2016

We call on governments of the top ten economies of the world to enact laws, at least as strongas the UK Modern Slavery Act 2015, with a budget and capability to ensure organisations are heldto account for modern slavery in their supply chains, and to empower independent oversight.

Government intervention
can have immediate impact
The men in this photo are raising their hands, having been asked “whowants to go home?” by the Indonesian authorities who came to rescue
them in April 2015. The men, mostly from Myanmar, were used as slave
labour on Thai fishing boats, where they were beaten with sting-ray tails,
shocked with Taser-like devices at sea, forced to work almost non-stop
without clean water or proper food, paid little or nothing and prevented
from going home.
These men were saved by government intervention. We call on all
governments to take action to identify and release victims of slavery,
and to hold those responsible to account.
Photo credit, AP Photo/Dita Alangkara

call to action

We call on governments of the top ten economies of the world to enact
laws, at least as strong as the UK Modern Slavery Act 2015, with abudget and capability to ensure organisations are held to account formodern slavery in their supply chains, and to empower
independent oversight.

Cover image:
A Syrian family flees to Turkey
when Islamic State attacked
their home town Kobane in
September 2014. Some 3,500
people, mainly women andchildren, were being held inslavery in Iraq by IslamicState in January 2016.
Families such as these arehighly vulnerable to modern
slavery. Recommendations
within this Global Slavery
Index aim to empower
governments to makedecisions which will protectthese people and demonstratestrong leadership to the restof the world.
Photo credit, Ismail Ferdous
Copyright © 2016. The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd. All rights reserved.
Printed in Australia/ United Kingdom/ India

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

In few other spheres is the needfor courageous and committed
leadership so critical. Personally,
I unashamedly use business tohelp end slavery and I ask every
chairman and chief executive tojoin me. Organisations that do not
actively look for forced labour
within their supply chains are
standing on a burning platform.
These leaders, like all of us needsupport and empowerment tomake major change. This is where
governments can play a leading role.
Andrew Forrest
A Personal Message to LeadersFOREWORD By Andrew Forrest– A Personal Message to Leaders
Slavery is abhorrent, more rampant than at any time in history,
and entirely avoidable. Unlike major world epidemics such as
malaria and HIV/AIDS, slavery is a human condition of our own
making. While that in itself is a tragedy, it also means that wehave the power to end it. And end slavery we must; we cannot
allow future generations to fall prey to this hideous practice.
Improving the rights of 45.8 million human beings is both
wise and urgent for all leaders of countries and organisations.
Eradicating slavery makes sense, morally, politically, logicallyand economically.
Slavery and its components, forced labour and trafficking, arethe ultimate economic negative multipliers. Nowhere is this more
apparent than the powerful economic forces unleashed by theliberation of Chinese people, the greatest freeing from poverty
in human history. From President Deng to President Xi, the mostcompelling evidence that freedom of people leads to immediate
economic growth is proved. Where slavery is allowed to exist for
the few pennies it might save, the host economy loses hundreds,
if not many thousands of times more in economic terms.
In few other spheres is the need for courageous and committed
leadership so critical. Personally, I unashamedly use business tohelp end slavery and I ask every chairman and chief executive tojoin me. Businesses that do not actively look for forced labour
within their supply chains are standing on a burning platform.
These leaders, like all of us, need support and empowerment tomake major change. This is where governments can play a leadingrole. We call on governments of the top ten economies of the world
to enact laws, at least as strong as the UK Modern Slavery Act 2015,
with a budget and capability to ensure organisations are held toaccount for modern slavery in their supply chains, and to empower
independent oversight.

These chains were used tokeep Geronimo Sanchez Bravo
inside a truck every night after
he worked picking tomatoes forhis captors in the United States.
He escaped and testified against
his captors, who were sentenced
to 12 years in prison.
Photo credit, Jon Lowenstein/NOOR.

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

As the slavery consciousness of the world increases, the typesof practices that I found in child 'sanctuaries' in Nepal anddiscovered in my own supply chains in the Middle East, will bein the spotlight. I found slavery everywhere, simply because I
looked. Leaders who refuse to look into the realities of their own
supply chains are deluded and irresponsible.
Slavery is an evil and corrupt practice. The sovereign leadersand corporations, who signal they have had enough of slavery
in their social systems and are prepared to move quickly toeradicate slave masters and incarcerate those who continue topractice after warnings, will send the best possible economic
signals to the investment world. I can confidently state that there
is no shortage of capital in the world, but there is a dearth of
responsible, attractive investment destinations.

Rapid economic growth brings great challenges and the opportunity
to balance the imperatives of fiscal growth with social justice.
In this regard, it is critical that India is moving both to build theeconomy while undertaking significant reforms against slavery.
Its Prime Minister, its Cabinet Ministers, its various states,
and its major faith leaders are making their intolerance for thecontinuance of this practice clear. The Indian Government’s
imminent anti-trafficking bill is an unambiguous statement thatchange is happening. The proposed new legal and legislative
framework is a huge step forward, and it comes as the words'modern slavery' have been brought into the Indian lexicon by
the efforts of leaders across sectors. The public declaration of theexistence of slavery is the first step to conquering it, and India
is demonstrating it is up for the challenge of defeating slavery
within its borders. When I travel throughout India, business andreligious leaders share with me the feeling that this time, all the
economic pointers are different. In my 30 years of visiting India
never have I felt so strongly the grass roots communities’ belief
in, and enthusiasm for, freedom.
By investing in countries where governments and organisations
are actively taking steps to end slavery and aggressively
measuring their effectiveness, businesses are in a prime position
to deploy the positive economic multiplier of investment toending slavery. People freed from bondage become the world’s
most incentivised work force; they never want to return to theirprevious existence. The freeing of communities from slavery
not only brings in the rule of law, it emphasises property
rights, common decency and strength of family for each former
individual in slavery.

Modern Slavery Act 2015, which requires all companies witha turnover of more than £36 million, an estimated 17,000 UKbased businesses, to report on their efforts in ensuring they are
not using slave labour in their supply chains. For the multipliereffect to truly take hold, we must see similar actions throughout
all major world economies.
In the business of commerce or government, there can be noeffective management without measurement. This Global
Slavery Index deploys the worldwide power of Gallup to survey
entire countries and provinces in more than 50 languages.
These surveys have underscored the accuracy and relevance of
the award-winning data collection and methodology we havedeveloped over many years. While I have had no influence overthe findings of the Index, I am satisfied with the diligence of
its work that has created the best measurement of slavery yet.
This is a brave 'line in the sand' measurement of an illegal andpreviously very hard to measure industry, that can empower
governments, businesses and individuals to act. We are proud tocontribute this information freely to the world. To all those who
seek to criticise the imperfection of the Index, may I humbly
ask that you attach a solution, or at least an alternative, to yourcriticism so that the world can continue its emancipation journey.
This is not an academic note. It is a straight-up call to action
for leaders. It does not pretend to be concise or detailed, but it
does portray accurately my belief in the critical role of leaders
in government, business and civil society. Should they use their
responsible power, strength of conviction, determination andcollective will, we all can lead the world to end slavery.

Leaders of the world’s major economies – the United States,
China, Japan, Germany, the UK, France, Brazil, Italy, Russia
and India - must bring the power of business to this issue, by
requiring through law, a focus on supply chain transparency for all
goods and services imported or sold in their countries. Brazil wasan early leader in this field, pioneering an approach that brings
together business with civil society and government, through anational dirty list of companies fined for the use of forced labourby court order. While the list is currently suspended following
legal action, Brazil has shown rare courage on this issue.
In the period since the last Global Slavery Index, we havewitnessed important innovations by governments which place
responsibility squarely on the private sector to undertake supply
chain due diligence. In 2016, the US President closed loopholes
in the US Tariff Act 1930, with the result that it will no longer
be possible to import goods made with forced or slave labour
into the country. The UK also recently signed into law the

ANDREW FORREST
Founder and Chairman of Walk Free Foundation

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

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HIGHLIGHTSThis is the third edition of the Global Slavery Index.
It provides an estimate, country by country of the number of people living
in modern slavery today and the steps governments are taking to respondto this crime.

45.8

ESTIMATED NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN MODERN SLAVERY GLOBALLYMILLION58%

OF THOSE LIVINGIN SLAVERY ARE IN

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COUNTRIES
INDIA
CHINA
PAKISTANBANGLADESHUZBEKISTAN

The countries with the highest proportionof their population in modern slavery are:
North Korea
Uzbekistan
Cambodia
India
Qatar
Pakistan
Democratic Republicof the Congo
Sudan
Iraq
Afghanistan
Yemen

Syria
South Sudan
Somalia
Libya
Central African
Republic
Mauritania
Haiti
Dominican Republic
MyanmarBangladesh

GOVERNMENTS TAKING ACTION
MOST ACTION

MOST ACTION BY GDP(PPP)*++The Netherlands++United States of America++United Kingdom++Sweden++Australia++Portugal++Croatia++Spain++Belgium++Norway++Philippines++Georgia++Brazil++Jamaica++Croatia++Montenegro++Macedonia++Moldova++Albania++Serbia

LEAST ACTION

LEAST ACTION BY GDP(PPP)*-- North Korea-- Iran-- Eritrea-- Equatorial Guinea-- Hong Kong-- Central African Republic-- Papua New Guinea-- Guinea-- Democratic Republic of the Congo-- South Sudan-- Qatar-- Singapore-- Kuwait-- Brunei-- Hong Kong-- Saudi Arabia-- Bahrain-- Oman-- Japan-- South Korea*GDP(PPP) (purchasing power parity) is Gross Domestic Product converted to international dollars usingpurchasing power parity rates. This takes the cost of living into account.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
HIGHLIGHTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
ABOUT THE INDEX.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
About Modern Slavery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

METHODOLOGY.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
COMMENTARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Measuring Modern Slavery - Work in Rapid Progress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Jan Van Dijk
Connecting Slavery and Environmental Destruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Kevin Bales
Distress Migration and Modern Slavery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fiona DavidGLOBAL FINDINGS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Prevalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 1 - Estimated proportion of population in modern slavery by country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2 - Absolute number of people in modern slavery by country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Vulnerability.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 3 - Measures of vulnerability to modern slavery by country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Government Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 4 - Rank of countries by government response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

REGIONAL ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Asia Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Russia and Eurasia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Sub-Saharan Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
The Middle East and North Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
The Americas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

SELECTED COUNTRY STUDIES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Cambodia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Dominican Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Iraq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Mauritania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Poland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Qatar.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
South Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Thailand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
United Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Appendix 1: Terminology.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Appendix 2: Summary of Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

ENDNOTES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Stone Scavengers of Jafflong, Bangladesh. At least 10,000 people, including over 2,500 women and 1,000 child labourers, areengaged in stone and sand collection. Limited job opportunities push these individuals to migrate from other parts of Bangladesh.
They survive on less than 150 taka a day (about US$2).
Photo credit, GMB Akash

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe Global Slavery Index (‘the Index’) provides an estimate of
the number of people in modern slavery, the factors that makeindividuals vulnerable to this crime, and an assessment ofgovernment action across 167 countries.

The 2016 Global Slavery Index
estimates there are 45.8 million
people subject to some form ofmodern slavery in the world today.

In 2016, the country with the highest estimated proportionof modern slavery by population is North Korea. Though
information on North Korea is difficult to verify, pervasive evidence
exists that citizens are subjected to state-sanctioned forced labour,
including through forced labour as political prisoners and asworkers on overseas contracts.
Uzbekistan has the second highest estimated proportion ofprevalence of modern slavery by population. While some steps
have been taken to address forced labour in the cotton industry,
the Uzbek Government continues to subject its citizens to forced
labour in the cotton harvest each year.

The Global Slavery Index is based on state-of-the-art researchmethodology that has been developed with the assistance of an
independent Expert Working Group, comprised of world leading
experts. The methodology has also been subjected to independent
external review. This estimate is based on data from nationallyrepresentative, random sample surveys conducted in 25 countries.
All surveys were conducted face-to-face in key local languages
using a standardised instrument. Collectively, these surveys
represent 44 percent of the global population. The results of thesesurveys have been extrapolated to countries with an equivalentrisk profile.

In 2016, Cambodia has the third highest estimated prevalenceof modern slavery. In Cambodia, extensive literature details theprevalence of commercial sexual exploitation and forced begging.
Our survey data highlight the existence of modern slavery in
manufacturing, farming, construction and domestic work.

The 2016 estimate is an increase on the estimate provided in theprevious edition of the Index. As efforts to measure this hidden
crime are still relatively new, we are not asserting that modern
slavery has increased in the intervening period. Indeed, resultsfrom our surveys reveal some national estimates have increased
while others have decreased. We believe that the overall larger
number reflects a significant increase in the quality and quantityof research on this issue. While the methodology will continually
improve, even at this early stage, survey data have greatly improved
the accuracy of our measures.

The ten countries with the largest estimated absolute numbersof people in modern slavery include some of the world’s mostpopulous countries: India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh,Uzbekistan, North Korea, Russia, Nigeria, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, and Indonesia. Several of these countries
provide the low cost labour that produces consumer goods formarkets in Western Europe, Japan, North America and Australia.
Some of these countries are taking important steps towards
stamping out abuses in key industries. For example, Indonesia’s
work on rescuing and repatriating 2,000 trafficked fishermen
is commendable.

In 2016, we estimate 18.3 million people are in some form ofmodern slavery in India. This estimate reflects extensive surveying
conducted in 2016 in 15 states. While impressive efforts are being
taken by the Indian Government to address vulnerability, survey datasuggest that domestic work, construction, farming, fishing, manual
labour and the sex industry remain sectors of concern.

From the 'Less than Human'
photography series. A large cargoboat is seen in Songkla Port, Thailand,
March 9, 2014. Photographer Chris
Kelly worked undercover to expose thelink between prawns being sold in big namesupermarkets, and the slaves who live andwork on Thai fishing boats miles out to sea.
Photo credit, Chris Kelly

8| GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

While the lowest prevalence of modern slavery continues tobe found in countries in Western Europe, North America, andAustralia and New Zealand, estimates for these countries haveincreased following the application of a new estimation techniquecalled Multiple Systems Estimation. This allows more precise
measurement when random sample surveys are not appropriate. The
United Kingdom was the first government to adopt this technique,which increased the UK estimate to 11,700 people in modern
slavery. In 2016, a further test of this technique was completed in
the Netherlands. This is reflected in the Netherlands estimate of
17,500 people in modern slavery.
Governments play a central role in responding to modern
slavery. The Index examines steps being taken by governments
to achieve the following critical outcomes:• Survivors are identified, supported to exit and remain out ofmodern slavery.
• Criminal justice mechanisms address modern slavery.
• Coordination and accountability mechanisms for thegovernment are in place.
• Attitudes, social systems and institutions that enable modern
slavery are addressed.
• Businesses and governments through their procurement systems
stop sourcing goods and services that use modern slavery.
Research for this component of the Index involved a partnership
between the Walk Free Foundation, the author of the Index,
and DataMotivate, an organisation that provides training andemployment for survivors of modern slavery in the Philippines.
The governments taking the most steps to respond to modern slavery
are predominantly high GDP(PPP) countries: the Netherlands,
the United States, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Australia,
Portugal, Croatia, Spain, Belgium and Norway.
The list is very different when correlated against GDP(PPP).

The Philippines, Georgia, Brazil,
Jamaica and Albania are making
strong efforts despite having
relatively fewer resources thanwealthier countries.
The governments taking the least action are: North Korea, Iran,
Eritrea, Equatorial Guinea, Hong Kong, Central African
Republic, Papua New Guinea, Guinea, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, and South Sudan. The tragedy is thatthe populations of some of these countries concurrently face a highrisk of enslavement.
When GDP(PPP) is accounted for, it is clear that despite theirrelative wealth, Hong Kong, Qatar, Singapore, Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait, Japan and South Korea can andshould be doing more to address modern slavery problems within
their borders.
Many countries, including wealthy countries, continue to detain anddeport victims, while many fail to ensure meaningful protections forthe most vulnerable workers. With a few notable exceptions, there
is also an almost complete failure to seek survivor feedback on
experiences of the justice system and service provision.
There are increasing legal imperatives for large companies to
identify and address labour abuses in their supply chains. The UK
enacted the landmark Modern Slavery Act 2015, which requires
large companies to report on steps they have taken to safeguard
supply chains from modern slavery. Over 100 companies havesubmitted reports to date. In 2016, the United States amended aloophole in the Tariff Act of 1930 requiring Customs and Border
Protection to seize and block imports made with forced labour.
Previously, if there was 'consumptive demand' for a product and

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

insufficient domestic supply to meet that demand, imports were
accepted regardless of how they were produced. While these
efforts originate from just two countries, the reach of theselaws into international supply chains means their impact isfelt well beyond national borders.
The regional studies highlight the interplay between environmental
destruction, natural disasters and human trafficking; the impact ofconflict on forced marriage, commercial sexual exploitation andchild soldiers; and the effect of limited education and employment
opportunities in situations of forced and bonded labour. In 2016,
unprecedented global displacement and migration increased
vulnerability to all forms of modern slavery.
Asia, the most populous region in the world, has an estimated two
thirds of the total number of people in modern slavery. This region
provides low-skilled labour for the production stage of global
supply chains for industries including food production, garments
and technology.
Despite having the lowest regional prevalence of modern slavery
in the world, Europe remains a source and destination for forced
labour and commercial sexual exploitation. While the impact of themassive influx of migrants and refugees in 2015 and 2016 remains
to be seen, it is already clear that this group is highly vulnerable
to exploitation and abuse.
In Russia and Eurasia, cases of state-sponsored forced labour havebeen documented in several countries, including in Turkmenistan
and Uzbekistan. Reports suggest instances of forced labour andrecruitment of children for armed conflict in Ukraine.
Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for approximately 15 percent of theworld's total enslaved population. Escalation of violence in Nigeria
following the Boko Haram conflict has sparked a humanitariancrisis in neighbouring countries. New survey data from South
Africa confirms the existence of forced labour in the commercial

sex industry, construction, manufacturing and factory work, anddrug trafficking.
As violent conflict escalates in the Middle East and North
Africa, the profile of victims vulnerable to modern slavery has
shifted. While migrant workers from Asia remain vulnerable,
increasingly Middle Easterners themselves face exploitation andslavery in 2016.
In the Americas, new survey data in Guatemala, Mexico, Chile,
Dominican Republic and Bolivia suggest that forced labour isparticularly prevalent in manual labour sectors such as construction,
manufacturing and factory work, and domestic work.
The 12 country studies included in the Index are a snapshot of
the diversity and similarity of modern slavery crimes across theglobe, such as the short and long term impact of conflict on slavery(Iraq and Cambodia), the role of the private sector (Thailand andQatar), and the responsibility of highly developed countries (theUK). New data on under researched countries (such as South Africa
and Mexico) are also highlighted. The studies present a rangeof government responses and confirm that while much work has
been done, there is still more to do. Limited implementation andenforcement of laws, and the importance of countering corruption
are recurring themes.
The studies confirm that poverty and lack of livelihood opportunities
play a major role in increasing vulnerability to modern slavery.
They also point to deeper social and structural inequalities thatenable exploitation to persist – xenophobia, patriarchy, class,caste, and discriminatory gender norms. Discrimination against
minorities traps migrant workers in inhumane working conditions
in every continent. The control of women’s sexuality in manysocieties leads to forced marriage and commercial sexual
exploitation. Hierarchical cultures continue to abuse the ‘lowest’
among them, perpetuating intergenerational exploitation.

We cannot continue to view ending modern slavery in isolation to otherissues. In times of conflict and mass displacement, the heightened risk ofslavery-like abuses must be factored into emergency responses. In countries
that host migrant workers, companies and governments must focus on
ensuring workers not only have rights and entitlements but can also accessthem. Any system, practice or belief that results in certain parts of society,whether women, people with disabilities or ethnic groups, being unable toaccess the necessities of life—food, shelter, water, basic health care andcapacity to earn an income—must be challenged. This is the responsibilityof governments, the private sector, civil society and consumers.

Gayatri, a trafficked girl who was lured into marriage
by traffickers, at her house in Haryana's Jind district. In
Haryana, trafficked brides are locally known as Paro. All
the activities of Paro are dependent on the inclinations andcircumstances of their buyer.
Photo credit, Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan Times

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|11

ABOUT THE INDEXTERMINOLOGY
Different countries use different terminology to describe modern forms of slavery, including the termslavery itself, but also other concepts such as human trafficking, forced labour, debt bondage, forced
or servile marriage, and the sale and exploitation of children.
While definitions vary, in this report, modern slavery refers to situations of exploitation that a person
cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence, coercion, abuse of power or deception, withtreatment akin to a farm animal. For example, their passport might be taken away if they are in aforeign country, they may experience or be threatened with violence or their family might be threatened.
Refer to Appendix 1 for full terminology.

ABOUT MODERN SLAVERY
Modern slavery is a hidden crime that affects every country in the world. In 2015–2016, modern
slavery was found in many industries including the Thai fishing, Uzbek and Turkmen cotton, and the
Qatari construction industries. It was identified in the domestic households of diplomats, in IslamicState (IS)[1] controlled areas, and in areas that have experienced natural disasters, such as Nepal, andenvironmental destruction, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It impacts on all of us,
from the food we consume and the goods we purchase. It is our responsibility to tackle this crime.
Nearly every country in the world has committed to eradicate modern slavery through their national
legislation and policies. Governments have a central role to play by enacting legislation, providing safety
nets to their populations, and pursuing criminals who participate in this heinous crime. Governments
need the support and engagement of civil society, the private sector and the community.

THE INDEXThe Global Slavery Index is a tool for citizens, non-government organisations (NGOs), businesses, andgovernments to understand the size of the problem, existing responses, and contributing factors so thatthey can advocate for and build sound policies that will eradicate modern slavery.

WHAT INFORMATION IS INCLUDED IN THE GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX?
The Global Slavery Index has quantified data across three dimensions:

SIZE OF THE PROBLEM

VULNERABILITY

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE

What is the estimatedprevalence of modern slavery
country by country, and whatis the absolute number bypopulation?

What factors explain or
predict the prevalence ofmodern slavery?

How are governments
tackling modern slavery?

All supporting data tables and methodology are available to download from the Global Slavery
Index website: www.globalslaveryindex.org

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METHODOLOGYHOW DID WE MEASURE PREVALENCE?
Measuring the number of people in modern slavery is a difficult undertaking due to the hidden natureof this crime and low levels of victim identification. Since 2014, we have conducted 25 surveys with
the international research-based agency Gallup[2] through their World Poll, interviewing over 28,000
respondents in 52 languages. This year we also conducted state-level surveys in India. When these
are included, we have interviewed over 42,000 respondents in 53 different languages. The prevalence
estimates in the Index are based on data from these surveys, the results of which have been extrapolated
to countries with an equivalent risk profile.

Gallup teams survey respondents in Ethiopia and Indonesia
Photo credit, Gallup

HOW DID WE MEASURE VULNERABILITY?
The Global Slavery Index includes a model of 24 variables which affect vulnerability to enslavement.
These include:• Civil and political protections• Social, health and economic rights• Personal security• Refugees and conflict

HOW DID WE MEASURE GOVERNMENT RESPONSES?
The final component of the Index is a score of 161[3] governments' responses based on an assessmentof 98 indicators of good practice, taking into account factors such as whether each country has thenecessary laws in place, provides support to victims, and ensures application of labour standards
to vulnerable populations. Research for this aspect of the Index involved a partnership between the
Walk Free Foundation’s research team and DataMotivate, an organisation that provides training andemployment for survivors of modern slavery in the Philippines.
A summary of the methodology is in Appendix 2, and a detailed methodology paper is available online.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|13

COMMENTARY
Measuring Modern Slavery- Work in Rapid Progress
JAN VAN DIJK
Tilburg University, The Netherlands, winner of the Stockholm
Prize in Criminology 2012
International organisations such as the United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the International
Labour Organization (ILO) over the past twenty years,
have made great strides in the measurement of modern
slavery across the world with their Global Reports on
Trafficking in Persons and Global Estimates of Forced
Labour respectively. With the adoption by the United
Nations of eradicating human trafficking as a Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG), this challenging work now
needs to be geared up. As a performance measure, theUN member states have agreed on the “number of victimsof human trafficking per 100,000 population, by sex,
age group and form of exploitation”. But how can thispossibly be done when the numbers of officially identified
victims tell us next to nothing about the real numbers, andinternational research on the prevalence of crime remains
fraught with political sensitivities? Might the adoptionof this ambitious performance measure prove to be justanother 'pie in the sky'?
Against this background, the fact that the Walk Free
Foundation now presents a Global Slavery Index—basedon the results of standardised surveys on family-wide
experiences with victimisation by modern slavery in 25
countries—is an extraordinarily well-timed feat. Althoughmuch work remains to be done, these 25 surveys conducted
by Gallup Inc. show the global community the way forwardwith monitoring the SDG to end human trafficking.
If the prevalence of crime is ever to be reliably measured
in a comparative fashion, standardised surveys among the
population surely are the only viable approach. The trackrecord of the International Crime Victims Survey, up till
now carried out in about 90 countries once or more, andmost recently in five countries in the Caribbean, bears
testimony to this.
The global community is well-advised to follow thisbest practice and start securing funds for carrying out
standardised surveys not only on experiences withmodern slavery, but with other types of violent crime
including domestic violence against women and children.
Partnerships between International Organisations andprivate foundations have proved to be instrumental in manyof the achievements under the UN’s previous development
agenda. It is hoped that similar cooperation will drive theimplementation of the new development agenda, including
by facilitating statistical monitoring of successes andlapses with the use of innovative metrics.
As discussed in the Index, survey-based measures, althoughholding great promise, have their own methodologicallimitations. In the most-developed countries, victimisation by

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modern slavery might be too rare, and unevenly distributed
among the population, to be measurable through random
sampling among national populations. Focussed sampling,for example among vulnerable immigrant populations, might
be required. Also, successful interviewing of respondents
about victimisation by sexual slavery may, just like othersensitive crimes, need special interview techniques.
Interestingly, an alternative and complementary method toestimate the true numbers of victims of modern slavery is
also identified in the Index. For the calculation of rates forWestern countries, the report has made use of the results of
the application of Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE) tothe multi-source data on victims identified by the British
authorities. According to this innovative study the real
number of persons exploited in the United Kingdom isfour to five times higher than those formally identified.[4] A
UNODC-sponsored replication of this work on the datasetof the Dutch National Rapporteur on Human Trafficking
came up with an even higher ratio between identified andreal numbers in the Netherlands.[5]MSE, like standardised population surveys, holds great
promise for better international crime statistics. This seems
especially to be the case with statistics on the complex crimeof modern slavery. In many countries across the world,
possible victims of modern slavery are identified throughmulti-agency National Referral Mechanisms comprising ofpolice forces, immigration and labour inspectorates as well
as NGOs. In many such countries, multi-source datasets areavailable on the possible victims of modern slavery. While
the possibility of victims being recorded by two or moreorganisations was initially regarded as complicating theiraccumulation to total counts, the double or triple countingof the same victims on different lists now proves to be an
asset by offering unique opportunities for estimating the true
numbers through statistical modelling. If more countries
would apply the same estimation technique to their multiagency databases on identified victims, a new source ofinternational statistics on the prevalence of victimisation
by human trafficking becomes available. Since the datasets
on identified victims in many countries predominantly referto victims of modern sexual slavery, MSE-based estimatesprovide a welcome complement to survey-based estimatesof modern slavery largely focusing on forced labour. MSE
has the potential to produce estimates of modern slavery bysex, age and type of exploitation, just as suggested in the
Monitoring Framework for the SDGs.
The new Global Slavery Index, then, shows us two new,parallel tracks to collect reliable statistics on the numbersof victims of modern slavery: the conduct of standardised
surveys on experiences with victimisation by this crime, andthe execution of Multiple Systems Estimation using dataon identified victims. Just when this was more opportune
than ever before, a promising new generation of statistics onmodern slavery has been launched.

Photos from the Pipeline photo essay series. The Nigerian women in these photographs are working as sex workers in the
countryside of Italy, having had passports confiscated and with families back home under threat. Some are both living andconducting their work on the sides of roads or in fields. They are vulnerable to arrest for soliciting.
Photo credits, Elena Perlino.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|15

Connecting Slavery andEnvironmental Destruction
KEVIN BALES
Professor of Contemporary Slavery at the Wilberforce Institutefor the Study of Slavery and Emancipation, University of Hull, UK
Slavery never happens in isolation. For people to beenslaved, several conditions must be in place. One of themost powerful of these is when the rule of law fails. A
country may be poor, it may be struggling with climatechange or a damaged economy, but if the rule of law holds,
then even the most vulnerable are protected from slavery.
When armed conflict breaks out, the rule of law is one of
the first casualties. In the chaos of conflict and violence, aperfect storm of lawlessness, slavery, and environmental
destruction can occur—driving the vulnerable into slavebased work that feeds into global supply chains and thethings we buy and use in our daily lives.
In the past twenty years, this perfect storm has hit theeastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of theCongo. A war that erupted in the aftermath of the Rwandan
genocide spread across the region, bringing collapse to
the Congo’s ruling dictatorship, invasion by surrounding
nations, and a sharp rise in slavery and sexual violence. The
armed groups that grabbed parts of the eastern provinces
were not there for political or religious reasons, but to stealand sell valuable minerals and other natural resources.
Lacking mining technology, but heavily armed, thesecriminal groups enslaved thousands of local people.
These slaves were forced to cut protected virgin forests,
level mountains, spoil streams and rivers with great openstrip mines, and massacre rare and endangered species
like gorillas. The minerals these slaves dug, processed
and then carried on their backs to smuggle them out of
the country flowed into our lives. For these slave-based,
environmentally-destructive minerals are essential tomaking cell phones, computers, and the thousands of otherelectronic devices that surround us every day.
The human cost of this conflict was extremely high[6]—onein five adults were enslaved, nearly half of all women and aquarter of all men were raped. In the aftermath of the war,a quarter of the population reported actively thinking aboutkilling themselves, and one person in six had attemptedsuicide; no-one knows how many others succeeded.
The impact on the natural world was also devastating. The
3000-square-mile Virunga National Park is the oldest in
Africa and home to one third of the world’s population ofrare mountain gorillas, as well as elephants, hippopotami,
buffalo, and antelope. The same armed gangs smashingand grabbing the mineral resources see such protected
forest reserves as ripe for the taking and are willing to
expend any number of slaves to do so. Slaughter on anindustrial scale, using machine guns and grenades has
reduced the hippo population by 98 percent and enslaved
local people who are forced to carry the carcasses to meat
markets in the city. Gorillas are also killed to sell as meat,or just to get out of the way as the soldiers clear-cut theprimeval forest to burn into charcoal—also for sale in thecity or across the border in Rwanda.

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

In this context of conflict, a vicious cycle begins: the ruleof law disappears and slavery, brutality, and environmental
destruction feed into each other. The weapons driving
this cycle might be paid for by the riches torn from theforests, or purchased with profits from the products we allbuy. Refugees fleeing devastated environments that canno longer support them are caught up and enslaved, thenforced to carry out even more destruction. It is the sheer
size of this cycle that makes large-scale research, such as
the Global Slavery Index, so important.
This deadly, triangular trade stretches far beyond theCongo, across the world to other threatened villages andforests, and all the way to the rich countries of Europe andNorth America. It is a trade cycle based on armed conflictthat grinds up the natural world and crushes human beings
to churn out commodities like minerals for electronics,
shrimp and fish, gold, cotton and clothing, iron and steel.
When the focus and analysis of this slave-based trade cycle
becomes global surprising facts emerge:[7]• Recent environmental treaties and regulations
made vast forests around the equator off-limits tocommercial logging—but created a market vacuum
quickly filled by criminal slaveholders.
• A conservative estimate is that just under halfof all illegal deforestation in the world isslave-based.
• If that is the case, then criminal slaveholders are
responsible for 2.54 billion tons of CO2 entering theatmosphere each year. Put another way, slaves arebeing forced to produce more greenhouse gases than
any country in the world except China and the UnitedStates (the two largest polluters).
Added to that is the widespread mercury poisoning fromslave-based gold mines on three continents, and the
carcinogenic air pollution from tens of thousands of slaveusing brick kilns.
Slavery is a global problem, which is inextricably tied toother global problems like conflict and climate change,
as well as feeding the global supply chains that tie us all
together. But it is also true that understanding slavery ata global level opens the door to solutions. For example,
expanding efforts to end slavery could slow or stop thegrowth of greenhouse gases driving climate change. Goingfurther, employing freed slaves to re-plant forests they havebeen forced to destroy, work already underway on a small
scale, would sweep CO2 from the air and possibly reverse
climate change. While the right approach to climate change
is sometimes controversial, slavery is not. There can be no
special pleading for slave-based industries, growing fromconflict, and feeding our supply chains. Closing downslave-based logging, brick-making, mining, or charcoal
production will not hurt our lifestyles or the global
economy. What it will do is get people out of slavery andslow global warming and climate change—a classic winwin situation. Making these global connections requires
a global focus.

Commentary cont.

Child labour is not a new issue in Bangladesh, as children remain
one of the most vulnerable groups to trafficking, hunger, illiteracy,
displacement, exploitation, physical and mental abuse. Many
children engage in various hazardous and exploitative occupations
in mining and manufacturing factories.
Photo credit, GMB Akash

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|17

Distress Migrationand Modern Slavery

Third, this all takes place at a time when every existing
State resource is already stretched to breaking point, by
the scale of the emergency response.

FIONA DAVID

While rarely at the forefront of planning responses to conflicts
and humanitarian emergencies, the reality is that modern
forms of slavery prosper in these environments of conflict,corruption, displacement, discrimination and inequality.
Given this, it is critical that national and international
responses to humanitarian emergencies and mass migration
take account of the very real risks of modern slavery on
highly vulnerable migrant and refugee populations.

Executive Director of Global Research, Walk Free Foundation
The 2016 Global Slavery Index has been prepared in thecontext of unprecedented mass movements of men, womenand children, fleeing the horrors of protracted conflicts in
Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, Yemen and Libya.
The scale of the distress migration we have witnessedis hard to comprehend. In 2015–2016, the number ofdisplaced people is expected to exceed 60 million. This is
the equivalent of the entire population of Italy gathering
what they can carry on their backs, and fleeing from theirhomes under threat of death, or worse.
While the numbers are hard to comprehend, the horrors thatpeople are fleeing are not. In December 2015, Nadia Murat,
a 21 year-old Yazidi woman, recounted her experiences tothe UN Security Council of having been captured, raped
and tortured by IS fighters until she successfully escaped.
Ms Murat noted:"The Islamic State didn't come to kill the women and girls,
but to use us as spoils of war, as objects to be sold withlittle or to be gifted for free. Their cruelty was not merely
opportunistic. The IS soldiers came with a pre-establishedpolicy to commit such crimes."
Far from being an isolated incidence, her treatment reflects
a deliberate strategy of war, as publications released byIS[8] provide that—"it is permissible to buy, sell, or giveas a gift female captives and slaves, for they are merely
property, which can be disposed of…"
The effects of the conflict are felt heavily in neighbouring
countries which typically bear most of the burden ofproviding shelter. Walk Free Foundation and International
Organisation for Migration (IOM) research conducted in2015 confirms that in Jordan and Lebanon, the massive
in-flux of refugees has had a trifold effect on the alreadyexisting populations of migrant workers from Asia (see theMiddle East and North Africa regional study on page 80).
First, there is increased competition between refugees andexisting migrant workers for the lowest-paid, highest-riskjobs in the informal sector, suggesting a rapid race to thebottom. Second, there has been an increase in situationsof criminals taking advantage of vulnerability, throughforced begging, forced prostitution and forced marriage.

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

In the current context, this requires an immediate response,developed in partnership with civil society organisations, toaddress the vulnerability of the large numbers of refugees
and migrants on the move throughout the Middle Eastand Europe. While politically appealing, simply shutting
borders will not solve the inter-related issues of the refugee
crisis and international human trafficking. As highlighted
by a recent IOM survey (see Europe regional study on
page 58), migrants on the move are being approached bystrangers with offers of work or marriage, and some haveeven been offered cash for blood, organs and body parts.
Where civilians are being enslaved in conflict zones, thisissue must be part of military planning, and potentiallycapacity building efforts. Civilians cannot go into Yemen
or Syria to assist those seeking to escape slavery. Military
personnel are training counterparts and providing capacity
building—why not make modern slavery part of the focus?
Beyond immediate realities, a strong focus on safe, wellmanaged migration, whether in times of peace or conflict,must become a cornerstone of integrated international andnational responses to modern slavery. Responses must take
into account the reality of the disproportionate effect ofconflict upon women and children—but should not ignore
the plight of men in these areas. Without this holistic
response, we not only risk perpetuating enslavement—werisk compounding the horrors of war to those who mostneed our shelter.
Time will show that our complicity in modern slavery will
be measured by our response to its perpetrators. We should
all strive to be on the right side of history.

Commentary cont.

A Syrian family flees to Turkey when Islamic State attacked their home town Kobane in September 2014. Some 3,500 people,
mainly women and children, were being held in slavery in Iraq by Islamic State in January 2016.
Photo credit, Ismail Ferdous

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

19

GLOBAL
FINDINGSMewat, India - March 14, 2014: Rubina, aParo who was trafficked from Assam when she
was only 15. Bride trafficking is common in theinterior villages of Haryana. Trafficked brides
are locally known as Paro or Molki.
Photo credit, Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan TimesGLOBAL PREVALENCE SCALE
Modern slavery affects every country.

Estimated Prevalence of Modern Slavery
Those countries in grey were not included in the Index

High

Low

PREVALENCE

In the third edition of the Index,
an estimated 45.8 million people
are subjected to some form ofmodern slavery.
The Index ranks the 167 most populous countries; their combined
populations equalling 99 percent of the total world population.
This research incorporates data from standardised nationally
representative random sample surveys on modern slavery,
including forced marriage, for 25 countries which represent
about 44 percent of the world population.
The 2016 estimate is an increase on the estimate provided in
the previous edition of the Index. As efforts to measure thishidden crime are relatively new, it is premature to assert thatmodern slavery has increased in the intervening period. Indeed,
the results from our national surveys reveal a mixed picture, withincreases in some national estimates and decreases in others.
For example, the national survey in Bangladesh resulted in an
estimate of 1.5 million people in modern slavery, an increase
from the previous estimate of 680,900 people. Similarly, thenational survey in Myanmar led to an increase in the estimate—from 231,600 in 2014 to 500,000 in this edition.
Conversely, estimates in some countries have decreased as a resultof surveys. In Mauritania, the national survey revealed that 1.06
percent of the population are in some form of modern slavery.
This is a substantial decrease from our previous estimate, but afinding which we consider to be closer to the true figure due to thehigher level of rigour in random sample surveys. This downward
revision of the estimate for Mauritania illustrates an important
point—the Index does not aim to dramatise the extent of slavery
or to inflate or sensationalise figures. While Mauritania has been
the focus of extensive interest and reporting in the past, it has
not had the benefit of a national survey until now. The extent ofslavery in Mauritania is still high, however more reliable methods
indicate that it is not as high as previously thought.

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The 2016 Global Slavery Index presents a ranking of 167 countries
based on the proportion of the population that is estimated to bein some form of modern slavery. A ranking of one in the Index
indicates the highest concentration of modern slavery within the
population; a ranking of 52 indicates the lowest concentrationof modern slavery. A description of the methodology used to
calculate prevalence can be found in Appendix 2 and a moredetailed paper is available for download from the Global Slavery
Index website (www.globalslaveryindex.org)

This year, the country with thehighest estimated percent of its
population in modern slavery
is North Korea.
Nearly one in 20 North Koreans are estimated to be in modern
slavery. Though information on North Korea is difficult toverify, pervasive evidence exists that citizens are subjected
to state-imposed forced labour within the country, where thegovernment requires forced, uncompensated labour fromworkers, school children, and university students; and operates
an extensive system of prison labour camps. There are reportsthat individuals are forced to work long hours in agriculture andthe logging, construction, mining, and garment industries withharsh punishments for not meeting quotas.[9] Outside the country,
the government has exported more than 100,000 nationals towork predominantly in China and Russia on overseas contracts.
Although no accurate figures exist, case studies and journalistic
accounts point to a significant and regular trade of women into
forced marriage and commercial sexual exploitation in China
and other neighbouring states.
The information we have presented about North Korea isconservative. This closed society denies free inquiry or
expression, and in doing so, prevents meaningful research.

Global Findings cont.

However, it is important that lack of data does not prevent North
Korea from being held to account.
As was the case in 2014, Uzbekistan has the second highest
proportion of people in modern slavery, due to the high level ofstate-imposed forced labour. Although the Uzbek Government
has taken steps to address forced labour in the cotton industry
with the introduction of a feedback mechanism and increased
monitoring, it continues to subject Uzbek citizens to forced
labour in the cotton harvest each year.
Cambodia entered the top ten in 2016. A national survey
revealed that 1.6 percent of Cambodians are in some form ofmodern slavery. While existing research details the prevalence ofcommercial sexual exploitation and forced begging in Cambodia,
the national survey confirmed the existence of modern slavery
in manufacturing, farming, construction and domestic work.
The country with the fourth highest proportion of modern slavery
is India. Reflecting data from 15 state-level surveys conducted
in 2016, an estimated 18.3 million people are in some form ofmodern slavery in India. The national and state governments
are taking steps to address modern slavery by implementing
legislation through Anti Human Trafficking Units, and responding
to vulnerability through the provision of safety nets such as
education, birth registration and labour inspections. However,survey data suggests that domestic work, construction, farming,fishing, other manual labour, and the sex industry remain sectorsof concern.
Qatar remains in the top five in the third edition of the Index. Withan estimated 1.4 percent of people in modern slavery, its ranking
reflects the high number of migrant workers enslaved in the nation.
Although steps have been taken to improve legislative protections
for migrant workers, domestic workers are excluded and remain
extremely vulnerable. With no new data available, and reports ofabuses continuing, this estimate remains conservative. The ten
countries with the largest estimated absolute numbers of people
in modern slavery include some of the world’s most populous
countries: India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Uzbekistan,
North Korea, Russia, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of theCongo, and Indonesia. Collectively, these ten countries accountfor 68 percent of people living in modern slavery.

The situation in the Middle East, involving protracted, multiple
conflicts and the expansion of the so-called Islamic State (IS), has
rapidly increased the numbers of internally-displaced people andrefugees. In these countries, due to conflict and displacement, ourestimates are less reliable. At the same time, the dramatic increasein vulnerability of refugee populations is already being seen to
generate enslavement. One facet of this is the open and specificuse of enslavement by IS militants as part of their war effort.

A United Nations report inJanuary 2016 stated that some
3,500 people, mainly womenand children, were being held inslavery in Iraq by Islamic State,
and noted that other ethnic andreligious minority communities
were also being targeted.[10]The destruction of the rule of law that comes with war, as well as
the ruin of infrastructure, schools, health care and whole cities inthis regional conflict, increasing levels of violence, and the verylarge numbers of refugees fleeing Iraq, Syria and neighbouring
countries, suggest that this region will see an increase in slavery
in the future.
The lowest prevalence of modern slavery continues to be foundin countries in Western Europe, the United States and Canada,
and Australia and New Zealand. Estimates for these countries
have also increased with the introduction of a new statisticaltechnique,[11] Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE), that allows
more precise measurement when random sample surveys are
not effective. The United Kingdom and the Netherlands were
the first countries to use this technique.

Uzbekistan is the world’s sixth largest producer of cotton. During the annual cotton harvest, citizens are subjected to statesanctioned forced labour. Monitoring by international organisations has meant the government has begun to take steps toimprove the situation, however, reports from the 2015 harvest estimate that over one million people were forced to work.
Photo credit, Simon Buxton/Anti-Slavery International

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

25

TABLE 1 - ESTIMATED PROPORTION OF POPULATION IN MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

Rank

26

|

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

1

North Korea

4.373

1,100,000

25,155,000

2Uzbekistan

3.973

1,236,600

31,125,000

3Cambodia*

1.648

256,800

15,578,000

4India*

1.403

18,354,700

1,311,051,000

5

Qatar

1.356

30,3002,235,000

6

Pakistan*

1.130

2,134,900

188,925,000

6Democratic Republic of the
Congo

1.130

873,100

77,267,000

6

Sudan

1.130

454,700

40,235,000

6

Iraq

1.130

403,800

35,730,000

6Afghanistan

1.130

367,600

32,527,000

6

Yemen

1.130

303,200

26,832,000

6

Syria

1.130

257,300

22,769,000

6South Sudan

1.130

139,400

12,340,000

6Somalia

1.130

121,900

10,787,000

6

Libya

1.130

70,9006,278,000

6

Central African Republic

1.130

55,4004,900,000

7

Mauritania*

1.058

43,0004,068,000

8

Haiti

0.995

106,600

10,711,000

8Dominican Republic*

0.995

104,800

10,528,000

9Myanmar*

0.956

515,100

53,897,000

10Bangladesh*

0.951

1,531,300

160,996,000

11Gambia0.878

17,5001,991,000

12Guatemala*

0.845

138,100

16,343,000

13Nepal*

0.823

234,600

28,514,000

14Brunei

0.805

3,400

423,000

15

Tunisia*

0.766

85,000

11,102,000

16

Russia*0.732

1,048,500

143,335,000

17Madagascar

0.674

163,400

24,235,000

17Malawi

0.674

116,100

17,215,000

17Zambia0.674

109,300

16,212,00017Sierra Leone

0.674

43,5006,453,000

17Eritrea

0.674

35,3005,228,000

17

Namibia

0.674

16,6002,459,000

17

Lesotho

0.674

14,4002,135,000

17

Swaziland

0.674

8,700

1,287,000

18

Colombia

0.639

308,200

48,229,000

18Morocco

0.639

219,700

34,378,000

18

Peru

0.639

200,500

31,377,000

18Venezuela

0.639

198,800

31,108,000

18

Jordan0.639

42,9006,718,000

18

Macedonia

0.639

13,3002,078,000

19

Tanzania

0.638

341,400

53,470,000

19Angola0.638

159,700

25,022,000

19

Ivory Coast

0.638

144,900

22,702,000

19

Niger

0.638

127,000

19,899,000

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Burkina Faso

0.638

115,600

18,106,000

Zimbabwe

0.638

99,60015,603,000

Rank

Country

19
19

Population

19

Chad

0.638

89,60014,037,00019

Guinea0.638

80,50012,609,000

19

Rwanda0.638

74,10011,610,000

19

Burundi0.638

71,40011,179,000

19

Tajikistan

0.638

54,1008,482,000

19

Togo

0.638

46,6007,305,000

19

Republic of the Congo

0.638

29,5004,620,000

19

Liberia

0.638

28,7004,503,000

20

Egypt

0.626

572,900

91,508,000

20

Iran

0.626

495,300

79,109,000

20

Turkey0.626

480,300

76,721,000

20

Thailand

0.626

425,500

67,959,000

20Algeria

0.626

248,300

39,667,000

20

Uganda0.626

244,400

39,032,000

20

Cameroon

0.626

146,100

23,344,000

20

Mali

0.626

110,200

17,600,000

20

Lebanon

0.626

28,7004,591,000

21

Papua New Guinea

0.620

47,2007,619,000

21

Guinea-Bissau

0.620

11,4001,844,000

21

Guyana

0.620

4,800

767,000

22

Mozambique

0.520

145,600

27,978,000

22Senegal

0.520

78,70015,129,000

22Botswana

0.520

11,8002,262,000

22

Djibouti

0.520

4,600

888,000

23

Nigeria*

0.481

875,500

182,202,000

24Poland*0.476

181,100

38,025,000

25Ukraine0.467

210,400

45,064,000

25

Kazakhstan

0.467

81,60017,488,000

25

Azerbaijan

0.467

45,0009,635,000

25

Belarus0.467

44,6009,550,000

25

Kyrgyzstan

0.467

27,7005,934,00025

Georgia

0.467

20,9004,487,000

25

Kuwait0.467

18,2003,892,000

25

Bosnia and Herzegovina

0.467

17,8003,810,000

25

Armenia

0.467

14,1003,018,000

25

Bahrain

0.467

6,400

1,377,000

26

Suriname

0.453

2,500

543,000

26

Cape Verde

0.453

2,400

521,000

27

South Africa*

0.453

248,700

54,954,000

27

Trinidad and Tobago

0.453

6,200

1,360,000

28

Bolivia*

0.437

46,90010,725,000

29

Malaysia

0.425

128,800

30,331,000

30

Ethiopia*

0.414

411,600

99,391,000

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

27

TABLE 1 - ESTIMATED PROPORTION OF POPULATION IN MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

Rank

28

|

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

31

Kenya

0.410

188,800

46,050,000

32South Korea

0.404

204,900

50,672,00032

Argentina

0.404

175,500

43,417,000

32

Romania

0.404

80,20019,849,000

32

Ecuador

0.404

65,30016,144,000

32

Greece0.404

44,20010,942,00032

Czech Republic

0.404

42,600

10,549,000

32

United Arab Emirates

0.404

37,0009,157,000

32

Hong Kong, SAR China

0.404

29,5007,287,000

32

Bulgaria

0.404

29,0007,176,000

32

Serbia0.404

28,7007,087,000

32

Paraguay

0.404

26,8006,639,000

32

Nicaragua

0.404

24,6006,082,000

32

Costa Rica

0.404

19,4004,808,000

32

Croatia

0.404

17,1004,225,000

32

Panama0.404

15,9003,929,000

32

Lithuania

0.404

11,8002,920,000

32

Latvia

0.404

8,000

1,979,000

32

Estonia

0.404

5,300

1,310,000

32

Cyprus

0.404

4,700

1,165,000

32

Montenegro

0.404

2,500

622,000

33

Philippines*

0.398

401,000

100,699,000

34Ghana*

0.377

103,300

27,410,000

35

Cuba

0.332

37,800

11,390,000

36

Mexico*0.297

376,800

127,017,000

37

Benin

0.295

32,10010,880,000

37

Honduras

0.295

23,8008,075,000

37

Laos

0.295

20,0006,802,000

37

El Salvador

0.295

18,1006,127,000

37

Turkmenistan

0.295

15,8005,374,000

37

Oman

0.295

13,2004,491,000

37

Moldova

0.295

10,4003,538,000

37

Mongolia

0.295

8,700

2,959,000

37

Albania

0.295

8,600

2,906,000

37

Kosovo

0.295

5,400

1,845,000

37

Gabon

0.295

5,100

1,725,000

37

Equatorial Guinea

0.295

2,500

845,000

38

Saudi Arabia

0.292

92,10031,540,000

39

Indonesia*

0.286

736,100

257,564,000

39

Timor-Leste

0.286

3,500

1,235,000

40

China

0.247

3,388,400

1,371,738,000

41

Japan

0.228

290,200

127,046,000

41

Taiwan0.228

53,60023,476,640

41

Hungary*

0.228

22,5009,836,000

41

Slovakia

0.228

12,4005,426,000

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Rank

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

41

Uruguay

0.228

7,800

3,432,000

41

Slovenia

0.228

4,700

2,066,000

42

Sri Lanka*

0.221

45,90020,781,000

43

Jamaica

0.212

5,800

2,734,000

43

Barbados

0.212

600

284,000

44

Italy

0.211

129,600

61,373,000

45Singapore

0.165

9,200

5,563,000

45

Mauritius

0.165

2,100

1,265,000

46

Chile*

0.154

27,70017,948,000

47

Vietnam*

0.152

139,300

91,519,000

48

Israel0.140

11,6008,343,000

49

Portugal

0.123

12,80010,384,000

49Finland

0.123

6,700

5,485,000

49

Iceland

0.123

400

331,000

50

Netherlands*

0.104

17,50016,896,000

51

Brazil*0.078

161,100

207,848,000

52

United States

0.018

57,700320,821,00052Germany

0.018

14,50080,738,000

52France0.018

12,00066,389,000

52

United Kingdom*

0.018

11,70064,856,000

52

Spain

0.018

8,400

46,513,000

52Canada

0.018

6,500

35,871,000

52Australia

0.018

4,300

23,772,000

52

Belgium

0.018

2,000

11,268,000

52

Sweden

0.018

1,800

9,754,000

52

Austria

0.018

1,500

8,566,000

52

Switzerland

0.018

1,500

8,267,000

52

Denmark

0.018

1,000

5,660,000

52

Norway0.018

900

5,188,000

52

Ireland

0.018

800

4,659,000

52

New Zealand

0.018

800

4,552,000

52

Luxembourg

0.018

100

562,000* Indicates nationally-representative Gallup survey data or data from Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE) was available for this country. For surveys,
this includes Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Hungary, Mexico,
Myanmar, Mauritania, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tunisia, and Vietnam. For MSE, this included
the Netherlands and United Kingdom.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

29

TABLE 2 - ABSOLUTE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

30|

Estimated
number inmodern slavery

Rank

Country

Estimated percent
of population inmodern slavery

Estimated
number inmodern slavery

Rank

Country

Estimated percent
of population inmodern slavery

1

India*

1.403

18,354,700

45

Ivory Coast

0.638

144,900

2

China

0.247

3,388,400

46

South Sudan

1.130

139,400

3

Pakistan*

1.130

2,134,900

47

Vietnam*

0.152

139,300

4

Bangladesh*

0.951

1,531,300

48

Guatemala*

0.845

138,100

5

Uzbekistan

3.973

1,236,600

49

Italy

0.211

129,600

6

North Korea

4.373

1,100,000

50

Malaysia

0.425

128,800

7

Russia*0.732

1,048,500

51

Niger

0.638

127,000

8

Nigeria*

0.481

875,500

52

Somalia

1.130

121,900

9

Democratic
Republic of the
Congo

53

Malawi

0.674

116,100

54

Burkina Faso

0.638

115,600

Mali

0.626

110,200

1.130

873,100

10

Indonesia*

0.286

736,100

55

11

Egypt

0.626

572,900

56

Zambia0.674

109,300

Haiti

0.995

106,600

12

Myanmar*

0.956

515,100

57

13

Iran

0.626

495,300

58

0.995

104,800

14

Turkey0.626

480,300

Dominican
Republic*

15

Sudan

1.130

454,700

59

Ghana*

0.377

103,300

16

Thailand

0.626

425,500

60

Zimbabwe

0.638

99,60017

Ethiopia*

0.414

411,600

61

Saudi Arabia

0.292

92,100

18

Iraq

1.130

403,800

62

Chad

0.638

89,60019

Philippines*

0.398

401,000

63

Tunisia*

0.766

85,00020

Mexico*0.297

376,800

64

Kazakhstan

0.467

81,60021

Afghanistan

1.130

367,600

65

Guinea0.638

80,50022

Tanzania

0.638

341,400

66

Romania

0.404

80,20023

Colombia

0.639

308,200

67

Senegal

0.520

78,700

24

Yemen

1.130

303,200

68

Rwanda0.638

74,100

25

Japan

0.228

290,200

69

Burundi0.638

71,400

26

Syria

1.130

257,300

70

Libya

1.130

70,90027

Cambodia*

1.648

256,800

71

Ecuador

0.404

65,30028South Africa*

0.453

248,70072

United States

0.018

57,70029

Algeria

0.626

248,300

73

Central African
Republic

1.130

55,40030

Uganda0.626

244,400

74

Tajikistan

0.638

54,10031

Nepal*

0.823

234,600

75

Taiwan0.228

53,60076

Papua New
Guinea0.620

47,20077

Bolivia*

0.437

46,900

78

Togo

0.638

46,60079

Sri Lanka*

0.221

45,90080

Azerbaijan

0.467

45,00081

Belarus0.467

44,60082

Greece0.404

44,20083

Sierra Leone

0.674

43,50084

Mauritania*

1.058

43,00085

Jordan0.639

42,90086

Czech
Republic

0.404

42,600

87

Cuba

0.332

37,80032

Morocco

0.639

219,700

33

Ukraine0.467

210,400

34

South Korea

0.404

204,900

35

Peru

0.639

200,500

36

Venezuela

0.639

198,800

37

Kenya

0.410

188,800

38

Poland*0.476

181,100

39

Argentina

0.404

175,500

40

Madagascar

0.674

163,400

41

Brazil*0.078

161,100

42

Angola0.638

159,700

43

Cameroon

0.626

146,100

44

Mozambique

0.520

145,600

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Estimated percent
of population inmodern slavery

Estimated
number inmodern slavery
37,000

Rank

Country

88

United ArabEmirates

0.404

89

Eritrea

0.674

35,300

90

Benin

0.295

32,100

91

Qatar

1.356

30,30092

Republic of the
Congo

0.638

29,500Estimated percent
of population inmodern slavery

Estimated
number inmodern slavery

Rank

Country

130

Singapore

0.165

9,200

131

Mongolia

0.295

8,700

132

Swaziland

0.674

8,700

133

Albania

0.295

8,600

134

Spain

0.018

8,400

135

Latvia

0.404

8,000

136

Uruguay

0.228

7,800

93

Hong Kong,
SAR China

0.404

29,500137

Finland

0.123

6,700

94

Bulgaria

0.404

29,000138

Canada

0.018

6,500

95

Liberia

0.638

28,700139

Bahrain

0.467

6,400

96

Lebanon

0.626

28,70097

Serbia0.404

28,700140

Trinidad andTobago

0.453

6,200

98

Chile*

0.154

27,700141

Jamaica

0.212

5,800

Kosovo

0.295

5,400

99

Kyrgyzstan

0.467

27,700142100Israel0.140

11,600143

Estonia

0.404

5,300

Gabon

0.295

5,100

101

Paraguay

0.404

26,800144

102

Nicaragua

0.404

24,600145

Guyana

0.620

4,800

Slovenia

0.228

4,700

103

Honduras

0.295

23,800

146

104

Hungary*

0.228

22,500147

Cyprus

0.404

4,700

Djibouti

0.520

4,600

105

Georgia

0.467

20,900

148

106

Laos

0.295

20,000149

Australia

0.018

4,300

107

Costa Rica

0.404

19,400150

Timor-Leste

0.286

3,500

Brunei

0.805

3,400

108

Kuwait0.467

18,200151

109

El Salvador

0.295

18,100152

Montenegro

0.404

2,500

0.295

2,500

110

Bosnia andHerzegovina

0.467

17,800153

Equatorial
Guinea111

Netherlands*

0.104

17,500154

Suriname

0.453

2,500

112

Gambia0.878

17,500155

Cape Verde

0.453

2,400

113

Croatia

0.404

17,100156

Mauritius

0.165

2,100

114

Namibia

0.674

16,600157

Belgium

0.018

2,000

115

Panama0.404

15,900158

Sweden

0.018

1,800

116

Turkmenistan

0.295

15,800159

Austria

0.018

1,500

117

Germany

0.018

14,500160

Switzerland

0.018

1,500

118

Lesotho

0.674

14,400161

Denmark

0.018

1,000

119

Armenia

0.467

14,100162

Norway

0.018

900

120

Macedonia

0.639

13,300163

Ireland

0.018

800

121

Oman

0.295

13,200164

New Zealand

0.018

800

122

Portugal

0.123

12,800165

Barbados

0.212

600

123

Slovakia

0.228

12,400166

Iceland

0.123

400

124

France0.018

12,000167

Luxembourg

0.018

100

125

Lithuania

0.404

11,800126

Botswana

0.520

11,800127

UnitedKingdom*

0.018

11,700128

Guinea-Bissau

0.620

11,400129

Moldova

0.295

10,400* I ndicates nationally-representative Gallup survey data or data from
Multiple Systems Estimation was available for this country.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

31

VULNERABILITY
Vulnerability to modern slavery is affected by a complex
interaction of factors related to the presence or absence ofprotection and respect for rights, physical safety and security,
access to the necessities of life such as food, water and healthcare, and patterns of migration, displacement and conflict.

Statistical testing grouped 24 measures of vulnerability into four
dimensions covering: 1) civil and political protections, 2) social
health and economic rights, 3) personal security, and 4) refugee
populations and conflict. See Appendix 2 for further information
about the methodology, including data sources.

Dimensions and variables in vulnerability model
DIMENSION 1
Civil and political protections

DIMENSION 2
Social health andeconomic rights

DIMENSION 3
Personal security

DIMENSION 4
Refugee populations
and conflict

Confidence in judicial system

Financial inclusion:
borrowed any money

Financial inclusion: availability ofemergency funds

Impact of terrorism

Political instability

Financial inclusion:
received wages

Violent crimeInternal conflict

Weapons access

Cell phone subscriptions

Women’s physical security

Refugees resident

Discrimination: sexuality

Social safety net

GINI coefficient*

Displaced persons

Undernourishment

Discrimination:
intellectual disability

The Index 2016 Government
Response

Tuberculosis

Discrimination:
immigrants

Political rights measure

Water improved accessDiscrimination:
minorities* GINI coefficient is a measure of income inequality

32|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Global Findings cont.

United Arab Emirates (UAE), Dubai. Migrant labourers working on extending the Dubai beach, close to the Burj Al
Arab Hotel (right). The employers keep their employees' passports when they arrive and pay their workers around
US$167 a month.
Photo credit, Xavier Cervera

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

33

TABLE 3 - MEASURES OF VULNERABILITY TO MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY
A higher score indicates a higher level of vulnerability

Country

34|

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Afghanistan

83.00

47.39

53.31

84.55

67.06

Albania

52.88

29.58

42.36

18.25

35.77

Algeria

51.03

28.10

47.02

51.46

44.40

Angola

56.32

49.54

45.95

25.02

44.21

Argentina

35.63

18.50

34.04

25.36

28.38

Armenia

53.66

27.38

42.63

24.90

37.14

Australia

15.14

19.85

17.45

35.49

21.98

Austria

21.47

18.14

14.05

33.14

21.70

Azerbaijan

68.90

28.23

28.17

23.05

37.09

Bahrain

54.41

33.14

41.45

31.26

40.07

Bangladesh

46.78

46.04

33.63

50.02

44.12

Barbados

39.70

15.41

67.00

1.00

30.78

Belarus

58.41

20.48

35.88

23.80

34.64

Belgium

25.42

19.83

24.03

31.28

25.14

Benin

46.95

36.52

39.70

14.90

34.52

Bolivia

49.71

32.08

38.69

16.57

34.26

Bosnia and Herzegovina

58.88

25.21

32.99

26.43

35.88

Botswana

37.25

42.82

46.38

19.21

36.42

Brazil

37.98

20.46

45.88

30.74

33.77

Brunei*

60.78

30.99

99.99

63.93

63.93

Bulgaria

40.41

20.54

33.79

30.50

31.31

Burkina Faso

59.55

40.77

40.73

25.98

41.76

Burundi

64.08

52.22

51.40

37.17

51.22

Cambodia

53.68

42.96

57.40

12.00

41.51

Cameroon

61.31

43.37

47.95

52.51

51.29

Canada

17.59

23.64

15.48

36.11

23.21

Cape Verde*

33.33

20.30

55.40

36.34

36.34

Central African Republic

83.67

48.67

85.43

62.21

70.00

Chad

70.47

49.96

47.98

40.94

52.34

Chile

31.23

19.73

34.26

31.37

29.15

China

55.12

26.90

43.84

52.78

44.66

Colombia

51.72

26.54

46.78

43.49

42.13

Costa Rica

36.35

24.40

33.82

23.97

29.64

Croatia

36.51

25.29

36.88

16.54

28.80

Cuba

53.60

26.60

34.00

13.99

32.05

Cyprus

27.60

23.25

28.95

30.90

27.67

Czech Republic

27.22

19.38

31.55

27.78

26.48

Democratic Republic of the Congo

78.42

56.33

56.72

82.43

68.48

Denmark

15.68

18.53

11.06

23.92

17.30

Djibouti

49.13

43.61

55.25

32.42

45.10

Dominican Republic

47.97

33.84

46.38

24.33

38.13

Ecuador

43.69

29.23

37.74

29.98

35.16

Egypt

51.25

27.90

62.96

54.85

49.24

El Salvador

49.88

29.58

53.68

8.78

35.48

Equatorial Guinea

56.66

40.62

46.38

1.00

36.16

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Country

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Eritrea

59.44

51.05

62.88

24.82

49.55

Estonia

35.94

16.87

39.31

11.14

25.81

Ethiopia

59.75

54.68

34.16

59.77

52.09

Finland

22.07

19.69

19.08

22.66

20.87

France

26.13

20.27

18.01

44.77

27.30

Gabon

51.58

31.51

42.38

16.97

35.61

Gambia

59.30

29.27

74.18

22.63

46.35

Georgia

51.00

28.43

35.95

24.42

34.95

Germany

23.61

19.97

20.81

40.76

26.29

Ghana

51.89

38.42

47.45

28.26

41.51

Greece

37.64

22.74

38.10

38.77

34.31

Guatemala

48.75

34.25

57.12

20.33

40.11

Guinea

66.89

41.58

52.68

28.67

47.45

Guinea-Bissau

62.08

40.50

70.25

22.47

48.82

Guyana

39.35

25.57

83.50

5.81

38.56

Haiti

57.68

56.20

58.13

2.60

43.65

Honduras

53.76

34.82

60.12

16.38

41.27

Hong Kong, SAR China

42.28

17.55

21.44

35.65

29.23

Hungary

23.66

20.69

35.56

23.30

25.80

Iceland

24.88

12.22

20.43

15.03

18.14

India

37.07

36.68

43.88

87.78

51.35

Indonesia

39.15

43.35

50.38

36.01

42.22

Iran

70.71

32.99

48.60

51.44

50.94

Iraq

71.22

44.91

58.04

81.13

63.83

Ireland

19.07

22.62

20.21

33.13

23.76

Israel

33.66

23.67

38.28

51.85

36.87

Italy

36.39

21.50

33.62

38.56

32.52

Ivory Coast

62.07

38.72

46.22

33.45

45.11

Jamaica

43.21

30.91

46.13

8.68

32.24

Japan

25.23

19.09

22.16

19.13

21.40

Jordan

48.39

27.97

54.16

37.73

42.06

Kazakhstan

59.05

22.08

28.19

22.12

32.86

Kenya

54.53

52.84

46.75

72.28

56.60

Kosovo

55.11

39.25

42.13

15.94

38.11

Kuwait

59.29

27.97

41.30

15.89

36.11

Kyrgyzstan

54.16

28.33

36.37

21.88

35.18

Laos

56.64

34.01

53.98

1.19

36.45

Latvia

41.95

20.25

33.22

12.95

27.09

Lebanon

55.39

29.32

50.98

58.00

48.42

Lesotho

40.33

52.26

68.23

9.58

42.60

Liberia

57.93

44.62

44.45

29.43

44.11

Libya

77.85

22.99

81.44

53.21

58.87

Lithuania

35.09

20.58

34.10

16.94

26.68

Luxembourg

22.99

18.64

9.76

49.43

25.20

Macedonia

49.81

24.38

44.06

24.11

35.59

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

35

TABLE 3 - MEASURES OF VULNERABILITY TO MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY
A higher score indicates a higher level of vulnerability

Country

36|

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Madagascar

50.37

50.87

52.86

15.99

42.52

Malawi

54.63

56.74

47.78

21.06

45.05

Malaysia

34.90

32.43

46.39

40.33

38.51

Mali

64.04

34.08

31.69

57.41

46.80

Mauritania

65.96

40.54

49.85

30.74

46.77

Mauritius

29.24

24.49

26.58

1.00

20.33

Mexico

43.03

30.36

52.84

61.85

47.02

Moldova

47.52

28.20

38.04

14.41

32.04

Mongolia

39.22

36.74

40.87

3.54

30.09

Montenegro

41.68

22.15

38.08

23.45

31.34

Morocco

55.83

18.58

56.08

22.18

38.17

Mozambique

39.91

48.46

54.40

35.86

44.65

Myanmar

57.81

50.11

50.53

66.99

56.36

Namibia

39.00

43.68

51.42

18.27

38.09

Nepal

42.30

43.22

34.74

41.21

40.37

Netherlands

17.60

17.86

21.64

28.58

21.42

New Zealand

13.31

22.24

16.09

21.51

18.29

Nicaragua

43.53

31.92

39.79

23.67

34.73

Niger

57.70

48.17

42.13

40.38

47.10

Nigeria

60.94

47.84

59.76

80.84

62.34

North Korea

71.20

48.27

62.88

1.00

45.84

Norway

17.88

19.90

14.85

34.90

21.88

Oman

57.65

21.03

62.88

12.60

38.54

Pakistan

58.40

41.98

52.70

96.79

62.47

Panama

37.46

29.14

46.18

23.55

34.08

Papua New Guinea

50.12

62.85

99.99

23.10

59.02

Paraguay

46.02

21.22

38.92

26.14

33.07

Peru

43.85

31.98

44.81

30.33

37.74

Philippines

44.76

39.62

52.34

53.95

47.67

Poland

34.76

19.50

29.07

23.33

26.66

Portugal

21.50

22.62

16.06

16.89

19.27

Qatar

48.79

15.26

50.50

12.30

31.71

Republic of the Congo

65.17

44.69

52.43

28.94

47.81

Romania

39.26

25.86

31.83

18.74

28.92

Russia

57.21

18.47

40.66

57.47

43.45

Rwanda

55.44

47.65

46.23

42.00

47.83

Saudi Arabia

64.94

30.92

37.20

28.84

40.47

Senegal

44.97

42.31

36.96

35.48

39.93

Serbia

47.80

21.75

30.24

27.05

31.71

Sierra Leone

50.57

53.29

41.72

17.70

40.82

Singapore

29.85

22.11

20.58

1.00

18.39

Slovakia

32.47

20.94

31.60

16.42

25.36

Slovenia

21.82

22.08

28.50

13.72

21.53

Somalia

73.03

64.82

55.97

74.46

67.07

South Africa

40.27

43.06

58.30

41.84

45.87

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Country

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees &conflict

Mean

South Korea

38.20

34.64

28.98

17.32

29.78

South Sudan

74.73

50.70

60.80

76.15

65.59

Spain

25.14

23.19

18.65

29.67

24.16

Sri Lanka

47.01

35.12

31.82

31.08

36.26

Sudan

80.64

54.12

46.18

85.04

66.49

Suriname*

36.66

12.35

67.00

38.67

38.67

Swaziland

57.69

53.88

67.33

15.39

48.57

Sweden

21.39

19.70

10.84

38.60

22.63

Switzerland

16.93

16.60

13.69

30.98

19.55

Syria

95.67

35.93

60.97

72.98

66.39

Taiwan

34.91

33.38

22.34

1.76

23.10

Tajikistan

62.85

37.62

41.68

27.53

42.42

Tanzania

51.66

54.67

47.66

40.46

48.61

Thailand

49.23

28.62

48.97

63.33

47.54

Timor-Leste

38.88

48.07

68.55

1.00

39.13

Togo

64.78

39.82

47.78

24.09

44.12

Trinidad and Tobago

35.88

14.40

67.00

16.26

33.38

Tunisia

40.01

25.97

42.84

28.91

34.43

Turkey

45.47

29.38

44.11

57.55

44.13

Turkmenistan

68.14

28.65

43.34

9.22

37.34

Uganda

54.89

52.18

39.45

48.73

48.81

Ukraine

61.97

21.39

35.80

43.41

40.64

United Arab Emirates

41.71

22.64

30.75

18.36

28.37

United Kingdom

18.45

20.37

21.83

46.50

26.79

United States

20.42

23.51

20.96

45.10

27.50

Uruguay

26.65

20.69

28.36

13.89

22.40

Uzbekistan

74.62

28.35

32.09

12.14

36.80

Venezuela

58.82

27.75

55.42

35.94

44.48

Vietnam

51.19

29.94

35.22

1.00

29.34

Yemen

75.01

51.30

54.67

62.28

60.81

Zambia

45.10

58.76

50.03

24.46

44.59

Zimbabwe

60.28

52.25

48.92

26.78

47.06

*Note high presence of missing data for these countries. These results should be interpreted with caution. These countries have less than 50 percent
of data available on Personal security (Dimension 3) and Refugees & conflict (Dimension 4).

