This is a prevalence of 3.9 people in modern
slavery for every 1,000 people in the region. Although these
are the most reliable estimates of modern slavery to date,they should be interpreted cautiously and consideredvery conservative, given the gaps and limitations of data
generally and for this region in particular.
The current Global Estimates of Modern Slavery do notcover all forms of modern slavery; forms such as trafficking
for the purposes of organ removal, child soldiers, or childmarriage that could also constitute modern slavery cannot
be adequately measured at this stage. For example, there
are numerous reports of forced marriages in Central Asia
but few surveys on the issue have been conducted there.
This contributes to lower rates of forced marriage than may
be the case in this region.

Europe and Central Asia Report

Key findings from the Global
Slavery Index
In the Europe and Central Asia region, there are two main
trends that arise from an analysis of the regional andnational estimates of prevalence, measures of vulnerability,
and assessment of government responses.

5

Restrictive immigration policies and anti-immigrantsentiment are also on the rise in Central Asia, where
Russia has increasingly restricted access to employment
opportunities for citizens from Central Asian republics, suchas Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, among others.15 Russia has
the weakest government response across the Europe andCentral Asia region, and has one of the highest vulnerability
scores related to governance issues. This, coupled witha downturn in the Russian economy and a devaluing of
the rouble, has led these migrants to either enter Russia
illegally16 or seek economic opportunities in countries
such as Kazakhstan, where their irregular status can makethem vulnerable to forced labour in domestic service,
construction, and agriculture.17

First, intra-regional and cross-regional migration flows
are critical to driving vulnerability to modern slavery.
Intra-regional migration has characterised the region withflows of people from East to West, and from less developed
to more developed regions. People migrated traditionallyto seek economic opportunities and to escape poverty
Second, state-imposed forced labour continues to plagueand limited education and employment options. These
the Central Asia subregion. An analysis of government
individuals are willing and able to take low-skilled work in
responses highlights evidence of state-imposed forced
the informal sector, which is often unregulated and open tolabour in Belarus, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
exploitation.10 For example, labour laws do
Belarus and Turkmenistan also have thenot cover workers in the informal sector inhighest prevalence of modern slavery
26 countries in the region, and 11 countries
in the region. This includes concerning
The “so-called”
ban recruitment agencies and employers
allegations of forced labour in privately-run
migrant or refugee
from charging fees to job seekers. The
administrative detention centres and abusecrisis has exacerbatedof civic duties in Belarus18 and compulsory
Netherlands, Poland, Spain, and the UK arefears of migrantprison labour in public and private prisons
the only four European countries that bothprovide legal protections for workers in the
populations…and has in Russia.19
informal economy and prohibit recruiters
led to a tightening of
The governments of Uzbekistan andfrom charging job seekers fees. While theseimmigration policy and Turkmenistan continue to exploit citizens
flows of people from East to West still occur,
the annual cotton harvest under a system
reduction of protections inconflict and displacement in the Middleof production quotas under the threat ofEast and Sub-Saharan Africa have added
across the region forpunishment.20 Despite the government
migration routes from the Middle East andmigrants, meaning that of Uzbekistan working closely with theNorthern Africa across the Mediterraneanmore migrants may fall International Labour Organization toand into Europe. Attempting to traverse theend the use of child labour, as shown by
through the cracks.
Mediterranean in inflatable boats and otherthe improvement in their government
vessels that are barely seaworthy, these
response rating (from CC to CCC), there
individuals rely on people smugglers andare still reports of forced labour of adults.
unscrupulous recruiters and traffickers to facilitate their
The Turkmen government also compels farmers to growonward journeys, rendering them vulnerable to modern
annual quotas of cotton, wheat, and rice and has forced
slavery.11 Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine, all countries affected
tens of thousands of citizens to pick cotton each year.21
by high levels of immigration or displacement, have theTurkmenistan has the highest vulnerability score of all
highest absolute number of people in modern slavery andcountries across the region. Governments in the Central
account for over one-third (39 percent) of the victims in the
Asia region have taken action previously, and according
region (See Table 1).
to the International Organization for Migration there has
been a reduction in the production of cotton using stateOften depicted in media as an “exodus of biblicalimposed forced labour in Tajikistan.22 However, Tajikistan
proportions,”12 the “so-called” migrant or refugee crisis
remains a country with a relatively high vulnerability score,has exacerbated fears of migrant populations andthe second highest in the region. It is clear that more action
heightened perceptions in Europe that the continent will
should be taken by these countries to stop the use of thissoon be overrun. This has led to a tightening of immigration
type of forced labour.
policy and reduction of protections across the region for
migrants, meaning that more migrants may fall through
It is not just the countries where the exploitation occurs thatthe cracks.13 While many European countries have low
have a role to play. While the European subregion includes
vulnerability scores, with the lowest in Denmark andsome of the strongest responses to modern slavery, theSwitzerland, and high government responses, with thelowest vulnerability scores, and relatively low levels ofhighest in the Netherlands and the UK, European countries
prevalence, it also includes some of the world’s strongest
face associated risks of trafficking and labour exploitation
economies. G20 countries such as France, Germany, Italy,
among these migrant populations. There has also been
and the UK have begun to take action to stop the goods
evidence that a “fortress Europe” approach has led to theand services produced by forced labour from entering thedeaths of migrants trying to cross the Mediterranean Sea
global economy. They could also use their influence at theand, for those intercepted by the Libyan Coast Guard, a risk
European Union level to prevent the use of reduced tariffs
of ending up in detention centres where migrants can befor developing countries to export to the EU in cases whereused or sold in open markets as slaves.14
the exports have been produced by forced labour.23

6

Global Slavery Index 2018

Europe and Central Asia Report

7

Recommendations›› Governments must protect the rights of migrants
in destination countries regardless of whether theirentry was legal. Across Europe and Central Asia,
increasingly restrictive immigration policies havethe potential to increase the vulnerability of migrant
workers to modern slavery. All governments should
do more to ensure that increased control of borders
does not occur at the expense of migrant rights byreviewing existing policies to identify their impact
on migrating populations, providing alternative safe
migration pathways, ensuring labour laws cover all
workers, and establishing visa options for those whohave been exploited.
›› Governments and civil society should conduct
widespread, systematic education campaigns forthe public to counter stereotypical attitudes of
migrant workers and promote diversity. Typically,
increasingly restrictive immigration policies areaccompanied by a growth in anti-immigrant sentiment.
Governments should work with schools, universities,
and religious leaders to encourage inclusivity throughmedia campaigns aimed at reaching the widest
possible audience.
›› Governments must ensure that legal loopholes thatfacilitate state-imposed forced labour are closed
and that the practice is abolished in Belarus, Russia,
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The governments
in Central Asia should work closely with the ILO toeliminate programs that encourage forced labour,
particularly in agriculture. France, Italy, Germany,and the UK should exclude cotton from Uzbekistan
and Turkmenistan from trade preference programs,
particularly the EU’s Generalized Scheme ofPreferences, until they end their forced labour
systems of cotton production.

›› Governments should introduce and implement
legislation criminalising forced marriage and raise
the age of marriage to 18 for men and womenacross all European and Central Asian countries.
Twenty countries have legislation in place fully
criminalising forced marriage; governments should
enact equivalent laws in the remaining 30 countries.
In countries where legislation exists, its effective
implementation should be ensured by governments
providing ongoing training and resources for police,prosecutors, and judges.
›› Governments must extend protection for all
victims of modern slavery regardless of gender andcitizenship. While commercial sexual exploitationof women is the most often reported form of
exploitation across the region, recently there havebeen increases in the number of reports of men
victimised by forced labour. While only 28 countries
have specialized services for children, even fewer
services are typically available for male victims. In
Russia, there are no services found for male victims,
nor is there a nationally implemented victim referraland support system serving them. It is essential thatall governments are prepared to provide support
for victims of modern slavery as they are identified,regardless of gender and citizenship.
›› As a major donor of foreign aid, the EU should
support programming in origin countries to promotewomen’s empowerment, education for all, andsupport for displaced persons. Patriarchal structuresand conflict are some of the risk factors that increase
vulnerability to modern slavery. Strengthening
respect for women’s rights and tackling trafficking
that occurs as a result of conflict can help to prevent
exploitation of these populations on the move.

Lesbos, Greece, 11 August 2018.
Both photos show wrecked boats and thousands of life jackets usedby refugees and migrants during their journey across the Aegean
sea lying in a dump in Mithymna (Molyvos), on the Greek islandof Lesbos. The top image was taken on 4 August 2018 and thebottom image was taken of the same place on 19 February 2016.
Three years ago, the Greek island of Lesbos found itself at thecentre of the “so-called” migration crisis. At the height of theinflux, some 5,000 refugees and migrants, mostly from war-torn
Syria, were landing on the island’s beaches on a daily basis.
Hundreds did not survive the journey across the Aegean Sea.
More than 800 people, including many children, died in 2015 in the
Eastern Mediterranean. The situation quickly reached emergency
proportions for beleaguered Lesbos authorities trying to regulate
the flow, register the exhausted survivors, and find shelter for them.
Photo credit: Aris Messinis/AFP/Getty Images.

8

Global Slavery Index 2018

ABOUT THE INDEXWalk Free Foundation
Modern slavery is a complex and often hidden crime thatcrosses borders, sectors, and jurisdictions. The Walk Free
Foundation believes that a strong multifaceted approachis needed to end modern slavery. This includes building arobust knowledge base to inform action, driving legislativechange in key countries and harnessing the power ofbusinesses and faiths. Through a combination of direct
implementation, grassroots community engagement, andworking in partnership with faiths, businesses, academics,
NGOs, and governments around the world, the Walk Free
Foundation believes we can end modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation provides the Secretariat for theBali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons
and Related Transnational Crime, and champions businesssector engagement in this regional program. It is also
advocating strongly for all leading global economies toenact laws to ensure all organisations are held accountable
for taking proactive steps to remove modern slavery fromtheir supply chains.

The Walk Free Foundation’s Global Slavery Index has
developed world leading research to provide measurementof the size and scale of modern slavery, as well as assesscountry-level vulnerability and governmental responses.
Together with the International Labour Organization (ILO)
and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), theWalk Free Foundation developed the joint Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery.
Alongside this, the Global Freedom Network is working tocatalyse world faiths in the fight against modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation is also scaling effective antislavery responses in partnership with the Freedom Fundand seed funded the global activist movement, Freedom
United, whose community of eight million supporters
are campaigning for change. The Walk Free Foundation
continues to work with faiths, governments and NGOs
throughout the world to agitate for change and support
initiatives dedicated to the eradication of modern slavery
in all its forms.

Europe and Central Asia Report

About modern slavery

What is modern slavery?

Modern slavery is a hidden crime that affects every country
in the world. In the period between this Index and the last
(published in 2016), modern slavery was found in manyindustries including garment manufacturing, mining, andagriculture, and in many contexts, from private homes tosettlements for internally displaced people and refugees.
Instances have been identified in Thai fishing, coal mining
in North Korea, in the homes of diplomats in Australia, carwash stations in the United Kingdom, cocoa agriculture in
Côte d’Ivoire, and cattle ranching in Brazil, just to name afew examples.

FIGURE 1
Modern slavery is an umbrella term

DERN SLAVERY
MO
Trafficking for labourand sexual exploitation

Forced labour

Forced labour
as a result offorced marriage

Human
trafficking(cross border andwithin a country)

Slavery andslavery like practices(including forced
marriage)9

Trafficking for slavery
and slavery likepractices

Terminology
Countries use differing terminologies to describe modern
forms of slavery. This includes how they describe slavery
itself, but also other concepts such as human trafficking,forced labour, debt bondage, forced or servile marriage,
and the sale and exploitation of children.
In this report, modern slavery is used as an umbrella termthat focuses attention on the commonalities across theseconcepts. Essentially, it refers to situations of exploitation thata person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence,
coercion, abuse of power, or deception.
Refer to Appendix 1 in the 2018 Global Slavery
Index for full terminology, available for download atwww.globalslaveryindex.org.

Modern slavery impacts on all of us, from the food we
consume to the goods we purchase. It is everyone’s
responsibility to address and eliminate this crime
everywhere it occurs.
Nearly every country in the world has committed toeradicate modern slavery through their national legislationand policies. Governments have a central role to playby enacting legislation, providing safety nets to their
populations, and pursuing criminals who participate inthis heinous crime. As no single actor can address allthese challenges, governments need the support andengagement of the private sector, civil society, and thecommunity at large.

The Index
The Global Slavery Index is a tool for citizens, non-governmentorganisations (NGOs), businesses, and governments tounderstand the size of the problem, existing responses, andcontributing factors so that they can advocate for and build
sound policies that will eradicate modern slavery.
All supporting data tables and methodology are available
to download from the Global Slavery Index website:www.globalslaveryindex.org.

10

Global Slavery Index 2018

METHODOLOGY
Estimating prevalence
In 2017, the inaugural Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
were produced by the ILO and the Walk Free Foundationin partnership with IOM.24 The regional estimates produced
through this collaboration form the starting point for thenational level estimates presented here for 167 countries.
These national estimates were calculated25 using individualand country-level risk factors of modern slavery. The
analysis draws on data from nationally representative
surveys implemented through the Gallup World Poll,
including a module on modern slavery in 48 countries,
and data from the Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model.

The final set of risk factors were selected from an
exhaustive list of variables to optimally predict confirmed
cases of forced labour and forced marriage. The model wasthen used to generate average predicted probabilities ofmodern slavery by country. The regional totals in the 2017
Global Estimate were then apportioned based on eachcountry’s average predicted probability of modern slavery.
A final calculation accounting for state imposed forced
labour was performed to reach the final estimatedprevalence of all forms of modern slavery.
A detailed description of the methodology is set out inAppendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

Interviewer for Gallup conducting
an interview in Nepal.
Photo credit: Gallup

Europe and Central Asia Report

11

FIGURE 2
Estimating the prevalence of slavery at the national-level1/

Individual and country-level risk factors wereidentified and then used to build a model thatpredicts modern slavery. This drew on data fromthe Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model andnationally representative surveys.

AFRICA

2/

Individual predictions were aggregated into
country-level risk scores.

40.3m
EUROPEAMERICAS

ASIA PACIFIC

ARAB STATES

3/

 egional-level population estimates of modernRslavery from the 2017 Global Estimate wereallocated to individual countries in the region,
proportionate to each country’s relative risk.

4/

 he number of victims was then estimated byT
applying the country prevalence estimate topopulation data for each country and estimates ofstate imposed forced labour added to arrive at the
final estimate of all forms of modern slavery.

12

Global Slavery Index 2018

Measuring vulnerability
The Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model is built on
statistical testing and processes to identify the factorsthat explain or predict the prevalence of modern slavery.
The 2018 Vulnerability Model provides a risk score for 167
countries based on an analysis of data covering 23 risk
variables across five major dimensions.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part A in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.
FIGURE 3
Vulnerability Model 2018

01 Governance Issues
Political Instability,
GSI Government Response,
Women’s Physical Security,
Political Rights, Regulatory
Quality, Disabled Rights,
Weapons Access

02 Lack of Basic Needs

05 Effects of Conflict
Impact of Terrorism,
Internal Conflicts Fought,
Internally Displaced
Persons
Vulnerability
Score

04 DisenfranchisedGroups
Acceptance of Immigrants,
Acceptance of Minorities,
Same Sex Rights

Undernourishment,
Social Safety Net,
Ability to Borrow Money,
Tuberculosis, Accessto Clean Water,
Cell Phone Users

03 Inequality
Ability to Obtain
Emergency Funds, Violent
Crime, Gini Coefficient,
Confidence in the
Judicial System

Europe and Central Asia Report

13

Measuring government response
The Government Response Index provides a comparative
assessment of the legal, policy, and programmatic actions
that 181 governments are taking to respond to modern
slavery. This is based on data collected on 104 indicatorsthat are relevant to understanding how each governmentis tracking towards achieving five milestones:
1 / Survivors of slavery are identified and supported to exit
and remain out of slavery.
2 / Criminal justice mechanisms function effectively
to prevent modern slavery.

3 / Coordination occurs at the national and regional
level, and governments are held to account for their
response.
4 / Risk factors such as attitudes, social systems, andinstitutions that enable modern slavery are addressed.
5 / Government and business stop sourcing goods andservices produced by forced labour.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part C in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

FIGURE 4
Government Response Index 2018

Milestone 01
Identify andsupport survivors

Milestone 05
Clean upgovernmentand businesssupply chains

Milestone 02
Establish effective
criminal justicemechanisms

Government
Response Index

Milestone 04
Address risk
factors

Milestone 03
Strengthen
coordination andhold governments
to account14

Global Slavery Index 2018

TOWARDS ASLAVE-FREE EUROPE
Jan Van Dijk | First Vice-President of GRETA and emeritus professor of victimology Tilburg University, the Netherlands.

As a region Europe/Central Asia scores comparatively wellon the Walk Free Foundation’s Responses Index. Look at theNetherlands with its proud A! Look at the UK, Sweden, Belgium,
Croatia, Montenegro, Georgia and many, many others with
their BBB’s! How come almost all countries in the region except
Russia and Turkmenistan are doing reasonably well? In my viewat least, some of the credit for this should go to the Council ofEurope. The Council of Europe? Yes, the Council of Europe.
And no, this Council has nothing to do with the European Union.
The Council of Europe was set up in 1949, right after the Second
World War, as a guarantee against further human rights abusesin the region. It now counts 47 members, including Russia,
Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia. It protects the humanrights of over 830 million citizens. The UK is a member too, ofcourse, and will be after Brexit.

