ASIA AND THE
PACIFIC REPORT2018

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all those individuals and organisations who contributed to the production of this report.
In particular, the authors extend their sincere thanks to the authors of essays featured in the report and all external reviewers.
The sharing of new research, experiences, and informed opinions on current issues across the region are critical in deepening
our understanding of modern slavery in the region.

Recommended citation
Walk Free Foundation (2018). The Global Slavery Index 2018: Asia and the Pacific Report. Perth, Australia

Further readingThis report is part of a series that builds on the information presented in The Global Slavery Index 2018 to provide an in-depth
look at modern slavery at a regional level. The reports will be available from https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/resources/
downloads/ as they are released. The Global Slavery Index 2018 is now available to download.

Copyright © 2018. The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd.
All rights reserved.

Asia and the Pacific Report

CONTENTS
Spotlight on progress

3

Executive Summary

4

Estimating modern slavery in Asia and the Pacific4

Key findings from the Global Slavery Index

5

Recommendations

7

About the Index

8

Methodology

10

Estimating prevalence

10

Measuring vulnerability

12

Measuring government response

13

Essays14

Modern slavery in Asia and the Pacific20

Prevalence

30

Vulnerability

32

Importing risk: Import of products at-risk of modern slavery
into G20 countries in the Asia and the Pacific region

36

Government responses

38

Regional response

44

Regional recommendations

46

Strengthen legislation

46

Improve victim support

47

Strengthen coordination and transparency

47

Address risk factors

48

Eradicate modern slavery from the economy

48

Appendix: Endnotes

50

1

2

Global Slavery Index 2018

ASIA & THE PACIFICREGION HIGHLIGHTS
Bangladesh
Afghanistan

North Korea

South Korea

Japan

Nepal
Mongolia

Hong Kong
China

TaiwanIran

Lao PDR
India

Vietnam
Cambodia

Pakistan
Philippines
Myanmar

Sri Lanka

Malaysia

ThailandSingaporePapua
New Guinea

Indonesia
Australia

BruneiNew Zealand

Timor-Leste

high

low

Estimated Number ofPeople in Modern Slavery

Forced labour
percentage

66%

Forced marriage
percentage

34%

46/100B

CC24,990,000
Regional Proportionof Global Estimate

62%

Average Vulnerability Score

Average Government Response Score

AAA

AA

A

BBB

BB

CCC

C

D

Asia and the Pacific Report

3

SPOTLIGHT ON PROGRESS
Indonesia ranks among the countries, along with Australia, New Zealandand the Philippines, that have taken the most steps in responding to modern
slavery in the Asia and the Pacific region. Between the 2016 and 2018 Global
Slavery Index, Indonesia improved its government response rating from
B to BB, largely by making some improvements to victim support services.
For example, Indonesia has opened a child-friendly integrated public spacein East Jakarta where child and adult victims can now report trafficking crimes
to trained counsellors.

Indonesia also demonstrated leadership in regional
engagement with the Indonesian Foreign Minister Retno
Marsudi co-chairing the second Bali Process Government
and Business Forum, which encouraged collaboration
between government and businesses in identifying
solutions to combat modern slavery. The Minister of Marine
Affairs and Fisheries has also made efforts to address forced
labour and trafficking in Indonesian waters, through theimpounding and relicensing of illegal and unlicensed foreign
fishing vessels, as well as a transshipment ban in Indonesian
waters that prohibits boats transferring their catch at sea
to transshipment vessels.1 Regulation of transshipment
practices reduces the risk of forced labour aboard fishingvessels, which tends to co-occur with illegal fishing practices
and where there is little oversight (e.g. long distances fromshore) and greater opportunity for would-be perpetrators.

In an effort to move towards slavery-free supply chains, inAugust of 2017, the Australian government announced they
will introduce legislation that will require large businesses,
an estimated 3,000 organisations, to report annually on theiractions taken to address modern slavery.2 The governmentis also considering providing a free, publicly accessible
central repository where all modern slavery statements
would be hosted. The Australian government introduced themodern slavery bill to Parliament in June 2018 with the aim
to pass legislation by end of 2018.3 While the commitment
and leadership by the government is to be commended,efforts must be maintained to ensure strong supply chaintransparency legislation is passed without delay.

4

Global Slavery Index 2018EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The economic, geographic, and cultural diversity of Asia and the Pacificregion is reflected in the varying prevalence and forms of modern slavery
found across the region. In Asia and the Pacific, there are instances of debt
bondage, including hereditary forms of bonded labour in South Asia, forced
labour exists in migrant dominated sectors across the region, forced marriage
persists, and state-imposed forced labour, while most commonly known toexist in North Korea, occurs in several countries within the region. The Asia
and Pacific region is home to the two most populous countries in the world,
India and China, as well as some of the least populous island nations, among
them, Tuvalu, Nauru, and Palau.

Widespread inequality exists within the region, withpersons of “low” caste, indigenous people, women, andmembers of other ethnic or cultural minority groups facing
discrimination and oppression, leaving them with unequal
access to opportunities and services and highly vulnerable
to modern slavery. This vulnerability is both facilitated andcompounded by displacement and migration causedby environmental disasters, diminishing resources, andcivil and cross-border conflict, as well as the effects ofglobalisation and the rapid increase in migration from theregion to the Middle East, North and South America, andEurope. Rapid development of economies within the region,as has been witnessed in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore
among others, has also created new markets for people
seeking economic opportunities. This in turn has createda pool of vulnerable migrants as well as opportunities for
those who would seek to make money through exploitative
practices, including forced labour, debt bondage and forced
sexual exploitation.

Estimating modern slavery in Asiaand the Pacific
In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the International
Labour Organization (ILO), together with the International

Organization for Migration (IOM), produced the Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery, which estimated that 40.3
million people were living in modern slavery on any given
day in 2016. Of these, an estimated 24.9 million men,
women and children were living in modern slavery in
Asia and the Pacific. The region had the second highest
prevalence of modern slavery in the world with 6.1 people
in modern slavery per 1,000 people in the region. Althoughthese are the most reliable estimates of modern slavery todate, they should be interpreted cautiously and consideredvery conservative, given the gaps and limitations of data
generally and for this region in particular.
The current Global Estimates of Modern Slavery do notcover all forms of modern slavery; forms such as trafficking
for the purposes of organ removal, child soldiers, or
child marriage that could also constitute modern slavery
cannot be adequately measured at this stage. Additionally,
it is typically not possible to survey in countries that areexperiencing profound and current conflict, such as Iraq,
and parts of Pakistan. Yet it is known that conflict is asignificant risk factor – the breakdown of the rule of law,
the loss of social supports, and the disruption that occurs
with conflict all increase risk of both forced labour andforced marriage. The lack of data from countries and areasof countries where there is conflict means that modern
slavery estimates for conflict-affected countries are likely
to understate the problem.4

Asia and the Pacific Report

Key findings from the Global
Slavery Index
Three key trends emerge from an analysis of the regionaland national estimates of modern slavery, measures ofvulnerability, and assessment of government responses.

5

Pakistan was assessed as having relatively high vulnerability
in terms of inequality and disenfranchised groups, and apoor government response to modern slavery, particularly
in terms of its criminal justice response and coordination
and accountability mechanisms.

The impact of conflict on modern slavery is also apparent
in Iran and Myanmar. In Iran, the effects of neighbouringconflicts are likely to play a significant role in the highFirst, state-imposed forced labour in the Asia and theprevalence of modern slavery, with Iran ranking highPacific region accounts for 68 percent of those forced to
globally among both the refugee hosting (almost one
work by state authorities globally.5 In this region, statemillion refugees at the end of 2016 – the vast majority from
imposed forced labour is driven almost entirely by the highAfghanistan) and refugee sending countries (in 2015 andrate of prevalence in the Democratic People’s Republic of2016 alone, 105,400 Iranians made claims for asylum),
Korea (North Korea), where an estimated one in ten werecompounded by inadequate government action across allliving in modern slavery on any given day in 2016. This
milestones. Iran’s government response to modern slavery
is supported by the Walk Free Foundation Vulnerability
was assessed as being relatively poor, particularly falling
Model — North Korea has the highest vulnerability withshort on coordination and accountability mechanisms.
regard to governance issues. Research undertaken withAdditionally, the Iranian government sat above only North
50 North Korean defectors by the Walk Free Foundation,
Korea in terms of the level of action taken to identify andthe Leiden Asia Centre, and the Database Center forsupport survivors. The presence of conflict in Myanmar,
North Korean Human Rights (NKDB) identified three key
where systemic discrimination and militant violence against
typologies of modern slavery in North
the Muslim Rohingya minority has been
Korea. First, repeated mobilisation by theongoing for decades, has contributed togovernment of children and adults, througha relatively high prevalence of modern
Six of the top 20
mandatory, unpaid “communal labour” inwithin the region, with Myanmar
economies are countries slavery
agriculture, road building, and construction.
falling within the 10 countries with highest
within the Asia and
The second typology was forced labour ofprevalence in the region. Given the increasein violence against the Rohingya since
the general population by the state, where
the Pacific region andworkers were not paid other than throughcollectively, they import August 2017, the resulting exodus of some
700,000 mainly Rohingya refugees, andprovision of rations (which themselves can
US$90.9 billion in
the warning by international organisations
be refused or withheld as punishment) or,
at-risk products.
of the likelihood of sexual enslavement andif they had been theoretically paid, wages
human trafficking as a result of the crisis, thewere in fact withheld due to official donation
present estimate (which uses data collected
drives and other deductions. Finally, theprior to 2017) is likely to underestimate the prevalenceNorth Korean defectors also described forced labour insideof modern slavery in Myanmar. Myanmar was assessedlabour training camps, where citizens are sent to undertakeas having a high vulnerability in terms of conflict, lack ofhard labour as punishment for unemployment.6
basic needs, and disenfranchised groups, combined with
Second, modern slavery prevalence in the region
insufficient actions taken by its government in establishing
can largely be explained by the presence of conflict.
effective criminal justice mechanisms.
Afghanistan and Pakistan have the second and third
Finally, G20 countries in Asia and the Pacific are yet tohighest prevalence rates in the region respectively, after
implement laws to minimise the risk of modern slavery
North Korea. In 2016, Afghanistan was the second largest
in public supply chains and to require that businesses
source country in the world in terms of numbers of refugees,
practice due diligence. Looking only at the “top five” atwith 4.7 million Afghans forcibly displaced and 2.9 million
risk products identified by analysis in the 2018 Globalof those seeking refuge in other countries.7 Pakistan was
Slavery Index, G20 countries are collectively importing
both a major source and destination country for refugees in
US$354 billion worth of products at risk of modern slavery
2016, with 118,000 refugees originating from Pakistan andannually. Six of the top 20 economies are countries within
Pakistan receiving 1.3 million refugees, almost entirely fromthe Asia and the Pacific region and collectively, they importAfghanistan.8 This is reflected in the 2018 Global Slavery
US$90.9 billion in at-risk products. These at-risk products
Index assessment of vulnerability, with Afghanistan andare sourced from 15 countries, primarily from China (81Pakistan having the highest vulnerability in terms of thepercent of the total value of imports to these six countries)
effect of conflict. The relationship between conflict andwhere much of the imports of apparel, fish and laptops,
vulnerability to modern slavery is well established due tocomputers and mobile phones are sourced. G20 countries
breakdowns in the rule of law and government functions,achieved an average score of only 11 percent for their efforts
an increase in displacement, and a lack of physical security.
to stop sourcing goods and services produced by forced
This is reflected in the high vulnerability rating in terms oflabour. In the Asia and the Pacific region, China achievedgovernance issues for Afghanistan. Due to the ongoing
the highest score (18.3 percent) whereas all other countries
conflict and extreme disruption to the government, rating of(Australia, India, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea) scored
the Afghanistan government’s response was not included
zero across all indicators of this milestone.
in the 2018 Global Slavery Index.

6

Global Slavery Index 2018

Asia and the Pacific Report

7

Recommendations›› Governments should ensure that legal loopholesthat facilitate state imposed forced labour areclosed and that state imposed forced labour isabolished in practice. The governments of Mongolia,
Myanmar, and Vietnam should work closely with
the International Labour Organization (ILO) toeliminate state imposed forced labour among their
populations. Governments and businesses should
prioritise human rights in decision making whenengaging with repressive regimes, such as North
Korea. Governments should deliver on financial andtrade restrictions imposed by the UN Security Council
against North Korea.
›› Governments must focus greater attention on theimpact of conflict. This includes areas in which theconflict is active, as well as neighbouring countries
that are dealing with the flow on effect, such as is
the case in Afghanistan and Iran, and Bangladesh
and Myanmar. To prevent further exacerbating theserisks, governments must improve living conditions for
migrants in refugee camps, by seeking funding fromdonor governments and working with internationalorganisations if required. Governments of countries
neighbouring conflict zones should provide targetedanti-trafficking services to vulnerable groups andproactively seek to identify and support victims.
Further, governments across the region must act toboth arrest and prosecute members of terrorist andmilitia groups, particularly those engaged in forced
recruitment and the recruitment of children.
›› Governments must enact or strengthen legislation
to ensure that all forms of exploitation are
criminalised. Only Australia, China, Nepal, Pakistan,
Singapore, and Vietnam have criminalised forced
marriage in the region. All other countries should
follow suit by criminalising forced marriage and raising
the age of marriage to 18 for men and women.

›› Governments must improve working conditions
for migrant workers by strengthening laws toprotect labour rights in both the formal and informal
economies, including the rights of all migrant workers,
regardless of whether their entry was legal. Laws orpolicies in labour sending countries must ensurethat recruitment fees are paid by the employer andnot the employee. Only eight countries, including
Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Papua New
Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and New Zealand havelaws or policies ensuring recruitment fees are paid by
the employer. Additionally, only the Philippines has
ratified the ILO Domestic Workers Convention No.189,
2011 and no countries in the region have ratified theILO Work in Fishing Convention C188, 2007. Bothof these conventions offer protections to migrant
workers and must be ratified by all countries in Asiaand the Pacific region.
›› Governments must address pervasive
discrimination against migrants, minorities andwomen which both creates and exacerbates
vulnerability to modern slavery. This must be
actualised through the provision of widespread
access to education, employment and social services,and policy reform with a focus on fostering improved
attitudes toward women, those from ethnic, culturalor religious minorities, and migrant workers. In
addition, governments must strengthen safety nets
for those vulnerable to bonded and forced labour
by establishing cash transfer schemes, public
employment programs, affordable healthcare,
unemployment protections, disability benefits, andincome security in old age.
›› Governments within the region with the capacity
to do more must lead efforts to eradicate modern
slavery from the national economy by implementing
laws to minimise risk of modern slavery in public
supply chains and to encourage business to practicedue diligence. To date, China and Taiwan, and soon
to be joined by Australia, are the only countries
within the region that have in place mechanisms tostop business sourcing goods or services linked tomodern slavery.

Bamiyan Shelter Cares For Battered Afghan Women
Bamiyan, Afghanistan: Sakina sits on her bed with her son Shafiq, 18 months, at a women’s shelterand safe house October 7, 2010 in Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Sakina spent 7 months in prison forleaving her first husband, a forced marriage. The problems many battered and abused women are
confronting are deeply ingrained in a culture that has mainly been governed by tribal law. Since theoverthrow of the Taliban in 2001, a more concrete idea of women’s rights has begun to take hold,promoted by the newly created Ministry of Women’s Affairs and a small community of women’s
advocates. Only Australia, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, and Vietnam have criminalised
forced marriage in the region. All other countries should follow suit by criminalising forced
marriage and raising the age of marriage to 18 for men and women.
Photo credit: Paula Bronstein/Getty Images.

8

Global Slavery Index 2018

ABOUT THE INDEXWalk Free Foundation
Modern slavery is a complex and often hidden crime thatcrosses borders, sectors, and jurisdictions. The Walk Free
Foundation believes that a strong multifaceted approachis needed to end modern slavery. This includes building arobust knowledge base to inform action, driving legislativechange in key countries and harnessing the power ofbusinesses and faiths. Through a combination of direct
implementation, grassroots community engagement, andworking in partnership with faiths, businesses, academics,
NGOs, and governments around the world, the Walk Free
Foundation believes we can end modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation provides the Secretariat for theBali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons
and Related Transnational Crime, and champions businesssector engagement in this regional program. It is also
advocating strongly for all leading global economies toenact laws to ensure all organisations are held accountable
for taking proactive steps to remove modern slavery fromtheir supply chains.

The Walk Free Foundation’s Global Slavery Index has
developed world leading research to provide measurementof the size and scale of modern slavery, as well as assesscountry-level vulnerability and governmental responses.
Together with the International Labour Organization (ILO)
and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), theWalk Free Foundation developed the joint Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery.
Alongside this, the Global Freedom Network is working tocatalyse world faiths in the fight against modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation is also scaling effective antislavery responses in partnership with the Freedom Fundand seed funded the global activist movement, Freedom
United, whose community of eight million supporters
are campaigning for change. The Walk Free Foundation
continues to work with faiths, governments and NGOs
throughout the world to agitate for change and support
initiatives dedicated to the eradication of modern slavery
in all its forms.

Asia and the Pacific Report

About modern slavery

What is modern slavery?

Modern slavery is a hidden crime that affects every country
in the world. In the period between this Index and the last
(published in 2016), modern slavery was found in manyindustries including garment manufacturing, mining, andagriculture, and in many contexts, from private homes tosettlements for internally displaced people and refugees.
Instances have been identified in Thai fishing, coal mining
in North Korea, in the homes of diplomats in Australia, carwash stations in the United Kingdom, cocoa agriculture in
Côte d’Ivoire, and cattle ranching in Brazil, just to name afew examples.

FIGURE 1
Modern slavery is an umbrella term

DERN SLAVERY
MO
Trafficking for labourand sexual exploitation

Forced labour

Forced labour
as a result offorced marriage

Human
trafficking(cross border andwithin a country)

Slavery andslavery like practices(including forced
marriage)9

Trafficking for slavery
and slavery likepractices

Terminology
Countries use differing terminologies to describe modern
forms of slavery. This includes how they describe slavery
itself, but also other concepts such as human trafficking,forced labour, debt bondage, forced or servile marriage,
and the sale and exploitation of children.
In this report, modern slavery is used as an umbrella termthat focuses attention on the commonalities across theseconcepts. Essentially, it refers to situations of exploitation thata person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence,
coercion, abuse of power, or deception.
Refer to Appendix 1 in the 2018 Global Slavery
Index for full terminology, available for download atwww.globalslaveryindex.org.

Modern slavery impacts on all of us, from the food we
consume to the goods we purchase. It is everyone’s
responsibility to address and eliminate this crime
everywhere it occurs.
Nearly every country in the world has committed toeradicate modern slavery through their national legislationand policies. Governments have a central role to playby enacting legislation, providing safety nets to their
populations, and pursuing criminals who participate inthis heinous crime. As no single actor can address allthese challenges, governments need the support andengagement of the private sector, civil society, and thecommunity at large.