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

37

GLOBAL GOVERNMENT RESPONSES
Modern slavery is in every country. Government responses vary country to country.

Government Responses to Modern Slavery
Those countries in grey were not included in the Index or have no data.

Strong
AAA

38

|

AA

Weak
A

BBB

BB

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

B

CCC

CC

C

D

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|39

GOVERNMENT RESPONSES
In 2016, 161 countries are included in our assessment ofgovernment responses. Due to the ongoing conflict and extreme
disruption to government function, we have not included ratings
for Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Syria and Yemen.[12] Of
these 161 countries, 124 have criminalised human trafficking inline with the UN Trafficking Protocol and 96 have developed
National Action Plans (NAPs) to coordinate the government’s
response. A total of 150 governments provide some form ofservices for victims; however, this ranges from provision ofgeneral services for all victims of violence to fully-specialised
services for men, women and children who have experienced
modern slavery.

The governments which aretaking the most action to respondto modern slavery are: theNetherlands, the United Statesof America, the United Kingdom,
Sweden, Australia, Portugal,
Croatia, Spain, Belgium
and Norway.
These countries are characterised by strong political will,
sufficient resources, and a strong civil society that holds
governments to account.
Since the 2014 Index, the UK and USA have strengthened
legislation to respond to modern slavery. The UK Government
has enacted the Modern Slavery Act, which makes provisions
for slavery, servitude, forced or compulsory labour, and humantrafficking as well as providing protection for victims. Since
its enactment, an Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner has
been established to monitor the UK Government response, andarrests for holding individuals in ‘slavery or servitude’ have been
made in Leicestershire,[13] Greater Manchester[14] and Cumbria.[15]This year, the UK has also joined the list of governments thatare implementing measures to hold businesses to account.
Commercial organisations in the UK are now required toprepare a slavery and human trafficking statement each financial
year. Despite these positive steps, the number of governments
engaging with businesses and investigating public procurement
remains small with only four (the UK, Brazil, the USA, and toa more limited extent, Australia) taking action.
More recently, in the USA, President Barack Obama closed aloophole in legislation which had previously made it impossible
to enforce laws against the importation of goods made withforced labour or by children.[16] Previously, if these goods met‘consumptive demand’, they could still be imported. As a resultof these much-needed changes, in April 2016, US border agents
seized shipments they suspected were made with forced labour;
the first time this has occurred since 2001.[17]It is not just governments at the top of the table that are taking
positive action to respond to modern slavery. As with the 2014
findings, when correlated against GDP(PPP), some countries
stand out as taking relatively strong action when compared withthose that have stronger economies.

40|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Countries including Croatia, thePhilippines, Montenegro, Brazil,
Macedonia, Georgia, Moldova,
Albania, Jamaica and Serbia aretaking positive steps to respond to
this issue relative to their wealth.
In 2015, the Philippines was lead advocate for the ASEAN
Convention on Trafficking in Persons, a legally binding
instrument. The Philippines is expected to ratify this Convention
after elections in 2016.
Legislation has also been enacted and strengthened in Mauritania,
where amendments in 2015 to anti-slavery legislation have createdspecial tribunals in each region to address issues related to slavery,
clarified the role of judges, and allowed third party human rights
organisations to bring cases on behalf of victims. Anti-trafficking
legislation was also enacted in Singapore, which strengthened
provisions to be more in line with international standards.[18]The implementation of existing legislation has been strengthenedin countries around the world. In Tanzania, for example, training
for police in relation to human trafficking was incorporated into
the police academy training curriculum, while in Haiti training washeld for labour inspectors to identify cases of child exploitation.
Protection for victims has also improved in some countries. In
Jordan, the government currently provides specialised services
for trafficking victims through a shelter for gender-based
violence victims and has completed construction of a dedicatedshelter for modern slavery victims. The Ministry for Womenand Vulnerable Populations in Peru also established a shelter forchild trafficking victims. In Armenia, the Law on Identification
and Assistance to Victims of Human Trafficking and Exploitation
was approved and came into force in June 2015. This establishedstandard procedures for the identification, support, protection
and reintegration of suspected and identified trafficking victims.
Despite these positive steps, very few countries take active steps
to learn from the experiences of survivors, either in relation totheir experience of receiving victim support or as participants inthe criminal justice system. The United States offers an exception
to this rule and provides a model for survivor leadership.
President Obama has formed an Advisory Council on Human
Trafficking made up entirely of survivors. There is also a national
network of over 200 survivors who meet regularly to work on
strategic advocacy at the local and national levels.
Those governments taking the least action to combat modern
slavery are: North Korea, Iran, Eritrea, Equatorial Guinea, Hong
Kong, Central African Republic, Papua New Guinea, Guinea, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo and South Sudan.
Some of these countries are characterised by government
complicity, as is the case in North Korea; low levels of political
will in countries like Iran; fewer resources, as with Papua New
Guinea; or high levels of conflict, as is the case in South Sudan
and Central African Republic. Hong Kong is one country in agroup of wealthier countries that has taken relatively limited
action due to low level of recognition that modern slavery occurs.

Global Findings cont.

While some countries take fewer
actions due to limited resources
or high levels of conflict, there are
wealthier, more stable countries
which have also taken little action
to address modern slavery. Whencorrelated against GDP(PPP),
Qatar, Singapore, Kuwait,
Brunei, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, Oman, Japan and South
Korea stand out. Nonetheless,
Singapore’s early ratification of theASEAN Convention on Trafficking
in Persons is a positive sign.

This year, we have also included a measure of state-sanctioned
forced labour in the ratings of government responses. Statesanctioned forced labour is where the government forces
the population, or segments of it, to work under the threat ofpenalty, and for which the person or population has not offeredthemselves voluntarily. Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan,for example, continue to force their populations to work in theannual cotton harvest. In Belarus, the government continues thepractice of Subbotniks, which requires government employees towork weekends and donate their earnings to finance government
projects. State employers and authorities have intimidated andfined those who refuse to participate. In China, while the reeducation through labour (RTL) programme was closed in
April 2014, there is evidence that this closure has not been fully
implemented, at the municipal and provincial levels. Recent
media reports indicate that in some locations ‘custody andeducation’ centres have replaced the programme where thosearrested without due process are forced to work against theirwill. In Eritrea, conscripts are forced to work in civil service jobs
for conscript pay or are forced to labour in the government-run
construction industry. ‘Maetot’ is a national service programme
in which secondary school children are assigned to work in public
works projects, including in the agricultural sector during thesummer holidays.

Correlation between GDP(PPP) and government response score

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|41

GlobalRajshahi, Bangladesh, January 2013. Dipa is 13 years old and has been engaged in prostitution for five months.
SheFindings
used to cont.
go to school, but stopped in class three after her family could no longer afford to send her. Her two sisters are also engaged in
prostitution, but clients prefer to visit Dipa as she is the youngest of the three. She gets between four or five clients and earns
about 1,200 Taka (US$15) a day.
Photo credit, Pep Bonet/ NOOR

42|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

RATING DESCRIPTION
RatingNumerical Range

Description

AAA

90 to 100

The government has implemented an effective and comprehensive response to all forms of modern
slavery, with effective emergency and long-term reintegration victim support services, a strong
criminal justice framework, high levels of coordination and collaboration, measures to address
all forms of vulnerability, and strong government procurement policies and legislation to ensurethat slavery is not present in business supply chains. There is no evidence of criminalisation ordeportation of victims.

AA

80 to 89.9

The government has implemented a comprehensive response to most forms of modern slavery, withstrong victim support services, a robust criminal justice framework, demonstrated coordination andcollaboration, measures to address vulnerability, and government procurement guidelines and/or
supply chain policies or legislation to ensure that slavery is not present in business supply chains.

A

70 to 79.9

The government has implemented key components of a holistic response to some forms of modern
slavery, with strong victim support services, a strong criminal justice framework, demonstrated
coordination and collaboration, measures to address vulnerability, and may have taken action toensure that government procurement policies do not encourage slavery.

BBB

60 to 69.9

The government has implemented key components of a holistic response to modern slavery,
with victim support services, a strong criminal justice response, evidence of coordination andcollaboration, and protections in place for vulnerable populations. Governments may be beginningto address slavery in supply chains of government procurement, or of businesses operating within
their territory. There may be evidence that some government policies and practices may criminalise
and/or cause victims to be deported.

BB

50 to 59.9

The government has introduced a response to modern slavery, which includes short-term victim
support services, a criminal justice framework that criminalises some forms of modern slavery, abody to coordinate the response, and protection for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There may
be evidence that some government policies and practices may criminalise and/or cause victims to
be deported and/or facilitate slavery.

B

40 to 49.9

The government has introduced a response to modern slavery, with limited victim support services,a criminal justice framework that criminalises some forms of modern slavery (or has recently
amended inadequate legislation and policies), a body or mechanisms that coordinate the response,and has policies that provide some protection for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There isevidence that some government policies and practices may criminalise and/or deport victims and/or facilitate slavery. Services may be provided by International Organisations (IOs)/NGOs withinternational funding, sometimes with government monetary or in-kind support.

CCC

30 to 39.9

The government has a limited response to modern slavery, with limited victim support services,a criminal justice framework that criminalises some forms of modern slavery, and has policies
that provide some protection for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There may be evidence of anational action plan and/or national coordination body. There may be evidence that some government
policies and practices may criminalise and/or deport victims and/or facilitate slavery. Services may
be largely provided by IOs/NGOs with international funding, with limited government funding
or in-kind support.

CC

20 to 29.9

The government has a limited response to modern slavery, with largely basic victim support services,a limited criminal justice framework, limited coordination or collaboration mechanism, and few
protections for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There may be evidence that some government
policies and practices facilitate slavery. Services are largely provided by IOs/NGOs with limited
government funding or in-kind support.

C

10 to 19.9

The government response to modern slavery is inadequate, with limited and/or few victim support
services, a weak criminal justice framework, weak coordination or collaboration, while little isbeing done to address vulnerability. There are government practices and policies that facilitateslavery. Services, where available, are largely provided by IOs/NGOs with little government
funding or in-kind support.

D<0 to 9.9

The government has a wholly inadequate response to modern slavery, and/or there is evidence ofgovernment-sanctioned modern slavery. However, countries in this category may be experiencing
high levels of poverty and internal conflict that may prevent or hinder a response to modern slavery.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

43

TABLE 4 - RANK OF COUNTRIES BY GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
A higher score indicates a stronger response
Response
rating
A

44|

Country
Netherlands

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing
risk

Government &business

Total score

74.63

79.07

87.50

99.99

0.00

78.43

BBB*

United States

96.30

79.63

68.75

78.57

75.00

82.84

BBB

United Kingdom

74.63

79.07

43.75

69.05

37.50

67.12

BBB

Sweden

72.22

62.96

75.00

73.81

0.00

65.87

BBB

Australia

64.44

81.85

56.25

69.05

25.00

65.34

BBB

Portugal

58.52

73.52

68.75

83.33

0.00

65.22

BBB

Croatia

69.63

70.19

56.25

76.19

0.00

64.50

BBB

Spain

77.04

64.07

50.00

73.81

0.00

64.09

BBB

Belgium

71.30

50.74

75.00

71.43

0.00

62.36

BBB

Norway

65.93

82.41

37.50

69.05

0.00

61.47

BBB

Austria

57.96

59.07

68.75

76.19

0.00

60.16

BB

Argentina

49.26

59.81

87.50

78.57

0.00

59.79

BB

Germany

61.67

64.81

43.75

78.57

0.00

59.60

BB

Denmark

59.81

68.52

50.00

69.05

0.00

58.31

BB

Montenegro

69.63

60.56

56.25

59.52

0.00

58.27

BB

Canada

57.41

68.52

62.50

64.29

0.00

58.13

BB

Georgia

67.59

58.70

56.25

59.52

0.00

57.22

BB

Hungary

59.81

41.85

68.75

76.19

0.00

57.06

BB

Brazil

45.56

34.44

87.50

78.57

37.50

56.85

BB

France

52.59

76.85

43.75

69.05

0.00

55.88

BB

New Zealand

53.70

47.96

43.75

88.10

0.00

55.81

BB

Ireland

69.63

71.30

18.75

61.90

0.00

55.81

BB

Switzerland

60.19

64.81

25.00

73.81

0.00

55.26

BB

Macedonia

70.37

60.19

62.50

42.86

0.00

55.16

BB

Finland

52.78

62.04

56.25

66.67

0.00

54.96

BB

Slovenia

52.04

51.30

56.25

76.19

0.00

54.80

BB

Serbia

61.67

76.67

31.25

54.76

0.00

54.40

BB

Albania

73.70

46.30

43.75

61.90

0.00

54.34

BB

Philippines

46.48

62.78

50.00

78.57

0.00

54.18

BB

Poland

46.11

47.96

68.75

76.19

0.00

53.96

BB

Latvia

58.89

50.19

43.75

71.43

0.00

53.79

BB

Czech Republic

54.81

50.74

56.25

66.67

0.00

53.19

BB

Jamaica

47.78

61.85

81.25

54.76

0.00

52.91

BB

Mexico

45.00

63.15

50.00

73.81

0.00

52.59

BB

Dominican Republic

49.26

59.07

62.50

64.29

0.00

52.49

BB

Moldova

55.56

57.59

50.00

64.29

0.00

52.41

BB

Lithuania

59.26

54.81

25.00

73.81

0.00

51.82

BB

Costa Rica

56.48

45.56

37.50

71.43

0.00

51.13

BB

Cyprus

54.26

74.44

18.75

61.90

0.00

50.55

B

United Arab Emirates

63.89

36.67

56.25

57.14

0.00

49.71

B

Nicaragua

44.07

66.11

56.25

52.38

0.00

49.46

B

Italy

42.59

65.93

37.50

69.05

0.00

49.44

B

Bangladesh

39.44

60.37

68.75

59.52

0.00

49.32

B

Chile

44.63

52.59

50.00

69.05

0.00

49.02

B

Israel

49.81

47.96

50.00

61.90

0.00

48.91

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Response
ratingCountry

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing
risk

Government &business

Total score

B

Bosnia andHerzegovina

57.41

43.70

31.25

69.05

0.00

48.54

B

Uruguay

40.56

43.70

43.75

78.57

0.00

48.29

B

Colombia

44.07

41.85

43.75

73.81

0.00

47.84

B

Kosovo

48.15

59.92

43.75

47.62

0.00

47.72

B

Slovakia

57.96

42.41

31.25

61.90

0.00

47.66

B

Nigeria

50.74

59.63

50.00

45.24

0.00

47.54

B

Uganda

50.93

50.19

37.50

59.52

0.00

47.36

B

Guatemala

37.59

51.48

56.25

64.29

0.00

47.22

B

Nepal

42.78

38.15

75.00

61.90

0.00

47.12

B

Turkey

57.41

47.41

37.50

52.38

0.00

47.06

B

Paraguay

35.93

55.56

37.50

76.19

0.00

46.86

B

Ukraine

62.04

47.78

12.50

61.90

0.00

46.44

B

Armenia

48.33

49.81

56.25

50.00

0.00

45.75

B

Ecuador

37.22

62.22

25.00

71.43

0.00

45.73

B

Vietnam

45.19

34.07

62.50

66.67

0.00

45.42

B

Bulgaria

43.15

38.52

43.75

71.43

0.00

45.23

B

Peru

47.78

28.33

62.50

61.90

0.00

44.83

B

South Africa

38.89

55.74

31.25

64.29

0.00

43.98

B

Sierra Leone

44.44

45.56

43.75

54.76

0.00

42.99

B

Iceland

45.37

52.22

37.50

45.24

0.00

42.44

B

Jordan

45.00

42.22

56.25

42.86

0.00

42.26

B

Sri Lanka

25.93

38.52

37.50

83.33

0.00

41.78

B

Thailand

35.19

35.93

56.25

61.90

0.00

41.52

B

Mozambique

53.89

50.56

12.50

47.62

0.00

40.85

B

Indonesia

37.59

40.56

50.00

54.76

0.00

40.61

B

Benin

38.70

20.56

56.25

66.67

0.00

40.55

B

Romania

37.59

36.85

56.25

50.00

0.00

40.52

B

India

44.07

45.00

43.75

45.24

0.00

40.37

B

Senegal

49.63

32.59

25.00

54.76

0.00

40.20

CCC

Trinidad and Tobago

31.11

44.63

31.25

66.67

0.00

39.69

CCC

Taiwan

50.56

23.62

43.75

42.86

0.00

39.51

CCC

Estonia

30.19

23.33

31.25

80.95

0.00

39.40

CCC

Pakistan

28.52

37.04

25.00

76.19

0.00

38.72

CCC

Egypt

35.74

32.04

50.00

52.38

0.00

38.59

CCC

Panama

11.85

73.15

37.50

57.14

0.00

38.13

CCC

Azerbaijan

28.33

60.37

18.75

57.14

0.00

38.01

CCC

Burkina Faso

47.41

30.56

37.50

42.86

0.00

37.86

CCC

Qatar

52.41

44.26

25.00

35.71

0.00

37.83

CCC

Greece

53.89

36.85

18.75

38.10

0.00

37.42

CCC

El Salvador

32.96

28.89

50.00

57.14

0.00

37.21

CCC

Rwanda

30.93

45.19

31.25

54.76

0.00

36.78

CCC

Lesotho

31.48

25.74

50.00

59.52

0.00

36.66

CCC

Tajikistan

41.99

34.44

25.00

54.76

0.00

36.14

CCC

Cambodia

25.19

33.33

37.50

64.29

0.00

35.67

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|45

TABLE 4 - RANK OF COUNTRIES BY GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
A higher score indicates a stronger response

46|

Response
ratingCountry

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing
risk

Government &business

Total score

CCC

Malaysia

36.48

51.48

31.25

35.71

0.00

35.15

CCC

Ethiopia

21.30

33.33

62.50

52.38

0.00

35.01

CCC

Bolivia

17.59

36.67

50.00

57.14

0.00

34.94

CCC

Guyana

25.74

50.74

25.00

52.38

0.00

34.81

CCC

Barbados

39.44

29.26

50.00

38.10

0.00

34.62

CCC

Tunisia

36.11

22.22

18.75

61.90

0.00

34.52

CCC

Djibouti

25.00

28.89

37.50

59.52

0.00

34.46

CCC

Belarus

35.37

26.11

43.75

52.38

0.00

34.31

CCC

Cameroon

30.37

33.89

37.50

47.62

0.00

34.29

CCC

Lebanon

37.59

32.04

37.50

42.86

0.00

34.02

CCC

Honduras

24.63

31.67

37.50

59.52

0.00

33.94

CCC

Luxembourg

33.15

31.67

68.75

26.19

0.00

33.81

CCC

Myanmar

41.11

8.89

50.00

50.00

0.00

33.76

CCC

Ivory Coast

37.96

30.19

50.00

30.95

0.00

33.55

CCC

Kyrgyzstan

27.96

35.74

37.50

50.00

0.00

33.50

CCC

Zambia

33.89

29.81

43.75

38.10

0.00

33.06

CCC

Kazakhstan

38.33

44.07

18.75

35.71

0.00

32.37

CCC

China

35.56

23.70

31.25

52.38

0.00

32.07

CCC

Haiti

33.52

37.22

50.00

28.57

0.00

32.04

CCC

Gambia

22.59

35.19

37.50

45.24

0.00

31.47

CCC

Namibia

28.15

22.04

31.25

52.38

0.00

31.33

CCC

Bahrain

36.67

36.67

25.00

35.71

0.00

31.14

CCC

Mongolia

27.78

31.67

31.25

47.62

0.00

31.08

CCC

Mauritius

34.44

27.41

18.75

45.24

0.00

30.93

CCC

Laos

28.70

26.48

31.25

50.00

0.00

30.87

CCC

Japan

42.59

19.44

18.75

45.24

0.00

30.85

CCC

Liberia

27.22

27.41

31.25

50.00

0.00

30.59

CCC

Oman

36.11

29.26

12.50

47.62

0.00

30.57

CCC

Swaziland

36.30

22.04

37.50

42.86

0.00

30.46

CC

Gabon

30.00

24.26

25.00

45.24

0.00

29.72

CC

Tanzania

27.04

26.48

25.00

47.62

0.00

28.84

CC

Chad

26.85

12.04

31.25

52.38

0.00

28.77

CC

Venezuela

25.00

40.93

12.50

40.48

0.00

28.71

CC

Saudi Arabia

28.70

34.44

25.00

38.10

0.00

28.70

CC

South Korea

35.93

31.85

12.50

33.33

0.00

28.49

CC

Ghana

22.04

30.19

25.00

45.24

0.00

28.43

CC

Russia

21.48

28.33

12.50

61.90

0.00

28.24

CC

Algeria

28.52

24.07

25.00

42.86

0.00

27.61

CC

Madagascar

31.30

14.44

31.25

42.86

0.00

27.33

CC

Singapore

36.11

22.41

0.00

42.86

0.00

27.12

CC

Uzbekistan

24.26

23.70

18.75

52.38

0.00

26.65

CC

Botswana

24.81

14.81

37.50

42.86

0.00

26.22

CC

Turkmenistan

14.81

35.74

12.50

54.76

0.00

25.90

CC

Mauritania

25.00

32.41

12.50

40.48

0.00

25.88

CC

Kuwait

14.81

33.33

25.00

45.24

0.00

25.79

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Response
ratingCountry

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing
risk

Government &business

Total score

CC

Suriname

20.56

19.44

31.25

40.48

0.00

25.36

CC

Malawi

32.22

21.11

12.50

38.10

0.00

25.19

CC

Burundi

29.63

14.81

18.75

38.10

0.00

23.90

CC

Kenya

21.85

27.41

6.25

42.86

0.00

23.50

CC

Morocco

6.48

24.63

18.75

52.38

0.00

23.13

CC

Timor-Leste

25.93

25.93

0.00

40.48

0.00

23.01

CC

Niger

12.41

29.26

25.00

40.48

0.00

22.95

CC

Republic of the Congo

22.22

8.89

37.50

35.71

0.00

22.33

CC

Cuba

25.00

17.78

12.50

38.10

0.00

22.15

CC

Mali

15.19

12.04

43.75

33.33

0.00

22.04

CC

Sudan

24.07

27.41

6.25

33.33

0.00

21.84

CC

Angola

20.37

20.37

31.25

28.57

0.00

21.52

CC

Zimbabwe

15.37

20.56

12.50

42.86

0.00

20.85

CC

Guinea-Bissau

14.81

32.04

25.00

21.43

0.00

20.56

C

Brunei

7.41

35.74

12.50

30.95

0.00

19.56

C

Cape Verde

15.19

15.37

25.00

30.95

0.00

19.48

C

Togo

26.48

4.63

31.25

19.05

0.00

18.73

C

South Sudan

20.37

1.48

18.75

28.57

0.00

15.69

C

Democratic Republicof the Congo

7.78

11.67

31.25

26.19

0.00

15.01

C

Guinea

2.78

12.96

31.25

28.57

0.00

14.28

C

Papua New Guinea

6.48

23.70

25.00

14.29

0.00

13.31

C

Central African
Republic

14.81

17.22

12.50

7.14

0.00

11.02

C

Hong Kong, SAR China

5.93

5.19

0.00

30.95

0.00

10.75

D

Equatorial Guinea

0.00

18.52

0.00

23.81

0.00

8.92

D

Eritrea

0.00

2.96

0.00

26.19

0.00

5.18

D

Iran

0.00

7.41

0.00

16.67

0.00

4.75

D

North Korea

0.00–13.89

0.00

–7.14

0.00

–5.76

No Rank

Afghanistan

No RankIraq

No Rank

Libya

No Rank

Somalia

No Rank

Syria

No Rank

Yemen*No country could score above BBB if there was evidence of criminalisation and/or deportation of victims.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

47

REGIONALANALYSISMohini, a trafficked bride in Haryanashows burn marks inflicted on her by
her husband. All of her family members
died in the 2001 earthquake in Bhuj
in Gujrat. Later a man brought her toHisar at the age of 13 and sold her toa truck driver for Rs 10,000 (~US$150).
Photo credit, Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan Times

ASIA PACIFIC

NEPAL

AFGHANISTANBANGLADESHPAKISTANNORTH KOREA

SOUTH KOREAJAPANMONGOLIAHONG KONG,SAR CHINACHINATAIWAN

LAOS

INDIA

VIETNAMCAMBODIAMYANMARPHILIPPINESTHAILANDBRUNEISRI LANKA

MALAYSIASINGAPORE

INDONESIAPAPUANEW GUINEATIMOR-LESTE
AUSTRALIANEW ZEALAND

Estimated Number Enslaved

Regional Proportion of Global Number

Average Government Response Rating

Average Vulnerability Score

30,435,300
34.8/100
50|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

66.4%
40.2%

Asia Pacific cont.

PREVALENCE
Rank

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

1

North Korea

4.373

1,100,000

25,155,000

2Cambodia

1.648

256,800

15,578,000

3

India

1.403

18,354,700

1,311,051,000

4Pakistan

1.130

2,134,900

188,925,000

4Afghanistan

1.130

367,600

32,527,000

5Myanmar

0.956

515,100

53,897,000

6Bangladesh

0.951

1,531,300

160,996,000

7

Nepal

0.823

234,600

28,514,000

8Brunei

0.805

3,400

423,000

9

Thailand

0.626

425,500

67,959,000

10Papua New Guinea

0.620

47,2007,619,000

11

Malaysia

0.425

128,800

30,331,000

12South Korea

0.404

204,900

50,672,000

12Hong Kong, SAR China

0.404

29,5007,287,000

13

Philippines

0.398

401,000

100,699,000

14

Laos

0.295

20,0006,802,000

14

Mongolia

0.295

8,700

2,959,000

15

Indonesia

0.286

736,100

257,564,000

15Timor-Leste

0.286

3,500

1,235,000

16

China

0.247

3,388,400

1,371,738,000

17

Japan

0.228

290,200

127,046,000

17

Taiwan0.228

53,60023,476,640

18

Sri Lanka

0.221

45,90020,781,000

19Singapore

0.165

9,200

5,563,000

20

Vietnam

0.152

139,300

91,519,000

21Australia

0.018

4,300

23,772,00021

New Zealand

0.018

800

4,552,000

The Asia-Pacific is the most populous region of the world. It
spans Afghanistan in the west, to New Zealand in the south-east,to Mongolia in the north. Two thirds of the estimated 45.8 million
people in modern slavery were identified in the Asia-Pacific. Allforms of modern slavery were identified including forced labourin brick kilns, agriculture and the garment sector,[1] child soldiersin Afghanistan,[2] India[3] and Thailand,[4] forced begging, andcommercial sexual exploitation. Men and women experienced
forced labour in manufacturing, agriculture, food production andconstruction. Women were also vulnerable to sexual exploitation,
forced marriage and domestic servitude.
Large numbers of women and girls continued to migrate within
Asia and internationally for jobs as domestic workers. While
this offers an important economic opportunity, reports of abuse,
exploitation and servitude persist, particularly in wealthy
countries within the region where there was high demand forlive-in help—Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore andTaiwan. Inhumane treatment of domestic workers including
starvation[5] and sexual abuse[6] was reported in 2015, as well as
indicators of forced labour including extortionate recruitment
fees, confinement to the place of employment, excessive unpaid
overtime, withholding of wages and confiscation of identity
documents.[7] In 2016, cases of domestic worker exploitation

were also noted in countries with low levels of prevalence, suchas Australia.[8]The high prevalence of modern
slavery in the region reflects thereality that many countries in Asia
provide low-skilled labour for the
production stage of global supply
chains for various industries
including food production,
garments and technology.
Within low-skilled and loosely-regulated industries, there is a riskof modern slavery, such as human trafficking, forced labour anddebt bondage. In 2015–2016, there were cases of forced labour
within the Malaysian electronics industry, [9] exploitation on
Malaysian palm oil plantations,[10] and debt bondage in the apparelindustries of Bangladesh[11] and Vietnam.[12] The reputational riskof slavery in supply chains compelled action from global brands,

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|51

including companies renowned for social responsibility. In 2015,
whilst undertaking worker assessments, Patagonia (an American
outdoor clothing and equipment company) identified workers intheir Taiwanese supplier factories would take up to two years ofa three-year employment contract to pay off recruitment-related
debt.[13] Patagonia have taken strong steps to combat the issue by
prohibiting suppliers and their brokers to charge or collect any
recruitment related-fees or expenses, and if the workers have
paid fees, suppliers must reimburse them.[14]The abuse of workers on Thai fishing vessels operating in South
East Asian waters has become increasingly well documented.[15]Researchers and investigative journalists have documented theabuse of migrant workers on fishing vessels, often young men
and boys, who have endured brutal treatment including physicalabuse, excessive and inhumane working hours, sleep and fooddeprivation, and forced use of methamphetamines.[16] Some longhaul trawlers and their fishermen remained at sea for years at atime. Between April and September 2015, more than 2,000 men
were rescued from Thai fishing vessels, many of which wereoperating in Indonesian waters.[17] Ongoing reports of worker
exploitation in seafood pre-processing facilities were also evident,with workers from Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos working
excessive hours in oppressive and abusive conditions.[18] Muchof the seafood processed was distributed to the global market.
Forced and child marriage persists in countries throughout theregion, particularly in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan andIndonesia.[19] The UN estimates more than 130 million girls inSouth Asia will be married between 2010 and 2030.[20] In China,
the legacy of the former one-child policy has led to a shortageof women of marriageable age.[21] To meet this demand, someCambodian,[22] Vietnamese[23] and North Korean[24] women andgirls are trafficked to China to be sold as brides. A similar sex
imbalance, resulting in an absence of available brides in India,
has fuelled the trafficking of women for forced marriage. The
sex imbalance is exacerbated in rural communities in India
where many girls of marriageable age have migrated to cities
for employment. In some instances, girls are forced into marriage
and then used as unpaid labourers—local day labourers cost

US$140 for a season but a bride can cost only US$100 as aonce-off payment.[25]Criminal justice and victim support statistics, including theInternational Organisation for Migration (IOM) statistics noted
below, confirm that forced prostitution and the commercial sexual
exploitation of women and girls continues to be a reality in the
Asian region. Rising internet usage rates, the availability ofmobile phones, and poverty in many parts of Asia has facilitatedonline forms of child sexual abuse for profit.[26] The phenomenonof adults paying for direct live-streaming video footage ofchildren performing sexual acts in front of a webcam was evident
in the Philippines.[27]In North Korea the issue is not
private exploitation but rather
exploitation by the government.
North Korea is among the most repressive in the world, with the
UN Human Rights Council documenting "widespread and grosshuman rights violations".[28] Economic and social rights in North
Korea are frequently violated by the government who criminalisemarket activities, limiting already meagre opportunities bywhich North Koreans can obtain income.[29] An estimated 50,000
North Korean citizens have been sent abroad to work in mining,
logging, and the textile and construction industries.[30] Thoughmany North Koreans were employed in neighbouring China andRussia, there was also evidence of workers in Angola, Cambodia,
Ethiopia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar and Qatar. [31] While
reports suggest that this workforce generates roughly US$2.3
billion per year for the North Korean Government,[32] civil society
groups say workers earn only US$120–$150 per month, and may
be forced to work up to 20 hours per day with limited rest days.[33]Indonesian Government acts against forced labour in fishing
In 2015, Indonesian authorities, withthe assistance of the International
Organisation for Migration (IOM), rescued
over 2,000 trafficked foreign fishermanfrom isolated areas of the country.[34]Rescue efforts began when the AssociatedPress revealed the inhumane conditions
facing fisheries' workers in Benjina, aremote outpost in Maluku province.
Following an initial government inspection,
the site was raided and over 370 fishermen
were transported to safety in Tual, [35] where
the IOM conducted victim identifications
and provided essential services including
food, shelter, medical and psycho-social
assistance.[36] This number grew to over52|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016656 fishermen,[37] including children andthe elderly. Further raids resulted in the
rescue of 472 new victims[38] from the portof Ambon, from 77 of the estimated 230
vessels in the Ambon harbour.[39]The aftermath of these events had highly
positive impacts. All victims were either
successfully repatriated or were in theprocess of being repatriated with theassistance of the IOM, their embassies
and/or fishing companies.[40] IOM also
identified and assisted foreign victimsof trafficking detained in immigration
detention centres and other locations
around the country. Investigations
resulted in the revocation of licenses

for four business groups, 18 companies
and 388 vessels by the Indonesian
Government.[41] The company which
operated the facilities on Benjinacollapsed following these events, [42]and eight people, five foreign nationals
and three Indonesians were jailed forterms of up to three years.[43]Asia Pacific cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015
The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is thelargest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victimsof trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countriesof destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded

in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015
in Asia-Pacific.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' arebased on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in Asia-Pacific in 2015

Age of Victims at Time of Assistance
Average age of victims

30.7yrs

Approximately 50% of all victims wereaged between 25 and 35

Gender Breakdown
17.1% Female [281]

Number of victims

1,644

Percent of IOM Global Total

33.8%

82.9% Male [1,363]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)
53 Fishing
23 Small Street Commerce
13 Prostitution
8 Domestic Work
7 Other
4 Factory Work
4 Hospitality
2 Agriculture

Types of Exploitation* (number)
33 Sexual Exploitation

Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)
5 Low Level Criminal Activities#

4 Other

3 Kidnapping

32 Not Known

2 Friend Visit#
1,582 Labour Exploitation

2 Sold by
Non-Family

1,590 Offer of Employment or Labour
Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

53

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Mean

Afghanistan

83.00

47.39

53.31

84.55

67.06

15.14

19.85

17.45

35.49

21.98

Bangladesh

46.78

46.04

33.63

50.02

44.12

Brunei

60.78

30.99

99.99

63.93

63.93

Cambodia

53.68

42.96

57.40

12.00

41.51

China

55.12

26.90

43.84

52.78

44.66

Hong Kong, SAR China

42.28

17.55

21.44

35.65

29.23

India

37.07

36.68

43.88

87.78

51.35

Indonesia

39.15

43.35

50.38

36.01

42.22

Japan

25.23

19.09

22.16

19.13

21.40

Laos

56.64

34.01

53.98

1.19

36.45

Malaysia

34.90

32.43

46.39

40.33

38.51

Mongolia

39.22

36.74

40.87

3.54

30.09

Myanmar

57.81

50.11

50.53

66.99

56.36

Nepal

42.30

43.22

34.74

41.21

40.37

New Zealand

13.31

22.24

16.09

21.51

18.29

North Korea

71.20

48.27

62.88

1.00

45.84

Pakistan

58.40

41.98

52.70

96.79

62.47

Papua New Guinea

50.12

62.85

99.99

23.10

59.02

Philippines

44.76

39.62

52.34

53.95

47.67

Singapore

29.85

22.11

20.58

1.00

18.39

South Korea

38.20

34.64

28.98

17.32

29.78

Sri Lanka

47.01

35.12

31.82

31.08

36.26

Taiwan

34.91

33.38

22.34

1.76

23.10

Thailand

49.23

28.62

48.97

63.33

47.54

Timor-Leste

38.88

48.07

68.55

1.00

39.13

Vietnam

51.19

29.94

35.22

1.00

29.34

As a result of economic growth,
poverty rates across the region
have fallen, notably in India
and China.[44]Nonetheless, extreme poverty and unequal income distribution
within countries, particularly between the rural and urban
populations, persist as serious social and economic challenges.[45]|Refugees &conflict

Australia

All countries within the Asia-Pacific exhibit some pre-conditions
to modern slavery. Some countries, such as Afghanistan andPakistan have high levels of conflict, terrorism and displacement.
In other countries, such as Thailand and Myanmar, there issignificant discrimination against minorities. Some countries
in the region continue to exhibit weak rule of law, corruption
and poverty, all of which increase individuals' risk to modern
slavery. Though countries like Australia and New Zealand exhibit
high levels of development, stability and strong policies, someminority groups, including regular and irregular migrants, remain
at risk of exploitation.

54

Personal security

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Unemployment and underemployment are chronic problems in theregion which push men, women and children into risky migration
practices and debt bondage. In 2015, the unemployment rate inAfghanistan soared to 40 percent.[46] Myanmar also experienced
a high youth unemployment rate of 9.5 percent,[47] whichassisted the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) to recruit anduse underage children in conflict. According to Child SoldiersInternational, unaccompanied children searching for work wererecruited at railway stations, bus terminals, markets and outside
temples, and deceptively offered roles as drivers.[48]High levels of labour migration, some of which is regular but
can involve payment of illegal fees or other irregular aspects,
are reflected in patterns of exploitation. The Philippines has
one of the largest migratory populations with their national
economy largely depending on Overseas Filipino Worker's(OFW) remittances.[49] The OFWs have been deemed the 'newheroes' of the Philippines' economy.[50] However, some OFWs are
subjected to exploitation throughout the Asia-Pacific, Europe,
North America and the Middle East.[51] In November 2015, ten
Filipina trafficking victims in Iraqi Kurdistan were rescued andrepatriated by the Philippine Embassy after being subjected to
debt bondage.[52]Asia Pacific cont.

Natural disasters and the effects
of climate change have increased
vulnerability to modern slavery.
Human traffickers preyed upon
post-disaster populations[53]
who are vulnerable to accepting
promises of jobs and security.

climatic conditions also exacerbate vulnerability,[57] increasing
the potential for internal displacement, migration and willingness
to search for improved livelihood opportunities through informal
channels.[58] Throughout 2015–16, cyclones in Myanmar,[59]flooding in India, and drought in Vietnam[60] have increased
insecurity for thousands of people.

This was evidenced following Typhoon Haiyan where humantraffickers were intercepted trafficking young women on false
job offers,[54] and seen again in 2015, after earthquakes in Nepal
displaced more than two million people.[55] Since then, Indian
officials uncovered trafficking networks with an estimated
12,000 Nepalese children trafficked to India.[56] Evolving

Systematic discrimination against some ethnic minorities andstateless populations across the region has resulted in patternsof high-risk migration. The Rohingya people, a Muslim ethnic
group living in Myanmar, continue to face systemic persecution
and denial of rights. In April 2015, the Myanmar Government
stripped Rohingya of their voting rights by rescinding theirtemporary ID cards, the last official identification available tothem.[61] Many lost their homes, farms, and the ability to work,
creating a dire choice between residing in shanty towns on theoutskirts of Rakhine or paying smugglers to transport them
abroad. In 2015, thousands were left stranded at sea.[62]GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Response
ratingCountry

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing risk

Government &business

Total score

BBB

Australia

64.44

81.85

56.25

69.05

25.00

65.34

BB

New Zealand

53.70

47.96

43.75

88.10

0.00

55.81

BB

Philippines

46.48

62.78

50.00

78.57

0.00

54.18

B

Bangladesh

39.44

60.37

68.75

59.52

0.00

49.32

B

Nepal

42.78

38.15

75.00

61.90

0.00

47.12

B

Vietnam

45.19

34.07

62.50

66.67

0.00

45.42

B

Sri Lanka

25.93

38.52

37.50

83.33

0.00

41.78

B

Thailand

35.19

35.93

56.25

61.90

0.00

41.52

B

Indonesia

37.59

40.56

50.00

54.76

0.00

40.61

B

India

44.07

45.00

43.75

45.24

0.00

40.37

CCC

Taiwan

50.56

23.62

43.75

42.86

0.00

39.51

CCC

Pakistan

28.52

37.04

25.00

76.19

0.00

38.72

CCC

Cambodia

25.19

33.33

37.50

64.29

0.00

35.67

CCC

Malaysia

36.48

51.48

31.25

35.71

0.00

35.15

CCC

Myanmar

41.11

8.89

50.00

50.00

0.00

33.76

CCC

China

35.56

23.70

31.25

52.38

0.00

32.07

CCC

Mongolia

27.78

31.67

31.25

47.62

0.00

31.08

CCC

Laos

28.70

26.48

31.25

50.00

0.00

30.87

CCC

Japan

42.59

19.44

18.75

45.24

0.00

30.85

CC

South Korea

35.93

31.85

12.50

33.33

0.00

28.49

CC

Singapore

36.11

22.41

0.00

42.86

0.00

27.12

CC

Timor-Leste

25.93

25.93

0.00

40.48

0.00

23.01

C

Brunei

7.41

35.74

12.50

30.95

0.00

19.56

C

Papua New Guinea

6.48

23.70

25.00

14.29

0.00

13.31

C

Hong Kong, SAR China

5.93

5.19

0.00

30.95

0.00

10.75

D

North Korea

0.00–13.89

0.00

–7.14

0.00

–5.76

No Rank

Afghanistan

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|55

Asia Pacific cont.

In 2015, of the 25 countries within the Asia-Pacific, 24 have lawsthat criminalise some forms of modern slavery. North Korea
remains the only nation in Asia—and the world—that has not
explicitly criminalised any form of modern slavery. Australia,
New Zealand and the Philippines have the strongest responses tomodern slavery. These countries have reasonably strong victim
support services, specialised law enforcement units, effective
and measurable NAPs, and laws, policies and programmes that
address cycles of vulnerability.
Victim-centred assistance programmes which empower
victims are essential to break the cycle of modern slavery. In
the Philippines, the government has supported NGO victim
recovery and reintegration programmes providing victims
with shelter, psychological, medical, legal and vocational
support.[63] Innovative programmes, such as DataMotivate,
allows survivors to develop vocational skills in research anddata cleaning. In Australia, the Salvation Army offers uniquesupport services for victims, including a survivor advocatesprogramme for rehabilitated people to engage government, media
and the general public on modern slavery.[64] However, the lackof victim identification and victim support continues to hinder
regional progress. For example, in Papua New Guinea (PNG),
the government has made no effort to identify, report or provide
victim support services to human trafficking victims.[65]
In March 2016, there was regional acknowledgement of theneed to engage constructively with the private sector to combat
exploitative labour practices.[66]Australia and Indonesia co-chaired
the Sixth Ministerial Conferenceof the Bali Process resulting in a
Ministerial Declaration pledging acomprehensive regional approachto managing mixed migration
flows and ensuring humane
labour practices within global
supply chains.[67]In March 2016, members of parliament from 13 Asia-Pacificnations, including Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Papua
New Guinea, endorsed the Kathmandu Declaration[68] to end
child marriage in South Asia.[69] While an important statementof intention, significant policy and legislative steps remain
to be taken by countries with high prevalence of forced andchild marriage. India is yet to finalise the National Strategy
on Prevention of Child Marriage,[70] Bangladesh is currently
developing the National Plan to End Child Marriage,[71] Nepal
is awaiting full government endorsement for the establishmentof the National Strategy to End Child Marriage,[72] and Pakistan
has yet to raise the minimum age of marriage at the provincial
level.[73] In 2015, the Bangladeshi Government considered
reducing the minimum age of marriage for girls from 18 to 16
years old[74] but refrained from doing so after strong opposition
from civil society and international groups.[75]As in all regions of the world, corruption and official complicity
continue to undermine responses in parts of Asia.[76] For
example, in India, there are allegations that some corrupt law
enforcement officials have connections to human trafficking
rings, receiving bribes to ensure the protection of traffickers.[77]56|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Official complicity and widespread corruption have also enabled
forced labour and debt bondage to occur within the PNG
commercial mining and logging industry.[78] In Cambodia, corrupt
officials have stalled progress in case investigations where theperpetrators are believed to have political, criminal or economic
ties to government officials.[79] In May 2015, the discovery ofabandoned people smuggling camps on the Thai/Malaysia borderpresented concerning evidence of official complicity in the tradeand exploitation of Rohingya people. One of the mass gravesites was located in an open field behind the police station in
Padang Besar, some 500 metres from the official border crossing
manned by officials from Thailand and Malaysia. Several arrestsof allegedly complicit officials have been made, including thearrest of army Lt. Gen. Manas Kongpan together with 52 local
politicians, community leaders, businessmen, and gangsters for
smuggling and trafficking.[80]In response to mounting international condemnation of domestic
worker exploitation, some governments in the Asia region havesought to improve protections for this vulnerable cohort. The
Philippines Government was the first in the region to sign the
ILO Convention on Domestic Workers and remains the only
country in the region to have done so. With rising evidence ofwidespread exploitation of migrant domestic workers in Hong
Kong, it is significant that the government of Hong Kong has
made some effort to increase the frequency of employment
agency inspections from 1,300 to 1,800 per year.[81] Some efforts
have also been made by Hong Kong and Singapore to prosecuteagencies and employers—in January 2016, two employment
agencies in Hong Kong were convicted for collecting excessive
placement fees from foreign domestic workers. [82] In March
2016, a Singaporean couple was convicted for starving their
Filipina maid for more than 15 months.[83] The following montha Singaporean couple went on trial for abusing their Indonesian
domestic helper, after subjecting her to physical, mental andverbal abuse.[84] Other governments have taken steps to address
the exploitation of their nationals in the Middle East. Following
the execution of two Indonesian maids in Saudi Arabia, in April
2015, Indonesia announced a domestic workers ban applying toseveral countries within the Middle East and Gulf.[85] While travelbans are intended to be a protective measure, there is a risk thiswill increase the potential for exploitation as Indonesians seek
unregistered work and travel through informal channels.[86] For
example, in March 2016, Indonesian National Police investigators
uncovered a human trafficking syndicate that allegedly sent up to
600 Indonesian domestic workers abroad illegally flying them toseveral of the banned Middle East and Gulf states.[87]Australia had the leading government response to modern slavery
in the Asia Pacific in 2016. This past year saw the inclusion ofsurvivors of trafficking and slavery included in the meetings ofthe government's National Roundtable on People Trafficking andSlavery. Throughout the year, strategic outreach and awarenessraising about the issue of forced marriage resulted in significant
numbers of referrals to law enforcement and NGOs of young people
at-risk and people wanting to avoid or leave forced marriages.
However, even this response has limitations. In 2015, criticalgaps were identified in Australia's labour laws regarding domestic
workers in private homes.[88]Asia Pacific cont.

Beggar woman with shadow, Kabul, Afghanistan, 2002.
During the rule of the Taliban (1996 – 2001), women
were forbidden to work, to leave the house without amale escort, or to seek medical help from a male doctor.
Women who were doctors and teachers suddenly wereforced to be beggars in order to feed their families.
Photo credit, Steve McCurry

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|57

EUROPENORWAYESTONIAICELANDLATVIASWEDENFINLAND

LITHUANIACZECHREPUBLIC

UNITED KINGDOMSLOVAKIAHUNGARY

DENMARKSERBIAIRELANDPOLANDNETHERLANDSROMANIAGERMANYBULGARIA

BELGIUMKOSOVOLUXEMBOURG
FRANCE

TURKEYSPAIN

PORTUGALSWITZERLANDCYPRUS

AUSTRIAITALYSLOVENIA

MACEDONIA

CROATIAGREECEMONTENEGRO

Regional Proportion of Global Number

Average Government Response Rating

Average Vulnerability Score

54.2/100|

ALBANIA

Estimated Number Enslaved

1,243,400

58

BOSNIA &HERZEGOVINAGLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

2.7%

27.1%

Europe cont.

PREVALENCE
Rank

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population1

Macedonia

0.639

13,3002,078,000

2

Turkey0.626

480,300

76,721,000

3Poland0.476

181,100

38,025,000

4Bosnia and Herzegovina

0.467

17,8003,810,000

5

Romania

0.404

80,20019,849,000

5Greece0.404

44,20010,942,000

5Czech Republic

0.404

42,600

10,549,000

5Bulgaria

0.404

29,0007,176,000

5Serbia0.404

28,7007,087,000

5

Croatia

0.404

17,1004,225,000

5Lithuania

0.404

11,8002,920,000

5

Latvia

0.404

8,000

1,979,000

5Estonia

0.404

5,300

1,310,000

5Cyprus

0.404

4,700

1,165,000

5Montenegro

0.404

2,500

622,000

6

Albania

0.295

8,600

2,906,000

6

Kosovo

0.295

5,400

1,845,000

7

Hungary

0.228

22,5009,836,000

7

Slovakia

0.228

12,4005,426,000

7

Slovenia

0.228

4,700

2,066,000

8

Italy

0.211

129,600

61,373,000

9Portugal

0.123

12,80010,384,000

9Finland

0.123

6,700

5,485,000

9

Iceland

0.123

400

331,000

10

Netherlands

0.104

17,50016,896,000

11Germany

0.018

14,50080,738,000

11France0.018

12,00066,389,000

11United Kingdom

0.018

11,70064,856,000

11

Spain

0.018

8,400

46,513,000

11Belgium

0.018

2,000

11,268,000

11Sweden

0.018

1,800

9,754,000

11Austria

0.018

1,500

8,566,000

11

Switzerland

0.018

1,500

8,267,000

11

Denmark

0.018

1,000

5,660,000

11

Norway0.018

900

5,188,000

11

Ireland

0.018

800

4,659,000

11

Luxembourg

0.018

100

562,000

Despite having the lowest regional prevalence of modern slavery
in the world, Europe remains a destination, and to a lesser
extent, a source region for the exploitation of men, women andchildren in forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation.
According to the most recent Eurostat findings, European Union(EU) citizens account for 65 percent of identified trafficked
victims within Europe.[1] These individuals mostly originate
from Eastern Europe, including Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania
and Slovakia.[2] Non-EU trafficked victims are predominantly
from Nigeria, China and Brazil.[3] Forced labour and commercial

sexual exploitation remain the most commonly reported formsof modern slavery in Europe;[4] nonetheless, instances of otherforms of modern slavery, such as forced child marriage, havebeen identified in Turkey.[5]It is likely that the profile of identified victims may change intime as a result of the massive influx of migrants and refugees
in 2015 and 2016. An IOM survey of migrants on the movethroughout parts of Europe clearly indicates that people moving
out of conflict zones and through Europe are both at high riskof exploitation, and are already being targeted (see page 60).

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

59

The recent influx of refugees has strained European protection
measures, creating loopholes easily exploited by European
criminal networks.

It is estimated that as many as
10,000 children registered as
refugees are now unaccounted
for, with 5,000 missing in Italy
and 1,000 in Sweden.[6]While not all of these children have been trafficked, Europol warns
that gangs are now targeting these children for sexual exploitation,
slavery, and forced labour in farming and factory work.[7]Within the cases that have been formally identified by EU
authorities, the largest proportion of registered human trafficking
victims were female, approximately 80 percent of all victims.
Romanian nationals, particularly women, accounted for mostof the trafficked victims,[8] with many subject to commercial
sexual exploitation within Europe.[9] Romanian women and girls
are reportedly recruited by acquaintances, friends or relatives,
sometimes with violence.[10]Women and girls from Sub-Saharan Africa are also trafficked intomodern slavery in Europe, particularly domestic servitude andcommercial sexual exploitation. Nigeria is a source for persons
trafficked to Europe, particularly women who are exploited in
Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Sweden and the Netherlands.[11]According to the UK National Referral Mechanism, Nigeria
remains one of the most commonly recorded origin countries
for victims in their human trafficking registration system.[12]Nigerian trafficking victims reach Europe through an array ofcomplex trafficking networks by land, sea or air with a reliance on'connection houses' which accommodate people along the transit
routes of neighbouring countries.[13] In 2015, anti-trafficking unitsarrested leaders of a Nigerian-based international sex-trafficking
ring operating in Barcelona, Spain.[14]Cases of forced labour have been reported across Europe inagriculture, forestry, fishery, construction, catering, the textile
industry, domestic work and other sectors.[15] In the UK, of 3,266
adult and child victims identified in 2015, 1,183 experienced
some form of labour exploitation.[16] More recently, Lithuanian
gangmasters in the UK were arrested on modern slavery charges
for the alleged exploitation of Lithuanian men in a meat supplierfactory.[17] In Poland, Vietnamese workers have reported casesof exploitation by their Polish employer, who withheld their
passports, confiscated their mobile phones and forced individuals
to work 12–13 hour days, six days a week.[18]The Roma communities are among the most marginalised
populations within Europe.[19] Due to poverty and lack of accessto public services, some Roma families resort to trafficking theirown children, forced marriages or involving them in commercial
sexual exploitation as a survival strategy.[20] Roma children arepotentially vulnerable to being sold or rented to other individuals
for forced begging in countries such as Bulgaria.[21] Within some
Bulgarian Roma communities, 'bride kidnapping' continues,
where the marriage is legitimised through consummation.[22]In recent years, forced marriage has become an emerging concern
within Europe. Within European discourse, the issue of forced
marriage has been increasingly tied to issues of immigration andmulticulturalism.[23] To a certain extent, the discourse has raised
forced marriage as an imported cultural problem, resulting inpolicy initiatives focused on repression and tighter immigration
controls.[24] Cases of forced marriages have been reported
throughout Europe, in countries including Slovakia, Bulgaria,
Spain, Germany and the UK.[25] In June 2015, the UK prosecuted
their first forced marriage case since enacting forced marriage
laws in 2014.[26] The Forced Marriage Unit (FMU) reportedly
assisted 329 victims under the age of 18 and 427 victims aged
between 18 and 25 throughout 2015.[27]IOM survey on trafficking and exploitation of migrants
In 2016, the IOM began a survey of
migrants and refugees in Croatia,
Greece, the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia, Hungary, Serbia and Slovenia
travelling along the eastern Mediterranean
migration route. The 21-question survey
is directed at both understanding their
origins and the route taken but also theirexperiences along the route.
As of March 2016, of the almost 2,400
respondents, 7.2 percent reported
having experienced indicators of humantrafficking themselves during the journey;
be it working without being renumerated
to the expected amount, being forced
to work against their will, being offeredemployment from a stranger, being
approached to arrange a marriage, andbeing held against their will by nongovernment persons. A further 1.4 percent

60|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016of respondents understood that a family
member had experienced an indicatorof trafficking and 0.9 percent identified
that they knew of people travelling along
the route who had been approached tosell organs, body parts or blood for cash.
Though it is not possible to comprehensively
extrapolate these findings to the entire
migrant or refugee cohort, it does highlightthe reality faced by these vulnerable
populations and the likelihood ofsignificant abuse and exploitation along
the route. There are several trends among
those who answered in the affirmative
to an indicator of trafficking. Firstly, on
average, persons who experienced these
indicators were at least two years younger
than those who had not. Secondly, persons
travelling in groups were less likely to haveexperienced an indicator of trafficking thanthose travelling alone. Thirdly, persons of
Afghan, Syrian and Pakistani nationality
were more likely to experience exploitation
than persons from other backgrounds.
Finally, men were more likely to be
exploited along the journey than women,though this may be attributable to otherfactors such as more men travelling, andtravelling alone.

Asia Europe
Pacific cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015
The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is thelargest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victimsof trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countriesof destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded

Victims Supported by IOM in Europe in 2015

in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015
in Europe.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' arebased on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Age of Victims at Time of Assistance
Average age of victims

31.8yrs

Approximately 50% of all victims wereaged between 23 and 42

Gender Breakdown
42.5% Female [91]Number of victims

Percent of IOM Global Total

214

4.4%

57.5% Male [123]Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)
16 Prostitution
3 Domestic Work
3 Transport
2 Factory Work
2 Hospitality
1 Begging
1 Childcare
1 Low-level Criminal Activity
1 Not Known
1 Small Street Commerce
1 TradeTypes of Exploitation* (number)
6 Forced Marriage

Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)
3 Labour Exploitation

3 Not Applicable
3 Sold by Non-Family

15 Other

3 Family Visit
4 Education#
69 Labour Exploitation

5 Sold by Family
6 Not Known
12 Friend Visit
2 Tourism

77 Sexual Exploitation#

127 Offer of Employment orLabour Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

61

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights|

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Albania

52.88

29.58

42.36

18.25

35.77

Austria

21.47

18.14

14.05

33.14

21.70

Belgium

25.42

19.83

24.03

31.28

25.14

Bosnia and Herzegovina

58.88

25.21

32.99

26.43

35.88

Bulgaria

40.41

20.54

33.79

30.50

31.31

Croatia

36.51

25.29

36.88

16.54

28.80

Cyprus

27.60

23.25

28.95

30.90

27.67

Czech Republic

27.22

19.38

31.55

27.78

26.48

Denmark

15.68

18.53

11.06

23.92

17.30

Estonia

35.94

16.87

39.31

11.14

25.81

Finland

22.07

19.69

19.08

22.66

20.87

France

26.13

20.27

18.01

44.77

27.30

Germany

23.61

19.97

20.81

40.76

26.29

Greece

37.64

22.74

38.10

38.77

34.31

Hungary

23.66

20.69

35.56

23.30

25.80

Iceland

24.88

12.22

20.43

15.03

18.14

Ireland

19.07

22.62

20.21

33.13

23.76

Italy

36.39

21.50

33.62

38.56

32.52

Kosovo

55.11

39.25

42.13

15.94

38.11

Latvia

41.95

20.25

33.22

12.95

27.09

Lithuania

35.09

20.58

34.10

16.94

26.68

Luxembourg

22.99

18.64

9.76

49.43

25.20

Macedonia

49.81

24.38

44.06

24.11

35.59

Montenegro

41.68

22.15

38.08

23.45

31.34

Netherlands

17.60

17.86

21.64

28.58

21.42

Norway

17.88

19.90

14.85

34.90

21.88

Poland

34.76

19.50

29.07

23.33

26.66

Portugal

21.50

22.62

16.06

16.89

19.27

Romania

39.26

25.86

31.83

18.74

28.92

Serbia

47.80

21.75

30.24

27.05

31.71

Slovakia

32.47

20.94

31.60

16.42

25.36

Slovenia

21.82

22.08

28.50

13.72

21.53

Spain

25.14

23.19

18.65

29.67

24.16

Sweden

21.39

19.70

10.84

38.60

22.63

Switzerland

16.93

16.60

13.69

30.98

19.55

Turkey

45.47

29.38

44.11

57.55

44.13

United Kingdom

18.45

20.37

21.83

46.50

26.79

Many European countries rank high on indices of peace,democracy, anti-corruption, human rights and access to social
services, all of which provide important protection fromvulnerability to exploitation. This is not consistent across Europe,with some countries, notably Kosovo, Turkey, Albania, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, and Greece having a higher risk profile,reflecting high political instability, low confidence in the judicial
system and high levels of crime, corruption and discrimination.

62

Personal security

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

For example, in Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, theEuropean Parliament has identified corruption and the judicial
system as reform challenges towards accession talks within theEU.[28] In Greece, the turbulent economic situation has increased
vulnerability for populations seeking employment and livelihood
opportunities. In Greece, unemployment reached 24.4 percent inJanuary 2016 with a youth unemployment rate of 51.9 percent.[29]Europe cont.

In 2015–2016, the European migrant crisis has politically,
economically and socially strained the EU with the arrival ofmore than one million migrants and refugees by land and sea.[30]In the first quarter of 2016, the IOM registered the arrival of
179,614 refugees and migrants with approximately 1,232 people
missing or dead.[31]Irregular migration flows have stemmed from the Middle Eastand Sub-Saharan Africa. Many migrants and asylum seekers
have made the dangerous journey to Europe by crossing the
Aegean, Mediterranean or Alboran Seas using rubber dinghies
and wooden boats, or by land through Turkey and the Western
Balkans.[32] According to United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR) data, most of the arrivals are Syrian,Afghan, Pakistani, Eritrean and Somali nationals fleeing internal
conflict and political unrest.[33]Desperate to reach Europe, these asylum seekers and migrants
have turned to people smugglers to facilitate their passage.[34]Migrants and asylum seekers with limited resources are at highrisk of being exploited by brokers, recruiters and criminals along
the route. Unaccompanied minors and women are particularly
vulnerable to exploitation. According to UNHCR victim
testimonies, asylum seekers and migrants who have run out
of money or have been robbed on the way are more likely toengage in 'survival sex' in order to pay smugglers to continue
their journey.[35] In addition, cases of exploited unaccompanied
Pakistani boys have been reported, where naked photographs areposted online with demands that their families send money.[36]In 2015, approximately 70 percent of arrivals to Europe were men,and so far in 2016, this has significantly shifted to approximately
60 percent of women and children.[37] This demographic shift
poses significant challenges for European governments, withresponsibility to provide protection for these vulnerable groups
through provision of gender appropriate services, livelihood
opportunities for women, and education for children.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Western European countries typically have well-developed
government responses to modern slavery. This reflects a
combination of resources but also political will that has resulted
in countries in the region agreeing to clear standard setting
and independent monitoring efforts. For example, the Councilof Europe’s Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking
in Human Beings (GRETA) is a monitoring and reporting
mechanism that holds governments in the region accountable for
their commitments under the Council of Europe Convention on
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. Within the region,
45 countries are signatories to the Convention indicating strong
regional cooperation and commitment towards combating crimesof modern slavery.[38]All countries in Europe criminalise modern slavery, either intheir criminal codes or in specific human trafficking legislation.
The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Portugal andCroatia have the strongest responses to modern slavery in Europe.
Generally, these countries have high scores in measurements on
criminal justice, victim support and addressing vulnerability to
break the cycle of modern slavery.
These countries have government-funded victim support services,
affordable public health care and primary school education
systems, specialised anti-trafficking police units, reporting

mechanisms, general anti-trafficking police training and all are
currently implementing NAPs committed to combating modern
slavery, except Sweden. In the UK, the implementation of theModern Slavery Act also marks progress towards strengthening
legislation in combating modern slavery.
Some of the countries in Europe are more affected by corruption
and complicity than others. For example, law enforcement
complicity, lenient judicial rulings and a lack of victim
protection in Romania continue to contribute to the exploitationof vulnerable populations. In 2015, Lithuanian police launched
an investigation into the director of a state-run orphanage,
allegedly operating a child sex-trafficking ring. In Bosnia andHerzegovina, local police have reportedly accepted bribes andsexual services in exchange for notifying brothel and nightclub
owners in advance of police raids.
In October 2015, the UK enacted the landmark Modern Slavery
Act 2015. This requires companies with an annual turnover of £36
million or more to report on steps they have taken to safeguard
their global supply chains from modern slavery. [43] This will affectapproximately 17,000 UK businesses which will impact global supply
chains around the world.[44] This initiative has not yet been matchedby developments in the legislation of other European countries.

Viola Tudor, a convicted human trafficker, served his sentenceat the Timisoara prison in western Romania. Sitting in avisiting room, Tudor wasn’t shy about explaining his role intrafficking, claiming that he helped the girls he sold—andboasting of the monetary temptations of a product that canbe sold and resold, over and over, with high profits.
Photo credit, Andrea Bruce/ NOORGLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|63

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE CONT.
Response
rating64|

Country

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing risk

Government &business

Total score

A

Netherlands

74.63

79.07

87.50

99.99

0.00

78.43

BBB

United Kingdom

74.63

79.07

43.75

69.05

37.50

67.12

BBB

Sweden

72.22

62.96

75.00

73.81

0.00

65.87

BBB

Portugal

58.52

73.52

68.75

83.33

0.00

65.22

BBB

Croatia

69.63

70.19

56.25

76.19

0.00

64.50

BBB

Spain

77.04

64.07

50.00

73.81

0.00

64.09

BBB

Belgium

71.30

50.74

75.00

71.43

0.00

62.36

BBB

Norway

65.93

82.41

37.50

69.05

0.00

61.47

BBB

Austria

57.96

59.07

68.75

76.19

0.00

60.16

BB

Germany

61.67

64.81

43.75

78.57

0.00

59.60

BB

Denmark

59.81

68.52

50.00

69.05

0.00

58.31

BB

Montenegro

69.63

60.56

56.25

59.52

0.00

58.27

BB

Hungary

59.81

41.85

68.75

76.19

0.00

57.06

BB

France

52.59

76.85

43.75

69.05

0.00

55.88

BB

Ireland

69.63

71.30

18.75

61.90

0.00

55.81

BB

Switzerland

60.19

64.81

25.00

73.81

0.00

55.26

BB

Macedonia

70.37

60.19

62.50

42.86

0.00

55.16

BB

Finland

52.78

62.04

56.25

66.67

0.00

54.96

BB

Slovenia

52.04

51.30

56.25

76.19

0.00

54.80

BB

Serbia

61.67

76.67

31.25

54.76

0.00

54.40

BB

Albania

73.70

46.30

43.75

61.90

0.00

54.34

BB

Poland

46.11

47.96

68.75

76.19

0.00

53.96

BB

Latvia

58.89

50.19

43.75

71.43

0.00

53.79

BB

Czech Republic

54.81

50.74

56.25

66.67

0.00

53.19

BB

Lithuania

59.26

54.81

25.00

73.81

0.00

51.82

BB

Cyprus

54.26

74.44

18.75

61.90

0.00

50.55

B

Italy

42.59

65.93

37.50

69.05

0.00

49.44

B

Bosnia and Herzegovina

57.41

43.70

31.25

69.05

0.00

48.54

B

Kosovo

48.15

59.92

43.75

47.62

0.00

47.72

B

Slovakia

57.96

42.41

31.25

61.90

0.00

47.66

B

Turkey

57.41

47.41

37.50

52.38

0.00

47.06

B

Bulgaria

43.15

38.52

43.75

71.43

0.00

45.23

B

Iceland

45.37

52.22

37.50

45.24

0.00

42.44

B

Romania

37.59

36.85

56.25

50.00

0.00

40.52

CCC

Estonia

30.19

23.33

31.25

80.95

0.00

39.40

CCC

Greece

53.89

36.85

18.75

38.10

0.00

37.42

CCC

Luxembourg

33.15

31.67

68.75

26.19

0.00

33.81

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Asia Europe
Pacific cont.