The Council’s cornerstones are the European Convention
on Human Rights and the European Court of Human
Rights (to be distinguished from the European Court in
Luxembourg which interprets EU law). Article 4 of theEuropean Convention on Human Rights prohibits slavery
and forced labour. Over the years the Court has widened
the meaning and implications of this article. In 2017 theCourt confirmed in Chowdury versus Greece that forced
labour does not require the restriction of freedom of
movement. Modern slavedrivers often use other, moreinsidious means of coercion. This landmark ruling will leadto more convictions for forced labour from national courtsin the region in the years to come.

Another asset of the Council, besides the binding rulingsof the Court, is its rigorous monitoring of compliance withconventions supplementing the parent convention ofhuman rights. One of these conventions is the Convention
on Action against Human Trafficking of 2008. It has now
been ratified by all 47-member states except Russia as well
as by non-member state Belarus. Tunisia and Israel haveexpressed an interest in becoming state parties too. In fact,
all democratic countries in the world interested in in-depth
monitoring of their anti-trafficking policies by independent
experts are kindly invited to join!

Europe and Central Asia Report

The monitoring body of this convention, GRETA, regularly
publishes detailed evaluations of the compliance ofstate parties with the various treaty obligations. These
reports confirm the upward movement apparent from the
Responses Index. Almost everywhere updated legislation,national coordinating bodies, action plans and special
services for survivors are in place. However, GRETA’s reports
maintain a critical stance. An analysis of the collection ofindividual reports brings to light several areas where amajority of state parties has in recent years been foundwanting. Most worrying of all, a majority of state partiesof the Convention have still not put in place adequate
identification and referral mechanisms for child victims,
the most vulnerable category of all. The thousands of East
European children begging and shoplifting in Europe’s
cities are rarely recognised as the victims of modern slavery
they are. Many identified child victims go missing withindays or weeks after their ‘rescue’, often straight back into
the hands of their exploiters.

15

Many GRETA’s country reports also criticise that legal aid
in the country is in practice not available for survivors. It
comes as no surprise that in these countries very few ofthem ever obtain compensation for their damages fromeither the perpetrators or a state fund.
From a global perspective, European and Central Asian
countries may compare favourably to others in theirefforts to fight modern slavery. But for a region with such a
powerful human rights tradition as Europe, the bar shouldbe put higher. On 18th May 2018 the Secretary-Generalof the Council stated at a meeting of the Committee of
Ministers in Elsinore, Denmark: ’we should be able to cometogether and say that Europe is a continent free not only
from the death penalty and from the shame of torture, but
a continent free from modern slavery too. The ultimate
aim should be a Europe free of slaves.’ Looking at the
GSI estimates of individual countries, even European top
scorers like the Netherlands, the UK and Sweden, have along, long way to go to achieve this end.

Strasbourg, France, 8 April 2014.
A view of European flags floating in front of
the Council of Europe building in Strasbourg,
France. The Council’s Convention on Action
against Human Trafficking has been ratified by
all 47-member states, apart from Russia, andnon-member state Belarus. The monitoring
body of the Convention, the Group of Experts
on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings(GRETA) publishes detailed evaluations of thecompliance of state parties with the various
treaty obligations.
Photo credit: Frederick Florin/AFP/
Getty Images.

16

Global Slavery Index 2018

LET’S RAISE THE BAR!
Diara Lô | Impact Analyst, Tony’s Chocolonely

Tony’s Chocolonely is a Dutch chocolate company founded
to make 100 percent slave free the norm in chocolate. A key
concern among practitioners working towards the eliminationof forced labour and illegal child labour in the cocoa sector was
the scarcity of evidence on which to formulate interventions.
Hence, we are very proud to be part of a collaboration with the
Walk Free Foundation, Tulane University, and the Chocolonely
Foundation to investigate the prevalence and nature of modern
slavery in cocoa growing areas in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana.
Our common objective, to put a stop to illegal labour andinequality in the production chain of cocoa, has resulted in
more reliable figures of the size of modern slavery in the cocoa
sector. In our view, this is very much needed, as we want to shift
the debate – from questioning the existence of forced labour –to jointly finding adequate solutions for the problem!

Tony’s Chocolonely was set up by three journalists 13 years
ago. Their program “Keuringsdienst van Waarde” (“Value
Inspection”) aimed at revealing some of the dark secrets
behind the production of food and goods. They discoveredthat modern slavery and illegal child labour are very muchin existence in the cocoa sector in West Africa. These worst
social abuses are caused by extreme poverty, which is acomplex issue. Cocoa farmers in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire
are not able to earn a living income. The market prices do
not allow this. Even with premiums for certified cocoa, theprice is far too low. Because there are few, if any, viable
alternatives, they are prepared to work for too little on thebasis that some money is better than nothing. This also
leaves cocoa-growing households with very little room forhiring and paying adult workers.

More and more business is taking action to respond to
exploitation in their supply chains, either because they are
required to do so, due to legislation and regulations like the
UK Modern Slavery Act, or because they understand thatmodern slavery affects many supply chains and businesses
around the world.
Tony’s aims for more equality in the production chain andinspires key players in the sector to take their responsibility
too. Over the years, we have been sharing our story &mission and the realities behind chocolate – we received
tremendous amounts of support, but also conquered someserious bumps. Now, 13 years later we are proud to say that
we are the biggest chocolate company in the Netherlands
and are available in five other countries (USA, France,Europe and Central Asia Report

Belgium, Sweden, Germany and Finland) as well. We havea clear approach to realizing our mission, this is explainedby the three pillars of our roadmap:›› Tony’s Chocolonely creates awareness.
›› Tony’s Chocolonely leads by example.
›› Tony’s Chocolonely inspires to act.
We have partnered with five cocoa cooperatives andapproximately 5,000 farmers according to our five sourcing
principles. Through our Beantracker system we have fulltraceability of the cocoa beans in our bars. Our virtual
Beantracker platform allows others to take part as well.
We stimulate other chocolate companies to implement thefive principles – all five – as we believe that they reinforce
each other.
Besides the collection of data at “bean level”, we havealso set up a Child Labour Monitoring and Remediation
System (CLMRS) with our five partner cooperatives. Via thesystem we aim to tackle illegal child labour in the longer
term by embedding a management information system on
the social conditions of farmers in the supply chain. Datais collected from cocoa communities, schools and farmer
households. The gathered information forms the basis foraddressing the root causes of illegal child labour in cocoa
growing communities through remediation.

17

More recently, we have partnered with Tulane University
and the Walk Free Foundation to develop a baseline and apoint of reference for actors in the industry that would makethe issue of forced labour more tangible and discussable.
Therefore, we are happy with the first attempt to get more
solid estimates of modern slavery in cocoa-growing areasin Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana (see www.globalslaveryindex.
org/resources/downloads for the report). Though, we
assume that the outcomes are an underestimate ofreality. Results can easily be affected by the definitions
and research approach. The topic of forced labour is very
sensitive and cases are likely to be hidden, for example,
it has proven to be incredibly hard to determine whatshould be considered forced labour in an environment
where cocoa cultivation mainly happens in family settings.
Despite the limitation, the data confirms that forced labour
exists on cocoa-growing farms and that illegal child labouris still very common. We hope that the more accurate data
will lead to more knowledge and sector wide agreementon the size and magnitude of the problem, more solution
focused discussions and a feeling of joint responsibility tomeasure developments.
We are happy with the existence of the Global Slavery Index
as it is a highly valued source that maps the scale and thescope of the problem. Quantifying the issue makes it easier
to address the abstract topic and shifts the debate fromdefining and questioning the problem to finding solutions
to remediate it together. Our vision is 100 percent slave
free chocolate. Not only our chocolate, but all chocolate
worldwide. Only if everybody takes responsibility 100
percent slave free becomes the norm. Let’s raise the bar!

FIGURE 5
Tony’s five sourcing principles

Gagnoa, Côte d’Ivoire, 29 September 2015.
A cocoa farmer puts cocoa beans out todry in the sun in Gagnoa, Côte d’Ivoire.
Côte d’Ivoire is the world’s top producerof cocoa.
Photo credit: Issouf Sanogo/AFP/
Getty Images.

18

Global Slavery Index 2018

ASYLUM AND MIGRATION POLICIES,
BORDER CONTROL, AND HUMAN
TRAFFICKING: THE ‘MIGRANT CRISIS’IN EUROPE
Dr. Claire Healy | Research Officer, International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD)

Is there a high incidence of human trafficking
along irregular migration routes to the EU?
Since 2015, one and a half million people without authorisation
for regular entry travelled to the European Union (EU), mostof them arriving by sea to Greece, Italy or Spain.26 In theabsence of possibilities for legal migratory journeys, people
from Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Eritrea, Nigeria
and other countries used these routes in order to enter an
EU country and apply for asylum. They were mostly men, withsome women and children, and they arrived in one of the mostprosperous regions in the world, a Union of 28 countries with a
total population of 513 million, including 37 million people born
outside the EU.27 Nevertheless, the arrival of these 1.5 million
people in the EU is referred to as a ‘migration crisis’.

Little research has been conducted specifically on
vulnerabilities and resilience to exploitation in this context.
Notable exceptions include the 2017 report Vulnerability
and exploitation along the Balkans route, which, among
other findings, identifies border closures and restrictions
as factors of vulnerability.28 There are no quantitative
data available to assess the prevalence of trafficking
among this group, however, the preliminary findings of aforthcoming research study (Study on Trafficking Resilienceand Vulnerability en route to Europe (STRIVE)), focusing
on the Balkan and Central Mediterranean routes, indicatethat indeed there is a significant incidence.29 However, itremains systematically unidentified and uninvestigated.

Due to the preponderance of men and boys among
those using the routes, some of the forms of exploitation
specifically target males, such as labour exploitation inagriculture and forced criminality (migrant smuggling
and drug trafficking). Men, women and children are alsokidnapped for extortion, and unaccompanied boys,
particularly, are victims of sexual exploitation.

Europe and Central Asia Report

What makes people vulnerable tohuman trafficking in this context?
This ongoing research, as well as research published by
ICMPD earlier this year on the anti-trafficking response
along the Balkan route and in Austria, Germany, Sweden
and Finland (Trafficking along Migration Routes (TRAM)),
found that human trafficking and other abuses are often
related to the migrant smuggling process, though they are
not always perpetrated by migrant smugglers themselves.30
Exploitation often occurs due to people being in debt tosmugglers, smugglers requesting increasing amountsof money for their services, and border closures andrestrictions that require people to use additional migrantsmuggling services that they had not foreseen. In addition,
uncertainty in relation to a person’s legal status in a country
is a driver of their vulnerability.
Teenage boys and young men are particularly at risk of
exploitation, because they are often victims of physicalviolence during the journey and because they are notgenerally considered “vulnerable groups” in terms ofservices and protection. They are often under significant
family pressure to reach their intended destination
countries, pay back debts incurred for the journey, sendmoney back to their families, and obtain refugee status sothat they qualify for family reunification.

19

Anti-trafficking policies and institutions in European
countries mostly cater to the needs of particular categories
of victims, such as European or West African women who
are sexually exploited, or EU citizens who are victims oflabour exploitation. They therefore struggle to respondto the specific needs of trafficking victims with different
profiles, such as asylum applicants. Furthermore, the antitrafficking response in most countries is not designed
to deal with trafficking that has occurred in countries oforigin or transit, rather than in the country where the asylum
application is being processed.
Overall, a key obstacle to protecting trafficked people
among this group, and particularly to preventing
exploitation from happening in the first place, is resistanceamong policy actors and politicians to recognising the mostimportant drivers of vulnerability. Our research at ICMPD,
as well as research conducted by other organisations andacademics, clearly shows that intensifying border control
and restrictions on movement – requiring the increased useof more sophisticated smuggling services – , and granting
temporary or uncertain legal status, make people acutely
vulnerable to exploitation and other abuses. Preventing
human trafficking along the Balkan and Mediterranean
migration routes requires a shift in migration and asylum
policy, to focus on providing opportunities for regulartravel, secure legal status and access to the labour market.
Otherwise European governments will be simply treating
the symptoms and not the cause.

Conversely, the possibility of regular, legal and safe travel,obtaining legal status, family reunification, and access toemployment all build people’s resilience to trafficking.31 It isalso clear that those who are in a better financial situation
can afford safer journeys and are less at risk of exploitation.

How are European countries
responding to trafficking along
migration routes?
The lack of statistical data on trafficking among this group is
the result of a vicious circle, whereby there is no evidenceof trafficking cases, so the necessary resources are notmobilised to address trafficking and proactively identify
cases, which in turn prevents the gathering of accurate
statistics. Low identification is also due to the lack ofincorporation of anti-trafficking procedures into migrant
reception and asylum systems.
Existing protection and rehabilitation services for identified
victims of trafficking are often not adequate, and thelegal status of trafficking victims can be uncertain anddependent upon their cooperation in criminal proceedings.
This discourages trafficked people from seeking redress
and accessing the protection services they are entitled to,while also discouraging criminal investigations.

Velika Kladusa, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
13 August 2018.
A Syrian family seen leaving the camp at
Velika Kladusa in Bosnia and Herzegovina
and heading for the Croatian border.
Migrants trying to make their way into theEU via Bosnia live here in Velika Kladusa
in poor conditions in a tent city, after the
closure of the former route for migrants
through the Balkans. After entering Croatia,
there are reports that migrants face violenceor are returned to Bosnia.
Photo credit: Attila Husejnow/SOPA Images/
LightRocket via Getty Images.

20

Global Slavery Index 2018

MODERN SLAVERYIN EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA
European and Central Asian citizens are most likely to be exploited within theEurope and Central Asia region, either as migrants or within their countriesof origin. Within Europe, in the early 2000s, Europeans from Central andSouth East Europe were exploited in the Western and Southern parts of thecontinent.32 Up until 2007, Bulgarians and Romanians were the most often
detected nationality among trafficking victims, while females and those
exploited for sexual exploitation made up the most reported gender and formof exploitation among identified victims.33

While this reveals some bias in terms of the types of
exploitation that are more easily identified, these trends
are still apparent today. Eurostat’s most recent trafficking
statistics from 2010 to 2012 found that 80 percent of victims
identified in Europe were female, while 65 percent ofvictims were EU citizens.34 Bulgaria and Romania are stillcommonly identified nationalities, with 7.7 and 5.4 victims
per 100,000 inhabitants, but the number of Dutch nationals
identified has increased in recent years to 7.9 per 100,000
inhabitants. The number of reported cases remains low;
by way of comparison, our prevalence estimates are 3.9
for every 1,000 people across Europe (cf 0.077 Bulgarians,
0.054 Romanians, and 0.079 Dutch nationals per 1,000
people across Europe). Interestingly, unlike Bulgarian andRomanian nationals, Dutch nationals are most likely to be
exploited and identified in the Netherlands.35 A similar
trend has been identified in the UK, where the most recent
statistics from the UK National Referral Mechanism show
for the first time that UK nationals are the largest groupexploited within the UK.36
Exploitation in Europe takes many forms. While trafficking
for sexual exploitation is the most commonly reported formin Western and Southern Europe – between 2012 and 2014
some 67 percent were exploited for sexual purposes –there has been a recent increase in the reported casesof trafficking for forced labour.37 Thirty percent of cases
identified were exploited for forced labour in agriculture,
construction, commercial cleaning, and domestic work
during the same time period.38 Recent convictions in the UK
have highlighted that migrant and UK citizens are tricked or
coerced into working for little or no pay. In 2017, 11 membersof a UK family were convicted of a series of modern slavery
offences for forcing at least 18 victims to work for little orno pay for their property repair and paving business andfor making them live in substandard conditions for up to 26
years.39 The agriculture sector in the southern part of Italy
continues to rely on cheap and exploited migrant labour,
where workers do not receive adequate remuneration,
are forced to live in the areas where they work, have their
passports and identity documents confiscated, and are
subject to inadequate or even inhumane living conditions.40 41
Domestic workers are a particularly vulnerable group, withcases of domestic servitude reported in France,42 Germany,
Italy,43 the UK,44 and Austria,45 among other European
nations.
The pull of migrants from less developed to moredeveloped countries is also apparent in the Central Asia
region. An estimated 700,000 to 1.2 million migrant workers,
approximately 85 percent of whom are from Central Asia,
move to Kazakhstan each year.46 This number dramaticallyincreases in Russia with estimates of 10 to 12 million workers
entering the country annually.47 Many migrant workers also
move further into Western Europe, although according to
the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),
the flow to Western Europe has declined in recent years.48
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, civil war andincreasingly repressive regimes caused many individuals
from the Central Asian republics to move to Russia insearch of employment, taking advantage of visa-free travel
arrangements. Once in Russia these individuals faced
physical abuse, withholding of documents, and unsafe
working conditions.49 In recent years, the rouble has been

Europe and Central Asia Report

devalued amid the contraction of the Russian economy due
to low crude oil prices and western sanctions in response to
Russia’s annexation of Crimea and involvement in Eastern
Ukraine.50 In light of this and increasingly negative publicand government attitudes towards migrants from Central
Asia51 – combined with more restrictive migration policies
aimed at Tajik, Belarusian, Kazak, and Armenian citizens52– more migrants from Central Asia are entering Russia
illegally and thereby are more vulnerable to exploitation.53