The Index
The Global Slavery Index is a tool for citizens, non-governmentorganisations (NGOs), businesses, and governments tounderstand the size of the problem, existing responses, andcontributing factors so that they can advocate for and build
sound policies that will eradicate modern slavery.
All supporting data tables and methodology are available
to download from the Global Slavery Index website:www.globalslaveryindex.org.

10

Global Slavery Index 2018

METHODOLOGY
Estimating prevalence
In 2017, the inaugural Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
were produced by the ILO and the Walk Free Foundationin partnership with IOM.9 The regional estimates produced
through this collaboration form the starting point for thenational level estimates presented here for 167 countries.
These national estimates were calculated10 using individualand country-level risk factors of modern slavery. The
analysis draws on data from nationally representative
surveys implemented through the Gallup World Poll,
including a module on modern slavery in 48 countries,
and data from the Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model.
The final set of risk factors were selected from an

exhaustive list of variables to optimally predict confirmed
cases of forced labour and forced marriage. The model wasthen used to generate average predicted probabilities ofmodern slavery by country. The regional totals in the 2017
Global Estimate were then apportioned based on eachcountry’s average predicted probability of modern slavery.
A final calculation accounting for state imposed forced
labour was performed to reach the final estimatedprevalence of all forms of modern slavery.
A detailed description of the methodology is set out inAppendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

Interviewer for Gallup conducting
an interview in Nepal.
Photo credit: Gallup.

Asia and the Pacific Report

11

FIGURE 2
Estimating the prevalence of slavery at the national-level1/

Individual and country-level risk factors wereidentified and then used to build a model thatpredicts modern slavery. This drew on data fromthe Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model andnationally representative surveys.

AFRICA

2/

Individual predictions were aggregated into
country-level risk scores.

40.3m
EUROPEAMERICAS

ASIA PACIFIC

ARAB STATES

3/

 egional-level population estimates of modernRslavery from the 2017 Global Estimate wereallocated to individual countries in the region,
proportionate to each country’s relative risk.

4/

 he number of victims was then estimated byT
applying the country prevalence estimate topopulation data for each country and estimates ofstate imposed forced labour added to arrive at the
final estimate of all forms of modern slavery.

12

Global Slavery Index 2018

Measuring vulnerability
The Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model is built on
statistical testing and processes to identify the factorsthat explain or predict the prevalence of modern slavery.
The 2018 Vulnerability Model provides a risk score for 167
countries based on an analysis of data covering 23 risk
variables across five major dimensions.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part A in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.
FIGURE 3
Vulnerability Model 2018

01 Governance Issues
Political Instability,
GSI Government Response,
Women’s Physical Security,
Political Rights, Regulatory
Quality, Disabled Rights,
Weapons Access

02 Lack of Basic Needs

05 Effects of Conflict
Impact of Terrorism,
Internal Conflicts Fought,
Internally Displaced
Persons
Vulnerability
Score

04 DisenfranchisedGroups
Acceptance of Immigrants,
Acceptance of Minorities,
Same Sex Rights

Undernourishment,
Social Safety Net,
Ability to Borrow Money,
Tuberculosis, Accessto Clean Water,
Cell Phone Users

03 Inequality
Ability to Obtain
Emergency Funds, Violent
Crime, Gini Coefficient,
Confidence in the
Judicial System

Asia and the Pacific Report

13

Measuring government response
The Government Response Index provides a comparative
assessment of the legal, policy, and programmatic actions
that 181 governments are taking to respond to modern
slavery. This is based on data collected on 104 indicatorsthat are relevant to understanding how each governmentis tracking towards achieving five milestones:
1 / Survivors of slavery are identified and supported to exit
and remain out of slavery.
2 / Criminal justice mechanisms function effectively
to prevent modern slavery.

3 / Coordination occurs at the national and regional
level, and governments are held to account for their
response.
4 / Risk factors such as attitudes, social systems, andinstitutions that enable modern slavery are addressed.
5 / Government and business stop sourcing goods andservices produced by forced labour.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part C in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

FIGURE 4
Government Response Index 2018

Milestone 01
Identify andsupport survivors

Milestone 05
Clean upgovernmentand businesssupply chains

Milestone 02
Establish effective
criminal justicemechanisms

Government
Response Index

Milestone 04
Address risk
factors

Milestone 03
Strengthen
coordination andhold governments
to account14

Global Slavery Index 2018

A CRITICAL BRIDGE:SUPPORTED EMPLOYMENT FORSURVIVORS OF MODERN SLAVERY
Dr. Melinda Gill | Renewsiya Foundation“I want to be the company’s next CEO.” It is no small statement
considering Amanda started life being thrown into a trash canbefore eventually being trafficked into sex work as a teenager.
But she has the drive, capacity, and personality to achieve her
aspiration and, thankfully, the opportunity through her work
at Regeneysis BPO. Regenesys BPO is a social enterprisefounded in the Philippines which provides technology-centric
work to survivors of trafficking and other forms of abuseand exploitation. One of the computer-based skills that theemployees can learn is web research, including their work for
Walk Free in helping to document the prevalence of slavery
around the world; survivors of slavery using their evolving
technical skills in the fight against slavery.

Unfortunately, many survivors don’t access similar
opportunities, with the focus of aftercare often on immediate
shelter-based care. Whilst survivors may be provided withvocational training whilst in residential care, these programs
often offer a narrow set of gendered training options (suchas cooking, knitting, or sewing) or do not help survivors
access genuine employment opportunities because of lackof linkages to actual businesses. This inadequate focus
on decent, sustained employment results in high levelsof poverty and re-exploitation following reintegration into
the community.
However, employment opportunities alone are unlikely
to have a sustained, transforming impact. Juliet wasamong Regenesys’ first employees who, like most of thecompany’s recruits, had minimal computer literacy prior tocommencing training.

Whilst she was able to acquire technical skills quickly,
her experience of childhood neglect and abuse together
with ongoing family dysfunction and financial pressure
meant she lacked the core skills to meet other workplace
expectations, such as punctuality and attendance. Despite
her intelligence and aptitude, Juliet would have failed in anormal workplace. Juliet is now a team leader and virtualassistant, leading a team of ten junior employees.
However, even after four years in the company, sheneeds additional support from senior management and aworkplace counsellor during periods of family crisis. Manyslavery survivors come from similar backgrounds where
they have experienced the effects of poverty, physicalor sexual abuse, and unhealthy family environments inaddition to the significant trauma which can occur throughslavery and exploitation.

Asia and the Pacific Report

These layers of vulnerability can impede the healthy
development of core skills, which are required for successin both the workplace and home, including parenting,financial management, and managing healthcare.
Our research demonstrates that trauma symptoms,
measures of personal empowerment and decision making,and financial literacy improve significantly in our employees
over time. However, they are changes that don’t necessarily
occur quickly or in a predictable manner. Hence workplaces
must be tailored to the specific needs of survivors, providing
a safe, supportive environment together with intentional
strategies to enhance the development of holistic coreskills. Because there is a lack of research regarding bothtechnical and core skills development within aftercare
literature, Regenesys BPO and our program partners areinnovating new approaches as well as adapting existing
resources to enhance core skills development among its
employees.

15

Simultaneously, the company is engaging with research
institutions to demonstrate and continuously enhance
its social impact. This research will help address thesesignificant knowledge gaps in employment-based aftercare,
resulting in workplaces which are better able to support thesustained recovery and reintegration of survivors.
Regenesys BPO operates under a full, for-profit businessmodel, focusing on market-driven and financiallysustainable BPO services including back-office support,
customer service, accounting services, web-based services,and digital photo and video editing. In order to grow andincrease our impact, we need long-term business partners
who benefit from quality, competitive services and, in doingso, participate in the restoration of survivors. Similarly, ourresearch and program partners need donors committed
to supporting their ground-breaking work which has thepotential to transform survivor aftercare around the globe.

Regenesys BPO, an outsourcing company
based in the Philippines, provides
computer-based employment to trafficking
survivors to enable the last step of theirre-integration. Survivors gain skills
to become professionals in data entry,
bookkeeping, accounting, research, postproduction photo and video editing.
Photo credit: Regenesys BPO.

16

Global Slavery Index 2018

BEHIND CLOSED DOORS:EXPLOITATION OF MIGRANT DOMESTIC
WORKERS IN HONG KONG
Jade Anderson | Head of Research, Justice Centre Hong Kong

Hong Kong is a vibrant and densely packed city with overseven million residents and a significant population of migrants
working across the city. Amongst them are over 350,000
domestic workers who are, by and large, women from thePhilippines and Indonesia. This is one of the highest densities
of migrant domestic workers (MDWs) in the world. They makeup over four percent of the total population and 10 percent of
the working population in the city. One in three householdswith children rely on MDWs to provide childcare. Hong Kong is
also regarded as one of the best places in the region to work
as a MDW. Unlike many other places, Hong Kong has a formal
labour migration scheme for MDWs and there are a number oflaws controlling and ostensibly protecting their recruitment andemployment conditions. Unfortunately these regulations are nottranslating into decent work.

Justice Centre is a non-profit human rights organisation
working to protect the rights of Hong Kong’s mostvulnerable refugees, survivors of torture, and victims ofhuman trafficking and forced labour. In 2016, Justice Centre
released a ground-breaking report, Coming Clean, which
examined the existence and prevalence of forced labour
and trafficking for the purpose of forced labour amongst thecity’s MDWs.11 The study found that 17 percent of MDWs in
the city were working in forced labour. Of these, 14 percent
had been trafficked into the situation. An additional 66
percent of the women surveyed were experiencing strong
exploitation but didn’t meet the threshold for forced labour.
In total only 5 percent of domestic workers did not show
any signs of forced labour or human trafficking.

This is not just a case of wage-manipulation or excessive
working hours. This is wage manipulation and excessive
working hours on top of being locked in the house or given
less food for making mistakes, confiscated mobile phones,
confiscated passports, or excessive recruitment debts.
Justice Centre’s research shows that exploitation is nota rare occurrence in Hong Kong. But how is it possible
to have systemic exploitation when there are so many
regulations protecting MDWs? The answers lie in theimmigration policies, which often negate the impact oflabour protections, making them effectively un-claimable.
For example, one of the immigration conditions imposed
on MDWs is that they must ‘live in’ with their employers.

Asia and the Pacific Report

This means that MDWs are uniquely exposed to the whimsof their employers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Although
95 percent of MDWs in “Coming Clean” reported being
given a weekly day off, 37 percent said they had to work
before and after they left the house, some working into
the night to complete tasks even though they were on a“rest” day. Living with their employers, MDWs reported
that they “consented” to excessive working hours forfear of displeasing their employers and suffering theconsequences.
The “live in” policy also transforms the employer’s home
into both home and workplace for the migrant. But it isnever treated as either “home” or “workplace” for the MDW.
There is no protection for the MDW in terms of emergency
accommodation or wage protection if they report abuse
experienced in the “home” and are consequently fired.
Likewise, the employment contract between MDWs
and employers must be submitted to the Immigration
Department for approval, but there are no inspections toascertain if the contract is being upheld unless either party
registers a problem. Even though domestic work happens
in homes there is no effort to monitor these homes as if they
were workplaces in the way a construction site or a factory
floor might be. These are just some of the consequencesof immigration policies which negate labour rights.
Regrettably, the Hong Kong government consistently
denies that there is human trafficking or forced labour inthe city, even in the face of such research and legally, Hong
Kong still only defines trafficking as the bringing into, or
taking out, of individuals for the purpose of prostitution.
But in March 2018, after sustained pressure from civilsociety (including Justice Centre), the government released17

an Action Plan to Tackle Trafficking in Persons, which isa cross-departmental initiative.12 While the government
again maintains that “there is no sign that Hong Kongis being actively used by transnational syndicates as adestination or transit point for trafficking in persons, or that
trafficking in persons is a widespread or prevalent problem
in Hong Kong” the Action Plan is nonetheless a welcome
development. The Action Plan specifically incorporates theinternational definition of trafficking and recognises thatit can be for the purpose of labour exploitation or forced
labour. This signals a positive shift in how trafficking and the
exploitation of MDWs in particular will be tackled.
There is a real risk, however, that the Action Plan will beineffective in practice. In the absence of a comprehensive
definition of “human trafficking” in domestic legislation,
law enforcement agencies are still restricted to enforcing
laws against the constituent elements of trafficking
rather than the overarching result. The Action Plan also
does not include definitions of “exploitation” or “forced
labour” or outline plans to introduce such legislation. It
is unclear, therefore, what threshold will be employed indetermining at what point exploitation or forced labour (andso trafficking) occur. Nor does the Action Plan detail how
or when the government will consider granting immunityfrom prosecution to victims. This is likely to deter MDWs andother victims of trafficking from reporting abuses. These
are serious gaps, which risk negating the efforts outlined in
the Action Plan. If the Hong Kong government is serious inits commitment to respond effectively to human trafficking
and forced labour and protecting victims, it must addressthese gaps.

An Indonesian domestic worker in Hong
Kong reads a newspaper which has a coverstory about the abuse of Indonesian domestic
worker Erwiana Sulistyaningsih whileworking in Hong Kong. Migrant domestic
workers are particularly vulnerable to forced
labour exploitation as they work in private
homes and depend on their employers forbasic needs such as food and shelter.
Photo credit: Jessica Hromas/Getty Images.

18

Global Slavery Index 2018

WE CAN’T ERADICATE MODERN SLAVERYWITHOUT ADDRESSING DISCRIMINATION
Elise Gordon | Research Analyst, Walk Free Foundation

Discrimination, particularly when reinforced by laws andpolicies, leaves individuals and communities with unequal
access to education, employment, healthcare, justice and social
supports because of race, ethnicity, religion, culture, gender,
political views, sexual orientation, or some other identitybased characteristic. The lack of opportunity that stems fromthis unequal access underpins poverty, a well-establisheddeterminant of modern slavery. Poverty and lack of opportunity
to break the cycle of poverty, among other things, drives people
to accept exploitative employment conditions in order to earna living income. Discrimination also drives people to migrate insearch of opportunity or safety and can push already vulnerable
people into the path of those who wish to exploit them for profit.

Violence borne out of discrimination is not uncommon
in the Asia Pacific region, nor is the complicity of
governments who allow, encourage, or perpetrate it. In
Myanmar, decades of systemic discrimination against
Rohingya Muslims has seen the ethnic minority refused
citizenship, and in northern Rakhine where a considerable
population of Rohingya Muslims reside, drastic restrictionof their access to education, healthcare, marketplaces,
land, and employment.13 Such discrimination has createdan environment where state-imposed forced labour, sexual
violence, arbitrary detention, torture, destruction of homes,
and brutal killings has been able to occur. In 2017, escalations
in violence by the military against the Rohingya community
forced some 700,000 Rohingya refugees to flee to camps
in bordering Bangladesh where there have been reportsof Rohingya refugees falling prey to human traffickers wholure them with promises of work or marriage. In September

2018, the United Nations Human Rights Council released
the Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar. The report documents crimes that
occurred in Rakhine, Kachin and Shan States since 2011, anddescribes the systematic use of men, women and children by
the military for forced labour, including portering (“carryingof heavy packs, weapons and supplies”), digging trenches,or as guides or cooks. The report also describes the use of
sexual violence and sexual slavery of women and girls in thecontext of forced labour. It cites routine abduction and useof torture by soldiers to coerce men, women, and children
into forced labour lasted from a few hours to days, weeks
or months. Some of those taken were forced to fight for the
military with reports that the military also forcibly recruitedchildren. There are also credible reports of forced marriage
in Shan, Kachin, and Rakhine States by the military.14

Asia and the Pacific Report

Gender discrimination is based on stereotypical views of
women’s roles and sexuality which are often reflected ina country’s laws and which drive high rates of child andforced marriage.15 In the Asia and the Pacific region, Iran,Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan have the highest rates ofgender discrimination enshrined in law.16 In Iran, womenface discrimination in all facets of their lives, including
marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody, withwomen unable to pass on their citizenship to their children,and requiring permission from their husbands to travel orobtain a passport.
The civil code allows a man to prevent his wife from working
in certain occupations if he considers them against family
values.17 The civil code also allows girls as young as 13 to
marry, with girls younger than 13 permitted to marry with theconsent of their father or the permission of a court judge.18
The effects of systemic discrimination are long-lasting. In
India, for instance, while discrimination based on caste has
been outlawed since India’s independence over 70 years
ago, inequality persists. “Lower castes” experience casterelated violence and, in many parts of the country, are still

19

obliged to perform undesirable work, often experiencedebt bondage, and work in sectors with known risks ofmodern slavery, including brick kilns and stone quarries.
Tribal castes too remain at risk of displacement as large
infrastructure projects push communities from theirtraditional lands into largely informal employment in urban
areas, heightening their vulnerability to modern slavery.
Despite rhetoric by most governments in the Asia and thePacific region about commitment to freeing people frommodern slavery, systemic and entrenched discriminationof communities based on ethnicity, religion, gender,
culture, sexual orientation and political views perseveres
in countries within the Asia-Pacific region. Discrimination
against communities, on any basis, undermines any efforts
being made to address modern slavery. Governments
must act to reduce existing inequalities and address deeprooted discrimination. This requires ensuring that laws andpolicies do not disadvantage one community over another,ensuring sufficient resources are allocated to tackle existing
discrimination, and ensuring education measures are inplace to address social exclusion.

Participant at the Women’s March Jakarta,
Indonesia on March 3, 2018. Hundreds ofparticipants demanded the fulfillment of therights of women and other marginal groups
such as indigenous peoples, migrant workers,
industrial workers, domestic workers, people
living with HIV / AIDS, gender and sexual
minorities, and persons with disabilities.
Photo credit: Anton Raharjo/NurPhoto/
Getty Images.