The Netherlands’ leading response
The Government of the Netherlands’
approach to addressing modern slavery
is the most comprehensive in Europe andthe world. The Government shows strong
commitment to combating modern slavery
crimes through comprehensive legislation,
an independent National Rapporteur on
Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual
Violence Against Children, a National
Referral Mechanism and a Task Forceon Human Trafficking. The mandate of
the Task Force has been extended until
2017 to broaden the fight against humantrafficking focusing on labour exploitation,
sexual exploitation and abuse in theprostitution sector.[45]The Dutch Government is proactive inwide-ranging efforts to prevent andidentify modern slavery victims. In June
2015, the National Referral Mechanism,comprising of the Ministry of Security

and Justice, the Ministry of Public Health,Wellbeing and Sports and the Ministryof Social Affairs and Employment,
established a central website to inform
assistance workers, victims and membersof the public.[46] The aim of the website
is to educate the community, and link
victims and assistance workers to
relevant organisations, like shelter andcare institutions or the Criminal Injuries
Compensation Fund.[47]The Netherlands currently faces thechallenge of dealing with an influx of
Syrian refugees, some of whom may
have been subjected to forced labouror forced marriage. Between September
2015 and January 2016 around 60 Syrian
child brides entered the country.[48] In
2015, the Netherlands Marechaussee
arrested approximately 330 suspects, anincrease of 60 compared to 2014. Around200 suspects were arrested during Mobile
Security Monitoring Checks (MTVs), 25
percent of whom had Dutch nationality, 15
percent of whom had Syrian nationality.
[49]
In 2015, the government also reported
they would increase the available prison
sentence for human trafficking from fourto six years.[50]The Netherlands recognises the centralityof cooperating with source and transit
countries. The government has madeagreements with Hungary, Bulgaria
and Romania to combat the structureof trafficking and the investigationof specific cases.[51] In 2016, Project
TeamWork!, a joint project between the
Netherlands, Luxembourg, Slovakia andMalta, launched a manual for experts oncooperation against trafficking in humanbeings for labour exploitation.[52]Company reporting requirements under UK Modern Slavery Act 2015
In 2015, the UK Parliament passed theModern Slavery Act. One of the innovationsof this legislation is a requirement that
British companies with a turnover of £36
million or more are required to publish astatement detailing what steps—if any—
are taken to eradicate slavery within theirbusiness and supply chains.
It is currently impossible to tell categorically
how many companies have complied
because there is no central register ofthese reports. The Business & Human
Rights Resource Centre (BHRRC) has
maintained an informal register; as of 1
March 2016, 83 companies have provided
statements.[53] While Ergon found 100
companies had reported as of 15 March2016.[54]The companies that have made statements
are diverse and include famous national
fashion brands such as Jigsaw, tea
suppliers, construction organisations andmanufacturers, recruitment agencies, andeven the Birmingham Airport. There areeven statements from three companies
who were not required to report.
However, merely issuing a statement
does not fulfil the requirements unders54 of the Modern Slavery Act by default.
To comply with the Act, this statement
must be signed by a company director
or equivalent, and have a URL link fromthe company’s website.
Notably, only 22 of the 83 statementsthat appear on the BHRRC site meetboth the legal requirements under the
Act— therefore, less than 27 percent of
the published statements comply with
the Act’s basic requirements. Further,
only nine statements met both theserequirements and provided further
information on six suggested criteria
under s54(5) of the Act. Interestingly, thestatement released by the Birmingham

Airport was not signed by a director or
equivalent as required under s54(6);however, it did contain a link per s54(7).
The statement from Jigsaw did not fulfil
either legal requirement, nor did it reporton the criteria suggested.
These initial findings point to a clear stepthat can be taken by the government toimprove the reporting requirement. The
difficulty uncovering which companies
have reported suggests the need for acentral register which members of the
public can access. If the Act relies on
consumer pressure to drive corporate
action, then consumers must have accessto the information.
For more information on the requirementsof the Modern Slavery Act 2015, please see
www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/30/
contents/enacted

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

65

RUSSIA AND EURASIABELARUSRUSSIAKAZAKHSTANKYRGYZSTANTAJIKSTAN

UKRAINE

MOLDOVAGEORGIAARMENIAAZERBAIJANTURKMENISTAN

Estimated Number Enslaved

Regional Proportion of Global Number

Average Government Response Rating

Average Vulnerability Score

2,809,700
38.1/10066|

UZBEKISTANGLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

6.1%

37.0%

Russia and Eurasia cont.

PREVALENCE
Rank

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

1

Uzbekistan

3.973

1,236,600

31,125,000

2

Russia0.732

1,048,500

143,335,000

3Tajikistan

0.638

54,1008,482,000

4

Ukraine0.467

210,400

45,064,000

4Kazakhstan

0.467

81,60017,488,000

4Azerbaijan

0.467

45,0009,635,000

4Belarus0.467

44,6009,550,000

4Kyrgyzstan

0.467

27,7005,934,000

4Georgia

0.467

20,9004,487,000

4

Armenia

0.467

14,1003,018,000

5

Turkmenistan

0.295

15,8005,374,000

5

Moldova

0.295

10,4003,538,000

Cases of state-sponsored forced labour have been documented
in several countries in the Eurasia region. According to some
reports, there are up to 20,000 North Korean workers in Russia,
working in the construction industry, oil refineries, lumber, roads
and waterways.[1] While these positions are said to be highly
sought after in North Korea (with some people reportedly paying
bribes to get these roles), workers in these positions are tightly
controlled and are required to pay at least 90 percent of any
wages to the North Korean state. In some cases, workers are
not paid wages at all; instead, they are paid in kind through theprovision of daily meals.[2] Testimony from workers suggests thatcitizens are not able to take these positions unless they have atleast two children in North Korea,[3] indicating an implicit threatof retribution against family members.

The Governments of both
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
reportedly subject their citizens
to forced labour during annual
agricultural harvests. While itis impossible to verify with any
precision the scale of thesepractices, it is reported that in
Turkmenistan, tens of thousands
were forced to work in the cotton
sector.[4]Similarly in Uzbekistan, it is estimated that more than one
million[5] people worked in the cotton sector, and there areconflicting reports about the levels of forced labour. According
to NGO reports, regional production quotas are enforced by
local authorities who achieve compliance through appeals to thenational good but also through threats related to the termination of
employment,[6] heavy fines,[7] debt bondage,[8] asset confiscation[9]and police intimidation.[10] This stands in contrast to findings by
the International Labour Organization which, in response to arequest for monitoring by the World Bank of specific projects,
found no conclusive evidence of forced labour practices inWorld Bank beneficiary projects but did note that, "worrying
reports were received from other sources which have reported
forced labour practices, and of harassment and threats to people
conducting their own monitoring."[11] The International Labour
Organization has developed a Decent Work Country Programmewith the government of Uzbekistan, being implemented from2014–2016. This includes a survey of working conditions in the
cotton harvest, a review of national legislation and practice, andcapacity building for law enforcement and labour inspectors.[12]Reports suggest instances of forced labour and recruitment ofchildren for armed conflict in the Ukraine. Citizens of occupied
territories (such as Donetsk) have been detained for minor
public order offences and forced to participate in 'punishment
brigades'.[13] These have involved war-related duties such as
filling sandbags and digging trenches in direct exposure to theongoing conflict.[14] Concerns have also been raised about theuse of child soldiers in the region. Images released by Russian
media have shown a 15-year-old squad leader posing in frontof a captured tank,[15] and Ukrainian media has documented thewounding of a 17-year-old combatant.[16] The boy told media,"it's not a person's age that matters here, but how prepared they
are to fight for their country".[17]Cases of forced labour have been identified within the large
populations of migrant workers existing with the region. In
Kazakhstan, sectors implicated include the construction, [18]hospitality[19] and domestic sectors.[20] Other documented cases
involve the use of wage-related deception to keep migrants in
exploitative conditions,[21] where they were coerced throughthe use of physical[22] and psychological abuse.[23] In Armenia,
forced labour cases have been identified in the agricultural,[24]construction[25] and trade sectors.[26] A 2015 study of forced labourin Armenia did not document evidence of explicit threats, but it
did document deception and the confiscation of documents.[27]In some countries within the region, the issue of forced marriage,
including through traditional practices of bride kidnapping, hasreportedly made a resurgence. It is estimated that 11,800 womenare subjected to bride kidnapping each year in Kyrgyzstan.[28]Nationals from countries in the Eurasia region fall within the top
10 group of countries of origin for victims of trafficking identified
by national authorities in the EU.[29] Russia is the fifth largest
country in this category and Ukraine is seventh.[30]

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

67

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Armenia

53.66

27.38

42.63

24.90

37.14

Azerbaijan

68.90

28.23

28.17

23.05

37.09

Belarus

58.41

20.48

35.88

23.80

34.64

Georgia

51.00

28.43

35.95

24.42

34.95

Kazakhstan

59.05

22.08

28.19

22.12

32.86

Kyrgyzstan

54.16

28.33

36.37

21.88

35.18

Moldova

47.52

28.20

38.04

14.41

32.04

Russia

57.21

18.47

40.66

57.47

43.45

Tajikistan

62.85

37.62

41.68

27.53

42.42

Turkmenistan

68.14

28.65

43.34

9.22

37.34

Ukraine

61.97

21.39

35.80

43.41

40.64

Uzbekistan

74.62

28.35

32.09

12.14

36.80

Given the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, forced migration
remains a significant trend. The Ukrainian civil conflict led
to the displacement of at least one million people.[31] Most
were women and children fleeing from Crimea, Donetsk andother eastern regions.[32] Upon arrival in the West, they lacked
employment prospects, financial resources and social services.[33]Indeed, many health services were closed due to the war effort
and no department has taken clear responsibility for protecting
the displaced.[34] The men who stayed behind to defend theirproperty were also vulnerable to forced military service[35] andforced labour to support the war efforts of pro-Russian rebels.[36]With high levels of unskilled labour migration to the RussianFederation comes accompanying vulnerability to exploitation.[40]High population growth and limited job opportunities [41] informer Soviet states such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and the
Kyrgyz Republic[42] encouraged migrants to emigrate.[43] Suchmigrants are known to work in the shadow economy,[44] which isconcerning yet unsurprising given tighter immigration restrictionsin the Russian Federation.[45] Approximately 40 percent of the
migrants lived in overcrowded, poorly maintained residencessuch as trailers and abandoned factories,[46] exacerbating preexisting ethnic conflicts.[47]There are also extensive labour migration movements both fromand within this region. Kazakhstan is a popular destination for
labour migrants particularly from Uzbekistan, as it offers higher
wages than neighbouring countries, visa-free entry and has asimilar language.[37]There have been widespread reports of public and institutional
xenophobia from within the Russian Federation.[48] These attitudes
have manifested in the form of illegal (yet administratively
endorsed) 'volunteer squads' to track down illegal migrants,[49]anti-foreigner riots[50] and allegations of beatings orchestrated
by police and extremist members of the public.[51] Such abuses
were alleged to be met with impunity by the legal system,
owing to both a fear of reprisal[52] and an absence of effective
prosecution.[53]It is reported that labour migrants
experience routinely poor
living and working conditions in
Kazakhstan, with an estimated 20
percent of workplaces having no
amenities such as drinking water,
toilets or a place to eat.
Accommodation provided or found by employers or recruiters isovercrowded, averaging 5.6 people per room but sometimes up
to 40 people per room.[38] Russia is the second largest destination
country for migrants in the world, hosting more than 11 million
migrants.[39] Many migrants continue onto Russia as it offers
higher wages than Kazakhstan.

68

Personal security|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Despite their desire to create a better life for their families,
currency instability led to economic uncertainty in Central Asian
countries of origin. Remittances sent to families were typicallytransferred in small denominations of rubles.[54] Since the ruble
exchange rate was less stable than other currencies during thereporting period,[55] the remittance system adversely affected
the economic outlook of some countries, such as the Kyrgyz
Republic and Tajikistan.[56]Russia and
AsiaEurasia
Pacific cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015
The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is thelargest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victimsof trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countriesof destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded

in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 inRussia and Eurasia.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' arebased on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in Russia & Eurasia in 2015

Age of Victims at Time of Assistance
Average age of victims

29.5yrs

Approximately 50% of all victims wereaged between 20 and 37

Gender Breakdown
56.1% Female [1,482]

Number of victims

2,643

Percent of IOM Global Total

54.4%

43.8% Male [1,159]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)
87 Construction
26 Factory Work
16 Agriculture
9 Transport
6 Prostitution
5 Other
4 Small Street Commerce
1 Begging
1 Childcare

Types of Exploitation* (number)Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

201 Sexual Exploitation

1 Not Known
3 Kidnapping

1 Family Visit
1 Tourism

4 Offer of Education
Opportunities#

34 Not Applicable

530 Labour Exploitation#

14 Other

502 Offer of Employment orLabour Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|69

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Response
ratingCountry

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing risk

Government &business

Total score

BB

Georgia

67.59

58.70

56.25

59.52

0.00

57.22

BB

Moldova

55.56

57.59

50.00

64.29

0.00

52.41

B

Ukraine

62.04

47.78

12.50

61.90

0.00

46.44

B

Armenia

48.33

49.81

56.25

50.00

0.00

45.75

CCC

Azerbaijan

28.33

60.37

18.75

57.14

0.00

38.01

CCC

Tajikistan

41.99

34.44

25.00

54.76

0.00

36.14

CCC

Belarus

35.37

26.11

43.75

52.38

0.00

34.31

CCC

Kyrgyzstan

27.96

35.74

37.50

50.00

0.00

33.50

CCC

Kazakhstan

38.33

44.07

18.75

35.71

0.00

32.37

CC

Russia

21.48

28.33

12.50

61.90

0.00

28.24

CC

Uzbekistan

24.26

23.70

18.75

52.38

0.00

26.65

CC

Turkmenistan

14.81

35.74

12.50

54.76

0.00

25.90

With the exception of Georgia and Moldova, responses to modern
slavery within this region are still in their infancy. Georgia andMoldova were the only countries to score above 50 percent fora government response, with Georgia ranking number 18 in theworld on its government responses to modern slavery (a BB
rating) and Moldova at number 36 (also a BB rating).

One of the many innovations
in Moldova is its Centre for
Combating Trafficking in Persons,established in 2006 under the
Ministry of Interior. The Centre
has the status of a directorate,
which, by law, has the mission toinvestigate and prosecute humantrafficking crimes and otherrelated crimes.[57]Half of the countries in this region have conducted modern
slavery awareness-raising activities since 2010. These campaigns
were only conducted systematically in two countries. In Georgia,
awareness-raising media was broadcast between 2012 and2014.[58] In Armenia, an anti-trafficking hotline has regularly
been promoted since 2007.[59] All countries except Turkmenistan
operated some form of public reporting mechanism. All countries
except Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan have carried out antitrafficking training for front-line police officers.
Victim support services of some kind were available in eachcountry in the Eurasia region, with most governments contributing
financially to their running costs (the exceptions being Russia
and Turkmenistan). However, services typically concentrate on
women's needs only and half of the countries in this region do
not have services for men. Victim referral mechanisms existed
in only four countries and actual evidence of referral was only
found in Georgia. This scheme was set up by the governmentof Georgia's Council on Trafficking in Human Beings[60] andincludes free translation services,[61] legal counsel[62] and accessto social programmes.[63]70|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Legislative efforts to criminalise modern slavery in Eurasia arefurther behind than other regions. While nine of the 12 countries
had criminalised human trafficking, only four have laws thatcriminalise forced labour and forced marriage, and three countries
have specifically criminalised slavery and the use of children
in armed conflict. Russia was the only country in the region
to adequately criminalise child prostitution. Where laws exist,
punishments vary: for example, trafficking can be punished by atemporary disqualification from positions of authority in Georgia,
and child prostitution can be punished by community service in
Kazakhstan.[64] While all countries except Russia and Belarus
allowed victims to participate in the legal process, only Azerbaijan,
Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
recognised in legislation that survivors of slavery are not criminals
for crimes committed under the control of perpetrators.
Only four countries in this region—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia
and Moldova—had an NAP to coordinate efforts on modern
slavery issues and no country provided adequate funding forthese plans. While all countries are part of a regional body whichtakes action on trafficking issues, once again, only four countries
signed bilateral agreements with countries of origin or destination.
It was, therefore, unsurprising to see evidence of modern slavery
victims being deported in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia,
Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Official complicity in modern slavery
cases was found in all countries except Georgia. For instance, in
Moldova, the head of a human rights organisation was arrested
for subjecting children to forced begging.[65] Similarly, there areallegations that Kyrgyzstan's police have extorted and sexuallyabused victims of child sex trafficking.[66] No investigations haveoccurred in relation to these incidents.[67]Though labour protection theoretically extends to all workers
in 11 of the 12 countries, in reality, this was not the case forArmenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
Indeed, state-sanctioned forced labour continued to exist in
Belarus, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan..

Russia and Eurasia cont.

Child carrying cotton in Dashoguz region, Turkmenistan, October 2015. Government-led forced labour of parents tofulfill harvest quotas resulted in children picking cotton in at least one area, the Boldumasaz district of Dashoguz region.
Photo credit, Ruslan Matiyev of Alternative Turkmenistan News (ATN)

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

71

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

CENTRAL AFRICAN
REPUBLIC

SENEGAL

BURKINA FASOCAMEROONGAMBIAERITREA

MAURITANIACAPE VERDEDJIBOUTI
MALI

NIGER
CHAD

SUDAN
SOMALIAGUINEA-BISSAUNIGERIA

SOUTH
SUDAN

GUINEASIERRALEONELIBERIA

IVORY
COAST

GHANA

UGANDA
KENYA

BENIN

TOGO

ETHIOPIADEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGOEQUATORIALGUINEATANZANIARWANDA

BURUNDI

MALAWIGABONANGOLAZAMBIAREPUBLIC
OF THE CONGOMAURITIUS
NAMIBIABOTSWANAMADAGASCARSOUTH AFRICA

MOZAMBIQUELESOTHO

Regional Proportion of Global Number

Average Government Response Rating

Average Vulnerability Score

28.2/100|SWAZILAND

Estimated Number Enslaved

6,245,800

72

ZIMBABWEGLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

13.6%
47.3%

Sub-Saharan Africa cont.

PREVALENCE
Rank

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

1

Democratic Republic of the Congo

1.130

873,100

77,267,000

1

Sudan

1.130

454,700

40,235,000

1South Sudan

1.130

139,400

12,340,000

1Somalia

1.130

121,900

10,787,000

1Central African Republic

1.130

55,4004,900,000

2

Mauritania

1.058

43,0004,068,000

3

Gambia0.878

17,5001,991,000

4Madagascar

0.674

163,400

24,235,000

4Malawi

0.674

116,100

17,215,000

4Zambia0.674

109,300

16,212,000

4Sierra Leone

0.674

43,5006,453,000

4Eritrea

0.674

35,3005,228,000

4

Namibia

0.674

16,6002,459,000

4Lesotho

0.674

14,4002,135,000

4

Swaziland

0.674

8,700

1,287,000

5Tanzania

0.638

341,400

53,470,000

5Angola0.638

159,700

25,022,000

5Ivory Coast

0.638

144,900

22,702,000

5

Niger

0.638

127,000

19,899,000

5Burkina Faso

0.638

115,600

18,106,000

5Zimbabwe

0.638

99,60015,603,000

5

Chad

0.638

89,60014,037,000

5Guinea0.638

80,50012,609,000

5

Rwanda0.638

74,10011,610,000

5Burundi0.638

71,40011,179,000

5

Togo

0.638

46,6007,305,000

5Republic of the Congo

0.638

29,5004,620,000

5Liberia

0.638

28,7004,503,000

6

Uganda0.626

244,400

39,032,000

6

Cameroon

0.626

146,100

23,344,000

6

Mali

0.626

110,200

17,600,000

7Guinea-Bissau

0.620

11,4001,844,000

8

Mozambique

0.520

145,600

27,978,000

8Senegal

0.520

78,70015,129,000

8Botswana

0.520

11,8002,262,000

8

Djibouti

0.520

4,600

888,000

9

Nigeria

0.481

875,500

182,202,000

10South Africa

0.453

248,700

54,954,000

10Cape Verde

0.453

2,400

521,000

11

Ethiopia

0.414

411,600

99,391,000

12

Kenya

0.410

188,800

46,050,000

13

Ghana

0.377

103,300

27,410,000

14

Benin

0.295

32,10010,880,000

14

Gabon

0.295

5,100

1,725,000

14Equatorial Guinea

0.295

2,500

845,000

15

Mauritius

0.165

2,100

1,265,000

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|73

In 2016, the estimates of modern slavery in Sub-Saharan Africa
accounted for approximately 13.6 percent of the world's total
enslaved population. Within the region, Central African Republic,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan
and Mauritania have the highest rates of modern slavery. As
evident from surveys conducted in Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa
and Ethiopia by Walk Free Foundation, slavery in Sub-SaharanAfrica takes the form of forced labour and forced marriage. In
Ghana, survey results suggest that there are an estimated 103,300
people enslaved in that country, of which 85 percent are in forced
labour, and 15 percent are in forced marriage. For forced labour,the main industries of concern are farming and fishing, retail sales
and then manual labour and factory work. In Nigeria, survey
results suggest that forced labour is predominantly within thedomestic sector, although it was impossible to survey in three
regions due to high conflict. In South Africa, the industries mostreported in the survey include the commercial sex industry,
manual labour industries such as construction, manufacturing
and factory work, and drug trafficking.
There is evidence that the governments of Eritrea and Swaziland
actively sanctioned the use of forced labour. In Swaziland, a practiceof 'royal tribute labour' exists whereby royal chiefs are alleged to
enforce forced labour projects such as cattle herding.[1] Indeed, thegovernment attempted to backtrack on its intentions when its use of
unpaid child labour was reported by international media.[2]Eritrea, on the other hand, operates a national service programme
which amounted to forced labour.[3] Officially, this is only
intended to last for one year, but there are reports detailingthat, in some cases, service is effectively indefinite.[4] These
conditions are so prevalent that the UNHCR has recommended
that Eritrean draught evaders be considered refugees.[5] While
the United Kingdom previously recommended that all Eritrean
draught evaders who fled illegally should be granted asylum,[6]this policy was changed in 2015 to reflect greater leniency showntowards returnees.[7]The prevalence of commercial sexual exploitation is witnessed
across the region; however, it is particularly prevalent whereinternal violence and political instability coexist. This is thecase in South Sudan, where safe zones for refugees have become'rape camps'[8] where soldiers are reported to be remunerated forfighting by raping women and girls.[9] News media outlets alsosuggest that government forces in South Sudan kidnap womenand girls[10]—from April to September 2015, charities working
on the ground estimated 1,300 women and girls were raped while
1,600 were abducted in three counties.[11] Women and children
from Ethiopia and Eritrea are also subject to commercial sexual
exploitation abroad, with cases reported in the Middle East.[12]The exploitation of children is prevalent in the region. In Ghana,
it is estimated that 21,000 child slaves currently work in the
Ghanaian fishing industry along Lake Volta and its surrounds.[13]The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) foundthat in 2014, human trafficking in the Sub-Sahara typicallytargeted women and children;[14] however, men were also at risk
albeit to a lesser extent.[15] This study also found that Sub-SaharanAfrica has the largest share of child trafficking in the world.[16] In
Togo, for instance, poverty[17] and a lack of education[18] pushed

74|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

parents to entrust their children to trafficking intermediaries;[19]typically a friend or relative of the victim.[20] Once in their care,the children were transferred to sites of exploitation.[21] For
girls, this typically involved forced domestic work and sexual
exploitation. For boys, this typically involved forced labour inthe agriculture industry.[22] In Burundi, similar factors enabled
the sex trafficking of young girls.[23] In Guinea-Bissau and theregion surrounding Senegal, families send their children to
become talibés[24]—students of a religious teacher, known asa marabout.[25] There is evidence that traffickers exploit thistradition as a means of trafficking children and subjecting them
to forced begging.[26] Recent findings suggesting that Senegal
has over 30,000 exploited talibés in the Dakar region alone.[27]While there have been positive developments on reducing theuse of children in armed conflict within Sub-Saharan Africa, theissue of child soldiers remains a problem across the region. In
the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), children continue
to be recruited by armed groups. In 2015, the United Nations
documented evidence that 241 child soldiers were recruited,[28] 80
were killed[29] and 92 were maimed in DRC.[30] The recruitment ofchildren into armed conflict reflects wider social and economic
issues, as children often enlisted voluntarily for protection andfinancial stability.[31]In the Central African Republic, it is estimated that 6,000–10,000
children remain involved with military forces.[32] Despite therelease of 300 children following pledges to cease the use ofchild soldiers,[33] there are fears that this development may be
short-lived due to ongoing aggression in the region.[34] Similarly,
while Chad officially ceased using children in its armed forces in
2014,[35] there is evidence that it has failed to implement its own
protocols on the handover of previously recruited children.[36]Madagascar, Malawi, Zambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Eritrea
are within the top 20 countries for child marriage worldwide.[37]Early marriage remained asignificant problem in the region,
with UNICEF predicting that halfof the world's child brides in 2050
will be African.[38]Despite progress in the North African region,[39] the Sub-Sahara
failed to achieve similar results.[40] In fact, a doubled rate of
reduction of child marriage would not be enough for absolute
numbers to decrease in the Sub-Sahara.[41] The interplay of conflictand marriage is significant with the Central African Republic
experiencing a significant number of internally-displaced people[42]and the second highest rate of child marriage in the region.[43]Broader economic conditions have varied, but with ultimately
disappointing effects on child marriage. While unemployment
and reduced wealth led men to marry later, this effect was notobserved in women.[44] Similarly, the decreased availability of'economically desirable' men did not appear to discourage childmarriage.[45] Rather, poverty and education remained the mostsignificant predictors of progress in this area.[46]Sub-Saharan
Asia Pacific
Africa cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015
The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is thelargest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victimsof trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countriesof destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded

in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 in
Sub-Saharan Africa.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' arebased on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in Sub-Saharan Africa
in 2015

Age of Victims at Time of Assistance
Average age of victims

23yrs

Approximately 50% of all victims wereaged between 17 and 27

Gender Breakdown
89.9% Female [79]Number of victims

88

Percent of IOM Global Total

1.8%

10.1% Male [9]Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)
9 Domestic Work
2 Hospitality

Types of Exploitation* (number)Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)
2 Friend Visit

17 Sexual Exploitation

1 Not Applicable2 Offer of Education
Opportunities
5 Sold by Family

#
53 Labour Exploitation

16 Other#
31 Offer of Employment or Labour
Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

75

VULNERABILITYCountry76|

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Angola

56.32

49.54

45.95

25.02

44.21

Benin

46.95

36.52

39.70

14.90

34.52

Botswana

37.25

42.82

46.38

19.21

36.42

Burkina Faso

59.55

40.77

40.73

25.98

41.76

Burundi

64.08

52.22

51.40

37.17

51.22

Cameroon

61.31

43.37

47.95

52.51

51.29

Cape Verde

33.33

20.30

55.40

36.34

36.34

Central African Republic

83.67

48.67

85.43

62.21

70.00

Chad

70.47

49.96

47.98

40.94

52.34

Democratic Republic of the Congo

78.42

56.33

56.72

82.43

68.48

Djibouti

49.13

43.61

55.25

32.42

45.10

Equatorial Guinea

56.66

40.62

46.38

1.00

36.16

Eritrea

59.44

51.05

62.88

24.82

49.55

Ethiopia

59.75

54.68

34.16

59.77

52.09

Gabon

51.58

31.51

42.38

16.97

35.61

Gambia

59.30

29.27

74.18

22.63

46.35

Ghana

51.89

38.42

47.45

28.26

41.51

Guinea

66.89

41.58

52.68

28.67

47.45

Guinea-Bissau

62.08

40.50

70.25

22.47

48.82

Ivory Coast

62.07

38.72

46.22

33.45

45.11

Kenya

54.53

52.84

46.75

72.28

56.60

Lesotho

40.33

52.26

68.23

9.58

42.60

Liberia

57.93

44.62

44.45

29.43

44.11

Madagascar

50.37

50.87

52.86

15.99

42.52

Malawi

54.63

56.74

47.78

21.06

45.05

Mali

64.04

34.08

31.69

57.41

46.80

Mauritania

65.96

40.54

49.85

30.74

46.77

Mauritius

29.24

24.49

26.58

1.00

20.33

Mozambique

39.91

48.46

54.40

35.86

44.65

Namibia

39.00

43.68

51.42

18.27

38.09

Niger

57.70

48.17

42.13

40.38

47.10

Nigeria

60.94

47.84

59.76

80.84

62.34

Republic of the Congo

65.17

44.69

52.43

28.94

47.81

Rwanda

55.44

47.65

46.23

42.00

47.83

Senegal

44.97

42.31

36.96

35.48

39.93

Sierra Leone

50.57

53.29

41.72

17.70

40.82

Somalia

73.03

64.82

55.97

74.46

67.07

South Africa

40.27

43.06

58.30

41.84

45.87

South Sudan

74.73

50.70

60.80

76.15

65.59

Sudan

80.64

54.12

46.18

85.04

66.49

Swaziland

57.69

53.88

67.33

15.39

48.57

Tanzania

51.66

54.67

47.66

40.46

48.61

Togo

64.78

39.82

47.78

24.09

44.12

Uganda

54.89

52.18

39.45

48.73

48.81

Zambia

45.10

58.76

50.03

24.46

44.59

Zimbabwe

60.28

52.25

48.92

26.78

47.06

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Sub-Saharan Africa cont.

Modern slavery in Sub-Saharan Africa was enabled by economic
conditions, violent conflict and territorial displacement, in
addition to widespread humanitarian and environmental crises.[47]The escalation of violence inNigeria following the Boko Haram
conflict[48] has had widespread
effects on Nigeria and acrossthe region, particularly in
Cameroon where refugees
fleeing conflict have sparked
a humanitarian crisis.[49]As of February 2016, 2.5 million people were displaced as aresult of the conflict and 20,000 people have been killed.[50]Conflict is also prevalent in Chad and Cameroon, where BokoHaram is also active in creating violent conflicts, and in recruiting
young entrepreneurs through predatory loans.[51]Displacement increases the risk of internal trafficking. In
Burundi, politically-motivated violence associated with President
Pierre Nkurunziza's third term has led to the displacement of atleast 145,000 people.[52] The ongoing conflict in Somalia[53] andRwanda[54] similarly continued to create vulnerability throughdisplacement. Due to the ongoing civil war in the Central African
Republic, approximately one-quarter of the country's population
have been internally displaced and approximately 450,000
remain displaced.[55] Displaced children, in particular, are at riskof domestic servitude, forced labour in agricultural industries andcommercial sexual exploitation in the cities.[56] Continuing unrestin the DRC has left 2.8 million people displaced[57] and at risk of
exploitation by armed groups in forced labour and compulsory
military service.[58] Homeless children in the state-controlled
capital of Kinshasa in the DRC were also at risk of domestic
servitude, forced begging and commercial sexual exploitation.[59]Slowed economic growth[60] and a failure to invest in domestic
employment[61] pushed citizens from central and western statesof Sub-Saharan Africa to seek work in Europe and the Middle
East.[62] These factors created the perfect conditions for internal
and transnational exploitation, as individuals migrating frompoverty-stricken rural areas to cities in search of employment
were left vulnerable to exploitative labour conditions [63] andpersons abandoning their home countries often took dangerous
migratory paths which also increased the risk of exploitation.

The critical migratory paths through and from Sub-Saharan Africa
are affected by violence and lawlessness; Migrants travellingto Saudi Arabia through Yemen were misinformed about theextent of the conflict.[64] Internal conflict and terrorist attacks leftmany stranded in the country[65] and vulnerable to exploitation.
Abduction and trafficking were also common along the Red
Sea coast leading there, especially in lawless regions of eastern
Sudan[66] and along the Ethiopian/Eritrean border.[67] Trafficking
from, through and to Somalia has also been widely reported.[68]While some of these victims are destined for the Middle Eastand Europe,[69] there are reports that children fleeing the Yemeni
conflict have been transported to Kenya for the purpose of sexual
exploitation.[70]While migrants had previously attempted to reach Europe
through Egypt and Israel, both countries have tightened bordersecurity.[71] Consequently, Mediterranean routes to Italy and theBaltic states through Libya became more popular.[72] This regionis still experiencing significant instability after the ousting of
Muammar Gaddafi in 2011.[73] Since the Islamic State occupied
the southern city of Sirte, it and the transitional government havebeen fighting for control over the country.[74]Within Libya, virtual lawlessness,large populations of vulnerable
migrant workers wanting totravel on to Europe willing towork to earn their passage, andxenophobia towards Sub-Saharanmigrants[75] allowed trafficking
networks to operate without fearof prosecution.
A pervading culture of family-orientated collectivism, in which
gender roles are rigid and seniority is highly revered[76] persists
in many countries across the region. Interactions between thesevalues, geopolitical conditions and economic factors contributeto the relative stability of forced and child marriage. Renewed
conflict and internal displacement created a need for physicaland economic security—conditions frequently cited to justify
child marriage.[77]GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Government responses to modern slavery in Sub-SaharanAfrica were characterised by inadequate victim protection
and a lack of coordination between government agencies andNGO bodies. Somalia,[78] the Democratic Republic of Congo,[79]Sudan[80] and Chad[81] faced severe political instability andinternal violence, including losing control of areas within theirborders, consequently reducing their capacity to combat modern
slavery. In Somalia, the government only controlled the capitalof Mogadishu and a small number of surrounding areas.[82]Consequently, reliable data on the steps taken by the government
to combat modern slavery was unavailable.

Despite 33 of the 45 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa running
campaigns against known modern slavery risks since 2010, few
have raised awareness on methods to identify victims. The only
country to make this an annual practice was Burundi, whose
Children and Ethics Brigade ran anti-trafficking awarenessprogrammes from at least 2011 to 2014.[83] While 28 countries
provided a mechanism to report modern slavery, less thanhalf covered all demographics and even fewer had evidenceof translation services. Comprehensive reporting mechanisms
were only provided in South Africa and Lesotho.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|77

Response
rating78|

Country

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing risk

Government &business

Total score

B

Nigeria

50.74

59.63

50.00

45.24

0.00

47.54

B

Uganda

50.93

50.19

37.50

59.52

0.00

47.36

B

South Africa

38.89

55.74

31.25

64.29

0.00

43.98

B

Sierra Leone

44.44

45.56

43.75

54.76

0.00

42.99

B

Mozambique

53.89

50.56

12.50

47.62

0.00

40.85

B

Benin

38.70

20.56

56.25

66.67

0.00

40.55

B

Senegal

49.63

32.59

25.00

54.76

0.00

40.20

CCC

Burkina Faso

47.41

30.56

37.50

42.86

0.00

37.86

CCC

Rwanda

30.93

45.19

31.25

54.76

0.00

36.78

CCC

Lesotho

31.48

25.74

50.00

59.52

0.00

36.66

CCC

Ethiopia

21.30

33.33

62.50

52.38

0.00

35.01

CCC

Djibouti

25.00

28.89

37.50

59.52

0.00

34.46

CCC

Cameroon

30.37

33.89

37.50

47.62

0.00

34.29

CCC

Ivory Coast

37.96

30.19

50.00

30.95

0.00

33.55

CCC

Zambia

33.89

29.81

43.75

38.10

0.00

33.06

CCC

Gambia

22.59

35.19

37.50

45.24

0.00

31.47

CCC

Namibia

28.15

22.04

31.25

52.38

0.00

31.33

CCC

Mauritius

34.44

27.41

18.75

45.24

0.00

30.93

CCC

Liberia

27.22

27.41

31.25

50.00

0.00

30.59

CCC

Swaziland

36.30

22.04

37.50

42.86

0.00

30.46

CC

Gabon

30.00

24.26

25.00

45.24

0.00

29.72

CC

Tanzania

27.04

26.48

25.00

47.62

0.00

28.84

CC

Chad

26.85

12.04

31.25

52.38

0.00

28.77

CC

Ghana

22.04

30.19

25.00

45.24

0.00

28.43

CC

Madagascar

31.30

14.44

31.25

42.86

0.00

27.33

CC

Botswana

24.81

14.81

37.50

42.86

0.00

26.22

CC

Mauritania

25.00

32.41

12.50

40.48

0.00

25.88

CC

Malawi

32.22

21.11

12.50

38.10

0.00

25.19

CC

Burundi

29.63

14.81

18.75

38.10

0.00

23.90

CC

Kenya

21.85

27.41

6.25

42.86

0.00

23.50

CC

Niger

12.41

29.26

25.00

40.48

0.00

22.95

CC

Republic of the Congo

22.22

8.89

37.50

35.71

0.00

22.33

CC

Mali

15.19

12.04

43.75

33.33

0.00

22.04

CC

Sudan

24.07

27.41

6.25

33.33

0.00

21.84

CC

Angola

20.37

20.37

31.25

28.57

0.00

21.52

CC

Zimbabwe

15.37

20.56

12.50

42.86

0.00

20.85

CC

Guinea-Bissau

14.81

32.04

25.00

21.43

0.00

20.56

C

Cape Verde

15.19

15.37

25.00

30.95

0.00

19.48

C

Togo

26.48

4.63

31.25

19.05

0.00

18.73

C

South Sudan

20.37

1.48

18.75

28.57

0.00

15.69

C

Democratic Republic of
the Congo

7.78

11.67

31.25

26.19

0.00

15.01

C

Guinea

2.78

12.96

31.25

28.57

0.00

14.28

C

Central African Republic

14.81

17.22

12.50

7.14

0.00

11.02

D

Equatorial Guinea

0.00

18.52

0.00

23.81

0.00

8.92

D

Eritrea

0.00

2.96

0.00

26.19

0.00

5.18

No Rank

Somalia

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Sub-Saharan Africa cont.

Almost 40 countries provided
some form of victim assistance;of these, 30 governments actively
contributed to victim support
services. Unfortunately, lessthan half of these governments
provided services for long-term
reintegration and, moreover, there
is a significant gap across SubSaharan Africa of victim support
services for adults and men.
Yet, even where services are available, the quality of support
remains an important issue; for example, in Malawi, the solegovernment-run shelter which only protects children has been
criticised as "so dire that children exploited in child prostitution
returned to the brothels from which they had been removed".[84]Although almost 20 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa had
produced an NAP addressing modern slavery issues, none
provides adequate funding for plans to be implemented. Few
governments in the region took steps to investigate domestic
labour conditions in the informal sector, and there were several
countries where labour regulations do not cover the informal
sector, such as Rwanda.[85] In terms of investigation, 27 countries
had a law enforcement unit dedicated to modern slavery issues.

However, most lacked sufficient resources in terms of fundingor staff to function properly. Additionally, evidence of standard
operating procedures was only found in Ghana. Only Gambia,
Nigeria and Senegal provided victim and witness protection
mechanisms inside the court and only Gambia, Malawi, Namibia,
Niger, Nigeria, and Swaziland provided protection outside thecourt. Moreover, despite the prevalence of children exploited in
the region, only 13 countries[86] provided special measures forchildren in criminal proceedings.
While 26 countries have criminalised the trafficking of men,
women and children and 25 have criminalised forced labour,
fewer have adequately criminalised other forms of modern
slavery. Only 14 countries criminalised both buyers andfacilitators of commercial sexual exploitation of children andonly six criminalised forced marriage. Only Burkina Faso has
criminalised all forms of modern slavery, including the useof children in armed conflict. However, the introduction oflegislation does not necessarily result in adequate sentences.[87]In 11 countries, sentences were found to be disproportionate
to crimes committed. For instance, child traffickers in Benin
were released on suspended sentences. Similarly, in Tanzania,
a labour trafficker was punished with monetary compensation
and an administrative fine.[88]Every country within Sub-Saharan Africa is involved in regional
bodies acting against modern slavery or human trafficking;moreover, 19 have signed bilateral agreements to cooperate
on modern slavery issues. These bilateral agreements included
preventing the deportation of victims, as between DRC
and Angola. However, information on the effectiveness of
implementation of these agreements is not available.

A talibe (boy studying in a Qur'anic school) begs on a bridge in Diamaguene, Senegal, May 18, 2015. Children who aresupposed to be learning the Qur'an are forced to beg for an average of 8 hours a day, many of them spend their days almost
without eating and end up sleeping on the streets due to fatigue.
Photo credit, Mario Cruz

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

79

THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICAJORDANLEBANON

SYRIA

IRAQ

KUWAIT

TUNISIA

MOROCCOISRAELIRAN

ALGERIA

LIBYA

EGYPT
SAUDI ARABIAQATARUNITED ARAB
EMIRATES

OMAN

YEMEN

Estimated Number Enslaved

Regional Proportion of Global Number

Average Government Response Rating

Average Vulnerability Score

2,936,800
32.7/10080|

BAHRAIN

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

6.4%

45.0%

MENA cont.

PREVALENCE
Rank

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

1

Qatar

1.356

30,3002,235,000

2

Iraq

1.130

403,800

35,730,000

2

Yemen

1.130

303,200

26,832,000

2

Syria

1.130

257,300

22,769,000

2

Libya

1.130

70,9006,278,000

3

Tunisia

0.766

85,000

11,102,000

4Morocco

0.639

219,700

34,378,000

4Jordan0.639

42,9006,718,000

5

Egypt

0.626

572,900

91,508,000

5

Iran

0.626

495,300

79,109,000

5Algeria

0.626

248,300

39,667,000

5Lebanon

0.626

28,7004,591,000

6

Kuwait0.467

18,2003,892,000

6Bahrain

0.467

6,400

1,377,000

7

United Arab Emirates

0.404

37,0009,157,000

8

Oman

0.295

13,2004,491,000

9Saudi Arabia

0.292

92,10031,540,000

10Israel0.140

11,6008,343,000

As violent conflict escalates and political, economic, social andsecurity spillovers destabilise many countries in the Middle Eastand North Africa (MENA), the profile of victims vulnerable tomodern slavery has shifted. Though MENA continues to act asa destination for men and women from Asia and Sub-SaharanAfrica who are attracted to the region with promises of wellpaying jobs, increasingly Middle Easterners themselves faced
exploitation and slavery in 2016. Victims were identified asforced recruits in state and non-state armed groups, as victims offorced marriage and victims of commercial sexual exploitation.
Foreign and local citizens were subject to forced labour and debt
bondage in service sectors such as domestic work, cleaning, andas drivers and restaurant workers, as well as in construction,
agriculture and mechanics.
Children in Syria, Iraq, Palestine and Yemen were recruited, trainedand deployed in violent conflict. There were increasingly grave
reports of children being used as suicide bombers, informants,
bomb makers and human shields. There are reports of families
selling disabled children to Islamic State (IS) in Iraq[1] and online
videos showing very young children carrying out assassinations
through beheading and shooting.[2] UNICEF estimates a fivefold increase in the recruitment of children in Yemen's civil war,
meaning that a third of combatants are children.[3]There are verified reports of women and children being captured,
sold into slavery and held in barbarous conditions by IS. In
2014, IS captured 3,000 women and children, mostly from theKurdish-speaking Yazidi minority group—the largest single
capture of women this century. IS propaganda claimed thatthe captured Yazidi women and girls were 'spoils of war' to be
divided among fighters.[4] Publications released by IS[5] provide
an extreme interpretation of Shari'a describing the legality andillegalities of dealing with slaves—"it is permissible to buy, sell,or give as a gift female captives and slaves, for they are merely
property, which can be disposed of..." This alarming resurgence ofslavery is evident in Raqqa, the self-proclaimed IS capital, andsurrounding IS-occupied territory where women can be bought
and sold at the market. There are reports of IS offering to sell
women back to their families for as much as US$40,000.[6]Forced marriage of children and women continues to be an issue.
The phenomenon of 'temporary' or 'tourist' marriages whereby
men, often from the Gulf States, travel abroad and temporarily
take a wife for the duration of their vacation has been identified
in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Morocco and India.[7] In some cases,
child brides are forcibly married by their parents for economic
gain. Children as young as 11 have been sold into temporary
marriages in Egypt. These temporary religious marriages bindthe girl to her husband for an agreed time frame—often days or
weeks at a time, sometimes only hours—but do not afford thechild or woman any legal rights. This leaves them vulnerable todomestic servitude and prostitution and, in many cases, denies
citizenship to any subsequent offspring.[8] In Morocco, the 2014
census revealed more than 100,000 child brides,[9] some of whom
may have been married without free and informed consent.
Refugee children from Syria and Iraq have been forcibly married
by desperate parents trying to ensure their economic security andprotect them from the threat of sexual violence.[10]Migrant workers from Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa continue
to flock to MENA for work. In 2015 there were reports that
Thai nationals were exploited on Israeli farms; [11] Filipina,
Nepali, Bangladeshi, Sri Lankan, Indonesian, Ugandan, Kenyan,
Ethiopian and Mauritanian women were abused in private
homes;[12] and Indian, Nepali, Pakistani and Bangladeshi menwere exploited in the construction of resorts, museums, stadiums
and infrastructure in UAE and Qatar.[13] Migrant workers are
subject to practices that may amount to forced labour including
extortionate recruitment fees, illegal confiscation of identity
documents, withholding and non-payment of salaries, hazardous
working conditions, unhygienic living conditions, unlawful
overtime performed under the threat of deportation, and physicaland sexual abuse.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|81

In 2015, in an IOM and Walk Free
Foundation study of 162 exploited
migrant workers from Iraq,
Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt and Saudi
Arabia, 100 percent of workers
had their identity documents
withheld, 87 percent wereconfined to their workplace and 76
percent had their wages withheld.
Though not representative of all cases, this data points to worryingly
widespread abuse and the ineffectiveness of law enforcement toquash these illegal but culturally-accepted practices.[14]Before the violence escalated, migrant workers in Iraq, Syria,
Libya and Yemen were already vulnerable to forced labour anddebt bondage commensurate with regional trends. However,the current crisis has magnified these issues and introduced
new risks and threats. In mid-2014, hundreds of South Asian
migrant workers in Iraq were caught in the crossfire between the
Iraqi military and IS. Those wanting to leave the country faceda difficult situation as employers retained worker passports.
Reports of IS holding migrant workers in situations of debt
bondage in Iraq have emerged since their rise to prominence in2014, as well as their use for forced labour, sexual exploitation
and as human shields in conflict.[15] Though many labour-sending
countries repatriated workers from Iraq, Syria, Libya and Yemen,concerning reports of South Asian workers accepting jobs in
the Gulf but then being deceptively sent to countries in conflictby brokers continue to emerge in 2016.[16] Refugees fleeing
conflict, including children, were subject to forced labour inthe agricultural sectors of neighbouring countries, particularly
Lebanon, while Egyptian men continue to be exploited on
Jordanian farms.

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights|

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Algeria

51.03

28.10

47.02

51.46

44.40

Bahrain

54.41

33.14

41.45

31.26

40.07

Egypt

51.25

27.90

62.96

54.85

49.24

Iran

70.71

32.99

48.60

51.44

50.94

Iraq

71.22

44.91

58.04

81.13

63.83

Israel

33.66

23.67

38.28

51.85

36.87

Jordan

48.39

27.97

54.16

37.73

42.06

Kuwait

59.29

27.97

41.30

15.89

36.11

Lebanon

55.39

29.32

50.98

58.00

48.42

Libya

77.85

22.99

81.44

53.21

58.87

Morocco

55.83

18.58

56.08

22.18

38.17

Oman

57.65

21.03

62.88

12.60

38.54

Qatar

48.79

15.26

50.50

12.30

31.71

Saudi Arabia

64.94

30.92

37.20

28.84

40.47

Syria

95.67

35.93

60.97

72.98

66.39

Tunisia

40.01

25.97

42.84

28.91

34.43

United Arab Emirates

41.71

22.64

30.75

18.36

28.37

Yemen

75.01

51.30

54.67

62.28

60.81

In 2016, conflict in Syria, Iraq, Libya, Palestine and Yemen,coupled with terrorist attacks in Algeria, Lebanon, Tunisia, Israel
and Egypt, have created a catastrophic humanitarian situation.
There is a strong statistical link between high levels of instability
within a country and an increase in that population's vulnerability
to modern slavery.[17] In cases of armed conflict, there is often
a corresponding weakening of the rule of law, providing fertile
ground for traffickers to profit with impunity.[18] The demand for
the State to respond to other humanitarian emergencies, coupledwith few specific human-trafficking services or organisations inthese countries, means that protection of vulnerable migrants
and support for victims of human trafficking in times of crisis islimited.[19] In 2015, the IOM and Walk Free Foundation found thatthe unprecedented displacement of Syrian and Iraqi populations

82

Personal security

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016has had a trifold effect on neighbouring host countries [20]:(a) increased competition for low-paying jobs and employment
in the informal economy; (b) increased incidence of all formsof modern slavery, such as child labour, forced begging andforced early marriage; and (c) reduced capacity of State actors
to respond to trafficking cases because already scarce resources
are outlaid on the emergency provision of services to refugees
instead of supporting migrant workers.[21]Though the number of refugees seeking international protectionin Europe and further afield is increasing in 2016, Syria and Iraq's
neighbouring countries continue to host almost 90 percent of thedisplaced population.[22] More than 142,000 Syrian children bornin exile are vulnerable to statelessness and more than 750,000
children are not in school[23]—worrying indicators of future risk

Asia Pacific
MENA cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015
The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is thelargest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victimsof trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countriesof destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded

Victims Supported by IOM in MENA in 2015

in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 inMiddle East and Northern Africa (MENA).
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' arebased on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Age of Victims at Time of Assistance
Average age of victims

29.8yrs

Approximately 50% of all victims wereaged between 25 and 35

Gender Breakdown
79.2% Female [210]

Number of victims

265

Percent of IOM Global Total

5.5%

20.8% Male [55]Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)
22 Domestic Work
6 Prostitution
3 Agriculture
3 Mining
2 Other
1 Not Known
1 Hospitality

Types of Exploitation* (number)
37 Sexual Exploitation

Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)
6 Exploitation for Organ
Removal#10 Offer of
Educational
Opportunities
21 K idnapping

163 Labour Exploitation

1 Sold by Family
1 Sold by
Non-Family

1 Friend Visit

54 Other#
141 Offer of Employment orLabour Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|83

to early marriage and human trafficking. In a 2016 IOM studyof migrating Iraqis, 80 percent of respondents indicated 'no hopein the future' as the main reason for fleeing.[24] This reveals thedesperation to resettle in secure environments, and may go some
way to understanding the mindset of parents' decisions to marrydaughters off in the hope of securing a better future for their child.
While not directly responsible for the prevalence of modern
slavery, the kafala sponsorship system, which effectively ties
a migrant worker's legal status to the employer, increases
vulnerability to exploitation. Under the system, the migrant's
right to work and live in the host country is dependent on thesponsor. In most Gulf Cooperation Council states, Iraq, Jordan
and Lebanon where the kafala system exists, workers are unable
to enter or leave the country, or seek alternative employment,
without their sponsor's written consent. An attempt to leave an
exploitative situation may result in the worker being criminalised
for 'absconding', including possible detention and deportation.
Xenophobic attitudes towards foreign workers from Asia and SubSaharan Africa persist in MENA. There is subtle stigmatisationthat certain low- and un-skilled jobs, particularly manual workand roles considered dirty or dangerous, are only appropriate fornon-locals.[25] Language barriers fuel the notion among the local
population that workers are uneducated and therefore inferior.[26]Women in MENA continue to face discrimination in both law andpractice, particularly regarding personal status and nationality
rights. The unequal status of women is felt most keenly in Saudi
Arabia where women are considered legal minors and remain
subordinate to men, requiring permission from male guardians towork, study, travel and receive health care.[27] Domestic violenceis widespread, with most countries in the region lacking adequate
protection for victims of abuse within the home, and marital rape
is not explicitly criminalised.
Migrant domestic workers face the double discrimination threatof being both female and a migrant. Many domestic workers
continue to report serious physical and psychological abuse
including threats of and actual beatings, burning with hot
irons, food deprivation, sexual harassment and rape.[28] Migrantvictims of sexual assault risk stigma and, in some countries,
prosecution for illegal extramarital sexual relations.[29] In anumber of countries, a woman's testimony in court is worth
half a man's,[30] police discount women's statements when refutedby male employers, and judges routinely sentence women for
immorality and adultery stemming from associated sexual abuseclaims. Being a woman not only increases vulnerability to being
exploited but perpetuates victimisation once trapped.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Response
ratingCountry

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing risk

Government &business

Total score

B

United Arab Emirates

63.89

36.67

56.25

57.14

0.00

49.71

B

Israel

49.81

47.96

50.00

61.90

0.00

48.91

B

Jordan

45.00

42.22

56.25

42.86

0.00

42.26

CCC

Egypt

35.74

32.04

50.00

52.38

0.00

38.59

CCC

Qatar

52.41

44.26

25.00

35.71

0.00

37.83

CCC

Tunisia

36.11

22.22

18.75

61.90

0.00

34.52

CCC

Lebanon

37.59

32.04

37.50

42.86

0.00

34.02

CCC

Bahrain

36.67

36.67

25.00

35.71

0.00

31.14

CCC

Oman

36.11

29.26

12.50

47.62

0.00

30.57

CC

Saudi Arabia

28.70

34.44

25.00

38.10

0.00

28.70

CC

Algeria

28.52

24.07

25.00

42.86

0.00

27.61

CC

Kuwait

14.81

33.33

25.00

45.24

0.00

25.79

CC

Morocco

6.48

24.63

18.75

52.38

0.00

23.13

D

Iran

0.00

7.41

0.00

16.67

0.00

4.75

No RankIraq

No Rank

Libya

No Rank

Syria

No Rank

Yemen

In 2015, governments in MENA faced challenges responding
to modern slavery but continued to take steps to increase publicawareness, build and enhance shelter services, and improve
national laws. In some countries, such as Lebanon and Jordan,
scores reflected the infancy of policies and laws, with further
action required from a range of stakeholders to improve effective
national responses. Low scores in other countries, such as Oman
and Saudi Arabia, reflected limited political will to recognise theexistence of all forms of modern slavery.

84|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Most countries had undertaken a basic human trafficking
awareness campaign once in the past five years to educate thegeneral public. This ranged from radio and television campaigns
in Lebanon and the UAE to awareness campaigns in Kuwait's
largest mall.[31] With the support of international organisations,
often the IOM, law enforcement officers and the judiciary weretrained on human trafficking, victim identification and national
legislation in most of the countries in the region.

MENA cont.

While effective public awareness campaigns and training ofstakeholders are essential to combating modern slavery, efforts
so far have not translated to broad attitudinal shifts in thecommunity. This is particularly so for employers of domestic
workers who, despite the illegality of the practice, continue towithhold worker's passports. Research conducted by the IOM
and Walk Free Foundation in 2015 found that this was standardpractice.[32]Governments performed well in creating basic national legal
frameworks to criminalise modern slavery of workers. Thirteen of
the 14 states[33] had ratified or acceded to the Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women andChildren (Palermo Protocol) which obligates states to criminalisehuman trafficking. Indeed, most countries in the region havelegislation criminalising some forms of trafficking, with countries
like Egypt and Jordan going beyond the Palermo Protocol
definition by adding the offence of forced begging.[34] Human
trafficking continues to be a 'legally invisible' issue in Moroccowith the absence of legislation specifically criminalising it. In
2015, a draft law was prepared and currently awaits adoption.[35]Despite the existence of legislation, prosecution for trafficking
crimes remains low across the region. An inability and, at times,
an unwillingness to identify differences between poor labour
practices and situations of forced labour, coupled with a tendency
to favour employer rights, means worker's rights are routinely
overlooked.[36] Many domestic and agricultural workers continue
to be excluded from labour law protections.

In 2015, Kuwait adopted a newlaw granting domestic workers
enforceable labour rights, a key
milestone considering migrant
domestic workers constitutenearly a third of the country's
entire workforce.[37]
Governments across the region should similarly adopt legislation
guaranteeing labour rights for domestic workers.
As global scrutiny of labour practices in the UAE and Qatar
increases prior to large-scale international events—the World
Expo 2020 and FIFA World Cup 2022, respectively—both
governments made legislative amendments to address migrant
worker exploitation. In September 2015, the UAE issued
Ministerial Decree's mandating employers to use and register
standard contracts signed by employees to eliminate contract
substitution. A further Decree allowed for termination of contractsby employees without employer consent in certain cases.[38]In October 2015, the Emir of Qatar
announced reforms to the kafalasystem, eliminating an employee's
obligation to obtain theirsponsor's permission to change
jobs or travel abroad, instead
requiring the Ministry of Interior
to approve these movements.
The Ministry must still obtain the employer's consent for
employee movement, but workers will have a right to appeal if
permission is denied.[39]Disappointingly, the legislative improvements do not apply todomestic workers in either the UAE or Qatar, further entrenching
the marginalised status of this cohort. The pressure on Qatar
to successfully implement these legislative changes mounted
in March 2016 when the United Nations' International Labour
Organization issued Qatar a warning to end migrant worker
slavery or face a UN investigation.[40]Within the region, governments did little to stop sourcing goods
and services that use modern slavery, mirroring global findingsof insufficient action addressing the link between modern slavery
and poor business practices. Dubai, 'the city of gold', trades inapproximately 40 percent of the gold flowing into international
markets. Despite extensive evidence of the use of child andforced labour in the mining of gold, particularly in Burkina
Faso, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea
and Ghana,[41] only a voluntary standard on responsible sourcing
exists which does not address child labour.[42]Within countries across the region, there remained a concerning
lack of coordination and accountability, and a mounting needto address risk factors. Combating modern slavery competedwith key national and regional priorities such as combating
terrorism, dealing with internal and regional displacement,
ensuring economic stability and finding solutions to regional
security.[43] Despite this, some governments in the region have thepolitical security and financial ability to reform current practices
and implement effective policies. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman,
Bahrain and Qatar, in particular, can and should do more to
improve their troublingly low response scores.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|85

Asia Pacific
MENA cont.

Islamic leaders commit to end modern slavery
For the first time in history, on 2 December
2014—the International Day for the
Abolition of Slavery—leaders of the world’s
largest faiths came together to declaretheir common humanitarian commitment
to eradicate modern slavery. The Islamicfaith was represented by Mohamed
Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of AlAzhar (Muslim Sunni), Grand Ayatollah
Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi (Muslim
Shia) and Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer
Hussain al-Najafi (Muslim Shia).[44]The three Islamic leaders asserted that
all forms of slavery were reprehensible
in Islamic law. The Grand Imam of AlAzhar rejected assertions that the Quran’s

instructions to treat slaves with kindness
and care legitimised slavery. Instead, hesaid, Islam took a sympathetic approachto the treatment of slaves as a temporary
solution to historical slavery, which in noway sanctions modern-day exploitationof people.[45]called for equal pay for individuals
doing the same work regardless of theirnationality, compensating employees fairly
by considering the cost of living in the hostcountry, and giving domestic workers thesame rights as other migrants by including
them under labour laws.[46]Further displays of commitment weremade in 2015 by Islamic leaders in
the region to extend Islamic valuesof hospitality and care to vulnerable
migrants, remedy their ill-treatment in
employment, and address their inequality
at law. In September 2015, Sheikh Ali Al
Quradaghi, Secretary-General of theInternational Union of Muslim Scholars,

The MENA region has the highest
concentration of Muslims in theworld—an estimated 93 percent of its
approximately 341 million inhabitants
are Muslim.[47] A key way to combat
these crimes is for religious leaders toencourage their followers to support theabolition of exploitative practices.

Bekaa Valley, Lebanon, 2015. Houda (14 years old) pictured with
her teddy bear. She left Syria (Raqqa) four years ago and she
got married about one year ago. She lives in the Bekaa Valley
with her family while her husband works and lives in Beirut. Her
husband stays with her only on the weekend. Approximately 1.3
million refugees are officially registered in Lebanon. Marriages
in refugee camps often involve girls of 11 to 13 years, but can
include more extreme cases of girls as young as nine years old.
Photo credit, Laura Aggio Caldon

86|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Asia Pacific cont.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|87

THE AMERICASCANADA

UNITED STATESCUBAJAMAICAHAITIDOMINICAN
REPUBLIC

BARBADOS

TRINIDADAND TOBAGOMEXICOGUYANA

GUATEMALA

SURINAME

EL SALVADORVENEZUELAHONDURASCOLOMBIANICARAGUACOSTA RICA

PANAMAPERU
BRAZILECUADORBOLIVIAPARAGUAY

CHILE

Regional Proportion of Global Number

Average Government Response Rating

Average Vulnerability Score

44.7/100|

URUGUAY

Estimated Number Enslaved

2,168,600

88

ARGENTINA

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

4.7%

34.9%

The Americas cont.

PREVALENCE
Rank

Country

Estimated percent of
population in modern slavery

Estimated number
in modern slavery

Population

1

Haiti

0.995

106,600

10,711,000

1Dominican Republic

0.995

104,800

10,528,000

2Guatemala

0.845

138,100

16,343,000

3Colombia

0.639

308,200

48,229,000

3

Peru

0.639

200,500

31,377,000

3Venezuela

0.639

198,800

31,108,000

4Guyana

0.620

4,800

767,000

5

Trinidad and Tobago

0.453

6,200

1,360,000

5Suriname

0.453

2,500

543,000

6

Bolivia

0.437

46,90010,725,000

7Argentina

0.404

175,500

43,417,000

7Ecuador

0.404

65,30016,144,000

7Paraguay

0.404

26,8006,639,000

7

Nicaragua

0.404

24,6006,082,000

7

Costa Rica

0.404

19,4004,808,000

7

Panama0.404

15,9003,929,000

8

Cuba

0.332

37,800

11,390,000

9Mexico0.297

376,800

127,017,000

10Honduras

0.295

23,8008,075,000

10El Salvador

0.295

18,1006,127,000

11Uruguay

0.228

7,800

3,432,000

12

Jamaica

0.212

5,800

2,734,000

12

Barbados

0.212

600

284,000

13

Chile

0.154

27,70017,948,000

14Brazil

0.078

161,100

207,848,000

15United States

0.018

57,700320,821,000

15Canada

0.018

6,500

35,871,000

Modern slavery in the Americas affects men, women andchildren, and has manifested as forced labour, commercial sexual
exploitation and, to a lesser degree, forced begging. Forced
labour primarily affects men and women in the agricultural,mining, construction and domestic industries, predominantly inNorth and Central America and the Caribbean. Forced labour
is a prevalent issue among indigenous groups in Peru, Bolivia
and Colombia.[1] These incarnations of modern slavery areprevalent in labour-intensive, unskilled industries, including
agriculture,[2] clothing manufacture,[3] construction and mining.[4]Young men are particularly vulnerable to forced labour.[5] The
inverse is true of commercial sexual exploitation, where womenand children are more likely to report cases in South America.[6]Sexual exploitation is particularly prevalent among vulnerable
communities including lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender(LGBT) groups from Central and South America,[7] and children
in welfare systems in the United States.[8]Concentrated in rural areas, exploitation occurs in the Cerrado
region of Brazil and along the Amazon, [9] with reports offorced labour in the mahogany, brick-making, and gold mining
industries in the Amazonian regions of Peru and Ecuador.[10] In
2015, 936 workers were rescued from slave-like conditions in
Brazil alone. These individuals were mainly young males aged

15–39 with low levels of education who had migrated internallyto seek job opportunities.[11] Other reports from 2015 indicatethat approximately 500 Brazilian workers were transported toAngola, where they worked in circumstances akin to modernday slavery.[12] In the Caribbean, limited job opportunities in
Haiti leads many nationals to illegally cross the border with
the Dominican Republic, where they live, work and sometimes
perish in the sugarcane field bateyes. Conditions reported
include indebtedness to recruiters and employers, physicalconfinement in the work location, no rest days, lack of potablewater, deception about terms of work, withholding of wages andunlawful overtime performed under the threat of deportation.[13]Through surveys conducted by Walk Free Foundation, theprevalence of modern slavery can be more precisely identified inseveral countries within the Americas including Brazil, Guatemala,Mexico, Chile, Dominican Republic and Bolivia. The survey results
suggest that across these countries forced labour accounts for most
instances of modern slavery, which is particularly prevalent inmanual labour sectors such as construction, manufacturing andfactory work, and domestic work.[14]GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|89

Poverty is a considerable motivating factor which prompts
vulnerable, low-skilled populations to migrate where often, upon
arrival, they are vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. These
practices are evident all across the Americas, and wealthiercountries such as the United States and Canada are not immune
to such exploitation, particularly in the agricultural sector.
Others sectors have also been identified as high risk including
construction, hospitality and domestic service. However,detecting this exploitation is made more difficult as a large
percent of victims of labour exploitation enter the United Stateswith valid visas, for which many victims paid a steep cost of on
average US$6,150 in recruitment fees.[15]Reported instances of forced prostitution and commercial sexual
exploitation of children across the region reflect a complex
pattern of both internal and external migration.

Young women and children
migrate from rural areas to cities,
or to wealthier nations, or insome instances mining sites, withthe promise of employment, but
upon arrival they are subjected
to forced labour, debt bondage
and sexual exploitation by their
recruiter.[16]Gold mine sites in Colombia and Peru, as compared to othernations within the Americas, had the highest prevalence of sexual
trafficking; an issue magnified by the presence of organised
criminal syndicates in the mining industry.[17] An NGO on the
ground in Peru estimated that, in 2010, in a single gold minezone there were approximately 2,000 sex workers, of which 60
percent were children;[18] in 2011, it was estimated that 1,200
girls aged between 12 and 17 were trafficked annually into sexual
exploitation linked to the mining industry.[19]Commercial sexual exploitation of girls and women is highly
prevalent in Mexico, particularly in the town of Tenancingo,
where the interplay of influential organised crime syndicates,
the grooming of young boys to become pimps by teachingthem to 'honey trap' victims, and coercion through violent
threats combine to trap women and girls in a cycle of sexual
exploitation.[20] Tenancingo acts as an epicentre of commercial
sexual exploitation with many networks rooted in this area.
Recruitment is also increasing in other states, including in ruralcommunities and even in Central America. Women and girls from
Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Mexico and other nations
within the Americas are trafficked by family members to theUnited States.[21] There are reports that Mexican drug cartels

90|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

facilitate the movement of girls too however more research isneeded to know the extent of their involvement.[22] Following
arrival, the migration pattern of Latino trafficking victims
follows a similar path to the trafficking of drugs and weapons
into the United States, due to the involvement of organised
criminal groups.[23] Anecdotal evidence suggests some of these
women and girls are exploited in industries characterised by
the predominance of male workers; particularly within the
agricultural sector, where farm workers in the United States—
who are vulnerable to exploitative labour practices themselves—have a high demand for cheap sexual services.[24] Many farmworkers are migrants from Latin America and a combination ofisolation, absence of family, and other factors contribute to ademand for cheap sexual services.
There is a significant gap in research and information on the issue
of forced begging in the Americas; however, anecdotal evidence
suggests that there is a high prevalence of street children acrossmuch of the Americas, and these children are particularly vulnerable
to sexual exploitation, forced labour and forced begging.[25]In Mexico, in 2014, police rescued 450 children in an abusive
children's home in Michoacán whom were subject to sexual abuse
and forced begging.[26] In the wake of the civil war in Colombia,
indigenous children are also subject to forced begging.[27]Data on the prevalence of forced marriage is incomplete.
Information was sought about forced marriage in the Walk
Free Foundation surveys conducted in the Americas. Surveys
in Mexico and Bolivia did not identify any cases of forced
marriage but cases were identified in Guatemala, Brazil, Chileand Dominican Republic.[28] There is little other supporting data
directly on this phenomenon. However, there is data on earlyand child marriage.