21

The IOM interviewed individuals from 48 nationalities
travelling along the Eastern European route; of these,
10 percent answered “yes” to least one of the indicatorsof human trafficking and exploitative practices such as
working without receiving the expected payment, being
forced to work against their will, being kept in a location
against their will, and experiencing or receiving threats ofphysical or sexual violence.62 These individuals came from
Nigeria (86 percent), Morocco (16 percent) and Pakistan(10 percent) with most of the exploitation taking place inTurkey (78 percent).63 People representing 65 nationalities
were interviewed in Central Europe, 75 percent of whomanswered “yes” to at least one indicator of trafficking
and exploitative practices. These individuals were from
Bangladesh, Somalia, Ghana, Senegal, and the Gambia.
The exploitation they cited occurred predominately in Libya(91 percent).64

Migrants from Uzbekistan and other Central Asian states
are also exploited in the relatively wealthy Kazak cities
of Astana and Almaty, as well as the oil cities Aktau andAtyrau. Russia recently banned re-entry for one million
Uzbek migrants, many of whom went on to seek workand residence in Kazakhstan. 54 For these migrants,
Kazakhstan can be an attractive alternative to Russia, as
cotton harvesting pays more than in other countries in
the region, while a booming construction industry attracts
The tightening of EU borders has left migrants vulnerable
out-of-work labourers.55 Despite reforms
to death at sea and slavery in Libya. Since
in 2013 that reportedly make it easier for
2015, there has been a reduction in theworkers to obtain a year-long permit, or
Exploitation in Europe number of EU state-led search and rescue“patent,” rather than the previous 30-day
operations, with the burden shifting totakes many forms.
limit, there are reports that migrants are still
NGOs and large merchant ships.65 A report
While
traffickingformore likely to seek illegal and unregulated
released by Forensic Oceanography
sexual exploitation iswork through intermediaries and brokers in
examines the week beginning 12 April
Kazakhstan. While the government claims
2015, which saw more than 1,200 lives
the most commonly
the reforms have reduced the waiting time
lost in two separate incidents, the mostreported form in
for a patent to three days, media reports
people lost in the Mediterranean in recent
Western and Southern
say the process actually takes one toyears. What is striking is that this loss of life
occurred during, and partly as a result of,
two weeks, which presents a hardship
Europe ... there has
rescue missions by merchant ships, which
for migrants who may have borrowed
been a recent increase
extensive sums to get to Kazakhstan andgenerally are ill-fitted to conduct searchin the reported cases
need to begin working upon arrival.56
and rescue operations.66 Since 2017, theof trafficking for forced EU has also increasingly “outsourced
For those who are already in Kazakhstan
illegally because they have overstayed
responsibility”67 for migration control tolabour.
their 30-day limit, there is a reluctance to
Libya and Niger, pledging EUR90 million
present themselves to authorities to obtain(US$107 million) in April 2017 to Libya alone
the patent and regularise their status.57 In these cases,
for “improved migration management,” despite warnings
migrants in Kazakhstan can become vulnerable to forcedby the UN that neither country has the infrastructure orlabour in domestic service, construction, and agriculture,training to abide by international law.68 An Italian Code ofwhere they are often deceived by those known to them or
Conduct released in August 2017, which all NGOs involved
in migrant rescue were required to sign, banned NGOs fromsmall organised criminal groups.58
entering Libyan territorial waters and required NGOs not toConflict and displacement are some of the driving forces
obstruct search and rescue by the Libyan Coast Guard.69
behind recent cases of modern slavery across Europe. The
Those intercepted by the Libyan Coast Guard end up in“so-called” migrant and refugee crisis has placed European
detention centres where they are used as slaves70 or soldcountries’ capacity to respond under strain and has led toas slaves in open markets in Libya.71
an increase in restrictive immigration policies,59 which inChildren in particular go “missing” on their journey acrossturn has left migrants vulnerable to exploitation in Europe,
Europe. Europol data reveal that as many as 10,000
death on the high seas, and outright enslavement in Libya.
unaccompanied minors had gone missing in the two
While portrayed in the media as an onslaught on Europe,60
years preceding January 2016.72 While there are somein reality these individuals represented multiple flows
conclusions that this is as a result of organised criminal
and a variety of reasons for migration, including seeking
networks exploiting these individuals,73 more recent
economic opportunities and escaping conflict and humanresearch suggests that this happens for a variety of complex
rights abuses, as well as wanting to reunite with family
reasons, including frustration with the migration system andmembers already in Europe.61 Desperation and frustrationa desire to reunite with family members,74 which can leadat the slow European bureaucracy leads these individuals
children and young people to approach these networks
into making risky migration decisions, which in turn renders
themselves in order to facilitate the process.75 Similar
them vulnerable to exploitation. In 2017, IOM conducted
trends have been identified in the UK, with high numbers
non-representative surveys along two migrant flows intoof unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and children
Europe – those coming through Eastern Europe and those
who may have been trafficked disappearing from care.76
through Central Europe.

22

Global Slavery Index 2018

Non-European low-skilled migrant workers who come to
Post Brexit, it remains to be seen whether the ending ofEurope in search of economic opportunities also become
free movement of labour and new immigration legislation tovulnerable to enslavement in sex work, construction, andcontrol and curb immigration to the UK will further increase
agriculture, as well as in the illegal production of drugs.
the vulnerability of these groups and other migrant workers
Women migrating from Nigeria to the European Union
to exploitation.90(EU) are at risk of being exploited in Italy and throughout
Forced marriage occurs in the Europe and Central Asia
Europe in the sex industry. In 2016, more than 27,000
region. Data on forced marriage are scarce at the global
Nigerian migrants arrived in Italy, around 7,500 of whomand regional level as many cases are not reported, while77
were women. The IOM estimates that about 80 percent
other data have not yet been systematically recorded dueof Nigerian women and girls that arrived in Italy by sea
to the relatively recent criminalisation of forced marriagethat year are likely to have been trafficked for the purpose
across EU countries. Despite these gaps, data reported
78
of sexual exploitation in Italy or other EU countries. In
by the European Parliament in 2016 show that there aremany cases, Nigerian women come from Edo State andtens to hundreds of cases of forced marriage reported
seek to migrate to Europe for a complex series of reasons
each year in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, andincluding poverty and limited education and economic
Germany, with 1,267 cases reported in the UK in 2014.91
79
opportunities. These women are forced into slavery
Fewer than 10 cases a year are reported in each of thethrough contracts signed in Nigeria involving specific forms
following countries: Croatia, Cyprus, Slovakia, Slovenia,
80of religious blackmail, known as juju, where victims are
and Sweden.92 These marriages are driven by many factors,
psychologically bound to their traffickers
including poverty, religion, and a desire
to repay the debt incurred to pay for their
within patriarchal cultures to protect girls
81
travel to Italy. These traffickers have
Bride kidnappingor young women from losing their virginity
associates operating in Italy and Europe,
outside of marriage and provide them withoccursacrossCentralcalled madams, who bring the victims undera guardian from a young age. Another trend
Asia, most notably intheir control and force them to work in thenoted by the European Parliament includes
82
sex industry to repay these debts.
Kyrgyzstan. Despite
certain immigrant communities and ethnic
being illegal, there are
Other recent cases of exploitation of nonminorities sending family members
EU nationals include the abuse of Thai
overseas to be forced into marriage.93
estimates that close to83
workers in the agriculture sector in Israel,
12,000 women and girls Bride kidnapping occurs across Central
which is included in the Europe and Central
are abducted each year Asia, most notably in Kyrgyzstan. Despite
Asia region. These individuals report low
for forced and/or early being illegal, there are estimates that close
pay, excessive working hours, hazardous
to 12,000 women and girls are abductedworking conditions, and poor housing. They
marriage.
each year for forced and/or early marriage
also face retribution if they try to protest byin Kyrgyzstan.94 The main reason thesegoing on strike.84 Other reported cases ofmarriages occur is deep-rooted patriarchal
exploitation in Israel include forced labour in construction,
attitudes and stereotypes,95 which have strengthened after
agriculture, and caregiving, where migrants from Southeast
the fall of the Soviet Union, as well as reasons of poverty.96 In
Asia, Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union are
most cases, the victim does not consent to the marriage andvulnerable to withholding of passports and experienceis kidnapped, often by a group of young men, who take thelong workings hours and difficulty changing employers
individual to the would-be groom’s relatives, who bully thedue to restrictions on their work permits.85 In 2011, a new
victim and do not let her leave. Subjected to psychologicalpattern of human trafficking emerged with migrant workers
pressure, and sometimes raped, the individual is thenfrom Southeast Asia exploited on Israeli fishing vessels after
forced to marry and remain with her kidnapper.97
being employed on a maritime crew visa. These individuals
Exploitation within the Central Asia subregion bucks thewere working for 24 hours per day in harsh conditions.86
global trend with more males than females identified,Ageing populations and mass emigration of workers toand labour exploitation cases being more commonlyWestern Europe have led to labour shortages in Central
reported than sexual exploitation.98 This reflects the highEuropean countries including Poland, Hungary, Slovakia,
numbers of state-imposed forced labour in the region, withand the Czech Republic, which in turn have increased
evidence of state-imposed forced labour in Belarus, Russia,
demand for workers from outside the European Union,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. This includes concerning
including Ukraine, Vietnam, and Russia.87 There have been
allegations of forced labour in privately-run administrative
reports that these non-EU nationals are vulnerable to forced
detention centres in Belarus99 and compulsory prison labour
labour and labour trafficking, with evidence of withholdingin public and private prisons in Russia.100 In Belarus, abuseof wages, restriction of movement and communications,of civic duties occurs in the practice of Subbotniks, whichlong working hours, and physical violence or threats ofrequires government employees to work weekends andviolence.88 Vietnamese nationals are also exploited in nail
donate their earnings to finance government projects underbars and production of cannabis in the UK.89
the intimidation or threat of fines by state employers.101

Europe and Central Asia Report

23

State imposed forced labour in Turkmenistan
and Uzbekistan
Each year, during the cotton harvest in Turkmenistan andUzbekistan, tens of thousands of men and women areforced to work by the state on an industrial scale to pickcotton for export. Individuals are forced to work under
threat of penalty, including loss of land, job loss, expulsion
from school, and docked pay.102
Uzbekistan has been under scrutiny for a long time for theuse of forced labour in its annual cotton harvest. Reports
strongly link the Uzbek cotton industry to forced labour,103
while the results of ILO monitoring suggest that as manyas 336,000 people were forced to work in the 2017 cotton
harvest.104 A 2017 report published by Human Rights Watch
and the Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights documents
forced adult and child labour in one World Bank project
area and demonstrates that it is highly likely that the WorldBank’s other agriculture projects in Uzbekistan are linked
to ongoing forced labour in light of the systemic nature of
the abuses.105

Further, research conducted in 2017 by Leiden Asia Centre
and the Database Center for North Korean Human Rights(NKDB) for this edition of the Global Slavery Index joins a
growing body of research highlighting the exploitation of
North Korean workers outside of North Korea.111 Hundredsof North Korean workers have been reported working
for the North Korean State in EU nations, with the mostpublicised cases including North Koreans working in Polishshipyards, construction sites and farms, and in leisure andclothing firms in Malta.112

The Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights found that,
despite the presence of the ILO monitors, forced massmobilisation of public sector workers, students, people
receiving public benefits, and employees of public andprivate companies to pick cotton or to pay for replacement
workers to pick cotton occurred in the 2016 harvest.106
Exploitation reportedly continued to occur in the 2017
harvest.107
In 2017, the ILO Committee of Experts noted that tens of
thousands of adults from the public and private sectors
were forced to pick cotton and farmers were forced to fulfil
state-established cotton production quotas, all under threatof penalty in Turkmenistan.108 Reported threats of penalties
included loss of land, expulsion from university, loss ofwages or salary cuts, termination of employment, and othersanctions.109 Monitoring of the 2017 harvest by Alternative
Turkmenistan News, a Turkmen media initiative, foundthat the government continued to forcibly mobilise tens of
thousands of civil servants to pick cotton under threat of
dismissal, blackmail or other forms of intimidation.110

Two North Korean defectors who were interviewed as partof the GSI research project had worked for North Korea
overseas. They described their work places as exported
North Korean environments in which the hierarchicalstructures and ideological sessions travelled with them.
These individuals had their wages withheld, and where they
were paid, the sums paid to them were miniscule – one of
the individuals worked for three years to earn sufficient funds
to live in North Korea for about three months.113 Previous
research by Leiden Asia Centre confirms the forced labour
conditions of North Korean migrants in EU countries.114

24

Global Slavery Index 2018

PREVALENCEFIGURE 6
Prevalence rating by country
Slovakia

NorwaySwedenHungary Poland

FinlandLithuania

Estonia

LatviaBelarus

Czech Republic
Denmark

Moldova

Austria
Slovenia
Germany
Netherlands
Belgium
IcelandUnitedKingdom

RussiaLuxembourg
IrelandFranceUkraineKazakhstan

Switzerland

Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan

Italy

Turkmenistan

TurkeySpain

Tajikstan
Georgia

Portugal

Azerbaijan
Armenia
Romania
Bulgaria
SerbiaCroatia
Bosnia & Herzegovina

highMontenegro

Albania

Macedonia

IsraelCyprusGreeceKosovolow

In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the ILO, together
with the IOM, produced the Global Estimates of Modern
Slavery, estimating that 40.3 million people were living
in modern slavery on any given day in 2016. Of these, anestimated 3.6 million men, women, and children were
living in modern slavery in Europe and Central Asia. Thisis a prevalence of 3.9 people in modern slavery for every
1,000 people in the region.

When considering the forms of modern slavery, the largest
share of those in modern slavery were victims of forced
labour (3.6 per 1,000 people in the region). The rate offorced marriage was 0.4 per 1,000 people, the lowest of all
the world’s regions. A little over a third of victims of forced
labour exploitation were held in debt bondage (36 percent)with a higher proportion of men trapped through debt
bondage (54 percent) than women (21 percent). Europe
and Central Asia accounted for 14 percent of victims offorced sexual exploitation worldwide.

Americas Report25

Comparability of the prevalence estimates withthe previous Global Slavery Index
This edition of the Global Slavery Index introduces
important improvements to the ways prevalence of modern
slavery is measured. Building on the collaborative work
undertaken with the ILO and IOM on the Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery, the Global Slavery Index results reflectchanges to scope, methodology, and expanded data
sources. The estimates are presented as a stock (or point
in time) calculation rather than a flow (total over a periodof time), include state imposed forced labour, and better
estimates of sexual exploitation, and children in modern
slavery. Further, we were able to count exploitation where
it occurred more consistently due to a considerably larger
number of surveys.

As a result of these advancements, the national prevalence
estimates are not comparable with previous editions of
the Global Slavery Index. Nonetheless, the strengthened
methodology reflects stronger data, increased levels of
data, and more systematic coverage of different formsof modern slavery. As such, while comparability fromprevious years is lost, the changes are justified by the needto continually improve our knowledge base. A detailed
description of the changes to the methodology is set out
in Appendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

TABLE 1
Estimates of prevalence of modern slavery by country

Regional
rankCountry

Estimated prevalence(victims per
1,000 population)

Estimated absolute
number of victims

Population

1

Turkmenistan*

11.2

62,0005,565,000

2Belarus10.9

103,000

9,486,000

3

Macedonia, the former Yugoslav
Republic of

8.7

18,0002,079,000

4Greece7.9

89,00011,218,000

5Albania

6.9

20,0002,923,000

6

Turkey6.5

509,000

78,271,000

7Ukraine6.4

286,000

44,658,000

8Croatia

6.0

25,0004,236,000

9Montenegro

5.9

4,000

628,000

10

Lithuania

5.8

17,0002,932,000

11

Russia5.5

794,000

143,888,000

12

Moldova, Republic of

5.5

22,0004,066,000

13

Armenia

5.3

16,0002,917,000

14Uzbekistan*

5.2

160,000

30,976,000

15

Tajikistan*

4.5

39,0008,549,000

16

Bulgaria

4.5

32,0007,177,000

17

Azerbaijan*

4.5

43,0009,617,000

18

Georgia

4.3

17,0003,952,000

19

Romania

4.3

86,00019,877,000

20

Cyprus4.2

5,000

1,161,000

21

Kazakhstan*

4.2

75,00017,750,000

22

Kyrgyzstan*

4.1

24,0005,865,000

23

Kosovo4.0

8,000

1,905,000

24

Latvia3.9

8,000

1,993,00025Israel3.9

31,0008,065,000

26

Hungary

3.7

36,0009,784,000

27

Estonia

3.6

5,000

1,315,000

26

Global Slavery Index 2018

Table 1 continued.
Regional
rankCountry

Estimated prevalence(victims per
1,000 population)

Estimated absolute
number of victims

Population

28

Bosnia and Herzegovina

3.4

12,0003,536,000

29

Poland3.4

128,000

38,265,000

30

Serbia3.3

30,0008,851,000

31

Slovakia

2.9

16,0005,439,000

32

Czech Republic

2.9

31,00010,604,000

33

Portugal

2.5

26,00010,418,000

34

Italy

2.4

145,000

59,504,000

35

Spain

2.3

105,000

46,398,000

36

Slovenia

2.2

5,000

2,075,000

37

Iceland2.1<1,000330,000

38

United Kingdom

2.1

136,000

65,397,000

39

Germany2.0

167,000

81,708,000

40Belgium

2.0

23,00011,288,000

41France2.0

129,000

64,457,00042

Norway1.8

9,000

5,200,000

43

Netherlands

1.8

30,00016,938,000

44Austria

1.7

15,0008,679,000

45

Switzerland

1.7

14,0008,320,000

46

Ireland

1.7

8,000

4,700,000

47

Finland

1.7

9,000

5,482,000

48

Denmark

1.6

9,000

5,689,000

49

Sweden1.6

15,0009,764,000

50

Luxembourg

1.5<1,000567,000*Substantial gaps in data exist for the Central and East Asia subregions where, with the exception of Mongolia, surveys cannot be conducted for reasons suchas (i) survey is only delivered face-to-face, (ii) survey is delivered only in the main language which many migrant workers do not speak, or (iii) national authorities
would not, or were unlikely to, consent to the module on modern slavery. Unlike several countries in Western Europe where no surveys were conducted,
none of the countries in these subregions were identified as sites of exploitation by respondents in the 48 countries where surveys were implemented.