20

Global Slavery Index 2018

MODERN SLAVERY IN ASIA
AND THE PACIFIC
Across the Asia and the Pacific region, modern slavery is most often foundin domestic work, and in the agriculture, construction, manufacturing, andentertainment sectors.19 This is unsurprising given that a substantial portionof the employed population within Asia and the Pacific continue to work inagriculture and other low-skilled and informal industries that are often
poorly paid.20 The informal sector accounts for 60 percent of the workforce
in the region.21

In 2017, there were 62.1 million international migrants in theregion (originating from countries both within and outside
the region) and more than 101 million migrants around theglobe were from countries within the Asia and the Pacificregion.22 Most migrants within the region are so-called“south-south migrants” who have migrated between
developing countries, often within the same sub-region
and particularly to neighbouring countries. The majorityof migrants to and from Asia-Pacific countries move fromcountries with lower per capita GDP to higher per capita
GDP in search of better economic opportunities.23 Migrationfrom Southeast Asia, South Asia and Southwest Asia ismotivated by the demand for workers in the Middle East,with 95 percent of migrant workers from India, Pakistan,and Sri Lanka, and around two-thirds of migrant workers
from Bangladesh and the Philippines living and working
in the Arab States region.24 South and Southwest Asia are
the destinations for 58 percent of migrating Nepalese andalmost half of those migrating from Indonesia. Migrationin this region is also driven by conflict and instability, withcountries in Asia and the Pacific region hosting almost 40
percent of the world’s refugees. The main source countries
for refugees are Afghanistan, followed by Myanmar,
Vietnam, China, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan.
Migrant flows in the region are influenced by private
recruitment agencies who charge exorbitant fees to
employers and migrants.25 Recruitment is a lucrative
business in the Asia and Pacific region, and the financial
incentives motivate recruitment agents to persuade
workers to migrate abroad, sometimes through exploitativemeans. Migrant workers are therefore especially vulnerable
to debt bondage resulting from the high fees charged byunscrupulous recruitment brokers. Such situations havebeen identified, for example, among migrant fishers in the
Taiwanese fishing industry, Indonesian and Filipino domestic
workers in Singapore and Hong Kong, and workers from
Papua New Guinea in the Australian agricultural sector.26
Low-skilled migrant workers in informal sectors are
particularly vulnerable to labour exploitation and forced
labour. These individuals are more likely to have limited
knowledge of international labour laws and standards,
lack access to social services, and have fewer social
support networks in the country in which they are working.
In Southeast Asia, research suggests that, regardlessof the type of work they are employed in, labour rights
abuses against migrant workers are commonplace. 27
A 2017 ILO study of the experiences of migrant workers
from Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam found that
overall, workers in fisheries and construction were mostprone to mistreatment.
However, a large proportion of Laotian and Vietnamese
workers experience abuse in the agricultural and hospitality
industries respectively.28 Recent scrutiny of labour practices
aboard fishing vessels has highlighted that African andAsian men are exploited on Chinese fishing vessels,
working under conditions of forced labour.29 Wealthiercountries are not exempt from forced labour exploitation.
In Japan, the government-run Technical Intern Training
Program30 has faced international criticism. Rather thanproviding professional development opportunities foraround 228,000 interns (2016 figures), mostly from Vietnam
and China, interns have reportedly been exploited, withsome instances amounting to forced labour.31

Asia and the Pacific Report

21

Risk of modern slavery in the fishing industry
The labour abuses seen in the fishing industry take place
in a broader context that includes economic, social, andenvironmental factors. First, the increasing global demand
for fish and the rapid growth of industrial fishing fleets, alongwith over-exploitation of many fish stocks, has resulted ina declining catch per effort and falling profitability.32 Thishas occurred alongside the destruction of small-scale,artisanal fisheries that previously provided fishing families
and their villages with food and income.33 From a regulatory
perspective, these results are inadvertently encouraged bygovernment subsidies that seek to keep fishing industries
operating where they would otherwise be unprofitable.
All of this occurs within inadequate and inconsistent
legal frameworks regulating fishing industries, and poor
enforcement where such laws do exist.
A 2018 study conducted by the Walk Free Foundation,
together with researchers from the Sea Around Us, at the
University of Western Australia and the University of British
Columbia, sought to determine a set of risk factors that areassociated with modern slavery in fisheries at a global level.
Bringing together data on fisheries and fishingmanagement,34 with data on prevalence of modern slavery,35

In Australia, forced labour of migrant workers from the
Pacific islands has been identified in the agriculturalindustry.39 Cases of forced labour in Australia have also
been found in construction,40 domestic work,41 meat
processing,42 cleaning, hospitality, and food services.43

the analysis36 indicated that the occurrence of modern
slavery in major fish producing countries is associatedwith a set of risk factors. These risk factors reflect two
major sets of drivers; national fisheries policy, reflecting acountry’s decision to build and, typically, subsidise distantwater fishing fleets; and wealth and institutional capacity,reflecting a country’s economic capacity to maintain decent
working conditions and report on fishing activity. Basedon the six risk factors, the analysis considered the top 20
fishing countries, which combined provide over 80 percentof the world’s fish catch.37 The analysis identified China,
Japan, Russia, Spain, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand
as being at high risk of modern slavery in their respective
fishing industries. These “high-risk” fishing activities
are characterised by a high proportion of catch taken
outside their own waters at a greater distance from homewaters than average, by poor governance (high levels of
unreported catch), and by higher than average levels ofharmful fishing subsidies. Except for Spain, instances ofserious labour abuses have been documented in the fishingindustries of those countries identified or are strongly
suspected as high-risk.38 Combined, these seven countries
generate 39 percent of the world’s catch.

employment. The authors estimated that 55,000 female
domestic workers experienced forced labour in domestic
work in Singapore.49

Debt bondage is widespread in South Asia, specifically in
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, where it has been
Throughout the region, domestic workers, many of whom
reported in the brick kiln industry, agriculture, the fishing
are also migrant workers, are particularly
industry, stone quarries, mining, carpet
vulnerable to forced labour exploitation as
textile embroidering, tanning,
Growing technological weaving,
they work in private homes and depend
construction, domestic work, and cattle
advancement hason their employers for basic needs such as
rearing, among others.50 In some cases,
44
fostered an increase
food and shelter. The Asia and the Pacifican entire family must work to pay off theregion hosts almost a quarter of the world’s
debt taken by one of its members. Debts
in online sexual
female migrant domestic workers.45 In India,
can be passed down through generations
exploitation, which
forced labour of domestic workers has beenleaving children working to pay off a loan
makes the identification their parents had taken decades ago. Debt
brought to light after the 2017 case of aof perpetrators
Bangladeshi domestic worker who was held
bondage in South Asia is driven largely
hostage and physically abused by a family
by discrimination and inequality, whichand efforts of law
in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh after
is culturally ingrained and reinforced byenforcement morerequesting her withheld salary.46 In Brunei,
societal structures.51 For instance, in India,
complex.
women and men who migrate for domestic
those in debt bondage are commonlywork from Indonesia, Bangladesh, China,
Dalits (also known as Untouchables), while
the Philippines, Thailand, and Malaysia
in Pakistan those in debt bondage in brickhave reportedly experienced debt bondage, withholding
kilns are usually those belonging to poor classes and ethnicof wages and/or identification documents, physical abuse,minority groups.52 In Nepal, those in kamaiya, a traditional47
and physical confinement. A 2016 study by the Hong Kong
form of agricultural debt bondage, are predominantly from
Justice Centre found that 1 in 6 migrant domestic workers
the ethnic Tharu community.53
in Hong Kong reported indicators of forced labour and, of
A 2017 study analysed interviews with more than 4,000
those, 14 percent had been trafficked into domestic work inlabourers undertaken in three districts in the Indian state
48
Hong Kong. A 2017 study which analysed interviews withof Karnataka in 2015, and estimated that some 558,000
more than 700 Indonesian and Filipino female domestic
people were in debt bondage in these three districts ofworkers in Singapore found that 23% were victims of forced
Karnataka, and that those in debt bondage were more likely
labour and 10 percent had been trafficked into their present
to be from another state in India.54

22

Global Slavery Index 2018

In certain Indian brick kilns, accepting a wage advance froma contractor is seen as a compulsory step to accepting ajob, with one study reporting 94 percent of participants hadtaken an advance. 55 A United Nations assessment carriedout in 2011 suggested that 547,000 individuals in Nepal
were in forced labour and debt bondage.56

that it is extremely difficult to estimate the real number.71
In Iran, women, boys, and girls are reportedly trafficked
for sex by organised groups both within the country andinternationally to Afghanistan, the Iraqi Kurdistan Region,
Pakistan, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Europe.72

The prevalence of forced, early, and child marriage in Asiaand the Pacific varies greatly between and within subregions and countries.73 Gender inequality, poverty, andconflict-based insecurity (whereby families are motivatedto marry off their daughters in the name of safety andprotection, for instance, to protect the honour of theirdaughters or families in the case of rape) are among the key
drivers of child, early, and forced marriage.74 In South Asia,
46 percent of women aged 20 to 24 were married or in aunion before they reached the age of 18.75 In Afghanistan
and Pakistan, where Sharia law has greater influence thanconstitutional law, girls can legally marry at age 15 and16, respectively. In Sri Lanka, where a dual legal system
exists, the Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act allows Muslim
community leaders to decide on the marriage age forAmong the Pacific Island nations, cases of commercial
girls.76 Marriage traditions such as temporary marriage,
sexual exploitation of children are associated with travel
practiced in Iran, and bride price (also known as dowry),
and tourism and have been linked withpracticed in several countries, fuel the
migrant and transient workers, particularly
practice of marriage in young girls, whichin mining, logging, and fishing.61 Parents and
UN officials estimate
is often undertaken as a means out of debt
family members have been implicated in theor poverty.77 In Afghanistan, the custom
that
between80,000selling of young female family members toof baad involves the forced marriage ofand 120,000 politicalforeign and local workers for sex or marriage
women and young girls to settle disputes,
in Fiji, Australia, New Zealand, and the prisoners in North Korea
and is reportedly still practiced throughout
Solomon Islands.62
are imprisoned in forced the country.78 In Pakistan, women and girls
from the Hindu minority and other religious
Between 2012 and 2014, more than 60
labour camps alone.
minorities also face the risk of abduction
percent of some 7,800 victims of trafficking
for forced religious conversion and forced
identified in East Asia and the Pacific were
marriage.79 In 2016, the UN Committee on the Rights of thetrafficked for sexual exploitation.63 In Eastern Asia there
Child reported that in Iran, the forced marriage of girls as
is evidence that Japan and South Korea are destination
young as 10 to much older men was becoming increasingly
countries for Filipino women trafficked for sexual
common.80
exploitation, sometimes through marriage schemes.
Women are reportedly recruited under false promises ofConflict also leads to modern slavery in Iran, Afghanistan,high-paying jobs but are forced into sex work.64 Japan,
and Pakistan. In Iran, which is home to many Afghan
Mongolia, and China are also recognised destinations
migrants and refugees fleeing conflict, migrant children
for commercial sexual exploitation of children by bothand especially Afghan refugee children, are reportedly
domestic and international offenders.65 As throughout the
kidnapped by organised criminal gangs and forced to beg
rest of the region, technological advancements in Eastern
and work as vendors in Iranian cities. Reports indicate that
Asia have enabled new platforms for child commercial
physical and sexual abuse and drug addiction are usedsexual exploitation. In South Korea, for instance, an
to coerce children as young as three into forced labour.81
estimated 95 percent of commercial sexual exploitation
Afghan migrants in Iran are also reportedly forced to work inof children is arranged over the Internet.66 The practice ofconstruction and agriculture. Reports indicate that Afghan
compensated dating is growing throughout the region andmales, including children, have been forcefully recruited byis seen largely in Japan as well as in China, Hong Kong,
military groups to fight in its Fatemiyoun division in Syria,
South Korea, and Taiwan. The practice involves female
under threat of deportation to Afghanistan.82
high school students aged between 15 and 18 years old
In 2018, the Global Slavery Index included state-imposed
spending time with and sometimes providing sexual
forced labour in the estimates of modern slavery. In the Asia
services to adult men in exchange for money or gifts.67
and the Pacific region, state-imposed forced labour occurs
While in many cases girls themselves initiate compensatedin its highest numbers in North Korea.83 While the nature
dating, reports indicate exploitation by pimps occurs.68 In
Japan, the practice is termed “JK” business (joshi kosei,of the situation in North Korea means little quantitative
meaning “high school girls” in Japanese), where businesses
research is possible within the country, we estimate thatoffer dating services as well as “hidden options” with highone in 10 people in North Korea are in modern slavery. UN
school girls aged between 15 and 18 years old.69 Although
officials estimate that between 80,000 and 120,000 politicala 2015 news report places the number of girls in the JK
prisoners are imprisoned in forced labour camps alone.84
70
business at approximately 5,000, it should be noted
Several countries in Southeast Asia (Thailand, thePhilippines, and to a lesser extent Cambodia and Vietnam),have long been recognised as destinations for commercial
sexual exploitation of children by both domestic andinternational offenders.57 While the common perception
is that international tourists are the main offenders,male nationals make up the majority of perpetrators.58
Growing technological advancement has fostered anincrease in online sexual exploitation, which makes theidentification of perpetrators and efforts of law enforcement
more complex.59 The current trend of voluntourism andorphanage tourism in Southeast Asia further heightens therisk of commercial exploitation of children.60

Asia and the Pacific Report

A migrant Indian labourer at a brick factory in
Lalitpur, Nepal on Tuesday, January 23, 2018.
Debt bondage is widespread in South Asia, specificallyin India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, where it
has been reported in the brick kiln industry, among
other sectors with high levels of informal work.
Photo credit: Narayan Maharjan/NurPhoto/
Getty Images.

23

24

Global Slavery Index 2018

Comparability of the prevalence estimates withthe previous Global Slavery Index
This edition of the Global Slavery Index introduces
important improvements to the ways prevalence of modern
slavery is measured. Building on the collaborative work
undertaken with the ILO and IOM on the Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery, the Global Slavery Index results reflectchanges to scope, methodology, and expanded data
sources. The estimates are presented as a stock (or point
in time) calculation rather than a flow (total over a periodof time), include state imposed forced labour, and better
estimates of sexual exploitation, and children in modern
slavery. Further, we were able to count exploitation where
it occurred more consistently due to a considerably larger
number of surveys.

As a result of these advancements, the national prevalence
estimates are not comparable with previous editions of
the Global Slavery Index. Nonetheless, the strengthened
methodology reflects stronger data, increased levels of
data, and more systematic coverage of different formsof modern slavery. As such, while comparability fromprevious years is lost, the changes are justified by the needto continually improve our knowledge base. A detailed
description of the changes to the methodology is set out
in Appendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

An estimated 70 percent of all defectors fleeing North Korea
are women, with some studies suggesting that between 70
to 90 percent of these women will end up as victims of
trafficking and forced marriage.85
Recent reports also indicate state-imposed
forced labour occurs under the guise of
drug rehabilitation centres or so-called“custody and education centres” in China.86
Members of the ethnic Uighur population
are forced to work by local authorities,
including unmarried women forced towork in factories in cities in eastern China.
Children as young as nine years of age arerecruited through their school and forced towork during the autumn harvest with little
to no pay after deductions for food andtransport and payments to the school.87

In Vietnam, the law of drug prevention (NO. 94/2009/NDCP) requires that persons in drug rehabilitation centres, who
are sent to these administrative centres as a result of theirdrug addiction rather than as a consequence of a conviction
in a court of law, must actively participate
in labour and complete assigned target
An estimated 70 percent volume and quality of work.88 In Mongoliastate-imposed forced labour takes the formof all defectors fleeing
North Korea are women, of non-military work performed by military
conscripts in the context of developmentwith some studies
projects.89 In Myanmar, state-imposedsuggesting that between forced labour persists, with reports
70 to 90 percent of these indicating that in January 2016, Myanmar
Army soldiers used the threat of death towomen will end up as
force ethnic-Rakhine civilians to dig graves
victims of trafficking and and carry supplies during fighting with theforced marriage.
Arakan Army in Rakhine State.90

Young-soon, 80, former prisoner and forced
labourer in North Korea. “I knew Song Hyerim from school. One day, she told me she wasmoving into the ‘great leader’ Kim Jong-il’sresidence. A few months later, my family andI were sent to Yodok, a prison camp. My
parents and my eight-year-old son died ofmalnutrition there, and the rest of my family
were either shot or drowned. Nine years
later, after my release, I was told we’d been
imprisoned because I knew about Kim Jong-il’srelationship with Song. Song Hye-rim and Kim
Jong-il’s illegitimate son, Kim Jong-nam, wasassassinated earlier this year”.
Photo credit: James Whitlow Delano.

Asia and the Pacific Report

Icipis quos aut
hicid quid modipit
odigent, omnis etur,samenduciis et quiae.
Ita volorerundia dolut
dolentium es maximpo
ribus.

25

26

Global Slavery Index 2018

SPOTLIGHT Understanding Modern Slavery in North Korea

It has long been known, though difficult to verify, that citizens of North Korea are forced
to work by the State on a far greater scale than seen elsewhere in the world. In 2017,
the Walk Free Foundation partnered with researchers at the Leiden Asia Centre and the
Database Center for North Korean Human Rights (NKDB) in an effort to learn more about
the hidden reality regarding forced labour and other forms of modern slavery inside North
Korea. As it is not possible to directly survey or otherwise collect data within North Korea,
the research involved undertaking interviews with 50 defectors from North Korea who areliving in South Korea.
Of the 50 people interviewed, all but one91 described situations they had been subjected
to while living in North Korea that meet the international legal definition of “forced labour.”In this sample, three key typologies of modern slavery emerged.
First, repeated mobilisation by the government of children, and adults, through mandatory,
unpaid “communal labour” in agriculture, road building, and construction. Respondents
described that for children, the forced mobilisation started at an early age, might involve
daily work in agriculture or a month of work at harvest time, and ranged from light agriculturalduties to longer periods of hard labour, all of which was without pay. One male respondent
described his experience of forced mobilisation during childhood:““

After the fourth year of middle school we were subjected to regularfarm work mobilisation. In the spring, we stayed for about a month at a
farm field, we slept and ate there. This was the spring mobilisation. In
the summer, we did weeding for a few days, in the autumn we did hop
mobilisation. Hop is a plant that grows up on a rope, its flowers haveyellow powder. This powder is used to make beer, so we picked the hops
(the hop flowers). Before September for about a month we gathered hops.
They say it is imported by foreign countries.
(Respondent No. 2, male, adult)

Another male respondent explained that children being mobilised for forced labour was
universal among North Koreans:““

From the age of 13, every student is mobilised for farm work without
exception. It lasts 40 days for the spring mobilisation and 30 days for theautumn one.
(Respondent No. 10, male, adult)

The schools, and not the children, received payment for the work. If children did notparticipate, they would later be punished and criticised within the school itself. Participation
could be avoided through paying bribes. For adults, communal labour involved being
mobilised for “battles” in which workers are sent to work for 70 or 100 days in a row. The
penalty for refusal is a cut in food rations or the assessment of taxes. One adult male
respondent described his experience with mobilisation as follows:““

You cannot refuse. If the work unit leader orders you to go to work, youhave to do it. If you don’t, then your food rations are cut off.
(Respondent No. 1, male, adult)

Asia and the Pacific Report

The second typology was forced labour of the general population by the state. Almost all
respondents in this sample indicated they had either not been paid for their work other than
through provision of rations (which themselves can be refused or withheld as punishment)or, if they had been theoretically paid, wages were in fact withheld due to official donation
drives and other deductions. As some workplaces exist but have no actual production,
workers reported having to procure on their own the goods their workplaces are supposed
to be producing so that the employer could show some output. Others paid fees to beregistered as employees (to avoid being classified as unemployed and thereby risk being
sent to a labour camp) but actually worked elsewhere (the so-called “8/3 workers”92). To
survive and cover the cost of holding their jobs, they would trade or otherwise sell theirlabour on the black market. All but one respondent noted that it was impossible to refuseor leave a job without permission, and any attempt to do this would result initially in loss ofrations and then internment in a labour camp.