According to UNICEF in 2014,
Latin America and the Caribbean
were the only zones where theincidence of child marriage had
not decreased and remained levelwith previous years.[29]In Brazil, 877,000 women reported in the 2010 Census that they
had been married by the age of 15.[30] In 2014, the prevalence rateof child marriage in Brazil was at 34 percent.[31] Other countries
within the region reported similarly high rates of child marriage:
41 percent in the Dominican Republic, 23 percent in Mexico,
41 percent in Nicaragua, 34 percent in Honduras and 30 percent
in Guatemala.[32]The Americas cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015
The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is thelargest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victimsof trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countriesof destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded
in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.

The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 in
the Americas. The small number of cases reflects thedifferences in IOM programming and the use of MiMOSA
in this region and does not reflect the prevalence of
exploitation and human trafficking.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' arebased on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in The Americas in 2015

Age of Victims at Time of Assistance
Average age of victims

17.5yrs

This average is greatly influenced by the ageof a victim who was only 1 at the time she/he
was registered by IOMGender Breakdown
25% Female [1]Number of victims

4

Percent of IOM Global Total

0.1%

75% Male [3]Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)
There is no information available on this issue for the four people assisted in theAmericas, which are recorded in the IOM case management system.

Types of Exploitation* (number)Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

1 Sexual Exploitation

1 Kidnapping#

1 Other#
1 Labour Exploitation

1 Offer of Educational
Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

91

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees &conflict

Mean

Argentina

35.63

18.50

34.04

25.36

28.38

Barbados

39.70

15.41

67.00

1.00

30.78

Bolivia

49.71

32.08

38.69

16.57

34.26

Brazil

37.98

20.46

45.88

30.74

33.77

Canada

17.59

23.64

15.48

36.11

23.21

Chile

31.23

19.73

34.26

31.37

29.15

Colombia

51.72

26.54

46.78

43.49

42.13

Costa Rica

36.35

24.40

33.82

23.97

29.64

Cuba

53.60

26.60

34.00

13.99

32.05

Dominican Republic

47.97

33.84

46.38

24.33

38.13

Ecuador

43.69

29.23

37.74

29.98

35.16

El Salvador

49.88

29.58

53.68

8.78

35.48

Guatemala

48.75

34.25

57.12

20.33

40.11

Guyana

39.35

25.57

83.50

5.81

38.56

Haiti

57.68

56.20

58.13

2.60

43.65

Honduras

53.76

34.82

60.12

16.38

41.27

Jamaica

43.21

30.91

46.13

8.68

32.24

Mexico

43.03

30.36

52.84

61.85

47.02

Nicaragua

43.53

31.92

39.79

23.67

34.73

Panama

37.46

29.14

46.18

23.55

34.08

Paraguay

46.02

21.22

38.92

26.14

33.07

Peru

43.85

31.98

44.81

30.33

37.74

Suriname

36.66

12.35

67.00

38.67

38.67

Trinidad and Tobago

35.88

14.40

67.00

16.26

33.38

United States

20.42

23.51

20.96

45.10

27.50

Uruguay

26.65

20.69

28.36

13.89

22.40

Venezuela

58.82

27.75

55.42

35.94

44.48

The Americas are exceedingly diverse across their cultures,
languages and economies. Individuals within these nations arehighly mobile, both inter- and intra-nationally[33]—which, in
addition to the prevalence of poverty and lack of employment
opportunities, provides fertile soil for labour trafficking andforced labour within national borders and across the region.[34]Argentina, Chile, the United States, Uruguay and Canada had
the lowest vulnerability scores in the region however, this did
not exclude people within these countries falling victim tomodern slavery. Some populations within these countries hada heightened vulnerability, such as the large irregular migrant
worker population and employees on temporary work visas in
the United States.[35] Some notable areas where improvements
can be made to reduce the vulnerability to slavery include
increasing protection measures for the most vulnerable,
particularly increasing transparency in temporary worker
visas and labour recruitment reforms, particularly prohibiting
excessive recruitment fees.[36]Poverty, drug rings, and corrupt judicial systems and bordercontrol are major contributors to the trafficking industry in
the Americas.[37] People smugglers operating between Mexicoand the USA provide illegal passage to migrants; however,92|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

the cost is often a large debt and can involve payment throughsexual slavery or forced labour.[38] Family members also act as
human traffickers,[39] in addition to criminal networks acting
as recruiters, and young male 'pimps'.[40] Large drug cartelsand criminal gangs operating in Central and South America
create hostile, violent conditions, increasing the risk of modern
slavery and human trafficking for vulnerable populations. States
are typically weak to respond to these instances of organised
crime, thus allowing criminal syndicates to operate with relative
immunity. High levels of corruption among police, governments
and judicial systems compound the power of gangs.[41] In Brazil,
police retaliation to gang violence served to escalate the level ofviolence and increase the incidence of homicide.[42]Latin America reports high rates of violence against women, withEl Salvador ranking as the top country for female homicides in theworld.[43] Because of these crime rates, large numbers of womenare seeking asylum in countries such as the United States.[44]However, asylum on the basis of gender violence remains acontroversial issue and many domestic crimes remain unreported
by police and hospital staff.[45] In the United States, women,children and transgender youth are particularly vulnerable tosexual exploitation.[46] There are also reports that lesbian, gay,bisexual and transgender individuals in Latin America and theThe Americas cont.

Caribbean are trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation
to Western Europe.[47]According to a Gallup poll in 2012 and 2013, women in theAmericas were the least likely in the world to be treated withrespect and dignity, perhaps due to machismo cultural attitudes
and the pervasive violence in the region.[48] These factors, whencombined with continued high demand for domestic workers inprivate homes, places these women at risk.[49] Discriminatory
cultural attitudes also place the lesbian, gay, bisexual ortransgender community at particular risk of human trafficking.[50]Children, especially those in welfare systems or impoverishedand high crime areas, are vulnerable to forced labour andsex trafficking.[51] Some children from the recent surge inunaccompanied minors and undocumented families entering
the United States of America have been exploited by their stateappointed guardians.[52] Children living in poverty, on the streets,
or in areas affected by extensive drug crime are also vulnerable,
as organised crime syndicates use vulnerable children to transportand sell drugs.[53] Cultural attitudes regarding children at work arealso a contributing factor to labour exploitation of children; forexample, in Ecuador, it is suggested that attitudes surrounding
child street beggars are positive in that these working children will
alleviate the strain on poverty-stricken families, particularly inindigenous communities.[54] Legal ambiguity between legitimate
child work and exploitation and/or trafficking continues tohamper efforts to protect children.[55]The relative wealth and work opportunities in the UnitedStates and Canada are attractive draws for vulnerable migrant
populations from their countries of origin. Unaccompanied
children are at particular risk of modern slavery and exploitation.
Transnational flows show a trend towards the United States andCanada;[56] however, migration flows also occur between SouthAmerican states.[57] In October–November 2015, 10,558 children
crossed the border from Mexico to United States—an increaseof more than 100 percent from the previous year's figure of
5,129.[58] The legal situation of these children is fraught withuncertainty—legislators and government agencies in the UnitedStates are currently confronting the issue of children travellingalone in the hope of obtaining asylum. In 2015, the UnitedStates Government provided millions in funding to assist the
government of Mexico to crack down on these migrants, someof whom include refugees, crossing the US–Mexico border,[59]and provided funding to Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador
to assist the reintegration of forcibly-returned migrants.[60]Systemic discrimination in theAmericas towards indigenous
groups[61] increases their riskof exploitation.[62] In Mexico, theextreme poverty of and historic
discrimination against the
Tarahumara indigenous groupmake the community "easyprey for traffickers."[63] The diresituation of approximately 3
million indigenous girls exploitedin the domestic service and sex
industries led the lower houseof the Mexican Congress to label
them as the most vulnerable
group in Mexico.[64]Similarly, in Bolivia, the indigenous Guaraní community is
exploited in the agricultural industry, where they work underconditions of forced labour.[65] The risk factors of poverty, lackof education, sexual abuse, lack of social support, and physicalor mental health challenges are prevalent in Native American
populations in the United States, which heightens the risk of sex
trafficking for young indigenous women and girls.[66] These issues
are replicated in Colombia, where the civil war has displaced 6.5
million of the population, placing already vulnerable indigenous
women and children at risk of forced prostitution, commercial sexual
exploitation of children and forced begging.[67] In 2016, Canada will
launch an investigation into an estimated 4,000 murdered or missing
indigenous women.[68] Experts believe a percentage of these women
may be victims of commercial sexual exploitation.[69]GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Within the Americas, the highest government response rankings
were held by the United States, Argentina, Canada and Brazil.
In 2015, the United States passed the Justice for Victims ofTrafficking Act, which expanded anti-trafficking training andthe amount of compensation provided to victims.[70] The UnitedStates offered a model for survivor leadership. President Obama
formed an Advisory Council on Human Trafficking made up
entirely of survivors. While having a markedly-different risk
profile and access to resources than the United States, it is notablethat Haiti's efforts to combat trafficking improved markedly
with the introduction of its Law on the Fight Against Trafficking
in Persons. The new law criminalised all forms of humantrafficking, established victim protection measures along withan anti-trafficking committee and enabled victims to receive
compensation.[71] Additionally, Argentina adopted a new NAP tocombat trafficking and gender-based violence[72] and Paraguay
adopted new guidelines for the identification and screening oftrafficking victims.[73]

Government responses were particularly poor in Cuba andSuriname. While Cuba's Government has successfully prosecuted
sex traffickers,[74] it continues to deny the existence of forced
labour as a problem within its borders and has not taken
any action to address this issue. [75] Indeed, there have been
allegations that the government coerces medical practitioners
to work in overseas' medical institutions for its own financial
gain.[76] Suriname's record was similarly poor. The country has
no national plan of action to address trafficking, no legislation
criminalising modern slavery outside of trafficking and has notconducted any awareness campaigns since 2010. While Brazil
maintained a high ranking in the 2016 Index, it is important tonote that the country was forced to suspend its public register ofcompanies fined for the use of forced labour by court order.[77]GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|93

The Americas cont.
Response
ratingCountry

Survivors
supported

Criminaljustice

Coordination &accountability

Addressing risk

Government &business

Total score

BBB*

United States

96.30

79.63

68.75

78.57

75.00

82.84

BB

Argentina

49.26

59.81

87.50

78.57

0.00

59.79

BB

Canada

57.41

68.52

62.50

64.29

0.00

58.13

BB

Brazil

45.56

34.44

87.50

78.57

37.50

56.85

BB

Jamaica

47.78

61.85

81.25

54.76

0.00

52.91

BB

Mexico

45.00

63.15

50.00

73.81

0.00

52.59

BB

Dominican Republic

49.26

59.07

62.50

64.29

0.00

52.49

BB

Costa Rica

56.48

45.56

37.50

71.43

0.00

51.13

B

Nicaragua

44.07

66.11

56.25

52.38

0.00

49.46

B

Chile

44.63

52.59

50.00

69.05

0.00

49.02

B

Uruguay

40.56

43.70

43.75

78.57

0.00

48.29

B

Colombia

44.07

41.85

43.75

73.81

0.00

47.84

B

Guatemala

37.59

51.48

56.25

64.29

0.00

47.22

B

Paraguay

35.93

55.56

37.50

76.19

0.00

46.86

B

Ecuador

37.22

62.22

25.00

71.43

0.00

45.73

B

Peru

47.78

28.33

62.50

61.90

0.00

44.83

CCC

Trinidad and Tobago

31.11

44.63

31.25

66.67

0.00

39.69

CCC

Panama

11.85

73.15

37.50

57.14

0.00

38.13

CCC

El Salvador

32.96

28.89

50.00

57.14

0.00

37.21

CCC

Bolivia

17.59

36.67

50.00

57.14

0.00

34.94

CCC

Guyana

25.74

50.74

25.00

52.38

0.00

34.81

CCC

Barbados

39.44

29.26

50.00

38.10

0.00

34.62

CCC

Honduras

24.63

31.67

37.50

59.52

0.00

33.94

CCC

Haiti

33.52

37.22

50.00

28.57

0.00

32.04

CC

Venezuela

25.00

40.93

12.50

40.48

0.00

28.71

CC

Suriname

20.56

19.44

31.25

40.48

0.00

25.36

CC

Cuba

25.00

17.78

12.50

38.10

0.00

22.15

* No country could score above BBB if there was evidence of criminalisation and or deportation of victims.

Overall government response trends in the region were mixed.
While all countries provided victim support services and 20
of 27 countries had a toll-free reporting mechanism available
to all demographics, only six countries had formal guidelines
for identifying victims and only two had functioning referralmechanisms. While the existence of toll free reporting mechanisms
are a good first step, efforts to build awareness of the mechanism,and training and equipping those responding to complaints are
critical to improving response. Similar observations can be madefor criminal penalties and enforcement. While 22 countries in thisregion have criminalised human trafficking and allow victims of
the practice to receive compensation, only nine have criminalised
forced labour.[78] This fact is particularly alarming given theprevalence of forced labour in the Americas. Additionally, only
eight countries have adequately criminalised child prostitution,
six have criminalised forced marriage and five have criminalised
the use of children in armed conflict. While 24 countries provided
anti-trafficking training to front-line police and 23 provided
anti-trafficking training to the judiciary, this was only delivered
systematically in two cases for the police and six cases for the
judiciary. Similarly, while 20 countries had an NAP to combat
some form of modern slavery, only four had an independent bodyto monitor its implementation—Argentina, Brazil, Jamaica and94|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Uruguay. Furthermore, evidence of adequate funding for theseplans was only found in Brazil and Canada.
Efforts to prevent governments from sourcing goods linked toforced labour continued to be observed in this region, principallyby the United States and Brazil.

Despite the loss of its forced
labour register, Brazil maintained
policies against the use offorced labour in government andcorporate supply chains.[79]The United States maintained similar policies[80] and the State ofCalifornia continued to require the production of annual reportson the use of forced labour in government supply chains.[81]Asia Pacific cont.

In plain sight: modern day slavery in the United States. Nilda came to the UnitedStates when a friend of her employer in Guatemala City offered her a job working
as a domestic worker…Once in the United States she entered a hellish situation ofworking about 16 hours a day for almost no pay. Her employers, who were Honduran,sent her mother $100 per month, but withheld her passport and put her under strict
psychological control.
Photo credit, Jon Lowenstein/ NOORGLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

95

SELECTED
COUNTRYSTUDIESA young Cambodian migrant worker loads barrels onto his boat
at Songkhla Port, Thailand, March 9, 2014. Reports of forced
labour, physical abuse, and withholding of wages of migrant
workers are widespread in the Thai fishing industry.
Photo credit, Chris Kelly

3

Prevalence Index Rank

CAMBODIA"I was forced to go to sea. I was hit with a knife by
my employer and his team while I was on the ship.
They slapped me. We never stopped working. They
said they will never pay me if I try to escape."
Walk Free Foundation survey respondent

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

256,800

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

41.51%

Government Response Rating

CCC

98

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

15,578,000

GDP (PPP)$3,263

Cambodia cont.

PREVALENCE
Cambodia is a source and destination for exploitation of men,
women and children in all forms of modern slavery, including
forced labour, debt bondage and forced marriage. The 2016
Global Slavery Index estimates 256,800 people or 1.65 percentof the total population live in conditions of modern slavery
in Cambodia. This is based on a random-sample, nationallyrepresentative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought to identify
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within thegeneral population (survey conducted in Khmer language).

Forced marriage
Walk Free Foundation survey results suggest some 55,800 people
are victims of forced marriage in Cambodia (22 percent of theestimated 256,800 people in modern slavery in Cambodia).
A literature review found no available research on forced
marriage, highlighting the need for further investigation. Somelimited figures are available on the prevalence of early marriages.
In 2014, UNICEF reported 18 percent of Cambodian women
marry under the age of 18.[1] Article 5 of the Law on Marriage
and Family (1989) allows for the marriage of children upon
the consent of their parents or guardians if the girl becomes
pregnant.[2] While this may increase the risk of girls being
forced to marry, and girls being forced to marry if they fall
pregnant through rape, there is insufficient data to suggest thisis widespread. NGOs report early marriage among teens aged
14 to 17 is common in certain ethnic groups and geographicallocations, particularly the north-east; however, these unions arecommonly performed with the consent of the children.[3]Trafficking for marriage
The growing demand for foreign brides in China has createdan emerging market for traffickers in the region. Cambodian
women, eager to escape impoverished lives in rural villages,
are entering brokered marriages to Chinese men in the hope ofa more lucrative life. In reality, many women find themselves
deceived about their new living conditions, with many resettled
in rural China[4] forced to work on farms or as domestic helpers,with some experiencing abuse at the hands of their husbands.[5]Other women are recruited for factory jobs and find themselves
forced into marriage.[6] Victims rescued in the past 18 months
have mostly originated from Kampong Cham, Kampong Thom
and Kandal provinces.[7] Cambodian women are also forced into
marriage to Korean and Taiwanese men,[8] some of whom aresubsequently forced into prostitution.[9] No research has been
conducted on the extent of this emerging trafficking trend though
in 2015 NGOs were routinely responding to the needs of victims.
Forced labour
Cambodian men, often highly transient because of their needto travel to secure employment, are subjected to forced labouron fishing vessels in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. [10] In
2013, when significant media exposure and international pressure
brought this issue to global attention, ILO figures suggested 9
percent of Cambodian fishers were subject to forced labour,[11]with Cambodians accounting for 40 percent of fishers across four
major Thai ports. To date, Cambodian victims of forced labouron fishing vessels continue to be repatriated, including a groupof 59 trafficked fishermen who experienced slave-like conditions
on Thai vessels fishing in Indonesian waters in 2015.[12]Out of the estimated 201,000 people in forced labour, the Walk
Free Foundation survey found an estimated 60 percent of victims
of forced labour were in the manufacturing sector, some of whom
may have been employed in the apparel sector.
In 2014, the Cambodian apparel industry exported US$5.7 billion
worth of goods, roughly one-third of Cambodia's GDP.[13] The
sector employs an estimated 600,000–700,000 garment workers,
nearly 4 percent of Cambodia's population, and indirectly
supports many millions more family members.[14] The apparelsector draws a large proportion of its workers from rural areas—
the 2015 Cambodia Apparel Workers Survey revealed 97 percent
of workers moved to Phnom Penh for their job.[15] Garment
workers producing for international apparel brands experiencehigh levels of serious labour rights abuses—conditions whichsometimes amount to modern slavery. Workers continue toexperience forced and excessive overtime as a result of factory
practices and pressure from actors along the supply chain.[16]Workers unable or unwilling to perform overtime are subject todismissal, wage reductions and punitive transfers from a monthly
wage to a piece-rate wage where income is dependent on thenumber of garments individuals produce.[17] Poor wages, poor
health and safety conditions, excessive noise, poor air quality,
unsanitary environments and employer abuse are common. In
some smaller factories that operate as subcontractors for exportoriented factories, workers are employed as casual workers or
on short-term contracts that allow employers to easily dismiss
employees and intimidate workers against speaking out about
abuse for fear their contract will not be renewed.[18]Increasing demand for cheap domestic workers in private homes
in the Middle East, Malaysia and Singapore, coupled with thepossibility of earning up to three times the salary than that at
home, is encouraging Cambodian women to travel abroad, often
through informal channels, for employment as maids, nannies andcarers. In 2011, the government placed a moratorium on sending
maids to Malaysia amid reports of serious abuse; however,workers continue to travel there through informal channels. In
2015, exploited Cambodian domestic workers continued to be
repatriated from Malaysia,[19] with many suffering serious mental
health issues upon return.[20] Government estimates suggest 8,000
domestic workers remain employed in Malaysia.[21] Despite thegovernments of Cambodia and Qatar signing a MoU in 2011
to begin sending Cambodian workers to the Gulf state, in 2015
workers were still prevented from travelling to Qatar amid
concerns of a 'high risk' of sexual abuse, low wages and harshlaws.[22] There is also demand for domestic workers within homes
in Phnom Penh.[23] Walk Free Foundation survey data revealed
that of an estimated total of 201,000 people in forced labour, five
percent were exploited in the domestic service sector.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|99

children through an intermediary rather than more overt sellingof sex in brothels.[25] Boys and young men are also vulnerable tosexual exploitation, with many entering the massage industry due
to a lack of training and skills.[26] The presence of the sex tourism
industry has led to the sexual exploitation of street children. The
majority of street children who have been identified as victimsof this abuse are boys, with many citing foreign nationals as theperpetrators. Despite this, research suggests that both Cambodianmen, and men from neighbouring Asian countries are perhaps
larger but less visible abusers of children in the sex industry.[27]Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data
Number%% malevictims% femalevictims

Forced labour

201,000

78

38

62

Forcedmarriage

55,80022

595Modernslavery total

256,800

100

31

69

Forced labour by sector of exploitation

Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in
Cambodia, the Walk Free survey did not identify any victims
in this sector. The survey result may not indicate an absence ofcases but possibly a lack of willingness to self-identify or report
this issue. Work will continue with experts to identify the mostrobust ways to ensure the issue of sexual exploitation is fully
accounted for in future survey results.

%

Domestic work

5

Construction

11

Manufacturing

60

Other manufacturing0

Farming18

Sex industry

0

Drug production

0

Retail sector

2

Other

3

Don't know

1

Refused1

Total

Forced begging
Cambodian children are exploited as beggars in Cambodian cities
and surrounding tourist hot spots like Angkor Wat, as well as
abroad in Thailand and Vietnam. There is limited data indicating
the extent of children trafficked into this situation; however,estimates from Friends International research suggest as manyas 80 percent of child beggars in Thailand are Cambodian.[28]100** Due to rounding, some totals may not correspond with the sum of theseparate figures.

Commercial sexual exploitation
Cambodia was renowned as a sex tourism destination in the 1990s
and this legacy is still prevalent today with women and girls
trafficked within the thriving sex industry in Cambodia's major
cities.[24] Despite significant attempts to curb Commercial Sexual
Exploitation (CSE), NGOs report the industry has been pushed
underground and sex offenders are still able to purchase sex with

Orphanage tourism
In 2011, UNICEF reported a 75 percent increase in the number oforphanages established in Cambodia between 2005 and 2010.[29]Funding from foreign donors coupled with increasing numbers of
tourists attempting to add value to their vacations by volunteering
at orphanages has driven the increase in residential care facilities.
Poverty, particularly the inability of some parents to provide
adequate living conditions or education for their children, andin some sinister cases, the opportunity to profit from the sale oftheir children into care, supplies this trend. When in care, somechildren are forced to perform dances for tourists, distribute
flyers or perform farm work to raise sufficient funds for theirmaintenance.[30] In 2016, NGOs continue to report a high numberof residential care facilities being used as tourist attractions.[31]

VULNERABILITYCountry
Cambodia

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

53.68

42.96

57.40

12.00

41.51

The mass genocide of an estimated 2.2–2.8 million people under
the Khmer Rouge regime of 1975–1979 dramatically shaped thecurrent demographics of Cambodia. More than 50 percent of
the population are under 25,[32] placing immense strain on thenational economy to provide employment opportunities for the
young burgeoning workforce.[33]Cambodia is a low-income country plagued by high levels ofpoverty; with more than 40 percent of the population living on lessthan US$2 per day.[34] In 2014, almost 80 percent of the country's
population lived in rural areas and suffered comparably high rates
of poverty.[35] Cambodians living in rural areas are susceptible
to land grabbing in the form of economic land concessions bylarge companies. Between 2003 and 2013, 2.2 million hectaresof land was seized affecting 420,000 Cambodians, 300,000 of

100|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

which were forcibly evicted.[36] The loss of land and, therefore,
livelihood, coupled with few employment opportunities in rural
regions, is increasingly driving irregular and uninformed internaland cross-border migration. The economic desperation of many
migrants, coupled with limited education or awareness of humantrafficking, creates ideal conditions for recruitment agents andlabour brokers to trap people into situations of debt bondage oroffer lucrative jobs that frequently result in exploitation.
As tourism in Cambodia continues to boom—increasing fromonly 700,000 visitors in 2003 to more than 4.5 million in2014[37]—the vulnerability of children to sex tourists and anincreasing phenomenon of orphanage tourism increases the riskof children being exploited at the hands of international visitors.
Despite ongoing efforts to eliminate the child sex industry, men

Cambodia cont.

from other Asian nations, the USA, Australia, South Africa andEurope continue to engage in child sex tourism in Cambodia.[38]role in both facilitating and furthering the prevalence of humantrafficking in the country.

Corruption in Cambodia continues to plague anti-trafficking
efforts, particularly the prosecution of perpetrators and theacceptance of bribes by officials. Transparency Internationalfound Cambodia to be the most corrupt country of the ten
ASEAN states.[39] Government officials continue to avoid
investigation and prosecution for extensive human rights abuses
including torture and assassinations.[40] In 2015, no government
employees complicit in trafficking were prosecuted, and Phnom
Penh's former anti-trafficking police chief convicted for humantrafficking in 2011 had his sentence overturned.[41] Protests
by labour rights unions in early 2014 demanding a minimum
wage of US$177 per month were suppressed, and the leadersinvolved were prosecuted.[42] Such corruption can play a central

Significant discrimination against girls and women persists,
with traditional gender roles championed in the school
curriculum. Chbab Srey - a customary code of what respectable
women say and do - continues to be taught to students.[43] The
code promotes ideas that women bring honour to and serve
their husband, maintain virginity before marriage and remain
monogamous thereafter, to refrain from drawing attention tothemselves, to remain inside the home at night and to not leave
the home without permission. The observance of these rules has
significant implications for female victims of trafficking - ideasof subservience to men and shame for their conduct often restrict
victims from coming forward to report abuse, and societal stigma
for breaching cultural codes challenges successful reintegrationof victims.[44]GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Government of Cambodia is making progress in combating
trafficking. However this progress has been slow, and there aremany challenges ahead. In 2014, the government released afive-year National Plan of Action (NPA) (2014–2018) devisedby the National Committee for Counter Trafficking (NCCT)[45]
in collaboration with USAID and both international and national
NGOs. This plan was designed to replace the 2011–2013 NPA,
which was never successfully implemented.[46] The NCCT has
stated that it has requested US$25,000 for funding from theCambodia Government but hopes that the majority of funding
will be provided by the partnered NGOs and INGOs.[47] The
plan calls for increased government resources to combat
trafficking, policy reform to aid the prosecution process andgreater involvement at the regional and local levels.[48] Although
the plan holds promise for improving the country's stance on
trafficking in persons, it has yet to be implemented.[49]workforces, task forces and committees. Although the extensive
involvement of government agencies demonstrates thatgovernment is making a concerted effort to combat trafficking,it has also had the unintended consequence of creating undefinedboundaries of responsibility of the actors involved. This, inturn, has resulted in discrepancies within services provided to
victims, with some areas being overly resourced while otherareas are completely lacking resources. Further, despite aconcerted effort at the national level, implementation at the
local level is largely lacking support. Law enforcement task
forces lack the resources and training necessary to provide aneffective response to trafficking. Similarly, although 2008 and2009 saw the introduction of the Law on the Suppression of
Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation and the renewed
Penal Code, local practitioners lack the capacity to effectively
enforce them.[55]The Cambodian Government has been a member of theCoordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking(COMMIT), of which United Nations Action for Cooperation
against Trafficking in Persons (UNACT) is secretariat, since
its foundation in 2004.[50] COMMIT is run by task forcesthat are the decisions makers for all policy and programming
relating to trafficking within their country.[51] At the fourthinter-ministerial meeting of COMMIT early in 2015, Cambodia
pledged to eradicate any situation that could cause a person to be
exploited.[52] Over the past five years, the government has beendeveloping nationwide guidelines relating to the identificationof victims within vulnerable populations of society. These
guidelines have been tested in five provinces throughout thecountry but are yet to be finalised.[53]Many victims in Cambodia do not receive adequate services.
The government is yet to develop a policy or practice that would
allow NGOs to take children into care, without risk of liability
and court action. If guardians of children refuse to allow theirchild to attend a shelter, the children are often returned to theirhomes where they may face a high risk of re-trafficking.

The victim response and support network in Cambodia relies
heavily on NGOs who provide services and use methods basedon their particular missions and capacities. This creates apatchwork of response mechanisms throughout the country withno comprehensive unified national institutional response. Dueto the ever-changing nature of the NGO responses, victims may
be missing out on critical support due to a lack of awareness ofservices available.[54]Within the government, some ministries are involved in thehuman trafficking response, including the Ministry of Interior(MOI), Labour and Vocational Training (MOLVT), Women's
Affairs (MOWA), NCCT and Social Affairs, Veteran and YouthRehabilitation (MOSVY). Working with these ministries are

Male victims, in particular, lack sufficient shelter and associatedservices. Foreign victims located in Cambodia are usually
repatriated to their home country and provided no legal
alternative regarding any hardship or risk they faced on return.
Similarly, Cambodian victims identified abroad lacked accessto government assistance particularly if located in countries
that lack Cambodian representation. These victims were largely
forced to rely on support from NGOs and INGOs.[56]The Cambodian Government is obligated under international law
to ensure that the rights of workers are respected and redress
mechanisms are available. However, despite thousands of factoryinspections between 2010 and 2013, only ten fines were imposedon factories violating labour regulations.[57]In October 2015, prompted by years of ongoing violent protests
by garment workers and international pressure by rights groups,
the government raised the minimum wage for workers in theapparel industry to US$140 a month.[58] Though this goessome way to meeting worker demands, greater inspections andincreased punishments for perpetrating employers must occur.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

101

RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Increase specialist human trafficking support staff atembassies where high numbers of Cambodian victims
have been identified, particularly in China, Thailand,
Malaysia and Vietnam. Ensure that embassies/consulates
have sufficient budgets to provide immediate emergency
care, and establish shelter options for exploited
Cambodians to recuperate while their situation is resolved(particularly pertinent for the Royal Cambodian Embassy
to Thailand, which is understaffed and unable to address
the needs of the volume of Cambodian's in need).
• Ensure embassy staff have sufficient training to provide
support to victims of modern slavery and to collaborate
with NGOs (both regional and local) to provide for thevoluntary return of victims.
• Sign a MoU between Cambodia and China to combat
trafficking for marriage in China. This MoU should define
trafficking to reduce the definitional discrepancy between
both countries when handling these cases.
• Regulate recruitment agencies and standardise information
provided to overseas job seekers.
• Increase training for police officers in the identificationof victims and handling of trafficking cases. Provide
specialised training in technologies designed to identify
and track foreign child sex offenders travelling
to Cambodia.
• Continue and upscale awareness campaigns to preventthe sexual abuse of children, targeting school teachers,
parents, children and tourists.
• Improve the amount and quality of labour inspections,particularly in the apparel industry, focusing on forced
overtime, non-payment of wages and working conditions.
• Monitor and issue public progress reports on enforcement
actions.
• Discipline or prosecute, where appropriate, law enforcement
personnel found complicit in cases of modern slavery.
• Conduct widespread awareness campaigns on the risksof exploitative work abroad, particularly for men in thefishing sector.

102|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Business• Conduct social audits on suppliers identified as high risk.
• Travel and tourism businesses to adopt child-safe tourism
policies.
• Promote respect for workers' rights in the supply chain,including both direct suppliers and subcontractor factories.

Cambodia cont.

Phnom Penh, Cambodia, January 2, 2014. Garment workers tried to help workers leave a factory during a strike but wereprevented by military forces from a nearby army base. Two women take shelter during a clash between protestors and police
when a garment workers' strike turned violent.
Photo credit, Luc Forsyth / Ruom

Phnom Penh 2014. In this image, Special Forces soldiers assault non-profit employees observing a violent stand-off between the
military and striking garment workers.
Photo credit, Luc Forsyth

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

|

103

8

Prevalence Index Rank

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC"They talked to us as if they were selling a product.
All the traffickers see is the money. We were told
the girls would do anything we wanted, however
we wanted... [They] never in their wildest dreams
thought they were going to get arrested. We want
to break this cycle of impunity."
Interview conducted by Reuters with an agent who ran
a sting operation against a child prostitution ring,
4 January 2015.[1]Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

104,800

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

38.13%

Government Response Rating

BB

104

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

10,528,000

GDP (PPP)$13,262

Dominican Republic cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 104,800 people or 1.00
percent of the total population live in conditions of modern slavery
in the Dominican Republic. This is based on a random-sample,
nationally-representative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought toidentify instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within
the general population (surveys conducted in Spanish language).

Commercial sexual exploitation
White sand beaches attract around five million tourists to the
Dominican Republic each year,[2] making it the most visited
Caribbean destination and accounting for 16 percent of GDP.[3]Unfortunately, this has been accompanied by clear patterns ofchild sexual expoitation in tourist and nightspot destinations,such as beaches, parks, bars and nightclubs. An NGO reports
foreigners account for between 23 and 25 percent of customers
engaging in commercial sexual exploitation of children, which
simultaneously indicates a large proportion of CSE buyers are
Dominican.[4] It is estimated one in four sex workers in outdoor
locations is a teenager, most aged between 15 and 17.[5] Thereis a cultural tolerance of older teenage girls aged 15 and above
engaging in sex with tourists.[6] Minors can be sourced frommotoconchos (motorbike taxi drivers) and taken to cabañas(auto-motels) in Santo Domingo, Santiago de los Caballerosand coastal towns, where customers pay by the hour.[7] There areserious concerns that police are complicit in or turn a blind eye
to the abuse of people working in the sex industry, including inareas known for child sex trafficking.[8]Dominican women and children are also subject to trafficking
for CSE abroad. Victims have been identified in neighbouring
Haiti and throughout the Caribbean, as well as in Argentina,
and some other Latin and Central American countries.[9] In thepast five years, the International Organisation for Migration
has provided assistance to Dominican girls rescued from theHaitian sex industry, as well as returning victims from several
islands in the Caribbean.[10] Dominican victims of CSE havealso been identified in Europe, notably the Netherlands, Spain,
Italy, Portugal and Greece, as well as in the USA, Japan andthroughout the Middle East.[11]Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in the
Dominican Republic, the Walk Free Foundation survey did not
identify any victims in this sector. The survey result may notindicate an absence of cases but possibly a lack of willingness
to self-identify or report this issue. Work will continue withexperts to identify the most robust ways to ensure the issue of
sexual exploitation is fully accounted for in future survey results.

Forced labour
Haitians, Dominicans of Haitian descent and Dominicans
themselves experience exploitative labour conditions thatsometimes amount to forced labour in various occupations
including construction, agriculture, private security services,
domestic services and the informal sector. Some 65 percent of
the total 104,800 cases of forced labour identified in the Walk
Free survey reported the exploitation having occurred in theconstruction sector. Evidence of slavery-like practices on sugar
cane plantations and farms growing tomatoes and rice persists
with some workers labouring under the threat of deportation,
having their wage withheld or reduced, and having no formal
contract (though oral employment contracts are legally valid in
the Dominican Republic).[12] Most live in bateyes (communities
attached to plantations) characterised by no fresh water,

sanitation or electricity.[13] There is some evidence of children
working alongside their families on plantations.
Children in the Dominican Republic are also at risk of exploitationin domestic service, street vending (shining shoes and washingcar windows), begging, construction and the movement of illicit
narcotics.[14] There is evidence of children being trafficked fromrural to urban locations within the country, as well as Haitianchildren being trafficked across the border.[15]Forced marriage
Walk Free Foundation survey data revealed a small numberof forced marriage cases in the Dominican Republic, with one
percent of the total of all cases of modern slavery identified asforced marriage. Little recent empirical evidence exists on forced
and child marriage. Data from 2007 suggests a national averageof 40 percent of girls married before 18.[16]Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data

Forced labour

Number%% malevictims% femalevictims

103,800

99

93

7

900

1

100

0

104,800

100

94

6

Forcedmarriage
Modernslavery total

Forced labour by sector of exploitation%

Domestic work

4

Construction

65

Manufacturing0

Other manufacturing0

Farming20

Sex industry

0

Drug production

1

Retail sector

0

Other

0

Don't know

0

Refused

10

Total

100

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

105

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

47.97

33.84

46.38

24.33

38.13

Dominican Republic

Despite the Dominican Republic's high rates of economic
growth, more than 40 percent of the multi-ethnic, multicultural
population lives in poverty.[17] Unemployment is rife, withmany workers resorting to unstable informal work where they
face precarious working conditions. Women, in particular, arevulnerable to informal employment where they commonly
earn incomes below minimum wage.[18] Dominicans frequently
seek opportunities to travel abroad for employment—the latest
survey by the Americas Barometer found 28.9 percent of citizens
intended to live or work in a third country within the next three
years.[19] Only Jamaicans and Haitians had a higher intention
to leave their country.[20] The desire to seek better employment
opportunities abroad drives labour brokers to exploit jobseekers,
often resulting in irregular migration and sometimes in situationsof debt bondage and forced labour.[21]Uneven access to obtaining birth certificates and identification
documents denies many children admission to primary andsecondary schools.[22] This contradicts the General Education
Act which provides for education as "a permanent and inalienablehuman right...without any discrimination on the grounds of race,
sex, belief, economic and social status or any other basis". [23]NGOs report that the misapplication of this right means somechildren are pushed into work while others attend school but are

restricted from sitting national exams to obtain a diploma.[24] This
limits opportunities for children to pursue higher education andaccess formal sector employment and may increase their riskof accepting exploitative work as adults. As a result, women
accept offers of low or semi-skilled work as waitresses, dancers
or models, which in practice can manifest as commercial sexual
exploitation at the hand of a trafficker.[25]Discrimination against certain ethnic groups in Dominicansociety results in a significant disparity in employment, andaccess to basic public services.[26] Haitians provide a cheap
source of labour for construction, agriculture and domestic work.
Undocumented or stateless Haitians and Dominicans of Haitiandescent are most vulnerable to modern slavery. The most recent
government figures from 2012 suggest that more than 458,000
Haitians live in the Dominican Republic, while NGOs estimatedin 2015 that as many as one million Haitians live in the country,
many of whom are stateless and vulnerable to deportation.[27] In
2013, the Dominican Constitutional Tribunal stripped citizenshipfrom children born to people 'in transit', the vast majority ofwhom were undocumented Haitian immigrants.[28] The porous
border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic continues toprovide an escape to those in search of economic opportunities
and ensures traffickers can transport people without detection.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Dominican Republic has enacted legislation criminalising all
forms of human trafficking[29] and in 2013 reformed the Criminal
Code to include slavery and increase penalties for commercial
sexual exploitation of children.[30] The Criminal Code includes
penalties for illegal travel, child labour and commercial sexual
exploitation.[31] To meet the legal mandate, two inter-institutionalgroups were formed: the Inter-Agency Committee Protection ofMigrant Women (CIPROM) (Decree No. 97-99 of 1999) and theInter-agency Commission on Combating Trafficking in Persons
and Smuggling of Migrants (CITIM) (Decree No.575-07 of2007). The latter drafted and promoted the implementation of
the First National Plan against trafficking 2009–2014. Combating
trafficking in persons has been added to the National Human
Rights Plan.
In 2013, the Attorney General's Office shared letter No. 00788,
instructing all members of the Public Prosecution Service
to take immediate and forceful action against "pimping andhuman trafficking". Since this time, to enhance investigationand prosecution, the National Police, Migration Directorate,
Attorney General's Office and the three largest Prosecutors'
Offices (Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional and Santiago)
have created specialised units to combat human trafficking. In
particular, the role of the Specialized Prosecutor against the
Smuggling of Migrants and Trafficking in Persons has created
a comprehensive policy to combat trafficking in persons andmigrant smuggling. The Prosecutors Office has created standard
operating procedures with the support of the Specialized
Prosecutor Office against TiP (Políticas para la Persecución Penalde los Fenómenos Criminales: Tráfico Ilícito de Migrantes y Trata
de Personas). With the support of international organisations,106|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

these government departments tasked with combating trafficking
have been provided specialised training and equipment to aid in
the investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases.[32]This has included capacity building activities such as training in
Creole, the language spoken in neighbouring Haiti and by many
victims of modern slavery, and the administration of a certificate
course in Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation undertaken
by 40 prosecutors.[33] The combination of improved public
policy and intensive training of law enforcement bodies has
increased investigations, prosecutions and convictions. Between
January 2014 and March 2015, 18 cases were prosecuted against
traffickers and 20 cases have been prosecuted for CSE.[34]Despite these initial
improvements, NGOs report avital need for increased inspection
in all sectors where children are
known to be exploited.
Language training must be rolled out more broadly, as labour
inspections continue to be hampered by translation issues between
Spanish-speaking inspectors responsible for interviewing Creolespeaking workers with limited or no Spanish-language abilities.[35]There are also serious concerns about official complicity intrafficking cases, with police reportedly failing to identify minor
victims of CSE, physically or sexually-abusing minors, and in
one case, a police officer is to be tried for his participation in asex trafficking ring that involved child victims.[36]Dominican Republic cont.

There are ongoing efforts to combat sex tourism where many
victims are sexually exploited at the hand of traffickers. Tourists
with sex convictions have been denied entry to the country byimmigration officials.[37] The Specialized Corps for Tourist Safety(CESTUR) work in partnership with UNICEF to build capacity
and train members of the tourism industry.[38] Hotels havesigned codes of conduct and frequently display signs saying:"It is prohibited to take minors into hotel rooms" and "Trafficking
and sexual exploitation are crimes punishable by law."[39] While
UNICEF reports that CESTUR is working to prevent child sex
abuse in tourist areas, rescuing minors and arresting and bringing
to justice child sex offenders, local NGOs have not seen evidenceof this.[40]In 2015, the Inter-Agency Commission Against Trafficking in
Persons (CITIM), in collaboration with the IOM, developed aprotocol to detect, refer and assist child and adolescent victimsof trafficking. However, some reports indicate that CITIM did
not convene all relevant agencies during the reporting period andthat its efforts were otherwise limited.[41] In 2015, the IOM also
assisted the government in the creation of a second protocol—
to identify, assist and reintegrate survivors of trafficking inpersons.[42] Local organisations largely welcomed the protocols
but reported concerns about the limited efforts being made to
implement the protocols.[43]Victim assistance continues to be largely provided by international
and local organisations. In late 2015, the government remodelled
a house that it intends to open as a shelter for human trafficking
survivors immediately after their rescue. The funding for the
remodelling was secured from a private donor. NGOs reportthat the shelter is scheduled to open in 2016.[44] This is a positive
development considering no government agency currently
provides case management, therapy, job training or othereconomic empowerment opportunities.[45] One NGO reported

that many survivors of slavery, particularly minors, are often
quickly returned to their family without sufficient screening andoften left to seek support on their own.
To address the unregistered status of many people in the
country, the 2014 Naturalization Law was passed to recognise
the nationality of those already registered as Dominicans,and to establish a registration process for those entitled to
citizenship but who lacked official documentation.[46] The Plan
Nacional de Regularización de Extranjeros, (National Plan for the
Regularization of Foreigners) was established by Presidential
Decree No. 327-13 and began accepting applications from June2014 to May 2015.[47] Following the expiration of the registration
period in June 2015, thousands of people have crossed the border
into Haiti, either spontaneously out of fear of arrest or havebeen forcibly returned by Dominican authorities. [48] In June
2015, there were reports people were deported on the basis ofappearance with little or no verification of their identity andnationality.[49] In January 2016, international organisations
reported that Dominican migration authorities have establishedstronger procedures including case-by-case handling, verificationof migration status and dignified shelter, all of which were being
monitored by the UN country team.[50]Deportations are creating a complex migrant situation, whereby
stateless people are returning to Anse-Pitre in South-East Haiti
where prolonged drought is resulting in food insecurity andmalnutrition. As of September 2015, four informal settlements
have sprung up in Haiti to house up to 3,000 people.[51] Lack ofbasic services and health care means many men cross the borderback into the Dominican Republic each day seeking low-paidwork. Without identification documents proving they are either
Haitian or Dominican, this stateless group will remain extremely
vulnerable to exploitation.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Investigate cases of children being solicited for sex in tourist
areas, prosecute offenders and refer victims to shelters.
• Follow up on the regularisation of all migrants, and ensurethat nationality is granted to those who are entitled, that
consular services (especially Haitian) are available toassure access to birth registration and ID documents.
• Assure access to Dominican Nationality to those who
would become stateless unless otherwise granted.
• Ensure that all children and adults can obtain identity
documents to reduce their vulnerability to forced labour.
• Continue to train police and labour inspectors in Creole toensure exploited workers are identified.
• Ensure the National Police and Public Ministry commit
to increasing the capacity of law enforcement officials toinvestigate human trafficking.
• Investigate and record the rates of forced and child marriage.
• Commit to developing specialised services for victims,
particularly child victims, through CONANI (Child
Welfare Agency).

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

|

107

4

Index Rank Index Rank
Prevalence

INDIA“No one can imagine such a painful life. There ismuch torture on me and I am punished even at myminor mistakes like a child. My family is always
living under threats. There is also physical violenceagainst me and my family members.”
Survey respondent, India State Survey, 2016.

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

18,354,700

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

51.35%

Government Response Rating

B
108

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

1,311,051,000

GDP (PPP)

5,701

India cont.

PREVALENCE
India is undergoing a remarkable 'triple transition', in which
economic growth is both driving and is being affected by rapidsocial and political change.[1] Economic growth has rapidlytransformed the country over the past 20 years, including thecreation of a burgeoning middle-class.[2] In 1993, some 45
percent of the population were living in poverty; by 2011 that had
been reduced to 21 percent.[3] In addition to economic growth,ambitious programmes of legal and social reform are being
undertaken right across the board, from regulation of labour
relations to systems of social insurance for the most vulnerable.
Even with such remarkable change, given India has a populationof more than 1.3 billion people, there are still at least 270 million
people living on less than US$1.90 per day. While laws, systems
and attitudes regarding key 'fault lines' such as the caste system,
gender and feudalism are rapidly changing, social change ofthis depth and scale necessarily takes time.[4] In this context, itis perhaps unsurprising that existing research suggests that all
forms of modern slavery continue to exist in India, includingintergenerational bonded labour, forced child labour, commercial
sexual exploitation, forced begging, forced recruitment into nonstate armed groups and forced marriage.
Quantification of modern slavery in any country is difficult, but
is doubly so in a country as large and complex as India. Whereas
in other countries, a national survey was used to estimate
prevalence, in India, we chose to proceed with surveys at thestate level. In 2016, random-sample surveys were conducted
by Gallup in 15 states.[5] Collectively these surveys account fornearly 80 percent of the Indian population.
The survey data suggest that there are more than 18 million
people or 1.4 percent of the total population, who are living inconditions of modern slavery in India. Industries implicated in
the survey data include domestic work, the construction and sex
industries, agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, manual labour,and forced begging.

Bonded labour
While bonded labour has been outlawed for decades, survey dataand pre-existing research confirms that this practice still persists.
Narratives available from 2016 survey respondents identify thatsome respondents perceived their situation to be one of bonded
labour, some of which is inter-generational:"Sir, it is the sin of my father that I have to repay the debts unless
I shall have to beg. I have a threat against my family. I am
prone to physical violence everyday." (Survey respondent, 2016)"This is an old disease in the village that if you are not able
to pay off your debts you will have to work as a bonded
labor in the field of a powerful person. My husband was
employed far from the village so that he can not run away."(Survey respondent, 2016)
In other cases, it appeared that bonded labour reflected debt
lending practices and continuation of a feudal mindset:"There are many people in the village who were working with me
as a bonded labourer. I was physically and sexually assaulted
when I was working in the field. I had also threat on my life and on
my family. I was also threatened that I had to leave the village."(Survey respondent, 2016)"It's very common in this village that we have to work for repay
the amount, our family borrowed. I was one of them. My motto
was just repay the amount as soon as I could. They threatenedto evict us from our homeland, shown their anger if I denied
to perform any task. Sometimes the consequence extended
to my family and they used physical torture in several time."(Survey respondent, 2016).
Bonded labour is not only illegal, research confirms that it hasserious negative health impacts for those affected, who typicallywork in unsanitary and dangerous working conditions with noaccess to health care.[6]Domestic service
Examples of forced labour of domestic workers were describedby survey respondents. While not all domestic workers areabused, domestic workers are a particularly vulnerable groupas work takes place in private homes and largely out of the reachof regulation. Official figures in India suggest that there are morethan 4.2 million men, women and children working as cooks,
cleaners, drivers, gardeners and caregivers across the country.[7]These estimates are from 2004[8] and experts suggest that there
may be many more workers unaccounted for in these statistics.[9]Domestic workers in some states are excluded from labour laws
and can experience excessive overtime, withholding of wages
or receive insufficient remuneration. It is reported that girls as
young as ten continue to be hired in private homes.[10] Domestic
workers can be subject to threats of and actual physical violence
and in, some cases, sexual abuse.
"You are well aware that if a young lady works as a domestic
servant she is always a soft target of being easily molested.
So with me. I have not paid a single amount and in thename of debt I was made a victim of the sexual violence."(Survey respondent, 2016)

Forced begging
Street begging by adults and children is a prominent feature ofmany Indian cities. Though many beggars do so out of economic
desperation, survey data confirms that criminals also force people
to beg:"Though I am begging I am not paid a single amount. I haveto deposit all to them. I am deprived of food and good sleep.
I am not paid my wages only working as a bonded labourer."(Survey respondent, 2016)"
I was forced to do begging and still begging with theothers…I can't say anything to you because I am in constantfear. I am threatened by my employer not to open mymouth to anybody otherwise I will be punished severely."(Survey respondent, 2016)
Commercial sexual exploitation
Existing research and the 2016 survey data confirm the existenceof forced prostitution. As one survey respondent said:"My wife is kept in the locked room and sexually harassed andbeing forced to work as a prostitute. She is physically punishedwhenever she refuse to have sex. My family is under death
threat. We are also threatened of legal action against us."
(Survey respondent, 2016)
Another reported:"I was forced to work in the flesh trade… Can you imagine that
I kept in a locked room for the whole day when I refused towork under pressure? It is because they had always threatenedme and my family for physical violence and tortured."(Survey respondent, 2016).

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

109

Existing National Crime Records Bureau data indicate there were
almost 5,500 cases across India under existing human trafficking
laws in 2014. As the law does not differentiate between humantrafficking and sex work, and there are no formal guidelines on
who is identified in rescue and raid situations, it is impossible
to know if every one of these cases involved force or children,or whether some were simply cases of economic survival.[11]Forced marriage
More than 50 percent of women are married in India before
the legal age of 18.[12] Despite the illegality of sex-selective
termination of female foetuses, the introduction of sexdetermination by ultrasound[13] has seen some areas of India
experience significant gender disparity and a dearth of available
brides. The subsequent demand for brides, particularly in ruralcommunities where many girls of marriageable age have migrated
to cities for employment, has fuelled the trafficking of womenfor forced marriage. It is reported that in some instances, girls
are forced into marriage and then used as unpaid labourers—
local day labourers cost US$140 for a season but a bride cancost only US$100 as a once off payment.[14] The northern stateof Haryana has India’s most distorted sex ratio—114 males forevery 100 females.[15]The Walk Free Foundation survey questions have been carefully
designed to draw a very clear distinction between arranged
marriages (which are not in scope), and forced marriages (which
are in scope). Cases of forced marriage were identified throughthe survey process.

Forced recruitment for armed services
A number of regions in India continue to experience armed
violence and conflict between state-armed forces and Armed
Opposition Groups (AOGs).[16] There is ongoing evidence tosuggest that children are forcibly recruited into AOGs in Jammu& Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand andWest Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Tripura, Uttar Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.[17] Some children as young
as six are used by Naxalites as informers and trained to fightwith crude weapons, such as sticks.[18] Once children reach 12
years, they receive training in weapon handling and the useof improvised explosive devices. Some women and girls havereported experiencing sexual violence in militant camps.[19]Man carpet weaving, working
under a fair trade model,
having been liberated fromintergenerational debt bondage.
Photo credit, Grace Forrest

110|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

India cont.

VULNERABILITYCountry
India

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees &conflict

Mean

37.07

36.68

43.88

87.78

51.35

There are more than 270 million people living below the poverty
line in India.[20] Homelessness, including of children, remains
a major concern. For example, a census of children living on
the street in Mumbai in 2013 found a total of more than 37,000
children, primarily concentrated in commercial areas with abustling informal economy. Seventy percent were boys and thirty
percent were girls, and 18 percent were in the 10–12 year old
age bracket.[21]The informal nature of much of India’s labour economy also
impacts on vulnerability. According to government statistics,
some 75 percent of rural workers and 69 percent of urban workers
are in the informal economy.[22]These workers face risks associatedwith a highly unregulated and unmonitored work environment,
particularly in the country’s many brick kilns. The country’s
steady population growth and the corresponding demandfor improvement of infrastructure and increased dwellings
have enabled the ʻblood bricks’ produced in these industries
to continue.[23]Vulnerability to slavery in India has some common elements,
with poverty and the lack of capacity to absorb shocks, anddeep structural inequalities reflecting gender, caste and tribe all
being highly relevant.[24] However, vulnerability is also distinct
state by state. For example, in Bihar, agricultural shocks, highprevalence within the population of members of the Scheduled
Castes, combined with borders to Nepal, result in forced labourconnected to migration for work both within and from India.
Also, Bihar is one of the states affected by the Naxalite conflict.
According to the UN Security Council, Naxalites in Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha states recruited boys andgirls between six and 12 years of age into specific children’sunits. Uttar Pradesh which has the highest proportion of castes
and tribes of all Indian states, the issues are quite different.
For example, so-called ʻmanual scavenging’ is reported to be
still widely practised, in which members of a certain caste are

required to clean out dry latrines. When they seek to leave or
refuse to do this work, they face violence and abuse.[25]Women and girls face significant discrimination and high rates
of sexual violence across India, and this is particularly true forwomen and girls from the Scheduled Castes and Tribes.[26] While
Prime Minister Narendra Modi referred to a string of rapes asa national ‘shame’, and there has been a raft of legislative andcriminal justice reforms signalling some progress, women are
still at very high risk of sexual assault and domestic violence.
While factors such as dowry payments and a desire to avoid
sexual violence are commonly given as reasons for early andchild marriage, recent research suggests that these are symptoms
of deeper risk factors. Vulnerability to early and child marriage
has been attributed to a complex matrix of underlying risk
factors, reflecting the interplay of patriarchy, class, caste, religion
and sexuality, that all impact on decision making.[27] Overlaid
with this are the economics of marriage, dominant concepts ofsexuality, widely-accepted gender norms including concepts ofmasculinity, educational and institutional gaps, the centrality ofmarriage in Indian society, and the desire for parents to exercise
control over their children as they become young adults.[28]Across India, but particularly in some southern states, Indian
migrant workers actively seek jobs in construction and careindustries, primarily in the Gulf, Europe and North America. There
are reported to be 14 million Indian men and women working
overseas, primarily in the Gulf, many of whom will have soughtwork through their networks rather than formal channels.[29]Official migration processes are complex and often tainted bycorruption, which further encourages irregular migration. Thesechannels leave migrants with little recourse against practices suchas unilateral contracts, dangerous working and living conditions,limited movement and access to communications, withholding ofpassports and wages, and physical and sexual abuse.[30]Promising practices in responding to bonded labour
Uttar Pradesh (UP) is India’s most populous
state with a population of nearly 200
million people. In UP, statistics on bonded
labour suggest remarkable improvements,
reflecting the work of NGOs that work withlocal communities to bring people out ofbonded labour.
In 2013, a group of labourers from
Chhattisgarh went to Jammu and Kashmir(J & K) to work as daily-wage labourers ina brick kiln. What began with a promiseof better life soon turned into drudgery,perennial hunger, abuse and physicalviolence. After enduring these conditionsfor 12 months, the labourers were sold by
the employer to another brick kiln owner.
A young man named Deepak Das (namechanged) broke this cycle of exploitation
when he escaped from the kiln. Back in his
village, he met the NGO team who were
there to establish a Community VigilanceCommittee (village-level self-help groups).
On hearing Deepak’s account, the NGO
played a crucial role in convincing the J& K officials to take action. The Bonded
Labour Act establishes a system to release
and rehabilitate of bonded labourers, andprosecute offenders but it requires action
from local authorities.
The brick kiln was raided by a joint
team from the police, labour and social
welfare departments. All of Deepak’s
48 co-workers were rescued. The NGO
ensured that the freed labourers received
their release certificate and had theirstatements recorded under the Bonded
Labour Act. This enabled the victims
to receive rehabilitation benefits andentitlements from the government. The
freed labourers were also sensitised on thelarger issue of enslavement and trafficking,which encouraged them to help the NGO
identify new cases in their area.
Civil society action, organised by thepeople, for the people, is the backboneof the anti-slavery movement in India. It
provides support to law enforcement while
creating the conditions of trust that victimsof abuse, exploitation and neglect require.
Continued cooperation between civilsociety organisations and law enforcement
is key to ending bonded labour.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|111

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Given the scale and complexity of the issue in India, it issignificant that the government of India has taken many steps
designed to address vulnerability on a broad scale. Recent
amendments to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes(Prevention of Atrocities) Act makes it an offence to, among otherthings, compel a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled
Tribe to do begar or other forms of forced or bonded labour;
dispose or carry human or animal carcasses, or dig graves; ordo manual scavenging. The 2016 amendments also make it anoffence to promote dedicating a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled
Tribe woman to a deity, idol, object of worship, temple, or otherreligious institution as a devadasi or any other similar practice.[31]The government has also drafted a ‘National Policy for Domestic
Workers’, which is currently awaiting Union Cabinet approval.
If enacted, the Policy would safeguard a minimum salary of
Rs9,000 (approximately US$135) per month for skilled fulltime domestic workers, paid leave and maternity leave, social
security, and the right to collectively bargain. It also includes
calls for provisions against sexual harassment and bonded labourfor domestic workers.[32] The fact that domestic workers wereidentified in forced labour in the 2016 Walk Free Foundation statesurveys underscores the urgency of policy change on this issue.
In June 2015, the Ministry of Women and Child Development
launched ‘Khoya Paya’, a Lost and Found website, which
operates in addition to the Ministry of Home Affairs’ ‘Track
Child’ site. ‘Track Child’ provides a forum for police to exchange
information on missing children, while the new site extends tothe public, allowing registration of missing children by theirfamilies in coordination with police efforts.[33]In terms of more specific responses to modern slavery, India has
criminalised most forms of modern slavery, including trafficking,slavery, forced labour, child prostitution and forced marriage,as part of its Penal Code or under specific legislation. However,there is no distinction drawn under the existing trafficking
legislation between human trafficking and sex work whichmakes interpretation of results difficult. There is also no current
legislation covering the use of children in armed conflict.[34]Responsibility for the national government’s response is divided
between three ministries: Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Home
Affairs, and Ministry of Women and Child Development. Whileeach agency has different mandates and areas to cover, theabsence of strong, continuing coordination across these agencies
had led to a fragmented and complex response to modern slavery.
Implementation of anti-trafficking laws in the Penal Code is the
responsibility of the Ministry of Home Affairs, which provides
information about cross-government efforts on its anti-trafficking
portal. The portal includes criminal justice statistics, details ofanti-trafficking police units, information on government andlaw enforcement training, and information on anti-trafficking
legislation and reporting mechanisms, including the ChildLine
hotline.[35] Criminal justice statistics, both on human trafficking
and bonded labour crimes, are published by the National Crime
Records Bureau.[36]Laws prohibiting bonded labour have been on the statute books
for decades.[37] The response to bonded labour is coordinated by
the Ministry of Labour while the district and sub-divisional level
vigilance committees provide advice to the courts on bonded labour
issues.[38] The National Human Rights Commission monitors thegovernment response, regularly reviews existing government
policies and practices from a human rights perspective,[39] andprovides training to district Magistrates, Deputy Commissioners
and other government officials.[40] Statistics suggest that manystates are yet to implement the Supreme Court order which
required district vigilance committees to undertake surveys toidentify and release those in bonded labour, as many still submit
an official report of zero cases.[41] The state of Karnataka has
made progress on the Order, as reflected in the numbers of casesof bonded labourer identified in official crime statistics. Outside
this, there are concerns about the effectiveness of the response
to bonded labour in India.[42]The importance of law enforcement
With the population of most Indianstates being larger than the populationof many countries, the role of state police
in combatting modern slavery is critical.
The active approach of state police inseveral states has lent early successes
to the national government’s ambitious
programme of establishing specialist antitrafficking police units throughout India.
Known as the Integrated Anti Human
Trafficking Units (IAHTUs), these specialist
units comprise trained police officials,
prosecutors and NGO workers who work
as an integrated task force to prevent andcombat human trafficking.
In July 2015, the AHTU of Telangana statepolice removed 39 women and girls who
had been trapped working in squalid
conditions in a brothel in Chandrapur,

112|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

a city in Maharashtra. The operation isan example of successful cross-state
cooperation, as police and NGOs from bothStates worked together to get the womento safety and prosecute the perpetrators.
The operation was initiated by the Crime
Investigation Department of Telangana
police after gathering information froma victim, who had escaped the brothel
and returned to her village. The policeteam undertook days of preparatory work,
including a reconnaissance of the area,
briefing the local police department in theneighbouring state and training on proper
conduct during the operation.
The AHTU raid found women and girls
living in unhygienic conditions in cramped
rooms. Of the 39 victims, a number wereHIV positive and some were pregnant.

Children of the women were living in
the custody of the traffickers. Charging
150 Rupees for every client, the women
received half, and half was taken away by
the traffickers. The women were denied
food when they tried to refuse clients.
The AHTU arrested the perpetrators andpresented them to the local magistrate.
The victims were taken safely backto shelters in Hyderabad. The police
presented the minor victims to Child
Welfare with assistance from relevant
NGOs. The accused were sent to judicial
custody and the Preventive Detention Act
was invoked against the repeat offenders.

India cont.

The importance of successful prosecutions
Prosecution of perpetrators is a criticalpart of any response to modern slavery.
In any country, securing a prosecution istypically a long and hard process, but this isparticularly true in India, given the millionsof cases pending in the overworked judicial
system. Legal support for the victim canmake the difference between case failureand successful prosecution.
In March 2016, lawyers associated withan NGO in Bihar, won a three-year longcase that resulted in sentencing of four
traffickers and financial restitution for
the 14-year-old victim who had been
kidnapped, sexually abused, enslaved andthen sold by her handler in a ten-monthlong ordeal. The four accused were given
between seven and ten year sentences
and fined Rupees 286,000 (US$4,300).
The victim received 60 percent of thefine amount. The lawyers who fought thecase provided legal support to the victim

The Indian National Government has undertaken an ambitious
programme to establish specialist anti-trafficking police units
throughout the country. These are mandated to facilitate
interagency coordination for the rescue of children and postrescue care efforts, to monitor interventions and provide
feedback, and to collect and analyse data related to trafficking
to be shared with state governments and the media as appropriate.
The government continued to expand the number of units acrossthe country, reaching 225 units by December 2014, with the aim toestablish 330 anti-human trafficking units.[43] While these efforts
are commendable, it is also clear that some units are working
well and others are not. It is reported that one issue relates tobudget, but there are also numerous systemic issues that resultin investigations stopping at state boundaries. Reflecting theseconcerns, a recent National Legal Services Authority submission
to the Supreme Court called for a central investigations bureau
to be established to investigate cross-border crimes.[44]Both the judiciary and law enforcement have received training;
more than 20,000 police personnel have been trained on victim
identification, implementation of the new legal framework,and victim-centred investigations. The government victim
compensation scheme also extends to victims of humantrafficking; however, the amount and efficiency of dispersal islargely dependent on the state administration and is not available
country-wide.[45] In a recent landmark case, four traffickers wereprosecuted following a three-day trial for kidnapping a 14-yearold Haryana girl and forcing her into domestic servitude andsexual exploitation; they were sentenced to between sevenand ten years in jail, with half of the fine paid to the victim
as restitution.[46]The Indian Government funds victim support services, however,efforts need to be directed at improving these both in terms ofapproach and quality of care. The Ujjawala project is one of the
primary support systems in India for children and young womenat risk, but this does not necessarily equate to specialist services
for victims of trafficking. Most shelters have limited facilities
and resources to provide holistic support. [47] Government
shelters are required to register; however, services vary as there
are no standards attached to registration, and no inspections orfollow-up. Furthermore, under existing laws, survivors under
the age of 21 can and are subject to extended periods of court
ordered custody in protective homes, effectively resulting intheir detention.[48] Specific government trafficking shelters are
currently available only for women and girls.[49]India continued to take steps toward collaborating across theregion to respond to transnational trafficking crimes and provide

throughout the trial, which can be a very
difficult and emotionally-fraught process.
The lawyers also worked with the publicprosecutor to build a strong case against
the accused.
Every successful prosecution helps tochange the current balance of risk, inwhich modern slavery is a high-profit lowrisk activity for perpetrators.

protection for Indian citizens migrating overseas. Indian police
have cooperated with regional counterparts on transnational
human trafficking investigations. In 2014, Indian and Bangladeshi
police undertook a joint investigation to identify two Bangladeshi
girls sold into commercial sexual exploitation in India. Both girls
were found and successfully repatriated; the offenders are being
prosecuted under new anti-trafficking provisions.[50] In March
2016, India and Bahrain agreed to increase bilateral cooperation
on human trafficking issues, especially women and children in
the Gulf.[51] [52] This agreement provides protection for victims,
including repatriation, and provides for close cooperation andinformation exchange between police and other concerned
authorities.[53] In April 2016, media reports suggested India will
sign a similar agreement on anti-human trafficking collaboration
with the United Arab Emirates shortly.[54]In December 2015, in response to public interest litigation
initiated by an NGO, the Supreme Court of India took noteof evidence of the deficiencies of the existing victim support
network.[55] The Supreme Court of India disposed of the litigation
when the Ministry of Women and Child Development statedthat it was taking steps to establish the ʻOrganised Crime
Investigative Agencyʼ (OCIA) and had established a committee
to prepare new ʻcomprehensive anti-trafficking legislationʼ
to ensure, among other things, that victims are not treatedas criminals and provided with adequate shelter homes. The
Supreme Court also highlighted the need for stronger victim
protection legislation and protocols and provision of adequate
shelters.[56] This is critical as recent research suggests that rescue
efforts involving children are not always operating in the bestinterests of victims, and are not resulting in appropriate criminal
action against employers or traffickers, leaving children at riskof retaliation and re-trafficking.[57]Early indications are that many steps have resulted from thisSupreme Court order. An inter-ministerial committee has been
formed, legislation has been drafted and certain outcomes
appear close to completion. For example, efforts to develop
a comprehensive standard operating procedure on rescue,
rehabilitation and prevention of trafficking of women andchildren for sexual exploitation was being finalised at the timeof print.[58] It is not yet clear how this will impact on the existinglaws and infrastructure, such as the anti-human trafficking units,
already established. Part of the challenge will be to ensure thatgains already made are not lost in efforts to create a new system,
while the new system does not add another layer of complexity
to an already overcrowded system.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

113

RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Partner with civil society organisations to provide safe
work and vocational training to survivors of modern
slavery, under the Company Act 2013 corporate social
responsibility requirements.

• Ratify and implement the Convention on the Worst Formsof Child Labour.

• Domestic industries, such as construction, manufacturing
and brick kilns, should work with state governments andlocal organisations to find innovative ways of eliminating
the need for child and bonded labour in their businesses.

• Ratify and implement the Domestic Workers Convention.
• Proactively require all states to follow up on the Supreme
Court Judgment of October 15, 2012, to identify andrelease those in bonded labour, and report on progress.
Require States who report zero cases of bonded labour
to show what steps have been taken to actually find andassist bonded labourers.
• Update regulations and processes for the implementationof the Bonded Labour Act, and report on its implementation.
• Focus on practical ways to regulate and monitor practicesof placement agencies.
• Implement a new National Action Plan that targets thefull spectrum of modern slavery, while recognising thedifferences between highly organised crime (which islikely to be cross-border) and more localised practices ofbonded labour.
• Ensure that victims are not criminalised or detained bothby law enforcement and in the shelter system. Victims
must be protected (including protecting their identities)
throughout the duration of their court cases. Repeal laws
which permit detention of victims.
• Increase the proportion of female police officers inenforcement.
• Create and monitor implementation of standard operatingprocedures for shelter homes to support quality and rights
based post-rescue rehabilitation of survivors.
• Prevent the recruitment of children into armed oppositiongroups and provide targeted rehabilitative services torescued children.