Within the region, Belarus, Turkmenistan, and Macedonia
are the countries with the highest prevalence of modern
slavery, while Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine have the highest
absolute number and account for over one-third (39percent) of the victims in the region (Table 1).
These regional figures, while important, should beinterpreted cautiously given the gaps and limitations of data
generally, and in key regions. The current Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery do not cover all forms of modern slavery;
forms such as trafficking for the purposes of organ removal,

child soldiers, or child marriage that could also constitutemodern slavery cannot be adequately measured at thisstage. For example, there are numerous reports of forced
marriages in Central Asia but few national-level surveys
on the issue have been conducted there. This contributes
to lower rates of forced marriage than may be the case inthis region. There is also a need to collect data in highly
developed European countries, either through surveys
or other estimation methodologies, in order to improve
our understanding of the extent of modern slavery in thesubregion.

Cotton harvest in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
Each year, during the cotton harvest in Turkmenistan andUzbekistan, tens of thousands of men and women are forced
to work by the state on an industrial scale to pick cotton
for export. Individuals are forced to work under threat ofpenalty, including loss of land, job loss, expulsion fromschool, and docked pay.
Photo credit: Paolo Koch/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images.

Europe and Central Asia Report

27

28

Global Slavery Index 2018

VULNERABILITY
FIGURE 7
Overall vulnerability scores map
Slovakia

NorwaySwedenHungary Poland

FinlandLithuania

Estonia

LatviaBelarus

Czech Republic
Denmark

Moldova

Austria
Slovenia
Germany
Netherlands
Belgium
IcelandUnitedKingdom

RussiaLuxembourg
IrelandFranceUkraineKazakhstan

Switzerland

Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan

Italy

Turkmenistan

TurkeySpain

TajikstanPortugal

Georgia
Azerbaijan
Armenia
Romania
Bulgaria
SerbiaCroatia

Bosnia & Herzegovina

highMontenegro

Albania

Macedonia

IsraelCyprusGreeceKosovolow

Our assessment of vulnerability is conducted at the national
level and covers five dimensions: governance issues,lack of basic needs, inequality, disenfranchised groups
and effects of conflict. Countries in Europe and Central
Asia scored consistently well on vulnerability measuresacross all five dimensions, which reflects the generally
higher average GDP per capita for this region. Interestingly,

Europe and Central Asia performed relatively poorly on
the disenfranchised groups dimension of vulnerability,
which may reflect increasing anxiety over the “so-called”
refugee and migrant crisis (see Figure 8). Overall, thehighest vulnerability score across all dimensions was in
Turkmenistan (58 percent) and the lowest was in Denmark(one percent).

Europe and Central Asia Report

Denmark, Switzerland, and Austria had the lowest
overall vulnerability scores in the region. In general, thesecountries, along with many others in Europe, rank highon indices of peace, democracy, and anti-corruption, allof which provide important protections from vulnerability
to exploitation. However, as a destination for migrants
and refugees from neighbouring regions, particularly the
Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa,115 European countries
face associated risks of trafficking and labour exploitation
among these populations. Migrants and asylum seekers
with limited resources are at risk of being exploited bybrokers, recruiters, and criminals along the route into
Europe. Germany, Spain, Italy, Greece, France, and theUnited Kingdom are all affected by the ongoing migrantcrisis, contributing to the existing vulnerability of migrant
populations within this subregion.

29

The government’s direct control over cotton production
amplifies the vulnerability of people to state-imposed forced
labour in cotton picking, as penalties for failure to work are
imposed by a range of government and state structures.
This can include job loss, loss of welfare payments,
academic penalties for students such as expulsion or
threats of prosecution, and violence.120 Such rigid control
contributes to any existing vulnerabilities people may haveto exploitation while simultaneously reducing their ability
to escape exploitation.
Tajikistan, Moldova, and Turkey were rated with thehighest vulnerability in terms of lack of basic needs. This
includes undernourishment and lack of access to water,
health services, and social safety nets. Tajikistan has thehighest malnutrition rate among the former Soviet republics,
with about a third of people undernourished.121Access toclean water remains an issue, with 42 percent of households
lacking access, further contributing to vulnerability.122 Poor
socio-economic conditions and a need to search for better
standards of living have led to increased intra-regionalmigration, from poorer Central Asian economies to Russia
or from Eastern Europe to more developed countries in theWest. This irregular migration contributes to vulnerability.

Some countries in the region exhibit rampant corruption
and weak government structures unable to respondto modern slavery, as well as a poor respect for humanrights, all of which contribute to their vulnerability scores.
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Belarus had
the highest vulnerability scores relating to governanceissues. This includes political instability, women’s
physical security, weapons access, and the government’s
response to modern slavery. Under President Gurbanguly
Berdymukhamedov, Turkmenistan remains a closed andoppressively governed country with strict controls overfreedom of speech, the press, association, and religion.116
Political rights are severely restricted with reported casesof enforced disappearances, torture, and ill-treatment ofpolitical opponents and prisoners. With absolute control,
the government operates with impunity regarding
violations of human rights.117 This is compounded bycorruption in the judicial system and the use of closed
trials.118 In Uzbekistan, following the death of long time
authoritarian ruler Islam Kasimov in 2016, a politicalvacuum increased uncertainty about political stability
within the country and region. Despite the installation offormer Prime Minister Shavkat Mirziyoyev as President,
authorities continue to restrict a range of civil and politicalrights, adding to the vulnerability of its populations.119

Turkey, Ukraine, Italy, and Albania were highest rated interms of inequality. This includes violent crime, income
inequality, confidence in judicial systems, and the ability
to come up with emergency funds. Measures of inequality
are higher in Turkey and above the OECD average (0.39
cf 0.32)123 and in Italy, the gap between the rich and poor
is also reportedly increasing. Recent data from Italy’s
National Institute of Statistics indicate that from 2009 to2014 a decline in real income hit families belonging to thepoorest 20 percent in the country, widening the income
gap for richer families from 4.6 to 4.9 times that of thepoorest.124 This inequality intensifies vulnerability. Higher
levels of unemployment across the region over the past
few years also increases the vulnerability of those seeking
work abroad.

FIGURE 8
Regional average vulnerability scores by dimension, Europe and Central Asia
49.3

Governance issues
31.1

Lack of basic needs

32.3

Inequality
Disenfranchised groups

34.0

Effects of conflict

32.4

Overallweighted average

46.1
0

20

40

60

80

100

30

Global Slavery Index 2018

According to our assessments, disenfranchised groups
including immigrants and minorities have the highest
vulnerability in Poland, Moldova, and Greece. In Moldova,
discrimination against the Roma community remains
widespread due to stigmatisation and exclusion. This
community faces challenges including segregation of Romachildren in the school system,125 barriers to accessing thelabour market, and poor housing and social conditions.126
In search of better economic, social, and employment
opportunities, Roma communities have a higher risk of
exploitation if they seek informal sector jobs or migrate to
new environments. In Greece, the onset of the “so-called”
migrant crisis has left certain disenfranchised groups more
vulnerable to exploitation. This includes unaccompanied
migrant children on the island of Lesbos who are reportedly
incorrectly identified as adults and housed with unrelated
adults, leaving them vulnerable to abuse and unable toaccess assistance. As of June 2017, 1,149 unaccompanied
migrant children were on the waiting list for shelter, including
296 detained in such facilities.127 With the Greek public
system overwhelmed, the absence of dedicated spaces for
women and children can also add to their vulnerability.128

Conflict also creates an elevated risk of modern slavery,
characterised by displacement, a breakdown of formal andfamily social support networks, and disruptions in basic
services provision.129 Our vulnerability data highlight
Ukraine, Russia, and Turkey as having the highest
vulnerability to modern slavery due to high levels ofconflict. Geographic proximity to conflict zones in Syria
and Iraq impacts vulnerability within Turkey. In Eastern
Ukraine, recent armed conflict between the governmentand separatist armed groups supported by Russia resulted
in the internal displacement of 1.6 million people, while three
million people remained in territory controlled by armed
groups.130 The intensification of violence contributes tothe vulnerability of people who are displaced or desperate
to find opportunities to leave. The socio-economic
deprivation faced by civilians leads to increasing despair
and uncertainty, amplifying their vulnerability to trafficking
and exploitation. The impact of Islamic militancy in Russia
is also adding to the vulnerability of populations. Russia’s
involvement in combatting the spread of the Islamic Statein Syria may exacerbate existing militancy and may lead tofurther attacks across Russia.131 Recent air strikes by US,
British, and French forces132 also raise questions about
potential retaliation in the EU by Islamic State.

TABLE 2Estimated vulnerability to modern slavery by country (%, the higher the score, the higher the level of vulnerability)

Country

GovernanceissuesLack ofbasic needs

Inequality

Disenfranchised
groups

Effects ofconflict

Overallweighted
average

Turkmenistan

80.2

21.5

31.4

32.6

15.9

58.1

Tajikistan

67.4

30.9

32.8

27.8

30.1

55.8

Ukraine

54.0

15.9

46.4

39.0

62.2

54.4

Russia

59.3

13.5

38.6

34.1

51.9

51.6

Turkey

47.0

22.2

47.0

48.6

47.9

51.6

Azerbaijan

60.3

21.2

23.9

35.7

32.5

47.8

Uzbekistan

71.7

20.3

32.6

9.0

18.0

47.5

Belarus

64.9

16.7

23.9

39.4

20.8

47.3

Bosnia and Herzegovina

52.0

16.4

31.7

50.7

34.1

46.4

Macedonia, the former Yugoslav
Republic of

48.4

17.4

42.5

50.6

27.3

45.6

Albania

46.0

20.7

44.3

48.4

27.0

45.2

Kosovo

53.1

16.0

39.3

49.7

12.0

43.8

Armenia

51.1

18.9

33.8

46.3

22.1

43.6

Kazakhstan

60.4

14.5

25.1

38.2

19.5

43.3

Kyrgyzstan

49.6

19.7

35.4

42.6

23.2

42.8

Moldova, Republic of

42.0

22.9

35.3

58.3

18.1

41.6

Georgia

41.5

19.3

33.9

43.9

31.4

39.2

Greece

38.5

14.4

36.4

56.0

23.6

37.1

Israel

35.8

19.1

27.5

48.5

38.6

36.4

Montenegro

39.4

15.0

37.4

50.9

18.3

35.8

Serbia

39.1

15.2

31.6

40.9

27.5

33.9

Romania

35.8

19.5

32.6

52.0

16.1

33.9

Croatia

35.7

20.2

34.1

48.3

12.2

32.7

Europe and Central Asia ReportCountry

GovernanceissuesLack ofbasic needs

Inequality

Disenfranchised
groups

Effects ofconflict31

Overallweighted
average

Bulgaria

33.0

14.7

43.3

44.1

17.4

31.3

Estonia

35.2

13.7

27.4

52.2

12.4

29.2

Italy

31.7

14.4

45.4

31.0

19.3

28.3

Slovakia

29.9

15.1

29.9

51.2

14.2

27.2

Lithuania

29.2

15.4

35.6

46.3

9.7

26.2

Latvia

31.7

15.9

23.8

44.0

10.3

24.6

Poland

24.5

13.7

27.5

59.6

13.6

24.4

Hungary

23.9

14.8

32.9

48.3

15.5

23.6

Slovenia

22.4

16.6

30.6

45.6

6.4

20.1

Cyprus

24.5

16.7

32.6

29.7

10.1

19.1

Czech Republic

25.1

13.9

21.0

37.1

18.2

19.1

France

17.3

15.4

29.4

21.2

28.5

15.3

Belgium

20.0

15.0

29.9

19.3

12.3

13.1

Spain

17.2

18.3

33.5

15.1

14.2

12.8

United Kingdom

15.9

15.6

25.1

12.4

27.8

11.1

Germany

15.9

15.0

22.8

15.7

24.7

10.4

Ireland

17.2

17.0

24.3

10.9

20.1

10.4

Portugal

12.2

15.6

31.7

20.7

9.7

8.5

Luxembourg

17.7

13.7

24.5

12.1

14.3

8.4

Finland

18.6

16.0

15.0

17.8

11.2

8.2

Netherlands

12.8

13.6

26.0

16.0

12.2

6.1

Norway

15.7

17.8

13.1

9.4

10.8

4.5

Sweden

10.2

17.0

17.4

13.0

18.3

4.3

Iceland

20.6

11.7

21.1

4.1

1.8

4.2

Austria

12.6

12.2

18.2

23.5

3.1

3.4

Switzerland

11.6

12.2

15.2

20.1

4.9

1.5

Denmark

8.7

15.3

13.8

15.2

12.5

1.0

32

Global Slavery Index 2018

IMPORTING RISK:

G20 countries in the Europe and Central Asia region and import of products
at-risk of modern slavery
As the analysis in the Global Slavery Index confirms, citizens in G20 countries
enjoy relatively low levels of vulnerability to the crime of modern slavery
within their borders and many aspects of their government responses topreventing this crime are comparatively strong. Nonetheless, businesses
and governments in G20 countries are importing products that are at riskof modern slavery, with hardly any effort being applied by governments toregulate the labour conditions involved in their production. Accordingly, we
conducted research globally to identify and validate a short list of products at
risk of modern slavery, and then map out the extent to which these products
are imported by G20 countries.133

There are six G20 countries in the Europe and Central
Asia region: France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Turkey, and theUnited Kingdom. G20 countries in the Europe and Central
Asia region represent a range of annual imports of at-risk
products by G20 nations, with Germany importing goods
worth US$30 billion per annum and Turkey importing US$5
billion. While this list is not exhaustive, the top five products
at risk of modern slavery (according to US$ value) imported
by G20 countries in the Europe and Central Asia region arepresented in Table 3.
These products are sourced from 21 countries and arevalued at US$85.6 billion. These imports are primarily from
China (84 percent) and India (6 percent).
While G20 countries have imported risk for some time, they
are in the early stages of responding to the connection
between modern slavery and supply chains of businesses
and public procurement.

The Government Response Index tracks the progress ofgovernments towards achievement of five milestones,
including “Government and business stop sourcing goods
and services produced by forced labour,” and it is clear thatexisting efforts fall short of what is required. G20 countries
achieved an average score of only 11 percent for their efforts
to stop sourcing goods and services produced by forced
labour. Russia and Turkey are among the G20 countries thatscored zero on these indicators indicating they have yet to
implement laws to minimise the risk of modern slavery inpublic supply chains, or to encourage business to practicedue diligence, while the highest scores in Europe andCentral Asia were reported for Germany (36.7 percent),
Italy (26.7 percent), the United Kingdom (26.7 percent), andFrance (18.3 percent).

Europe and Central Asia Report

TABLE 3Top five products at risk of modern slavery (according to US$ value) imported into G20 countries in theEurope and Central Asia region
G20 country

Import product at risk of modern slavery

1 / Apparel and clothing accessories
2 / Laptops, computers, and mobile phones
France3 / Cocoa
4 / Fish
5 / Timber
1 / Laptops, computers, and mobile phones
2 / Apparel and clothing accessories

Germany

3 / Cocoa
4 / Fish
5 / Timber
1 / Apparel and clothing accessories
2 / Laptops, computers, and mobile phones

Italy

3 / Cocoa
4 / Cattle
5 / Fish
1 / Laptops, computers, and mobile phones
2 / Apparel and clothing accessories

Russia3 / Cattle
4 / Sugarcane
5 / Fish
1 / Laptops, computers, and mobile phones
2 / Apparel and clothing accessories

Turkey3 / Cocoa
4 / Cotton
5 / Rice
1 / Apparel and clothing accessories
2 / Laptops, computers, and mobile phones

United Kingdom

3 / Fish
4 / Cocoa
5 / Rice33

34

Global Slavery Index 2018

GOVERNMENT RESPONSESFIGURE 8
Government response rating to modern slavery by country
Slovakia

NorwaySwedenHungary Poland

FinlandLithuania

Estonia

LatviaBelarus

Czech Republic
Denmark

Moldova

Austria
Slovenia
Germany
Netherlands
Belgium
IcelandUnitedKingdom

RussiaLuxembourg
IrelandFranceUkraineKazakhstan

Switzerland

Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan

Italy

Turkmenistan

TurkeySpain

Tajikstan
Georgia

Portugal

Azerbaijan
Armenia
Romania
Bulgaria
SerbiaCroatia
Bosnia & Herzegovina

A

BBB* BBBBB

B

CCC CCC

D

Montenegro

Albania

Macedonia

IsraelCyprusGreeceKosovoNot
rated

In the European subregion, states typically have a strong
response to modern slavery and the majority are particularlycommitted to providing support services for victims. One
of Europe’s strengths is the commitment to address theunderlying risks of slavery. For the second consecutive
year, the Netherlands took the most steps to respond tomodern slavery, achieving the only “A” rating within theentire region and globally due to strong responses acrossall milestones and a commitment to addressing risk factors
by providing social safety nets and protection for migrants,
the absence of which increases vulnerability to modern
slavery. Netherlands was closely followed by the United
Kingdom, Belgium, Sweden, Croatia, Spain, Norway, andPortugal, all of which took significant action to respondto modern slavery.