““

There usually isn’t any work to do in the workplaces so most people work
as 8/3 workers. The workplaces are run on the money that 8/3 workers
pay to the workplace every month. As a result, labourers cannot quit. If
you want to quit, you first have to find a new place to work and receive
a stamp of approval. You have to receive about 40 stamps. It takes abouta month to get all the stamps and costs 300-400 yuan. […] The Export
Material Production Office of DPRK Railways exports mainly to China.
[..] There were five labourers that were registered in 2013 and 15 in 2016.
All of them were 8/3 workers and they paid 60,000 won a month anddidn’t have to come to work.
(Respondent No. 13, male, adult)

Asked whether he had ever experienced debt bondage, one male respondent replied:““

Yes. I was an 8/3 worker so I paid a fixed amount every month because I
didn’t have a job, I think that is similar to being in debt.
(Respondent No. 17, male, adult)

In other cases, it may be that there is not enough work and workers are allowed to work
elsewhere, in which case they then have to surrender most of their earnings to the company.

““

I did not receive payment once in the 13 years I worked (1996-2008).
(Respondent No. 7 female, adult)

Social class determines the nature of the employment you receive, and some professions
are transferred from one generation to the next, most particularly those in the “dirty,
dangerous, and demeaning” (3D) jobs:““

In North Korea, the 3D jobs were coal mining, farming, and forestry.
People in these fields weren’t able to change their jobs and their children
were required to carry on the work.
(Respondent No.27, male, adult)

Another female respondent described how she could not improve her job prospects
because of her social status:““

I was assigned by the Ministry of Labour there. I didn’t do anything fora year after graduation, but I was summoned by the Ministry of Labour.
There they told me they had assigned me to a breeding factory. There
are better workplaces but my social status is not good, so I could not be
assigned a better job.
(Respondent No. 6, female, adult)

27

28

Global Slavery Index 2018

Finally, respondents also described forced labour inside labour camps. Labour training
camps are prisons where inmates have to perform hard labour, reportedly for a minimumof six months.93 Typically, workers are sent for being unemployed – not officially registered
at a workplace and thereby labelled as “jobless” – or for not following work instructions or
arguing with a superior. Absence from work for a period of 15 days can also land someone
in a labour training camp without trial or means of appeal. Once the verdict is reached, it isexecuted by the DPRK’s federation of trade unions and the Ministry of Labour. Being sent
to a labour training camp can sometimes be avoided by bribing an official.
The sample for this research included two defectors who had worked both inside North
Korea and for the North Korean government overseas. Both explained that their wages
were withheld, and, at most, some portion was paid to them. While being physically locatedoverseas, they described their workplaces as exported North Korean environments in which
the hierarchical structures and ideological sessions travelled with them.

““Payment is withheld most of the time. Most of the time I didn’t receive mywages because they would say that money had been given to a superior
office in North Korea. Or there were times that the hiring company would
say that some work had not been done well and maintenance was needed.
(Respondent No. 15, male, adult)

As noted in interviews, key features that impact on degrees of freedom in working life
inside North Korea include the following:›› All officially recognised work is centrally organised.
›› Social class determines the nature of the employment you receive (along with yourhousing, access to education, and other benefits). There are three main classes: thecore class (the elite, party cadres, and their families), the wavering class (average North
Koreans), and the hostile class (including descendants of landlords or capitalists).
Status can be and frequently is inherited.
›› The punishment for being unemployed or failing to attend work is internment in alabour camp.
›› Workers are provided with rations for food and other necessities of life, which canalso be withheld as punishment.
›› While in theory all work involves a salary, most wages remain unpaid. Respondents
noted many cases where they had to in fact pay both to keep their job (to avoid
being formally unemployed and then sent to a labour camp) and to cover the costs ofproduction (when quotas or were not met or the workplace actually had no materials
or production). To maintain their “employment” and to survive, they reported working
on the black market, trading or selling whatever they could.
›› Obtaining a job, keeping it, or switching jobs normally involves payment of bribes
to officials.
The picture that emerges is as disturbing as it is unique. While not a representative sample,
the respondents in this group described first-hand experiences of state-imposed forced
labour. They also described a broader system of modern slavery operating around them,
one that is perpetrated by the state and upon which it depends for its very survival.
This spotlight summarises a longer set of findings that can be found in the report Pervasive,
Punitive, and Predetermined: Understanding Modern Slavery in North Korea, available fordownload from www.globalslaveryindex.org

Asia and the Pacific Report

Disguising his identity, a 20 year old refugee from
North Korea now living in Northern China agreed to be
photographed on the condition that his face and location
were not recognisable. He reports that he left his motherand sister behind in North Korea. He used to be a roadworker but was constantly hungry (North Korea uses
selective food allocation as a tool of control). In China
he works as a farm labourer and construction worker.
If he is lucky, he makes about 40 Euros per month.
However, he says his boss often does not pay him.
Also, locals, who know about his illegal status and that hecannot seek help, beat him. Photo credit: Katharina Hesse

29

30

Global Slavery Index 2018

PREVALENCEFIGURE 5
Prevalence rating by country
Bangladesh
Afghanistan

North Korea

South Korea

Japan

Nepal
Mongolia

Hong Kong
China

TaiwanIran

Lao PDR
India

Vietnam

Cambodia
Pakistan
Philippines
Myanmar

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Malaysia

SingaporePapua
New Guinea

Indonesia
Brunei
Timor-Leste

highAustralia
New Zealandlow

In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the International
Labour Organization (ILO), together with the International
Organization for Migration (IOM), produced the Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery, estimating that 40.3 million
people were living in modern slavery on any given day in2016. Of these, an estimated 24.9 million men, womenand children were living in modern slavery in Asia and thePacific. The region had the second highest prevalence ofmodern slavery in the world with 6.1 per 1,000 people.

When considering forms of modern slavery, the Asia and thePacific region had the high prevalence of forced labour (4.0
per 1,000 people) compared to other regions. The rate offorced marriage was two victims per 1,000 people. Over halfof all victims of forced labour exploitation (55 percent) were
held in debt bondage and this affected male victims morethan female victims; almost 70 percent of those in debt
bondage were male. The Asia and the Pacific region has
the highest number of victims across all forms of modern

Asia and the Pacific Reportslavery, accounting for 73 percent of all victims of forced
sexual exploitation, 68 percent of those forced to workby state authorities, 64 percent of those in forced labour
exploitation, and 42 percent of all those in forced marriages.
Within the region, North Korea, Afghanistan, and Pakistan
are the countries with the highest prevalence of modern
slavery per 1,000 people in the population. The largest
number of India, China, and Pakistan have the highest
absolute number of people living in modern slavery.
Together, they account for 60 percent of the victims and70 percent of the population in the region (Table 1).
These regional figures, while important, should beinterpreted cautiously given the gaps and limitations of datain key sub-regions. The current Global Estimates of Modern

31

Slavery do not cover all forms of modern slavery; forms
such as trafficking for the purposes of organ removal, childsoldiers, or child marriage that could also constitute modern
slavery cannot be adequately measured at this stage.
Further, it is not possible to survey in areas of countries
that are experiencing profound and current conflict suchas in Pakistan.
The lack of data from areas where there is conflict meansthat modern slavery estimates for conflict-affected countries
are likely to understate the problem.94 Data gaps leading
to conservative estimates at a sub-regional level mustalso be noted. With the exception of Mongolia, surveys
were not fielded in the East Asia sub-region and none of
the countries were identified as sites of exploitation by
respondents in the countries surveyed.

TABLE 1
Estimates of prevalence of modern slavery by country

Regional
rankCountry

Estimated prevalence(victims per 1,000
population)

Estimated absolute
number of victims

Population

1

Korea, Democratic People's
Republic of (North Korea)*

104.6

2,640,000

25,244,000

2Afghanistan

22.2

749,000

33,736,000

3

Pakistan

16.8

3,186,000

189,381,000

4Cambodia

16.8

261,000

15,518,000

5Iran, Islamic Republic of

16.2

1,289,000

79,360,000

6

Mongolia

12.3

37,0002,977,000

7Myanmar11.0

575,000

52,404,000

8Brunei Darussalam

10.9

5,000

418,000

9

Papua New Guinea

10.3

81,0007,920,000

10

Lao People's Democratic
Republic

9.4

62,0006,664,000

11

Thailand

8.9

610,000

68,658,000

12Philippines

7.7

784,000

101,716,000

13Timor-Leste

7.7

10,0001,241,000

14

Malaysia

6.9

212,000

30,723,000

15

India

6.1

7,989,000

1,309,054,000

16

Nepal

6.0

171,000

28,656,000

17Indonesia

4.7

1,220,000

258,162,00018Viet Nam

4.5

421,000

93,572,000

19Bangladesh

3.7

592,000

161,201,000

20Singapore*

3.4

19,0005,535,000

21

China*

2.8

3,864,000

1,397,029,000

22

Sri Lanka

2.1

44,00020,714,000

23

Korea, Republic of (South Korea)*

1.9

99,00050,594,000

24

Hong Kong*

1.4

10,0007,246,000

25

Australia

0.6

15,00023,800,000

26

New Zealand

0.6

3,000

4,615,000

27

Taiwan*0.5

12,00023,486,000

28Japan*

0.3

37,000127,975,000* Substantial gaps in data exist for the East Asia subregion where, with the exception of Mongolia, surveys cannot be conducted for reasons such as (i)survey is only delivered face-to-face, (ii) survey is delivered only in the main language which many migrant workers do not speak, or (iii) national authorities
would not, or were unlikely to, consent to the module on modern slavery. Unlike several countries in Western Europe where no surveys were conducted,
none of the countries in these subregions were identified as sites of exploitation by respondents in the 48 countries where surveys were implemented.

32

Global Slavery Index 2018

VULNERABILITY
FIGURE 6
Overall vulnerability scores map
Bangladesh
Afghanistan

North Korea

South Korea

Japan

Nepal
Mongolia
Hong Kong
China

TaiwanIran

Lao PDR
India

Vietnam
Cambodia

Pakistan
Philippines
Myanmar
Sri Lanka
Thailand

Malaysia

SingaporePapua
New Guinea

Indonesia
Brunei
Timor-Leste

highAustralia
New Zealandlow

Our assessment of vulnerability is conducted at the national
level and covers five dimensions: governance issues, lackof basic needs, inequality, disenfranchised groups andeffects of conflict. An analysis of vulnerability suggeststhat the Asia-Pacific region performed relatively well on
the governance, basic needs, and inequality. Although
the region also performed relatively well on the conflict
dimension of the vulnerability model, countries withthe highest prevalence in the region (Afghanistan andPakistan) are impacted by protracted and ongoing conflict(see Figure 7). The region scored relatively poorly on thedisenfranchised group dimension, perhaps reflecting thediscrimination of individuals on the basis of migration
status, race, ethnicity, and/or sexual orientation.
Afghanistan, Pakistan, North Korea, and Myanmar, andCambodia had the highest overall vulnerability scoresin the region. These countries experienced multiple
vulnerability factors that led to their populations having

Americas Reporta heightened risk of exploitation. Our vulnerability
assessments highlighted high levels of conflict,displacement, inequality, and discrimination against
disenfranchised groups as contributing to vulnerability
within these countries.

33

Some countries in the region continue to exhibit politicalinstability and limitations to women’s physical security. North
Korea, Afghanistan, and Iran had the highest vulnerability
scores relating to governance issues. This includes
political instability, women’s physical security, weapons
access, and the government’s response to modern slavery.
As the North Korean government continues its aggressive
and unstable behaviour through military and cyberprovocations (including alleged cyber-attacks targeting
infrastructure in the US and South Korea98), the vulnerabilityof its population increases. Efforts to consolidate power
have resulted in between 80,000 and 120,000 politicalprisoners being reportedly detained in North Korea.99 The
North Korean government’s efforts to exert control overcitizens has contributed to the institutionalisation of forced
labour and modern slavery.100

New Zealand, Australia, Singapore, and Japan had thelowest overall vulnerability scores in the region. These
countries generally exhibit high levels of development
and rank relatively high on indices of peace. They also
have sufficient resources and political will to develop astrong government response to modern slavery, all ofwhich provide important protections for citizens fromvulnerability to exploitation. However, as destination
countries for migrants and refugees from neighbouring
regions, particularly Southeast Asian countries andPacific Island nations, these countries face associatedrisks of trafficking and labour exploitation among these
populations. For example, in Australia, migrant workers
in the government-run Seasonal Worker Programme
are vulnerable to exploitation due to their dependence
on their employers, who sponsor their visas.95 Similarly,
in Singapore, limited respect for migrant workers’ rights
add to their vulnerability in a range of industries including
construction and domestic work. The employer-sponsoredwork permit system for migrant workers ties them to an
employer who has control over granting them a transfer
to another job. This contributes to their vulnerability bydiminishing their ability to leave an exploitative situationor seek alternative work opportunities.96 Furthermore, theexclusion of foreign domestic workers from the Employment
Act and other protections in Singapore intensifies thevulnerability of domestic workers.97

Similarly, political instability in Afghanistan and Irancontinues to add to the vulnerability of individuals in thesecountries to modern slavery. Political leadership withincertain countries also exacerbates existing vulnerabilities.
According to the Global Peace Index, the Philippines
continues to rank as one of the least peaceful countries in
Asia since President Rodrigo Duterte took office in 2016. His
aggressive and abusive war on drugs and crime is reflected
in a deterioration of societal safety and security indicators
as well as declining respect for political rights as seen withthe detention of his opponent, Senator Leila de Lima, in 2017
on politically motivated drug charges.101 The extrajudicial
killings of alleged criminals have worsened political stability,a characteristic which is likely to drive people to migrate,increasing their vulnerability to exploitation and abuse
through trafficking and forced labour.102

FIGURE 7
Regional average vulnerability scores by dimension, Asia and the Pacific

49.3

Governance issues
31.1

Lack of basic needs

32.3

Inequality
Disenfranchised groups

34.0

Effects of conflict

32.4

Overallweighted average

46.1
0

20

40

60

80

100

34

Global Slavery Index 2018

Despite strong economic growth in certain countries,
serious economic challenges including poverty andincome inequality persist within the region. According toour vulnerability assessment, Papua New Guinea, North
Korea, Myanmar, and Timor-Leste demonstrate the highest
vulnerability in terms of lack of basic needs. In Papua New
Guinea, almost 40 percent of the country’s population
lives in poverty103 and the rate of malnutrition remains highwith almost half of children aged six months to five years
stunted due to malnutrition.104 The health care system also
continues to struggle to provide access to services, withnearly two-fifths of health centres and rural health posts
having no electricity or essential medical equipment.105
Such factors exacerbate vulnerability and contribute to thedifficulties these rural populations face to break out of thecycle of poverty.

Afghanistan, Papua New Guinea, Pakistan, and thePhilippines have the highest vulnerability in terms ofinequality. This includes violent crime, income inequality,
confidence in judicial systems, and the ability to produce
emergency funds. In Papua New Guinea, violence against
women is a major contributor to the vulnerability ofwomen and girls. Family and domestic violence continue
to endanger women and girls at striking rates, yet cases
are rarely investigated and there is a lack of financial
support and accommodation or counselling services forvictims.106 Evidence suggests sorcery-related violence has
increased in recent years with reports pointing to attacks,
torture, and murder of women accused of witchcraft.107
Violent crime and sorcery accusations are often a formof family violence, with abusive husbands using suchaccusations to silence and control women.108

TABLE 2Estimated vulnerability to modern slavery by country, Asia and the PacificCountry Name

GovernanceissuesLack ofbasic needs

Inequality

Disenfranchised
groups

Effects ofconflict

Overallweighted
averageAfghanistan

81.0

41.3

64.7

46.0

92.6

93.9

Pakistan

56.8

36.2

45.9

55.3

92.8

74.1

Korea, Democratic People's
Republic of (North Korea)

87.6

52.0

30.3

32.4

12.3

73.3

Myanmar

58.1

43.8

26.1

46.0

70.2

65.9

Cambodia

66.3

38.5

41.6

56.7

14.8

63.5

Iran, Islamic Republic of

74.6

25.5

35.8

37.3

39.5

63.3

Papua New Guinea

64.8

63.3

46.2

9.5

13.3

61.9

Philippines

50.5

35.3

45.7

36.4

69.3

60.2

Lao People's Democratic
Republic

70.7

35.1

26.4

41.2

13.9

57.5

India

46.2

29.8

32.4

41.1

80.0

55.5

Timor-Leste

58.4

41.9

37.2

41.2

3.9

52.8

Thailand

50.9

21.8

35.3

45.1

51.9

51.1

China

61.4

20.5

26.9

32.4

44.2

50.6

Indonesia

43.7

38.0

35.8

53.3

32.2

50.5

Bangladesh

54.1

38.4

25.7

20.9

45.3

50.0

Brunei Darussalam

53.5

30.9

31.7

41.2

18.2

47.2

Nepal

52.0

35.6

32.2

8.7

34.7

44.1

Mongolia

40.9

36.8

35.1

47.1

18.1

43.5

Sri Lanka

44.1

27.0

33.5

34.9

35.9

42.5

Vietnam

53.6

23.2

28.1

32.5

18.5

41.5

Malaysia

36.2

28.4

39.6

41.2

27.8

39.2

Korea, Republic of(South Korea)

33.9

29.4

25.7

33.8

13.4

29.8

Hong Kong, China

39.3

9.6

24.7

28.4

15.0

24.7

Taiwan, China

24.5

24.7

40.6

21.1

1.4

20.3

Japan

21.5

13.1

15.5

31.9

17.8

13.8

Singapore

30.8

16.3

5.0

18.7

9.0

13.4

Australia

11.9

15.7

20.7

12.0

13.0

4.3

New Zealand

12.2

18.4

16.2

7.0

7.0

1.9

Asia and the Pacific Report

Such violence endangers women’s physical security andamplifies their vulnerability to exploitation and trafficking.
While Papua New Guinea is suggested to have the highest
level of income inequality across the entire Asia and thePacific region,109 the Philippines also continues to face highlevels of income inequality.110 This inequality also intensifies
vulnerability as those with comparatively low income tend
to migrate in search of better economic opportunities, often
in low-skilled sectors.
In terms of disenfranchised groups, including immigrants
and minorities, populations in Cambodia, Pakistan,
Indonesia, Mongolia, and Myanmar have the highest
vulnerability. In Myanmar, religious clashes, a progressive
denial of rights, and a campaign of violent persecution
by Myanmar’s military have driven more than one million
Rohingya Muslims out of the country.111 The majority havetaken refuge in Bangladesh and other countries in Asiaand the Middle East. Desperation to meet basic needs andthe lack of community or family networks in these newenvironments contribute to their vulnerability to modern
slavery and increase the risk of exploitation.