114|

Business• With many of the necessary laws in place and underdevelopment, the focus must be on implementation andtracking improvements in implementation. For example,
given the high levels of internal migration, there is a clear
need to ensure State police are encouraged and enabled tocontinue investigations across borders. This needs to bein addition to any central investigations bureau which will
likely focus on only the most complex cases.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

• Export-oriented industries such as textiles, agriculture andcarpet weaving should work through their industry bodies
and with appropriate third parties to create industry-wide
supply chains that are free of modern slavery.

Indiacont. cont.
Asia
Pacific

STATE STUDY 1 – P roblem description and state government
responses in Uttar Pradesh
POPULATION

199,812,341

GSDP (2014–2015)[59]

US$161.1 Billion[60]

As the most populous state in India, Uttar Pradesh (UP) is a centre of agriculture, industry and tourism.
Though poverty across the state is declining, UPʼs poverty rate remains higher than the national
average.[61] A combination of population growth and persistent migration flows from neighbouring
states, predominantly Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal, have increased the available workforce
despite limited employment opportunities. This, coupled with the highest prevalence of Scheduled
Castes in India (the official term for Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist Dalits)[62] and prevailing discrimination
against women,[63] heightens people’s vulnerability to modern slavery in UP.
UP is a source, transit and destination state for modern slavery. UP’s 619 km stretch of open borders
with Nepal,[64] proximity to Bangladesh and New Delhi, and home to tourist destinations of Varanasi andAgra, facilitate the flow of vulnerable people and impede the ability of law enforcement to detect humantraffickers. Following the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, migrants from earthquake affected areas poured
into UP,[65] some of whom were vulnerable to accepting exploitative jobs in the informal economy.
Children in UP are at particular risk of forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation. A 2015 study
found a 13 percent rise in child labour in UP despite the fact that child labour is gradually declining
across India.[66] Nationally, one in five child labourers in India is exploited in UP,[67] with almost 900,000
children aged 5–14 years in the workforce in 2011.[68] Many children are engaged in the worst forms ofchild labour—forced begging in Varanasi and Agra, and forced labour in embroidery, carpet weaving,
leather work, sports ball stitching and bangle making.[69] Despite the efforts of some international
brands to sever contracts with factories manufacturing with child labour, the illegal work of many
children in UP goes undetected as they work from home for meagre piece-rate wages.
UP’s 40 million people belonging to Scheduled Castes[70] are particularly vulnerable to caste-based slavery
such as manual scavenging. Despite legislation prohibiting manual scavenging,[71] the act of removing
faeces from non-flush systems and septic tanks by hand for little or no pay remains common.[72]Persisting hierarchical attitudes ensure manual scavengers remain entrapped in this lifestyle, subject
to violence, stigma, debt bondage and discrimination.
UP has the highest proportion of child marriages in India, with more than 2.8 million children marriedin the 10–19 years category.[73] Children and young women are vulnerable to short-term contract
marriages with tourists who temporarily marry for the duration of their visit to UP.[74]Uttar Pradesh does not have state-level legislation specifically targeting slavery; however, someelements of trafficking are criminalised under the Goonda Act and the Gangster Act of UP, which
recently received Presidential assent.[75] The legally-mandated Uttar Pradesh Victim Compensation
Scheme 2014 provides for financial compensation to victims of trafficking who have suffered loss or
injury,[76] though no data exists on how many victims accessed this fund.
Under the national anti-trafficking initiative, 35 anti-human trafficking units were functional in UP
and will receive technical support from UNICEF during 2016–2017.[77] Considerable efforts were madeat the state level to combat modern slavery including the training of 2,076 stakeholders, rescue
missions across a range of districts and the approval of a State Task Force in 2015.[78] Operation Smile,a 2014 initiative of the Ghaziabad Police which rescues children from child labour, and tracks missing
and trafficked children,[79] continued operations in 2016.[80] Following the earthquake in Nepal, thegovernment of UP installed CCTV cameras on border crossings to monitor human trafficking though
it is unclear whether any victims were identified in this way.[81]GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|115

Asia Pacific cont.

STATE STUDY 2 – P roblem description and state government
responses in Bihar
POPULATION

104,099,452

GSDP (2014–2015)[82]

US$66.4 Billion[83]

In Bihar, a combination of chronic poverty, distress migration, open borders, caste, ethnicity andgender drive the prevalence of modern slavery. According to the National Sample Survey Office’s mostrecent report, 34 percent of Bihar’s population are below the poverty line, with 56 percent of children
under five years of age underweight.[84]Despite a wealth of fertile land and natural resources, ongoing flooding and drought have reduced
agricultural output and hindered the state’s growth. With reduced livelihood opportunities, distressmigration is common. The 2011 Census showed that net migration out of Bihar stood at 1.7 million
people,[85] making it the second-highest state in India for out-migration. Other reports have suggested
as many as 4.42 million people migrate out of Bihar every year.[86] The use of migration as a survival
strategy across all age groups in Bihar, often under extremely vulnerable circumstances, exacerbates
vulnerability to slavery.[87]Ongoing crimes against Scheduled Castes, 25 percent higher than the national average (3.5 per 100,000
population, compared with 2.8 per 100,000 nationally),[88] coupled with more desperate economic status
and severe social exclusion, increase vulnerability to exploitation. Although many new government
initiatives are starting to have a positive effect on discrimination against marginalised groups, morethan 56 percent of women in Bihar aged between 15 and 49 report that they are subject to physicaland sexual violence.[89]Bihar’s proximity to Bangladesh and its 800 km stretch of open borders with Nepal, facilitate the easewith which traffickers cross internationally without identification. Major transport hubs in these borderareas have become hotspots for trafficking, as well as sites of commercial sexual exploitation. Bihar
acts as a transit and destination for girls and women trafficked from Nepal, Bangladesh, West Bengal
and northeastern states. An estimated 40 red light areas exist in Bihar, many of which are home tointergenerational sex workers from the Natt tribal group.[90]Children in and from Bihar are subject to forced labour, forced marriage, forced begging and forced
recruitment into non-state Armed Opposition Groups (AOGs). Persistent civil unrest between the
Naxalite-Maoist insurgency and the government has resulted in Bihari children as young as six recruited
into service and taught to handle weapons as part of their training. Throughout 2015–2016, local
newspapers continued to report on the rescue of Bihari children trapped in forced labour in a variety
of sectors, including jacket-manufacturing,[91] bangle making,[92] textiles,[93] food manufacturing[94] andwaste recycling.[95]Efforts to combat slavery and the corresponding attempts to address the corruption of local services
is still at an early stage. Bihar does not have state-specific laws addressing slavery, although they are
considering drafting legislation for anti-trafficking protection. Under the national initiative, Bihar
State Police created anti-human trafficking units (AHTUs) and this has led to the identification andrescue of victims in 14 of 38 districts.[96] Data collection and reporting remains an issue, especially inthe management of missing persons by police despite previously receiving training in tracing andrehabilitating missing children. The Astiva Action Plan for Preventing and Combating Trafficking
2008—that coordinates state, district and Panchayat (village) task forces in order to “care and protect
trafficking victims at all stages of rehabilitation and also ensure strong prosecution of cases”[97] commenced
strongly, but efforts since appear to have diminished. The 2015 ‘Operation Mahavir’, to trace andfree child victims of trafficking, saw police in 38 districts of Bihar monitoring places like brick kilns,
roadside hotels, markets, bus stands and railway stations.[98] However, at the time of writing, no data
was available on the number of cases identified in this operation. Many of the gaps in government
implementation of anti-slavery policies and legislation are a legacy of Bihar’s decades of misrule.
They reflect deep-seated, long-term challenges that will require continued and determined efforts.

116|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Indiacont. cont.
Asia
Pacific

STATE STUDY 3 – P roblem description and state government
responses in Maharashtra
POPULATION

112,374,333

GSDP (2014–2015)[99]

US$264.80 Billion[100]

Maharashtra is one of the wealthiest states in India and is considered the trade and commercial hubof the country. According to the 2011 Census, 45 percent of Maharashtra’s population is urban.[101]The wealth disparity between rich and poor is particularly evident in Mumbai with 54 percent of thecapital cityʼs population residing in slums. Mumbai is home to 22 million people[102] and is notorious
for being the commercial sex capital of India.[103]
Human trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation is witnessed throughout Maharashtra. Rural
Maharashtra continues to be a major source of trafficking victims. Due to poverty and a lack of livelihood
prospects, men, women and children from rural tribes are pushed to search for opportunities in urban
cities, increasing their vulnerability to modern slavery. Commonly, women and girls are traffickedand exploited by independent recruitment agencies largely unregulated by state authorities.[104]Many human traffickers also pose as matchmakers arranging false marriages within India where,
instead of marriage, the women are sold and subjected to forced prostitution and forced labour
within the domestic service.[105]Debt bondage is reported to be widespread in Maharashtra, particularly in unregulated industries suchas construction, agriculture, mining and brick manufacturing.[106] For example, borrowing money for
marriages, festivals and funerals is a common practice among some tribal groups in the State, which
can result in debt bondage.[107] [108] The Supreme Court has established vigilance committees directedto pay attention to specific sectors where debt bondage is prevalent such as brick kilns, quarries,
carpet weaving, construction, agriculture, manufacturing, fishing and many others.[109] The vigilance
committees must conduct surveys on a District and Sub-Divisional District level every three years andreport their findings to the National Human Rights Commission.[110] [111] Despite these efforts, someperpetrators of modern slavery, such as brick kiln owners, are reported to be politically connected,
enabling them to avoid prosecution.[112] In this way, the effectiveness of the committees and monitoringmechanisms is reduced by ongoing corruption.
The Government of Maharashtra has made efforts to implement legal mechanisms to protect
vulnerable populations from modern slavery. Maharashtra is the first state in the country to have
prepared a state action plan for the elimination of child labour.[113] It is also one of the first states toadopt various acts specific to issues of mathadis (manual labourers who load and unload trucks),[114]
migrant labourers and domestic workers.[115] In accordance with the Maharashtra Domestic Workers
Welfare Act (2008), the Maharashtra Domestic Workers Welfare Board has registered many domestic
workers within the state so that they are privy to the benefits outlined in the Act.[116][117]In 2008, Maharashtra established Anti Human Trafficking police Units (AHTUs) and various rescue
operations have been conducted since then. By 2012, the AHTUs had rescued 2,683 victims across478 operations, arrested 1,558 traffickers and registered 372 cases.[118] AHTUs have repatriated 26
Bangladeshi women rescued from Pune, Mumbai and Thane.[119] The Crime Branch’s Social Service
Branch (SSB), which investigates trafficking crimes in Mumbai, have reported increasing success in
identifying and rescuing victims from 159 women and nine minors (2013) to 308 women and 23 minors(2014).[120] Despite these successes, inter-departmental coordination remains a serious challenge tohuman trafficking law enforcement, particularly between the local police, AHTUs and SSB.[121]In 2014, the government of West Bengal and Maharashtra signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU)
to ensure the identification and repatriation of women and children who are victims of trafficking.[122]The MoU established a standard operating procedure to ensure the verification of identities andfamily tracing of rescued human trafficking victims.[123] In addition to this, it was reported in June2015 that the governments of Jharkhand, Delhi, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra will signan MoU to closely collaborate and jointly combat modern slavery.[124] These efforts contribute to thecollaboration of states to combat modern slavery through the exchange and sharing of informationand the unification of inter-state modern slavery data.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

|

117

6

Prevalence Index Rank

IRAQ
"The Islamic State didn't come to kill the women andgirls, but to use us as spoils of war, as objects to be
sold with little or to be gifted for free. Their cruelty
was not merely opportunistic. The IS soldiers camewith a pre-established policy
to commit such crimes."
Excerpt from a statement by Nadia Murad Basee Taha,
Trafficking Survivor, to the UN Security Council on
December 18, 2015. On August 15, 2014, Nadia wascaptured by Islamic State militants in Iraq; she was raped
and tortured for three months until she successfully escaped.

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

403,800

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

63.83%

Government Response Rating

No Data

118|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

35,730,000

GDP (PPP)$15,057

Iraq cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 403,800 people or1.13 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Iraq. Though Walk Free Foundation did not conduct
a survey in Iraq, respondents in other survey countries—
Bangladesh, Cambodia and Nepal reported a family member
exploited in Iraq.

Forced labour
The current armed conflict and the subsequent humanitariancrisis in Iraq continue to significantly impact the security ofcivilians and migrant workers in the country. Before the outbreakof violence, Iraq was gaining popularity as a destination for
migrant workers, particularly from Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand.[1] Migrant
workers, either knowingly or unknowingly, came to Iraq tomeet manpower demands in growing sectors such as health,construction, domestic work and hospitality. There are also
reports of Asian migrants forced into prostitution.[2] To attract
more local and foreign investors, Iraq passed an investment law
in 2006, which ensured the right of companies to employ foreign
workers and for non-Iraqi workers to remit their salaries.[3]Before the violence escalated, migrant workers in Iraq
were already vulnerable to forced labour and debt bondage
commensurate with regional trends. However, the current crisis
has magnified these issues and introduced new risks and threats.
In mid-2014, hundreds of South Asian migrant workers in Iraq
were caught in the crossfire between the Iraqi military andIslamic State (IS). Those wanting to leave the country faced adifficult situation as employers retained worker passports. There
are reports of Indian migrant workers striking because theywanted to return home but could not access their passports.[4]During an intense period of conflict in Tikrit, north of Baghdad,
IS militants briefly captured Bangladeshi workers[5] while 41
Indian construction workers were detained indefinitely in Najaf,
south of Baghdad[6] and 46 Indian nurses were left stranded in a
hospital.[7] Reports of IS holding migrant workers in situations ofdebt bondage in Iraq have emerged since their rise to prominence
in 2014, as well as their use for forced labour, sexual exploitation
and as human shields in conflict.[8]Sexual slavery
There are verified reports of women and children being captured,
sold into slavery and held in barbarous conditions by IS. In 2014,
IS captured 3,000 women and children, mostly from the Kurdishspeaking Yazidi minority group—the largest single capture ofwomen this century. IS propaganda claimed that the captured
Yazidi women and girls were 'spoils of war' to be divided among
fighters.[9] Publications released by IS[10] provide an extreme
interpretation of Shari'a describing the legality and illegalitiesof dealing with slaves - "it is permissible to buy, sell, or give as a
gift female captives and slaves, for they are merely property, which
can be disposed of..." This alarming resurgence of slavery isevident in Raqqa, the self-proclaimed IS capital, and surrounding
IS-occupied territory where women can be bought and sold at
the market.There are reports of IS offering to sell women backto their families for as much as US$40,000.[11]Forced recruitment of children into militia groups
There are grave concerns for Iraqi children being used in armed
combat by IS, emerging militias and within existing, expanding
and government groups such as the Popular Mobilization Forces(PMF)[12] which operate under the control of the Prime Minister's

Office (PMO).[13] The forced recruitment of children by IS has
resulted in their use as suicide bombers, informants, bomb
makers and human shields. There are also reports of families
selling disabled children to IS.[14]Online video footage released
by IS shows children, some as
young as ten, undergoing militarytraining at camps, carrying out
assassinations and completing
suicide bombing missions, aswell as graphic images of a childshooting dead two alleged Russian
spies and another showing a childcarrying out a suicide bombing.[15]PMF elements also recruit children, though it is unclear to what
extent children join alongside relatives and caregivers versus
those forcibly recruited. There are reliable testimonies of children
confirming that they were tricked into believing they were joining
the police but instead were taken to PMF training camps.[16] There
are unconfirmed reports the PMF abducts children. However, it
is unclear whether they are being abducted for ransom, leverage,
recruitment or other purposes.[17]Forced marriage
Despite legislation preventing girls under 18 from marrying,widespread evidence of forced and temporary marriage persists.
Forced marriages are often used as a tool to strengthen familial
ties within tribes and tribal allegiances.[18] Fasliyya, the practiceof marrying off a woman from one tribe to settle a feud withanother, continues with girls being traded as compensation forcrimes.[19] This practice reportedly increased throughout 2015–2016 in the southern provinces of Iraq, namely Missan, Basrah,
Thi-Qar, Muthanna, and Babeil, where the role of governmentis increasingly being overtaken by local tribes. [20] In Iraqi
Kurdistan, the tradition of jin be jin (a woman for a woman)persists whereby brides are exchanged between tribes to avoid
payments of dowries.[21]Dowry payments received by fathers of child brides continues
to provide an economic incentive to marry daughters early. New
research from November 2015 found economic incentives played
a role in 51.4 percent of forced marriages, out of a representative
sample of 1,249 cases.[22] Parental fear of inter-ethnic marriage has
also been noted as a cause for forced marriage. The socio-tribal
tradition of marrying daughters to relatives continues in 2016.[23]According to research published in November 2015, 80.2 percent
of forced marriages in Iraq would end a girl's education.[24] This
lack of education is particularly concerning when coupled withthe reality of many girls being abandoned by their husbands or
widowed. Without education, and unable to financially depend on
their husband, girls find it incredibly difficult to access anothersource of income. This is compounded by a lack of legal rights,
as many marriages are conducted outside of the court system bya cleric. Another 2015 study which investigated 4,265 marriage
cases in Iraq across the governorates of Baghdad, Basrah, ThiQar, Muthanna, Missan, Babil, Al Anbar, Diyala and Nineveh

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|119

found more than one-third were conducted outside of the court
system. Of those marriages, 22 percent involved girls under theage of 14.[25]Reports suggest that the practice of muta'a, 'temporary marriage'
for the purpose of forced prostitution, is increasing due to thedire lack of income in many households.[26] One NGO reported
encountering cases of 12-year-old girls who had already beenmarried two or three times.[27] Some of these girls are exploitedby their 'husbands' outside of Iraq in Jordan, Syria, the UAE
and Yemen.[28] Muta'a is unique to the Shiite community(predominantly in Karbala, Najaf and Baghdad). However,Sunni-Muslims have a similar marriage contract called misyar .[29]IS's Women of the Islamic State: Manifesto and Case Study
publication claims it is legitimate to marry girls as young as
nine.[30] There is evidence of captured children, often fromminority groups, being married at very early ages, however, it isunclear to what extent such marriages occur. There are reports ofSunni women from Mosul, Ramadi and Salah Al-Din forced into
marrying IS fighters. However, strong tribal ties have prevented
many families from publicly discussing this.[31]

VULNERABILITYCountry
Iraq

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

71.22

44.91

58.04

81.13

63.83

The brutal rise of the self-proclaimed Islamic State[32] in 2014–15
has seen almost 3.2 million Iraqis flee their homes[33] with afurther 8.2 million requiring immediate humanitarian support
as at June 2015.[34] As many as two million war widows andmore than one million orphans have been left destitute acrossthe country[35] with internally-displaced persons (IDPs) residing
in roughly 3,550 locations.[36] Chronic lack of funding, resulting
in emergency food distribution delays and health care cuts, hasleft millions unable to meet their basic daily needs.[37]There is a strong link between high levels of instability withina country and increases in that population's vulnerability tomodern slavery.[38] In cases of armed conflict, there is often acorresponding weakening of the rule of law, providing fertile
ground for traffickers to profit with impunity.[39] The demand for
the State to respond to other humanitarian emergencies, coupledwith few human-trafficking specific services or organisationsin these countries, means protection of vulnerable migrants,
IDPs and ethnic minorities, and support for victims of humantrafficking in times of crisis is limited.[40] In Iraq, a combinationof protracted displacement, dwindling financial resources,
limited employment opportunities and loss of assets, coupledwith missing identification documentation,[41] is creating fertile
ground for modern slavery.
The rapid onset of violence in some provinces meant many
fled without an opportunity to secure vital proof of identity
documentation[42] which is essential to access medical care,education, food rations, employment and government socialwelfare schemes. The situation is particularly precarious for
women without a male companion, as ID cards often bear thename of the male head of the household, without whom she
is unable to access services and assistance.[43] These women,
particularly girls and those refugees who originally fled Iraq
into Syria now subsequently returning to Iraq, are easy targets
for exploitation.[44] Some women are resorting to survival sex
while others are vulnerable to trafficking for commercial sexual
exploitation or forced marriages with men who abduct them.
This, in turn, increases their risk of falling victim of honour
crimes.[45] Some girls sold into commercial sexual exploitation(CSE) are imprisoned for their protection from reprisals fordishonouring their family.[46] Impunity for perpetrators of childsexual offences exists if they subsequently enter a valid marriage
with the child victim.[47]Many government institutions are riddled with corruption whileothers have merged due to financial constraints—as evidenced by120|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

the merging of the Ministry for Women's Affairs and the Ministryfor Human Rights with other Ministries in August 2015.[48] Thebirth registration system remains weak, particularly in rural andremote areas. Children in Iraq, already vulnerable to recruitment
into the armed forces and militia groups, are even more exposed
to risk when unable to prove their age.[49] Sixty-seven separate
attacks on schools in 2014,[50] including targeted murders ofteachers, has left many children without access to education.
Deeply entrenched religious and ethnic divisions continue toexpose some sectors of the community to modern slavery.

Yazidis, Assyrians, Christians andother minorities are particularly
vulnerable to exploitation at thehands of IS.
Fleeing IDPs of particular ethnicities and religious sects have been
prevented from entering certain governorates, exposing them todanger and heightening their risk of seeking help from opportunistic
traffickers. In April 2015, thousands of Sunni-Muslims fleeing IS
in Anbar were prevented from entering Shia Baghdad, stranding
them in no man's land without shelter or food.[51]Forced marriage and early marriage are prohibited by the Iraqi
Personal Status Code. [52] However, in February 2014, the draft
Jaafari Personal Status Law was approved by the Council of
Ministers. This law permits the marriage of girls as young as nine,forbids wives to leave the house without permission and waives
the husband's responsibility to pay financial support (nafaqah)
when a wife is either a minor or a senior and hence unable tosexually satisfy him. To date, the draft law remains dormant, but
it remains of significant concern, particularly as it would apply
only to Shiite Muslims thereby dividing the now unified judicial
courts into religious courts headed by clerics. Many clerics in Iraq
continue to perform underage marriages because they believe theminimum legal age for marriage contradicts Islamic principles.
There are some encouraging practices emerging—in Dohuk,
the Islamic Religious Committee cooperates with the Personal
Status Court to ensure that couples have legally registered theirmarriage before conducting a religious marriage.[53]Iraq cont.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
At present, the Government of Iraq has fragmented control
over some areas of the country, faces sectarian and ethnic
divisions, and is largely reliant on international aid to deliver
essential services to large swathes of its displaced population.
The information that follows on government responses should
be understood in that context, recognising this response, inreality, does not reach all portions of the population outside ofgovernment-controlled areas.
Despite the protracted conflict, in the past ten years the Iraqi
Government has passed some key pieces of legislation withthe aim of strengthening the country's counter-trafficking
framework. In 2005, Article 37 of the new constitution outlined
that, alongside prohibitions against torture, "forced labor, slavery,
slave trade, trafficking in women or children, and sex trade shallbe prohibited".[54] Law No.28 on Trafficking in Persons covers
prosecution of perpetrators (sentences of a maximum jail term oflife imprisonment and fines of up to 25 million dinars), protectionof victims and prevention. The law protects victims by providing
medical care, witness protection and financial assistance. The
Act largely adopts the UN definition of trafficking in persons,[55]however, there are omissions such as the facilitating of childprostitution is not considered an act of trafficking.
There is almost no proactive identification of victims in Iraq andlow levels of understanding of what constitutes a traffickingin-persons crime among law enforcement personnel.[56] The
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (MOLSA) is responsible
for the inspection of workplaces according to the Labour Law.
Despite this, no MOLSA staff has been trained on labour
inspections.[57] A large number of vulnerable migrant workers
working across the country means even training a few staff could
not possibly account for all of the workplaces that need review.
Migrant workers are extremely vulnerable to exploitation as theconditions at workplaces are determined solely by employers
and remain unregulated.
Very limited support is available to victims in Iraq, and of
those services that exist, they assist a range of people includingorphans, the elderly, victims of domestic violence and victimsof trafficking. Recognising that the recovery needs of trafficking
victims require specialised support, a government shelter has
been built to accommodate 100–150 female victims, but it has
not yet begun accepting victims. It is uncertain when the shelter
will open—it currently lacks sufficient funds to operate, hasinadequate safety protections[58] and requires Ministry of Justiceapproval to open.[59] Specialised staff within MOLSA can provide
psycho-social and medical care to victims, but it is unclear if
any victims are given this support.[60]Workers abandoned by their employer in Iraq have little to noprotection or humanitarian services to turn to. There are noNGOs specialising in anti-human trafficking, and there are strict
government restrictions on an NGO's capacity to provide longterm assistance such as accommodation or vocational training.[61]Workers without passports or permits (many employers allow
permits to expire and fail to renew them) have no clear accessto help. NGOs are unable to assist victims who have been
designated for deportation by law enforcement. Many victimsof trafficking are imprisoned for infractions such as overstaying
visas, illegal border crossing, missing identity documents, forgedentry visa and forged residency documents.[62]In June 2015, Iraq's Prime Minister Al-Abadi urged the UN toconsider IS's recruitment and use of children as crimes against
humanity.[63] However, this disregarded the government's own
use of children in the PMF militias that he formally commands.[64]There are no comprehensive policies or strategies addressing childrecruitment and use in armed conflict.[65] Furthermore, legislation
criminalising the enlistment of children into armed forces, nonstate armed groups, and their use as active participants in hostilities,
only applies to offences committed from 17 July 1968 to 1 May
2003, therefore not to those committed subsequently.[66] The draft
National Guard Law presented to the Council of Representatives inMarch 2015 includes exceptions related to the age of recruitment,
which would allow children associated with pro-government
militias to join the National Guard.[67] In December 2015, theUN Security Council announced their abhorrence of all acts oftrafficking in human beings by IS, stating that certain acts might
be considered crimes against humanity.[68]RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Islamic scholars qualified to interpret Shari'a law must
speak out against the practices of IS, particularly theenslavement and sale of women and girls.
• Rescue and rehabilitate children forcibly recruited into IS,
PMF and other armed groups.
• Ensure all marriages are registered, punish clerics foundto be conducting forced marriages and engage fathers ineducation on the minimum legal age of marriage.
• Coordinate and monitor the cross-border movement of
Iraqi girls, screening for cases of muta'a marriages.
• Train members of the Ministry of Interior (police officers,
staff at the Residency Department labour inspectors)
and members of the High Judicial Council (judges,
prosecutors, lawyers) on counter trafficking and build
their abilities on the identification and protection of
victims, including assistance delivery and recovery needs,
to be the focal points for counter-trafficking efforts.

• Open the dedicated shelter for trafficking victims toprovide essential accommodation, support and services.
• Allow NGOs to play a role in the provision of essential
assistance for victims of modern slavery; encourage thecreation of a specialised NGO with trained staff.
• Conduct widespread awareness campaigns, with thesupport of international organisations, on modern slavery
and victim identification.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|121

Photo credit, Samual Aranda/Panos

7

Prevalence Index Rank

MAURITANIA
Former slave, Noura Mint Mourada. Noura escapedfrom the house of her owner with the help of theactivist group Initiative for the Resurgence ofAbolitionism in Mauritania, a group that fights
for the end of slavery in Mauritania.
Mauritania, Nr. Boutilimit

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

43,000Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

46.77%

Government Response Rating

CC

122

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

4,068,000

GDP (PPP)$3,912

Mauritania cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 43,000 people or 1.06
percent of the total population live in conditions of modern andtraditional slavery in Mauritania. This is based on a randomsample, nationally-representative survey undertaken in 2015,that sought to identify instances of both forced marriage andforced labour within the general population (surveys conducted
in French, Hassanya, Poulaar, Wolof and Soninke languages).
Mauritania continues to host a high proportion of people living
in slavery in the world. Slavery is entrenched in Mauritaniansociety. Slave status is inherited generation to generation andis deeply rooted in social castes and the wider social system.
Those owned by masters often have no freedom to own land,cannot claim dowries from their marriages nor inherit property
or possessions from their families.[1]Forced marriage

Walk Free Foundation survey
data reveals an estimated 23,000
victims of forced marriage in
Mauritania.[2]The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimates as
many as 35 percent of all marriages in the country are forced
or early.[3] The dangerous and damaging practice of leblouh or
gavage, the force-feeding of child brides to make them gain
weight before marriage, continues across the country.[4] It is
predominantly practised by Arab Moors seeking the highest
dowry for their daughter.[5]Maslaha marriages (kinship marriages) remain common between
cousins with many girls being married early in a stated effort
to prevent them from rape and sexual violence.[6] The desire toprevent pregnancies out-of-wedlock has similarly been noted asa driving factor fuelling the prevalence of forced marriages.[7]The practice of siriya or 'temporary' marriages continues between
Mauritanian girls and wealthy Middle Eastern men.[8] Some
reports suggest young daughters are frequently married off to
Saudi Arabian men as prepubescent brides who are later rejectedonce they reach puberty or become pregnant.[9] Mauritanian
women and girls are also at risk of being forced into prostitution
by their 'husbands' in the Middle East.

Forced labour
Of a total 20,000 people estimated in forced labour, Walk Free
Foundation survey results revealed 43 percent were exploitedin the construction sector in Mauritania. Forced labour in theconstruction sector in Mauritania is a currently unidentified
issue with no existing research or reports on its existence or
prevalence. Field-based sources describe situations in which
fathers send young sons to work as apprentices with a technicalperson, doing mechanical work or masonry. Sometimes those
employers take advantage of the situation, exploiting children
beyond their physical capacity. However, little more is known
about these men's experience, indicating a need for organisations
on the ground to further explore these cases.

the domestic sector typically herd animals (camels, cows, goats)or are forced to work in the fields.[11]There is an increasing demand for Mauritanian domestic
workers in the Middle East. In September 2015, Mauritaniantrade unions reported 900 Mauritanian women were trafficked
to work in Saudi Arabia.[12] These women believed they had
accepted roles as nurses, teachers and childminders, but instead
were expected to perform domestic work in private homes.
These women experienced physical confinement in the home,
passport confiscation, and some reported physical and sexual
harassment.[13] As traditional migrant labour sending countries,
such as the Philippines and Indonesia, implement stricter banson the recruitment of their nationals for domestic work in the
Middle East, the hiring of Mauritanian women to fill the void
is likely to continue.

Forced begging
Religion and slavery are closely interrelated in Mauritania
and religion has reportedly been called upon by masters as
justification for ownership over another person.[14] There havebeen cases of Talibes, boys who attend Qur'anic school, being
forced into begging on the streets.[15] Forced begging is practised
primarily by Black Mauritanians.[16] Boys from low-income
families in the Halpulaar community were most vulnerable toforced begging.[17]Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data
Number%% malevictims% femalevictims

Forced labour

20.000477129Forcedmarriage

23,000532872

Modernslavery total

43,000

100

48

52

Forced labour by sector of exploitation%

Domestic work

42

Construction

43

Manufacturing

4

Other manufacturing

1

Farming1

Sex industry

0

Drug production

3

Retail sector

3

Other

0

Don't know

0

Refused

3

Total

100

Of a total 20,000 people estimated in forced labour, Walk Free
survey results revealed an estimated 42 percent were exploited indomestic work. Forced labour in the domestic sector commonly
includes women performing domestic chores, such as fetchingwater, gathering firewood, preparing food, pounding millet andcaring for their master's children.[10] Men and boys enslaved in
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

123

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

65.96

40.54

49.85

30.74

46.77

Mauritania

Men, women and children in Mauritania continue to bevulnerable to a range of risk factors associated with entering
into and remaining in situations of modern slavery. Mauritaniansociety is deeply divided by ethnicity, descent, castes and class[18]which continue to influence the vulnerability of some groups tohereditary or chattel slavery—whereby slave status is inheritedgeneration to generation.
The Black Moors (also known as Haratines) were historicallyenslaved by the Arab Moors, the minority rulers.Today, due totheir entrenched marginalised status, many remain under the
direct or indirect control of their traditional masters.[19] The
psychological nature of slavery means it is not uncommon
for masters and slaves to form bonds[20] which can hinder
efforts to shift the traditional cultural mindset that slavery is
acceptable. Many Black Moors remain caught in an isolating
system perpetuated by a lack of education and knowledge of life
outside of servitude.[21] Some AfroMauritanians, including thePeuhl, Soninke, Wolof and Bambara, continue to be vulnerable
to modern slavery as a result of their discriminatory status.
The systematic exclusion of Black Moors and AfroMauritanians
from political and economic life results in a corresponding
economic disparity between groups.[22] An estimated 42 percent
of Mauritanians are living in poverty,[23] many of whom reside
in rural communities reliant on the precarious agriculture andpastoralist sectors for their livelihood. Mauritania is subject
to harsh climatic conditions­—including frequent droughts andfloods—which result in persistent severe food crises.[24] The lackof alternative livelihood opportunities provides little incentive
for enslaved workers to seek work outside of their master's homeor farm.
Despite a constitutional guarantee of free compulsory primaryeducation, many children do not attend school.[25] In 2014, the UN
Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism reported

as many as 80 percent of children in Haratine communities in
Nouakchott were not in school.[26] Lack of education increases
the vulnerability of children to the worst forms of child labourand forced marriage, as a lack of future economic or employment
options leads many parents to marry their daughters early.
Some children continue to lack birth registration certificates
which deny them access to essential health and education
services, limits an individual's ability to assert property rights,
and reduces legal work options—this makes individuals highly
vulnerable to accepting jobs in the informal market where they
are denied appropriate protection. Some Mauritanian refugee
children who fled to neighbouring Mali remain stateless although
this situation is improving following the 2015 decision of
the Malian Government to extend birth certificates to 7,807
Mauritanian children.[27]The opposing flow of Malian refugees into Mauritania following
the 2012 conflict has seen the creation of the M'bera refugee
camp. New refugees continued to arrive throughout 2015.[28] The
traditional caste hierarchy persists in the camp affecting equitableaid distribution.Bella children, already vulnerable to exploitationand forced labour as domestic workers in the homes of Arabs andTuaregs in Mali, are particularly vulnerable to food shortages andill-treatment in the camp.[29] UNHCR continues to advocate forthe adoption of national asylum law and provision of civil status
documentation for refugees,[30] many of whom are vulnerable
to human trafficking. The government does not provide legal
alternatives to the removal of foreign victims of modern slavery
to countries where they may face hardship or retribution.[31]
Mauritanians and other Sub-Saharan African migrants continue
to be vulnerable to human trafficking as they travel within the
country and onto North Africa. The vast, poorly-patrolled borders
increase the accessibility of transit through the country and theability of traffickers to exploit victims with impunity.[32]GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Slavery in Mauritania was abolished in 1981, criminalised in2007 and designated as a crime against humanity under theconstitutional reform in 2012.[33] In August 2015, a new antislavery law was enacted that increased the maximum prison
sentence for the crime of slavery from 10 to 20 years.[34] Allforms of trafficking, except hereditary slavery, are prohibited by
the 2003 Law Against Trafficking in Persons, which prescribes
penalties of five to 10 years' imprisonment for violations.[35]Despite these legislative advancements, a 'deliberate andsystematic failure' of both the government and local organisations
to enforce laws allows exploitation of citizens to continue.[36] In
2011, the first and only slave owner was convicted in Mauritania,
receiving an inadequate sentence of six months imprisonment.[37]Despite this unprecedented conviction, the government has not
pursued investigations, prosecutions or convictions for slavery
crimes since.[38]124|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

In March 2013, the President of Mauritania established the
National Agency to Fight against the Vestiges of Slavery,
Integration, and Fight against Poverty (known as Tadamouns)
which outlined a National Plan of Action.[39] In March 2014, theplan was formally adopted by the government of Mauritania
in cooperation with the OHCHR Field Office in Nouakchottand a special Tribunal to prosecute crimes of slavery wasestablished.[40] The Tribunal has not prosecuted any cases ofslavery and field sources suggest there is no evidence that sucha Tribunal exists.[41] In December 2015, the government ordered
the creation of special courts to try slavery cases—further details
on the timeframe for their creation were not found.[42] The UN
Special Rapporteur on Trafficking has expressed concerns that
Tadamoun was not independent of the government.[43] To date,
it is unclear what effect the activities undertaken by the bodyhas had on victims.

Mauritania cont.

In March 2016, Mauritania became
the second African nation tocommit to ending modern slavery
by ratifying the 2014 Protocol to
the Forced Labour Convention,
1930.[44]Some experts believe this signifies a growing government
commitment to addressing forced labour throughout the country.
In the 2014 Global Slavery Index, we reported that advocacy
and awareness to address hereditary slavery was incrementallybuilding momentum in Mauritania, with prominent anti-slavery
activist Biram Dah Abeid drawing attention to the issue throughhis candidacy in the June 2014 Presidential elections.[45] However,since then,the Mauritanian Government has arrested Biram
alongside eight other anti-slavery activists during a peacefulprotest march in November 2014. In 2015, the government
increased its clampdown of anti-slavery activists, particularly
those linked to the IRA-Mauritania (Initiative for the Resurgenceof the Abolitionist Movement).[46] Biram and two other protesters
have remained imprisoned for 18 months before finally being
released in May 2016.

The government has taken some small steps to increasing publicawareness of human trafficking, by televising two debates
and three symposia on the Vestiges of Slavery. [47] In 2015,
the government collaborated with the IOM allowing selectedborder officials at the Headquarters of the General Directorate
for National Security (DGSN) in Nouakchott to participate
in awareness training on human trafficking and migrantsmuggling.[48] Further widespread training for law enforcement
personnel and the judiciary is needed to combat the chroniclack of awareness of anti-slavery laws and the institutionalised
acceptance of slavery by many members of society. The
disinclination of authorities to assist victims of modern slavery,
coupled with systemic barriers in victims accessing justice (suchas the requirement that victims file complaints themselves despite
many being illiterate and, therefore, unable to complete and fileforms), means that cases are almost never pursued.[49]Past editions of the Global Slavery Index have noted that the
Qur'an has been used by some religious leaders to give grounds
for the existence of modern slavery in Mauritania.[50] Activists
say some imams continue to speak in favour of slavery inmosques, particularly in rural areas.[51] However, since December
2014, 1,000 mosques have committed to spreading anti-slavery
messages revealing a growing commitment to combat slavery.[52]RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Educate parents on the dangerous health impacts ofleblouh or gavage, and prosecute those found forcing theirdaughters to participate.
• Create bi-lateral agreements with labour-receiving
countries in the Middle East to ensure decent working
conditions are met for Mauritanian domestic workers.
• Fully implement the recommendations made by the ILO
Committee on the Application of Standards.
• Conduct a nationwide awareness campaign on theillegality of slavery and forms of modern slavery thatpersist in Mauritania today.[53]• Increase support for victims by establishing a victimsupport mechanism with emergency shelter andassistance, legal assistance and reintegration programmes
for both adults and children.
• Increase support to civil society organisations and NGOs
who are working to combat slavery and to implement newslavery policies.

Business• Import and export trading with any Mauritanian businessshould be considered high risk until there is evidence
that the government is actively making progress in the
Roadmap to End Slavery (particularly China, Mauritania's
largest trading partner, importing more than 50 percent ofgoods from the country).[54]• Draft a clause to include in contracts with major cattle andgoat exporters, prohibiting the purchasing of livestock thathas been sourced from farmers using forced labour in their
herding practices.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

|

125

36

Prevalence Index Rank

MEXICO"They took him to another state to work in a buildingsite. And they keep him working day and night. He
wanted to return home, but they say to him that if
he wanted to go home before the construction was
finished, he would have to do it with his own money
and he wouldn't receive payment for his work. He
accidentally spilled some material so they tookmoney out of his salary. He had no money to travel
home and had to stay until he was paid."
Walk Free Foundation survey respondent

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

376,800
Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

47.02%

Government Response Rating

BB

126

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

127,017,000

GDP (PPP)$17,108

Mexico cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 376,800 people or0.30 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Mexico. This is based on a random-sample, nationallyrepresentative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought to identify
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within thegeneral population (survey conducted in Spanish language).
Victims of modern slavery in Mexico are primarily Mexicans
themselves or citizens of Central and South Americancountries.[1] There have been some isolated cases of victims
from Eastern European countries, Asia and Africa.[2] By someestimates, 70 percent of modern slavery cases in Mexico are
related to organised crime groups.[3] The various cartels[4] commit
kidnappings for forced prostitution and forced labour across all
age groups, often with the complicity of local, state and federal
authorities.[5] Groups with increased vulnerability include womenand children, indigenous people, the disabled, migrants andLGBTQ-identified persons.[6]Anecdotal evidence from escapees indicates that Mexico's
desaparecidos (the disappeared) crisis, where tens of thousandsof men, women and children have vanished since 2006, involves
camps in which forced prostitution, labour and criminal acts are
sanctioned by the cartels.[7]Commercial sexual exploitation
The commercial sexual exploitation of Mexican women andchildren both within Mexico and in the USA persists. The cityof Tenancingo, Tlaxcala is dubiously dubbed the sex trafficking
capital of the world, with often poor, uneducated and indigenous
girls duped into 'love relationships' with local men who essentiallytrap them into forced prostitution.[8] Some of these women andchildren are relocated to the infamous kerb-crawling district of
La Merced, Mexico City where street and brothel-based prostitution
is rife.[9]Others are trafficked across the border into the USA, some serving
clients in New York, others being transported around the country
to service migrant farm workers in what is known as 'city to farmsex pipelines'.[10] Traffickers from Tenancingo rank on the USA
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) list of most-wanted
human traffickers. In 2015, ICE announced it had caught the 12th
member of a Tenancingo trafficking ring, the outcome of a lengthy
operation that rescued 25 Mexican commercial sex trafficking
victims in New York City.[11]NGOs in El Paso reveal the commercial sexual exploitationof Mexican girls continues on a daily basis in their city and acrossthe USA, with highways in New Mexico and Texas rapidlytransporting girls across the country within hours of their arrival
across the border.[12]in maize harvesting, tomato fields,[15] tomato processing plants[16]and other plantations such as chilli pepper, cucumber andeggplant,[17] in 18 states.[18] News media reported that 49 victims,
including children, were found working in a cucumber field undermodern slavery conditions in the Mexican region of Colima.[19]This added to the 452 persons found working in conditionsof servitude from February to March 2015.[20] In July 2015,
exploited agricultural workers from San Quintin Valley staged
mass protests against their abusive treatment and conditions.[21]Mexican seasonal farm workers are also found in conditions offorced labour in the USA, where they are subject to poor living
and working conditions that may amount to forced labour—
particularly, excessive working hours, withholding and nonpayment of salaries, confinement to plantations, refusal of
medical care, and physical and sexual abuse.[22] Under a loopholein US labour laws, children as young as 12 can work in agriculture
with no minimum wage requirements or cap on working hours.[23]Mexican workers in the USA also fulfil low-paid and low-skilledroles in food processing, construction, janitorial/cleaning jobs,
child/elderly care and manufacturing.[24] A recent study found thehighest rate of reported trafficking violations and abusive labour
practices occur in the construction industry, with janitorial andcleaning businesses the next worst.[25]Forced labour is prevalent in the mining sector, with the coaland silver industries accounting for the poor labour conditionsof men, women and children in Mexico.[26] There are also reportsof modern slavery in the garment sector; in February 2015, afurther 129 workers (121 women and eight men, including two
adolescents under the age of 18) were rescued from forced labour
conditions in a garment factory in Zapopan, Jalisco State.[27]Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data

Forced labour

Number%% malevictims% femalevictims

376,800

100

95

5

0

0

0

0

376,800

100

95

5

Forcedmarriage
Modernslavery total

Forced labour by sector of exploitation%

Domestic work

0Construction

69

The commercial sexual exploitation of children to service tourists
continues, particularly in the areas of Acapulco, Cancun and Puerto
Vallarta.[13] Studies of Mexican children forced to enter sex work
found they experienced a higher prevalence of sexual violence andsubstance use risk, with associated health impacts.[14]Manufacturing0

Other manufacturing

20

Farming

5

Sex industry

0

Despite verified evidence of CSE cases in Mexico, the Walk Free
Foundation survey did not identify any victims in this sector. This isa limitation of the survey highlighting difficulties accessing victimsof CSE, rather than a reflection of no cases of CSE occurring.

Drug production

0

Retail sector

5

Other

0

Don't know

0

Refused

0

Total

100

Forced labour
Low, semi- and unskilled, domestic and foreign labourers are at
risk of forced labour within the agricultural sector, particularly

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

127

The Walk Free Foundation Survey did not identifty cases ofdomestic workers in forced labour. This is despite evidenceof the historical exploitation of this group[28] and the fact that
more than 2.3 million women are currently employed in thispoorly regulated sector. Most domestic workers do not haveformal contracts and many domestic-worker maltreatment cases
continue to be brought to the attention of NGOs.[29]Forced marriage
Although the WFF survey results uncovered no cases of forced
marriage, the literature suggests that forced and child marriage
persists with UNICEF estimating as many as 28 percent of
Mexican girls wed before the age of 18.[30]Other
There have been some reports of kidnapping of babies for illegal
adoptions to couples throughout North America and Western
Europe[31] though little recent data reveals the prevalence of
this type of human trafficking.[32] Surrogacy continued to bea contentious political issue in Mexico in 2015 with somepoliticians conflating surrogacy with human trafficking.
However, it remains unclear to what extent Mexican women
are informed and willing to provide this service versus those
who are exploited by agencies. On December 14, 2015, thestate Congress of Tabasco State approved legislation preventing
foreign couples paying women to carry their baby.[33]

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

Mexico

43.03

30.36

52.84

61.85

47.02

Endemic internal violence resulting from cartel activity, a highrisk of kidnapping[34] and the weak rule of law all contribute toa high risk of modern slavery in Mexico. Cartel violence acrossNorth and Central America has displaced many men, women andchildren resulting in large-scale migration attempts to the UnitedStates. Migrants that reach the border of Mexico and the USA
remain vulnerable to coyotes and polleros or border 'guides' who
may elect to sell them into slavery or hold them in debt bondage
once they have entered the United States.[35]Limited formal employment opportunities for Mexican men insome smaller towns is reportedly driving them to become pimps
and traffickers. In turn, they are deceptively recruiting womenand children into the commercial sex industry. Women frompoor southern states, particularly Chiapas, Oaxaca and Guerrero
are highly vulnerable to recruitment into the sex industry inNorthern Mexico and abroad, as limited livelihood opportunities
exist in their villages.[36] Young indigenous girls and those fromthe mestizo ethnic group are highly vulnerable to coercion into
the commercial sex industry—mestizo women are favoured fortheir fair skin while traffickers can purchase indigenous womenat the lowest price.[37]Persisting government corruption and involvement at local, stateand federal levels allows organised crime groups to operate freely
in the country.[38] Some public officials are known to accept bribes
from traffickers, extort bribes and sexual services from adults
and children in the commercial sex sector and irregular migrants,
and threaten victims with prosecution if they do not file official
complaints against their traffickers.[39] Some cartel members
have infiltrated institutions obligated to uphold the rule of law,leaving victims unwilling and often unable to come forward
to authorities to report abuse without fear of re-victimisation.
Ongoing, horrific, unpunished human rights violations in Mexico
perpetuate the climate of impunity for perpetrators.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Despite initial hopes that Mexico's National Programme for thePrevention, Punishment and Eradication of Crimes on Trafficking
in Persons and the Protection and Assistance to Victims 2014–2018 would reduce trafficking, at the time of writing, no funds
were allocated to execute the plan. National activists report thatthe human trafficking response is fragmented with some states,
such as Coahuila, actively policing and prosecuting cases, andothers implementing localised anti-trafficking committees.[40]However, NGOs report that only half of Mexico's states are
performing prevention and prosecution, leaving significant gaps
in victim protection.
Mexico has taken steps to combat modern slavery crimes at
a transnational level by signing agreements with some key
countries including Guatemala, Peru and the USA to streamline
and strengthen coordination. Particularly important is the Merida
Initiative between the USA and Mexico, still operational from2008, focusing on combating transnational organised crime
including trafficking.[41] Gaps in Mexico's provision of victim
shelters and ad hoc referral processes have resulted in victim
identification and support as Mexico's weakest response area.
NGOs reported a desperate need for government supported

128|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

compensation for victims and support services, with many
services provided through private financing.[42]Throughout 2015, criminal charges have been laid against
traffickers, particularly for cases of sexual exploitation. In
October 2015, six traffickers were charged for the exploitation of
27 people in Mexico City.[43] This follows success in sentencing
the first person for child labour exploitation in 2014. Four people
were sentenced to four years and six months in prison for forcing
ten children aged between seven and 17 years to work and beg inthe town of Texcoco.[44] In January 2016, after a lengthy police
operation in Cancun, 16 trafficking victims were rescued, sevenof whom were minors, and six people were arrested. NGOs
reported this was indicative of better police awareness of andattention to trafficking crimes, particularly victims of commercial
sexual exploitation.[45]These are positive steps by the Mexican Government, which has
previously displayed consistently low levels of convictions incases of modern slavery.[46] Mexico's efforts to build the capacityof the legal profession through wide-ranging training programmes
are contributing to a stronger criminal justice response. However,Mexico cont.

these developments must be closely monitored considering thecomplicity of Mexican officials in human rights abuses andcorruption in modern slavery cases.[47]There is slow momentum to combat the sexual abuse of Mexican
children in Puerto Vallarta—the Ministry of Tourism signeda National Conduct Code for the Protection of Children in
the Travel and Tourism Sector, which identifies hotels andaccommodation establishments as free from human trafficking.[48]Although NGOs suggest that many hotels continue to turn a blindeye to blatant cases of child sexual abuse.[49]RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Investigate and prosecute government officials at all levels
complicit in modern slavery cases in Mexico.
• Increase investigations and prosecutions of drug cartels
for crimes relating to modern slavery including forced
labour and forced prostitution.
• Strengthen victim identification processes at bordercrossings into the US, and at airports, bus and train
stations, particularly around the human trafficking ofchildren and young adults.
• Create a national coordination mechanism to streamline theimplementation of each state's counter-trafficking legislation.
• Promote legal and regulated migration as the safest
means of emigration to increase the number of Mexicans
emigrating via formal channels.
• Develop a comprehensive strategy to raise awareness among
labour migrants on their rights in destination countries.
• Strengthen workers' organisations and unions to empower
workers through the delivery of information about humanrights and labour rights.

Business• Businesses operating in the tourist sector should adopt the
National Code of Conduct for the Protection of Children
and Adolescents in Sector Travel and Tourism.
• Members of the National Association of Hotels andMotels (Asociación de Hoteles y Moteles) should continue
to train employers on victim identification.
• Sectors particularly vulnerable to child labour, including
agriculture and construction, should join efforts toimplement industry-wide standards on policies andpractices to address the use of forced child labour.
• Businesses employing Mexican citizens abroad shouldverify policies on the recruitment of migrant workers,
ensuring all employers are employed via legal andregular channels.

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129

24

Prevalence Index Rank

POLAND"We left Poland with a few belongings and 10 Zloty[£8] that I borrowed from a friend, I was worried,but happy that I would be working again....Theroom was cold and dirty. Black mould was on thewalls, wallpaper was dropping off and the house
was damp. My heart stopped. I paid my debt [fortravel to the UK] after a month, but if I left I knew
they would find me and kill me, so I had to stay....
I was their property and there was no escape.
I lived every day in fear."
A Polish migrant describes their experiences of forced
labour while living in the UK[1]Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

181,100

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

26.66%

Government Response Rating

BB

130

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

38,025,000

GDP (PPP)$24,744Poland cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 181,100 people or
0.48 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Poland. This is based on a random-sample, nationallyrepresentative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought to identify
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within thegeneral population (survey conducted in Polish language).

Forced labour
Forced labour affects migrant populations within Poland andPolish citizens migrating overseas. Walk Free Foundation survey
data suggests construction (45 percent), domestic labour (31percent), other manual labour (eight percent), and manufacturing(six percent) were sectors of concern. Within Poland, migrantlabourers from nearby Eastern European countries, such as
Ukraine, Bulgaria and Romania,[2] and parts of South East Asia,
are vulnerable to exploitation in the construction, agriculture,retail and domestic sectors.[3]While previously victims of exploitation were predominatelyfrom the former Soviet Union, there has been a shift in recent
years to an increase in the number of identified victims from
Asia,[4] including Vietnam, the Philippines, China and Korea.[5]In 2014, the Border Guard identified 31 victims of forced labour,
19 of whom originated from the Philippines. When cases ofdomestic servitude are included, this figure increases to 34
forced labour victims, of which 21 were from the Philippines.[6]A study released by the European Alliance for Human Rights inNorth Korea implicated Polish firms in the use of North Korean
forced labour. As many as 800 North Koreans are believed to beworking in the country, primarily in shipyards and orchards.[7]Even those migrants who legally enter the country may become
subject to forced labour. In 2010, 58 Thai migrant workers whoentered the country with work permits, for example, were madeto work excessive hours, received limited food and were notpaid full wages.[8]Polish nationals made up the fifth largest group of European Union(EU)-registered trafficking victims experiencing exploitation
within the EU between 2010 and 2012.[9] Most of these individuals
were identified in the UK (405), Poland (263) and the Netherlands(187).[10] In 2012, 54 individuals were identified as victims oflabour exploitation;[11] victims are recruited online, attracted by
the promise of employment and the provision of accommodationand transport.[12] Polish victims in the UK are most likely to be
victims of labour exploitation and have been forced to work inagriculture, construction, factories and car washes.[13] Polish men
and women have also experienced modern slavery in the UK, theNetherlands, Germany and France.[14]Forced begging
Regionally-organised crime syndicates are implicated in forced
begging rings. Roma mothers from poor communities in Moldova
and the Ukraine are offered jobs in the sales or care sectors
in Poland but have their passports confiscated upon arrival.[15]Along with their children, they are forced to beg on the streets
and report their daily intake back to the trafficker. Children as
young as three and five have been identified in cases of Ukrainian
nationals trafficked to Poland for forced begging.[16]Commercial sexual exploitation
Forced prostitution and commercial sexual exploitation affectwomen and girls trafficked in and out of Poland. Of 50 trafficking
victims identified by Polish police in 2014, the majority were
women. These women, including one minor, were trafficked forprostitution or pornography.[18] Most of the victims originatedfrom the Ukraine.[19] The Polish Border Guards have also identified
Bulgarian Roma people as victims, who are typically involved in'roadside prostitution'. An investigation by the Maritime Border
Guard identified two citizens of Bulgaria and one citizen of
Poland as victims of human trafficking for prostitution.[20] A studyof prosecutions for the crime of commercial sexual exploitationof children found that 14 children were trafficked within Poland
and one child trafficked to Germany between September 2011
and February 2012.[21]Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in
Poland, the Walk Free Foundation survey did not identify any
victims in this sector. The survey result may not indicate anabsence of cases but possibly a lack of willingness to self-identify
or report this issue. Work will continue with experts to identify
the most robust ways to ensure the issue of sexual exploitation
is fully accounted for in future survey results.

Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data

Forced labour

Number%% malevictims% femalevictims

181,100

100

56

44

0

0

0

0

181,100

100

56

44

Forcedmarriage
Modernslavery total

Forced labour by sector of exploitation%

Domestic work

31

Construction

45

Manufacturing

6

Other manufacturing

8

Farming0

Sex industry

0

Drug production

0

Retail sector

0

Other

0

Don't know

0

Refused

10

Total

100

In 2014, the police identified only one case of forced begging.
However the Border Guard found three suspected cases; in every
instance, the victims were Romanian citizens.[17]GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|131

Exploitation of persons to obtain loans andbenefits by deceit
An emerging issue in Poland is the exploitation of vulnerable
persons to obtain benefits or loans by deceit. In recent years, there
have been reported cases in the UK of Polish citizens forced totake out social benefits or loans, the proceeds of which go tocriminal networks. In 2013, the Central Bureau of Investigation(UK) reported ten investigations of this type of crime.[22]The Ministry of the Interior reported that Polish-based criminal
gangs have targeted gaps in the financial and social welfare
systems of the UK and Germany. These gangs target people
in a precarious financial situation who are deceived to believethat they will receive a job at the end of the process. Most of
the victims are middle-aged men, but these criminal networks
have been known to transport entire families to receive greatersocial welfare benefits.[23]VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

Poland

34.76

19.50

29.07

23.33

26.66

High levels of unemployment in Poland, significant rates of
emigration to Western Europe, the low socioeconomic statusof citizens in neighbouring countries and regional instability
contribute to the vulnerability of nationals and migrants tomodern slavery both within Poland and in Western Europe.
Economic factors remain the chief motivator for Polishemigration.[24] Official unemployment figures have hoveredaround 10 percent since the end of 2012, although this has
recently decreased to approximately 7 percent at the close of
2015.[25] Youth unemployment, however, has remained relatively
high at nearly 21 percent in 2015.[26] The outflow of labour from
Poland has stabilised,[27] but there are still around two million
Polish people living abroad as of 2015, with 640,000 Polishresiding in the United Kingdom (UK) alone.[28]Polish migrants tend to be from rural areas and the main
breadwinners of their families[29] and, as such, there is pressure
to find work, often at the expense of basic labour conditions.

Research conducted in the
UK shows that migrants from
Eastern European Accession
countries, including Poland, sufferfrom discrimination, insecure
conditions, substandard pay,
racial stereotyping and skill
degradation.[30]Significant emigration of Polish citizens, a growing economy,[31]and historical links with South East Asian Communist countries[32]has led to an influx of economic migrants from South East Asia.
Migrants from Asia, in particular, face difficulties integrating
into Polish society.[33] While Poland is considered a relatively
peaceful country, discrimination towards migrant workers
and minorities[34] can lead to isolation[35] and an increase invulnerability to exploitation. According to a 2013 study from theCentre of Research on Prejudice at the University of Warsaw, up
to 69 percent of Poles do not want 'non-whites' living in Poland,
believing that they deprive Poles of employment and have a
detrimental effect on the economy.[36] Coupled with a limited
understanding of the Polish language, migrants are vulnerable
to exploitation and have difficulties accessing support once
exploitation has occurred.
Ongoing conflict and the economic crisis in the Ukraine has led
to increasing numbers of refugees[37] and economic migrants
leaving the Ukraine to neighbouring countries, including
Poland.[38] Ukrainians make up the largest group of registeredforeign workers in Poland, with an increase in the issuance of
declarations of intent and work permits in recent years. In thefirst half or 2015, more than 20,000 permits were issued, twicethat for the same period in 2012.[39] [40] Limited and contradicting
data exists on the overall number of registered and unregisteredmigrants.[41] [42] However, there are estimates of between 300,000
and 500,000 Ukrainians working in Poland.[43] Those who are
undocumented are vulnerable to exploitation and forced labour.[44]There have been cases, for example, where economic migrants
have become vulnerable to traffickers en route to and in Poland,
and in neighbouring Russia, Germany, Belarus and Israel.[45]GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Government of Poland has been largely reactive in
responding to modern slavery in recent years[46] while it is unclear
what steps the new government (elected in October 2015) willtake to tackle this crime. The National Action Plan 2013–2015(NAP) outlines provisions to address the most critical areas of
response. Implementation of the NAP has been largely successful.
The government succeeded in amending the legislation relating
to third-country nationals,[47] expanding victim identification
processes,[48] setting standards for the provision of assistance tovictims,[49] and training employees of crisis centres, NGOs andconsular staff on identification and assistance mechanisms.[50]The government set aside the equivalent of US$363,000 for the132|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

implementation of NAP activities in 2014,[51] which reflects a
gradual increase in State funding over recent years for programs
to combat human trafficking. However, legislation related tothird-country nationals has been criticised for its complexity
and ambiguity[52] while a lack of standardised data collection
techniques prevents comparability of case data between different
agencies. Some measures were also delayed due to a lack offinancing or other difficulties.[53] The current NAP expired in
December 2015; NAPs are typically issued every three years.[54]However, there is no indication when the new government willapprove a new NAP or what the budget will be.[55]Poland cont.

The government is beginning to respond to the issue of forced
labour, as opposed to focusing its efforts entirely on forced
prostitution. While protection services are still geared towards
protecting women and children who have experienced sexual
exploitation,[56][57] the government has indicated that victims
of forced labour are provided with support.[58] In 2010, thePenal Code was amended so that its definition of trafficking
was more explicit about the inclusion of forced labour, and,
therefore, better reflected the United Nations Trafficking Protocolof 2000.[59] To curb the exploitation of Polish citizens abroad,from 2014, the Police Unit cooperated with the Irish, English andScottish police to prevent and address cases of forced labour.[60]The small number of criminal law cases of forced labour (onlyeight in 2014),[61] however, suggests that there is still low
awareness of forced labour among police, prosecutors[62][63] andlabour inspectors[64][65] as well as a low understanding of available
mechanisms for recourse among migrant workers, particularly
those working without documentation.[66]As part of its NAP, the Government of Poland, through theInternational Organisation for Migration (IOM), organiseda meeting for consular staff and government officials at the
Embassy of the Philippines. This meeting detailed the dangers
that migrant workers, particularly women, may encounter.[67]Poland also imposes licensing
regulations on private employment
agencies and, by law, it is anoffence for job seekers to pay for
their placement.[68] Despite suchinitiatives, the low awareness of
migrant's rights remains an issue.
Victims of trafficking are entitled to a three-month 'reflection
period' in which they can decide whether to participate incriminal proceedings; however GRETA (Group of Experts on
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings) notes that this was
not effectively communicated to victims and as such the right
was rarely exercised.[69]Poland has made no visible attempts to work with businesses
to address modern slavery. Businesses are not included in theprevious National Action Plan while the level of knowledge ofthe effects of modern slavery in supply chains and how to engage
business remains low.[70] Research suggests that business people
do not consider it their responsibility to eliminate forced or
exploitative labour,[71] contributing to high levels of exploitationin this sector.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Enact a new National Action Plan, with a corresponding
budget.
• Develop and implement a campaign to shift community andbusiness perception around forced and exploitative labour.
• Develop policies that require businesses to conduct audits
and inspections to identify forced labour throughout their
supply chains.
• Continue investigations of organised crime gangs
in relation to human trafficking and forced begging.
• Conduct targeted and relevant raising-awarenesscampaigns among migrant populations to raise awarenessof their rights. In particular, promote their entitlement
to a three-month reflection period to decide whether toparticipate in the criminal process.
• Extend existing trafficking training for front-line law
enforcement to include a systematic and comprehensive
program on forced labour.
• Ensure trafficking training for prosecutors and judges isadequately financed and delivered in a systematic fashion.
• Develop and implement a standardised approach forcollecting data on modern slavery.

Business• Ensure that employees are not paying recruitment fees
to receive a job.
• Ensure that employees are only recruited from registeredemployment agencies.[72]• Businesses should familiarise themselves withinternational labour standards, which are also enshrinedin Polish Law, and introduce these standards into their
Code of Conduct[73] and supplier contracts.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

|

133

5

Prevalence Index Rank

QATAR"Qatar must change its ways in relation to thepeople it welcomes to the country. I am speaking asa player but it must be even worse for the workers
over there. I have had the chance to see how it
works. If Qatar does not change its ways, I have thecourage to say that in 2022 we will have the World
Cup of Shame and the World Cup of Slavery, for notrespecting human rights, and I am brave enoughto say it."Abdeslam Ouaddou, Professional Footballer

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

30,300Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

31.71%

Government Response Rating

CCC

134

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

2,235,000

GDP (PPP)$140,649

Qatar cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 30,300 people or 1.36
percent of the total population live in conditions of modern slavery
in Qatar.

Forced labour
Forced labour in the construction sector is one of the dominant
forms of modern slavery in Qatar, reflecting the demand forcheap labour to build extensive infrastructure for the 2022 FIFA
World Cup and National Vision 2030. The ongoing constructionof football stadiums, and the huge infrastructure projects required
to access and service these locations, continues to see massive
influxes of migrant labour who are vulnerable to abuse.
The vast majority of construction workers are low, semi andunskilled. They are almost exclusively male (99.4 percent in2012[1]) and are predominately from South and South East
Asian nations—India, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and
Bangladesh. These men are vulnerable to exploitation at allstages of the recruitment process—from the initial stage where
they often incur large debts to pay recruitment agents' fees toreliance on their sponsor for residency and legal status, anddiscrimination from laws that criminalise workers for leaving
exploitative situations ('absconding').
The incidence of migrant construction workers taking out loans
to pay recruitment fees in their respective home countries creates
situations of debt bondage in Qatar. The average recruitment
charges are as follows: India: US$1,300, Nepal: US$1,400, thePhilippines: US$1,130, Sri Lanka: US$900 and Bangladesh:
US$925.[2] Interest on these loans is being charged at rates ofbetween 30 and 60 percent p.a. This directly conflicts with thelaws of Islamic Finance under which Qatar financial institutions
have been able to attract ever larger investor contributions
from parties seeking to ensure that their money is managed inaccordance with the strict requirements of the Islamic faith.
Workers who incur debt through their recruitment, many ofwhom are deceived about their true salary and face employers
who are indifferent to their predicament, face substantial pressure
to continue their employment to service their debt. Between the
recruitment fees, the interest rates and the fact that their wages,
even when paid in full, are often substantially lower than the level
misrepresented to them when accepting the job, many workers
are completely unable to escape the cycle of debt.
Despite substantial international pressure to reform the treatmentof migrant construction workers, reports continue to findworkers facing conditions that may amount to those of slavery.
These include work performed under the threat of penalty ordeportation, deprivation of food, inadequate accommodation
with limited or no privacy, physical confinement in the work
location/labour camp severely restricting freedom of movement,
misrepresentation and substitution of types and terms of work,
confiscation of identity documents, non-payment, withholding
and/or deductions from pay, and unsafe working conditions in
extremely high temperatures.
Domestic workers in Qatar are almost exclusively female, aside
from gardeners, drivers, cooks and guards/watchmen who arealmost exclusively male. Traditionally, the majority of female
domestic workers come from the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, India and Nepal. Efforts by sending countries (particularly
the Philippines) to address the low wages paid to domestic
workers is resulting in a growing trend of hiring cheaper maids
from Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and other Sub-Saharan African

nations.[3] Workers from nations without embassies in Qatar havefew alternate options to flee to in cases of exploitation.
Domestic workers are excluded from protections contained
within the Labour Law pursuant to Art 3(4) of the Labour Law
No.14 of 2004 . Draft legislation specifically relating to domestic
workers is currently under consideration.[4] Qatar has not ratified
nor does it comply with ILO Convention No.189, the Domestic
Workers Convention . Domestic workers continue to reportcases of serious maltreatment and abuse including physical,
psychological and sexual violence. Rather than being able toaccess help, domestic workers risk imprisonment for 'illicit
relations' if they report such abuse to authorities. Among female
foreign nationals, domestic workers are particularly prone tobeing detained and deported for violating the Sponsorship Law.