Europe and Central Asia Report

Many countries within the region witnessed an
improvement in ratings. France, Serbia, Latvia, Kosovo,and Switzerland improved their score from BB to BBB,
Bulgaria, Slovakia, and Ukraine improved from B to BB,
and Estonia, Luxembourg, and Belarus improved from CCC
to B. Italy and Greece made stark improvements, jumping
from B to BBB and CCC to BB respectively. In general, these
improvements are due largely to positive steps taken in
public and private procurement and to reduce the risk ofmodern slavery in supply chains. Greece’s improvementin the ranking is reflected in an improved response acrossall fields. In September 2016, Greece’s National Referral
Mechanism was formalised134 and victim identification
training has been intensified for border police and otherfront-line responders.135
In Central and Western Asia, Cyprus and Georgia took themost steps to respond to modern slavery, achieving thehighest BBB score within the region. When correlated
against GDP (PPP) per capita, Montenegro, Georgia, andCyprus stand out as taking relatively strong action whencompared with other countries with stronger economies.
Georgia strengthened its law enforcement capacity byproviding systematic and recurrent training to the judiciary,prosecutors, and police,136 while in Montenegro, free legal
aid and compensation for victims is supported by the legal
framework.137 Cyprus and Georgia improved their ratingfrom BB to BBB, Armenia and Israel improved from B to BB,
Azerbaijan and Kyrgyzstan from CCC to B, and Uzbekistanfrom CC to CCC.
Throughout Europe and Central Asia, Turkmenistan andRussia have the weakest responses to modern slavery,
both maintaining their CC rating – the lowest in theregion. In general, this reflects a combination of limited
political will and a lack of resources, which means thesegovernments do not prioritise the response to modern
slavery. Our assessment of government responses also
reflects evidence of state-imposed forced labour within
the region, including the use of compulsory prison labourin public and private prisons in Russia.138 Forced labour
for economic development occurs in Uzbekistan andTurkmenistan during the annual cotton harvest139 and in
Belarus, where in 2017 two Belarusian teachers who weresupervising school children forced to harvest potatoes weretried for the death of a 13-year-old student who had died ina tragic accident with a truck while on the farm.140 Tajikistan
has, according to the IOM, reduced the use of child andadult forced labour through the establishment of a referralmechanism, capacity building for labour inspectors, andtraining of NGOs to conduct independent monitoring.141
A similar model is currently being rolled out in Uzbekistan.
ILO monitoring of the 2017 harvest found that the systematicuse of child labour in Uzbekistan has come to an end overthe past few years, but there remains a need for further
awareness raising and capacity building to end forced
labour of adults.142

35

This year, for the first time, the Global Slavery Index
included smaller Commonwealth countries and islandstates in our assessment of government responses.
Within Europe and Central Asia, we included Malta,
where an increase in migrant populations has intensified
the vulnerability of migrants to exploitation. Given this is
the first year that data has been collected for Malta, andthus, we cannot suitably compare progress with that ofother countries in the region, we have not publicly reported
its milestone or overall ratings. However, we foundevidence that Malta has taken efforts to provide support
services to victims and to address risks that facilitate
modern slavery. For example, the legal framework in Malta
supports restitution or compensation for victims of modern
slavery and a National Referral Mechanism (NRM) has been
adopted to refer victims to support services.143 All data for
Malta can be found on the Global Slavery Index website.
The Europe and Central Asia region as a whole performed
well in providing support services to victims, as almost
every nation provided some kind of victim support in
2017;144 however, there are significant gaps that affected theefficacy of this work. For example, while almost all nations in
the region had hotlines to report cases of modern slavery,
substantially fewer hotlines were available 24/7 or were
free of charge to access. Thirty-two countries, 28 of which
are in Europe, have a NRM or a standardised system ofidentification and referral into appropriate services. Theseshould be established in all countries to ensure that victims,
regardless of the organisation identifying them, are able toaccess assistance. While only 28 nations have specialised
services for children, even fewer services are typicallyavailable for male victims. In Russia, the nation with theweakest response to slavery in the region, there were noservices found for male victims, nor was there evidenceof a nationally implemented victim referral and support
system.145, 146 In contrast, Montenegro, which had a robust
system of support for victims, male victims had the optionof assistance.147 An effective government response requires
services to support all possible victims, irrespective ofgender.
Criminal justice responses across the region were mixed.
Only 19 out of the region’s 50 countries criminalised slavery,
and only 15 countries criminalised forced labour. Twenty
European and Central Asian countries have legislation fully
criminalising forced marriage. Many countries criminalised
trafficking and implemented training of prosecutors andjudges on human trafficking issues, yet only about half
(26 countries) applied appropriate witness protection
systems within and outside the courtroom, and even fewer(18 countries) provided police with standard operatingprocedures to guide interactions with possible trafficking
victims. Only 19 countries provided visas to victims of
trafficking that were not reliant on participation in a criminal
court case, which places undue pressure and can lead to
re-traumatisation of victims.

36

Global Slavery Index 2018

TABLE 4
Change in European and Central Asian government response ratings 2016 to 2018

Country
Netherlands

2016
RatingA

Changein rating2018
RatingA

Country

2016
RatingChangein rating2018
RatingBulgaria

B

BB

Moldova, Republic
of

BB

BB

Greece

CCC

BB

KosovoB

BB

PolandBB

BB

ArmeniaB

BB

Slovakia

B

BB

UkraineB

BB

Czech Republic

BB

BB

Israel

B

BB

CCC

B

United Kingdom

BBB

BBB*

SwedenBBB

BBBBelgium

BBB

BBB

Croatia

BBB

BBB

Spain

BBB

BBB

NorwayBBBBBBPortugal

BBB

BBB

Montenegro

BB

BBB

CyprusBB

BBB

Macedonia, theformer Yugoslav
Republic of

BB

BBB

Estonia

Austria

BBB

BBB

Bosnia andHerzegovina

B

B

GeorgiaBB

BBB

Azerbaijan

CCC

B

Italy

B

BBB

TurkeyB

B

SerbiaBB

BBB

Iceland

B

B

FranceBB

BBB

Luxembourg

CCC

B

LatviaBB

BBB

Romania

B

B

Switzerland

BB

BBB

Kyrgyzstan

CCC

B

AlbaniaBB

BB

Belarus

CCC

B

SloveniaBB

BB

Tajikistan

CCC

CCC

Lithuania

BB

BB

Kazakhstan

CCC

CCC

CC

CCC

Denmark

BB

BB

Uzbekistan

HungaryBB

BB

Turkmenistan

CC

CC

FinlandBB

BB

RussiaCC

CC

IrelandBB

BB

GermanyBB

BB

Malta***Countries that scored – 1 on a negative indicator could not score above
a BBB rating.
**Included for the first time in 2018, therefore a rating is not provided. Alldata are available via the Global Slavery Index website.

Forty countries in the region provide free legal services
to victims of modern slavery; similar legislation should be
implemented across the region. Moreover, 12 countries still
had laws which were either overly lenient in their treatment
of offenders. Such disproportionate sentencing undermines
efforts to hold offenders accountable.
Generally, most nations (33 out of 50 countries) had some
sort of national strategy and 37 countries had a national
coordinating body to guide and inform their response tomodern slavery. However, adequate and regular evaluationand monitoring of these strategies and bodies remains
limited. France, Latvia, and Belgium had the most robust
responses in this field. In France, a two-year National
Action Plan (NAP) to tackle human trafficking was adopted
in 2016,148 while in Latvia, the Ministry of the Interior uses

the NAP as a platform for reporting on progress against
human trafficking.149 In Belgium, independently evaluating
the national strategy against modern slavery has beena practice since 1993.150 However, independent review
of government action against human trafficking throughannual reviews and reporting against NAP is currently
taking place in only 18 out of 50 nations.
Almost all European and Central Asian countries (46 out of50) have implemented awareness campaigns that educate
the public on the risk factors of modern slavery, typicallyon and around the European Day Against Trafficking in
Humans on October 18.
While a majority of countries (31) provided social safety
nets for refugees, in many countries protection was notextended to all workers; for example, labour laws did notEurope and Central Asia Reportcover informal sectors in 26 countries. Only 11 countries
banned recruitment agencies from charging fees to job
seekers, and efforts to combat modern slavery were
weakened in 11 countries where official complicity was
not routinely investigated. There also remains room for
improvement in the provision of basic safety nets forvulnerable groups across this region.

37

France’s 2017 Corporate Duty of Vigilance law requires
mandatory due diligence for large businesses.156 This law
obliges all French companies that have more than 5,000
employees domestically or employ 10,000 employees
worldwide,157 to prepare a “vigilance” or due diligence planthat directly addresses how the company’s activities impact
on the environment, health and security, and human rights(including modern slavery). This plan must include detailed
Europe, more than any other subregion globally, has
mapping of risks, details of procedures used to assess risks
taken the most steps to address the issue of slavery inwith suppliers, alert mechanisms to collect risk information,
supply chains. In 2014, the EU Parliament passed Directive
and a monitoring scheme. The law will affect about 150
2014/24/EU to encourage European countries to take social
French businesses.158 In the United Kingdom, Section 54 ofconsiderations into account in their public procurement
the Modern Slavery Act requires large businesses to publish
processes, albeit not particularly targeting supply chains.151
an annual statement outlining what they do to ensure there
Article 57 of this Directive requires that public authorities
is no slavery within their own organisation and, importantly,
exclude a business from the procurement or award
within their supply chains. While the content
procedure if the business was convictedof the annual statement is not mandated,by final judgment for child labour or humanEurope,
more
than
any
the UK Home Office in 2017 issued updated
trafficking. The Directive also recommends
other subregion globally, guidance for businesses on the reporting
integrating social considerations as part
requirement of the Modern Slavery Act.159
of the contract performance conditions,has taken the most steps The
reporting requirement applies to every
including asking businesses to comply
to address the issue ofBritish or foreign organisation that carries
with the ILO core conventions, such asslavery in supply chains. out business in the UK and has an annual
Convention 29 on Forced Labour andturnover of more than GBP36 million
Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of(US$47.4 million). Failure to disclose aChild Labour.152
statement could result in injunctive proceedings against
The EU also introduced the EU Directive 2014/95/EU on
the organisation and continued resistance could result in
disclosure of non-financial and diversity information, which
unlimited civil fines.
requires large businesses to include in management reports
Little information is available on whether countries anda non-financial statement containing information relating tobusinesses in the Central and Western Asia subregion
153
social, environmental, and human rights matters. While
are making any effort to stop sourcing goods or services
modern slavery is not expressly mentioned, it is captured
linked to modern slavery. With one exception, no evidence
under the category of human rights. Broadly speaking,exists of Central and Western Asian states adopting publicbusinesses are required to disclose if they are a large
procurement policies to minimise the risk of governments
company with more than 500 employees or are a company
purchasing products linked to forced labour. In 2016,154of public interest. It is estimated that the legislation will
Cyprus, as a member of the EU, transposed EU Directive
155
cover around 6,000 large companies across the EU.
2014/24/EU160 on public procurement and transposed EU
Twenty-seven EU countries have fully transposed the
Directive 2014/95/EU on disclosure of non-financial and
Directive into domestic legislation.
diversity information into domestic legislation.161

38

Global Slavery Index 2018

TABLE 5Government response by milestone percentage, overall score, and rating
RatingCountry

A
BBB*
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB

Netherlands
United Kingdom
SwedenBelgium
Croatia
Spain
NorwayPortugalMontenegro
CyprusMacedonia, the former Yugoslav
Republic ofAustria
Georgia
Italy
SerbiaFranceLatviaSwitzerland
Albania
Slovenia
Lithuania
Denmark
Hungary
Finland
IrelandGermany
Bulgaria
Moldova, Republic of
GreeceKosovoPolandArmenia
Slovakia
UkraineCzech Republic
IsraelEstonia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Azerbaijan
TurkeyIceland
Luxembourg
Romania
Kyrgyzstan
Belarus
Tajikistan
Kazakhstan
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Russia

BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BBB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
BB
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
CCC
CCC
CCC
CC
CC
No
ratingSupportsurvivors

Criminaljustice

Coordination

Addressrisk

Supplychains

TOTAL

72.2
82.0
73.1
72.2
77.0
79.3
68.1
62.6
79.3
68.1

72.2
73.9
64.4
53.9
78.3
65.6
82.8
69.4
70.0
77.8

75.0
62.5
81.3
87.5
56.3
62.5
56.3
68.8
56.3
56.3

92.9
73.8
73.8
73.8
69.0
73.8
73.8
83.3
61.9
61.9

36.7
26.7
18.3
36.7
18.3
0.0
10.0
8.3
0.0
18.3

75.2
71.5
68.7
68.3
68.2
66.9
66.8
66.3
64.0
63.4

70.4

67.2

75.0

61.9

0.0

63.2

72.8
74.1
58.3
63.9
42.4
47.0
66.7
72.8
60.4
46.3
62.6
64.8
53.7
65.9
61.7
59.8
58.5
68.5
66.7
53.3
54.6
48.7
65.7
47.0
57.2
41.3
60.2
28.0
66.7
48.7
47.4
53.3
33.0
48.9
38.9
42.8
30.2
17.8
17.0

61.1
63.9
78.9
75.0
71.7
61.7
60.6
63.3
57.8
62.8
56.1
47.2
49.4
42.2
57.8
49.4
61.1
66.1
62.7
42.2
51.1
52.2
46.1
54.4
56.1
36.1
47.8
71.7
57.2
54.4
33.9
52.2
48.3
27.8
36.1
50.0
33.9
40.0
32.2

68.8
56.3
50.0
56.3
93.8
93.8
37.5
68.8
56.3
68.8
50.0
56.3
81.3
62.5
56.3
56.3
62.5
43.8
37.5
68.8
56.3
62.5
62.5
81.3
43.8
43.8
25.0
62.5
37.5
37.5
68.8
50.0
56.3
37.5
43.8
37.5
31.3
31.3
37.5

61.9
69.0
83.3
69.0
71.4
71.4
81.0
66.7
73.8
78.6
69.0
71.4
71.4
69.0
57.1
66.7
59.5
45.2
59.5
69.0
66.7
64.3
66.7
50.0
61.9
81.0
76.2
59.5
33.3
52.4
50.0
42.9
61.9
66.7
40.5
26.2
64.3
61.9
40.5

18.3
0.0
26.7
0.0
18.3
18.3
0.0
0.0
18.3
18.3
28.3
18.3
8.3
18.3
36.7
18.3
0.0
18.3
0.0
8.3
0.0
18.3
0.0
28.3
0.0
18.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
8.3
8.3
18.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

63.1
62.8
62.0
61.9
61.5
60.9
60.0
59.9
59.6
59.1
58.6
58.2
57.9
57.7
57.1
55.8
55.7
55.1
54.8
53.9
53.2
53.2
53.0
52.9
52.1
48.8
48.6
48.2
47.4
46.4
45.4
43.9
40.9
40.1
33.0
32.8
30.4
27.1
20.7

Malta162*Substantial gaps in data exist for the Central and East Asia subregions where, with the exception of Mongolia, surveys cannot be conducted for reasons suchas (i) survey is only delivered face-to-face, (ii) survey is delivered only in the main language which many migrant workers do not speak, or (iii) national authorities
would not, or were unlikely to, consent to the module on modern slavery. Unlike several countries in Western Europe where no surveys were conducted,
none of the countries in these subregions were identified as sites of exploitation by respondents in the 48 countries where surveys were implemented.