Our vulnerability data highlight Pakistan, Afghanistan,
India, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand as having
the highest vulnerability to modern slavery due to highlevels of conflict, terrorism, and displacement. Islamist
militancy and conflicts between the government and various
terrorist and insurgency groups in Pakistan continues topose a serious threat to the country, adding to instability
within the region and contributing to vulnerability.112 In
the Philippines, conflict between government forces andIslamist rebels in the city of Marawi, Mindanao left morethan 400,000 people displaced and at least 1,100 people
dead in 2017.113 Such displacement intensifies vulnerability.
Additionally, in Thailand’s southern border provinces,conflict with Barisan Revolusi Nasional insurgents has led
to ongoing violence, contributing to existing vulnerabilities
within that region.114 Breakdown of the rule of law, loss ofsocial and familial support networks, and the disruption ofbasic service provision that occurs when there is conflict
all increase risk of both forced labour and forced marriage.
In contrast, Taiwan, Timor-Leste, and New Zealanddemonstrate low vulnerability ratings for this factor.

Nur Begum, a Rohingya girl who doesn’t know her age but thinks she isbetween 14 and 16 years old, has her hair done on the day of her wedding,in a Bangladesh refugee camp on November 30, 2017 in Cox’s Bazar. Nur
Begum said that her parents arranged the marriage for her and she had nochoice in the matter. UN officials warned that Rohingya children, especiallythose who were unaccompanied, are at great risk of being trafficked orforced into marriages. An investigation by the International Organization for
Migration (IOM) recently uncovered documented accounts of Rohingya girls
as young as 11 getting married and families at refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar
are forcing their girls to marry early to reduce the number of mouths to feedand secure more food for themselves.
Photo credit: Allison Joyce/Getty Images.

35

36

Global Slavery Index 2018

IMPORTING RISK:

Import of products at-risk of modern slavery into G20 countries in the
Asia and the Pacific region
As the analysis in the Global Slavery Index confirms, citizens in G20 countries
enjoy relatively low levels of vulnerability to the crime of modern slavery
within their borders and many aspects of their government responses
to preventing it are comparatively strong. Nonetheless, businesses andgovernments in G20 countries are importing products that are at risk ofmodern slavery, with hardly any effort being applied by governments toregulate the labour conditions involved in their production. Accordingly, we
conducted research globally to identify and validate a short list of products at
risk of modern slavery, and then map out the extent to which these products
are imported by G20 countries.115

There are six G20 countries in the Asia and the Pacific region:
Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea.
Collectively, these countries import a substantial amountof at-risk products, ranging from Japan importing goods
worth US$47 billion to Indonesia importing US$3 billion.
While the list is not exhaustive, the top products at risk ofmodern slavery (according to US$ value) imported by G20
countries in the Asia and the Pacific region are presented
in Table 3.
These products are sourced from 15 countries, mainly in
Asia, and are valued at US$90.9 billion. These imports areprimarily from China (81 percent of the total value) wheremuch of the imports of apparel, fish and laptops, computers
and mobile phones are sourced.
While G20 countries have imported risk for some time, they
are in the early stages of responding to the connection
between modern slavery and supply chains of businesses
and public procurement.

The Government Response Index tracks the progress ofgovernments towards achievement of five milestones,
including “Government and business stop sourcing goods
and services produced by forced labour,” and it is clear thatexisting efforts fall short of what is required. G20 countries
achieved an average score of only 11 percent for their efforts
to stop sourcing goods and services produced by forced
labour. In the Asia and the Pacific region, China achieved
the highest score (18.3 percent) based on remedial action
taken by the government where labour exploitation was
discovered in public supply chains and on the introductionof penalties for the violation of labour protections byprivate actors, including publicising lists of offenders. Allother countries in the region (Australia, India, Indonesia,
Japan, and South Korea) scored zero across all indicatorsof this milestone. G20 countries in the Asia and the Pacificcountries are yet to implement laws to minimise the risk ofmodern slavery in public supply chains and to encouragebusiness to practice due diligence.

Asia and the Pacific Report

TABLE 3Top five products at risk of modern slavery (according to US$ value) imported into G20 countries in the
Asia and the Pacific region
G20 country

Import product at risk of modern slavery

1 / Laptops, computers & mobile phones
2 / Apparel
Australia

3 / Fish
4 / Rice
5 / Cocoa
1 / Laptops, computers & mobile phones
2 / FishChina

3 / Coal
4 / Apparel
5 / Sugarcane
1 / Laptops, computers & mobile phones
2 / Sugarcane

India

3 / Gold
4 / Apparel
5 / Diamonds
1 / Laptops, computers & mobile phones
2 / ApparelIndonesia

3 / Fish4 / Sugarcane
5 / Cocoa
1 / Laptops, computers & mobile phones
2 / ApparelJapan

3 / Fish
4 / Cocoa
5 / Timber
1 / Laptops, computers & mobile phones
2 / ApparelSouth Korea

3 / Fish
4 / Cocoa
5 / Timber

37

38

Global Slavery Index 2018

GOVERNMENT RESPONSESFIGURE 8
Government response rating to modern slavery by country
Bangladesh
Afghanistan

North Korea

South Korea

Japan

Nepal
Mongolia
Hong Kong
China

TaiwanIran

Lao PDR
India

Vietnam
Cambodia

Pakistan
Philippines
Myanmar
Sri Lanka
Thailand

Malaysia

SingaporePapua
New Guinea

Indonesia
Brunei
Timor-LesteABBB* BBBBB

B

CCC CCC

D

Australia
New Zealand

Not
rated

Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, and Indonesia
have taken the most steps in responding to modern
slavery in the region. These countries have reasonably
strong victim support services, National Action Plans, andlaws, policies, and programs that address vulnerability
factors. Australia’s government response rating (BBB)
demonstrates that the government has implemented all
key components of a holistic response to modern slavery,
including victim support services, a strong criminal justiceresponse, coordination and collaboration efforts, andprotections for vulnerable groups. Australia has also begun
to take efforts to eliminate modern slavery from businesssupply chains by committing to introduce legislation by endof 2018 that will require large businesses to report annuallyon their actions taken to address modern slavery. In thePhilippines, President Duterte inherited a strong response
to human trafficking, including laws protecting Filipino
migrant workers overseas, which is why the Philippines hasretained its relatively high rating despite ongoing politicalinstability.

39

Asia and the Pacific Report

While most countries maintained their rating in the2018 Global Slavery Index, ratings for countries such as
Indonesia, Hong Kong and Singapore improved since2016. For example, Indonesia improved their rating from
B to BB, reflecting in part the opening of a child-friendly
integrated public space in East Jakarta where child andadult victims can report trafficking crimes to trained
counsellors.116 Singapore improved its rating from CC to
CCC and Hong Kong improved its rating from C to CC.
There has been increased political will to act in Hong Kong,as shown by the recent cross – departmental initiative torelease an Action Plan to Tackle Trafficking in Persons.117
The government also provided training to front line police,
immigration, and justice officials on victim identification andconducting human trafficking investigations.118
Despite these improvements, when correlated against
GDP (PPP) per capita, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Brunei
stand out as taking limited action despite the resourcesat their disposal and the size of the problem. Brunei, forexample, received a zero rating for its national coordination
mechanisms and scored relatively low in terms of actions
taken to identify and support victims. Hong Kong fellsignificantly short in terms of establishing effective criminal
justice mechanisms and has still not criminalised any formsof modern slavery. Singapore also made insufficient efforts
with regard to responding to modern slavery. Given thesecountries do not face the same economic barriers totackling modern slavery as other countries falling shortin the region, we encourage these governments to makeconcerted efforts to strengthen their actions.
North Korea and Iran still have the poorest response tomodern slavery in the Asia and the Pacific region, bothmaintaining their D rating. Both governments still rate in thebottom five countries globally in terms of their response.
This reflects the North Korean government’s determination
to use slavery as an instrument to control its citizenry, andin Iran a lack of resources and political will to act against
modern slavery.

TABLE 4
Change in Asian and Pacific government response
ratings 2016 to 2018

Country

2016
RatingChangein rating2018
RatingAustralia

BBB

BBB

New Zealand

BB

BB

Philippines

BB

BB

Indonesia

B

BB

Thailand

B

B

Vietnam

B

B

India

B

B

Bangladesh

B

B

Nepal

B

CCC

Malaysia

CCC

CCC

Taiwan

CCC

CCC

Cambodia

CCC

CCC

Sri Lanka

B

CCC

Japan

CCC

CCC

Lao People’s
Democratic
Republic

CCC

CCC

Singapore

CC

CCC

Myanmar

CCC

CCC

Mongolia

CCC

CCC

Timor-Leste

CC

CC

Korea, Republic of(South Korea)

CC

CC

China

CCC

CC

Hong Kong

C

CC

Brunei Darussalam

C

CC

Papua New Guinea

CC

Pakistan

CCC

C

Iran, Islamic
D
D
Republic ofKorea, Democratic
People’s RepublicDD
of (North Korea)
Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga,
Tuvalu, Vanuatu** Included for the first time in 2018, therefore a rating is not provided.
All data are available via the Global Slavery Index website.
Note: Due to the ongoing conflict and extreme disruption to the government,
rating of the Afghanistan government’s response was not included in the2018 Global Slavery Index.

40

Global Slavery Index 2018

Assessments of government response decreased since
victims to receive compensation or restitution for damages2016 for Pakistan, China, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Ratings forincurred as a result of exploitation. Data show that mostPakistan and China dropped from CCC to C and CCC to CC
governments (24 out of 27) do contribute funds or in-kindrespectively, and from B to CCC for Nepal and Sri Lanka.
contributions to the operational costs of victim support
Access to more data has affected the changes in ratings forservices, although most of these services across the Asia
some countries, while in others the drop was due to more
and the Pacific region are provided by NGOs.
restrictive policies or poorer responses to modern slavery.
Advancements have been made in terms of strengthening
In China, while a National Referral Mechanism (NRM) was
legislation, but gaps in enforcement still exist. Of the 27
introduced in 2009, there is no available evidence that thiscountries, 18 have fully criminalised human trafficking in line
has been operational since 2010. In Nepal, there is evidencewith international definitions, but less than half (13 countries)
of a more restrictive asylum seeker policy whereby asylum
have criminalised forced labour as a distinct offence. Even
seekers and refugees who are officially recognised as suchfewer (six countries) have criminalised forced marriage;
by UNHCR are denied recognition by the government.
these include Australia, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore,
The government requires these groups to pay prohibitive
and Vietnam. Almost half the number of countries assessedfines of up to US$5 for every day they overstay their visa
(13 countries) have disproportionate penalties attached toand a discretionary penalty of up to US$500 to obtain anthese crimes, whereby a modern slavery offence can beexit permit. This policy has been directed at refugees andpenalised by a fine or capital punishment. A further nine
asylum seekers from Pakistan, Burma, Afghanistan, Sricountries have handed out disproportionate punishments
Lanka, Bangladesh, Somalia, Iran, Iraq, and Democratic
on sentencing. Only Bangladesh, Indonesia, Papua New
Republic of Congo. The government also failed to provide
Guinea, and the Philippines have stated within legislation
refugees with legal access to public education and thethat victims are not to be treated as criminals for conduct
119
right to work. Our data also highlighted evidence ofthat occurred while under control of120
state-imposed labour in Vietnam andcriminals. However, in reality, this provision
121
China at drug rehabilitation centres andOnly six countries have is not always implemented. For example, inforced labour of children and the general
Papua New Guinea there have been reports
population in labour and prison camps incriminalised forcedthat people found engaging in prostitution
122
North Korea.
marriage; these include are arrested without assessing if they are
Victim support services are available inAustralia, China, Nepal, possible victims of trafficking.127 In 14 ofalmost all countries in the Asia and thethe 27 countries assessed in the region,
Pakistan, Singapore,
Pacific region (24 out of 27 countries
there were reports that officials wereand Vietnam.
reported in the Global Slavery Index),
complicit in modern slavery cases and that
however there are gaps in services
these allegations of complicity were notthat prevent all victims from accessing
investigated.
assistance, with less than two thirds of governments
More than half of the Asia and Pacific states in the Global
providing full support services for men, women, and migrant
Slavery Index (15 out of 27) have a National Action Plan
workers. In Cambodia, the government operates the Poipet(NAP) in place to tackle modern slavery, or a component
Transit Centre at its border with Thailand, where it provides
such as trafficking. Fifteen countries also have a national
assistance to trafficking victims who have been deported
coordination body to implement the responses. Far fewer
from Thailand.123 In Bangladesh, a crisis support centre(only Cambodia,128 Malaysia,129 Thailand,130 and Timorprovides assistance to women and girls who have suffered
Leste131) have a fully funded budget allocated to activities
abuse, including victims of trafficking.124 The Bangladeshi
within their NAPs. Importantly, no country within this region
government has also recently finalised and launched a
has established an independent entity to monitor the
National Action Plan (NAP) that includes funding for
implementation and effectiveness of response, and only
shelters, drop-in centres, and safe homes.125 In Singapore,
Australia, Bangladesh, Japan, and Vietnam regularly report
the government provides funding and oversight to 22
progress against their NAPs.
shelters serving vulnerable children and six shelters for
Despite the informal sector accounting for 60 percent
adults, including one specifically for adult male trafficking
126of the workforce in Asia and the Pacific132 and the highvictims. Only Cambodia, Philippines, Singapore, Timorprevalence of migrant workers within the informal sector,
Leste and Vietnam had NRMs that had been active since
government responses that provide protections and safety
2016. In terms of legal support and protection for victims,
nets for informal migrant workers are limited. Only a third of
only 11 governments provided child friendly services, andcountries within this region (nine out of 27) conduct labour
fewer (eight countries) provided free legal services forinspections in the informal sector to specifically identify
victims. South Korea, Sri Lanka and Taiwan are the only
cases of modern slavery.
countries with mechanisms in place for the protection of
victims and witnesses both within the court and outside
Only 10 countries extend their labour laws to everyone andthe court. Seventeen governments provided training on
provide legislative protections to migrant workers, domestic
modern slavery for consular staff during the reference
workers, and those in the fishing and construction sectors.
period. Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, Iran, Lao, Malaysia,
Migrant workers are particularly vulnerable with evidence
Pakistan, and Timor-Leste do not have laws which allow
indicating that 14 countries deported or detained foreign

Asia and the Pacific Report

Ngwe Kyi, 47, cries while describing how he wastrafficked at his home on November 8, 2016 in Pho
Shwe Law, Myanmar. According to Kyi, when apalm oil company failed to pay him while clearing
land for a plantation far from his home village, hefelt compelled to take a job offer across the borderin Thailand from a stranger. The job never existed,
and Kyi was trafficked to the coast and sold to thecaptain of a fishing boat.
Photo credit: Taylor Weidman/LightRocket via
Getty Images.

41

42

Global Slavery Index 2018

victims for immigration violations between February 2016
This year, for the first time, the Global Slavery Index included
and June 2017, including Australia,133 Malaysia,134 and Hongsmaller Commonwealth countries and other island states inKong.135 New Zealand alone provided visas for victims to
the assessment of government responses. Within the Asia
remain in the country, which were not tied to participationand the Pacific region, this included: Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru,
in the court process; a similar visa for victims of forced
Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Samoa, andmarriage was recently announced in Australia.136 Eight
Vanuatu. Palau was also included for the first time.139 Givencountries have included in legislation the requirement that
this is the first year that data has been collected for these
private recruitment fees are to be paid by the employer andcountries, and thus, we cannot suitably compare progress
not the employee, which places migrant workers at risk ofwith that of other countries in the region, we have notdebt bondage. In terms of inter-governmental cooperation,
reported their milestone or overall ratings here. However,
it is commendable that 19 governments collaborated onwithin these countries, positive action has been taken tomodern slavery issues, however fewer (13 countries) have
respond to modern slavery, including the provision of victim
agreements with other countries on labour migration that
support services, enactment of trafficking legislation, andprovide protection for labour migrants. Governments are
establishment of national coordination mechanisms. For
also falling short in protection of asylum
example, in the Solomon Islands, the Antiseekers, another group with heightened
Human Trafficking Advisory Committee,
Only 10 countries extend involving both government and NGOs, isvulnerability to modern slavery. Policies
their labour laws to
guiding the support and protection for
implementing the 2015-2020 National
asylum seekers are available in less than
Action Plan, which has clear indicators
everyone and provide
half the countries assessed (12 of the 27
and an allocation of responsibilities. 140
legislative protections
countries). In terms of government actions
Fiji’s Criminal Procedure Code supports
to migrant workers,
which address vulnerabilities, 17 of the 27
restitution or compensation for victims ofdomestic workers, andcountries assessed have made education
modern slavery. There is also evidence ofavailable for all children regardless of
those in the fishing and physical health services being provided
gender, ethnicity, religious background or
to victims 141 and the availability of aconstruction sectors.
geographic region, however investment
children’s hotline allowing callers to speak
in research into the prevalence of modern
to counsellors in English, Fijian, Hindi, andslavery was only evident in South Korea and Thailand.
Rotuman, taking into consideration the diverse range of
ethnicities and language groups residing on the island.142
There is a poor response across the region in public
There are also gaps; for example, in Fiji, while specialised
procurement measures as no country has provided
law enforcement units exist, they do not have the resources
guidelines or training on slavery for public procurement
to operate effectively.143 All data for Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru,
officials. Additionally, no country has established policies,
Palau, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Samoa,
systems, or reports to minimise the risk of governments andand Vanuatu can be found on the Global Slavery Index
businesses purchasing products tainted by forced labour.
website.
In 2017, the Australian government announced plans to
introduce legislation that will require large businesses toreport annually on their actions taken to address modern
slavery.137 Legislation is expected to be passed by the endof 2018. Similar legislation is planned in Hong Kong, anda draft members’ bill is due to be discussed at the time ofwriting.138

43

Asia and the Pacific Report

TABLE 5Government response by milestone percentage, overall score, and rating

RatingCountry

Supportsurvivors

Criminaljustice

Coordination

Addressrisk

SupplychainsTOTALBBBAustralia

69.6

75.0

BB

New Zealand

53.7

47.8

56.3

69.0

0.0

63.8

43.8

95.2

0.0

57.6

BB

Philippines

51.5

69.4

50.0

69.0

0.0

55.8

BB

Indonesia

B

Thailand

47.8

60.0

50.0

61.9

0.0

50.8

46.3

51.7

56.3

73.8

0.0

48.9

B

Vietnam

62.2

45.0

B

India

46.3

53.3

62.5

66.7

0.0

48.1

56.3

45.2

0.0

45.7

B

Bangladesh

43.1

63.3

68.8

42.9

0.0

44.4

CCC

Nepal

35.2

41.7

50.0

59.5

0.0

38.7

CCC

Malaysia

40.0

53.9

56.3

38.1

0.0

38.4

CCC

Taiwan

46.9

38.7

25.0

42.9

8.3

38.2

CCC

Cambodia

40.4

46.7

43.8

33.3

0.0

37.6

CCC

Sri Lanka

26.7

42.8

25.0

78.6

0.0

37.4

CCC

Japan

43.5

44.4

37.5

45.2

0.0

36.6

CCC

Lao People's Democratic
Republic

38.9

36.7

50.0

40.5

0.0

34.0

CCC

Singapore

40.0

22.2

31.3

42.9

0.0

32.8

CCC

Myanmar

58.0

18.3

43.8

42.9

0.0

32.4

CCC

Mongolia

27.8

33.3

31.3

54.8

0.0

30.7

CC

Timor-Leste

33.1

16.7

25.0

42.9

0.0

28.5

CC

Korea, Republic of(South Korea)

35.9

27.8

12.5

33.3

0.0

27.6

CC

China

23.5

29.4

43.8

52.4

18.3

27.4

CC

Hong Kong

30.2

10.0

12.5

31.0

0.0

21.4

CC

Brunei Darussalam

17.8

19.4

0.0

42.9

0.0

20.6

C

Papua New Guinea

26.5

30.6

6.3

26.2

0.0

18.9

C

Pakistan

21.5

15.6

12.5

40.5

0.0

18.6

D

Iran, Islamic Republic of

7.4

9.4

0.0

23.8

0.0

6.8

D

Korea, Democratic People's
Republic of (North Korea)

0.0

-6.7

12.5

4.8

0.0

-5.6

No
ratingFiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Afghanistan.144 Afghanistan was excluded fromthis edition’s government response assessment due to significant ongoing conflict

44

Global Slavery Index 2018

REGIONAL RESPONSE
Efforts continue to be made at a regional level to combat modern slavery.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a major regional
player, extending its approach to target civil society, the private sector,
and international organisations over the past few years. ASEAN has also
taken an important role in developing training programs and resources tostrengthen criminal justice systems among its members. In 2015, ASEAN
members adopted the ASEAN Convention against Trafficking in Persons,reaffirming its commitment to a stronger and more effective regional
response.145 As of February 2018, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam have ratified thisconvention, which is now in force. 146

The Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in
Persons and Related Transnational Crime (known as theBali Process) continues to raise regional awareness on key
issues through policy dialogue and practical cooperation.
At its 2016 Sixth Ministerial Conference, ministers adopted
a Bali Declaration on People Smuggling, Trafficking in
Persons and Related Transnational Crime, which supports
measures that would contribute to long term strategies
to address these issues, including engagement withthe private sector147. The Bali Process was expanded in2017 to include the private sector through the launchof the Bali Process Government and Business Forum.