In March 2013, of the 378 women
held in detention, 90–95 percent
had been employed as domestic
workers.[5]Information on the exploitation of migrant fishermen on Qatariboats is an emerging but under-researched area. Anecdotal
evidence suggests Qatari shipowners are hiring migrant labourers,
predominately men from India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and thePhilippines,[6] to work on small to medium-sized vessels often
for months at a time.[7] Migrant fishermen are known to experience
practices that may amount to forced labour such as limited anddelayed payment of wages (for example, some men receive nowage and instead receive a percentage of that day's catch), forced
overtime, poor living conditions and abandonment at sea.[8]Commercial sexual exploitation
Data on adult commercial sexual exploitation is scarce due to thesignificant social stigma of discussing sex and widespread denialof the existence of prostitution in Qatar. Both prostitution andsex outside of marriage are illegal in Qatar. Anecdotal evidence
suggests some women travelling for employment in the domestic
service sector or retail and service industries may be subjected
to involuntary prostitution at the hands of traffickers or labour
brokers. It is also believed women who 'abscond' from formal
employment and those without No Objection Certificates (a legal
document issued by a sponsor to certify he has no objections to
his employee changing sponsor/moving to another job) may have
few options but to turn to operators of the sex trade.
Forced and early marriage
There is limited information available on forced and earlymarriage in Qatar. According to a 2010 government review in
Qatar, 9.3 percent of marriages of Qatari women occur in the
15–19-year-old age category; while 16.6 percent of marriagesof non-Qatari women in Qatar occur in the 15–19-year-old age
category.[9] The circumstances surrounding these early marriages
are unknown.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

135

VULNERABILITYCountry
Qatar

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

48.79

15.26

50.50

12.30

31.71

The population of Qatar has grown at an unprecedented rate;
between 2004 and 2014, the population has almost tripled.[10]In 2015, 88 percent[11] of Qatar's population of 2,347,000
people[12] were non-Qatari, making Qatar the country with thelargest population proportion of foreigners in the world. [13]This foreign population is predominantly made up of young,semi- or low-skilled workers who meet the demand for cheap inhouse domestic help, as labourers for the booming constructionindustry and as low-paid workers in roles notoriously rejectedby locals. Qatari citizens represent no more than 12 percent of
the population; Qatari males constitute only 4.7 percent of thetotal male workforce and only one percent of the private sector.[14]Qatari leaders continue to hold strong and widespread fearsof migrants gaining power via collective bargaining, asserting
their labour rights, and eventually challenging the balance ofpower and control within their borders. Demonstrations, tradeunions and associations dealing with public affairs continue tobe banned in Qatar.[15]Terminology on this issue continues to be a cause for concern andheated debate in Qatar. The word 'slavery' is deemed incorrectwhen discussing the exploitation of workers in Qatar and cancreate great offence to Qatari nationals. In 2007, Qatar's own
National Human Rights Committee (NHRC) published a reportwhich referred to the existence of modern-day 'slavery practices'in industries at that time. The backlash from the Qatari public
and business sectors almost caused the government to close the
NHRC completely. It has taken considerable time and effort
by the NHRC to re-establish a trusted position and distanceitself from the terminology/word 'slavery'. Human trafficking
is acknowledged but largely misunderstood, and forced labour
is equated with poor employment practices rather than humanrights violations.
Prevailing attitudes about migrant workers suggest persistent anddeep-seated racism. Media stereotyping of migrant workers as
inferior, potential rapists (male workers)[16] and thieves (domestic
workers)[17] drives discrimination and fear. All-male labour campaccommodation sites for construction workers are located awayfrom Qatari residential areas as there is a belief that workers areculturally insensitive, with others fearing 'foreign bachelors'
may sexually violate Qatari women and children.[18] In 2015,
Doha's Central Municipal Council called on the government tomore strictly enforce a five-year-old ban on blue-collar workers
living in neighbourhoods populated by Qatari families.[19] These
attitudes drive division and inequality.
Despite some reforms to the kafala system in 2015 (not yet inpractice, discussed below), the sponsorship system increases
the dependency of migrant workers on sponsors rendering
them vulnerable to various forms of exploitation and abuse.
The system is also open to abuse, particularly with the creationof what is termed the 'Loose Market'—a black market trading invisas for migrant workers which do not correspond to the work
being undertaken by individuals. The process enables Qatariindividuals and businesses to profit from the system's failings
and allows workers to fraudulently enter the country. These
workers are then open to exploitation on the black market due
to their precarious legal status.

136|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

The kafala system, and limited local knowledge of the rights offoreign workers creates a starkly unequal platform for victims toassert their rights. Worker vulnerability is compounded by theirlimited access to mechanisms for legal redress. Generally, workers
filing a court case need to stay in the country for the duration of
the hearing which can take up to one year to be heard. During thistime, the worker will likely have no job—which exacerbates debts
and the inability to provide for dependents—no accommodationand no accepted legal status as the employer is unlikely to agree
to transfer their sponsorship if they are being sued.
Women occupy an inferior status in Qatari society which affects
a female victim's ability to access justice once exploited.

For example, in Qatar, women's
testimony is worth half of men's,
so police frequently discountwomen's statements when
refuted by male employers; andjudges routinely sentence womenfor immorality and adultery
stemming from associated sexual
abuse claims.
Being a woman not only increases vulnerability to being
exploited but perpetuates victimisation once trapped.[20]Statelessness is a key risk factor for vulnerability to trafficking,forced labour and forced marriage. The NHRC of Qatar maintains
concerns that Qatari women married to non-Qatari men are
subject to discrimination as their children cannot obtain Qataricitizenship, as per article 34 of the Nationality Act for 2005. The
Bidoon (also referred to as Bidun), a stateless minority in the
Gulf region, number approximately 1,200–1,500 in Qatar.[21]Bidoon are only allowed to apply for citizenship after living in
the country for 25 consecutive years according to the Nationality
Act for 2005. As only 50 citizenship applicants are accepted
each year, most Bidoon remain unable to acquire citizenship.
Furthermore, the government does not register the birth of Bidoon
children.[22] These issues of statelessness must be addressed toreduce vulnerability to modern slavery.

Qatar cont.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
In October 2015, the Emir of Qatar issued Law Number 21 of2015 on the regulation of the entry and exit of expatriates andtheir residency, thereby amending some aspects of the kafalasystem (expected to enter into force at the end of 2016). The newlaw addresses the issue of employees obtaining their sponsor's
permission to change jobs or travel abroad, instead requiring the
Ministry of Interior to approve these movements. The Ministrymust still obtain the employer's consent for employee movement,
but workers will have a right to appeal if permission is denied.
The new law allows migrant workers to change employers after
their contracts expire or after five years of working for one
employer. As the suggested maximum duration of contracts isfive years, and the law will not come into force until the endof 2016, it may be 2022 (the year of the World Cup) before
an employee can change jobs without permission from theiremployer.[23] Some safeguards have been enacted, such as theability of the Ministries of Interior and Labour to transfer work
visas in cases of "abuse or for the public good", however, it isunclear how accessible these safeguards will be to workers inpractice.[24] The new law addresses the black market visa selling
practice—Article 38 says employers will receive a jail termof no more than three years and/or a fine up to QR500,000.
Likewise, employers who hire workers without authorisation
may be fined QR12,000.
Some international groups have criticised these reforms saying
they "add a new layer of repression for migrant workers andleave the kafala modern slavery system intact". [25] These reforms
continue to exclude migrant domestic workers, who remain
insufficiently protected in law and overwhelmingly exposed toabuse. Widespread reluctance to extend the rights of domestic
workers persist, despite reports Qatar has worked on a draft law
for domestic workers and despite the statement in the National
Development Strategy wherein the government ostensiblycommitted to devising "regulations, including standards andconditions, to better manage the recruitment and employment ofdomestic helpers". Urgent legislative and practical support isneeded for this highly vulnerable cohort.
Another legislative reform was signed in February 2015, in which
the Emir signed into law a requirement that companies pay theiremployees through direct bank transfers to be implemented on
November 2, 2015. It is expected this will make it easier tosettle disputes about non-payment of wages. Firms that flout therules risk penalties of up to one month in prison and a maximum
QR6,000 fine.[26]
In June 2014, at the 26th session of the United Nations Human
Rights Council special dialogue, Qatar announced that it
has adopted the Arab Initiative to Build National Capacities
to Combat Human Trafficking in the Arab Countries. The
Government of Qatar has committed to covering all costs of the
Arab Initiative, to the amount of US$6 million. This Initiative isbeing implemented in partnership with the QFPSR, the United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the Arab League. The
government is making some efforts to engage with international
trade unions and human rights groups to better understandand plan long-term interventions against trafficking, but their
response to these issues still lack coordination. As a first step,
the government will need to address the pervading perception ofpoor labour practices as separate from forced labour.
Positive developments, such as the requirement that companies
set up bank accounts for workers and pay wages electronically,
as well as bans on midday outdoor work, need to be reinforced
with collective action from employers, police and the judiciary.
The increase in routine and surprise raids of manpower agencies,
including the cancellation of 15 agencies' licenses from 2014–2015, is an encouraging sign.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Create an independent reform commission—labour rights,
freedom of association, the right to bargain collectively.
• Amend Article 3 of the Labour Law to ensure domestic
workers, drivers, cooks and gardeners have their labour
rights legally protected.
• Establish a minimum wage for domestic workers.
• Monitor the non-payment of wages and prosecute offenders
to effectively dissuade illegal practices by employers.
• Retract provisions in legislation about absconding andensure that victims are not criminalised for fleeing
exploitative situations.
• Ensure law enforcement actors and the judiciary areadequately trained and sensitised on forced labour practices.
• Enforce existing laws that facilitate migrant workers'
access to redress mechanisms and actively promote thesemechanisms among highly vulnerable populations.
• Provide new individual sponsors with information and/or training on their legal obligations to safeguard thewellbeing of migrant workers.
• Amend provisions in the Penal Code about 'illicit
relations' to ensure victims of CSE are not criminalised.

Business• Must ensure employers are trained in the new wage
payment system, and penalise employers for noncompliance with this requirement.
• Must comply with restrictions on midday work and alert
authorities about businesses breaching this requirement.
• International businesses operating in Qatar must update
the Code of Conduct and contractual provisions to include
specific clauses on passport retention and the recruitmentof employees for suppliers and sub-suppliers operatingin Qatar.
• Investigate the recruitment practices of suppliers and subsuppliers and work with suppliers to compensate staff thathave paid excessive recruitment fees.
• Ensure suppliers are paying staff to the contracted amountor national minimum wage, including premiums forovertime work.
• Work with suppliers to develop corrective action plans
and recourse for workers found exploited in supply chains.

1
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|137

Photo credit, Denis Sinyakov

6

Prevalence Index Rank

RUSSIA"Ayauly and Bibihul were among 12 migrants from
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, including three children,
who were held captive for 10 years in a supermarket
after being promised employment in Russia. In
Russia, they were beaten and forced to work without
pay by the couple who owned the supermarket.
Their passports were confiscated by their traffickers
who said they needed the documents to officiallyregister them as workers with authorities. The
passports were never returned…The couple usedthreats of violence, beatings, and sexual violence
to demand subservience."
United States Department of State's Trafficking in Persons
Report 2013.

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

1,048,500

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

43.45%

Government Response Rating

CC

138

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

143,335,000

GDP (PPP)$25,636

Russia cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 1,048,500 people or
0.73 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Russia. This is based on a random-sample, nationallyrepresentative survey undertaken in 2014, that sought to identify
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within thegeneral population (surveys conducted in Russian language).

Netherlands, Norway, Cyprus, Malta), the Middle East (UAE,
Turkey, Bahrain, Israel, Egypt, Lebanon) and the Far East (China,
South Korea, Kazakhstan).[11] Foreign women from across theglobe—Uzbekistan, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Tajikistan,
Vietnam and various countries in Africa—have been identified
as CSE victims in the Russian sex industry.[12]Forced labourWith 98 percent of cases in the survey in forced labour, ourdata suggests that construction (55 percent), drug production(14 percent), maufacturing (6 percent), and domestic work (2percent) are sectors of concern. Research suggests that Russianand foreign workers, particularly from former Soviet Union
states such as Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Kyrgyzstan,and neighbouring Ukraine and North Korea have experienced
labour practices that amounted to modern slavery in Russia.
There are reported instances and victims of modern slavery in
the agricultural and construction sector, within factories (garment
factories predominantly, also brick factories) and private homes,
in salvage/trash, forestry (gathering of berries/nuts/flowers orillegal logging), automotives and fishing.[1] Victims from Ukraine
have also experienced forced labour in the fisheries and seafaring
sectors, with the alleged complicity of recruitment agencies,[2] aswell as forced labour in clothes sorting, illegal vodka packaging
and domestic servitude.[3]The profile of Russian victims vulnerable to CSE abroad is
shifting from well-educated women looking for economic
opportunities abroad to impoverished women, frequently with
dysfunctional family backgrounds or from state orphanage
facilities, seeking to escape their current situation.[13] The lureof lucrative employment, coupled with a new location increases
the vulnerability of women. Targeting women who are unlikely
to be missed or turn to the police also reduces the likelihood of
detection for the small, local, organised crime groups facilitating
CSE in Russia.[14]In response to the shooting down of a Russian jet on the SyrianTurkish border, Russia announced economic sanctions against
Turkey.[4] Turkish companies operating in Russia, including theTurkish workforce numbering around 90,000, will now face
operational restrictions.[5] Experts have raised concerns that
Turkish employees will be substituted with more vulnerable
and less qualified workers.[6]There is some evidence that Russians are being trafficked abroadand exploited. Russian nationals predominantly move to nearby
Eastern European countries such as the Ukraine, Kazakhstan andBelarus, but sizeable populations are also present in Israel andacross Western Europe.[7] Distinct trafficking routes have been
identified with victims being taken to (or tricked into going to)
Greece and Cyprus, the Middle East, Egypt and Israel, China
and the Mediterranean including Spain and Malta.[8] In 2013, ahigh-profile trafficker was exposed after it was proven that heand his associates had trafficked their victims from villages andtowns in Russia with promises of jobs as dancers and waitresses
in Israel.[9]There is some evidence to suggest conscripted soldiers are
exploited by their commanders or someone who their commander
has rented them to. There are also cases in which people inpositions of power, including prison officials, heads of stateorphanages, etc., unlawfully use the labour of people under theircare. Due to the position of dependence and power imbalance
between victims and perpetrators, these situations can becharacterised as highly exploitative. When soldiers try to escapethe situation and return home, the military usually charges themwith desertion.[10]Commercial sexual exploitation
Evidence of Russian women being commercially sexually
exploited in prostitution and pornography abroad, as well as local
and foreign women sexually exploited within Russia, persisted
throughout 2015. Russian victims of forced prostitution havebeen identified in EU countries (Spain, Germany, Italy, Greece,

Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in
Russia, the Walk Free Foundation survey did not identify any
victims in this sector. The survey result may not indicate anabsence of cases but possibly a lack of willingness to self-identify
or report this issue. Work will continue with experts to identify
the most robust ways to ensure the issue of sexual exploitation
is fully accounted for in future survey results.

Commercial sexual exploitation - children
Russian children are reportedly trafficked through St. Petersburg
to Europe and from smaller towns and villages to larger cities
throughout Russia for CSE.[15] Russian law does not prohibit
the possession of child pornography,[16] and reports of children,
particularly orphans, street children and migrant children being
used in the production of pornography persisted in 2015.[17]Russia continues to host foreign sex tourists, some of whomtarget children. This has been identified in the north-west regionsof Russia (Karelia, Vyborg, Murmansk) which are close toEurope and also in the Far East (Vladivostok) which is close
to China.[18]Forced recruitment - children
There are reports of children being used by combined Russianseparatist forces in the conflict in eastern Ukraine.[19] The UnitedStates (US) Government has reported that children have received
arms in Russian-occupied Crimea or military training in Russianoccupied South Ossetia,[20] however, limited verified information
exists on the involvement of children in the conflict.
Forced begging
Adults and children, including the disabled, are recruited fromthe smaller towns and provinces with promises of jobs, brought
to larger cities and stationed in the metro or on the street to
beg.They are expected to reach a certain quota of money eachday and are punished by their traffickers when they do not.[21]Forced marriage
In the 2014 survey, Walk Free Foundation found two percent
of cases involved forced marriage. Evidence suggests that the
problem of forced marriage in Russia is concentrated in regions
where there is a strongly patriarchal view of marriage, primarily
in Chechnya and Dagestan. However, there is limited researchon forced marriages in Russia to confirm this.[22] Some femalemigrants in Russia, particularly those from Central Asia, may
have experienced forced marriages in their country of origin andhave since migrated to Russia with their husbands.

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139

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

57.21

18.47

40.66

57.47

43.45

RussiaContinuing economic decline coupled with ongoing regional
instability and cross-border migration flows has created new
pockets of vulnerability among both Russian citizens andmigrants. Among Russian citizens, increased unemployment,poverty, demands for cheap labour in unregulated markets anda lack of social safety nets creates opportunities for labour
exploitation. This is especially true for those residing outside
the major regional centres with limited employment prospects
who are forced to travel for employment.

Russia is the second largest
migrant receiving country in theworld,[23] with approximately
seven million or more said to haveirregular employment or living
status.[24]Irregular migrants who are willing to engage in high-risk social
behaviour, including illegal migration and informal work, aresusceptible to human trafficking and forced labour into andwithin Russia.
In some cases, these are not active decisions by migrantgroups, but rather attributed to a lack of general education onsafe migration and deceptive recruitment. Persistent conflictin neighbouring Ukraine has entrenched a fertile passage forhuman traffickers from both countries to flourish. As the second
poorest country in Europe by GDP,[25] Ukrainian citizens aredesperately seeking employment, often compromising the needfor employment contracts. Although Russia, as an employment
destination country for Ukrainians, has declined since theconflict,[26] it was still within the top five destination choices
for Ukrainians in 2015.[27] Some 41 percent of Ukrainian's abroad
remained engaged in unofficial work in 2015 compared to 28
percent in 2011.[28]This reflects patterns among other migrant groups who are willingto accept jobs without knowing exactly what work and conditions
they are committing to. Migrant workers in Russia often relyon underground networks and intermediaries (generally within

the diaspora) to get work permits and registration which often
operate outside of formal channels. Once operating outside ofregulated channels, irregular migrants and their families face
few opportunities for recourse. Children of irregular migrants
thus lack the documentation needed to access education andsocial services, exacerbating their likelihood of participation in
the informal labour force.
Refugees crossing into Russia are often met by a deficient
processing system, leaving asylum seekers without robust
protection systems. The complex asylum process has seen
refugees in recent months continuously crossing borders withlittle confirmation from the government on if/how asylum
claims will be processed. This lack of assurance and protection
mechanisms places refugees in Russia at risk. As of January
2016, up to 5,500 mainly Syrian refugees who crossed the borderfrom Russia to Norway on bike, began being transported backto Russia.[29]Negative or indifferent societal attitudes toward immigration
do little to bolster support or promote government action on
the issue. Indeed, corrupt law enforcement officials enable
trafficking networks to operate, both in situations of forced
labour and commercial sexual exploitation.
In 2015, economic contraction in Russia slashed migrant job
opportunities while depreciation of the ruble has reduced the real
incomes of migrant workers.[30] This has had serious impacts on
both migrant workers within Russia and their dependent families
abroad - remittances to Ukraine declined by 27 percent, toUzbekistan by 16 percent, Armenia by 11 percent and Tajikistan
by 8 percent.[31] Job-poor Tajikistan is the most remittancedependent country in the world—the latest figures from 2013
reveal 49 percent of their GDP constituted remittances. In 2015,25 percent of Tajik migrant workers in Russia were expected
to return home despite having no job prospects,[32] creating
increasingly dire options. The defection of Tajik special-forces
commander Colonel Gumurod Khalimov to IS in 2015 resulted
in him calling on Tajik migrant labourers in Russia to follow
him.[33] IS are known to be offering significant sums of cash todesperate, unemployed workers in Russia. It remains to be seen
whether the drop in remittances and economic recession willaffect the prevalence of modern slavery; this will be essential
to monitor over 2016.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Russian Government continues to make few efforts toaddress the exploitation of their own and foreign citizens. On
January 1, 2015, a new migration law was implemented requiring
foreign workers from countries outside the Eurasian economic
union to pass Russian language and history tests, acquire
expensive permits and pay steep monthly fees.[34] Furthermore,
Tajik citizens who could previously travel in Russia using
national identity cards will now have to produce an international
passport[35] and many face a re-entry ban.[36] For those Tajik
workers already in the country, this change of law gives workers
neither the right to remain nor the right to leave.[37] There are

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

concerns that this new law will further increase the vulnerabilityof workers in already precarious situations by facilitating theirdependence on informal verbal agreements with traffickers andillegal brokers to secure visas and jobs in the informal market.
In June 2015, a new law on 'undesirable foreign organisations'came into force, authorising the extrajudicial banning of foreign
or international groups which allegedly undermine Russia's
security, defence, or constitutional order. [38] This follows
enactment of the 2012 Law on Foreign Agents which demandedthat many Russian civil society organisations register as 'foreign

Russia cont.

agents' if they engaged in political activities and accepted foreign
funds. Amendments to the law in June 2014, which gave theJustice Ministry power to brand groups as 'foreign agents' without
their consent, made the operation of many NGOs in Russia evenmore complicated and precarious.[39] These developments havemade the operation of NGOs combating modern slavery andworking with victims difficult. No NGO in Russia is currently
devoted purely to anti-slavery efforts and no NGO working
with victims of forced marriage exists. Government-funded careremains unavailable to victims of trafficking.[40]Russia continues to lack a dedicated human trafficking law;however, modifications to the Russian Criminal Code, namely
Articles 127.1 and 127.2, prohibit human trafficking and the useof slave labour. Articles 240 and 241 address the inducement toand organisation of prostitution, and are often used to prosecuteoffences.[41] A pending human trafficking law has yet to be passed.
There were several legislative developments in 2015. In July 2015,
new amendments to the Administrative Code and the Federal Law
on the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens in the Russian Federationentered into force.[42] These amendments now allow authorities
to deport migrant workers if they work in a profession that is
not indicated in their patent (work visa) and fine the employers
for hiring such workers. Employees' visas will not be tied totheir Russian employer and workers will be able to change theprofession listed in their patent in some cases.[43] A draft article
10.13 for the new Administrative Code expected to be adopted
in 2016 requires the government to shut down the activity of alegal entity if it created conditions for trafficking in minors andchild pornography. Elena Mizulina, a Senator, also planned anamendment to the Criminal Code, article 127.1 Trafficking in
Human Beings, prohibiting commercial surrogate motherhood.
A new amendment to the Labor Code, Tax Code and Federal Law
on Employment limiting out-staffing (employment agency work)
came into force on January 1, 2016. Out-staffing is work thatan employee fulfils at his/her employer's instruction, but for anindividual or legal entity, not his/her boss. Employment agencies
were able to 'rent out' an employee to any enterprise, leaving
them with fewer labour rights, creating loopholes for trafficking

and increasing their vulnerability to slave-like practices.[44]Outsourcing now has strict provisions, including limitations on
the duration people may be employed as out-staffers, equal pay
to permanent workers in the same position and compensation
for hazardous work.

In 2015, a shelter for victims ofmodern slavery was not identified
nor was a national coordinator on
trafficking in human beings. The
government has failed to develop
a national referral mechanism thatwould allow formerly-enslaved
persons to receive adequate
medical, social, judicial and othertypes of assistance after being
discovered by law enforcement.
The Federal Law on Government Protection of Victims, Witnesses
and other Participants of Criminal Proceedings provides for theprotection of "victims, witnesses and other participants in criminal
court proceedings", but the protection is only offered on a caseby-case basis, and the programme suffers from a lack of funding.
There do not seem to be protocols in place to ensure that victimsof trafficking are not prosecuted for crimes committed as a resultof being trafficked. Migrant victims are not offered reflection
periods or residence permits, however, if a victim cooperates withlaw enforcement, he/she may be granted temporary residence,
security and legal aid, but these agreements are informal anddecisions are made on a case-by-case basis. Therefore, aside
from established deportation procedures for migrants who havebeen found in violation of immigration law,[45] Russia continues
to rely on international organisations to safely repatriate victims
to their country of origin or social reintegration in Russia.[46]RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Draft and approve a comprehensive law on humantrafficking, using international definitions.
• Train law enforcement personnel on human trafficking,with a particular focus on attitudinal change.
• Criminalise the possession of child pornography.
• Sign and ratify the Council of Europe Convention on
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, and otherinternational treaties and conventions.
• Establish a national referral mechanism for identificationof human trafficking victims.
• Provide the financial and human resources to strengthen
the capacity for the Labour Inspectorate to conduct
rigorous onsite inspections.
• Allocate funding for the creation of shelters and otheroutreach centres that can assist in identifying and referring
victims and providing them with direct services.

• Publically report statistics on the number of identified
victims, prosecutions and court outcomes related tomodern slavery.
• Ensure that forced labour and human trafficking areprevented in the construction of FIFA sites in Russia andduring the games themselves.

Business• Develop a National Action Plan on Business and Human
Rights.
• Ensure that migrant workers have legal documentation
to work in Russia.
• Ensure that migrant workers have full access to theiridentity documents, safe accommodation and receive
a fair and full payment. In cases of non-compliance,companies must work with suppliers to compensate
workers, including payment of overtime allowance.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

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141

27

Prevalence Index Rank

SOUTH AFRICA"There is, however, no sector and no region that is
not affected. We have seen fishermen from the Far
East arrive in Cape Town after years at sea without
breaks or remuneration. We have seen girls comein to work as waitresses but end up in prostitution,and little boys as young as seven years being
trafficked from West Africa to South Africa, having
been told that they will become famous soccer
players here."
Richard Ots, Chief of Mission for IOM South Africa,
October 9, 2015.[1]Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

248,700

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

45.87%

Government Response Rating

B

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|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

54,954,000

GDP (PPP)$13,046

South Africa cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 248,700 people or
0.45 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in South Africa. This is based on a random-sample,
nationally-representative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought
to identify instances of both forced marriage and forced labour
within the general population (survey conducted in Afrikaans,
English, Sotho, Zulu, Xhosa languages).

Commercial sexual exploitation
Forty-three percent of victims in forced labour in South
Africa identified in the 2015 Walk Free Foundation survey
were subjected to commercial sexual exploitation. Though thepurchasing of sex is criminalised,[2] the sex industry thrives on
the street and in brothels and private residences. South African
women, women from neighbouring states and Thai, Chinese,
Russian and Brazilian women have been identified as victims ofcommercial sexual exploitation in South Africa.[3] South African
women have also been trafficked abroad, predominantly toEurope.[4] Throughout 2015, the Directorate for Priority Crime
Investigation (DPCI), known as the Hawks, continued to identify
Nigerian sex trafficking syndicates operating between the North
West, Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal provinces.[5]Forced marriage
Walk Free Foundation survey results reveal an estimated 10,600
women are victims of forced marriage. Although UNICEF datafrom 2015 reveals that South Africa has one of the lowest rates
of child marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa,[6] the persistence ofsome traditional practices have been noted by academics asfuelling early and forced marriages. Ukuthwala, meaning 'to
carry' in isiXhosa and isiZulu, is a customary practice used to
bypass extensive and lengthy marriage rituals.[7] It often involves
the kidnapping and rape of a girl or young woman by a man orgroup of men with the intention of compelling the girl or young
woman's family to endorse marriage negotiations.[8] Traditionally,ukuthwala was an accepted path to marriage, however, it did not
involve rape or consensual sex until the marriage negotiations
concluded. Today, girls as young as 12 are abducted and raped,
often by significantly older men, and routinely exposed to HIV/AIDS transmission. One study on HIV/AIDS-positive young
girls aged 12–19 found 56 percent were forcibly married throughukuthwala.[9] The financial burden of daughters, coupled withthe continuing tradition of grooms providing a lobola payment(dowry), reportedly incentivises some parents to force theirdaughters into early marriage. The continued existence ofukuthwala, coupled with Walk Free Foundation estimates ofmore than 10,000 victims of forced marriage, necessitates further
studies of marriage practices in South Africa.

Walk Free Foundation survey results revealed an estimated 11
percent of victims are exploited in construction, five percent
in farming, and eight percent in drug production. This reflects
existing research which notes that foreign and domestic modern
slavery victims have been exploited in agriculture,[14] mining,[15]construction, street work and hospitality industries.[16]Child labourThough the Basic Conditions of Employment Act sets the minimum
age for employment at 15 years,[17] young children labouring in
the agricultural and domestic service sectors persists, as well as
in food services, street vending and forced begging.[18] Children
in South Africa are trafficked from rural to urban areas, including
to Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg.[19]Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data
Number%% malevictims% femalevictims

Forced labour

238,000

96

46

54

Forcedmarriage

10,6004

0100Modernslavery total

248,700

100

44

56

Forced labour by sector of exploitation%

Domestic work

4

Construction

11

Manufacturing0

Other manufacturing

6

Farming

5

Sex industry

43

Drug production

8

Retail sector

4

Other

19

Don't know

0

Refused

0

Total

100

Forced labour
The Walk Free Foundation survey suggests that more than
200,000 workers are subject to forced labour in South Africa.
Both women and children are employed as domestic workers
in South Africa. The legacy of apartheid, leaving many Africanand coloured women without education, has created a labour
pool of unskilled workers who are funnelled into low-paying
domestic work.[10] Economic necessity is the key driver ofwomen accepting work in the domestic service sector.[11] On
December 1, 2015, new minimum wage rates came into effectfor domestic workers,[12] however, critics have slammed the risefor not ensuring a living wage.[13] Domestic workers in South
Africa have reported withholding of wages and unpaid overtime,and physical, sexual and psychological abuse.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

143

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

40.27

43.06

58.30

41.84

45.87

South Africa

The legacy of apartheid, perpetuating beliefs about racial
superiority and inferiority,[20] coupled with concerning economic
disparity, rising violence against minorities, and widespread
discrimination and brutality against women increased people's
vulnerability to exploitation.[21]In 2015, the violent crime rate in South Africa increased for thethird consecutive year.[22] Statistics from 2014 show increases in
the rate of homicide, attempted homicide, aggravated burglary,
carjacking and robbery at private residences and businesses.[23]There was a small reduction in sexual offences, kidnappingand grievous bodily harm, however, in reality, this amounted to
62,649 reported sexual offences. South Africa does not separate'sexual offences' into specific categories i.e. 'rape', 'sexual assault'
or 'trafficking in persons for sexual offences' which obscuresunderstanding of the prevalence of each distinct crime.[24]South Africa's unemployment rates increased to an 11-year high in2015.[25] This was attributable to a combination of power outages
which obstructed economic activity in mines and factories, apersistent drought, and widespread pessimism among local youth
regarding the bleak economic outlook across the country.[26] By
the third quarter of the 2015 financial year, 5.4 million people
in the labour force were unemployed, and 14.9 million were noteconomically active—resulting in an unemployment rate of 25.5
percent.[27] The World Bank forecasts South Africa risks enteringa recession unless bold economic policy is undertaken.[28]Immigrants, particularly those from Zimbabwe, Ethiopia andSomalia, are at risk of violent economic attacks. In 2015, risingxenophobia resulted in the street attack and murder of migrants
from Durban to Johannesburg, [29] sparking protests in Cape
Town.[30] Reports suggest that the catalyst fuelling the violenceis rooted in the South African economy's systemic inequality[31]and a perception among unemployed youth that the few job
opportunities available had been taken by African immigrants.
In response, the government deployed troops to stem further
attacks.[32] Despite 22 arrests following the violence in February
2016, no investigations or prosecutions had occurred.[33]
Women and children are the primary targets of many violent
crimes. In 2012, it was estimated that every eight hours a woman
is killed by her intimate partner in South Africa.[34]Sexual abuse is endemic—in theGauteng province, 25.3 percent
of women self-identified as
victims of at least one instance ofrape and 37.4 percent of men in
the province admitted to having
committed rape at least once intheir lifetime.[35]Media analysis of high-profile cases such as the gang-rape andmurder of teenager Anene Booysen in 2013[36] and of a national
football star Eudy Simelane in 2009[37] indicate that the hypermasculinity and 'macho' demeanour of some men in South Africa
is a contributing factor to the high rate of sexual assault cases.[38]This also impacts women from the LGTBQI community who
are at risk of 'corrective rape'—one recent case in 2014 involved
a teenager who was gang-raped and murdered.[39] Unlike themajority of cases, particularly those related to the Lesbian Gay
Bisexual Transgender Queer (LGBTQ)-identified community,
one perpetrator was sentenced to two terms of life imprisonment
for the murder of the victim, Gift Makau.[40] Children are also
at high risk of sexual assault in South Africa. In 2014, there
were 51 daily cases of child rape reported to police, equating
to 18,524 cases over the year.[41] Domestic violence and abusein the home are often precursors to women and children fleeing
home and accepting jobs in the informal economy where they
may suffer exploitation.
In 2015, according to the 2015 Edelman Trust Barometer,
only 16 percent of South African respondents reported trusting
their government—making the country one of the leasttrusted governments globally, including developing nations.[42]Corruption and mistrust of public authorities heighten
vulnerability for victims—they are less likely to report abuse,risk being returned to situations of abuse by complicit authorities,
and risk being criminalised for conduct that occurred to themwhile in the trafficking situation. One expert described a lack of
specialised skills and knowledge by police officers in responding
to large-scale organised crime, as well as poor collaboration
between NGOs and authorities in the handling of cases.[43]GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
On August 9, 2015, President Zuma officially proclaimed entry
into force of the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in
Persons Act (7/2013).[44] This Act rectifies significant previous
gaps in legislation that largely prevented prosecutors bringing
forward cases of trafficking for forced labour,[45] provides forthe payment of compensation to victims[46] and requires internet
service providers to take all reasonable steps to prevent andreport trafficking.[47] Chapter 3 of the Act attaches positive duties
on the State to provide support to foreign victims including a rest
and recovery period and accompanying visitor's visa. Though
it is important to note that, at the time of writing, the sections

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

concerning the protection of and services to foreign victims have
not yet become operational.[48]The enactment of this legislation will arguably provide clearer
data on the prevalence of modern slavery, particularly efforts
to prosecute and punishment perpetrators. Until August 2015,
cases of trafficking have been brought under other acts, such as
the Sexual Offences Amendment Act or the Children's Amendment
Act, where traffickers were charged for trafficking in persons, butwere often also charged with kidnapping and rape.[49] This creates
what one expert has dubbed "an elusive statistical nightmare" forunderstanding the extent of modern slavery in South Africa,[50]South Africa cont.

a situation exacerbated by the continuing lack of an official
government database on modern slavery. Under section 42 of
the new Act, Ministries responsible for combating trafficking
are required to submit annual reports on the implementationof the Act.[51]As of January 2016, no cases had been tried under the newtrafficking act. However, some recent prominent cases indicate
the government are making concerted efforts to prosecuteoffenders of modern slavery.

In 2015, the government
welcomed the Western Cape High
Court's rejection of an appeal
by Mvumeleni Jezile (aged 33)
who was sentenced to 22 years
imprisonment after forcibly
marrying a 14-year-old girl.[52]This high-profile ukuthwala case was used as evidence by
the Minister in the Presidency responsible for Women, Susan
Shabangu, that the government is continuing endeavours toensure the rights of women, emphasising that cultural practices
must not violate rights and reminding perpetrators that time
will not erase crimes committed.[53] This followed the welldocumented 2014 conviction of 62-year-old businessman
Nyambi Mabuza who was handed down eight life sentences
for the trafficking of Mozambican girls, between the ages of
11 and 17 for sexual exploitation. [54] Despite these positive
developments, to date, none of the international syndicatesfacilitating the commercial sexual exploitation of women havebeen successfully prosecuted.[55]Also in 2015, in an effort to curb illegal movement of children
across borders, the government enacted new immigration
regulations requiring all minors under the age of 18 years to
produce, in addition to their passport, an Unabridged BirthCertificate (showing the particulars of both parents) when
exiting and entering South African ports of entry.[56] For children

travelling with only one parent or unaccompanied, an affidavit
providing consent must also be carried. While admirable in its
attempts to address the ongoing exploitation of children, experts
have questioned whether such onerous requirements will curb
trafficking considering the frequently illegal and clandestineborder movements that traffickers use and the inability ofimmigration guards to verify the authenticity of birth certificatesat borders.[57] However, one expert noted that in the week
preceding the implementation of the regulations, immigration
authorities discovered three incidences of children travellingabroad in suspicious circumstances. One of these cases involved
authorities preventing the travel of a 7-year-old girl to Pakistan tovisit her father - authorities subsequently established the girl had
no father in Pakistan and was a victim of child sexual abuse.[58]International and local organisations working with victims
continued to express concerns of victims being criminalised forillegal conduct, such as prostitution, instead of being identified
as victims of trafficking.[59] Studies have also highlighted theunwillingness of women to turn to the police for support becauseof stigmatisation and fear that police would inform others in thecommunity about the victim's involvement in the sex industry.[60]There are also concerns that victims and authorities alike areunable to correctly identify victims despite ongoing awarenessprograms and training being conducted throughout 2015.[61] Localgroups are concerned that there is no formal strategy to address theabuse, both physical and sexual, of sex workers by authorities.[62]During 2015, key government and civil society stakeholders met
to improve the coordination and integration of services to bettersupport victims of trafficking.[63] The multi-sectoral national taskteam, comprised of the Departments of Justice and Constitutional
Development, Home Affairs and Social Development, as well as
the National Prosecuting Authority, South African Police Service,civil society representatives and international organisations,
are tasked with implementing the National Action Plan to Fight
Human Trafficking in South Africa. The Child Protection andInternational Social Services directorates in the Department ofSocial Development continue to implement a strategy for theprevention of child trafficking. The Child Protection Directorate
also ensures the safe return of South African child victims andunaccompanied South African minors to their families and legal
guardians in South Africa.[64]RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Implement a wide-scale awareness campaign to educate
South Africans about the new Prevention and Combatingof Trafficking in Persons Act.
• Establish a national database on modern slavery casesand convictions.
• Initiate a comprehensive counter-corruption strategy.
• Conduct targeted educational programs in schools andrural communities about the dangers of ukuthwala andthe physical and psychological damage caused byearly marriage.

• Consult with NGOs and victims to ensure policies andservices match the needs of victims.
• Review and increase the minimum wage rate for domestic
workers to ensure a living wage.
• Investigate, prosecute and imprison members of known
criminal syndicates sexually exploiting and trafficking
people for commercial gain, especially young womenand children.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|145

Photo credit, Chris Kelly

20

Prevalence Index Rank

THAILAND"Every morning at 2 a.m., they heard a kick on thedoor and a threat: Get up or get beaten. For the
next 16 hours, No. 31 and his wife stood in thefactory that owned them with their aching handsin ice water."
Excerpt from an interview conducted by the AssociatedPress with victims of forced labour in Thailand in
December, 2015.[1]Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

425,500

Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

47.54%

Government Response Rating

B

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Population

67,959,000

GDP (PPP)$15,735

Thailand cont.

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 425,500 people or
0.63 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Thailand.

Forced labour
Human trafficking for forced labour in the Thai fishing industry(on both the seafaring and processing sides) enslaves men,children and women from the Greater Mekong Subregion(GMS).[2] In the US$7 billion industry,[3] seafaring labourers,
often young men and boys, endure brutal treatment that includes
severe and frequent physical abuse and threats thereof, excessive
and inhumane working hours, sleep and food deprivation, forced
use of methamphetamines, and long trips at sea confined to thevessel.[4] Thailand's fishing industry is reliant on trans-shipments
at sea to reduce expenditure on fuel and sustain constant fishing[5]meaning that some long-haul trawlers and the fishermen remain
at sea for years at a time. Traumatised victims have reported
witnessing the vessels' captains violently abusing and murderingother workers, and captains abandoning overboard workers atsea.[6] Due to overfishing in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman
Sea, fishing vessels are forced to operate far from shore,
sometimes travelling along the coastlines of Indonesia and otherneighbouring countries. Both jurisdictionally and practically,
this makes monitoring costly and difficult. This situation isexacerbated by poor registration and licencing of fishing vessels
in which many operate under layers of false documentation.[7]Exploitation in seafood pre-processing facilities is also evident,with reports of men, women and children from Myanmar,
Cambodia and Laos working excessive hours in oppressive andabusive conditions.
Skilled Thai migrants move toward stronger economies, suchas those in the United States, Europe, Israel, East Asia andAustralia. Official numbers from the Ministry of Labour's
Office for Thai Workers Going Overseas recorded 143,101 Thai
citizens moving abroad for work in 2012;[8] however, others
also migrate via irregular channels.[9] The vast majority (around84 percent) of overseas Thai workers are men, working in theconstruction, agricultural and manufacturing industries.[10]Thai migrant workers supply the majority of labour for Israel's
agriculture. In 2015, serious labour abuses against the workforce
were uncovered including excessive work hours (sometimes up
to 17 hours/day), low wages, inadequate and unsanitary living
conditions and exposure to harmful pesticides with unsatisfactory
safety equipment.[11]documents, all of which render the victims' ability to escapefrom their exploitation much more difficult, or impossible.[15]Commercial sexual exploitation
Thailand's sex industry is reported to be a site for the commercial
sexual exploitation of children, both boys and girls. The profile
of CSE victims is difficult to define—older teenage girls(15–17 years old) and young women are commonly found inentertainment hotspots, bars and hotels. On the streets, the ageof victims tends to be younger (under 17) with many children
performing survival sex and a higher prevalence of young
boys available to service the demands of male tourists.[16] Theyexperience greater transmission rates of sexually-transmitted
infections (including HIV/AIDS) often as a result of being forced
to provide sexual services to clients without condom use.[17]Victims from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam have been
identified in Thailand while some victims from Bangladesh,Pakistan, Vietnam, North Korea and China transit throughThailand on route to Indonesia, the United States, Western
Europe, Singapore and Russia.[18] Of the 595 victims of humantrafficking identified by the government in 2014, 222 werevictims of commercial sexual exploitation, most of whom weregirls from Laos and Thailand.[19] However, these statistics refer
only to those victims formally identified by the government.

Child soldiers
Armed violence, attacks against civilians and conflict between
local armed groups and the government continues to plague
the southern border of Thailand.[20] Children are recruited into
non-state armed groups where they are trained to be lookouts,
informers and/or combatants.[21] Little comprehensive research
exists on the scale of involvement of children in armed groupsin Thailand. However, a 2015 Child Soldiers International study
found children as young as 14 participated in hostilities. [22]Children allegedly associated with armed groups continue toface administrative detention[23] contrary to their need for shelter
and rehabilitation.

Women overseas-workers tend to find employment in privatehouseholds or the entertainment or service sectors such as
restaurants.[12] According to World Bank data, approximately
US$5.69 billion in personal remittances made up around 1.47
percent of Thailand's US$387 billion Gross Domestic Productin 2013.[13] Thai migrants often must pay significant fees for the
migration and recruitment processes (sometimes up to a year's
wages) and they are vulnerable to exploitation by recruiters and/or
employers; in places where it is available, assistance for exploited
workers can be difficult to access in unfamiliar settings.[14]Domestic workers are predominantly females from rural Thailand(including ethnic minorities), Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar,some of whom are the children of migrants working formally andinformally in Thailand. Victims often report that their employers
physically and sexually abuse them, confine them within thehome, withhold their pay and withhold their identification

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|147

Rohingya refugees
The Rohingya people, a Muslim ethnic group living in Myanmar, continue to face systemic persecution and denial ofrights. In April 2015, the Myanmar Government stripped Rohingya of their voting rights by rescinding their temporary
ID cards, the last official identification available to them.[24] Many lost their homes, farms and the ability to work,
creating a dire choice between residing in shanty towns on the outskirts of Rakhine or paying smugglers to transportthem abroad.
Throughout 2014–2015, Rohingya refugees undertook dangerous and often fatal sea and land journeys across the
Bay of Bengal, the Andaman Sea and the Myanmar/Thai border in pursuit of a better life. Many of these cases weresituations of people smuggling, where a sum was paid in exchange for transportation. However, for some refugees,
their smugglers intended to exploit them upon arrival or deliver them to someone who would. Some Rohingya are heldat camps where they are held for ransom—those unable to pay are often physically abused, sold into forced labour,often in the fishing sector (men), or forced to marry to secure their release (women).
In May 2015, Thai authorities discovered abandoned people smuggling camps on the Thai/Malaysia border with theremains of Rohingya people who had died through starvation, disease and violence at the hands of smugglers andtraffickers. There is concerning evidence of official complicity in the trade and exploitation of Rohingya people—oneof the mass grave sites was located in an open field behind the police station in Padang Besar, some 500 metres fromthe official border crossing manned by officials from Thailand and Malaysia. Several arrests of officials have been
made for alleged smuggling and trafficking, including the arrest of Army Lt. Gen. Manas Kongpan together with local
politicians, community leaders, businessmen and gangsters.[25]Thailand has been reluctant to provide assistance to Rohingya refugees, including preventing boats carrying Rohingya
from landing in Thailand.[26] Throughout 2015, Thailand attended international meetings to address this issue andreported they would not "push back migrants stranded in Thai waters".[27] In March 2016, 92 alleged human traffickers
and smugglers went on trial for their involvement in the discovered Rohingya death camps. [28]

VULNERABILITYCountry

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

Thailand

49.23

28.62

48.97

63.33

47.54

Over the past decade, significant structural differences in
population demographics and economic development between
Thailand and neighbouring countries have transformed theavailable workforce.[29] As an increasingly well-educated Thai
population shun poorly-paid work in unglamorous sectors—
predominantly in fishing, construction, agriculture, domestic
services and small manufacturing businesses[30]—migrant workers
play a critical role in filling these labour shortages.[31] Workers,
particularly from neighbouring Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar,
who often use irregular channels of migration into Thailand, areparticularly vulnerable to exploitation. Employment brokers on
both sides of the border—even through the legal immigration
process—can knowingly or unwittingly place migrants in thehands of exploitative employers.[32]Migrant workers in Thailand may migrate through MoU
procedures (signed in 2002/2003 with Cambodia, Laos andMyanmar), the national verification process (NV) or at One Stop
Service Centres (OSSCs) established in 2014.[33] Despite these
efforts to provide options for regular migration and regularisation,in 2015, the International Labour Organisation maintained
concerns for an unknown but presumably a considerable numberof workers with irregular status.[34] Many migrant workers are
not provided with a visa, but a stay of deportation, allowing
them to work for one employer in one district for a year at a time
before expulsion from the country.[35] This system heightens thevulnerability to exploitation by creating a compliant workforce

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

labouring under the threat of deportation. Extortion of money
is common—employers demand money for work permits andpolice officers fine workers who are caught outside their district.
Workers are also unable to send their children to school.[36]The Social Security Fund, which provides social protection to
migrant workers and their families, does not extend to workers
in the informal sector or on fishing boats.[37] For those trappedin situations of modern slavery, the risk of fines, arrest anddeportation, coupled with language barriers, prevents victims
coming forward.
The risk of arrest and deportation is also high for refugees andasylum seekers in Thailand, many of whom are vulnerable totrafficking and forced labour. Thailand is not a party to the 1951
Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol, meaning manyasylum seekers are treated by Thai authorities as illegal migrants.
As at June 2015, 625,256 people were registered with UNHCR,
which includes 110,372 refugees, 8,166 asylum seekers and506,197 stateless people.[38]Thailand has one of the largest stateless populations of any
country. There are as many as 450,000 Hill Tribe ethnic people inNorthern Thailand that remain without citizenship despite beingborn in the country, being legally eligible for Thai citizenshipand waiting for their applications to be approved for several
years. Hill Tribe people face some hurdles in their application
for citizenship: navigating a complex bureaucracy in a language
they do not speak, living in remote areas with limited access toThailand cont.

the required administrative offices and/or relying on misinformed
government officials that have little political incentive to approve
the applications. Even if Hill Tribe people know their legal rights
and recognise the importance, it can take up to 10 years for theircitizenship applications to be approved.[39]These groups can experience high poverty, pressure to support
their family, face xenophobic and discriminatory attitudes fromThais, lack community support and have limited or no accessto health care or schooling, which has further implications for
future employment and livelihood opportunities.[41]The lack of citizenship rights for Hill Tribe minorities makes
them particularly vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. They aremuch more likely to migrate for economic reasons, including
paying a middleman. They also lack the legal documentation
to take out formal loans, increasing the likelihood of taking
informal loans for financial emergencies, making them more
vulnerable to debt bondage. Furthermore, and because of their
undocumented status, Hill Tribe minorities are also much lesslikely to call the police if they believe they have been subjected
to criminal exploitation, allowing perpetrators to abuse or
exploit ethnic minorities with little fear of actually being held
accountable for their crimes, so there continues to be a cultureof impunity when it comes to trafficking in persons.[40]Police complicity in human trafficking crimes continued to bereported in 2015. Thailand's most senior police investigator
into human trafficking fled to Australia to seek political asylum,
fearing for his life after he uncovered complicity of influential
figures in the Thai Government, military and police.[42] NGOs
reported official corruption is a significant barrier to justice forvictims, including preventing victims from testifying in cases
due to their mistrust of police.[43] The presence of police incommercial sexual establishments, as either clients or complicitin accepting bribes, fuelled a perception of police corruption.
This is similarly noted in the fishing industry where the businessinterests of some public officials conflict with formal duties.

Migrant, Hill Tribe, refugee, stateless, and street working
children are particularly vulnerable to CSE and forced begging.

As Thai nationals seek higher-paid employment opportunities
abroad, some are falling victim to forced labour and CSE abroad.
Victims have been identified globally.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Examining the Thai response to combating modern slavery must
be considered in light of the new government led by the National
Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) who took control of thegovernment in a coup d'état in May 2014. On March 31, 2015,
nationwide enforcement of the Martial Law Act of 1914 was
replaced with section 44 of the interim Constitution, providing
unlimited administrative, legislative and judiciary powers toPrime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha in his capacity as the NCPO
chairman without any oversight or accountability.[44] The interim
constitution also absolves anyone carrying out actions on behalfof the NCPO of all legal liability.[45] In September 2015, a
247-person commission rejected a draft constitution preparedby the Constitution Drafting Committee, extending military rule
under the interim document until 2017.[46] These developments
point to a worrying trend of the government being principallyconcerned with consolidating its power though experts suggest
they will combat trafficking to the extent it assists the country's
economic interests.[47]Throughout 2015, the Thai
Government faced unprecedented
pressure to tackle forced labourin the fishing sector. In April 2015,
the European Commission put
Thailand on formal notice for nottaking sufficient measures tocombat illegal, unreported andunregulated fishing (IUU)[48] under
threat of a trade ban which could
see Thailand lose up to US$1.4m ayear in seafood exports.[49]The government has reportedly accelerated their efforts tocombat exploitation and avoid trade sanctions, including thecreation of the Command Centre for Combating Illegal Fishing inMay 2015 to address Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU)
fishing.[50] Since the Centre was established, the Deputy National
Police Chief reported the investigation of 36 cases, arrests of
102 suspects, and rescue of 130 presumed trafficking victims.[51]The first major reform of fishing legislation in over 50 years—
the Royal Ordinance on Fisheries B.E. 2558 2015—came into
force on November 15, 2015 with the objective of eliminatingillegal fishing and promoting sustainable fishing. The law is being
implemented by 28 port-in-port-out (PiPo) Centres and officers
from the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Labour, Marine
Department and Mobile Team Units. To promote understandingof these major legal changes, a 'fishermen's' legal handbook has
been published.[52] Though these legal reforms were long overdue,
the lack of consultation with workers' organisations and industry
associations was a missed opportunity, with some concerns thesuspension of unlicensed vessels will force Thai boat owners into
other illegal activities.[53] For the migrant fishermen themselves,despite the creation of the One Stop Service Centre for theregistration of migrant workers,[54] organisations reported in2015 that the hoped-for large-scale registration and regularisation
had not occurred. Almost all workers in the Thai fishing sector
remain unregistered.[55]Thailand took new steps to combat the CSE of children,
particularly their abuse for pornography. In May 2015, theNational Legislative Assembly of Thailand voted unanimously
to amend The Criminal Code of Thailand to criminalise childpornography. [56] This brings Thailand's legislation in linewith the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of
the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and childpornography.[57] The Bill prescribes punishment of up to five
years' imprisonment for possession of child pornography, up toseven years for distribution, and up to 10 years for production
and trade. The government also made efforts to prosecute someperpetrators of CSE of children—in June 2015, following
extensive investigations, Pra Chai, a Buddhist monk and leaderof a trafficking ring, was sentenced to 124 years in prison for his
involvement in the human trafficking and sexual exploitation of
teenage boys. This was the sixth conviction of a Buddhist monkfor involvement in a trafficking ring since 2014.[58]

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|149

Also in 2015, the government approved a change in the Thai
Nationality Act to allow citizenship applications to be approved at
the district and provincial levels, a move which will significantly
increase the efficiency and speed at which these are processed.
Before this change, the law required that all citizenshipapplications be submitted and approved at the district, provincial
and national levels by several committees and subcommittees.
One international organisation reported 426 of their clients had
their pending citizenship applications approved shortly after thegovernment enacted this change.[59] This is a positive first stepin addressing the vulnerabilities of a significantly large sectorof the Thai population.
In addition to the significant legislative improvements over the
past year, in August 2015 Thailand established a new court in
the special division of the Criminal Court devoted solely totrying human trafficking cases.[60] A second special court was
created to hear cases related to corruption and misbehaviour by
government officials.[61] The challenge for the Thai Government
is now effectively implementing these legislative changes andusing the courts.

While Thailand's Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act is a comprehensive
piece of legislation, implementation and enforcement were
skewed toward certain sectors in 2015. Despite the rhetoricof the National Policy Strategies and Measures to Prevent andSuppress Trafficking in Persons (2011–2016), the government's
efforts remain disconnected to the reality of exploitation on
the ground. The majority of the government's efforts focus onaddressing the sexual exploitation of women and children, withlimited focus on exploitation of workers in the construction andagricultural sectors, particularly in southern Thailand, and in thedomestic service sector.
The Ministry of Social Development and Human Security(MSDHS) is responsible for the provision of assistance andprotection to victims of trafficking and throughout 2015
continued to operate shelters and provide rehabilitative support.
Despite this, these services lack specialisation; some victims areprevented from leaving, and victims are unable to work. Many of
the support services provided to child victims of trafficking forsexual purposes come from INGOs and NGOs in the country.[62]RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Improve victim identification and protection.
• Make far more effective use of the 2003 MoU with
Myanmar on Migrant Workers for the safe migrationof migrants from Myanmar, and grant these workers
employment-based visas that allow the workers to change
employers without losing legal status and having to obtain
their first employer's permission.
• Record and report all cases of modern slavery in asingle national database, including details on the arrest,
prosecution and conviction of offenders, disaggregated byage, sex and type of exploitation.[63]• Investigate and prosecute modern slavery cases
particularly those involving labour exploitation and/or
complicity of law enforcement officials, justice officials,
monks, and teachers.
• Reform labour laws to allow migrant workers the rightto create or join an existing union.
• Create supply chain transparency laws to ensure thelabour practices are aligned with international standards.
• Criminalise the recruitment and use of children in state
or non-state armed forces• Ratify the 1951 Refugee Convention and work with
UNHCR to deliver services to asylum seekers

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Business• Businesses importing Thai seafood products conduct
in-depth supply chain mapping exercise, including
subcontractors multiple tiers deep, to identify product origin.
• Conduct social audits on suppliers identified as high risk,
ensuring interviews with migrant workers are conductedin a safe environment, and that workers' voices are soughtin feedback processes.
• Work with suppliers to develop corrective action plans
and recourse for workers found exploited in supply chains.
This may include systems to pay back workers held in
debt bondage and compensating underpaid workers.

Thailand cont.

Thai ‘trashfish’ workers unload trashfish at the port in Songkhla, Thailand, February 21, 2014. Reports of forced labour, physicalabuse, and withholding of wages of migrant workers are widespread in the Thai fishing industry.
Photo credit, Chris Kelly

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

|

151

52

Prevalence Index Rank

UNITED KINGDOM"Salah, an orphan, was 12 when she was brought to the UK on a 'holiday' from West Africa. Within daysof arriving, she was forced into domestic slavery. Given only leftovers to eat, Salah quietly cried herself
to sleep on the floor every night. If she made a noise, she was kicked and beaten. In the daytime, hercaptors invited men to the house to rape her for money. When she finally managed to escape, Salah
was forced to sleep on the streets for months before she finally found a safe place to stay. Neither thepeople that trafficked Salah to the UK nor the family that abused her for years were punished for what
they did. Salah is supported via ECPAT UK's London-based peer support group for trafficked girls.
She is still traumatised by her experience but is determined to rebuild her life."
ECPAT UK

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

11,700Vunerability Score. A higher score indicates a higher
level of vulnerability.

26.79%

Government Response Rating

BBB

152

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Population

64,856,000

GDP (PPP)$39,762

United Kingdom cont.

PREVALENCEThe UK is a destination for men and women from Central andEastern Europe, Asia, Africa and the Middle East often seeking
better livelihood opportunities. In 2014, research was carried out
in the context of the UK Government's Modern Slavery Strategy
to estimate the scale of enslaved people living in the UK. The
Home Office estimated as many as 10,000–13,000 potential
victims of modern slavery in the UK, an estimate reflected in
the 2016 Global Slavery Index.[1]Cases of modern slavery have been uncovered in diverse sectors
and locations—from Vietnamese children locked into Manchester
flats to grow cannabis to Albanian women and girls sexually
exploited in the London sex industry, and to the hundreds ofmen working low or semi-skilled jobs trapped in situations ofdebt bondage.[2] The National Crime Agency estimates 3,309
potential victims of human trafficking came into contact with
the State or an NGO in 2014.[3] The latest government statistics
derived from the UK National Referral Mechanism in 2014
reveal 2,340 potential victims of trafficking from 96 countriesof origin, of whom 61 percent were female and 29 percent werechildren.[4] Of those identified through the NRM, the majority
were adults classified as victims of sexual exploitation followedby adults exploited in the domestic service sector and othertypes of labour exploitation.[5] The largest proportion of victims
was from Albania, followed by Nigeria, Vietnam, Romania andSlovakia. The 6th highest group of victims by country of origin
were UK nationals.[6] These statistics do not reflect the unknown
number of victims who refuse to enter the NRM or are unable
to escape their situation of exploitation. Concerns have been
consistently raised about the numbers of trafficked children
going missing from local authority care and being re-trafficked.[7]Forced labour
As noted in the government's 2015 review of modern slavery,labour exploitation amounting to modern slavery has been foundacross multiple sectors, including, but not limited to, factories,
agricultural and construction sections, car washes, nail bars,
restaurants and bars, the tarmac and paving industry, and themaritime sector.[8] Some victims have been identified in the scrap
metal and recycling industry, chicken catching, selling DVDs,

cleaning, nannies and taxi drivers. These cases are incredibly
diverse, impacting men, women and children.
Significant numbers of domestic workers are brought to the UKeach year, including an unknown number who travel into andout of the UK with the families they are working for in othercountries.[9] In 2014, 16,753 individuals entered the UK on theOverseas Domestic Worker visa.[10]In the UK, migrant domestic workers are tied to their employer
by the immigration rules, increasing their vulnerability to
exploitative practices by dissuading workers to come forward
and risk deportation. Kalayaan, a UK-based NGO for migrant
domestic workers, found that, in a 2015 study of their domestic
worker clients, the treatment of migrant workers differed
between those on tied and untied visas—68 percent of thoseon tied visas experienced restrictions on freedom of movementcompared with 38 percent who were not tied, 70 percent worked
excessive hours compared with 49 percent who were not tied, 38
percent were not paid compared with 14 percent who were nottied,[11] and 66 percent of workers had their passports withheld
compared with 54 percent who were not tied. Although all
figures demonstrate high levels of exploitative treatment from
employers,the consistently higher rates of abuse experienced
by those on tied visas indicate an urgent need to review thecurrent system.

Forced marriage
The most recent data from the Forced Marriage Unit (FMU), a
joint Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Home Office Unit,
revealed 1,267 individuals were provided advice or support
on forced marriage in 2014.[12] Of this cohort, 79 percent werefemale, more than 10 percent involved victims with disabilities
and 11 percent involved victims under the age of 16.[13] In
23 percent of the cases handled by the FMU, there were nooverseas elements. Of the 77 percent of cases with an overseas
element, 88 different countries were identified, with the largest
proportion involving Pakistan (38.3 percent), India (7.8 percent)and Bangladesh (7.1 percent). Considering that some victims aresupported by specialist independent NGO services or by local
police,[14] it is likely there is an even larger total figure.

VULNERABILITYCountry
United Kingdom

Civil & politicalprotections

Social, health, &economic rights

Personal security

Refugees & conflict

Mean

18.45

20.37

21.83

46.50

26.79

Domestic trafficking remains a serious threat in the UK,particularly the grooming of teenage girls for commercial sexual
exploitation.[15] Despite this, the majority of modern slavery
victims identified in the UK are men, women and children
from abroad.[16] The past two decades has brought a significant
number of migrants and job seekers, vulnerable to accepting
low-paid, low-skilled work, which may be exploited at thehand of traffickers, gangmasters or opportunistic employers.
Despite an increased and widespread awareness of the existenceof modern slavery, too few potential victims or perpetrators ofmodern slavery are identified.[17] Once within the UK, the diverse
sectors victims are found in, including those on geographicallyremote farms or behind closed doors in private homes, make it
exceedingly difficult to identify and provide outreach.

The restrictions imposed by the Overseas Domestic Worker
visa in April 2012 are reportedly linked to vulnerability. Thistied visa, valid for six months, is not renewable and prevents
domestic workers changing their employer, regardless of theircircumstances. In effect, it means domestic workers cannot
legally remain in the UK if they leave their employers—easily
allowing employers to use the threat of the involvement of theimmigration authorities to coerce workers. Although not in itself
responsible for modern slavery, this dependency on the employer
reduces the willingness of domestic workers to challenge any
mistreatment or report abuse to the police. This is because it will
likely result in the termination of their employment and removal
to their home country (unless the conditions they experienced
amount to a situation of trafficking or forced labour thereby

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|153

allowing them to access short-term protective services). A recent
policy change, bringing into effect Section 53 of the Modern
Slavery Act 2015, means that domestic workers must receive
a positive Conclusive Grounds decision from the National
Referral Mechanism confirming they have been trafficked before
allowing them to change employers. This provision provides fora maximum of six months further leave—a relatively short period
in which the individual has no recourse to public funds and isrestricted to one full-time job as a domestic worker in a privatehousehold.[18] Despite the efforts of some parliamentarians torevoke the tied visa in the new Modern Slavery Act, the visa
remains in place.
The situation can be further complicated in cases involving
domestic workers in diplomatic households. Before and during
2014, diplomatic immunity trumped trafficking in cases of a
diplomat employer exploiting a domestic worker.[19] In 2015,
the UK Court of Appeals set aside immunity in a case brought

by Moroccan nationals who were in domestic servitude in the
Sudanese and Libyan embassies in London.[20]The tied visa has been criticised widely by local and internationalorganisations. The Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights ofMigrants noted the importance of the right to change employer"in facilitating the escape of migrant domestic workers from
exploitative and abusive situations".[21] On December 2, 2015,
the London Assembly called for the Mayor of London to write
to Home Secretary, Theresa May, to make the case to repeal
the tied-visa system.[22] At the request of Theresa May MP, an
independent expert undertook a review of the visa, the findingsof which were published in December 2015.[23] The report foundthat the "existence of a tie to a specific employer and the absenceof a universal right to change employer and apply for extensionsof the visa are incompatible with the reasonable protection ofoverseas domestic workers".[24] As of January 2016, it remains
unclear if the Home Office will implement the recommendations
as no timetable on a response has been provided.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The UK has been proactive in passing new legislation andassociated policy measures to combat most forms of modern
slavery throughout 2015. Government representatives, including
the Home Secretary Theresa May, and the Independent AntiSlavery Commissioner, Kevin Hyland, have been outspoken on
the existence of and need to tackle slavery on British soil. In
2014, the UK Government published a Modern Slavery Strategy
detailing the role of government, law enforcement, NGOs andother partners in the fight against modern slavery under a 'fourPs' structure—pursue, prevent, protect, prepare.[25]In March 2015, after months of drafting and debate, thelandmark Modern Slavery Act 2015 came into force. The Act
consolidated the existing legislation on the various forms ofmodern slavery and increased the maximum sentence from 14
years to life imprisonment. Other key developments include asset
confiscation for perpetrators and the introduction of Slavery andTrafficking Prevention Orders and Slavery and Trafficking Risk
Orders to restrict the activity of individuals where they pose arisk of causing harm.[26] The initial draft Bill included no victim
protection measures. However, as a result of significant pressure
from the voluntary sector and parliamentarians, the final textof the Act includes a statutory defence for victims compelled
to commit crimes, court powers to order perpetrators to pay
reparations to victims, provision of advocates to support childvictims, and statutory guidance on victim identification and victim
services.[27] A clause to enable a system of 'Independent Child
Trafficking Advocates' across England and Wales has yet to beenacted, despite pressure from NGOs and international bodies.[28]As a result of the scrutiny of the Modern Slavery Act, thegovernment commissioned a review of the National Referral
Mechanism for victims of human trafficking.[29] The subsequent
report, published in November 2014, recommended a significant
overhaul of the system. In August 2015, based on theserecommendations, a year-long NRM pilot was established totrial a new system.[30] The outcome of the pilot has the potential tosignificantly change the way victims are identified in the UK.[31]The Modern Slavery Act has helped to put the issue of modern
slavery in supply chains front and centre for businesses operatingin the UK.

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Under the Act, companies
whose turnover is above £36m
are required to report on whatsteps they have taken to ensure
modern slavery is not taking
place in their business or supply
chains. Though the intention ofthis provision is to ensure big
businesses are making efforts tosafeguard their supply chains, inpractice, a company can merely
make 'a statement that theorganisation has taken no such
steps' to combat slavery in their
supply chain and comply withthe legislation.
There are no formal repercussions should a company reportthat no efforts have been made to examine their supply chains
and, in fact, no enforcement mechanism to ensure companies
make a statement in the first place. The impact of the new laws
remains to be seen.
Separate legislation exists in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
On October 1, 2015, the Human Trafficking and Exploitation(Scotland) Bill was passed, largely mirroring the criminal justiceprovisions of the Modern Slavery Act but showing stronger
provision of support to victims.[32] The Bill requires Scottish
Ministers to create a trafficking and exploitation strategy,
reviewable every three years, with a requirement to consult
with individuals and organisations on the strategy.[33] The Human
Trafficking and Exploitation (Criminal Justice and Support forVictims) Act (Northern Ireland) 2015 was given royal assent on
January 13, 2015.

United Kingdom cont.

In December 2015, the UK Government launched a newenhanced helpline, replacing the existing number, which will
become operational in 2016. Victims will be able to call or text
for help—the texting function has been included for those fearfulof being overheard.[34] NGO Polaris won the Home Office tenderto run the service.[35]Forced marriage was criminalised under the Anti-Social
Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 . In June 2015, a 34-yearold man was the first person convicted of a forced marriage
offence under this new legislation, after making a 25-year-old
woman marry him under duress.[36] Though this first conviction

is a positive development, there is a clear discrepancy between
the amount of cases being identified and the few that progress
to conviction. Also, NGOs report that the issuing of a Forced
Marriage Protection Order (FMPO) does not always restrict
families acquiring new passports or travelling abroad.[37] The
FMU has continued to operate a hotline to provide advice andsupport to victims. They have also continued to deliver outreachand training to professionals and potential victims throughout
the year, as well as the 2015 'right to choose' film campaign.[38]Such awareness raising must be backed by shelter services forvictims to flee to, which NGOs report are currently lacking.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Government• Implement the recommendations made in the independent
review of the Overseas Domestic Workers (ODW) visa
and immediately revoke the tied visa.
• Sign and ratify ILO Convention 189 on Decent Work for
Domestic Workers.
• Enact a statutory system of independent child trafficking
advocates or guardians for all separated and traffickedchildren.
• Ensure provision of specialist foster care for traffickedchildren and training of frontline workers.
• Improve data collection on victims and perpetratorsof modern slavery in the UK and encourage European
countries to follow the UK's lead by estimating prevalence
within their borders so progress can be tracked over time.

• Increase funding for quality-assessed victim-support
shelters and services.
• Undertake a robust and comprehensive evaluation of the
NRM pilots ensuring inclusion of victim feedback.
• Restructure and reform the NRM to improve identification
decision-making, and improve access to services andoutcomes for victims of modern slavery.
• Closely monitor the impact of the supply chain
requirements of the Modern Slavery Act, to ensure they
deliver results not just reporting.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

155

APPENDICES

Mewat, India - March 14, 2014: Rubina, who
was trafficked from Assam when she was only
15. Bride trafficking is common in the interior
villages of Haryana.
Photo credit, Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan TimesAPPENDIX 1 - Terminology
While definitions vary, in this report, modern slavery refers to situations of exploitation that a person cannot refuse or leave
because of threats, violence, coercion, abuse of power or deception, with treatment akin to a farm animal. For example,
their passport might be taken away if they are in a foreign country, they may experience or be threatened with violence or
their family might be threatened.
Different countries use different terminology to describe modern slavery, including the term slavery itself but also otherconcepts such as human trafficking, forced labour, debt bondage, forced or servile marriage, and the sale or exploitationof children. These terms are defined in various international agreements (treaties), which many countries have voluntarily
signed onto. The following are the key definitions most governments have agreed to, thereby committing to prohibit throughtheir national laws and policies:

Human trafficking
Human trafficking is defined in the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol as involving three steps.
1. Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons;
2. By means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of
power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent
of a person having control over another person;
3. With the intent of exploiting that person through: prostitution of others, sexual exploitation, forced labour, slavery(or similar practices), servitude, and removal of organs.
The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered'trafficking in persons' even if this does not involve threat, use of force, or coercion.