Europe and Central Asia Report

39

A picture taken in 2011 shows irregular migrants from Burkina Faso working
in Foggia, southern Italy during the tomato harvest. Workers in the agriculture
sector in Italy frequently face exploitative working conditions, ranging fromviolation of contract provisions through to severe abuse and forced labour.
These workers experience forms of exploitation and abuse, including notreceiving adequate remuneration and being controlled by middlemen or labour
brokers, known as caporali. Rather than being paid a salary, these men canbe paid by the hour or by the number of crates they fill (shown in the image).
The second option is illegal in Italy, but many migrants choose this means of
payment so they may earn more money, up to 40 Euros per day. The standard
salary, working 10-12 hours a day, is around 20 Euros. Regardless of salary,these workers then have to pay the caporali for transportation, food, and water.
Photo credit: Alessando Penso

40

Global Slavery Index 2018

REGIONAL RESPONSEIn December 2017, the European Union (EU) announced a set of new
cross-cutting priority actions to focus on during 2018. This included
disrupting traffickers’ business models, encouraging member statesto criminalise those knowingly using services exacted from victims of
trafficking, increasing the numbers of investigations and prosecutions,providing better access to and realising rights for victims, and intensifying
a coordinated and consolidated response, both within and outside the EU.
Progress will be monitored by the European Commission and reported to
the European Parliament by the end of 2018.163

The Council of Europe continues to focus on protecting
participated in the first OSCE live simulation exercise on
victims, prosecuting traffickers, and preventing trafficking
cases of labour and sexual exploitation along migration
through its Convention on Action against Trafficking inroutes.167 The OSCE is also assisting its member states
Human Beings. Under Article 36 of this Convention, thein further developing their National Referral Mechanisms
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Humanby creating ownership and accountability among those
Beings (GRETA) is established to monitor
involved.168 A project on Prevention of
Trafficking in Human Beings in Supply
implementation of the Convention by theparties. Monitoring is not limited to the
The Council of Europe Chains through Government Practices
publication of GRETA reports and country
and Measures is also being implemented
continues to focus on
evaluations, but rather extends to follow up
with the objective of providing member
protecting victims,
activities that promote better understanding
states with practical tools to prevent humanand implementation of recommendations,trafficking in supply chains and contributing
prosecuting traffickers,
as well as awareness raising and capacity
to the promotion of labour and socialand preventing
building for all member states. 164 For
standards in supply chains.169 In February
trafficking
throughits
example, in 2016, GRETA published a
2018, the OSCE published model guidelines
Convention on Action
compendium of good practices highlighting
for participating states and partners that
positive initiatives identified in 52 countryfocus on public procurement policies
against Trafficking inby-country evaluation reports published byand their role in enhancing transparency
Human Beings.
GRETA since 2008.165
in supply chains, ethical recruitment, andlabour market protection.170
The Organisation for Security andCooperation Europe (OSCE) continues its work in
The Council of the Baltic Sea States Task Force Against
strengthening the capacity of national authorities and civil
Trafficking in Human Beings (CBSS TF-THB) consists ofsociety organisations in combatting modern slavery. This
11 member-states (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany,is done through presenting information campaigns for
Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, andthe public and running training courses for police, border
Sweden) as well as a representative from the European
guards, legal professionals, social workers, and religious
Union. Under this Council, the Task Force Against Trafficking
leaders.166 In 2016, more than 50 professionals from law
in Human Beings (CBSS TF-THB) works as an expert group
enforcement, labour inspectorates, financial investigative
dedicated to counteracting human trafficking in the Baltic
units, prosecutorial offices, social services, and NGOs
Sea region through protective and preventative measures.

Europe and Central Asia Report

41

Pitesti city, Romania, 27 January 2017.
A Romanian psychologist talks with minor victims ofhuman trafficking at the reception center near Pitesti
city, southern Romania. The reception center was set
up by the ‘Reaching Out’ association. Most of those
identified in Romania are exploited by networksof Romanian traffickers operating in Italy, Spain,
Germany and France.
Photo credit: Daniel Mihailescu/AFP/Getty Images).

Between May 2016 and September 2017, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, and Russia participated in the Strengthening
the Role of Municipalities in the Work against Trafficking in
Human beings (STROM) II project focused on strengthening
the capacity of eight chosen municipalities to assist victims
in the Baltic Sea region. This included development ofspecific referral mechanisms, implementation of awarenessraising activities, and the organisation of a regional expert
meeting to share experiences, project findings and lessons
learned.171
It is unclear what specific actions the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS), comprising Azerbaijan, Armenia,
Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Ukraine, havetaken to combat modern slavery.

In 2013, the CIS approved a program of cooperation on
the fight against human trafficking for 2014-2018, but it isunclear what this program entails or has achieved in recent
years.172 Another regional body is the Organisation of theBlack Sea Economic Cooperation, which is focused mainly
on multilateral economic cooperation. This organisation
has an ongoing project with the United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime to strengthen the criminal justice responseto trafficking in persons in the Black Sea region.173 This
includes networking and enhancing dialogue between
relevant criminal justice actors in this area by sharing
expertise and best practice.174

42

Global Slavery Index 2018

REGIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Governments should:

Strengthen legislation

Improve victim support›› Ratify and implement ILO Domestic Workers
Convention, 2011 (No. 189) and the ILO P029 Protocolof 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, andtranslate these into national legislation to ensure
protection for migrant workers.
›› Introduce and implement legislation criminalisingforced marriage and raise the age of marriage to 18 formen and women. Twenty European and Central Asian
countries have legislation fully criminalising forced
marriage – equivalent laws should be enacted in theremaining 30 countries.

›› Consult with survivors of modern slavery to ensure
their voices are heard and their needs are met throughany national response in European and Central Asian
countries.

›› In countries where legislation exists on forced
marriage, ensure the effective implementation ofthis legislation by providing ongoing training andresources for police, prosecutors, and judges, using
the UK Forced Marriage Unit as a model.

›› Provide visas for modern slavery victims that do not
require participation in criminal investigations orprosecutions. Only 19 countries across the region
provided visas to victims of trafficking that were
not reliant on participation in a criminal court case,which places undue pressure and can lead to retraumatisation of victims.

›› Abolish state-imposed forced labour in practice inCentral Asian countries. Ensure that legal loopholesthat facilitate state-imposed forced labour are closed
and that governments in Central Asia work closelywith the ILO to eliminate forced labour among adult
populations and continue the progress in ending
forced labour of children.
›› Ensure all workers, irrespective of sector or status,
are granted equal protection under national labourlaws and that these laws cover the informal sector
across the region. Labour laws did not cover informal
sectors in 26 countries and only 11 countries banned
recruitment agencies from charging fees to job
seekers. Where necessary, reform labour laws toprovide basic safety nets for vulnerable migrantgroups across this region.

›› Improve victim identification by ensuring training
on identifying and responding to victims is provided
to those who may come into contact with victims,
including those in law enforcement and staff/officials
involved in refugee intake and support services. This
training should cover all forms of exploitation andinclude child-specific services.

›› Ensure legal aid is available as a standard part ofvictim support. It is crucial to include not only access tolegal assistance through the assignment of pro bonolawyers for litigation, but also for lawyers to provide
victims with necessary information regarding rights
and options and to empower them to make their own
decisions, including on the investigation and litigation
process. Forty countries in the region currently
provide free legal services to victims of modern
slavery; similar legislation should be implemented
across the region.
›› Ensure National Referral Mechanisms are inplace to improve coordination and cooperation
between government agencies, as well as between
government and non-government actors. Thirty-two
countries, 28 of which are in Europe, currently have a
National Referral Mechanism. All countries, especiallythose in Central Asia, should set up similar systems toensure that all victims, regardless of the organisation
identifying them, are able to access assistance.

Europe and Central Asia Report››

Provide access to support and shelter for men, women,
and children regardless of whether they experienced
forced labour or commercial sexual exploitation.
While only 28 countries have specialized services forchildren, even fewer services are typically available
for male victims. In Russia, there are no services
found for male victims or a nationally implemented
victim referral and support system. It is essential thatall governments are prepared to provide support forthese victims as they are identified, regardless ofgender and citizenship.

Strengthen coordination andtransparency›› All countries should develop their own National Action
Plans or strategies in coordination with relevant
stakeholders and ensure that these are based on
research and data into the nature and trends ofhuman trafficking and child exploitation. Currently 33
countries out of a total of 50 in the region have some
sort of national strategy; countries that have National
Action Plans should ensure the they have adequate
budgets attached and are fully funded.
›› Establish monitoring mechanisms, such as anindependent rapporteur or commissioner, to ensure
effective implementation of the National Action Plans
and the incorporation of lessons learned. Independent
review of government action against human trafficking
through annual reviews and reporting against National
Action Plans are currently implemented by only 18 out
of 50 countries in the region.
›› Publish lessons learnt from monitoring and review ofnational strategies and share this information throughexisting regional mechanisms.
›› Ensure that efforts to address modern slavery include
measurement of the extent and nature of the issue,
as well as risk factors so the impact of progress canbe effectively monitored.

Address risk factors

43›› Ensure all migrant workers are issued work permits
and contracts in languages that they understand.
›› Ensure all domestic workers are issued work permits
and contracts in person and without their employer
present to ensure that no exploitation is taking place
and to provide an avenue for seeking assistance.
›› Provide training for labour inspectors to be able toidentify and refer cases of modern slavery. Extend
the remit of labour inspectors to cover both informal
and formal sectors and conduct inspections in sectors
known to be at high risk of modern slavery.
›› Launch information campaigns aimed at sending
countries to ensure that prospective migrants are
informed both of the risks they may face on thejourney, as well as their rights and risks they may faceliving and working in the destination country.
›› Educate migrant workers on their employment andresidency rights upon arrival in destination countries,
as well as provide information on how to access help
and seek redress for exploitation.
›› EU donor countries should support programmingin Middle East and Sub-Saharan countries that
focuses on protection of women and girls and female
empowerment and education for all. Share lessons
learnt from community empowerment programming in
addressing related social issues such as forced genital
mutilation and early marriage. Extend programmesthat engage communities through human rightsbased education and other community empowerment
models.
›› EU donor countries should scale up support for
displaced persons, and particularly women and girls,
in conflict zones in order to prevent modern slavery.

Eradicate modern slavery from theeconomy›› Implement EU Directives that require mandatory
reporting for all large businesses on social andenvironmental issues and include specific provisions
on modern slavery and human trafficking in domestic
legislation.

›› All destination countries should protect the rights of
migrants regardless of whether their entry was legal.

›› Introduce legislation that all government procurement
providers take steps to detect and eliminate modern
slavery from publicly funded supply chains.

›› Review restrictive immigration policies and legislation
to ensure that these have not increased vulnerabilityof migrant workers to exploitation and, where they do,reform them with a view to providing safe migration
pathways.

›› Facilitate opportunities for business and government
partnerships that strengthen ethical recruitment
and ensure that safeguards and redress exist forvulnerable workers.

›› Conduct widespread, systematic education
campaigns in destination countries to counter
stereotypical attitudes toward migrant workers andto promote diversity. Involve schools, universities,
and religious leaders, and publicise widely on radio,
television, print, and online media.

›› Exclude cotton from Uzbekistan and Turkmenistanfrom trade preference programs, including the EU’s
Generalized Scheme of Preferences, until those
government end their forced labour system of cotton
production.

44

Global Slavery Index 2018

APPENDIX:
Endnotes

1

UK government 2015, Modern Slavery Act, The National Archives.
Available from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/30/section/54/
enacted. [21 May 2018].

2

Aseemblée Nationale Entreprises : devoir de vigilance des entreprises
donneuses d’ordre. Available from: http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/14/
dossiers/devoir_vigilance_entreprises_donneuses_ordre.asp.
[17 December 2017].

3

UNGIFT 2009, Trafficking in Persons; Analysis on Europe, UNODC.
Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Trafficking_in_Persons_in_Europe_09.pdf. [26 April 2018].

4

UNODC 2016, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. Available from:http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_
Report_on_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf. [26 April 2018].

5

van Setten, M 2017, ‘Support for restrictive immigration policies in theEuropean Union 2002 – 2013: the impact of economic strain and ethnic
threat for vulnerable economic groups,’ European Societies, Vol. 19, 4.
Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616696.
2016.1268705. [27 April 2018].

6

Buckley, N, Shotter, J & Byrne, A 2017, ‘Labour shortages put central
European growth under threat,’ Financial Times, 26 June. Available from:https://www.ft.com/content/ae950cdc-5805-11e7-80b6-9bfa4c1f83d2.
[27 April 2018].

7

8

9

10

Psaila, E, Leigh, V, Verbari, M, Fiorentini, S, Dalla Pozza, V, & Gomez,
A 2016, Forced marriage from a gender perspective, Directorate –General for Internal Policies, Policy Department C: Citizens’ rights andconstitutional affairs. Available from: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/
RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/IPOL_STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf.
[27 April 2018]. See also: UN Women 2016, Stopping bride kidnapping in
Kyrgyzstan, UN Women, 9 August. Available from: http://www.unwomen.
org/en/news/stories/2016/8/stopping-bride-kidnapping-in-kyrgyzstan.
[27 April 2018].
Human Rights Watch 2017, World Report 2018: Turkmenistan, HRW.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/
turkmenistan. [12 February 2018]. See also: Human Rights Watch 2017,
World Report 2017: Uzbekistan, HRW. Available from: https://www.hrw.
org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/uzbekistan. [25 January 2018].
Eurostat 2015, Trafficking in Human Beings: Statistical Working Paper.
Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.
pdf. [26 April 2018]. See also: National Crime Agency 2017, National
Referral Mechanism Statistics – End of Year Summary 2017, UK
government. Available from: http://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.
uk/publications/national-referral-mechanism-statistics/2017-nrmstatistics/884-nrm-annual-report-2017/file. [27 April 2018].
UNODC 2016, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. Available from:http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_
Report_on_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf. [26 April 2018].

11

IOM 2017, Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Trafficking and Other
Exploitative Practices Indication Survey Analysis on Adult and Children
on the Mediterranean Routes Compared September 2017. Available
from: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/dtm/Analysis_Flow_
Monitoring_and_Human_Trafficking_Surveys_in_the_Mediterranean_
and_Beyond_adults_children.pdf. [26 April 2018].

12

Kern, S. 2017, ‘Europe’s Migrant Crisis: Millions Still to Come’, Gatestone
Institute: International Policy Council, 23 December. Available from:https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/11480/europe-migrant-crisis-exodus.
[08 May 2018]. See also Tingle, R 2017, ‘Europe is ‘underestimating’ scaleof migrant crisis and could be flooded by millions of Africans in ‘biblicalexodus’ unless urgent action is taken says top official,’ Daily Mail, July.
Available from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4676640/Europeunderestimating-scale-migrant-crisis.html. [27 April 2018].

13

van Setten, M 2017, ‘Support for restrictive immigration policies in theEuropean Union 2002 – 2013: the impact of economic strain and ethnic
threat for vulnerable economic groups,’ European Societies, Vol. 19, 4.
Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616696.
2016.1268705. [27 April 2018].

14

Heller, C & Pezzani, L 2016, Death by (Failure to) Rescue, Forensic
Oceanography. Available at: https://deathbyrescue.org/foreword/.
[30 April 2018].

15

Eke, S. n.d., ‘Russia: new rules hit foreign workers’, BBC World Service,World Agenda. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/119_wag_climate/page9.shtml. [01 May 2018]. See also:
Najibullah, F 2014, ‘Russia to test migrant workers on country’s history,’
Radio Free Europe, 13 June. Available from: https://www.rferl.org/a/russiamigrants-history-tests/25420832.html. [1 May 2018].

16

Schottenfeld, J 2017, ‘The Midnight Train to Moscow’ Foreign Policy,
10 August. Available from: http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/08/10/themidnight-train-to-moscow-tajikistan-migration/. [27 April 2018].

17

Dave, B 2014, ‘Making work easier for Kazakhstan’s migrant workers,’
Open Democracy, 19 September. Available from: https://www.
opendemocracy.net/od-russia/bhavna-dave/making-work-easier-forkazakhstan%E2%80%99s-migrant-workers. [30 April 2018].

18

International Labour Organization 2016, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2015, published 105th ILC session (2016). Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3247143,103154,Belarus,2015. [28 April 2017].

19

International Labour Organization 2017, Direct Request (CEACR) –adopted 2016, published 106th ILC session (2017). Available from: http://
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::::P13100_
COMMENT_ID:3299906. [6 November 2017].

20

The Cotton Campaign 2018, About the Cotton Campaign. Available from:http://www.cottoncampaign.org/about.html. [27 April 2018].

21

As above.

Europe and Central Asia Report

22

International Organization for Migration 2016, Child and forced labour
exploitation in Tajikistan’s cotton harvest: 2015 annual monitoring report,
IOM. Available from: http://www.iom.tj/files/cottoneng2015.pdf,[30 April 2018].

23

Such as the EU system of preferences

24

International Labour Office (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology of the global estimates of modern slavery: Forced labourand forced marriage, ILO. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/
forced-labour/publications/WCMS_586127/lang--en/index.htm.
[1 August 2018].

25

Analyses were conducted by Gallup, Inc. and Walk Free Foundation andare described in a forthcoming paper: Diego-Rosell P & Joudo Larsen J(forthcoming), Modelling the Risk of Modern Slavery.

26

See: IOM, “Migration Flows – Europe”. Available from http://migration.iom.
int/europe [14 August 2018].

27

Eurostat, March 2018, “Migration and migrant population statistics“ athttp://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/1275.pdf. [14August 2018].

28

Brunovskis, A. & Surtees, R. 2017, Vulnerability and exploitation along theBalkans route: Identifying victims of human trafficking in Serbia. Available
from: www.fafo.no/index.php/zoo-publikasjoner/fafo-rapporter/item/
vulnerability-and-exploitation-along-the-balkan-route-2 [14 August 2018].

29

STRIVE Project Description available from: www.icmpd.org/fileadmin/
user_upload/Project_Description_STRIVE.pdf [14 August 2018].

30

Forin, R. & Healy, C. 2018, Trafficking along Migration Routes to Europe:
Bridging the Gap between Migration, Asylum and Anti-Trafficking,
Vienna: ICMPD. Available from: www.icmpd.org/fileadmin/1_2018/
Bridging_the_Gap_between_Migration__Asylum_and_Anti-Trafficking.
pdf [14 August 2018].