Business leaders from 29 countries attended together withgovernments representing 38 member-states and three UN
organisations. It is the first regional partnership of its kindbringing together business and government leaders fromacross the Indo-Pacific to address modern slavery in theregion. The Forum complements global efforts to eradicate
forced labour, modern slavery, human trafficking, and childlabour under Sustainable Development Goal target 8.7. At theinaugural meeting, the business co-chairs presented a nonbinding work plan under which private sector participants
will develop proposals for practical steps governments andbusinesses can take to eliminate these crimes.

Asia and the Pacific Report

45

Governments and businesses working together toend modern slavery in the region
The Bali Process Government and Business Forumprovides a strategic platform for collaboration. It brings
together influential business leaders and senior ministers
from 45 countries and three UN organisations (IOM, UNHCR& UNODC) to develop regional strategies to combat thecrimes of modern slavery, in the form of human trafficking,forced labour and worst forms of child labour within the
Indo-Pacific region.

In close consultation with business and leading civilsociety experts, the Business Co-Chairs delivered a draft
Work Plan which outlines key initiatives and a forward
program of work. This Work Plan guided the developmentof the AAA recommendations, practical and innovative
recommendations which were presented at the second Bali
Process Government and Business Forum held in August
2018 in Nusa Dua, Indonesia.

The inaugural Forum was launched in August 2017 in Perth,Western Australia, as a government and business track of
the wider Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking
in Persons and Related Transnational Crime (establishedin 2002). Mr Andrew Forrest (Chairman, Fortescue Metals
Group) and Mr Eddy Sariaatmadja (Chairman, Emtek Group)
were appointed as Business Co-Chairs, alongside H.E. Ms
Retno L.P. Marsudi (Minister for Foreign Affairs of Indonesia)and Hon Julie Bishop MP (Minister for Foreign Affairs ofAustralia) as Government Co-Chairs.

Ongoing regional working groups are convened regularly
for business and government by the Secretariat, the Walk
Free Foundation. Consultations have focused on how
to implement the Work Plan to address the top issues in
the region including the ethical recruitment of migrant
workers, transparency in supply chains, and ensuring there
are effective safeguards and grievance mechanisms forworkers.

At the Perth Forum, key discussion themes included
the need for greater education and business support
for strengthened regulation in the region, and how toincentivise greater business and government action anddevelop innovative strategies to address the complex
crimes of modern slavery.

Sub-regional responses against modern slavery have also
been developing in recent years. The East Asian Summit(EAS) operates as a regional leaders’ forum for strategic
dialogue and cooperation on key challenges facing theEast Asian region including irregular migration and humantrafficking. It comprises 10 ASEAN members and dialogue
partners such as the United States and Russia. EAS leaders
have adopted an EAS Statement on Migrants in Crisis andTrafficking in Persons, proposed by the United States
and co-sponsored by Myanmar and the Philippines.148
Additionally, the Pacific Islands Forum is a regionalgrouping of 18 members including Pacific Island States,
Australia, and New Zealand, the activities of which centre
around the improvement of cooperation, coordination, andcollaboration to achieve sustainable development in the
Pacific region.149 At the 47th Pacific Islands Forum in 2016,
leaders called for action to end illegal, unregulated fishing
and associated activities, including human trafficking.150
The Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative Against
Trafficking (COMMIT)151 is an inter-governmental agreement
between six countries in the Greater Mekong Sub-region
including Cambodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, andVietnam. COMMIT has set up a sub-regional plan of actionthat covers eight activities including, training and capacity
building, developing national plans of action, establishingmulti-sectoral and bilateral partnerships, strengthening
victim identification and protection, and implementing
prevention measures.

The Work Plan, together with further resources and updates
about the Bali Process Government and Business Forumcan be found at: www.baliprocessbusiness.org. Moreinformation on the wider Bali Process can be found at:
http://www.baliprocess.net/.

COMMIT has set up task forces to ensure that national
activities and annual action plans are continuously
developed to keep member states accountable andprogress happening. 152
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation(SAARC), consisting of eight member-states including India,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka,
the Maldives, and Nepal, continues its efforts to combat
trafficking as a regional issue.153 All member states haveagreed to adopt measures including regional sharing of
information and programming on ICT initiatives to trace
missing children. They also agreed in 2016 to establish
a uniform toll-free helpline in each country for missing
children.154
Building the Asia and the Pacific region’s response toirregular migration remains a critical issue. At the Sixth Bali
Process Ministerial Conference, ministers established a
Consultation Mechanism to review the regional responseto the Andaman Sea refugee crisis in 2015 and to enablediscussions on contingency planning and emergency
responses. A Task Force on Planning and Preparedness(TFPP) was created based on recommendations from thisreview and two meetings of the TFPP were held in January
and May 2017.155 At the latest meeting, delegates of the task
force agreed to run workshops supporting the developmentof National Action Plans to assist member states to improve
responses to large influxes of migrants and refugees andto encourage predictable and functionable responses intimes of crisis.156

46

Global Slavery Index 2018

REGIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Governments should:

Strengthen legislation›› Ratify or accede to the UN Trafficking Protocolof 2000, ILO P029 Protocol of 2014 to the Forced
Labour Convention, 1930, and the Domestic Workers
Convention (No. 189, 2011). None of the 27 countries
assessed in this region have ratified or acceded theILO P029 Protocol of 2014 to the Forced Labour
Convention and only the Philippines has ratified theDomestic Workers Convention (No. 189, 2011). These
conventions should be ratified to provide protections
for migrant workers.
›› Enact legislation, or strengthen existing legislation, toensure that all forms of exploitation are criminalised
and penalties for crimes associated with humantrafficking, child exploitation, forced labour, andmodern slavery are appropriate for the severity of thecrime. Hong Kong in particular should enact modern
slavery legislation, and disproportionate penalties
should be strengthened in 13 of the 27 countries
assessed in the region.
›› Enact legislation criminalising forced marriage andraising the age of marriage to 18 for men and women.
Only six countries assessed in the region havecriminalised forced marriage, including Australia,
China, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, and Vietnam. It is
important that countries in Asia and the Pacific scale
up their efforts to respond to forced marriage, startingwith criminalising this form of modern slavery, all theway through to investing in education and community
programs to empower women and girls.

›› Investigate all allegations of government complicity
in modern slavery crimes. There were reports that
official complicity in modern slavery cases were notinvestigated in 14 of the 27 countries assessed in theregion.
›› Enact legislation to protect labour rights of all workers
in both the formal and informal economies, including
the rights of migrants regardless of whether theirentry was legal. Only 10 countries have labour lawsthat cover all workers, while eight of the 27 countries
assessed require employers to pay private recruitment
fees. Labour laws should be expanded in all countries
in the region to ensure that all migrant workers areprotected and ensure that laws or policies state thatprivate recruitment fees are paid by the employer, notthe employee.
›› Implement existing legislation effectively by
establishing training programs on modern slavery
legislation, conducting modern slavery investigations,and on victim-centred approaches, drawing on
existing model curricula and standard operatingprocedures, for police, prosecutors, judges, anddefence attorneys.

Asia and the Pacific Report

47

Improve victim support›› Build the capacity of embassies in receiving countries
to support domestic workers who have escaped
exploitative workplaces. Only 17 governments
provided training for its consular staff on modern
slavery. All countries should ensure embassy staff
are trained and able to provide counselling and legal
support, and that decent and safe living arrangements
are available for these victims while their cases areresolved.
›› Ensure through legislation and policy thatcompensation and restitution mechanisms exist
so that victims can access redress, including backpayment of wages. Currently, Australia, Brunei,
Cambodia, Iran, Lao, Malaysia, Pakistan, and TimorLeste do not have laws which allow victims to receive
compensation or restitution for damages incurred asa result of exploitation.
›› Expand the availability of visas available fortrafficked persons by removing any requirementsthat they participate in a criminal investigations orprosecutions. Only New Zealand currently provides
visas for victims of modern slavery to remain in the
country that are not tied to participation in the court
process.
›› Bolster victim access to justice mechanisms by
ensuring their inclusion in existing laws. Only 11 of
the 27 countries assessed provide child friendly
services during the criminal justice process, andonly eight countries provide free legal services forvictims. South Korea, Sri Lanka and Taiwan are theonly countries with mechanisms for the protectionof victims and witnesses in and outside the court
are in place. Mechanisms such as free legal aid,translation services, child specific services andwitness protection schemes should be extended tocover all modern slavery victims.
›› Ensure policies and procedures in place so thatasylum seekers are able to access basic support
and protection within a country’s borders. Policies
guiding the support and protection for asylum seekers
are currently only available in 12 of the 27 countries
assessed and should be extended to all countries in
the region.
›› Establish a National Referral Mechanism for victims
of modern slavery and ensure that the mechanism
is actively being used to direct victims to support
services. Only Cambodia, Philippines, Singapore,
Timor-Leste and Vietnam had National Referral
Mechanisms that were active during the reporting
period.

›› Improve victim assistance programming by hostingmeetings and capacity building workshops for civilsociety organisations, especially those that work withvictims, and government representatives to sharegood practices and learnings, with an additional focus
on the efficacy of longer-term reintegration programs
aimed at breaking the cycle of exploitation.

Strengthen coordination andtransparency›› Governments of labour sending countries should
cooperate with one another to advocate common
standards for the protection of migrant workers, inpart so that a destination country cannot simply shift
its recruitment to other sources if it is banned fromreceiving migrant workers by a particular sending
country.
›› The governments of sending and receiving
countries should cooperate in establishing effective
mechanisms to monitor the recruitment andemployment of migrant workers.
›› Governments should develop their own National
Action Plans or strategies, in coordination with
relevant stakeholders, that are based on researchand data on the nature and trends of human trafficking
and child exploitation.
›› Governments should establish monitoringmechanisms, such as an independent rapporteur orcommissioner, to ensure effective implementationof these plans and strategies and the incorporationof lessons learned. While 15 countries have National
Action Plans in place to address modern slavery,
only Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand and Timor-Leste
have funding allocated to activities within the NAP
and none of the 27 countries assessed have an
independent entity to monitor the implementation of
the NAP.
›› Countries should work together to improve migration
governance by developing standard form migrationagreements, including those that holistically protect
migrant workers and that ensure repatriation isvoluntary. Only 13 of the 27 countries assessed in
the region have agreements with other countries onlabour migration that provide protection for labour
migrants, which given the prevalence of exploitationof migrant workers, should be extended to cover theremaining countries.

48

Global Slavery Index 2018

Address risk factors›› Educate workers on their employment and residencyrights, as well as provide current information on how
to access help and seek redress for exploitation.
›› Monitor local recruitment agencies for deceptive
recruitment practices, such as substituting contracts
and charging excessive recruitment fees, and enforce
national laws to ensure compliance. Support global
initiatives, such as International Recruitment Integrity
System (IRIS), to monitor these agencies.
›› Fund labour inspections which are conducted withspecific intent of finding modern slavery victims in
the informal sector, including in sex work, agriculture,
fishing, domestic work and brick kilns. Only ninecountries of the 27 countries in the region currently
fund labour inspections in the informal sector. Support
the training and capacity building of labour inspectors
to be able to find instances of modern slavery.

Eradicate modern slavery from theeconomy›› Enact mandatory reporting for all large businesses
with regard to the presence of modern slavery in their
supply chains.
›› Enact legislation requiring all government contractors
and suppliers to take steps to detect and eliminate
modern slavery from publicly funded supply chains.
›› Facilitate opportunities for business and government
partnerships that strengthen ethical recruitment,
promote supply chain transparency, develop
incentives, and ensure that safeguards and redress
exist for vulnerable workers. For instance, by using
collaborative platforms such as the Bali Process
Government and Business Forum.

›› Conduct regional research and provide technicalsupport and resources to improve national levelresearch and data collection in order to develop
evidence-based policy. Only South Korea andThailand funded or facilitated modern slavery
prevalence research in the reference period.
›› Strengthen data sharing between countries within theregion to inform policy responses and learn from theexperience of others across the region and beyond.
›› Recognise the importance of gender to any modern
slavery response by mainstreaming understanding of
women’s rights into national strategies.
›› Support the empowerment of women and girls by
ensuring access to education for all. Seventeen of
the 27 countries assessed have made education
available for all children regardless of gender,
ethnicity, religious background or geographic region.
Primary education should be extended to all children
to reduce their vulnerability to modern slavery.
›› Extend programs that engage with communities
through human rights-based education and othercommunity empowerment models. Share lessons
learned from community empowerment programmingin addressing social issues related to modern slavery,such as early marriage.
›› Support the strengthening of social protection
floors by establishing cash transfer schemes, public
employment programs, health, maternity, andunemployment protections, disability benefits, andincome security in old age.

A Filipino woman undergoes an intensive
course on housekeeping in 2013 in Manila,
Philippines. Due to the rise of domestic worker
applicants going to different countries in Asiaand the Middle East, the Philippines Government
required that all workers undergo courses withaccredited centres to be able to meet standards
abroad. All countries in the region must enact
legislation to protect labour rights of all workers
in both the formal and informal economies,
including the ights of migrants regardless ofwhether their entry was legal.
Photo credit: Veejay Villafranca/Getty Images.

50

Global Slavery Index 2018

APPENDIX:
Endnotes

1

International Organization for Migration 2016, Report on Human
Trafficking, Forced Labour and Fisheries Crime in the Indonesian Fishing
Industry. Available from: https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/country/
docs/indonesia/Human-Trafficking-Forced-Labour-and-Fisheries-Crimein-the-Indonesian-Fishing-Industry-IOM.pdf. [18 April 2018].

2

The Hon Michael Keenan MP 2017. Proposed new laws to help end
modern slavery. Available from: https://www.ministerjustice.gov.au/
Media/Pages/Proposed-new-laws-to-help-end-modern-slavery16-August-2017.aspx. [9 October 2017].

3

4

Hutchens, G & Doherty, B 2018, ‘Modern slavery bill welcomed, but nopenalties for breaching act’, The Guardian, 28 June. Available from:https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/jun/28/modernslavery-bill-welcomed-but-no-penalties-for-breaching-act. [29 June 2018].
International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology: Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour andForced Marriage, ILO, p.78. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/
groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_586127.
pdf. [31 January 2018].

5

As above.

6

Breuker, R & van Gardingen, I (forthcoming) 2018, Modern Slavery inNorth Korea.

7

UNHCR 2017, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016, Geneva.
Available from www.unhcr.org/5943e8a34. [14 May 2018].

8

UNHCR 2017, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016, Geneva.
Available from www.unhcr.org/5943e8a34. [14 May 2018].

9International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology of the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labourand Forced Marriage, International Labour Organization, p. 10. Available
from: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/
WCMS_586127/lang--en/index.htm. [14 March 2018].

10

Analyses were conducted by Gallup, Inc. and WFF and are describedin full in a forthcoming paper: Diego-Rosell P & Joudo Larsen J(forthcoming), Modelling the risk of modern slavery.

11

Justice Centre Hong Kong 2016, Coming clean. The prevalence of forced
labour and human trafficking for the purpose of forced labour amongst
migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong. Available from: http://www.
justicecentre.org.hk/framework/uploads/2016/03/Coming-Clean-Theprevalence-of-forced-labour-and-human-trafficking-for-the-purpose-offorced-labour-amongst-migrant-domestic-workers-in-Hong-Kong.pdf.
[1 June 2018].

12

The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) Government
2018, Action Plan to Tackle Trafficking in Persons and to EnhanceProtection of Foreign Domestic Helpers in Hong Kong. Available from:http://www.sb.gov.hk/eng/special/pdfs/Action%20Plan%20to%20
Tackle%20TIP%20and%20to%20Protection%20FDHs.pdf. [1 June 2018].

13

OHCHR 2018, Current Development and Challenges in the Asia-Pacificregion Jakarta, 5 February 2018. UN High Commissioner for Human
Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein’s Statement at the Jakarta Conversationon the 70th Year of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and 25th
Year of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action. Available
from: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.
aspx?NewsID=22631&LangID=E

14

United Nations Human Rights Council 2018, Report of the detailed
findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on
Myanmar. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/hrc/
myanmarffm/pages/index.aspx [20 September 2018].