Forced labour
Forced labour is defined in the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention on Forced Labour 1930 as "all workor service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person has not offeredhimself voluntarily." This excludes compulsory military service, normal civil obligations, penalties imposed by a court
action taken in an emergency, and minor communal services.
Slavery and slavery-like practices
Slavery is defined in the Slavery Convention as the status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers
attaching to the right of ownership are exercised. In a later treaty, States agreed that there are also certain ‘slavery-likepractices’: debt bondage, forced or servile marriage, sale or exploitation of children (including in armed conflict) anddescent-based slavery.
Debt bondage
Debt bondage is a status or condition, where one person has pledged their labour or service (or that of someone under theircontrol), in circumstances where the fair value of that labour or service is not reasonably applied to reducing the debt or
length of debt, or the length and nature of the service is not limited or defined.
Forced or servile marriage
The following are defined as practices ‘similar to slavery’ in the 1956 Slavery Convention. Any institution or practice whereby:• A woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or inkind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or group; or• T he husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another personfor value received or otherwise; or• A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person.

Worst forms of child labour
Drawing on the 1999 International Labour Conference Convention No.182, concerning the Prohibition and Immediate
Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour, the term ‘worst forms of child labour’ comprises:a. all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage andserfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed
conflict;b. the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography, or for pornographic
performances;c. the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs
as defined in the relevant international treaties;d. work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or
morals of children.

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APPENDIX 2 - Summary of Methodology
INTRODUCTION
The Global Slavery Index reflects a complex set of measures on the estimated number of people in modern slavery, thefactors that make individuals vulnerable, and also the steps governments are taking to respond to it.
The Index includes a model of vulnerability, which draws on 24 variables that impact on risk, such as the capacity toborrow emergency funds, trust in the judiciary, levels of internal displacement, and discrimination. These variables aregrouped into four dimensions: civil and political protections; social, health and economic rights; personal security; andconflict and refugees (see Part A: Assessing Vulnerability).
Central to the Index is the estimated prevalence of modern slavery in 167 countries. The estimates are based on thevulnerability model, together with survey data from face-to-face interviews conducted with over 42,000 individual
respondents in 53 languages, across 25 countries. Limited adjustments are made in specific cases where the existing data
are unable to account for country-specific considerations (see Part B: Estimating Prevalence).
The rating of government responses is based on an assessment of 98 indicators of good practice for each country, taking
into account factors such as whether a country has the necessary laws in place, provides support programmes for victims
and works with business to regulate supply chains. The indicators are directed at measuring whether key outcomes havebeen achieved, such as the identification of victims, and reduction in risk factors that enable slavery to occur (see Part C:
Government Responses).

PART A: ASSESSING VULNERABILITY
The vulnerability model used in the 2014 Index was the starting point for the development of the 2016 model. Tests
undertaken in 2015 suggested that the vulnerability model, together with existing survey data, provides a robust foundationfor estimating prevalence[1]. Nonetheless, to ensure continual improvement, the 2014 model was subjected to extensive
external expert review by the Index Expert Working Group, individual experts, and an independent review. This review
process has heavily informed the methodological approaches, choices of source data and normalisation processes used in
the 2016 model.

Changes made to the 2014 model variables
During the Expert Working Group sessions in August 2015, the idea of integrating human security theory[2] into thevulnerability framework was discussed. While a move to a theoretical approach was supported, the group felt that it was
too early to move to a purely theoretically-driven approach given the issues relating to missing data and differences in thequality of data. Nonetheless, human security theory provided some insights into potential missing variables, for example,
data on gender and environmental security.
In 2016, we re-examined the 2014 variables, and replaced them with more rigorous and/or current sources where available,
and included new variables previously not available. Key reasons for adding or removing variables used in the 2014 model
included:a. to ensure the continual availability of data – data that was irregularly published and updated, or lacked transparency
on the original data source were removed;b. to ensure that we get as close to the source of the data as possible; for example, where a 2014 variable was a composite
score in another index, we sought to identify the source data and select the component measurements most usefulfor our purposes; andc. to replace weaker measures with potentially stronger variables.

Normalisation
To identify the variables that would be used in the 2016 model, we compiled an initial long list of variables to subject tostatistical testing. The data for each of these variables were normalised to a linear scale from 1 to 100. A normalisation
procedure was employed based upon the following formula:y=1+(x–A)*(100–1)/(B–A)
Where a variable represented resilience to modern slavery instead of vulnerability, or the scale used by the data source gavea higher score for a lower risk, the data were inverted. For example, a higher confidence in judiciary score would suggest
lower risk, therefore it made sense to invert this score. A description of the inverted variables and justification can be foundin the longer methodology paper available on the website.
For variables where the data were not normally distributed (i.e., Refugees, Displaced, and GDP(PPP)), these data were
logarithmically transformed before any normalisation was undertaken.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|159

Correlation coefficient checks
After accepting these variables, we applied correlation coefficient checks to the variables to determine whether there wassignificant empirical overlap that may warrant dropping additional variables. Following the check on collinearity, VIF[3]and tolerance values[4] were checked for multi-collinearity.
The final vulnerability variables retained for principal factor analysis testing include:
1.

Financial Inclusion – Borrowed Money[5]13. Violent Crime[17]2.

 inancial Inclusion – Coming up with Emergency
F
Funds[6]14. Women’s Physical Security[18]3.

Financial Inclusion – Received Wages[7] (inverted)

4.

Cell Phone Subscriptions (inverted)

5.

Social Safety[9] (inverted)

6.

Undernourishment [10][8]16. Discrimination: Sexuality[20]17. GINI Coefficient[21]18. Discrimination: Intellectual Disability[22]19. Discrimination: Immigrants[23]7.

Tuberculosis

8.

Confidence in Judicial System[12] (inverted)

9.

Water Access[13] (inverted)[11]

10. Political Instability

15. Weapons Access[19][14]

20. Discrimination: Minorities[24]21. Refugees[25]
22. Displaced Persons[26]23. Political Rights – POLITY IV[27] (inverted)

11. Impact of Terrorism[15]12. Internal Conflicts Fought[16]24. G
 lobal Slavery Index Government Response
Values[28] (inverted)

Factor analysis
Principal Factor Analysis was selected as the optimal method for identifying which variables empirically group together into
distinct major factors. On the basis of this analysis, the following dimensions were identified, and confirmed for cluster analysis.
Table 1: Dimensions used in cluster analysis
DIMENSION 1
Civil & Political Protections

DIMENSION 2
Social, Health &Economic Rights

DIMENSION 3
Personal Security

DIMENSION 4
Refugee Populations & Conflict

Confidence in judicial system

Financial inclusion:
borrowed any money

Financial inclusion: availability ofemergency funds

Impact of terrorism

Political instability

Financial inclusion:
received wages

Violent crimeInternal conflict

Weapons access

Cell phone subscriptions

Women’s physical security

Refugees resident

Discrimination: sexuality

Social safety net

GINI coefficient

Displaced persons

Undernourishment

Discrimination:
intellectual disability

Global Slavery Index Government
response values

Tuberculosis

Discrimination:
immigrants

Political rights measure

Water improved accessDiscrimination:
minorities

Variables within each dimension were averaged to provide a dimension vulnerability score. The dimension scores werethen averaged for an overall vulnerability score for each country.
Where data were missing, an imputed value was determined by applying the overall vulnerability average to the dimensions
where data were missing. For example, there were three countries in Dimension 4 that did not have any dimension-level
data points: Brunei, Cape Verde and Suriname. The overall vulnerability mean for each country (for Dimensions 1, 2 and
3) was applied to these missing data points as the Dimension 4 data point replacements. For a more detailed discussion on
missing data, please see the longer methodology paper, available for download on our website.

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Summary of Methodology cont.

PART B: ESTIMATING PREVALENCE
Each of the national prevalence estimates in the Global Slavery Index reflects one of three methodologies:• Direct estimation following a nationally representative random sample survey, or state surveys in the case of India(25 countries);• Multiple Systems Estimation (two countries); or• Extrapolation based on mathematical modelling of risk, to which relevant survey data has been applied(139 countries).

Direct estimation through surveys
In 2014, Walk Free Foundation partnered with Gallup Inc. to conduct surveys in seven countries—Brazil, Ethiopia,
Indonesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Russia and Pakistan. A further 18 surveys were conducted in late 2014 and early 2015 forinclusion in the 2016 Global Slavery Index: Bangladesh, Bolivia, Cambodia, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ghana,
Guatemala, Hungary, India, Mauritania, Mexico, Myanmar, Philippines, Poland, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tunisia
and Vietnam[29].
Methodology
The survey instrument developed in 2014 for the first round of surveying was again included in the Gallup World Poll inlate 2014 and early 2015. The original instrument, developed through cognitive testing in five countries, was subjected tominor refinements following feedback from the survey teams.

Walk Free Foundation adds a module to the World Poll in selected countries. Overall, the World Poll survey data
are representative of 98 percent of the world’s adult population. Face-to-face or telephone surveys are conductedacross households in more than 160 countries and in over 140 languages. A detailed description of the World Pollmethodology is available online, however some of the key aspects of the methodology include:• The target population is the entire civilian, non-institutionalised population, aged 15 and older.
• With the exception of areas which are scarcely populated or present a threat to the safety of interviewers,
samples are probability based and nationally representative.
• The questionnaire is translated into the major languages of each country.
• In-depth training is conducted with field staff and a standardised training manual is provided.
• Quality control procedures ensure that the correct samples are selected and the correct person is randomly
selected in each household.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|161

Table 2 sets out the sample sizes and coverage in each of the survey countries. A total of 29,206 respondents were interviewed
across the 25 national surveys. A fuller report on development of the survey methodology, population coverage and sampling
design can be downloaded from the Global Slavery Index website.

Table 2: Sample size, survey languages, and exclusions across Walk Free Foundation survey countries
Unweighted number
answering yes toforced labour andforced marriage

Samplesize

Surveylanguages

Brazil3

1,007

Portuguese

Ethiopia9

1,004

Afan Oromo,
Amharic,
Tigrigna

Indonesia

7

1,000

BahasaIndonesian

No exclusions

Nepal

20

1,050

NepaliNo exclusions

Nigeria3

1,000

English, Hausa,
Igbo, Pidgin,
YorubaPakistan

9

1,000

Urdu

5

Province of Gilgit Baltistan, Azad Jammu &Kashmir (AJK)

Russia40

2,000

Russian

7

Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets and Chukotsk regions,Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adygeya,
Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachaevo-Cherkessie,
North Ossetia

Chile

8

1,032

SpanishNo exclusions

Dominican
Republic

20

1,000

SpanishNo exclusions

Ghana

11

1,000

English, Hausa,
Ewe, Twi,
DagbaniNo exclusions

Guatemala

39

1,000

SpanishNo exclusions

Bangladesh

34

1,000

Bengali

Bolivia17

1,000

SpanishCambodia

50

1,000

Khmer

Hungary5

1,000

Hungarian

No exclusions

3,000

Hindi, Tamil,
Kannada,Telugu, Marathi,
Gujarati, Bengali,
Malayalam,Odia, Punjabi,
AssameseAndaman & Nicobar islands, Arunachal
Pradesh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu,
Lakshadweep, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Pondicherry, Sikkim, Tripura

No exclusions

No exclusions

Country

India

Mauritania

37

1,000

French,Hassanya,
Poulaar, Wolof,
Soninke

Mexico11

1,031

SpanishMyanmar18

1,020

Burmese

1,000

Filipino, Iluko,
Hiligaynon,
Cebuano,Bicol, Waray,
Maguindanaon,
Maranao

Philippines

162

|

56

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 201614

Excludedarea as % of
population

Excluded areas
None

3.4

4.5

1.1

Six of the nine zones of the Somali region(Degehabur, Warder, Korahe, Fik, Gode, Afder)Three states of the North East region(Adamawa, Borno and Yobe)

Rangamati, Khagrachori and Bandarban
situated in Chittagong division
No exclusions

2.9–3

9.2

4.8

Koh Kong, Oddar Meanchey, and Stueng Treng

Chin, Kayah, and Kachin states

No exclusions

Summary of Methodology cont.

Country

Unweighted number
answering yes toforced labour andforced marriage

Samplesize

Poland6

1,000

PolishNo exclusions

South Africa

18

1,000

Afrikaans,
English, Sotho,
Zulu, Xhosa

No exclusions

Sri Lanka

3

1,062

Sinhala, Tamil

Tunisia17

1,000

ArabicNo exclusions

Vietnam4

1,000

Vietnamese

No exclusions

Surveylanguages

Excludedarea as % of
population

2.4

Excluded areas

Mullativu and Batticaloa districts

The Walk Free Foundation survey questions were based on a network sampling frame, to partly address the limitationsof a census framework when the target population is largely hidden. That is, it was decided to use 'family' rather than'household' as the reference group, in order to increase the likelihood of identifying victims in a random sample survey.
We used an explicit definition of 'family' that includes parents, spouse/partner, siblings, and children, and obtained counts
for each of these types of kinship.

Questions asked
In addition to demographic questions, the questions asked were:
1. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to work by an employer?
2. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to work by an employer to repay a debt withthat employer?
3. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been offered one kind of work, but then were forced to dosomething else and not allowed to leave?
4. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to marry?
An additional filter question was added in Mauritania to ensure capture of traditional forms of slavery:
5. 	Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to work for a masteras a slave?
Where a respondent answered yes to any of these filter questions on behalf of themselves or an immediate family member,they were then asked a series of follow up questions to capture more information about the experience, including when andwhere the experience occurred. A copy of the survey instrument can be found at globalslaveryindex.org

Counting rules
A positive response for forced labor or forced marriage was recorded when a respondent's series of answers met thefollowing counting rules:
1. Respondents answered ‘yes’ to any of the forced labour questions or to the forced marriage question AND
2. Reported that the forced labour or forced marriage was either in relation to their own experience, or on behalf of a
spouse, child, parent or sibling AND
3. Had been coerced (forced labour) or did not consent (forced marriage) AND
4. Experienced forced labour or forced marriage in the five years preceding the survey.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|163

Table 3: Prevalence estimates from surveys
Country

Population

Estimated proportion
in modern slavery

Estimated populationin modern slavery (n)Brazil200,361,925

0.0008155,300

Ethiopia

94,100,756

0.0041

389,700

Indonesia

249,865,631

0.0029714,100

Nepal

27,797,457

0.0082

228,700

Nigeria

173,615,345

0.0048834,200

Pakistan

182,142,594

0.0113

2,058,200

Russia143,499,861

0.0073

1,049,700

Bangladesh

160,996,000

0.0095

1,531,300

Bolivia

10,725,000

0.004446,900

Cambodia

15,578,000

0.0165

256,800

Chile

17,948,000

0.001527,700Dominican Republic

10,528,000

0.0100104,800

Ghana

27,410,000

0.0038103,300

Guatemala

16,343,000

0.0084

138,100

Hungary

9,836,000

0.002322,5001,311,051,000

0.00638,324,900

Mauritania

4,068,000

0.010643,000

Mexico127,017,000

0.0030376,800

Myanmar53,897,000

0.0096515,100

Philippines

100,699,000

0.0040401,000

Poland38,025,000

0.0048181,100

South Africa

54,954,000

0.0045

248,700

Sri Lanka

20,781,000

0.002245,900Tunisia

11,102,000

0.007785,000Vietnam

91,519,000

0.0015

139,300

India*

Note: Mauritania calculated as ‘ever’ for forced labour and last five years for forced marriage.
Note: In India, the results from 2016 state surveys are used not the 2015 national survey results.

India state surveys
Given the complexity and size of India, a further 15 surveys were conducted at the state level in 2016, with 14,000
respondents.[30] This covers at a minimum 80 percent of the Indian population at the state level.
In future years, we will undertake similar state level surveys in other highly populous countries. See longer methodology paper
for additional questions included in the state surveys. Available for download at the website (www.globalslaveryindex.org).

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Summary of Methodology cont.

Table 4: States of India surveyed, 2016.
State

Language used

Sample size

Chhattisgarh

Hindi

1,000

Madhya Pradesh

Hindi

1,000

Bihar

Hindi

1,000

Jharkhand

Hindi

1,000

Odisha

Oriya

1,000

PunjabPunjabi

1,000

Uttar Pradesh

Hindi

1,000

Andhra Pradesh*

Telugu500

Telangana*

TeluguKeralaMalayalam

1,000

Maharashtra

Marathi

1,000

Rajasthan

Hindi

1,000

Himachal Pradesh

Hindi

1,000

Karnataka

Kannada1,000

West Bengal

Bengali

1,000

Total

8

14,000500

There was an unusually high level of refusals during the India state surveys, where respondents were willing to answer
the first filter questions about forced labour and forced marriage, but refused to answer subsequent questions that sought
further information.

Table 5: Refusal rate to subsequent questions about forced labour/marriage, 2016 survey
Forced labour

Forced marriage

Total

Pass filter

34,182,535

4,458,994

35,227,044

Refused individual

29,854,316

3,001,877

30,205,546

Identified individual

4,328,220

1,457,116

5,021,499

Confirmed estimate

2,396,034

109,978

2,621,406

This high refusal rate was not experienced in the national survey for India, or in other national surveys.
Consultation with the survey team and experts in India strongly suggested that the high refusal rate reflects the sensitivityof the issues being discussed, fear of consequences of providing further information, and the lack of privacy in interview
situations. This sensitivity was also reflected in the detention by local officials of some of the team in the survey process. In
addition the survey team observed that with such a large sample size, the team was spending several days in each location.
They observed that information about the survey questions was rapidly percolating through the community in the areas
being surveyed, with the result that some people may have been pre-warned not to share information.
These observations were confirmed by subsequent analysis of the characteristics of refusers, and non-refusers, and also
analysis of refusal rates in relation to time spent in each site. Refusers were more likely to be rural, poor and live very close
to their family than non-refusers. Refusal rates increased the longer a field team spent in a location. Based on the convergent
evidence, we can expect that the ratio of filtered to confirmed cases would be lower for refusers than for respondents.
To account for the high level of refusals, a statistical method was developed to reasonably but conservatively estimate theresult that would have been achieved, had more respondents completed the survey questions. This involved calculating theratio of 'identified' cases (respondents who passed the filter question and then went on to identify which member of theirfamily the victim was) to 'confirmed' cases (cases which met the full criteria set out above), and then applying this ratio tothe number of respondents who 'passed' the first filter question (see Table 5 above). This assumed that those who were notwilling to report further information would yield a similar proportion of 'positive' cases had they continued with the questions.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|165

2. Multiple Systems Estimation
Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE) has been used by human rights data analysts in recent years to estimate the hidden
populations in conflict situations, such as casualty counts in the Syrian civil war.[31] MSE applies capture—recapture method
to estimate a population size for multiple lists.
MSE can be applied in countries where nationally-representative random sample surveys will not necessarily work. Thisis particularly the case in more ‘developed’ countries, where low levels of vulnerability mean that there are few cases
to report, where law enforcement is strong and organised crime is more hidden, and where the resulting numbers are sosmall, that even if they were not hidden, they would not be found and selected for interview in a random sample survey.[32]MSE was used in 2014 by the UK Government to estimate the number of people in modern slavery. Drawing on data fromthe UK National Crime Agency Strategic Assessment[33], six lists were compared to derive an estimation of between 10,000
and 13,000 people in modern slavery. This figure is used in the Index for the UK, and used to extrapolate for countries witha similar risk profile, predominately those in Western Europe. A paper summarising the process was recently publishedby the Royal Statistical Society.[34] MSE was also tested in the Netherlands in 2016, along similar lines to the UK test.[35]3. Calculating prevalence for non-survey countries
The extrapolation process followed the following steps:
1. Countries were grouped and ordered based on vulnerability measures (see discussion of cluster analysis below).
2. Within each group, existing survey data points were identified. The average proportion of enslavement from thesesurveys was calculated for each group and applied to all countries within the group for which there was no survey data.
3. A limited set of adjustments were made to better account for conflict, geopolitical concerns, state-sanctioned forced
labour, and a final, downward adjustment for Small Island Developing States.[36]As was the case in 2014, a K-means cluster analysis[37] was run to group the 167 countries into distinct groups using thevulnerability data. This groups countries together based on having a similar risk profile. Tests were run to determine thatthe ideal group size was between 10 and 15 groups. Twelve groups had the highest Pseudo-F score. The resulting groups
were sufficiently distinct on overall mean values, although the minimum and maximum values did indicate some overlap
among countries at the bottom of one list and the top of the next. A fuller explanation of this aspect of the methodology isavailable at globalslaveryindex.org
Once countries had been grouped in this way, 28 data points (25 from the surveys, two derived from the application ofmultiple systems estimation in the UK and the Netherlands, and one survey in DRC) were then used as the foundation fromwhich to extrapolate to the remainder of the 167 countries.
The team identified where the available data points fell across these groups (see Table 6), and used this to calculate theaverage proportion of a population in modern slavery for each cluster. Where no survey data points were available in acluster, the average of the two surrounding clusters was applied. This average became the starting point for the extrapolation
process and was applied to each country within a cluster for which a survey was not available.

Table 6: Distribution of data from random sample surveys across the groups
Cluster

166|

Survey data in the cluster

Number of countries
in the cluster

1

Pakistan, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo

13

2

No survey data

43Myanmar, India, Ethiopia, Philippines, Mexico, Russia, Bangladesh

19

4

Mauritania, Ghana

16

5

Cambodia12

6South Africa, Indonesia, Nepal

8

7

Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Brazil

128

No survey data

13

9

Bolivia, Vietnam

17

10Poland, Chile, Tunisia, Sri Lanka

25

11

United Kingdom

17

12

Hungary

11

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Summary of Methodology cont.

Reflecting the limitations of any data driven process, a final set of adjustments was made in limited cases to better accountfor state-sanctioned forced labour, conflict and geopolitical concerns. A final, downward adjustment for Small Island
Developing States was applied to ensure the extent of the problem was not over-estimated in these countries (see Table 7).

Table 7: Adjustments made to country estimatesType of adjustment

Country

ConflictCentral African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Somalia, Afghanistan, Sudan, Syria,
South Sudan, Iraq, Pakistan, Yemen, Libya

State-imposed forced labour

North Korea, Uzbekistan

Geopolitical

China, Israel, Haiti, Timor-Leste, Eritrea, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, Lesotho, Madagascar, Sierra Leone,
Namibia, Kenya, Iceland, Finland, Portugal, Italy

Small Island Developing States

Barbados, Cape Verde, Cuba, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Jamaica, Mauritius, Papua New Guinea, Suriname,
Trinidad and Tobago

A detailed explanation of the computations for countries within each cluster is available on the Global Slavery Index website.

Limitations of the methodology
Surveys represent the most accurate way to estimate the number of people enslaved in countries where we know there isa significant problem, and when we know that victims of modern slavery are likely to be identified in a random sample ofthe national population. Nonetheless, surveys do involve asking people a series of sensitive questions so it is likely thatcertain information will be more readily disclosed than other information (particularly in relation to taboo subjects such as
engagement in the sex industry or sexual violence). We are continuing to refine the survey methodology to address theseissues, and are testing different ways of asking the questions. Survey data has to be considered alongside administrative
data and grey literature that provides critical context, and can help identify gaps in survey results.
Random sample surveys are not the best method to apply in every country. While nationally-representative, random sample
surveys are ideal for estimation, in countries where we suspect the number of people in modern slavery is very small, or
individuals too hidden, victims of modern slavery are unlikely to be identified in samples based on a census framework
and unlikely to be picked up through the amended network sampling frame. This also suggests that in countries where
surveying is possible, our estimates are likely to be conservative.
As with surveys, we suspect that Multiple System Estimation will only work in certain countries. As the technique uses
different lists of victim data, it relies on the existence of these lists and them being fairly well kept. These lists can include
victim data identified by police, NGOs, or other responders, but there is an underpinning assumption that systems arein place to facilitate data collection and management. The US is currently looking at MSE as an alternative method to
identifying modern slavery.
Extrapolation, particularly one based upon a systematic set of commonly applied algorithmic rules, is the most robust way todeal with limited data. A comparison with findings for a number of countries based on extrapolation used in 2013 and 2014
with surveys that were subsequently conducted in those countries reveals that our extrapolation was accurate to within one
percent (when considered as a proportion of the population, which is the primary measure for the Global Slavery Index).[38]However, we are committed to conducting more surveys and promoting Multiple Systems Estimation in order to create
more reliable and representative primary data.
Extrapolation largly depends on the strength of the underlying vulnerability model, the clustering process but also theavailable survey data. One of the major challenges to creating a vulnerability model for modern slavery is identifying
regularly published and comprehensive data for all 167 countries covered in the Index. Limited capacity, limited funding,and few stakeholders dedicated to the task of global data management creates difficulties in identifying vulnerability data
sources that can accurately capture realities on the ground in any given country.
Some of the data in the vulnerability model are stronger and more current than other data. For example, in the Global Slavery
Index 2016, the Walk Free Foundation has included refugees and internal displacement within the overall vulnerability model.
Due to the dynamic environment and unprecedented mass movements of refugees and migrants from the Middle East andAfrica to Europe and beyond, the situation evolves rapidly, making it difficult to track, collect and analyse relevant data.
The Index draws on the most recently published annual UNHCR data, which reflects 2014 results. There will, therefore,
be a lag in current events, and what is reflected in the vulnerability model.

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167

PART C: GOVERNMENT RESPONSES
The government plays a critical role in developing and implementing the laws, policies and programmes that are needed toprevent and respond to modern slavery. To complement prevalence estimates, for the second year running, the Index also
includes an assessment of government responses to modern slavery.
As in 2014, governments are assessed against their efforts towards meeting the following five milestones:
1. Survivors of slavery are identified, supported to exit and remain out of slavery;
2. Criminal justice mechanisms function effectively to prevent modern slavery;
3. Coordination occurs at the national and regional level, while governments are held accountable for their response;
4. Risk factors, such as attitudes, social systems and institutions, that enable modern slavery are addressed; and5. Businesses and governments stop sourcing goods and services that use modern slavery.

Theoretical framework: crime prevention theory
The Index measures the actions governments are taking to end modern slavery. While broad contextual factors like statestability, discrimination and overall protection of human rights are critical, crime prevention research also confirms that to
reduce the prevalence of crime, including modern slavery, the government needs to:• reduce the opportunity for offenders to commit the crime• increase the risks of offending• decrease the vulnerability of potential victims• increase the capacity of law enforcement and other guardians• address the people or factors that stimulate or facilitate slavery.
Further, to prevent crime, governments need to create a climate that induces guilt or shame on those who commit the crime,and strengthen the moral condemnation of modern slavery by both local and global communities.[39]Development of the conceptual framework
Using this theoretical framework, and drawing on what has been written about effective government responses to modern
slavery,[40] a conceptual framework was developed to identify the indicators of a strong response to modern slavery.
The conceptual framework is organised around the five milestones outlined above, which, if achieved, would ensure thatgovernments are taking steps to address modern slavery. The conceptual framework was developed with input from theExpert Working Group, findings from 2014, and input from experts in fields related to modern slavery, such as harmful
traditional practices, health, social welfare and migration.

Process
Government responses were examined in 161 countries in 2016.[41] Building on work conducted in 2014, the process forassessing government processes incorporates three stages: conceptual framework development, data collection and analysis.
Underpinning the five milestones are 98 indicators to determine how well a government is responding to modern slavery(see Table 8: Conceptual Framework), grouped into 28 activities. The 133 indicators used to assess governments in 2014
were reviewed post launch to identify gaps in our conceptual framework, such as the collection of data on labour inspectors,
and data gaps, such as missing information on standard operating procedures for police units. As a result of this review, anddata gaps post data collection for certain indicators, the number of indicators was reduced to 98 core indicators.
These revised indicators include ‘positive indicators’ which cover actions the government is taking to achieve eachmilestone. This year, these indicators were supplemented by standardised ‘negative indicators’, which attempt to measure
the implementation of a particular activity. For example, if shelters exist for modern slavery victims, the negative indicator‘victims are detained and unable to leave the shelter’ would capture whether victims are detained and experience secondary
victimisation despite the existence of these shelters. The negative indicators also cover broader factors which, if conductedby governments, would increase the risk of modern slavery. These included state-sanctioned forced labour, high levels ofgovernment complicity, criminalisation of victims, deportation of potential victims, and policies which tie migrant workers
to their employers.
Publicly available information was collected through desk-based research for each of these indicators. Governments andNGOs were also given the opportunity to provide information to inform this process. In April 2014, a survey was sent
to all governments included in the Global Slavery Index requesting information about their response to modern slavery.
Information submitted via these surveys was also included for 38 countries. In October 2015, this was supplemented by asurvey which was sent to NGO partners to obtain an update on government responses in the last 18 months; 32 surveys werereceived and written submissions from a further seven NGOs. Finally, in-country experts were consulted where possible
to verify the information and help address any gaps.

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Summary of Methodology cont.

Ratings
Each indicator was scored on a 0 to 1 scale. On this scale, 0 meant no information was identified or available, or information
explicitly demonstrated that the government did not meet any indicators; 1 meant that the indicator had been met. For
negative indicators, these were scored on a 0 to –1 scale. On this scale, 0 meant no information was identified or available,
or information explicitly demonstrated that the government did not meet any indicators; –1 meant that the indicator had
been met.
As with last year, we grouped these indicators into activities, as the below conceptual framework describes. Each activity
was weighted evenly to 100 points. Negative indicators, where these tested the implementation of certain activities (marked
as ‘negative implementation’ in bold in the conceptual framework), were incorporated into the individual activities withthe following formula:= (positive indicators + negative indicators)/ total number of positive indicators * 3.57143[42]All negative indicators were treated in this way, apart from government corruption and complicity (Milestone 4, indicator
1.4.3) and state sanctioned forced labour (Milestone 4, indicator 1.8.1). These are marked with a bold ‘NEGATIVE’ in the
below table. Due to the importance of these indicators, these were not weighted and were subtracted from the final score.
As each government was rated at the activity level, the simplest way to fairly compare governments was to aggregate thesescores.[43] These scores were then converted to credit ratings, based on ten different categories, and adjusted so that any
countries at the top of the table that either scored a negative on arrest or deportation of victims (Milestone 2, indicator 1.4.5
and Milestone 3, indicator 3.2.4) were unable to achieve above a BBB rating.

Limitations
Collecting data across 98 indicators for 161 countries is a complex undertaking. Access to data for all indicators is limited
in certain countries where information is not publicly available, or not available in languages spoken by the research team.
Information that is publicly available might also distort reality on the ground—it may appear that no services are provided
by governments, but an active civil society ensures that victims are fully supported. As with all policy analyses, it is difficult
to move beyond the existence of policies to assess their active implementation—laws may exist, but be poorly understoodand implemented by local law enforcement, for example. While the inclusion of ‘negative implementation’ indicators thisyear goes some way to addressing the issues of measuring implementation, there will still be gaps in our assessment which
gives credit where no action is taking place in reality, or does not give credit where policies do not exist, but there is anactive civil society filling gaps in a government response.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|169

Table 8: Conceptual framework for measuring government responses
MILESTONE 1: S urvivors of modern slavery are supported to exit slavery and are empowered
to break the cycle of vulnerability
OutcomeIntermediateoutcomeIndicator

Increase inreported cases ofmodern slavery

1.1 
The public knows
what modern
slavery is and how
to report it

1.1.1 Information is distributed to the public about how to identify and report cases ofmodern slavery

2.1 
Comprehensive
reportingmechanisms
operate effectively

2.1.1 A reporting mechanism exists

1.1.2 This information is distributed systematically and at regular intervals (as distinct
from one-off, isolated)
1.1.3 There has been an increase in number of members of the public reporting cases ofmodern slavery

2.1.2 Reporting mechanism is available for men, women, and children
2.1.3 Reporting mechanism is free to access2.1.4 Reporting mechanism operates 24/7
2.1.5 The reporting mechanism operates in multiple languages or has capacity to provide
immediate access to bring in translators

Victimdetermined
services areavailable for all
victims of modern
slavery

2.2
Police know what
modern slavery is
and how to report it

2.2.1 Training on basic legal frameworks and victim identification has been carried out
for front line ‘general duties’ police

2.3 
Government andnon- government
bodies know what
modern slavery is
and how to report it

2.3.1 Training on how to identify victims of modern slavery is provided to front line
regulatory bodies likely to be ‘first responders’

3.1 
Basic victim
determined support
is available for all
identified victims

3.1.1 Victim support services are available for suspected victims of modern slavery(men, women and children where relevant) regardless of ethno-cultural or
socioeconomic background

NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
2.2.4 There is evidence that police officers have not identified victims of modern slavery
in the last 12 months

2.3.2 Training on how to identify victims of modern slavery is provided to workers
likely to be ‘first responders’
2.3.3 Training for first responders is delivered systematically and at regular intervals (asdistinct from one-off, isolated)

NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.1.2 Suspected victims have a choice about whether or not to remain in a shelter
3.1.3 Government contributes to the operational costs of the victim support services
3.1.4 Physical and mental health services are provided to victims of modern slavery
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.1.5 Victim support services are not available for all victims of modern slavery
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.1.7 No victims have accessed the services or shelters since 1st June 2014

3.2
Longer term victim
determined support
is available for all
identified victims

3.3
Victim determined
services arehigh quality andresponsive

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

3.2.1 Services provide long term reintegration options
3.2.2 Measures are in place to address the migration situation of victims who want
to remain or be resettled
3.2.3 Services are child friendly
3.2.4 Victims are assisted to make contact with their family or contact personof choice3.3.1 Training has been carried out for all staff providing assistance services
3.3.2 Services have been evaluated
3.3.3 Evaluations of services have been provided to cooperative framework or
coordination bodySummary of Methodology cont.

OutcomeIntermediateoutcomeIndicator

Agencies work
together in theinterests of victims

4.1 
Government
coordinates theidentification of
victims

4.1.1 The government has clear guidelines for identifying and screening victims.

4.2 
Referrals occur at
the national level

4.2.1 A cooperative framework exists (could be a 'National Referral Mechanism' oroperational working group), which brings together government and civil society
to ensure victims are being referred to services

4.1.2 The guidelines make provision for a category of 'presumed victims', who can beprovided with services until a formal determination is made.
4.1.3 The guidelines clearly set out which organisations have the authority to identify
victims of modern slavery

4.2.2 There is evidence that victims are being referred to services using the cooperative
framework

MILESTONE 2: E ffective criminal justice responses are in place in every jurisdiction
OutcomeIntermediateoutcomeIndicator

Legislation deters
citizens fromcommitting crimeof modern slavery

1.1
Relevant
international
conventions are
ratified

1.1.1 Slavery Convention, 1926
1.1.2 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, andInstitutions and Practices Similar to Slavery 1956
1.1.3 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime 2000
1.1.4 Abolition of Forced Labour Convention ILO, No. 105, 1957
1.1.5 Domestic Workers Convention ILO No. 189
1.1.6 Worst Forms of Child Labour ILO 182
1.1.7 CRC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the
involvement of children in armed conflict 2000
1.1.8 CRC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale ofChildren, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography 2000
1.1.9 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers
and Members of their Families 1990

1.2
Domestic
legislation is in linewith international
conventions

1.2.1 Human trafficking,1.2.2 Slavery
1.2.3 Forced labour
1.2.4 Children in armed conflict
1.2.5 Child prostitution
1.2.6 Forced marriage
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.2.7 Criminal laws have disproportionate penalties

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171

MILESTONE 2: E ffective criminal justice responses are in place in every jurisdiction
OutcomeIntermediateoutcomeIndicator

Victims are able
to access justice

1.4
Victims are able toparticipate in court
to receive justice(arrest of trafficker/
compensation/
redress)

1.4.1 National laws allow victims to participate in the legal system, regardless of theirrole as a witness
1.4.2 Law recognises that victims should not be treated as criminals for conduct that
occurred while under control of criminals
1.4.3 Visas to stay in the country are not dependent on victim participation in the court
process
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.4.5 There is evidence that victims of modern slavery have been treated as criminals for
conduct that occurred while under control of criminals

2.1
Victims aresupported to accessjustice

2.1.1 There are free legal services available for victims of modern slavery
2.1.3 Evidence of witness and victim protection mechanisms are in place to ensure thatneither witnesses nor victims are intimidated, nor interfered with inside the court
2.1.4 Evidence of witness and victim protection mechanisms are in place to ensure thatneither witnesses nor victims are intimidated, nor interfered with outside the court
2.1.5 The legal framework supports restitution or compensation for victims of modern
slavery
2.1.6 Child friendly services are provided during the criminal justice process, fromengagement with police through to court process

3.1
Increased numberof quality
investigations

3.1.1 Specialised law enforcement units exist
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.1.3 Units do not have necessary operational resources
3.1.4 Units have Standard Operating Procedures for modern slavery cases

3.2
Increased numberof quality
prosecutions

3.2.1 Training is provided to the judiciary, including in initial training
3.2.2 Training is provided to prosecutors, including in initial training (since 2009)
3.2.4 Training is systematic and recurrent (as distinct from one-off, isolated)
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.2.5 Judicial punishments are NOT proportionate to severity of the crime andcomplicity of the offender.

MILESTONE 3: Governments coordinate and are held accountable for their actions
OutcomeIntermediateoutcomeIndicator

Responses tomodern slavery
are coordinated

1.1
Mechanisms exist
to coordinate theresponse

1.1.1 National coordination body exists involving both government and NGOs
1.2.1 National Action Plan exists with clear indicators and allocation of responsibilities
1.3.2 Government routinely uses the National Action Plan as a framework for reporting
its actions
1.3.5 Activities in the national action plan are fully funded

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|

2.1
Independent
mechanisms exist
to monitor the
response

2.1.1 Independent entity to monitor the implementation and effectiveness of National
Action Plan exists

3.1 Cross bordercollaboration exists

3.1.1 The government participates in regional cooperation

3.2
Cross bordercollaboration
exists for victim
protection

3.2.1 The government cooperates with the government of the home country to facilitate
return of victims

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

3.1.3. The government participates in bilateral cooperation on modern slavery issues

NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.2.4 Foreign victims are not identified AND/ OR are detained and deported
3.2.6 Bilateral agreements exist between countries on labour migration

Summary of Methodology cont.

MILESTONE 4: L aws, policies and programmes address attitudes, social systems andinstitutions that create vulnerability and enable slavery
OutcomeIntermediateoutcomeIndicator

Government
programmingreflects andresponds toknown risk factors
and drivers ofmodern slavery
and patterns of
exploitation

1.1
Risk factors,
drivers, andpatterns of
exploitation are
understood

1.1.1 Government facilitates or funds research on modern slavery

1.2
Government
interventions are
tailored to risk

1.2.1 Awareness campaigns target specific known risks of modern slavery

1.3
Safety nets exist
for vulnerable
populations

1.3.2 The government funds labour inspections

1.4
Governments
respond tocorruption

1.4.1 National laws criminalises corruption in the public sector

1.5
Social protections
exist

1.5.1. Birth registration systems exist

1.6
Safety nets exist for
migrant workers

1.6.3 Private recruitment fees are paid by the employer, not the employee

Vulnerable
populations do not
become enslaved

1.1.2 Government facilitates or funds research prevalence or estimation studies ofmodern slavery
1.1.3 Government interventions that aim to address modern slavery are evidence-based

1.3.3 Affordable health care for vulnerable populations exists
1.3.4 Public primary education is available for all children regardless of ethno-culturalor religious background

NEGATIVE
1.4.3 Complicity in modern slavery cases is widespread and not investigated

1.5.2 Systems are in place to allow asylum seekers to seek protection

1.6.5 Labour laws extend to everyone, including migrant workers, domestic workers andthose in the fishing and construction sectors
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.6.7 Patterns of abuse of labour migrants are widespread and unchecked
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.6.9 There are laws or policies that prevent or make it difficult for workers to leave
abusive employers without punishment

1.7
Governments
provide support for
citizens overseas

1.7.1 Government provides training for its consular staff on modern slavery
1.7.2 Government provides identification documents and support travel arrangements for
citizen return
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.7.5 Diplomatic staff are not investigated or prosecuted for alleged complicity or abusein modern slavery cases

NEGATIVE 1.8
Government action
facilitates slavery

NEGATIVE 1.8.1 State-sanctioned forced labour exits

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|173

Summary of Methodology cont.

MILESTONE 5: G overnments stop sourcing goods and services linked to modern slavery
OutcomeIntermediateoutcomeIndicator

Government
sources goods andservices which areslavery free

1.1
Government
regulates its supply
chains against
forced labour

1.1.2 Public procurement policies and systems exist to minimise the risk of governmentspurchasing products tainted by forced labourBusinesses source
goods and services
which are slavery
free

1.2
Governments
regulate businesses
against use offorced labour

1.2.1 Laws or policies require businesses to report on their actions to implement risk
minimisation policies

1.1.3 Annual reports on forced labour in government supply chains are produced andpublically available

1.2.2 Laws or policies require businesses to have transparent, risk-minimisation
strategies in place that will identify and respond to a case of modern slavery intheir supply chains
1.2.3 Governments implement a responsible investment reporting requirement forinvestment funds and banks head-quartered in their country to ensure thatinvestment does not support modern slavery
1.2.4 Laws are in place that make it a criminal offence for Company Directors orcompanies who fail to prevent modern slavery being utilised in their business’ firsttier supply chain

Note: Numbering reflects numbering in the government response database available at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Children begging and selling flowers and other goods at traffic lights are a common feature of Indian cities. “I wasforced to do begging and still begging with the others….. I can’t say anything to you because I am in constant fear.
I am threatened by my employer not to open my mouth to anybody otherwise I will be punished severely.”(Survey respondent, 2016)
Photo credit, Steve McCurry

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175

ENDNOTESWoman works at a hand rolled cigarette (locally called a bidi)
factory in Haragach, Bangladesh. Workers labour from dawn
to dusk making bidis filled with tobacco flakes, earning very
little money and in hazardous conditions which can damage
their health. Bonded labour, including pledging of children,
has been documented in the bidi industry.
Photo credit, GMB Akash

ENDNOTES - Introduction and Global Findings
Introduction

Global Findings

The Walk Free Foundation has chosen to use the term IS (IslamicState) recognising the group are known by different terms, including, but not limited to, Daesh, ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and theLevant), ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria), and ISWK (IslamicState Wilayat Khorasan, also ISIL-K).

9	'

Gallup Inc. is an international research-based company: http://
www.gallup.com/home.aspx

10	

1	

2	

An assessment of government responses was not conducted in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Syria and Yemen due to ongoing
conflict.

United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's
Republic of Korea, (United Nations, 2014), p.6, accessed
21/04/2016: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIDPRK/
Pages/CommissionInquiryonHRinDPRK.aspx
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq – Human Rights Office, Reporton the Protection of Civilians in the Armed Conflict in Iraq, 1
May–31 October 2015, UNAMI/OHCHR, Baghdad, accessed
19/01/2016.

3	Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh, Bernard Silverman, 'Modern Slavery
in the UK: How Many Victims?’ Significance (Royal StatisticalSociety), June 2015, pp. 16-21.

4	

Van Dijk, J. J.M and P.G.M. Van der Heijden, 'On the potential ofMultiple Systems Estimation for estimating the number of victimsof human trafficking', Research Brief, No 1, Vienna: UNODC, May
2016.

5	

Johnson, K. et al., 'Association of Sexual Violence and Human
Rights Violations With Physical and Mental Health in Territoriesof the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,' Journal of theAmerican Medical Association, 304, 5, pp.553-62 (2010).

6	

Kevin Bales, Blood and Earth: Modern Slavery, Ecocide, and the Secret to Saving the World, (Speigel and Grau/Random House, 2016).

7 	'Islamic State (ISIS) releases pamphlet on female slaves', MEMRI's
Jihad and Terrorism Threat Monitor, December 4, 2014, accessed
25/07/2015: http://www.memrijttm.org/islamic-state-isis-releasespamphlet-on-female-slaves.html

8	

Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh and Bernard Silverman, “Modern
Slavery in the UK: How many victims?,” Significance (Journal of
the Royal Statistical Society), (June, 2015).

11	

12	

These were identified from the Fragile States Index — see methodology paper, available from our website, for more detailed explanation.
Ciaran Fagan, 'Anti-Slavery Police Units arrest four people indawn raids', Leicester Mercury, November 13, 2015, accessed
10/05/2016: http://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Anti-slavery-police-unit-arrests-people-dawn/story-28164533-detail/story.html

13	

Neil Keeling and Todd Fitzgerald, 'Crackdown on 'slave trade'leads to twenty-four arrests as police chief vows to smash gangs
behind human trafficking', Manchester Evening News, March
9, 2016: http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/
greater-manchester-news/crackdown-slave-trade-leads-twenty-11011320

14	

'Barrow-in-Furness arrests on suspicion of slavery', BBC News,
April 3, 2016, last accessed 10/05/2016: http://www.bbc.com/
news/uk-england-cumbria-35955105

15	

Oliver Milman, 'Obama to sign law banning US imports of fishcaught by slave labor', The Guardian, February 16, 2016: http://
www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/feb/16/obama-ban-fish-imports-slavery

16	Tim Fernholz, 'The new US ban on slave labor imports appears
to have teeth', Quartz, April 14, 2016, accessed 10/05/2016: http://qz.com/661357/the-new-us-ban-on-forced-labor-appears-to-haveteeth/

17	

Sharon Chen, 'Singapore Passes its First Law Against Human Trafficking', Bloomberg, November 3, 2014: http://www.bloomberg.
com/news/articles/2014-11-03/singapore-passes-its-first-lawagainst-human-trafficking

18	

178

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ENDNOTES - Regional Studies
Asia PacificBureau of International Labour Affairs, List of Goods Producedby Child Labour or Forced Labour, (United States Department ofLabour, 2014), pp. 3–4, accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.dol.gov/
ilab/reports/pdf/tvpra_report2014.pdf

1	

"Afghanistan: Taliban Child Soldier Recruitment Surges", Human
Rights Watch, last modified February 17, 2016, https://www.hrw.
org/news/2016/02/17/afghanistan-taliban-child-soldier-recruitment-surges

2	"India", Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
for Children in Armed Conflict, last modified June 5, 2015, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/india/

3	Child Soldiers International, Southern Thailand: Ongoing recruitment and use of children by armed groups, (Child Soldiers International, 2015), p.3, accessed 05/04/2016: http://www.child-soldiers.
org/research_report_reader.php?id=799

4	'Dispatches: Domestic Worker Starved in Singapore', Human Rights
Watch, December 15, 2015, https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/15/
dispatches-domestic-worker-starved-singapore

5	

Kirsten Han, 'Singapore's Migrant Domestic Workers Face Food
Rationing, Long Hours and Sexual Abuse', ABC News, April 6,
2016, accessed 20/04/2016: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-0406/migrant-domestic-workers-in-singapore-face-constant-exploitation/7302760

6	

Justice Centre Hong Kong, Coming Clean: the Prevalence ofForced Labour and Human Trafficking for the Purpose of Forced
Labour Amongst Migrant Domestic Workers in Hong Kong, (JusticeCentre Hong Kong, 2016), p. 13, accessed 20/04/2016: http://
www.justicecentre.org.hk/framework/uploads/2016/03/ComingClean-The-prevalence-of-forced-labour-and-human-traffickingfor-the-purpose-of-forced-labour-amongst-migrant-domesticworkers-in-Hong-Kong.pdf, ; see also: Joe Henley, 'Domestic
Slavery, Maid in Taiwan', Taipei Times, February 17, 2015, accessed
20/04/2016: http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archiv
es/2015/02/17/2003611746

7	Personal communication.

8	Esther Htusan and Margie Mason, 'More than 2,000 Enslaved
Fishermen Rescued in 6 Months', Associated Press, September 17,
2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ceecf8df237e49bf8fe59d47fa3515b0/more-2000-enslaved-fishermen-rescued-6-months

17	Margie Mason et al, 'Global Supermarkets Selling Shrimp
Peeled by Slaves', Associated Press, December 14, 2015, accessed
20/04/2016: http://bigstory.ap.org/article/8f64fb25931242a985bc30e3f5a9a0b2/ap-global-supermarkets-selling-shrimp-peeledslaves18	"10 Countries with the Highest Absolute Numbers of Child Marriage", Girls Not Brides, last accessed April 20, 2016, http://www.
girlsnotbrides.org/where-does-it-happen/

19	

United Nations Population Fund, Mapping of Child Marriage Initiatives in South Asia, (United Nations Population Fund, 2016), p. 4,
accessed 13/04/2016: http://asiapacific.unfpa.org/sites/asiapacific/
files/pub-pdf/FINALMapping%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20
Initiatives%20in%20South%20Asia%281%29.pdf

20	

Christina Larson, 'In China, More Girls Are on the Way',
Bloomberg, August 1, 2014, accessed 04/04/2016: http://www.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-07-31/chinas-girl-births-ratio-improves-as-country-gets-more-educated21	

Alice Cuddy and Neil Loughlin, 'Weddings from hell: the Cambodian brides trafficked to China', The Guardian, February 1, 2016,
accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/feb/01/weddings-from-hell-cambodian-brides-trafficked-china

22	Cat Barton, 'Brides for sale: Vietnamese women trafficked to China', Yahoo! News, June 25, 2014, accessed 11/04/2016: https://www.
yahoo.com/news/brides-sale-vietnamese-women-trafficked-china-045146327.html

23	

Kyla Ryan, 'The Women Who Escape From North Korea', The
Diplomat, November 24, 2014, accessed 11/04/2016: http://thediplomat.com/2014/11/the-women-who-escape-from-north-korea/24	

Ana Anand, 'India's Bride Trafficking Fuelled by Skewed Sex
Ratios', The Guardian, December 17, 2014, accessed 06/04/2016:
http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/dec/17/
india-bride-trafficking-foeticide25	

'Insight – As Obama heads to Malaysia, human trafficking stancequestioned', Reuters, November 19, 2015, accessed 04/04/2016:
http://news.trust.org//item/20151119173424-e8s2a/?source=leadCarousel

26	

Syed Zain Al-Mahmood, 'Palm-Oil Migrant Workers Tell of Abuses on Malaysian Plantations', Wall Street Journal, July 26, 2015, accessed 20/04/2016: http://www.wsj.com/articles/palm-oil-migrantworkers-tell-of-abuses-on-malaysian-plantations-1437933321

27	

'Bangladesh: 2 Years After Rana Plaza, Workers Denied Rights',
Human Rights Watch, April 22, 2015, accessed 05/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/04/22/bangladesh-2-years-after-ranaplaza-workers-denied-rights

28	

9	

10	

11	

Country Plan Vietnam 2015, (Fair Wear Foundation, 2015), p. 1,
accessed 15/04/2016: http://www.fairwear.org/ul/cms/fck-uploaded/documents/countrystudies/othercountries/vietnam/CountryStudyVietnam2015.pdf

12	

Declan Croucher, 'Solutions: How Patagonia is Addressing Forced
Labour in its Supply Chain', Verite, accessed 12/05/2016: http://
www.verite.org/vision/june2015/solutions

13	

As above.

14	Elaine Pearson et al., The Mekong Challenge - Underpaid, Overworked and Overlooked: The Realities of Young Migrant Workers in
Thailand (Volume One) (International Labour Organization, 2006),
p.10, accessed 13/05/2016; http://www.ilo.org/asia/whatwedo/
publications/WCMS_BK_PB_67_EN/lang--en/index. see also Ian
Urbina, 'Sea Slaves: The Human Misery That Feeds Pets and Livestock', New York Times, July 27, 2015, accessed 13/05/2016: http://
www.nytimes.com/2015/07/27/world/outlaw-ocean-thailandfishing-sea-slaves-pets.html; see also 'Seafood from Slaves: An AP
Investigation Helps Free Slaves in the 21st Century', AssociatedPress, last accessed April 5, 2016, http://www.ap.org/explore/seafood-from-slaves/15	International Labour Office, Caught at Sea: Forced Labour andTrafficking in Fisheries, (International Labour Organization,
Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour, 2013), pp.
15, 19–20, accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/
forced-labour/publications/WCMS_214472/lang--en/index.html;"Seafood from Slaves: An AP Investigation Helps Free Slaves in
the 21st Century", Associated Press: http://www.ap.org/explore/
seafood-from-slaves/16	Document submitted by Terre des Hommes for the Day of General
Discussion of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: Digital
media and children's rights, (Terre des Hommes, September 12,2014), accessed 20/04/2016.
'DSWD: Fight child sexual abuse and commercial sexual exploitation', Philippines Official Gazette, February 18, 2014, last modified
18/02/2014, http://www.gov.ph/2014/02/18/dswd-fight-child-sexual-abuse-and-commercial-sexual-exploitation/
United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Commissionof Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic ofKorea, (United Nations, 2014), p.6, accessed 21/04/2016: http://
www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIDPRK/Pages/CommissionInquiryonHRinDPRK.aspx
World Report 2016, (Human Rights Watch, 2016), pp.428-430,
accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/
world_report_download/wr2016_web.pdf

29	'North Korea putting thousands into forced labour abroad, UN
says', The Guardian, October 29, 2015, accessed 20/04/2016: http://
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/29/north-korea-workersforced-labour-abroad-un-report30	As above.

31	

Holly Falon, 'North Korea turning to human trafficking for foreign currency', Market Watch, May 19, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016:
http://www.marketwatch.com/story/north-korea-turning-to-human-trafficking-for-foreign-currency-2015-05-18

32	'North Korea putting thousands into forced labour abroad, UN
says', The Guardian, October 29, 2015, accessed 20/04/2016: http://
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/29/north-korea-workersforced-labour-abroad-un-report33	Esther Htusan and Margie Mason, 'More than 2,000 enslaved
fishermen rescued in six months', Associated Press, 17/09/2015,
accessed 19/04/2016: http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ceecf8df237e49bf8fe59d47fa3515b0/more-2000-enslaved-fishermen-rescued-6-months

34	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|179

Paul Dillon, 'Over 500 New Human Trafficking Victims Identified
in Indonesia since Benjina 'Slave Fisheries' Exposed', International
Organisation for Migration, March 8, 2015, accessed 14/04/2016:
https://weblog.iom.int/over-500-new-human-trafficking-victims-identified-indonesia-benjina-%E2%80%98slave-fisheries%E2%80%99-exposed35	

As above.

36	Personal communication.

37	

As above.

38	Paul Dillon, 'Over 500 New Human Trafficking Victims Identified
in Indonesia since Benjina 'Slave Fisheries' Exposed', International
Organisation for Migration, March 8, 2015, accessed 14/04/2016:
https://weblog.iom.int/over-500-new-human-trafficking-victims-identified-indonesia-benjina-%E2%80%98slave-fisheries%E2%80%99-exposed39	Personal communication.

40	Paul Dillon, 'Over 500 New Human Trafficking Victims Identified
in Indonesia since Benjina 'Slave Fisheries' Exposed', International
Organisation for Migration, March 8, 2015, accessed 14/04/2016:
https://weblog.iom.int/over-500-new-human-trafficking-victims-identified-indonesia-benjina-%E2%80%98slave-fisheries%E2%80%99-exposed41	Personal communication.

42	As above.

43	

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia andthe Pacific, Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2015,(United Nations, 2015), p. 131, accessed 04/04/2016: http://www.
unescap.org/sites/default/files/Economic%20and%20Social%20
Survey%20of%20Asia%20and%20the%20Pacific%202015.pdf

44	

As above.

45	"Afghanistan Unemployment Rate", Trading Economics, last accessed April 13, 2016, http://www.tradingeconomics.com/afghanistan/unemployment-rate

46	"Unemployment, youth total (% of total labour force ages 15–24)",
World Bank Data, last accessed April 12, 2016, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.1524.ZS

47	Child Soldiers International, Under the radar: Ongoing recruitment
and use of children by the Myanmar army, (Child Soldiers International, 2015), p. 11, accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=804

48	

R.W Dellinger, 'Human trafficking account: the Philippines:
Escaping twice from domestic servitude', Angelus News, March
17, 2016, accessed 04/04/2016: http://www.angelusnews.com/
news/local/human-trafficking-account-the-philippines-escaping-twice-from-domestic-servitude-10342/#.VwIAGKR97IU

49	Sarah L. Bhatia, 'Overseas Filipino Workers become economic heroes', Stanford Asia Pacific Research Centre, April 15, 2013, accessed
15/04/2013: http://aparc.fsi.stanford.edu/news/overseas_filipino_workers_become_economic_heroes_20130415

50	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Philippines Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 279, accessed 03/04/2016: http://
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51	

'10 trafficking Filipinas rescued in Iraqi Kurdistan', The Inquirer,
November 7, 2015, accessed 13/05/2016: http://globalnation.
inquirer.net/130591/10-trafficked-filipinas-rescued-in-iraqi-kurdistan

52	Impact of Livelihood Recovery Initiatives on Reducing Vulnerability
to Human Trafficking and Illegal Recruitment: Lessons from Typhoon
Haiyan, (International Organisation for Migration and International Labour Organisation, 2015), p. 11, accessed 15/04/2016:
https://publications.iom.int/system/files/impacts_of_livelihood.
pdf

53	

"Training helps Filipino police officer uncover human trafficking
case", United Nations Population Fund, last modified June 18, 2014,
http://www.unfpa.org/news/training-helps-filipino-police-officer-uncover-human-trafficking-case54	'Nepal Earthquake: More than 160 trafficked Nepali's rescued
by India in aftermath of quake', ABC News, February 15, 2016,
accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-15/
nepal-earthquakes-cause-spike-in-human-trafficking/7168398

55	

Jason Burke, 'Indian gangs found trafficking women fromearthquake-hit Nepal', The Guardian, July 31, 2015, accessed
01/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/law/2015/jul/30/indian-gangs-trafficking-women-nepal-earthquake

56	

180

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Kevin Bales, Blood and Earth: Modern Slavery, Ecocide, and the Secret to Saving the World, (Speigel and Grau/Random House, 2016).

57	

As above.

58	"Myanmar floods: Food security and livelihoods still at risk,
recovery must focus on building resilience for future disasters",
Reliefweb, accessed April 12, 2016, http://reliefweb.int/report/
myanmar/myanmar-floods-food-security-and-livelihoods-stillrisk-recovery-must-focus-building59	"Viet Nam: Drought and Saltwater intrusion – Emergency
Plan of Action DREF operation no MDRVN013", Reliefweb,
accessed April 12, 2016, http://reliefweb.int/report/viet-nam/viet-nam-drought-and-saltwater-intrusion-emergency-plan-action-dref-operation-no60	Silvia di Gaetano, 'How to Solve Southeast Asia's Refugee Crisis',
The Diplomat, September 28, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016: http://
thediplomat.com/2015/09/how-to-solve-southeast-asias-refugeecrisis/61	Thomas Fuller and Joe Cochrane, 'Rohingya Migrants from Myanmar, Shunned by Malaysia, are Spotted Adrift in Andaman Sea',
The New York Times, May 14, 2015, accessed 11/04/2015: http://
www.nytimes.com/2015/05/15/world/asia/burmese-rohingya-bangladeshi-migrants-andaman-sea.html?_r=0; see also BBC News,'Why are so many Rohingya migrants stranded at sea?', BBC News,May 18, 2015, accessed 15/04/2016: http://www.bbc.com/news/
world-asia-32740637

62	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Philippines Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 281, accessed 11/04/2016: http://
www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf

63	"Freedom Partnership to End Modern Slavery", The Salvation
Army, last accessed April 28, 2016, http://endslavery.salvos.org.au/
about/

64	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Papua New Guinea Country Narrative, (UnitedStates Department of State, 2015), p. 276, accessed 04/04/2016:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf

65	Fiona David and Reginald Ramos, 'The Bali Process: Responding
to the Challenges of Modern Slavery', The Australian Outlook,
March 25, 2016, accessed 04/04/2016: http://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australian_outlook/the-bali-process-responding-tothe-challenges-of-modern-slavery/66	"Sixth Regional Ministerial Conference, Bali, Indonesia, 23 March2016", The Bali Process, accessed April 20, 2016, http://www.baliprocess.net/ministerial-conferences-and-senior-officials-meetings

67	"SAARC: Kathmandu Declaration 2014 (full text)", Online
Khabar, last accessed 28/04/2016: http://www.onlinekhabar.
com/2014/11/211832; see also: Heather Hamilton, 'South Asian
governments commit to end child marriage', Girls Not Brides,
November 22, 2014, accessed 28/04/2016: http://www.reproductiverights.org/sites/crr.civicactions.net/files/documents/SA%20
End%20Child%20Marriage%20Brochure_20Nov14(final)-2%20(1).pdf

68	

Asian Forum of Parliamenterians on Population and Development(AFPPD), South Asia parliamentarians' Meeting on Child Marriage:
Accelerating our Collective Efforts to End Child Marriage, (Asian
Forum of Parliamenterians on Population and Development,
2016), p.4, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.afppd.org/events/
event-docs/11-conference-report-sa-parliamentarians-meeting-on-child-marriage.pdf

69	

United Nations Population Fund and United Nations Children's
Emergency Fund, Mapping of Child Marriage Initiatives in SouthAsia, (United Nations, 2016), p. 21, accessed 21/04/2016: http://
asiapacific.unfpa.org/sites/asiapacific/files/pub-pdf/FINALMapping%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Initiatives%20in%20
South%20Asia%281%29.pdf

70	

As above, pp. 21-25

71	

As above, p. 27

72	As above, p. 31.

73	'Bangladesh: Girls Damaged by Child Marriage', Human Rights
Watch, June 9, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/
news/2015/06/09/bangladesh-girls-damaged-child-marriage

74	Regional cont.
United Nations Population Fund and United Nations Children's
Emergency Fund, Mapping of Child Marriage Initiatives in SouthAsia, (United Nations, 2016), p. 21–25, accessed 21/04/2016:
http://asiapacific.unfpa.org/sites/asiapacific/files/pub-pdf/FINALMapping%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Initiatives%20in%20
South%20Asia%281%29.pdf

75	'Thailand: Mass Graves of Rohingya Found in Trafficking Camp',
Human Rights Watch, May 1, 2015, accessed 27/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/05/01/thailand-mass-graves-rohingyafound-trafficking-camp; see also M. Bashir Uddin, 'Human Trafficking in South Asia: Issues of Corruption and Human Security',
International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practice,
2, 5, pp.18-27 (2014). http://www.hrpub.org/download/20140305/
IJRH3-19201859.pdf

76	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: India Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), p. 185, accessed 15/04/2016: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243559.pdf

77	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Papua New Guinea Country Narrative, (UnitedStates Department of State, 2015), p. 275, accessed 04/04/2016:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf

78	

As above, p. 110

79	World Report 2016, (Human Rights Watch, 2016), p.568, accessed
21/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/wr2016_web.pdf

80	

"Govt to introduce code of practice for maid industry", Ejinsight, last modified December 22, 2015, http://www.ejinsight.
com/20151221-govt-introduce-code-practice-maid-industry/; seealso: Farsight, Modern Slavery in East Asia: Protecting the rights andpromoting the autonomy of domestic migrant workers from Indonesia
and the Philippines, (Farsight, 2016), accessed 27/04/2016: http://
seefar.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Farsight-Modern-Slaveryin-East-Asia.pdf

81	

"Employment agency fined for overcharged job-seeker", Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, accessed
21/04/16: http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201601/22/
P201601220264.htm

82	

Amir Hussain,'Singaporean couple convicted of starving maid
whose weight dropped from 49kg to 29kg', The Straits Times,
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com/singapore/courts-crime/singaporean-couple-convicted-ofstarving-maid-whose-weight-dropped-from-49kg

83	'Abused maid in Singapore says she was punished in bizarre ways',
The Star Online, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.thestar.com.my/
news/regional/2016/04/07/abused-maid-in-singapore-says-shewas-punished-in-bizarre-ways/

84	

EuropeEurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015), p.
39, accessed 16/03/2016: — while published in 2015, this reportreflects data collected from 2010–2012. https://ec.europa.eu/
anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf

1	Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
p. 39, accessed 16/03/2016: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf, ; see also United Nations Officeon Drugs and Crime, Trafficking in Persons; Analysis on Europe,(United Nations, 2009), p. 12, accessed 11/04/2016: https://www.
unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking–/Trafficking_in_Persons_in_Europe_09.pdf

2	Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
p. 39, accessed 16/03/2016: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf

3	

As above4	Charles Sennott, 'Syrian youth come of age through five years of
war', PBS Newshour, March 2015, accessed 18/03/2016: http://
www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/syrian-youth-come-of-agethrough-five-years-of-war/

5	"Europol estimates 10,000 underage refugee children have gone
missing", European Council on Refugees and Exiles, accessed
21/04/2016: http://ecre.org/component/content/article/70-weekly-bulletin-articles/1372-europol-estimates-10000-underage-refugee-children-have-gone-missing.html

6	'Migrant crisis: More than 10,000 children 'missing'', BBC News,
January 31, 2016, accessed 16/03/2016: http://www.bbc.com/news/
world-europe-35453589

7	

Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
p. 35, accessed 16/03/2016: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf

8	Andrea Bruce, 'Romania’s Disappearing Girls', Al Jazeera America,
August 9, 2015, accessed 16/03/2016: http://projects.aljazeera.
com/2015/08/sex-trafficking-in-romania/index.html?utm_content=nobylines9	

Trafficking in Persons to Europe for sexual exploitation, (United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), p. 3, accessed 21/04/2016:
https://www.unodc.org/documents/publications/TiP_Europe_EN_
LORES.pdf

10	

A. Oluwabiyi, 'Legal Response to Women Trafficking in Nigeria', Frontiers of Legal Research 3, no.1 (March 2015): 2, doi:
10.3968/6078.

11	

National Referral Mechanism Statistics – End of Year Summary 2015,(National Crime Agency, 2016), accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.
nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/publications/national-referral-mechanism-statistics

Kathy Quiano and Hilary Whiteman, 'Saudi Arabia executes second Indonesian maid in one week', CNN, April 17, 2015, accessed
12/04/2016: http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/17/asia/indonesia-saudi-arabia-executions/12	

Astrid Zweynert, 'Indonesia's maid ban increases risk of humantrafficking: campaigner', Business Insider, June 17, 2015, accessed
12/04/2016: http://www.businessinsider.com/r-indonesias-maidban-increases-risk-of-human-trafficking-campaigner-20156?IR=T

13	

85	

86	

Farouk Arnaz, 'Police bust major human trafficking syndicate
in Indonesia', The Jakarta Globe, March 19, 2016, accessed
11/04/2016: http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/news/police-bust-major-human-trafficking-syndicate-indonesia/87	Improving Protections for Migrant Domestic Workers in Australia,(Walk Free Foundation and the Salvation Army, 2015), p. 2,
accessed 15/04/2016: http://endslavery.salvos.org.au/wp-content/
uploads/2015/02/Improving-Protections-for-Domestic-Workers-in-Australia.pdf

88	

European Asylum Support Office, Nigeria Sex Trafficking of Women, (European Asylum Support Office, 2015), p. 33, accessed
21/04/2016: http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5631cf0a4.pdf'The world of Nigeria’s sex-trafficking ‘Air Lords'', BBC News,
last modified 27/1/2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35244148

14	

Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
p. 23, accessed 21/04/2016: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf

15	National Crime Agency, National Referral Mechanism Statistics– End of Year Summary 2015, (National Crime Agency 2016),
p. 4, accessed 28/03/2016: http://www.nationalcrimeagency.
gov.uk/publications/676-national-referral-mechanism-statistics-end-of-year-summary-2015/file16	Felicity Lawrence, 'Lithuanian gangmasters jailed in modern slavery and trafficking case', The Guardian, January 23, 2016, accessed
29/03/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jan/22/
lithuanian-gangmasters-jailed-in-modern-slavery-and-trafficking-case17	European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Severe Labour Exploitation: workers moving within or into the European Union, (European Union, 2015), p. 50, accessed 11/04/2016: http://fra.europa.
eu/sites/default/files/fra-2015-severe-labour-exploitation_en.pdf

18	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

181

"Improving Living Conditions for Marginalized Roma", The World
Bank, last modified 18/03/2015: http://www.worldbank.org/en/
news/feature/2015/03/18/improving-living-conditions-for-marginalized-roma

19	Kate D’Arcy and Isabelle Brodie, 'Roma Children and Young
People in Bulgaria: Patterns of Risk and Effective Protection in
Relation to Child Sexual Exploitation', Social Inclusion 3, no.4 (July
2015): 7, http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/si.v3i4.224

20	

Centre for the Study of Democracy, Child Trafficking Among Vulnerable Groups, (Centre for the Study of Democracy, 2015), p. 30,
accessed 20/04/2016: http://childrentrafficking.eu/wp-content/
uploads/2014/04/CONFRONT_Country-Report_Bulgaria.pdf

21	Emma Psaila, Vanessa Leigh, Marilena Verbari, Sara Fiorentini et al., Forced Marriage from a gender perspective, (European
Parliament, 2016), p. 70, accessed 13/04/2016: http://www.
europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/IPOL_
STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf

22	

Alexia Sabbe et al., 'Forced marriage: an analysis of legislation andpolitical measures in Europe', Crime, Law and Social Change 62,
no.1, (August, 2014), doi: 10.1007/s10611-014-9534-6; see also:
Kenan Malik, 'The Failure of Multiculturalism', Foreign Affairs,
March/April 2015, accessed 13/04/2016: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/western-europe/failure-multiculturalism23	As above.