31

32

For research findings on how lack of legal status and of access toregular employment also make people more vulnerable to trafficking
in the context of the country of origin of refugees, and in neighbouring
countries, see, for example: ICMPD 2015, Targeting Vulnerabilities: The
Impact of the Syrian War and Refugee Situation on Trafficking in Persons,
Vienna: ICMPD. Available from: https://www.icmpd.org/our-work/capacitybuilding/programmes/anti-trafficking-programme/trafficking-and-thesyrian-war [21 August 2018].
UNGIFT 2009, Trafficking in Persons; Analysis on Europe, UNODC.
Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Trafficking_in_Persons_in_Europe_09.pdf. [26 April 2018].

45

42Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA)
2017, Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by France,
Council of Europe, p. 7. Available from: https://rm.coe.int/greta-2017-17fgr-fra-en/16807454bf. [30 November 2017].

43

DemandAT 2016, Exploited for Care: Abuse and Trafficking in Domestic
Work in Italy, European Commission, June. Available from: https://
ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/policy_briefs/demandat_
policybrief_italy_lpalumbo.pdf. [27 April 2018].

44

National Crime Agency 2018, National Referral Mechanism Statistics– End of Year Summary 2017, Government of the United Kingdom,
26 March. Available from: http://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.
uk/publications/national-referral-mechanism-statistics/2017-nrmstatistics/884-nrm-annual-report-2017. [27 April 2018].

45

United Nations and the Rule of Law 2015, Austria: Measure to prevent
human trafficking for domestic servitude in diplomatic households.
Available from: https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/blog/portfolio-items/austriameasures-to-prevent-human-trafficking-for-domestic-servitude/.
[27 April 2018].

46

Dave, B 2014, ‘Making work easier for Kazakhstan’s migrant workers,’
Open Democracy, 19 September. Available from: https://www.
opendemocracy.net/od-russia/bhavna-dave/making-work-easier-forkazakhstan%E2%80%99s-migrant-workers. [1 May 2018].

47

Eke, S. n.d., ‘Russia: new rules hit foreign workers’, BBC World Service,World Agenda. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/119_wag_climate/page9.shtml. [01 May 2018]. See also:
Najibullah, F 2014, ‘Russia to test migrant workers on country’s history,’
Radio Free Europe, 13 June. Available from: https://www.rferl.org/a/russiamigrants-history-tests/25420832.html. [1 May 2018].

48

UNODC 2016, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. Available from:http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_
Report_on_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf. [26 April 2018].

49

Kislov, D & Zhanaev, E 2017, ‘Russia: Xenophobia and vulnerability of
migrants from Central Asia,’The Foreign Policy Centre, 4 December.
Available from: https://fpc.org.uk/russia-xenophobia-vulnerabilitymigrants-central-asia/. [27 April 2018]. See also: Matusevich, Y 2017,‘Russia, Xenophobia and Profiting from Migration Controls,’ News Deeply,
3 August. Available from: https://www.newsdeeply.com/refugees/community/2017/08/03/russia-xenophobia-and-profiting-from-migrationcontrols. [27 April 2018].

50

Hille, K 2018, ‘Russia’s economy: challenges facing Vladimir Putin,’
The Financial Times, 28 February. Available from: https://www.ft.com/
content/3aac3faa-1bb6-11e8-aaca-4574d7dabfb6. [27 April 2018].

33

As above.

34

Eurostat 2015, Trafficking in Human Beings: Statistical Working Paper.
Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.
pdf. [26 April 2018].

51

Kislov, D & Zhanaev, E 2017, ‘Russia: Xenophobia and vulnerability of
migrants from Central Asia,’ The Foreign Policy Centre, 4 December.
Available from: https://fpc.org.uk/russia-xenophobia-vulnerabilitymigrants-central-asia/. [27 April 2018].

35

As above.

52

36

National Crime Agency 2017, National Referral Mechanism Statistics –End of Year Summary 2017, UK government. Available from: http://www.
nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/publications/national-referral-mechanismstatistics/2017-nrm-statistics/884-nrm-annual-report-2017/file.
[27 April 2018].

Umarova, I & Sujud, J 2015, ‘Tajiks face new obstacles to work in Russia’,Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR). Available from: https://iwpr.
net/global-voices/tajiks-face-new-obstacles-work-russia. [27 April 2018].

53

Schottenfeld, J 2017, ‘The Midnight Train to Moscow’ Foreign Policy, 10
August. Available from: http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/08/10/the-midnighttrain-to-moscow-tajikistan-migration/. [27 April 2018].

54

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Kazakhstan country narrative, United States
Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271215.htm. [26 April 2018].

55

Eurasianet.org 2016, ‘Eastern Promises: why migrant workers are turning
their backs on Russia,’ The Guardian, 19 May. Available from: https://www.
theguardian.com/world/2016/may/19/eastern-promises-migrant-workersturning-backs-russia. [1 May 2018].

56

Dave, B 2014, ‘Making work easier for Kazakhstan’s migrant workers,’
Open Democracy, 19 September. Available from: https://www.
opendemocracy.net/od-russia/bhavna-dave/making-work-easier-forkazakhstan%E2%80%99s-migrant-workers. [30 April 2018].

57

As above.

58

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Kazakhstan country narrative, United States
Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271215.htm. [26 April 2018].

37

UNODC 2016, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. Available from:http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_
Report_on_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf. [26 April 2018].

38

UNODC 2016, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. Available from:http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_
Report_on_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf. [26 April 2018].

39

Grierson, J 2017, ‘UK family found guilty of enslaving homeless anddisabled people,’ The Guardian, 11 August. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/aug/11/uk-family-found-guilty-ofenslaving-homeless-and-disabled-people. [27 February 2018].

40

Osservatorio Placido Rizzotto 2017, Mafie e Caporalato, CGIL-FLAI.
Available from: http://www.flai.it/osservatoriopr/. [2 June 2017].

41‘Cosa dice la nuova legge contro il caporalato,’ 2016, Il Post, 19 October
2016. Available from: http://www.ilpost.it/2016/10/19/cosa-dice-la-nuovalegge-contro-il-caporalato/. [2 June 2017].

46

Global Slavery Index 201859

van Setten, M 2017, ‘Support for restrictive immigration policies in theEuropean Union 2002 – 2013: the impact of economic strain and ethnic
threat for vulnerable economic groups,’ European Societies, Vol. 19, 4.
Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616696.20
16.1268705. [27 April 2018].

76

ECPAT UK, Missing People, Trust for London and the Blagrave Trust
2016, Heading back to harm: A study on trafficking and unaccompanied
children going missing from care in the UK. Available from: https://www.
ecpat.org.uk/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=875b65b5-08d4-4e9fa28c-331d1421519f. [1 May 2018].

60

Kern, S. 2017, ‘Europe’s Migrant Crisis: Millions Still to Come’, Gatestone
Institute: International Policy Council, 23 December. Available from:https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/11480/europe-migrant-crisis-exodus.
[8 May 2018]. See also Tingle, R 2017, ‘Europe is ‘underestimating’ scaleof migrant crisis and could be flooded by millions of Africans in ‘biblicalexodus’ unless urgent action is taken says top official,’ Daily Mail, July.
Available from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4676640/Europeunderestimating-scale-migrant-crisis.html. [27 April 2018].

77

Ministero dell’Interno 2016, Dati Asilo 2015-2016. Available from: http://
www.libertaciviliimmigrazione.dlci.interno.gov.it/sites/default/files/
allegati/riepilogo_dati_2015_2016_0.pdf. [2 June 2017]. Group ofExperts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) 2017,
Report on Italy under Rule 7 of the Rules of Procedure for evaluating
implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against
Trafficking in Human Beings, p. 6. Available from: https://rm.coe.
int/16806edf35. [2 June 2017].

61

MEDMIG 2018, Unravelling the Mediterranean Migration Crisis. Available
from: http://www.medmig.info/. [26 April 2018].

78

62

IOM 2017, Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Trafficking and Other
Exploitative Practices Indication Survey Analysis on Adult and Children
on the Mediterranean Routes Compared September 2017, p. 3. Available
from: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/dtm/Analysis_Flow_
Monitoring_and_Human_Trafficking_Surveys_in_the_Mediterranean_
and_Beyond_adults_children.pdf. [26 April 2018].

International Organization for Migration 2017, Human trafficking throughthe Central Mediterranean route: data, stories and information collectedby the International Organization for Migration, p. 9. Available from:http://www.italy.iom.int/sites/default/files/news-documents/IOMReport_
Trafficking.pdf. [9 November 2017].

79

Pathfinders Justice Initiative 2018, Nigeria: human trafficking factsheet,
27 March. Available from: http://pathfindersji.org/nigeria-humantrafficking-factsheet/. [27 April 2018].

80

Taub, B 2017, ‘The Desperate Journey of a Trafficked Girl,’ New Yorker,
10 April. Available from: http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/04/10/
the-desperate-journey-of-a-trafficked-girl. [2 June 2017].

81

van der Watt, M & Kruger, B 2017, ‘Exploring ‘juju’ and human trafficking:towards a demystified perspective and response,, South African Review
of Sociology. Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
21528586.2016.1222913. [29 September 2017].

82

International Organization for Migration 2015, Rapporto sullevittime di tratta nell’ambito dei flussi migratori misti in arrive via
mare, aprile 2014-ottobre 2015. Available from: http://www.italy.
iom.int/sites/default/files/news-documents/RapportoAntitratta.
pdf. [2 June 2017]; Nwaubani, AT & Guilbert, K 2016, ‘Migrant Crisis
Fuels Sex Trafficking of Nigerian Girls to Europe,’ Reuters Africa,
31 May. Available from: http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/
idAFKCN0YM156?pageNumber=3&virtualBrandChannel=0. [2 June 2017].
Taub, B 2017, ‘The Desperate Journey of a Trafficked Girl,’ New Yorker,
10 April. Available from: http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/04/10/
the-desperate-journey-of-a-trafficked-girl. [2 June 2017].

83

Human Rights Watch 2015, Israel: Serious Abuse of Thai MigrantWorkers, HRW, 21 January. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/
news/2015/01/21/israel-serious-abuse-thai-migrant-workers.
[27 April 2018].

84

As above.

85

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Israel country narrative, United States Departmentof State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271210.htm. [1 May 2018].

86

The Hotline for Refugees and Migrants n.d., Trends in human trafficking
in Israel. Available from: https://hotline.org.il/en/human-trafficking-en/
trends-in-human-trafficking-in-israel/. [1 May 2018].

87

Buckley, N, Shotter, J & Byrne, A 2017, ‘Labour shortages put central
European growth under threat,’ Financial Times, 26 June. Available from:https://www.ft.com/content/ae950cdc-5805-11e7-80b6-9bfa4c1f83d2.
[27 April 2018].

88

Hall, D 2014, Severe forms of Labour Exploitation. Supporting victimsof severe forms of labour exploitation in having access to justice in EU
Member States, Poland, Social Fieldwork Research.

89

Gentleman, A 2017, ‘Slavery report sounds alarm over Vietnamese nailbar workers,’ The Guardian, 11 September. Available from: https://www.
theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/11/slavery-report-sounds-alarm-overvietnamese-nail-bar-workers. [27 April 2018].

90

Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group 2017, Brexit & the UK’s fight against
modern slavery: A briefing by the Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group, July.
Available from: https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/
ATMG-Brexit-paper.pdf. [27 April 2018].

63

64

IOM 2017, Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Trafficking and Other
Exploitative Practices Indication Survey Analysis on Adult and Children
on the Mediterranean Routes Compared September 2017. Available from:https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/dtm/Analysis_Flow_Monitoring_
and_Human_Trafficking_Surveys_in_the_Mediterranean_and_Beyond_adults_children.pdf. [26 April 2018].
IOM 2017, Flow Monitoring Surveys: The Human Trafficking and Other
Exploitative Practices Indication Survey Analysis on Adult and Children
on the Mediterranean Routes Compared September 2017. Available
from: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/dtm/Analysis_Flow_
Monitoring_and_Human_Trafficking_Surveys_in_the_Mediterranean_
and_Beyond_adults_children.pdf. [26 April 2018].

65

Heller, C & Pezzani, L 2016, Death by (Failure to) Rescue, Forensic
Oceanography. Available at: https://deathbyrescue.org/foreword/.
[30 April 2018].

66

As above.

67

Human Rights Watch 2017, EU: Shifting Rescue to Libya Risks Lives,
HRW, 19 June. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/06/19/eushifting-rescue-libya-risks-lives. [30 April 2018].

68

Ayoub, J 2017, ‘How the EU is responsible for slavery in Libya,’ Al Jazeera,
29 November. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/
opinion/slavery-walls-fortress-europe-171128094218944.html.
[30 April 2018].

69‘Italy’s Code of Conduct for NGOs involved in migrant rescue: text,’
euronews, 3 August 2017. Available from: http://www.euronews.
com/2017/08/03/text-of-italys-code-of-conduct-for-ngos-involved-inmigrant-rescue. [30 April 2018].

70

Gouliamaki, L 2018, ‘Migrant slavery in Libya: Nigerians tell of being usedas slaves,’ BBC, 2 January. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/
world-africa-42492687. [30 April 2018].

71

Naib, F 2018, ‘Slavery in Libya: Life inside a container,’ Al Jazeera,
26 January. Available from: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/01/
slavery-libya-life-container-180121084314393.html. [30 April 2018].

72‘Migrant crisis: More than 10,000 children ‘missing’,’ BBC, 31 January 2016.
Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35453589.
[1 May 2018].

73

Townsend, M 2016, ‘10,000 refugee children are missing says Europol,’The Guardian, 30 January. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/
world/2016/jan/30/fears-for-missing-child-refugees. [26 April 2018].

74

Nando, N & Allsopp, J 2016, ‘Mind the gap: why are unaccompanied
children disappearing in their thousands?,’ Open Democracy. Available
from: https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/nando-sigona-and-jenniferallsopp/mind-gap-why-are-unaccompanied-children-disappearing-inthous. [26 April 2018].

75

As above.

Europe and Central Asia Report

91

Psaila, E, Leigh, V, Verbari, M, Fiorentini, S, Dalla Pozza, V, & Gomez,
A 2016, Forced marriage from a gender perspective, DirectorateGeneral for Internal Policies, Policy Department C: Citizens’ rights andconstitutional affairs, p. 35. Available from: http://www.europarl.europa.
eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/IPOL_STU(2016)556926_
EN.pdf. [27 April 2018].

92

Psaila, E, Leigh, V, Verbari, M, Fiorentini, S, Dalla Pozza, V, & Gomez,
A 2016, Forced marriage from a gender perspective, Directorate –General for Internal Policies, Policy Department C: Citizens’ rights andconstitutional affairs, p. 34. Available from: http://www.europarl.europa.
eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/IPOL_STU(2016)556926_
EN.pdf. [27 April 2018].

93

As above.

94

UN Women 2016, Stopping bride kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan, UN
Women, 9 August. Available from: http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/
stories/2016/8/stopping-bride-kidnapping-in-kyrgyzstan. [27 April 2018].

95

CEDAW 2015, Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of
Kyrgyzstan, 11 March. Available from: http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/
treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CEDAW/C/KGZ/
CO/4&Lang=En. [27 April 2018].

96

UNFPA 2014, Child marriage in Kyrgyzstan (Overview). Available from:https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/UNFPA-ChildMarriage-in-Kyrgyzstan-2014.pdf. [27 April 2018].

97

Chung, C 2016, ‘Little is being done to end Kyrgyzstan’s bride
kidnapping crisis,’ Huffington Post, 9 July. Available from: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/kyrgyzstan-bride-kidnapping_
us_57d05dede4b03d2d4597eef5. [27 April 2018].

98

UNODC 2016, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. Available from:http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_
Report_on_Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf. [26 April 2018].

99

International Labour Organization 2016, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2015, published 105th ILC session (2016). Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3247143,103154,Belarus,2015. [28 April 2017].

100

International Labour Organization 2017, Direct Request (CEACR) –adopted 2016, published 106th ILC session (2017). Available from: http://
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::::P13100_
COMMENT_ID:3299906. [6 November 2017].

101‘Over 3m people partake in nationwide subbotnik in Belarus,’ Belarus
News, 22 April 2015. Available from: http://eng.belta.by/society/view/over-3m-people-partake-in-nationwide-subbotnik-in-belarus-11854-2015.
[9 January 2018].

102

The Cotton Campaign 2018, About the Cotton Campaign. Available from:http://www.cottoncampaign.org/about.html. [27 April 2018].

103

Cotton Campaign 2018, “Reports on forced labor in Uzbekistan’s cotton
sector”. Available from: http://www.cottoncampaign.org/reports.html.
[26 July 2018]. Human Rights Watch & Uzbek-German Forum for Human
Rights 2017, ‘We Can’t Refuse to Pick Cotton’ Forced and Child Labor
Linked to World Bank Group Investments in Uzbekistan. Available from:https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/uzbekistan0617_
web_3.pdf. [23 October 2017]. Uzbek German Forum for Human Rights
2017, “Field work never ends for us” Forced labor in cotton spring
fieldwork in Uzbekistan in 2017, Cotton Campaign. Available from: http://
www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/report_2017.pdf.
[26 July 2018]. Uzbek German Forum for Human Rights 2016, Forced
Labor in Uzbekistan’s Cotton Sector Preliminary Findings from the 2016
Harvest], Cotton Campaign, December 2016. Available from: http://
www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/20161205forcedlabor-in-uzbekistans-cotton-sector_final-memo-1.pdf.
[26 July 2018]. Uzbek German Forum for Human Rights 2018, We pickcotton out of fear: systematic forced labor and the accountability
gap in Uzbekistan, Cotton Campaign. Available from: http://www.
cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/we_pick_cotton_
out_of_fear.pdf. [26 July 2018]. Uzbek German Forum for Human
Rights 2017, Chronicle of forced labor, Cotton Campaign, Issue 3,
June – September. Available from: http://www.cottoncampaign.org/
uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/chronicle-2017_issue-3_cotton-harvest-andweeding.pdf. [26 July 2018].