15

Barr, H 2017, Losing the War for Girls’ Education in Afghanistan, Human
Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/video-photos/
interactive/2017/10/17/war-girls-education

16

Iqbal, S, Islam, A, Ramalho, R & Sakhonchik, A 2016, Unequal before
the Law Measuring Legal Gender Disparities across the World, WorldBank Group. Available from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/
en/320521471975957942/pdf/WPS7803.pdf

17

Human Rights Watch 2017, World Report 2017. Iran Events of 2016.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/
iran

18

Girls not Brides 2017, Child marriage around the world: Iran. Available
from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/iran/

19

International Labour Organization, ‘Forced labour,’ ILO in the Asia Pacific.
Available from: http://www.ilo.org/asia/areas/forced-labour/lang--en/index.htm. [27 March 2018].

20International Labour Organization 2018, World Employment Social
Outlook Trends 2018. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/
groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/
wcms_615594.pdf. [23 March 2018]. United Nations 2018, Towards
Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration in the AsiaPacific Region:
Challenges and Opportunities, Economic and Social Commission for Asiaand the Pacific, Bangkok. Available from: http://www.unescap.org/sites/
default/files/publications/SIS-Safe-Regular-Migration-report-v8-2-E.pdf.
[11 May 2018].

21

International Labour Organization 2017, Informal economy in Asia and thePacific, International Labour Organization. Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/asia/areas/informal-economy/lang--en/index.htm. [1 February 2018].

22

United Nations 2018, Towards Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration in the
AsiaPacific Region: Challenges and Opportunities, Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. Available from: http://www.
unescap.org/sites/default/files/publications/SIS-Safe-Regular-Migrationreport-v8-2-E.pdf. [11 May 2018].

23

As above.

24

As above.

25

As above.

Asia and the Pacific Report

26

Environmental Justice Foundation 2018, Human trafficking in Taiwan’s
fisheries sector. Available from: https://ejfoundation.org/resources/
downloads/Human-trafficking-in-Taiwan%E2%80%99s-fisheries-sector.
pdf. [10 April 2018]. Seefar 2016, Modern slavery in East Asia. Available
from: http://modernslavery.seefar.org/assets/seefar---modern-slaveryin-east-asia.pdf. [1 June 2018]. Wessels, A, Ong, M & Daniel, D 2017,
Bonded to the system. Labour exploitation in the foreign domestic work
sector in Singapore. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/321298926_Bonded_to_the_system_Labour_exploitation_in_the_foreign_domestic_work_sector_in_Singapore [1 June 2018].
Justice Centre Hong Kong 2016, Coming clean. The prevalence of forced
labour and human trafficking for the purpose of forced labour amongst
migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong. Available from: http://www.
justicecentre.org.hk/framework/uploads/2016/03/Coming-Clean-Theprevalence-of-forced-labour-and-human-trafficking-for-the-purpose-offorced-labour-amongst-migrant-domestic-workers-in-Hong-Kong.pdf.
[1 June 2018]. http://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-10-19/debtbondage-in-horticulture-sector-akin-to-slavery-in-australia/9057108.
Locke, S 2017, ‘Debt bondage for workers in Australian horticulture akinto slavery, inquiry hears’, ABC News, 19 October. Available from: http://
www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-10-19/debt-bondage-in-horticulturesector-akin-to-slavery-in-australia/9057108. [1 June 2018].

27

International Labour Organization 2017, Risks and rewards: Outcomes oflabour migration in South-East Asia. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/
wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/
wcms_613815.pdf. [22 March 2018].

28

International Labour Organization (ILO) 2017, Risks and rewards:
Outcomes of labour migration in South-East Asia, ILO. Available
from: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/
documents/publication/wcms_613815.pdf. [22 March 2018].

29

30

31

32

33

‘African slaves on Chinese vessel in Uruguay’ 2014, News 24, 22 May.
Available from: https://www.news24.com/World/News/Africans-slaves-onChinese-vessel-in-Uruguay-20140521. [14 March 2018]. Surtees, R 2014,
In African waters: The trafficking of Cambodian fishers in South Africa,
International Organisation for Migration & NEXUS Institute. Available
from: http://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/nexus_africanwaters_
web.pdf. [14 March 2018].
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, JapanCountry Narrative, United States Department of State, 26 February
2018. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271213.htm.
Institute for Human Rights and Business 2017, Learning Experience?
Japan’s Technical Intern Training Programme and the Challenge ofProtecting the Rights of Migrant Workers. Available from: https://www.
ihrb.org/uploads/reports/Learning_Experience_Japans_TITP_and_the_
Rights_of_Migrant_Workers.pdf. [26 February 2018]. Osumi, M 2017, ‘With
new rules, Japan looks to wipe out abuse in trainee system – but critics
say more must be done,’ The Japan Times, 1 November. Available from:https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/11/01/national/new-rules-japanlooks-wipe-abuse-trainee-system-critics-say-must-done/#.WfrC7tWWbDc.
[2 November 2017]. Hayakawa, T 2017, ‘Japan’s Technical Intern Training
Programme: Learning the Hard Way?’, Institute for Human Rights andBusiness, 16 October. Available from: https://www.ihrb.org/focus-areas/mega-sporting-events/japan-migrant-workers-titp. [2 November 2017].
Pauly, D & Zeller, D 2016, ‘Catch Reconstructions reveal that global
marine fisheries catches are higher than reported and declining,’ Nature
Communications 7, 10244. Available from: https://www.nature.com/
articles/ncomms10244. [1 November 2017]. Watson, R A, Cheung, W,
Anticamara, J A, Sumaila, R U, Zeller, D & Pauly, D 2013, ‘Global marine
yield halved as fishing intensity redoubles,’ Fish and Fisheries, vol.
14, 2016, pp. 493-503.Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2012.00483.x/abstract. [1 November 2017].
Sumaila, R U, Bellmann, C & Tipping, A 2014, Fishing for the Future:
Trends and Issues in Global Fisheries Trade, E15Initiative, Geneva:
International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD)
and World Economic Forum. Available from: http://e15initiative.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/02/E15_Fisheries_BP_Sumaila-Bellmann-Tipping_FINAL.pdf. [2 August 2017].

34

Pauly, D & Zeller, D (Editors) 2015, Sea Around Us Concepts, Design andData, Sea Around Us. Available from: www.seaaroundus.org. [23 July2017].

35

Walk Free Foundation 2016, Global Slavery Index 2016. Available from:https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/download/ [10 August 2017].

51

36

Tickler, D, Bryant, K, David, F, Forrest, J A, Gordon, E, Larsen, J J,
Meeuwig, J, Oh, B, Pauly, D, Sumaila, U R and Zeller, D, Common causes,
shared solutions: The relationship between modern slavery and the race
to fish, [undergoing review for publication].

37

We averaged the value of reported industrial fisheries catch between
2005-2014 using data from the Sea Around Us: Pauly, D & Zeller, D(Editors) 2015, Sea Around Us Concepts, Design and Data, Sea Around
Us. Available from: www.seaaroundus.org. [2 June 2017].

38

International Organization for Migration 2008, Trafficking in Men – aTrend Less Considered. The Case of Belarus and Ukraine, IOM Migration
Research Series No. 36, IOM, Geneva. Available from: http://publications.
iom.int/system/files/pdf/mrs_36.pdf. [11 May 2017]. Environmental
Justice Foundation 2012, Pirate Fishing Exposed: The Fight Against
Illegal Fishing in West Africa and the EU, Environmental JusticeFoundation, London ISBN No. 978-1-904523-28-4. Available from: https://ejfoundation.org/reports/pirate-fishing-exposed-report. [12 May 2017].
Greenpeace 2016, Made in Taiwan - Government Failure and Illegal,
Abusive and Criminal Fisheries. Available from: https://www.greenpeace.
org/international/publication/7235/made-in-taiwan/. [19 May 2017]. Issara
Institute and International Justice Mission 2016, Not in the same boat:
prevalence & patterns of labour abuse across Thailand’s diverse fishingindustry. Available from: https://www.ijm.org/thai-fishing-study. [23 July2017]. ‘African slaves on Chinese vessel in Uruguay,’ 2014, AFP, 22 May.
Available from: https://www.news24.com/World/News/Africans-slaveson-Chinese-vessel-in-Uruguay-20140521. [10 July 2017]. International
Organization for Migration 2014, In African waters. The trafficking of
Cambodian fishers in South Africa. Available from: http://publications.iom.
int/system/files/pdf/nexus_africanwaters_web.pdf. [12 May 2017].

39

Doherty, B 2017, ‘Modern-day slavery in focus: Hungry, poor, exploited:alarm over Australia’s import of farm workers’, The Guardian, 3 August.
Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/
aug/03/hungry-poor-exploited-alarm-over-australias-import-of-farmworkers.

40

Hedwards, B, Andrevski, H & Bricknell, S 2017, ‘Labour exploitation in
the Australian construction industry: risks and protections for temporary
migrant workers,’ Australian Institute of Criminology. Available from:https://aic.gov.au/publications/rr/rr002. [27 March 2018].

41

Milligan, L 2018, ‘Domestic workers inside Canberra embassies kept inconditions likened to ‘slavery’,’ ABC News, 12 February. Available from:http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-12/domestic-staff-inside-canberraembassies-being-exploited/9418920. [16 February 2018].

42

David, F 2010, ‘Labour Trafficking,’ Research and Public Policy
Series. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology, Joint Standing
Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, 2017, Hidden
in Plain Sight: An inquiry into establishing a Modern Slavery Act inAustralia, Commonwealth of Australia. Available from: http://parlinfo.
aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/committees/reportjnt/024102/toc_pdf/
HiddeninPlainSight.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf. [14 December 2017].

43

Berkovic, N 2015, ‘Indian cook wins $200,000, kept as slave atSydney restaurant,’ The Australian, 28 March. Available from: https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/immigration/indiancook-wins-200000-kept-as-slave-at-sydney-restaurant/news-story/
a3050bbe58ae5431c6a66170614a5797. [16 February 2018].

44

Women in Informal employment: Globalising and Organizing (WIEGO)
2017, Domestic workers in India, WIEGO. Available from: http://www.
wiego.org/informal_economy_law/domestic-workers-india. [4 October
2017]. The Indika Alliance 2017, Domestic Workers in India, The Indika
Alliance. Available from: http://www.indikaalliance.org/domestic-workersin-india/. [4 October 2017].

45

International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology of the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labourand Forced Marriage, International Labour Organization, p. 10. Available
from: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/
WCMS_586127/lang--en/index.htm. [14 March 2018].

46‘Mob attacks Noida society after help claims assault,’ 2017, The Hindu,
12 July. Available from: http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/mobattacks-noida-society-after-help-claims-assault/article19263853.ece.
[4 October 2017].

47

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, Brunei
Country Narrative, United States Department of State, 26 February
2018. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271153.htm. [27 March 2018].

52

Global Slavery Index 201848

Justice Centre Hong Kong 2016, Coming Clean: The prevalence of forced
labour and human trafficking for the purpose of forced labour amongst
migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong. Available from: http://www.
justicecentre.org.hk/framework/uploads/2016/03/Coming-Clean-Theprevalence-of-forced-labour-and-human-trafficking-for-the-purpose-offorced-labour-amongst-migrant-domestic-workers-in-Hong-Kong.pdf.
[19 April 2018].

62

Pesquer C 2016, Global study on sexual exploitation of children in
travel and tourism, Regional report: Pacific, ECPAT International &Defence for Children. Available from: http://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/
uploads/2016/10/SECTT_Region-PACIFIC.pdf [26 March 2018]. Save theChildren 2015, Dynamics of Child Trafficking and Commercial Sexual
Exploitation of Children in Solomon Islands. Available from: https://www.
savethechildren.org.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/236668/ChildTrafficking-and-CSEC-in-Solomon-Islands.pdf. [22 March 2018].

49

Wessels, A, Ong, M, & Daniel, D 2017, Bonded to the system. Labour
exploitation in the foreign domestic work sector in Singapore. Available
from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321298926_Bonded_
to_the_system_Labour_exploitation_in_the_foreign_domestic_work_
sector_in_Singapore. [30 May 2018].

63

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2016, Global Reporton Trafficking in Persons 2016. Available from: https://www.unodc.
org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_Report_on_
Trafficking_in_Persons.pdf. [27 March 2018].

64

Cameron, S & Newman, E n.d., Trafficking of Filipino Women to Japan:
Examining the Experiences and Perspectives of Victims and Government
Experts, United Nations University, United Nations Global Programme
against Trafficking in Human Beings. Available from: https://www.unodc.
org/pdf/crime/human_trafficking/Exec_summary_UNU.pdf. [26 February2018]. Human Rights Council 2013, Report of the Special Rapporteuron trafficking in persons, especially women and children, Joy Ngozi
Ezeilo, Addendum: Mission to the Philippines. Available from: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G13/132/66/PDF/G1313266.
pdf?OpenElement. [23 March 2018].

65

United States Department of State 2014, Country Narratives: Japan,
Trafficking in Persons Report 2014. Available from: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/226847.pdf. See: https://www.
defenceforchildren.nl/images/13/4519.pdf. ECPAT 2014, The commercial
sexual exploitation of children in East and South-East Asia. Available
from: http://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CSECOverview_SouthEastAsia.pdf. [23 March 2018].

66

Jalil, JA 2013, ‘Korean Approach to Online Protection for Children in
Digital Era,’ ACCAN Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 10. Available from:http://www.iccwtnispcanarc.org/upload/pdf/7495594463Korean%20
approach%20to%20onlone%20protection%20for%20children.pdf.
[27 March 2018].

67

Hawke, A & Raphael, A 2016, Global Study on Sexual Exploitation ofChildren in Travel and Tourism 2016, ECPAT International & Defence
for Children-ECPAT Netherlands. Available from: https://www.
defenceforchildren.nl/images/13/4519.pdf . [27 March 2018].

68

Li, J, Cheung, C, Jia, C & Mlyakado, B 2016, ‘Exploitation, Offense, orPrivate Issue? Guardians’ Perceptions and Self-Efficacy in Handling Girl
Compensated Dating in Hong Kong’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence,
1–22. Available from: http://journals.sagepub.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.
au/doi/pdf/10.1177/0886260516665106.

69‘Worries anti-‘JK biz’ ordinance doesn’t tackle core causes of teen girls’
exploitation,’ The Mainichi, 29 May 2017. Available from: https://mainichi.
jp/english/articles/20170529/p2a/00m/0na/011000c. [6 November 2017].
Committee for NGO Reporting on the CRC (JAPAN) 2017, Implementationof the CRC in Japan: Perspectives of NGOs on the Fourth and Fifth
Periodic Report of Japan, General Research Institute on the Convention
on the Rights of the Child. [Unpublished report].

70

Koh, S 2017, ‘Underage and exploited: how schoolgirls are lured into
Japan’s JK industry,’ Channel News Asia, 18 January. Available from:http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/underage-andexploited-how-schoolgirls-are-lured-into-japan-s-jk-7564724.
[22 November 2017].

71

ACE Japan 2018, Global Slavery Index – government response interview,
20 March.

72

Davy, D 2017, ‘Regional Overview: Sexual Exploitation of Children in
Southeast Asia’, ECPAT International. Available from: http://www.ecpat.
org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Regional-Overview_Southeast-Asia.
pdf. [4 May 2018].

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, IranCountry Narrative, United States Department of State, 26 February
2018. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271207.htm. [27 March 2018].

73

ECPAT International, Regional Report Southeast Asia: Global Study on
Sexual Exploitation of Children in Travel and Tourism 2016 (Bangkok:
ECPAT International, 2016). Accessed 20 October 2016. http://www.ecpat.
org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/SECTT_Region-SOUTHEAST-ASIA.pdf

Scolaro, E, Blagojevic, A, Filion, B, ChandraMouli, V, Say L, Svanemyr J& Temmerman M 2015, ‘Child Marriage Legislation in the Asia-PacificRegion,’ The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 13,3, 23-31. Available
from: https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2015.1075759. [27 March 2018].

74

Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) and World Health Organization (WHO)2016, Child, early and forced marriage legislation in 37 Asia-Pacificcountries, p. 8. Available from: http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/gender_rights/cefm-asia-pacific/en/. [26 March 2018].

50

United Nations country team in Nepal (2011), A Country Analysis with a
Human Face, updated February 2013, p. 32. Available from: http://un.org.
np/reports/country-analysis-2011. Human Rights Commission of Pakistan,State of Human Rights in 2011, p. 204. Available from: http://hrcp-web.
org/hrcpweb/wp-content/pdf/AR2011-A.pdf. Malik N 2016, ‘Bonded labour
in Pakistan,’ Advances in Anthropology, 2016, 6, 127-136. Available from:http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aa.2016.64112. [21 November 2017].

51

United Nations Office of the High Commissioner (OHCHR) 2016, Debt
bondage remains the most prevalent form of forced labour worldwide –New UN report, 15 September. Available from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/
NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20504&LangID=E.
[27 March 2018].

52

Malik N 2016, ‘Bonded labour in Pakistan,’ Advances in Anthropology,
2016, 6, 127-136. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aa.2016.64112.
[21 November 2017].

53

Giri, BR 2010, ‘The Bonded Labor System in Nepal: Exploring Halia
and Kamaiya Children ’s Life-worlds,’ Himalaya, the Journal of
the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies, 29, 1. Available
from: http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1850&context=himalaya [23 March 2018].

54

55International Justice Mission 2017, Bonded Labour in Three Districts in
Karnataka State, India: Prevalence and Migrant Labourers’ Experiences.
Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37148635_
Bonded_Labor_in_India_Its_Incidence_and_Pattern . [27 March 2018].
Cooper Parks, A, Zhang, S, Vincent, K & Guruswamy Rusk, A 2018, The
Prevalence of Bonded Labor in Three Districts of Karnataka State, India:
Using a Unique Application of Mark-Recapture for Estimation, Journal of
Human Trafficking. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.201
8.1471576. [6 June 2018].
John, J 2014, ‘Brick Kilns and Slave Labour: Observations from Punjab,’Labour File, 9, 2. Available from: http://www.academia.edu/7878759/
Brick_Kilns_and_Slave_Labour_-_JJohn. [4 October 2017].

56

United Nations Country Team in Nepal 2011, A Country Analysis with a
Human Face, updated February 2013, p. 32. Available from: http://un.org.
np/reports/country-analysis-2011. [27 March 2018].

57

United States Department of State 2014, Country Narratives: Japan,
Trafficking in Persons Report 2014. Available from: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/226847.pdf. See: https://www.
defenceforchildren.nl/images/13/4519.pdf. ECPAT 2014, The commercial
sexual exploitation of children in East and South-East Asia. Available
from: http://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CSECOverview_SouthEastAsia.pdf. [23 March 2018].

58

59

60

61

Davy, D 2017, ‘Regional Overview: Sexual Exploitation of Children in
Southeast Asia’, ECPAT International. Available from: http://www.ecpat.
org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Regional-Overview_Southeast-Asia.
pdf. [4 May 2018].

Pesquer C 2016, Global study on sexual exploitation of children in
travel and tourism, Regional report: Pacific, ECPAT International &Defence for Children. Available from: http://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/
uploads/2016/10/SECTT_Region-PACIFIC.pdf. [26 March 2018].

Asia and the Pacific Report

53

75

United Nations Population Fund 2012, Marrying too young: End childmarriage, New York, UNFPA. Available from: http://www.unfpa.org/sites/
default/files/pub-pdf/MarryingTooYoung.pdf. [27 March 2018].

90

Fortify Rights 2016, Myanmar: Investigate Forced Labor of Rakhine
Buddhists in Western Myanmar, 15 March. Available from: http://www.
fortifyrights.org/publication-20160315.html. [1 June 2018].

76

International Center for Research on Women 2016, Child marriage inSouthern Asia: Policy options for action. Available from: https://www.icrw.
org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/CHILDMARRIAGE-F-13.pdf.
[27 March 2018].

91

77

As above.

One of the 50 respondents reported that they did not experience forced
labour and that this was as a consequence of their employment as ateacher as well as falling within a high-income bracket. The respondent
reported that concessions are granted to teachers due to the wellregarded professional status.

92
78

Ahmadi, S 2017, ‘Hope for Afghan Women Traded to End Feuds, Institutefor War & Peace Reporting,’ Global Voices, 17 January. Available from:https://iwpr.net/global-voices/hope-afghan-women-traded-end-feuds[26 March 2018].

79‘UN CEDAW and CRC recommendations on minimum age of marriage
laws around the world as of November 2013,’ Equality Now, 2013.
Available from: https://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/UN_
Committee_Recommendations_on_Minimum_Age_of_Marriage_Laws.
pdf. [11 March 2018].

In North Korea, being unemployed can lead quickly to being sent toa labour camp. To avoid this, it is critical to be registered with a job
number. People without jobs register as so-called “8/3 workers,” aterm that is derived from an August 3, 1984 directive by Kim Il Sung torecycle discarded materials to produce new products. Today it refers
to employees who pay a steep monthly sum to an officially recognised
workplace to be registered as an employee there, while working a
different job (such as market trader) to earn the money to make a living
and to pay their official employer.

93

80‘Rising number of Iranian girls as young as 10 forced to marry,’ AFP.
Available from: http://www.timesofisrael.com/un-alarmed-risingnumber-of-iranian-girls-as-young-as-10-forced-to-marry/?utm_
source=The+Times+of+Israel+Daily+Edition&utm_campaign=077aefae1c2016_02_05&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_adb46cec92077aefae1c-54847477. [27 March 2018].

81

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, IranCountry Narrative, United States Department of State, 26 February
2018. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271207.htm. [27 March 2018].

Hawk, D 2012, The Hidden Gulag, Second Edition, The Lives and Voices
of “Those Who are Sent to the Mountains,” Committee for Human Rights
in North Korea. Available from: https://www.hrnk.org/uploads/pdfs/
HRNK_HiddenGulag2_Web_5-18.pdf [2 April 2018]. Hawk, D 2012, North
Korea’s Hidden Gulag: Interpreting Reports of Changes in the PrisonCamps, Committee for Human Rights in North Korea. Available from:https://www.hrnk.org/uploads/pdfs/NKHiddenGulag_DavidHawk(2).pdf.
[2 April 2018]. Hawk, D & Mortwedt-Oh, A 2017, The Parallel Gulag - North
Korea’s “An-jeon-bu” Prison Camps, Committee for Human Rights inNorth Korea. Available from: https://www.hrnk.org/uploads/pdfs/Hawk_
The_Parallel_Gulag_Web.pdf. [2 April 2018].

94

82

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, IranCountry Narrative, United States Department of State, 26 February
2018. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271207.htm. [27 March 2018]. Human Rights Watch 2018,
Iran: Afghan Children Recruited to Fight in Syria, Human Rights Watch.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/01/iran-afghanchildren-recruited-fight-syria. [27 March 2018].:

International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology: Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour andForced Marriage, ILO, p.78. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/
groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_586127.
pdf. [31 January 2018].

95

Joint Standing Committee on Migration 2016, Seasonal change:
Inquiry into the Seasonal Worker Programme, The Parliament of theCommonwealth of Australia, p. 139. Available from: http://parlinfo.
aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/publications/tabledpapers/261828eb6d65-4cfb-bb60-dcbb266b2730/upload_pdf/Seasonal%20
change.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf#search=%22publications/tabledpapers/261828eb-6d65-4cfb-bb60-dcbb266b2730%22.
[9 October 2017].

83

International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology of the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labourand Forced Marriage, International Labour Organization, p. 10. Available
from: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/
WCMS_586127/lang--en/index.htm. [14 March 2018].

84

Human Rights Watch 2017, North Korea: Events of 2016, Human Rights
Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/countrychapters/north-korea. [27 March 2018].

96

Ng, J 2018, ‘Migrant Workers in Singapore: Interview with Jevon
Ng,’ Harvard Political Review, 5 February. Available from: http://
harvardpolitics.com/interviews/jevon-ng/. [08 February 2018].

85

Enos, O 2015, Human Trafficking Thrives Where Rule of Law Ends, The
Heritage Foundation, 17 March. Available from: https://www.heritage.org/
asia/commentary/human-trafficking-thrives-where-rule-law-ends.
[27 March 2018].

97

Human Rights Watch 2018, Singapore World Report, Human Rights
Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/countrychapters/singapore. [8 February 2018].

98
86

Bowe, A 2017, U.S. Exposure to Forced Labor Exports from China:
Developments since the U.S. Trade Facilitation and Trade Enforcement
Act of 2015, U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission.
Available from: https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/
Forced%20Labor%20Report.pdf. [7 November 2017].

‘U.S blames North Korea for ‘WannaCry’ cyber-attack,’ Reuters 19
December 2017. Available from: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usacyber-northkorea/u-s-blames-north-korea-for-wannacry-cyber-attackidUSKBN1ED00Q. [18 February 2018].

99

87

Bureau of International Labor Affairs 2014, List of Products Produced byForced or Indentured Child Labor, United States Department of Labor.
Available from: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/pdf/EO_Report_2014.
pdf [27 March 2018]. Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
2017, China Country Narrative, United States Department of State,
26 February 2018. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271165.htm. [27 March 2018].

Council on Foreign Relations 2018, North Korea Crisis, CFR. Available
from: https://www.cfr.org/interactives/global-conflict-tracker#!/conflict/north-korea-crisis. [29 January 2018].

100

Breuker, R & van Gardingen, I (forthcoming) 2018, Modern Slavery inNorth Korea.

101

Human Rights Watch 2018, Philippines World Report, Human Rights
Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/countrychapters/philippines. [08 February 2018].

102

Institute for Economics and Peace 2017, Global Peace Index 2017,
Institute for Economics and Peace, p. 16. Available from: https://reliefweb.
int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/GPI-2017-Report-1.pdf[09 February 2018].

103

Human Rights Watch 2016, Papua New Guinea Events of 2016, Human
Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/
country-chapters/papua-new-guinea. [29 January 2018].

104

United Nations Development Programme 2018, About Papua New
Guinea, UNDP. Available from: http://www.pg.undp.org/content/papua_
new_guinea/en/home/countryinfo.html. [31 January 2018].

88

89International Labour Organization 2017, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2016, published 106th ILC session (2017) Forced Labour Convention,
1930 (No. 29) – Viet Nam (Ratification: 2007). Available from: http://www.
ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3296201,103004,Viet%20Nam,2016. [1 June 2018].
International Labour organization & and National Human Rights
Commission of Mongolia 2016, Compulsory military service and conscript
labour in Mongolia: Review of policy and practice, ILO. Available from:http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilobeijing/documents/publication/wcms_497515.pdf. [1 June 2018].

54

Global Slavery Index 2018105

United Nations Development Programme 2018, About Papua New
Guinea, UNDP. Available from: http://www.pg.undp.org/content/papua_
new_guinea/en/home/countryinfo.html. [31 January 2018].

123

Day, K 2015, (Re)integration of Cambodian trafficked men: Trends
in trafficking and available aftercare services, Hagar Cambodia, p.
53. Available from: https://www.hagarinternational.org/international/
our-work/research/new-hagar-research-reintegration-of-cambodiantrafficked-men/. [29 January 2018]. International Justice Mission 2015,
Justice Review, International Justice Mission, p. 25. Available from:https://www.ijm.org/justice-review. [31 January 2018].

106

Human Rights Watch 2018, Papua New Guinea Events of 2017, Human
Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/
country-chapters/papua-new-guinea. [29 January 2018].

107

Pacific Beat 2017, ‘Sorcery-related violence surges in PNG as women
attacked and murdered, accused of witchcraft,’ ABC News, 29 October.
Available from: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-10-29/png-upsurge-insorcery-related-violence/9095894. [9 February 2018].

124

Center for Health Market Innovations n.d., One-Stop Crisis Centre (OCC)
Bangladesh, Centre for Health Market Innovations. Available from:http://healthmarketinnovations.org/program/one-stop-crisis-centre-occbangladesh. [29 January 2017].

108

Human Rights Watch 2015, Bashed Up, Human Rights Watch. Available
from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/11/04/bashed/family-violencepapua-new-guinea. [09 February 2018].

125

109

Oxfam Australia n.d, Our work in Papua New Guinea, Oxfam Australia.
Available from: https://www.oxfam.org.au/country/papua-new-guinea/.
[29 January 2018].

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2016, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States
Department of State, pp. 88-89. Available from: https://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/258878.pdf. [29 January 2018].

126

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in
Persons Report: Singapore Country Narrative, United States Departmentof State, p. 356. Available from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271344.pdf. [22 February 2018].

127

International Labour Organization 2016, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2016, published 106th ILC session (2017) Forced Labour Convention, 1930
(No. 29) – Papua New Guinea (Ratification: 1976), International Labour
Organization Committee of Experts. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/
dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3296150,103487,Papua%20New%20Guinea,2016.
[08 February 2018].

128

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Bangladesh Country Narrative, United States
Department of State, p. 115. Available from: https://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/271341.pdf. [29 January 2018].

129

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Malaysia Country Narrative, United States
Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271341.pdf. [29 January 2018].

130Royal Thai Government 2016, Thailand’s Country Report on
Anti-Human Trafficking Response, Royal Thai Government, p. 2.
Available from: https://www.jica.go.jp/project/thailand/016/materials/
ku57pq00001yw2db-att/thailands_country_report_01.pdf.
[31 January 2018].

131

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Timor-Leste Country Narrative, United States
Department of State, p. 369. Available from: https://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/271341.pdf. [31 January 2018].

132

International Labour Organization 2017, Informal economy in Asia and thePacific, International Labour Organization. Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/asia/areas/informal-economy/lang--en/index.htm. [1 February 2018].

133

See: The Hon Peter Dutton MP 2016, Taskforce Cadena detain thirtyfour individuals, Minister of Home Affairs. Available from: http://www.
minister.border.gov.au/peterdutton/Pages/Taskforce-Cadena-detainthirty-four-individuals.aspx. The Age 2016, Fruits of their labour, The Age.
Available from: http://www.theage.com.au/interactive/2016/fruit-pickinginvestigation/. [31 January 2018].

134

Global Detention Project 2017, Global Detention Project Submission to
the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women,
Global Detention Project, p. 2. Available from: http://tbinternet.ohchr.
org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/MYS/INT_CEDAW_NGO_
MYS_27704_E.pdf. [29 January 2018].

134

Justice Centre Hong Kong 2016, Coming Clean, Justice Centre HongKong. Available from: http://www.justicecentre.org.hk/framework/
uploads/2016/03/Coming-Clean-The-prevalence-of-forced-labour-andhuman-trafficking-for-the-purpose-of-forced-labour-amongst-migrantdomestic-workers-in-Hong-Kong.pdf. [29 January 2018].

136

The Hon Dan Tehan MP 2018, Greater access to support for victims ofModern Slavery. Available from: https://ministers.dss.gov.au/mediareleases/2841. [4 June 2018].

137

The Hon Michael Keenan MP 2017, Proposed new laws to help end
modern slavery. Available from: https://www.ministerjustice.gov.au/
Media/Pages/Proposed-new-laws-to-help-end-modern-slavery-16August-2017.aspx. [9 October 2017].

110

United Nations, Asian Development Bank & United Nations Development
Programme 2017, Eradicating Poverty and Promoting Prosperity in a
Changing Asia-Pacific, United Nations, Asian Development Bank &United Nations Development Programme, p. 9. Available from: http://sdgasiapacific.net/download/AP_SDG_Thematic-Report_2017.pdf.
[29 January 2018].

111

Asrar, S 2017, ‘Rohingya crisis explained in maps,’ AlJazeera, 28 October.
Available from: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2017/09/
rohingya-crisis-explained-maps-170910140906580.html.
[30 January 2018].

112

United States Institute of Peace 2017, The Current Situation in Pakistan,
United States Institute of Peace. Available from: https://www.usip.org/
publications/2017/01/current-situation-pakistan. [29 January 2018].

113

Human Rights Watch 2018, World Report: Philippines, Human Rights
Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/countrychapters/philippines. [8 February 2018].

114

Human Rights Watch 2018, World Report: Thailand, Human Rights Watch.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters/
thailand. [30 January 2018].

115

For detailed methodology of how these products were identified andwhich data sources were used, please see Appendix 3 in the 2018 Global
Slavery Index report.

116‘RPTRA in Jatinegara opens counselling room’, The Jakarta Post, 31 March2017. Available from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/03/31/
rptra-in-jati-negara-opens-counseling-room.html. [08 February 2018].

117

Government of Hong Kong 2018, ‘Action plan to tackle trafficking inpersons and enhance protection of foreign domestic helpers endorsed’,
Government of Hong Kong. Available from: https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/
general/201803/21/P2018032100478.htm. [31 May 2018].

118

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Hong Kong Country Narrative, United States
Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271342.pdf. [8 January 2018].

119

Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labour 2016, Nepal 2016
Human Rights Report, United States Department of State, p. 19. Available
from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265756.pdf.
[20 February 2018].

120

Observation (CEACR) – adopted 2016, published 106th ILC session (2017)
Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) – Vietnam (Ratification: 2007).
Available from: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:131
00:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3296204. [01 February 2018].

121

Su, J 2016, ‘Punishment without trial: the past, present and future of reeducation through labor in China,’ Peking University Law Journal, vol. 4,
no.1. Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2051748
3.2016.1174436. [1 February 2018].

122

Human Rights Watch, North Korea Events of 2016, Human Rights Watch.
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/
north-korea. [1 February 2018].

138

Jenkins H. & Bigby, N. 2018, ‘The Ripple Effect: New draft Modern Slavery
Bill under discussion for Hong Kong’, Bryan Cave Leighton Paisner LLP,
3 May. Available from: https://www.blplaw.com/expert-legal-insights/
articles/the-ripple-effect-new-draft-modern-slavery-bill-under-discussionfor-hong-kong. [09 May 2018].

139

Palau is not a Commonwealth nation, but was included as it is part of theBali Process Forum.

140

As above.

141

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Solomon Islands Country Narrative, United States
Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271344.pdf. [8 January 2018].

142

143

144

Sauvakacolo, S 2015, ‘Child help line launched,’ The Fiji Times Online,
17 April. Available from: http://www.fijitimes.com/story.aspx?id=302284.
[18 February 2018].
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in
Persons Report: Fiji Country Narrative, United States Department of State.
Available from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271342.
pdf. [08 January 2018].
Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu,
Vanuatu were included in our assessment of government responses in
2018, however as this was the first year we collected data for this country
we did not include its rating in the Global Slavery Index. Data collected
can be found in the database at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

145

ASEAN Convention Against Trafficking in persons, Especially Womenand Children 2015.

146

ASEAN n.d., ASEAN Legal Instruments, ASEAN. Available from: http://
agreement.asean.org/agreement/detail/330.html. [08 February 2018].

147

The Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons andRelated Transnational Crime (Bali Process) n.d., About the Bali Process,Bali Process. Available from: http://www.baliprocess.net/.
[20 February 2018].

148

Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade n.d., East
Asia Summit (EAS), Australian Government. Available from: http://dfat.
gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/eas/pages/east-asiasummit-eas.aspx. [19 February 2018].

149

Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat n.d., About Us, Available from: http://
www.forumsec.org/pages.cfm/about-us/. [7 February 2018].

150

Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat 2016, Forty-Seventh Pacific Island
Forum Communique. Available from: http://www.forumsec.org/resources/
uploads/embeds/file/2016_Forum_Communique_11sept.pdf.
[7 February 2018].

151

See Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation against Trafficking
in Persons in the Greater Mekong Sub-Region. Available from: http://evaw-global-database.unwomen.org/fr/countries/asia/china/2004/
coordinated-mekong-ministerial-initiative-against-trafficking--commit.
[8 February 2018].

152‘Mekong Nations Strengthen Partnerships to Combat Human Trafficking’,
The Laotian Times, 24 November 2016. Available from: https://laotiantimes.com/2016/11/24/mekong-nations-strengthen-partnershipcombat-human-trafficking/. [8 February 2018].

153

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation n.d., SAARC regional
centres. Available from: http://saarc-sec.org/saarc-regional-centres.
[7 February 2018].

154

Bhalla, N 2016, ‘South Asian nations unite over anti-child trafficking drive,
helpline planned,’ Reuters, 12 May. Available from: https://www.reuters.
com/article/us-india-children-trafficking/south-asian-nations-unite-overanti-child-trafficking-drive-helpline-planned-idUSKCN0Y31EO.
[7 February 2018].

155

156

Bali Process 2017, October 2017 Update – 12th Ad Hoc Group Senior
Officials’ meeting, Bali Process. Available from: http://www.baliprocess.
net/UserFiles/baliprocess/File/BP%20Strategy%20-%20Update%20
for%2012th%20AHG%20SOM%20-%20final%202%20November%20
2017.pdf. [8 February 2018].
The Bali Process 2017, Co-Chairs Statement – Second meeting of The
Task Force on Planning and Preparedness Consultation Mechanism
Tabletop Exercise On Irregular And Mixed Maritime Movements, The
Bali Process. Available from: http://www.baliprocess.net/UserFiles/
baliprocess/File/TTX%20Co%20chairs%20statement%20May%20
2017%20(2).pdf. [8 February 2018].

A Cambodian woman and her daughter sit on thefloor of the sewing room of the Cambodian Women’s
Crisis Center shelter on July 2, 2018 in Phnom Penh,
Cambodia. The shelter houses women who werevictims of gender based violence. As the world talks
about women’s rights and the #MeToo movement,
Cambodia continues to be a patriarchal society,like many other developing countries, women areoften limited from securing proper education andincome opportunities. While Cambodia struggles
with high rates of gender violence, activists andorganisations aim to provide sexual health training
for young women, empowering them througheducation and factory jobs for those who are at riskof sex trafficking. Villagers at Svay Pak district, an
ethnically Vietnamese district infamous for childprostitution at the outskirts of Phnom Penh, haveseen a significant drop in sex trafficking ever since theorganisations started providing education for those
who are at risk of turning to prostitution for money.
Photo credit: Lauren DeCicca/Getty Images.

GLOBALSLAVERYINDEX.ORG