47

104

International Labour Organization 2018, Third-party monitoring of
measures against child labour and forced labour during the 2017
cotton harvest in Uzbekistan, ILO, p. 27. Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/
wcms_617830.pdf. [20 February 2018].

105

Human Rights Watch & Uzbek – German Forum for Human Rights 2017,‘We Can’t Refuse to Pick Cotton’ Forced and Child Labor Linked to WorldBank Group Investments in Uzbekistan. Available from: https://www.hrw.
org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/uzbekistan0617_web_3.pdf .
[23 October 2017].

106

Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights 2016, Forced Labor in
Uzbekistan’s Cotton Sector Preliminary Findings from the 2016 Harvest,
Cotton Campaign. Available from: http://www.cottoncampaign.org/
uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/20161205-forced-labor-in-uzbekistanscottonsector_final-memo-1.pdf. [26 July 2018].

107

Human Rights Watch & Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights 2017,‘We Can’t Refuse to Pick Cotton’ Forced and Child Labor Linked to WorldBank Group Investments in Uzbekistan. Available from: https://www.hrw.
org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/uzbekistan0617_web_3.pdf.
[23 October 2017]. Uzbek German Forum for Human Rights 2017,“Field work never ends for us” Forced labor in cotton spring fieldwork
in Uzbekistan in 2017, Cotton Campaign. Available from: http://www.
cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/report_2017.pdf.
[26 July 2018]. Uzbek German Forum for Human Rights 2018, We pickcotton out of fear: systematic forced labor and the accountability
gap in Uzbekistan, Cotton Campaign. Available from: http://www.
cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/we_pick_cotton_
out_of_fear.pdf. [26 July 2018]. Uzbek German Forum for Human
Rights 2017, Chronicle of forced labor, Cotton Campaign, Issue 3,
June – September. Available from: http://www.cottoncampaign.org/
uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/chronicle-2017_issue-3_cotton-harvest-andweeding.pdf. [26 July 2018].

108

International Labour Organization Committee of Experts 2017,
Observation (CEACR) – adopted 2016, published 106th ILC session (2017)
Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) – Turkmenistan(Ratification: 1997), International Labour Organization. Available from:http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::::P13100_
COMMENT_ID:3297278. [8 February 2018].

109

United Nations Human Rights Committee 2017, Concluding observations
on the second periodic report of Turkmenistan, United Nations. Available
from: http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.
aspx?symbolno=CCPR%2fC%2fTKM%2fCO%2f2&Lang=en. [9 February2018]. Alternative Turkmenistan News 2016, “Teenagers are less likely
to be bought.” Present-day slavery in Turkmenistan in the cotton sector,
Cotton Campaign. Available from: http://www.cottoncampaign.org/
uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/teenagers_are_less_likely_to_be_bought.
pdf. [26 July 2018].

110

Alternative Turkmenistan News 2017, Turkmenistan: 2017
Findings of Forced Labor Monitoring during Cotton Harvesting,
Cotton Campaign. Available from: http://www.cottoncampaign.
org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/turkmenistan__2017_
findings_of_forced_labor_monitoring_during_cotton_
harvesting___%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%
80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%
D1%8B%D0%B5_ %D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1 %81%
D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BC%D
0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1 %81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%
B0.pdf. [26 July 2018].

111

Breuker, R & van Gardingen, I (forthcoming 2018), Modern Slavery inNorth Korea.

112

Batha, E 2016, ‘North Korea sends “state-sponsored slaves” to Europe– rights group,’ Thomson Reuters, 6 July 6. Available from: https://www.reuters.com/article/northkorea-eu-slavery/north-korea-sendsstatesponsored-slaves-to-europe-rights-group-idUSL8N19N43L.
[27 April 2018].

113

Breuker, R & van Gardingen, I (forthcoming 2018), Modern Slavery inNorth Korea.

114

Breuker, R 2016, Slaves to the System: Researching North Korean Forced
Labor in the EU, Leiden Asian Centre. Available from: https://www.
universiteitleiden.nl/en/research/research-projects/humanities/slaves-tothe-system-researching-north-korean-forced-labor-in-the-eu.
[1 May 2018].

48

Global Slavery Index 2018

115

IOM Global Migration Data Analysis Centre (GMDAC) 2017, Fatal
Journeys, vol. 3, no. 2, GMDAC, p. 100. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/fatal_journeys_3_part2.pdf.
[18 February 2018].

132

Borger, J & Beaumont, P 2018, ‘Syria: US, UK and France launch strikes
in response to chemical attack,’ The Guardian, 14 April. Available from:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/14/syria-air-strikes-us-ukand-france-launch-attack-on-assad-regime. [1 May 2018].

116

Stronksi, P 2017, Turkmenistan at Twenty-Five: The High Price ofAuthoritarianism, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Available
from: http://carnegieendowment.org/2017/01/30/turkmenistan-at-twentyfive-high-price-of-authoritarianism-pub-67839. [12 February 2018].

133

For detailed methodology of how these products were identified andwhich data sources were used, please see Appendix 3 in the 2018 Global
Slavery Index report.

134
117

Amnesty International 2017, Suspended lives: torture of the families ofthe disappeared in Turkmenistan, Amnesty International. Available from:https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur61/7518/2017/en/.
[12 February 2018].

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings 2017,
Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against trafficking in Human Beings by Greece,
Council of Europe, p. 11. Available from: https://rm.coe.int/greta-2017-27fgr-gre-en/168075f2b6. [18 February 2018].

118

Human Rights Watch 2017, World Report 2018: Turkmenistan, HRW.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/
turkmenistan. [12 February 2018].

135

Field sources. Group of Experts Against Trafficking in Human Beings
2016, Response to the Questionnaire from GRETA, Council of Europe, p.
10. Available from: https://rm.coe.int/16806a7fa1. [28 January 2018].

119

Human Rights Watch 2017, World Report 2017: Uzbekistan, HRW.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/
uzbekistan. [25 January 2018].

136

120

Human Rights Watch 2017, ‘We Can’t Refuse to Pick Cotton’: Forced andChild Labor linked to World Bank Group investments in Uzbekistan, HRW.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/06/27/we-cant-refusepick-cotton/forced-and-child-labor-linked-world-bank-group.
[12 February 2018].

United States Mission to the OSCE 2016, Trafficking in Human Beings |Statement at Working Session 7 of HDIM 2016, United States Mission to
the OSCE. Available from: https://osce.usmission.gov/trafficking-humanbeings-statement-working-session-7-2016-hdim/. [8 February 2018].

136

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings(GRETA) 2017, Report concerning the implementation of the Council ofEurope Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings byMontenegro, Council of Europe, p. 29. Available from: https://rm.coe.
int/16806fdf6b. [12 February 2018].

138

International Labour Organization 2017, Direct Request (CEACR) –adopted 2016, published 106th ILC session (2017), ILO. Available from:http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3299906. [12 February 2018].

139

In Uzbekistan – International Labour Organization 2017, Observation(CEACR) – adopted 2016, published 106th ILC session (2017), ILO.
Available From: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_
NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3300743,103538,Uzbekistan,2016.
[12 February 2018]. In Turkmenistan – International Labour Organization
2016, Observation (CEACR) – adopted 2015, published 105th ILC
session (2016), ILO. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/
en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID,P11110_
COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3253697,103551,Turkmenistan,2015. [12 February 2018].

140

Lisaveta K 2017, ‘The Many Faces of Forced Labour in Belarus,’ Belarus
Digest. Available from: https://belarusdigest.com/story/the-many-facesof-forced-labour-in-belarus. [28 January 2018].

141

International Organization for Migration 2016, Child and forced labour
exploitation in Tajikistan’s cotton harvest: 2015 annual monitoring report,
IOM. Available from: http://www.iom.tj/files/cottoneng2015.pdf,[30 April 2018].

142

International Labor Organization 2017, Uzbekistan ends systematic use ofchild labour and takes measures to end forced labour, ILO, 12 December.
Available from: http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/
WCMS_613562/lang--en/index.htm. [3 May 2018].

143

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA)
2017, Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Malta:
Second Evaluation Round, Council of Europe, p. 16. Available from:https://rm.coe.int/16806fdf6b. [12 February 2018].

144

Every nation except Turkmenistan.

145

NGO interview, Personal communication [16 June 2017].

146

There were local government funded initiatives for women and children.

147

Group of Experts Against Trafficking in Human Beings 2016, Report
Concerning the Implementation of the Council of Europe Convention
on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Montenegro, Second
Evaluation Round, Council of Europe, p. 24. Available from: https://rm.coe.
int/greta-2017-28-fgr-irl-en/168074b426. [31 January 2018].

148

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women 2016,
Concluding observations on the combined seventh and eighth periodic
reports of France, United Nations, p. 9. Available from: http://bit.
ly/2FtaRLR. [31 January 2018].

121

122

World Food Programme n.d., Where we work: Tajikistan, World Food
Programme. Available from: http://www1.wfp.org/countries/tajikistan.
[25 January 2018].
United States Agency for International Development n.d., Tajikistan:
Nutrition profile, USAID. Available from: https://www.usaid.gov/what-wedo/global-health/nutrition/countries/tajikistan-nutrition-profile#fn-06.
[26 January 2018].

123

OECD 2017, Government at a Glance 2017: Turkey, OECD. Available from:https://www.oecd.org/gov/gov-at-a-glance-2017-turkey.pdf.
[31 January 2018].

124

National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) 2016, Living Conditions and income,
ISTAT. Available from: http://www.istat.it/it/archivio/193650.
[27 January 2018].

125

Anti-Discrimination Centre 2017, Discrimination of Roma Minorities in
Eastern Europe and Central Asia, Anti-Discrimination Centre. Available
from: https://adcmemorial.org/www/12811.html?lang=en.
[25 January 2018].

126

127

128

129

130

131

Civil Rights Defenders 2017, Human Rights in Moldova, Civil Rights
Defenders. Available from: https://www.civilrightsdefenders.org/countryreports/human-rights-in-moldova/. [25 January 2018].
Human Rights Watch 2017, Greece: Lone Migrant Children Left
Unprotected, HRW. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/07/19/
greece-lone-migrant-children-left-unprotected. [12 February 2018].
Medecins Sans Frontieres 2016, Greece in 2016: Vulnerable People left
behind, Medecins Sans Frontieres, p. 11. Available from: http://www.msf.
org/sites/msf.org/files/report_vulnerable_people_201016_eng.pdf.
[12 February 2018].
International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017, Regional
brief for Europe and Central Asia: 2017 Global estimates of modern
slavery and child labour, ILO & WFF. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/
wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/
wcms_597874.pdf. [31 January 2018].
UNHR 2017, Conflict in Ukraine enters its fourth year with no end in sight,
Office of the High Commissioner. Available from: http://www.ohchr.org/
EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=21730&LangID=E.
[28 January 2018].
Council on Foreign Relations 2018, Islamist Militancy in Russia, Council
on Foreign Relations. Available from: https://www.cfr.org/interactives/
global-conflict-tracker#!/conflict/islamist-militancy-in-russia.
[25 January 2018].

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49

149

Group of Experts Against Trafficking in Human Beings 2017, Reportconcerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Latvia Second Evaluation
Round, Council of Europe, p. 9. Available from: https://rm.coe.int/greta2017-28-fgr-irl-en/168074b426. [25 January 2018].

165

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA)
2016, Compendium of good practices on the implementation of theCouncil of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human
Beings, Council of Europe. Available from: https://rm.coe.int/16806af624.
[12 February 2018].

150

Group of Experts Against Trafficking in Human Beings 2016, Réponse dela Belgique à la Questionnaire pour l’évaluation de la mise en?”uvre dela Convention du Conseil de l’Europe sur la lutte contre la traite des êtres
humains par les Parties, Council of Europe, p. 4. Available from: https://rm.coe.int/16806b61ef. [28 January 2018].

166

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe n.d., Combating
human trafficking, OSCE. Available from: http://www.osce.org/combatinghuman-trafficking. [12 February 2018].

167

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe 2016, First OSCE
live-exercise to fight human trafficking along migration routes kicks-off at
the Centre of Excellence for Stability Police Units, OSCE. Available from:http://www.osce.org/secretariat/281251. [12 February 2018].

168

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe 2016, OSCE
promotes instruments to address current challenges and emerging
trends in the identification and referral of trafficking victims, OSCE.
Available from: http://www.osce.org/secretariat/284396.
[12 February 2018].

169

Demand AT 2016, OSCE Conference, 7-8 September, Demand AT.
Available from: http://www.demandat.eu/events/osce-conference-7-8september-berlin. [12 February 2018].

170

Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe 2018, Model
Guidelines on Government measures to prevent trafficking for labour
exploitation in supply chains, OSCE. Available from: http://www.osce.org/
secretariat/371771?download=true. [18 February 2018].

171

European Commission n.d., Non-financial reporting, European Union.
Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/
company-reporting-and-auditing/company-reporting/non-financialreporting_en. [17 December].

Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) 2016, Human Trafficking Baltic
Sea Region Round-Up, CBSS, p. 6. Available from: http://www.cbss.
org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Human-Trafficking-Baltic-Sea-RegionRound-Up-2016.pdf. [13 February 2018].

172

Aseemblée Nationale Entreprises : devoir de vigilance des entreprises
donneuses d’ordre. Available from: http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/14/
dossiers/devoir_vigilance_entreprises_donneuses_ordre.asp.
[17 December 2017].

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus n.d., Commonwealthof Independent States, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
Belarus. Available from: http://mfa.gov.by/en/organizations/membership/list/c2bd4cebdf6bd9f9.html. [12 February 2018].

173

United Nations General Assembly 2016, General Assembly Adopts 10
Resolutions Encouraging Stronger Ties between Regional Organizations,
United Nations to Address Global Challenges, United Nations. Available
from: https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/ga11859.doc.htm.
[12 February 2018].

174

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime n.d., Strengthening the
Criminal Justice Response to Trafficking in Persons in the BlackSea region, UNODC. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/
southeasterneurope/en/xce/s45.html. [12 February 2018].

151

European Commission 2016, Green and Sustainable Public Procurement,
European Union. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/
versus_en.htm.[15 December 2017].

152

European Union 2014, Directive 2014/24/EU of the European Parliamentand of the Council of 26 February 2014 on public procurement andrepealing Directive 2004/18/EC, EUR-Lex. Available from: http://eur-lex.
europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32014L0024. [14 December
2017].

153

European Union 2016, Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliamentand of the Council of 22 October 2014 amending Directive 2013/34/
EU as regards disclosure of non-financial and diversity information bycertain large undertakings and groups, EUR-lex. Available from: http://
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32014L0095.
[17 December 2017].

154

155

156

157

This includes EU listed companies and unlisted companies such as
banks, insurance companies, or other ‘public-interest entities’ asnominated by member countries.

Fasterling, B 2017, Vigilance or Compliance? On the New French‘Vigilance’ Law’, NYU Stern Centre for Business and Human Rights,
19 June. Available from: https://bhr.stern.nyu.edu/blogs/french-vigiliancelaw. [28 November 2017].

158

European Coalition of Corporate Justice 2017, French Corporate Duty Of
Vigilance Law, 23 February. Available from: https://business-humanrights.
org/sites/default/files/documents/French%20Corporate%20Duty%20
of%20Vigilance%20Law%20FAQ.pdf. [17 December 2017].

159

Home Office 2017, Transparency in Supply Chains etc.: A practical guide,
Government of the United Kingdom. Available from: https://www.gov.
uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/649906/
Transparency_in_Supply_Chains_A_Practical_Guide_2017.pdf. [8November 2017].

160

European Commission n.d, Directive 2014/24/EU of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on public
procurement and repealing Directive 2004/18/EC Text with EEA
relevance, European Commission. Available from: http://eur-lex.europa.
eu/legal-content/EN/NIM/?uri=CELEX:32014L0024. [12 February 2018].

161

European Commission n.d., Non-financial reporting directive –transposition status, European Commission. Available from: https://
ec.europa.eu/info/publications/non-financial-reporting-directivetransposition-status_en. [12 February 2018].

162

Malta was included in our assessment of government responses in 2018,
however as this was the first year we collected data for this country we
did not include its rating in the GSI. Data collected can be found in the
database at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

163

European Commission 2017, Communication from the Commission to
the European Parliament and the Council: Reporting on the followup to the EU strategy towards the Eradication of trafficking in humanbeings and identifying further concrete actions, European Commission.
Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/20171204_communication_reporting_on_follow-up_to_the_eu_
strategy_towards_the_eradication_of_trafficking_in_human_beings.pdf.

164

Council of Europe n.d., Other activities, Council of Europe. Available from:https://www.coe.int/en/web/anti-human-trafficking/other-activities.
[12 February 2018].

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