24	Emma Psaila, Vanessa Leigh, Marilena Verbari, Sara Fiorentini et al., Forced Marriage from a gender perspective, (European
Parliament, 2016), pp. 60–68, accessed 13/04/2016: http://www.
europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/IPOL_
STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf

25	'Forced marriage jail first as Cardiff man sentenced', BBC
News, last modified 10/06/2015: http://www.bbc.com/news/ukwales-33076323

26	

"Forced Marriage Unit Statistics 2015", Foreign and Commonwealth
Office, last modified 08/03/2016: https://www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/505827/Forced_
Marriage_Unit_statistics_2015.pdf

27	

"Further reform efforts needed in Albania and Bosnia andHerzegovina, say MEPs", European Parliament News, accessed
20/04/2016: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/newsroom/20160407IPR21791/Further-reform-efforts-needed-in-Albania-and-Bosnia-Herzegovina-say-MEPs

28	

"Greek unemployment rate", Trading Economics, accessed
20/04/2016: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/greece/unemployment-rate29	"Irregular Migrant, Refugee Arrivals in Europe Top One Million
in 2015: IOM", International Organisation for Migration, accessed
18/03/2016: https://www.iom.int/news/irregular-migrant-refugee-arrivals-europe-top-one-million-2015-iom

30	"Mediterranean Update 20 April, 2016", International Organisation
for Migration, accessed 21/04/2016: http://missingmigrants.iom.
int/

31	

"Migratory Routes Map", Frontex, accessed 21/04/2016: http://
frontex.europa.eu/trends-and-routes/migratory-routes-map/

32	"Refugees/ Migrants Emergency Response – Mediterranean", UNHCR, accessed 22/03/2016: http://data.unhcr.org/mediterranean/
regional.php

33	Liz Alderman, 'Smugglers Prey on Migrants Desperate to Find
Back Doors to Europe', The New York Times, March 11, 2016,
accessed 28/03/2016: http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/12/world/
europe/european-union-migrant-crisis-smuggling.html?_r=034	

Federica Marsi, 'Female refugees face sexual exploitation in
Greece', Al Jazeera, December 28, 2015, accessed 11/04/2016:
http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/12/female-refugees-face-sexual-exploitation-greece-151222191343353.html

35	

Liz Alderman, 'Smugglers Prey on Migrants Desperate to Find
Back Doors to Europe', The New York Times, March 11, 2016,
accessed 28/03/2016: http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/12/world/
europe/european-union-migrant-crisis-smuggling.html?_r=036	

Nils Muižnieks, 'Human rights of refugee and migrant women andgirls need to be better protected', The Commissioner’s Human Rights
Comments, March 7, 2016, accessed 16/03/2016: http://www.coe.
int/en/web/commissioner/-/human-rights-of-refugee-and-migrant-women-and-girls-need-to-be-better-protected37	"Status of Signature and Ratification of the Convention", Council ofEurope, accessed April 13, 2016, https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Flags-sos_en.asp

38	

182

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings,
Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe
Convention on action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Sweden,(Council of Europe, 2014), p. 13, accessed 12/04/2016: http://
www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRETA_2014_11_FGR_SWE_en.pdf

39	Andrea Bruce, 'Romania’s Disappearing Girls', Al Jazeera America,
August 9, 2015, accessed 18/03/2016: http://projects.aljazeera.
com/2015/08/sex-trafficking-in-romania/index.html?utm_content=nobylines

40	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Lithuania Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), p. 225, accessed 29/03/2016: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

41	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Bosnia and Herzegovina Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), p. 95, accessed 29/03/2016:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243558.pdf

42	

"UK Modern Slavery Act comes into effect", Business & Human
Rights Resource Centre, accessed March 16, 2016, http://business-humanrights.org/en/uk-modern-slavery-act-comes-into-effect43	Amelia Gentleman, 'UK firms must show proof they have no links
to slave labour under new rules', The Guardian, October 29, 2015,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/28/uk-companiesproof-no-links-slave-labour-supply-chain

44	'Opstelten: Task Force Strengthens and Broadens Approach to
Human Trafficking', Government of the Netherlands, December 3,
2014, accessed 27/04/2016: https://www.government.nl/latest/
news/2014/03/12/opstelten-task-force-strengthens-and-broadensapproach-to-human-trafficking45	"Signpost Trafficking", Government of the Netherlands, accessed
27/04/2016: http://www.wegwijzermensenhandel.nl/

46	'On-Line Signpost to Help Victims in the Fight Against Human
Trafficking', Government of the Netherlands, June 18, 2015, accessed
27/04/2016: https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2015/06/18/
on-line-signpost-to-help-victims-in-the-fight-against-human-trafficking

47	'National Rapporteur concerned about Syrian child brides andRoma children', The National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human
Beings and Sexual Violence Against Children, April 14, 2016, accessed 27/04/2016: https://www.dutchrapporteur.nl/current/news/archief/new-report-national-rapporteur-concerned-about-syrianchild-brides-and-roma-children.aspx?cp=64&cs=69412

48	

'The Number of Detentions for Human Trafficking Increased in
2015', Government of the Netherlands, February 5, 2016, accessed
27/04/2016: https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2016/02/05/
the-number-of-detentions-for-human-trafficking-increasedin-201549	As above.

50	'Opstelten: Task Force Strengthens and Broadens Approach to
Human Trafficking', Government of the Netherlands, December 3,
2014, accessed 27/04/2016: https://www.government.nl/latest/
news/2014/03/12/opstelten-task-force-strengthens-and-broadensapproach-to-human-trafficking51	'Manual for Experts on Multidisciplinary Cooperation Against
Trafficking in Human Beings for Labour Exploitation', Governmentof the Netherlands, January 18, 2016,accessed 27/04/2016: https://www.government.nl/documents/publications/2016/01/18/manual-for-experts-on-multidisciplinary-cooperation-against-trafficking-in-human-beings-for-labour-exploitation

52	'Registry of Slavery & Human Trafficking Statements Under UK
Modern Slavery Act', Business & Human Rights Resource Centre,
March 1, 2016, accessed 22/04/2016: http://business-humanrights.
org/en/registry-of-slavery-human-trafficking-statements-under-uk-modern-slavery-act

53	'Reporting on Modern Slavery: The First Hundred Statements',
Ergon, March 2016, accessed 22/04/2016: http://www.ergonassociates.net/images/stories/articles/ergonmsastatement1.pdf

54	Regional cont.

Russia and Eurasia
The Conditions of the North Korean Overseas Labor, (International
Network for the Human Rights of North Korean Overseas Labor,2012), p. 19, accessed 19/04/2016: http://en.nksc.co.kr/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/INHL.pdf

1	

As above, p. 39.

2	As above, p. 25.

3	

Alternative Turkmenistan News, Spotlight on Turkmenistan:Widespread State-Orchestrated Forced Labour in Turkmenistan’s 2014
Cotton Harvest, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), accessed 07/04/2016:
http://www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/stateforcedlaborinturkmenistan2014_report_atn.pdf

4	

Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, The Coverup: Whitewashing Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 5,
accessed 11/04/2016: http://harvestreport2015.uzbekgermanforum.org/pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf

5	

Ana Maria Buller, Hanni Stoklosa and Cathy Zimmerman, Labour
Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findingson the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked
Workers, (International Labor Organisation, 2015), p. 108, accessed 11/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/
labour_exploitation_trafficking_en.pdf

18	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Kazakhstan Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.
state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243465.htm

19	

As above.

20	

Ana Maria Buller, Hanni Stoklosa and Cathy Zimmerman, Labour
Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findingson the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked
Workers, (International Labor Organisation, 2015), p. 107, accessed 11/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/
labour_exploitation_trafficking_en.pdf

21	Alternative Turkmenistan News, Spotlight on Turkmenistan: Widespread State-Orchestrated Forced Labour in Turkmenistan’s 2014 Cotton Harvest, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 2, accessed 07/04/2016:
http://www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/
stateforcedlaborinturkmenistan2014_report_atn.pdf, ; see also Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, The Coverup: Whitewashing
Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 41, accessed
11/04/2016: http://harvestreport2015.uzbekgermanforum.org/
pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf, ; see also Uzbek-German Forum for
Human Rights, Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers, (Cotton Campaign,2015), p. 6, accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.cottoncampaign.org/
uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/silk-loop-for-uzbek-farmers.pdf

26	As above.

27	

6	

7	

Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, The Coverup: Whitewashing Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 58,
accessed 11/04/2016: http://harvestreport2015.uzbekgermanforum.org/pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf,; see also Uzbek-German
Forum for Human Rights, Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers, (Cotton
Campaign, 2015), p. 9, pp. 14–15, accessed 11/04/2016: http://
www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/silk-loopfor-uzbek-farmers.pdf

8	

As above.

22	As above.

23	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Armenia country narrative, (US Department ofState, 2015), accessed 20/04/2016: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/
tiprpt/countries/2015/243385.htm

24	

Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe, Forced
Labor and Labor Trafficking in Armenia: Pilot Study, (Organizationfor Security and Co-Operation in Europe, 2015), p. 21, accessed
11/04/2015: http://www.osce.org/yerevan/212571?download=true25	As above.
As above.
'Bride Kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan', Radio Free Europe, accessed
11/04/2016: http://www.rferl.org/content/bride-kidnapping-in-kyrgyzstan/25403604.html

28	

Trafficking in Human Beings 2015 Edition, (Eurostat, 2015), Table 3,
p. 36, accessed 19/04/2016: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf

29	As above.

As above, p.4.

30	

Alternative Turkmenistan News, Spotlight on Turkmenistan: Widespread State-Orchestrated Forced Labour in Turkmenistan’s 2014 Cotton Harvest, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 8, accessed 07/04/2016:
http://www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/
stateforcedlaborinturkmenistan2014_report_atn.pdf, ; see also Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, The Coverup: Whitewashing
Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 17, accessed
11/04/2016: http://harvestreport2015.uzbekgermanforum.org/
pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf, ; see also Uzbek-German Forum for
Human Rights, Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers, (Cotton Campaign,2015), p. 9, accessed 11/04/2016 http://www.cottoncampaign.org/
uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/silk-loop-for-uzbek-farmers.pdf

31	

9	
10	

International Labour Organisation, Third Party Monitoring,of the use of child labour and forced labour during the Uzbekistan 2015 Cotton Harvest: An assessment submitted to the WorldBank by the International Labour Office (ILO, 20 November2015), p. 3, http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/publicdoc/2015/11/307241448038866033/Uzbek-2015-TPM-Report-20112015.pdf

11	

Decent Work Country Programme of the Republic of Uzbekistan for
2014–2016, (ILO, 2014), p. 4, accessed 19/04/2016: http://www.ilo.
org/public/english/bureau/program/dwcp/download/uzbekistan.
pdf

12	

'Ukraine: Rebels Subject Civilians to Forced Labour', Human Rights
Watch, September 4, 2014, accessed 11/04/2016: https://www.hrw.
org/news/2014/09/04/ukraine-rebels-subject-civilians-forced-labor13	As above.

14	Vitaly Shevchenko, 'Ukraine Conflict: Child Soldiers Join theFight', BBC news November 26, 2014, accessed 11/04/2016: http://
www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30134421

15	

As above.

16	As above.

17	'Ukraine: Situation report No.28 as of 20 February 2015', ReliefWeb, February 20, 2015, accessed 22/03/2016: http://reliefweb.int/
report/ukraine/ukraine-situation-report-no28-20-february-2015
Nadine Walicki and Vsevolod Kritskiy, Time to Act: Internal
Displacement on the Rise in Ukraine - Briefing Paper, (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2014), accessed: 17/03/2016: http://
www.internal-displacement.org/europe-the-caucasus-and-centralasia/ukraine/2014/time-to-act-internal-displacement-on-the-risein-ukraine32	

As above.

33	As above.

34	As above.

35	'Ukraine: Rebels Subject Civilians to Forced Labor', Human Rights
Watch, September 4, 2016, accessed 17/03/2016: https://www.hrw.
org/news/2014/09/04/ukraine-rebels-subject-civilians-forced-labor36	

Ana Maria Buller, Hanni Stoklosa and Cathy Zimmerman, Labour
Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findingson the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked
Workers, (International Labor Organisation, 2015), p. 94, accessed
11/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/labour_
exploitation_trafficking_en.pdf

37	

As above.

38	

Migration Facts and Trends: South Eastern Europe, Eastern Europe
and Central Asia, (International Organisation for Migration, 2015)
p. 14, accessed 19/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/
files/pdf/migration_facts_and_trends_seeeca.pdf

39	

Eurasian Development Bank, Labour Migration, Remittances andHuman Development in Central Asia, (United Nations Development
Programme, 2015), p. 43, accessed 11/02/2016: http://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/dam/rbec/docs/CA%20M&R%20HD%20
paper%20frozen%20ENG%20Layout.pdf

40	

As above, p. 17.

41	

As above, pp. 11-12.

42	

As above, p.9.

43	

As above, p. 44.

44	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|183

As above, p. 22.

Sub-Saharan Africa

As above, p. 42.

1	

45	

46	

As above.

47	Anti-Discrimination Centre, From Tajikistan to Russia: Vulnerability and Abuse of Migrant Workers and their Families, (International
Federation for Human Rights, 2014), p. 11, accessed 17/03/2016:
https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/russie641uk2014hd.pdf

48	As above, pp. 17-22.

49	

As above, p. 18.

50	As above, pp. 19-21.

51	As above, pp. 19-20.

52	Lewis Slimelane, 'Swaziland is a trafficking hub – report', IOL
News, November 18, 2014, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.iol.co.
za/news/africa/swaziland-is-a-trafficking-hub---report-1782123'Swaziland: Swazi Govt Misleads On Child Labour', All Africa,
January 20, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://allafrica.com/stories/201501201394.html

2	

Human Rights Council, Report of the Commission of Inquiry on
Human Rights in Eritrea, (United Nations General Assembly, 2015),
pp. 13–14, accessed 21/04/2016: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/
doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/114/50/PDF/G1511450.pdf ?OpenElement

3	As above. P. 12.

As above, p. 20.

4	

Eurasian Development Bank, Labour Migration, Remittances andHuman Development in Central Asia, (United Nations Development
Programme, 2015), p. 25, accessed 11/02/2016: http://www.eurasia.undp.org/content/dam/rbec/docs/CA%20M&R%20HD%20
paper%20frozen%20ENG%20Layout.pdf

5	

As above, p. 26.

6	

53	
54	

55	

As above, p. 19.

56	

Council of Europe, Reply from the Republic of Moldova to the Questionnaire for the evaluation of the implementation of the Council ofEurope Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by
the Parties Second evaluation round (Reply submitted on 11 February 2015), p. 9, https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Source/Public_R_Q/GRETA_2015_4_RQ_MDA_en.pdf

57	Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings,
Report submitted by the Georgian authorities on measures taken tocomply with Committee of the Parties Recommendation CP(2012)5
on the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action
against Trafficking in Human Beings, (Council of Europe, 2014),
accessed 11/04/2016: https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/CommitteeParties/Reply_REC/CP_2014_20_RR_
GEO_en.pdf

58	"Armenia", Protection Project, accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.
protectionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Armenia.pdf

59	Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings,
Report submitted by the Georgian authorities on measures taken tocomply with Committee of the Parties Recommendation CP(2012)5
on the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action
against Trafficking in Human Beings, (Council of Europe, 2014),
accessed 11/04/2016: https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/CommitteeParties/Reply_REC/CP_2014_20_RR_
GEO_en.pdf

60	As above.

61	As above.

62	As above.

63	This constitutes one of the three punishment options, along withimprisonment and exclusion from business, in Article 143 on
Human Trafficking: Government of Georgia, 'Criminal Code ofGeorgia', 98, accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.legislationline.org/
download/action/download/id/4262/file/GE_CriminalCode_amDec2011_En.pdf; see also Government of Kazakhstan. Public Law
No 167, 'The Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan'. September 16, 1997, accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.legislationline.
org/download/action/download/id/1681/file/ca1cfb8a67f8a1c2ffe8de6554a3.htm/preview

64	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Moldova Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

65	

As above.

66	As above.

67	

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR Eligibility Guidelines for Assessing the International Protection Needs ofAsylum Seekers from Eritrea, (United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees, 2011), pp. 14–16, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.
refworld.org/docid/4dafe0ec2.html
UK Border Agency, Operational Guidance Note: Eritrea, (HomeOffice, 2009), p. 9, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.refworld.org/
docid/49c39c212.html
United Kingdom Home Office, Country and Information GuidanceEritrea: Illegal Exit, (Government of the United Kingdom, 2015),
pp. 7–8, accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/459486/Eritrea_-_Illegal_Exit_-_v2_0e.pdf

7	Hannah McNeish, 'South Sudan: women and girls raped as 'wages'
for government-allied fighters', The Guardian, September 28, 2015,
accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wagesfor-government-allied-fighters; see also Tristan McConnell, 'The
rape camps of South Sudan,' AFP Correspondent, October 7, 2015,
accessed 21/04/2016: http://blogs.afp.com/correspondent/?post/
the-rape-camps-of-south-sudan; see also Hannah McNeish,'Reliving the rape camps of South Sudan's civil war', Al Jazeera,
September 29, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.aljazeera.
com/indepth/features/2015/09/reliving-rape-camps-south-sudancivil-war-150929121909936.html

8	Hannah McNeish, 'South Sudan: women and girls raped as 'wages'
for government-allied fighters,' The Guardian, September 28, 2015,
accessed 21/04/16: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wagesfor-government-allied-fighters; see also Tristan McConnell, 'The
rape camps of South Sudan,' AFP Correspondent, October 7, 2015,
accessed 21/04/2016: http://blogs.afp.com/correspondent/?post/
the-rape-camps-of-south-sudan9	Hannah McNeish, 'Reliving the rape camps of South Sudan's civil
war,' Al Jazeera, September 29, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://
www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/09/reliving-rapecamps-south-sudan-civil-war-150929121909936.html

10	Hannah McNeish, 'South Sudan: women and girls raped as 'wages'
for government-allied fighters,' The Guardian, September 28, 2015,
accessed 21/04/16: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wagesfor-government-allied-fighters; see also Tristan McConnell, 'The
rape camps of South Sudan,' AFP Correspondent, October 7, 2015,
accessed 21/04/2016: http://blogs.afp.com/correspondent/?post/
the-rape-camps-of-south-sudan

11	Neftalem Fikre Hailemeskel, 'Ethiopia: Human Trafficking or
Human Slavery,' All Africa, January 10, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:
http://allafrica.com/stories/201501120064.html; see also Harriet
Grant, 'Sinai slavery and torture survivors share their experiences',
The Guardian, February 21, 2014, 21/04/16: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/feb/20/sinai-slavery-and-torture-survivors-share-their-experiences-israeli-ethiopian

12	International Labour Organisation/International Programme on
Elimination of Child Labour (ILO/IPEC), Analytical Study on Child
Labour In Lake Volta Fishing in Ghana: as cited by Made in a Free
World: http://www.madeinafreeworld.com/ghana13	United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on
Trafficking in Persons, (United Nations, 2014), p. 7, accessed
21/04/2016: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/
glotip/GLOTIP_2014_full_report.pdf

14	

As above.

15	As above.

16	

184

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Regional cont.
'Documentary: Togo's Real Cinderellas', Jane La Bous, March 31,
2015, accessed 29/03/2016: http://janelabous.com/2015/03/documentary-togos-trafficked-cinderellas-tell-tales-of-modern-slavery/17	'Benin/Togo: protecting migrating children, Tdh brings themedia on board', Terre des Hommes, October 21, 2015, accessed
29/03/2016: http://www.tdh.ch/en/news/benin-togo-protecting-migrating-children-tdh-brings-media

18	'Documentary: Togo's Real Cinderellas', Jane La Bous, March 31,
2015, accessed 29/03/2016: http://janelabous.com/2015/03/documentary-togos-trafficked-cinderellas-tell-tales-of-modern-slavery/19	As above.

20	As above.

21	'Documentary: Togo's Real Cinderellas', Jane La Bous, March 31,
2015, accessed 29/03/2016: http://janelabous.com/2015/03/documentary-togos-trafficked-cinderellas-tell-tales-of-modern-slavery/22	Agence-France Presse, 'Burundi's child sex slaves: 'I feel like I havebeen used and tossed away'', The Guardian, February 20, 2014,
accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/feb/20/burundi-child-sex-slaves-prostitution

23	'Senegal: Decade of Abuse in Quranic Schools', Human Rights
Watch, April 20, 2015, accessed 07/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/
news/2015/04/20/senegal-decade-abuse-quranic-schools24	As above.

25	As above.

26	As above.

27	"Democratic Republic of Congo", Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children in Armed Conflict, accessed
April 7, 2016, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/
democratic-republic-of-the-congo/28	As above.

29	As above.

30	

Ludovica Iaccino, 'DRC child soldiers: Children grow up 'more
comfortable with weapons than with books'', International Business
Times, October 30, 2016, accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.ibtimes.
co.uk/drc-child-soldiers-children-grow-more-comfortable-weapons-books-video-1526518

31	'Hundreds of Children Released by Armed Groups in the Central
African Republic', United Nations Children's Fund, May 14, 2015,
accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.unicef.org/media/media_81890.
html

32	

As above.

33	Ludovica Iaccino, 'Central African Republic child soldiers:
Violence, anger and frustration increase risk of recruitment',
International Business Times, October 13, 2016, accessed
07/04/2016: http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/central-african-republic-child-soldiers-violence-anger-frustration-increase-risk-recruitment-1523775

34	Child Soldiers International, CHAD: Concerns about Chad's Child
Protection Record One Year After Delisting, (Child Soldiers International, 2015), p.1, accessed 07/04/2015: http://www.child-soldiers.
org/user_uploads/pdf/childsoldiersinternationalchadbriefingjuly2015final4920630.pdf

35	

As above, p. 2.

36	"Child Marriage Around the World", Girls not Brides, accessed
14/04/2016: http://www.girlsnotbrides.org/where-does-it-happen/37	A Profile of Child Marriage in Africa, (United Nations Children's
Fund, 2015), accessed 03/02/2016: http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/english/UNICEF-Child-Marriage-Brochure-low-Single%281%29.
pdf

38	

Child Marriage, Adolescent Pregnancy and Family Formation inCentral and West Africa, (United Nations Children's Fund, 2015),
pp. 14–28, accessed 03/02/2016: http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/english/Child_Mariage_Adolescent_Pregnancy_and_Family_Formation_in_WCA.pdf

44	As above.

45	A Profile of Child Marriage in Africa, (United Nations Children's
Fund, 2015), accessed 03/02/2016: http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/english/UNICEF-Child-Marriage-Brochure-low-Single%281%29.
pdf

46	

Global Emergency Overview: April 2016, (Assessment Capacities
Project, 2016), pp. 3–96, accessed 14/04/2016: http://reliefweb.int/
sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/geo%2012042016.pdf

47	'Boko Haram: children among villagers burned to death in Nigeria
attack', The Guardian, February 1, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/01/boko-haram-attack-children-among-villagers-burned-to-death-in-nigeria48	Moki Edwin Kindzeka, 'Refugees Fleeing Boko Haram Spark
Humanitarian Crisis in Cameroon', Voice of America, December
17, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.voanews.com/content/
humanitarian-crisis-as-boko-haram-refugees-stream-into-cameroon/3106733.html

49	'Boko Haram: children among villagers burned to death in Nigeria
attack', The Guardian, February 1, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/01/boko-haram-attack-children-among-villagers-burned-to-death-in-nigeria

50	Radina Gigova, 'Boko Haram luring young people with loans,
Nigerian military says', CNN, April 21, 2016, accessed 21/04/16:
http://edition.cnn.com/2016/04/21/africa/nigeria-boko-haram-loans-entrepreneurs/51	"HC statement at Security Council briefing on The Situation In
Burundi 9 July", United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/
NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16221&LangID=E

52	Connor Gaffey, 'Watch: The Rise of Al-Shabaab in Somalia', Newsweek, March 30, 2016, accessed 11/04/2016: http://www.newsweek.
com/watch-rise-al-shabab-somalia-442173

53	

Emma Graham-Harrison, 'The World Looks Away as Blood Flowsin Burundi', The Guardian, April 10, 2016, accessed 11/04/2016:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/10/burundi-ethnic-violence-refugees54	'Violence in the Central African Republic', Global Conflict Tracker,
May 12, 2016, accessed 13/05/2016: http://www.cfr.org/global/
global-conflicttracker/p32137#!/conflict/violence-in-the-central-african-republic

55	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Central African Republic Country Narrative,(United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 04/02/2016:
http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243412.htm

56	

Global Overview 2015: People internally displaced by conflict andviolence, (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2015), p.
8, accessed 04/02/2016: http://www.internal-displacement.org/
publications/2015/global-overview-2015-people-internally-displaced-by-conflict-and-violence/57	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: The Democratic Republic of CongoCountry Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015),
accessed 04/02/2016: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243418.htm

58	

As above.

59	Regional Economic Outlook – Sub-Saharan Africa: Navigating
Headwinds, (International Monetary Fund, 2015), p. ix, accessed
09/02/2016: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/reo/2015/afr/
eng/pdf/sreo0415.pdf

60	

As above.

61	As above.

62	

39	

40	

As above.

41	Global Overview 2015: People internally displaced by conflict andviolence, (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2015), p.
22, accessed 04/02/2016: http://www.internal-displacement.org/
publications/2015/global-overview-2015-people-internally-displaced-by-conflict-and-violence/42	"Child Marriage Around the World: Central African Republic",
Girls not Brides, accessed 03/02/16: http://www.girlsnotbrides.org/
child-marriage/central-african-republic/43	As above,p. 35.
"Regional Mixed Migration 3rd Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index897d.html?id=55&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=373&cHash=899eab72869f066e34cfa9ff5174ac7d; see also
"Regional Mixed Migration 2nd Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index42f9.html?id=55&tx_ttnews%5Btt_
news%5D=345&cHash=be8f0df5525e2408606820daf1bac8b1

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|185

World Employment and Social Outlook – January 2015, (International Labor Organisation, 2015), p. 54, accessed 09/02/2016: http://
www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/--publ/documents/publication/wcms_337069.pdf; see also United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, An Introduction to Human
Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact and Action – Background Paper,(United Nations, 2008), p. 88, accessed 09/02/2016: https://www.
unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/An_Introduction_to_
Human_Trafficking_-_Background_Paper.pdf

63	

'UNHCR warns against perilous Horn of Africa sea crossings as
92,000 reach Yemen in 2015, 36 already drowned this year', United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, January 19, 2016 accessed
04/02/2016: http://www.unhcr.org/569e2a846.html

64	'IOM Evacuates Ethiopian Trafficking Victims from Yemen', ReliefWeb, July 21, 2015, last accessed February 4, 2016, http://reliefweb.
int/report/ethiopia/iom-evacuates-ethiopian-trafficking-victims-yemen

65	"I Wanted to Lie Down and Die": Trafficking and Torture of Eritreansin Sudan and Egypt, (Human Rights Watch, 2014), accessed
04/02/2016: https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/02/11/i-wanted-liedown-and-die/trafficking-and-torture-eritreans-sudan-and-egypt

66	"Regional Mixed Migration 3rd Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index897d.html?id=55&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=373&cHash=899eab72869f066e34cfa9ff5174ac7d; see also
"Regional Mixed Migration 2nd Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index42f9.html?id=55&tx_ttnews%5Btt_
news%5D=345&cHash=be8f0df5525e2408606820daf1bac8b1

67	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Special Case: Somalia, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243530.htm

68	

As above.

69	As above.

70	"Regional Mixed Migration 1st Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index7f47.html?id=55&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=342&cHash=403cac4577afca2ae439c5cc773ae7cd; see also
"Regional Mixed Migration 3rd Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index897d.html?id=55&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=373&cHash=899eab72869f066e34cfa9ff5174ac7d; see also
"Regional Mixed Migration 2nd Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index42f9.html?id=55&tx_ttnews%5Btt_
news%5D=345&cHash=be8f0df5525e2408606820daf1bac8b1

71	"Regional Mixed Migration 1st Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.regionalmms.org/index7f47.html?id=55&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=342&cHash=403cac4577afca2ae439c5cc773ae7cd

72	

Joe Lee Anderson, 'ISIS Rises in Libya', The New Yorker, August
4, 2015, accessed 04/02/2016: http://www.newyorker.com/news/
news-desk/isis-rises-in-libya73	As above.

74	

Libya is Full of Cruelty: Stories of Abduction, Violence and Sexual
Abuse from Migrants and Refugees, (Amnesty International, 2015),
p. 11, accessed 04/02/2016: http://www.amnesty.org.uk/sites/default/files/libya_is_full_of_cruelty.pdf

75	Child Marriage, Adolescent Pregnancy and Family Formation inCentral and West Africa, (United Nations Children's Fund, 2015),
pp. 14–28, accessed 03/02/2016: http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/english/Child_Mariage_Adolescent_Pregnancy_and_Family_Formation_in_WCA.pdf

76	

As above, p. 22.

77	

Annual Report: Somalia: 2015/2016, (Amnesty International, 2016),
accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/africa/somalia/report-somalia/

78	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: The Democratic Republic of CongoCountry Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015),
accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243418.htm

79	

186

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

'Instability in South Sudan undermines global efforts to eradicate
dracunculiasis', World Health Organisation, January 24, 2014,
accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.who.int/dracunculiasis/political_instability_in_South_Sudan/en/80	'Chad: At War With Boko Haram', Al Jazeera, May 20, 2015,
accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/peopleandpower/2015/05/chad-war-boko-haram-150520165103249.
html; see also Charlotte Bonzonnet, 'Chad struggles to cope withrefugees from conflict in Central African Republic', Al Jazeera,
March 11, 2014, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.
com/world/2014/mar/11/central-african-republic-chad-border81	Annual Report: Somalia: 2015/2016, (Amnesty International, 2016),
accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/africa/somalia/report-somalia/

82	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: Burundi Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2013), accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/210738.pdf; see also Office toCombat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons
Report: Burundi Country Narrative, (United States Department ofState, 2015), accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243558.pdf

83	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: Malawi Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

84	

Government of Rwanda, 'Public Law No Special of 27 of May
2009, Law Regulating Labour in Rwanda, 2009', May 27, 2009,
accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/SERIAL/81725/89012/F-1047050984/RWA-81725.pdf

85	

Benin, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Eritrea, Gabon, Gambia, Lesotho,
Malawi, Namibia, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Zimbabwe.

86	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Benin Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/243558.pdf

87	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: Tanzania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 07/04/2016: http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/243562.pdf

88	

The Middle East And North Africa
Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child,'Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq underarticle 8, paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children inarmed conflict', (United Nations, 2015), p. 5, accessed 12/01/2016:
https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/
PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement1	Lizzie Dearden, 'ISIS Kidnaps up to 500 Children in Iraq to use
as Suicide Bombers and Child Soldiers,' The Independent, June 1,
2015, accessed 22/07/2015: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/
world/middle-east/isis-kidnaps-up-to-500-children-in-iraq-touse-as-suicide-bombers-and-child-soldiers-10288989.html

2	'Yemen Children Bearing the Brunt of Brutal Conflict', UNICEF,
April 10, 2016, accessed 14/04/2016: http://www.unicef.org/media/
media_90828.html

3	'Iraq: ISIS Escapees Describe Systematic Rape, Yezidi Survivors
in Need of Urgent Care,' Human Rights Watch, April 14, 2015,
accessed 22/07/2015: http://www.hrw.org/news/2015/04/14/
iraq-isis-escapees-describe-systematic-rape4	

'Islamic State (ISIS) Releases Pamphlet on Female Slaves,' MEMRI's
Jihad and Terrorism Threat Monitor, December 4, 2014, accessed
25/07/2015: http://www.memrijttm.org/islamic-state-isis-releasespamphlet-on-female-slaves.html

5	Personal communication.

6	'Saudi Arabia Grappling with the Surge in Temporary Marriage,'
Al Arabiya, April 18, 2015, accessed 14/04/2016: http://english.
alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2015/04/18/Saudi-Arabiagrappling-with-the-surge-in-temporary-marriage.html

7	Sarah El Masry, 'Under-reported and underage: Early marriage
in Egypt', Daily News Egypt, December 5, 2012, http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2012/12/05/under-reported-and-underage-early-marriage-in-egypt/8	Regional cont.
'Over 100,000 Underage Girls are Married in Morocco,' Morocco
World News, 14 October 2015, http://www.moroccoworldnews.
com/2015/10/170369/over-100000-underage-girls-are-married-inmorocco/9	

Too Young to Wed: The Growing Problem of Child Marriage Among
Syrian Girls in Jordan, (Save the Children, 2014), accessed
14/04/2016: http://www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/%7B9def2ebe-10ae-432c-9bd0-df91d2eba74a%7D/TOO_YOUNG_TO_
WED_REPORT_0714.PDF

10	'Israel: Serious Abuse of Thai Migrant Workers,' Human Rights
Watch, January 21, 2015, accessed 14/04/2016: https://www.hrw.
org/news/2015/01/21/israel-serious-abuse-thai-migrant-workers

11	'Hundreds of Mauritanian Women Trafficked to Saudi Arabia Trapped in 'Slavery'', Middle East Eye, September 30, 2015,
accessed 13/04/2016: http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/
hundreds-mauritanian-women-subject-slave-conditions-saudi-arabia-121500465; see also My sleep is my break: Exploitation ofMigrant Domestic Workers in Qatar, (Amnesty International, 2014),
accessed 25/06/2014: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/
MDE22/004/2014/en/7b7121b8-37c1-4e49-b1a1-2d8a005450a3/
mde220042014en.pdf; see also Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis:
Protecting Migrant Workers Against Exploitation in the Middle Eastand North Africa, (IOM and the Walk Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/
system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf; see also 'Kenyan
Domestic Workers 'abused in Saudi Arabia'', BBC, September 1,
2015, accessed 14/04/2016: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-34121412; see also 'The Aftershocks: Migrant Workers Vulnerable to Exploitation in Post-Earthquake Nepal', London Schoolof Economics and Political Science, October 22, 2015, accessed
13/03/2016: http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2015/10/22/
the-aftershocks-migrant-workers-vulnerable-to-exploitation-in-post-earthquake-nepal-2/12	The Ugly Side of the Beautiful Game: Exploitation of Migrant Workers
on a Qatar 2022 World Cup Site, (Amnesty International, 2016),
accessed 14/04/2016: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/
mde22/3548/2016/en/

13	

Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

14	

As above.

15	Personal communication.

16	

Global Slavery Index, (The Walk Free Foundation, 2014), accessed
14/04/2016: http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/download/17	

L. Lungarotti, S. Craggs, A. Tillinac, Trafficking in persons in timesof crises ‒ a neglected protection concern: the case of Iraq, (Humanitarian Policy Group of the Overseas Development Institute, Oct2015).

18	

As above.

19	Specifically Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt.

20	Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

21	Europe; Syrian Asylum Applications from Apr 2011 to Jan 2016,
Syrian Regional Refugee Response, Inter-Agency Information Sharing
Portal, UNHCR, accessed 13/04/2016.

22	Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

28	As above.

29	

See UNICEF Regional Gender Equality profiles: http://www.
unicef.org/gender/gender_62215.html

30	

Faten Omar, 'The Avenues Mall Holds Awareness Campaign for
Human Trafficking', Kuwait Times, September 3, 2015, accessed
14/04/2016: http://news.kuwaittimes.net/website/the-avenuesmall-holds-awareness-campaign-for-human-trafficking/31	Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

32	

Iran has not ratified the Protocol.

33	

Arab Republic of Egypt, The People's Assembly,' Law No. (64) of
2010 regarding Combating Human Trafficking'. Available fromwww.protectionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Egypt_
TIP-Laws-20082010.pdf

34	'New draft law to combat human trafficking brings hope in Morocco,' UN Women, September 9, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016, www.
unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2015/9/new-draft-law-to-combathuman-trafficking-brings-hope-in-morocco

35	Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

36	

'Kuwait: New Law a Breakthrough for Domestic Workers,' Human
Rights Watch, June 30, 2015, accessed 15/05/2016: https://www.
hrw.org/news/2015/06/30/kuwait-new-law-breakthrough-domestic-workers

37	'UAE: A Move to Protect Migrant Workers,' Human Rights Watch,
November 1, 2015, accessed 14/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/
news/2015/11/01/uae-move-protect-migrant-workers

38	Peter Kovessyriham Sheble and Heba Fahmy, 'Qatar's Emir signs
into kafala changes (updated),' Doha News, October 27, 2015,
accessed 20/04/2016: http://dohanews.co/qatars-emir-approveskafala-reforms-changes-more-than-one-year-away/39	

Robert Booth, 'UN Gives Qatar a Year to End Forced Labour ofMigrant Workers,' The Guardian, accessed 15/04/2016: http://www.
theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/24/un-gives-qatar-year-endforced-labour-migrant-workers

40	

Bureau of International Labor Affairs, List of Goods Produced byChild Labor or Forced Labor, (US Department of Labor), accessed
14/04/2016: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-ofgoods/

41	Juliane Kippenberg, 'Child Labor in in Dubai's Gold Supply
Chain,' Human Rights Watch, April 12, 2016, accessed 14/04/2016:
https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/04/12/dispatches-child-labordubais-gold-supply-chain

42	Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

43	

3RP Regional Progress Report June 2015, 3RP Regional Refugee &Resilience Plan 2015–2016 in Response to the Syria Crisis.

23	Migration Flows from Iraq to Europe February, (International Organization for Migration, Displacement Tracking and Monitoring,2016) accessed 14/04/2016.

24	Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
Free Foundation, December 2015), accessed 14/04/2016: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

25	

As above.

26	

Human Rights Watch World Report, (Human Rights Watch, 2015),
accessed 14/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/
country-chapters/saudi-arabia

27	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|187

The Americas
Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America andthe Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p.6, accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf

1	

Richard Marosi, 'Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S.
Tables', Los Angeles Times, December 7, 2014, http://graphics.
latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/2	'Mexico Rescues 129 Workers, Including Children, 'Abused'
at Garment Factory', ABC News, February 6, 2015, accessed
16/03/2016: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-02-06/mexico-rescues-129-workers-from-factory/6075492

3	

Mexico – Country Mining Guide, (KPMG International, 2013), p.
17, accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.kpmg.com/Ca/en/industry/
Mining/Documents/Mexico.pdf

4	

André Ofenhejm Mascarenhas, Sylmara Lopes Gonçalves Dias
and Rodrigo Martins Baptista, 'Elementos Para Discussão da
Escravidão Contemporânea Como Prática de Gestão', Revista deAdministração de Empresas, 55, 2, pp.175–187.

5	

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on
Trafficking in Persons, (United Nations, 2014), p. 72, accessed
12/04/2016: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/
glotip/GLOTIP_2014_full_report.pdf

6	

Omar Martinez and Guadalupe Kelle, 'Sex Trafficking of LGBT
Individuals', Int Law News, 42, 4 (2014): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC4204396/

7	Child Welfare Information Gateway and the Children’s Bureau,Child Welfare and Human Trafficking, Issue Brief: July 2015, (Children's Bureau, 2015), p. 1, accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/trafficking.pdf

8	

André Ofenhejm Mascarenhas, Sylmara Lopes Gonçalves Dias
and Rodrigo Martins Baptista, 'Elementos Para Discussão da
Escravidão Contemporânea Como Prática de Gestão', Revista deAdministração de Empresas, 55, 2, pp.175–187 (2015).

9	

Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America andthe Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p.6, accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf

10	

Bradley Myles, 'The Town Where Boys are 'Groomed to Become
Pimps'', CNN, December 2, 2015, accessed 28/04/2016: http://edition.cnn.com/2015/12/01/opinions/sex-trafficking-tenancingo-polaris/index.html

20	

Meredith Dank et al., Estimating the Size of the Underground
Commercial Sex Economy in Eight Major US Cities, (Urban Institute,2014), p.70, accessed 13/05/2016: http://www.urban.org/research/
publication/estimating-size-and-structure-underground-commercial-sex-economy-eight-major-us-cities/view/full_report21	Personal communication.

22	

Meredith Dank et al., Estimating the Size of the Underground
Commercial Sex Economy in Eight Major US Cities, (Urban Institute,2014), p.70, accessed 13/05/2016: http://www.urban.org/research/
publication/estimating-size-and-structure-underground-commercial-sex-economy-eight-major-us-cities/view/full_report23	

Max Kutner, 'Sex Slaves on the Farm', Newsweek, February 5, 2015,
accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.newsweek.com/2015/02/13/sexslaves-farm-304354.html

24	

Kate Swanson, 'Begging as a path to progress: Indigenous womenand children and the struggle for Ecuador's urban spaces'. (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2010). As cited in Puck,
G., 'The 'street children' of Latin America,' The Psychologist 28,(2015), pp. 20–23: https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-28/
january-2015/street-children-latin-america25	'Mexico: More than 150 'abused children’ rescued', BBC News,
July 16, 2014, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.bbc.com/news/
world-latin-america-28323683

26	'Campaigners: Colombia's Displaced 'Highly Vulnerable' to
Human Trafficking', Voice of America, October 30, 2015, accessed
21/04/2016: http://www.voanews.com/content/colombia-displaded-highly-vulnerable-to-human-trafficking/3030845.html

27	

28	

Chen Jiang, 'Forced Prostitution and Modern Slavery: Brazil's
Response', Council on Hemispheric Affairs, April 6, 2015, accessed
21/04/2016: http://www.coha.org/forced-prostitution-and-modern-slavery-brazils-response/

29	

12	

Verité, Research on Indicators of Forced Labor in the Supply Chainof Sugar in the Dominican Republic, (Verité, 2011), p. 9, accessed
21/04/2016: http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=2782&context=globaldocs; http://america.aljazeera.
com/multimedia/2015/7/blood-sweat-and-sugar-trade-deal-failshaitian-workers-in-dr.htm; see also Amy Bracken, 'Blood, sweat
and sugar: Trade deal fails Haitian workers on DR plantations',
Al Jazeera America, July 16, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016; see also
Public Report of Review of U.S. Submission 2011–03 (Dominican
Republic), (United States Department of State, 2013), accessed
12/04/2016: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/pdf/20130926DR.pdf

13	

Walk Free Foundation and Gallup, 2015 surveys.

14	Colleen Owens et al., Understanding the Organization, Operation,
and Victimization Process of Labor Trafficking in the United States,(Urban Institute, 2014), p.xi, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.
urban.org/research/publication/understanding-organization-operation-and-victimization-process-labor-trafficking-united-states;
see also "Home Page", Polaris, last accessed April 21, 2016, http://polarisproject.org/

15	

Organised Crime and Illegally Mined Gold In Latin America, (Global
Alliance Against Transnational Organised Crime, 2016), pp.
28–29, accessed 13/05/2016: ; see also Risk Analysis of Indicators ofForced Labour and Human Trafficking in Illegal Gold Mining in Peru
(Verité, 2013), last accessed 13/05/2016 ; see also International
Labour Organization, 'Etude transfrontalière sur le travail desenfants dans l’orpaillage.' As cited in A Poisonous Mix: Child Labor,
Mercury, and Artisanal Gold Mining in Mali, (Human Rights Watch,2011).

16	As above, pp. 27, 29.

17	

|

Fact Sheet: Children on the move in Peru, (Terre des Hommes Suisse, 2012), accessed 13/04/2016: http://destination-unknown.org/
wp-content/uploads/DU-fact-sheets-South-America-Peru.pdf

19	'Government rescued 936 people from slave labor in 2015', Portal
Brazil, December 28, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.brasil.
gov.br/cidadania-e-justica/2015/12/governo-resgatou-936-pessoas-de-trabalho-escravo-em-2015

11	

188

Anastasia Moloney, 'Sex Trafficking 'Staggering’ in Illegal Latin
American Gold Mines: Researchers', Reuters, March 30, 2016, accessed 14/04/2016: http://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-trafficking-mines-idUSKCN0WW21U

18	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

No forced marriage cases were identified in surveys in either Mexico or Bolivia. In Guatemala, 21% of identified cases of modern
slavery within the sample were for forced marriage; 16% in Brazil;
10% in Chile; and 1% in Dominican Republic.
Ending Child Marriage: Progress and Prospects, (United Nations
Children's Emergency Fund, 2013), p.4, accessed 21/03/2016:
http://www.unicef.org/media/files/Child_Marriage_Report_7_17_
LR..pdf
Anastasia Moloney, 'Child Marriage accepted in Brazil to escapeabuse at home: researchers', Reuters, July 15, 2015, accessed
21/04/2016: http://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-children-marriage-idUSKCN0PO2F520150715

30	

"Child Marriage in Latin America and the Caribbean," Girls Not
Brides, accessed 21/04/16: http://www.girlsnotbrides.org/region/
latin-america-and-caribbean/31	As above.

32	Fernando Murillo, Migration and Urbanization Paths: Reshaping the
Human Geography of Latin America and the Caribbean, (International Organization for Migration, 2014), p. 5, accessed 21/04/2016:
https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/ICP/MPR/
WMR-2015-Background-Paper-FMurillo.pdf

33	

Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America andthe Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p. 4, accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf

34	

Sheldon Zhang, Sex Trafficking in a Border Community: A Field Studyof Sex Trafficking in Tijuana, Mexico, (San Diego State Univeristy,2011), accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/
grants/234472.pdf

35	

Personal communication.

36	

Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America andthe Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p.4, accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf

37	

Jasmine Garsd, 'In Central America, Human Smugglers
Entrap Women In Sex Trafficking', National Public Radio,
January 28, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.npr.
org/2016/01/28/464744474/in-central-america-human-smugglers-entrap-women-in-sex-trafficking38	Regional cont.
Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America
and the Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p.4,
accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.
pdf; see also Fact Sheet: Children on the move in Peru, (Terre desHommes Suisse, 2012), accessed 13/04/2016: http://destination-unknown.org/wp-content/uploads/DU-fact-sheets-SouthAmerica-Peru.pdf ; see also Risk Analysis of Indicators of Forced
Labor and Human Trafficking in Illegal Gold Mining in Peru, (Verité,2014), accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.Verité.org/sites/default/
files/images/Indicators%20of%20Forced%20Labor%20in%20
Gold%20Mining%20in%20Peru_0.pdf

39	Bradley Myles, 'The town where boys are 'groomed to become
pimps'', CNN, December 2, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://edition.cnn.com/2015/12/01/opinions/sex-trafficking-tenancingo-polaris/index.html; see also Nina Lakhani, 'Tenancingo: the small
town at the dark heart of Mexico’s sex-slave trade', The Guardian,
April 5, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2015/apr/05/tenancingo-mexico-sex-slave-trade-america

40	"Paraguay", Transparency International, last accessed April 21, 2016,
https://www.transparency.org/country/#PRY

41	Ioan Grillo, 'Why billionaire drug warlords in Latin America owe
their power to white-collar crooks from the US', The Independent,
February 10, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.independent.
co.uk/news/world/americas/why-billionaire-drug-warlords-inlatin-america-owe-their-power-to-white-collar-crooks-from-theus-a6863621.html

42	

'Highest Female Murder Stats in the World Logged in Latin
America', Latin Post, February 15, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:
http://www.latinpost.com/articles/115102/20160215/highestfemale-murder-stats-world-logged-latin-america.htm; see also
Melissa Fleming, 'The other refugee crisis – women on the runfrom Central America', The Guardian, January 16, 2016, accessed
21/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2016/jan/16/the-other-refugee-crisiswomen-on-the-run-from-central-america

43	'Press Release - UNHCR warns of looming refugee crisis as women
flee Central America and Mexico', United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 28 October, 2015, accessed 21/04/16: http://
www.unhcr.org/5630c2046.html

44	Pamela Constable, ''He forced me many times. I ran away, but healways found me again'', The Washington Post, January 31, 2016,
accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/social-issues/he-forced-me-many-times-i-ran-away-but-he-always-found-me-again/2016/01/31/78209ce2-bafa-11e5-99f3184bc379b12d_story.html

45	

"Street-Based Commercial Sex," Polaris, accessed 21/04/16:
https://traffickingresourcecenter.org/what-human-trafficking/sex-trafficking/street-based-commercial-sex; see also "Hotel andMotel-Based Commercial Sex", Polaris, accessed 21/04/16: https://
traffickingresourcecenter.org/what-human-trafficking/sex-trafficking/hotelmotel-based-commercial-sex

46	Omar Martinez and Guadalupe Kelle, 'Sex Trafficking of LGBT
Individuals', Int Law News, 42, 4 (2014): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC4204396/

47	

Cynthia English and Johanna Godoy, 'Respect and Dignity for
Women Lacking in Latin America', October 14, 2014, accessed
21/04/2014: http://www.gallup.com/poll/178427/respect-dignity-women-lacking-latin-america.aspx

48	Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America andthe Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p. 4, accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf

49	

Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America andthe Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p. 4, accessed 12/04/2016: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf;
see also Amy Stillman, 'Transgender migrants headed to the U.S.
from Central America are especially vulnerable', Salon, February
23, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.salon.com/2016/02/23/
migrating_to_the_us_is_already_risky_try_being_a_transgender_migrant_partner/

50	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: United States Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 03/04/2016: http://www.
state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm

51	'US failed to protect Central American kids', Al Jazeera America,
January 29, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016: http://america.aljazeera.
com/articles/2016/1/29/us-failed-to-protect-refugee-childrenfrom-Central-America.html

52	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: United States Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 03/04/2016: http://www.
state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm

53	

Kate Swanson, 'Begging as a path to progress: Indigenous womenand children and the struggle for Ecuador's urban spaces'. (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2010). As cited in Puck,
G., 'The 'street children' of Latin America,' The Psychologist 28,(2015), pp. 20–23: https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-28/
january-2015/street-children-latin-america

54	Personal communication.

55	

Smuggling of migrants from the Northern Triangle to the UnitedStates, (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2012),
accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.unodc.org/documents/toc/
Reports/TOCTASouthAmerica/English/TOCTA_CACaribb_migrantsmuggling_to_US.pdf

56	Chen Jiang, 'Forced Prostitution and Modern Slavery: Brazil’s
Response', Council on Hemispheric Affairs, April 6, 2015, accessed
21/04/2016: ; see also Eileen Mckinney, Argentina: Conditions,Issues and US Relations, (Nova Science Publishers, 2015). http://
www.coha.org/forced-prostitution-and-modern-slavery-brazils-response/57	'About 800 children from Central America to be housed in Dallas
area', Al Jazeera America, December 10, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:
http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/12/10/hundreds-of-immigrant-children-to-be-housed-in-dallas-area.html

58	

Sonia Nazario, 'The Refugees At Our Door', The New York Times,
October 10, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.nytimes.
com/2015/10/11/opinion/sunday/the-refugees-at-our-door.
html?_r=0; see also Sonia Nazario, 'Outsourcing a Refugee Crisis:
U.S. Paid Mexico Millions to Target Central Americans Fleeing
Violence' Democracy Now, October 13, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:
http://www.democracynow.org/2015/10/13/outsourcing_a_refugee_crisis_us_paid59	As above.

60	'Rights trampled for Indigenous Peoples across the Americas',
Human Rights Watch, August 8 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/08/rights-trampled-indigenous-peoples-across-americas/; see also Americas: indigenous people’s long struggle to defend their rights in the Americas, (Amnesty
International, 2014), accessed 21/04/2016: https://www.amnesty.
org/download/Documents/4000/amr010022014en.pdf

61	Americas: indigenous people’s long struggle to defend their rights in
the Americas, (Amnesty International, 2014), accessed 21/04/2016:
https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/4000/amr010022014en.pdf

62	'200 Indigenous People Rescued from Modern-Day Slavery in
Mexico', teleSUR, March 17, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://
www.telesurtv.net/english/news/200-Indigenous-People-Rescued-from-Modern-Day-Slavery-in-Mexico-20150317-0021.html

63	

As above.

64	Annie Kelly, 'The Faces of Modern Day Slavery', The Guardian,
April 13, 2013, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/
global-development/gallery/2013/apr/03/faces-modern-day-slavery-in-pictures65	

Victoria Sweet, 'Trafficking in Native Communities', IndianCountry, May 24, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/05/24/trafficking-native-communities-160475

66	'Campaigners: Colombia's Displaced 'Highly Vulnerable' to
Human Trafficking', Voice of America, October 30, 2015, accessed
21/04/2016: http://www.voanews.com/content/colombia-displaded-highly-vulnerable-to-human-trafficking/3030845.html

67	'Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women in Canada Could
Number 4,000', The Guardian, February 17, 2016, accessed
28/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/
feb/17/missing-and-murdered-indigenous-women-in-canada-could-number-4000

68	Personal communication.

69	

United States Congress, Public Law No 114–22, 'Justice forVictims of Trafficking Act', May 29, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016:
https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/178/
text/pl70	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|189

Regional cont.
Government of Haiti, Public Law No CL/2014–103, 'La Loi Sur
la Lutte Contre la Traite de Personnes', June 2, 2014, accessed
12/04/2016: http://www.healthpolicyproject.com/pubs/740_HaitiAntiTraffickingLawFINAL.pdf

78	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Argentina Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.state.
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243384.htm

79	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Paraguay Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.state.
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243512.htm

80	

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Cuba Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/243558.pdf

81	

71	

72	

73	

74	

As above.

75	As above.

76	

Bruce Douglas, 'Brazil: Loss of dirty list sparks fears of worker
exploitation as Olympics near', The Guardian, March 2, 2016,
accessed 12/04/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/mar/02/brazil-loss-dirty-list-sparks-fears-worker-exploitation-olympic-games-international-labour-organisation

77	

190

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Argentina, Barbados, Brazil, Costa Rica, Haiti, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, United States. http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/mar/02/brazil-loss-dirty-list-sparks-fears-worker-exploitation-olympic-games-international-labour-organisation
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Brazil Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/243558.pdf
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: United States of America Country Narrative,(United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 21/04/2016:
http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243559.htm
State of California, Bill No 657, 'Transparency in Supply Chains
Act', September 30, 2010, accessed 21/04/2016: http://www.
leginfo.ca.gov/pub/09-10/bill/sen/sb_0651-0700/sb_657_
bill_20100930_chaptered.pdf

ENDNOTES - Selected Country Studies
Cambodia
State of the World’s Children in Numbers: Every Child Counts,(UNICEF, 2014), p. 78, accessed 08/10/15: http://www.unicef.org/
publications/index_71829.html

1	May Titthara and Alice Cuddy, 'The Shackles Of Abuse', The
Phnom Penh Post, September 26, 2015, accessed 10/10/15: http://
www.phnompenhpost.com/post-weekend/shackles-abuse

20	As above.

21	Chhay Channyda, 'Abuse Fears Holding Up Workers Pact for Qatar', The Phnom Penh Post, September 19, 2015, accessed 11/10/15:
http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/abuse-fears-holdingworkers-pact-qatar

Just Married, Just a Child: Child Marriage in the Indo-Pacific Region,(Plan International Australia, July 2014), accessed 07/10/15:
https://www.plan.org.au/~/media/plan/documents/resources/
plan_child_marriage_report_july_2014.pdf ?la=en22	Personal communication.

23	

2	

3	

Chab Dai, 'Coordinating Our Efforts Against Forced Marriage
in China', Along the Paths of Justice, August 5, 2015, accessed
07/05/16: http://chabdai.blogspot.com.au/2015/08/coordinating-our-efforts-against-forced.html

4	Personal communication.

5	Khuon Narim and Simon Henderson, 'Nine Cambodian Women
Seek Refuge in China', The Cambodia Daily, November 29, 2014,
accessed 09/10/15: https://www.cambodiadaily.com/news/ninemore-cambodian-women-seek-refuge-in-china-73318/

6	Personal communication.

7	Strategic Information Response Network, Mekong Region: Country
Datasheets: Human Trafficking, (United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking, 2010), accessed 10/10/15: http://www.
no-trafficking.org/reports_docs/siren/uniap_2010ht_datasheets.
pdf

8	

Victim Identification Procedures in Cambodia: A Brief Study of Human
Trafficking Victim Identification in the Cambodian Context, (United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013, pp. 41- 43, accessed
08/10/15: http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpacific/Publications/2013/NRM/FINAL_Draft_UNODC_report_
Cambodia_NRM.pdf

9	

Kate Day, (Re)integration of Cambodian Trafficked Men: Trends in
Trafficking and Available Aftercare Services, (Hagar International, 2015), p. 4, accessed 08/10/16: https://hagarinternational.
org/international/files/Reintegration-of-Cambodian-trafficked-men-2015.pdf

10	

International Labour Organisation, Employment Practices andWorking Conditions in Thailand’s Fishing Sector, (ILO Tripartite
Action to Protect the Rights of Migrant Workers within and fromthe Greater Mekong Subregion, 2013), accessed 07/05/16: http://
www.ilo.org/dyn/migpractice/docs/184/Fishing.pdf

11	

Ethan Harfenist and Taing Vida, '59 Trafficked Fishermen Finally
Back in Kingdom', The Phnom Penh Post, May 12, 2015, accessed
09/10/15: http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/59-trafficked-fishermen-finally-back-kingdom

12	

Better Factories Cambodia, Better Factories Cambodia: Garment
Industry 32nd Compliance Synthesis Report, (International Labour
Organisation and International Finance Corporation, 2015), accessed 09/10/15: http://betterfactories.org/cambodia/wp-content/
uploads/2015/07/SR32-BFC-Final-after-PAC_Eng.pdf

13	

Cambodian Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts; Department ofLabor Inspectorate, Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training;
Better Factories Cambodia, Thirty-first Synthesis Report on Working
Conditions in Cambodia’s Garment Sector, (International Labour
Organisation, 2014); see also: Better Factories Cambodia: Garment
Industry 32nd Compliance Synthesis Report, (nternational Labour
Organisation and International Financial Cooperation, June2015), accessed 09/10/16: http://betterfactories.org/cambodia/
wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SR32-BFC-Final-after-PAC_Eng.pdf

14	

Aphichoke Kotikula, Milad Pournik, Raymond Robertson, Interwoven: How the Better Work Program Improves Job and Life Quality
in the Apparel Sector, (World Bank, 2015), p. 13, accessed 10/10/15:
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/22699

15	

Better Factories Cambodia, Better Factories Cambodia: Garment
Industry 32nd Compliance Synthesis Report (International Labour
Organisation and International Finance Corporation, 2015), accessed 10/10/15: http://betterfactories.org/cambodia/wp-content/
uploads/2015/07/SR32-BFC-Final-after-PAC_Eng.pdf

16	

Work Faster or Get Out: Labour Rights Abuses in Cambodia’s Garment Industry, (Human Rights Watch, 2015), accessed 08/10/15:
http://features.hrw.org/features/HRW_2015_reports/Cambodia_
Garment_Workers/index.html

17	

As above.

18	

Sen David, 'Six Maids Back from Malaysia', The Phnom Penh Post,
August 17, 2015, accessed 09/10/15: http://www.phnompenhpost.
com/national/six-maids-back-malaysia

19	

Kristi Eaton, 'Maid in Cambodia’ Highlights Skills, Better Wages,'
Women's Enews, January 27, 2015, accessed 12/10/15: http://womensenews.org/story/equal-payfair-wage/150124/maid-in-cambodia-highlights-skills-better-wages
Victim Identification Procedures in Cambodia: A Brief Study of Human
Trafficking Victim Identification in the Cambodian Context, (United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013, pp. 41- 43, accessed
08/10/15: http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpacific/Publications/2013/NRM/FINAL_Draft_UNODC_report_
Cambodia_NRM.pdf

24	

Donald J. Brewster, 'The Fight Against Child Sex Trafficking
in Cambodia is Far from Over,' Washington Post, May 21, 2015,
accessed 09/10/15: https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-fight-against-child-sex-trafficking-in-cambodia-is-far-fromover/2015/05/21/743c8e44-ff19-11e4-805c-c3f407e5a9e9_story.
html

25	

Glenn Miles and Heather Blanch, What About Boys? An Initial
Exploration of Sexually Exploited Boys in Cambodia September,(Love146, Chab Dai, First Step and The Hard Places Community,2011), accessed 08/10/16: http://love146.org/wp-content/uploads/
drupal_migrated/What%20About%20Boys_Miles%26Blanch.pdf

26	

Glenn Miles and Heather Blanch, What About Boys? An Initial
Exploration of Sexually Exploited Boys in Cambodia September,(Love146, Chab Dai, First Step and The Hard Places Community,2011), accessed 08/10/16: http://love146.org/wp-content/uploads/
drupal_migrated/What%20About%20Boys_Miles%26Blanch.pdf;
Sex, Abuse and Childhood, (World Vision, 2014), p. 18, accessed
30/03/2016: http://www.worldvision.at/sites/default/files/SexAbuse-Childhood-Report.pdf

27	

Chaiyot Yongcharoenchai, 'Young Lives for Sale', Bangkok Post,
June 29, 2014, accessed 07/10/15: http://www.bangkokpost.com/
print/417880/

28	"Residential Care in Cambodia", UNICEF, 2011, accessed
07/10/15: http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/Fact_sheet_-_residential_care_Cambodia.pdf

29	

The Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation,
With the Best Intentions – A Study of Attitudes Towards Residential
Care in Cambodia, (Royal Government of Cambodia and UNICEF,
2011), accessed 08/10/15: http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/Study_
Attitudes_towards_RC-English.pdf

30	Personal communication.

31	"The World Factbook: Cambodia", Central Intelligence Agency,
accessed 07/10/15: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/geos/cb.html

32	

Victim Identification Procedures in Cambodia: A Brief Study of Human
Trafficking Victim Identification in the Cambodian Context, (United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013, pp. 41- 43, accessed
08/10/15: http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpacific/Publications/2013/NRM/FINAL_Draft_UNODC_report_
Cambodia_NRM.pdf

33	"Poverty Head Count Ratio at $2 a day (PPP) (% of Population)
2014", World Bank, accessed 07/10/15: http://data.worldbank.org/
indicator/SI.POV.2DAY/countries/1W-KH?display=graph34	"Rural Population % of Population", World Bank, accessed
07/10/15: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS/
countries/1W-KH?display=graph35	"Children’s Rights Monitoring Office", LICADHO, accessed
07/10/15: https://www.licadho-cambodia.org/programs/childrenoffice.php

36	

Ministry of Tourism, "Tourisms Statistics Report," (Kingdom of
Cambodia, 2015), accessed 07/10/15: http://www.nagacorp.com/
eng/ir/tourism/tourism_statistics_201508.pdf

37	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking In Persons, Trafficking
In Persons Report: Cambodia Country Narrative,"(United States
Department of State, 2015), http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm

38	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|191

Cambodian: Corruption Concerns Amid Hopes for the Future(Transparency International, 2015), accessed 07/10/15: http://
www.transparency.org/news/feature/cambodia_corruption_concerns_amid_hopes_for_the_future39	World Report 2015: Cambodia(Human Rights Watch, 2015),
accessed 07/10/15: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/cambodia

40	Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking In Persons, Trafficking
In Persons Report: Cambodia Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), acccessed 07/10/15: http://www.state.
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm

41	World Report 2015: Cambodia (Human Rights Watch, 2015),
accessed 07/10/15: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/cambodia

42	

Kelly Grace and Sothy Eng, 'There Is No Place for ‘Chbab Srey’in Cambodian Schools', The Cambodia Daily, June 9, 2015,
accessed 08/02/16: https://www.cambodiadaily.com/opinion/%C2%ADthere-is-no-place-for-chbab-srey-in-cambodianschools-85230/

43	

Survivor Experiences and Perceptions of Stigma: Reintegrating
into the Community, Working paper: The Butterfuly Longitudinal
Research Project, (Chab Dai, 2015), accessed 12/12/15: http://
static1.squarespace.com/static/55a81f9be4b01a30079bb9d3/t/568a1452d8af102bf3eb4d00/1451889758745/Butterfly+Stigma+2015

44	

The National Committee for Counter Trafficking,"National Plan of
Action of the National Committee for Counter Trafficking 2014-2018,(Kingdom of Cambodia, 2014), accessed 05/03/16: http://ncct.gov.
kh/docs/ncct-action-plan-2014-2018-en.pdf

45	Action for Cooperation Against Trafficking in Persons, (United Nations Development Programme, 2014), accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/documents/projects/BRC/ACTIP_Project_Document_FINAL.pdf

46	As above.

47	As above.

2	

Travel & Tourism: Economic Impact 2015 Dominican Republic,(World Travel & Tourism Council, 2015), accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/countries%202015/dominicanrepublic2015.pdf

3	International Justice Mission, Commercial Sexual Exploitation ofChildren in the Dominican Republic, (International Justice Mission,2014), p. 8, accessed 10/03/2016: https://ijm.org/sites/default/
files/resources/IJM-Commercial-Sexual-Exploitation-of-Children-in-the-Dominican-Republic_0.pdf

4	

As above.

5	Personal communication.

6	Personal communication.

7	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Dominican Republic Country Narrative, (UnitedStates Department of State, 2015), p. 144, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243559.pdf

8	Personal communication.

9	Personal communication.

10	

United Nations Population Fund Trafficking in Women, Girls andBoys. Key Issues for Population and Development Programmes,(United Nations Population Fund, 2002), p. 42, accessed
10/03/2016: https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/
Trafficking.pdf

11	Personal communication.

12	Personal communication.

13	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Dominican Republic Country Narrative, (UnitedStates Department of State, 2015), p. 144, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243559.pdf

14	

15	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
In Persons Report: Cambodia Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 03/02/16: http://www.state.
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm

16	

49	

"Commit: The Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative Against
Trafficking , (United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human
Trafficking), accessed 03/02/16: http://www.no-trafficking.org/
commit.html

50	

As above.

51	Charles Parkinson and Pech Sotheary, 'Pech. Kingdom Backs
National Human Trafficking Plan', The Phnom Penh Post, May 1,
2015, accessed 03/02/16: http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/kingdom-backs-regional-human-trafficking-plan

52	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
In Persons Report: Cambodia Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 03/02/16: http://www.state.
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm

53	

Victim Identification Procedures in Cambodia: A Brief Study of Human
Trafficking Victim Identification in the Cambodian Context, (United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013, pp. 41- 43, accessed
08/10/15: http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpacific/Publications/2013/NRM/FINAL_Draft_UNODC_report_
Cambodia_NRM.pdf

54	As above.

55	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
In Persons Report: Cambodia Country Narrative (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 03/02/16: http://www.state.
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm

56	Work Faster or Get Out: Labour Rights Abuses in Cambodia’s Garment Industry, (Human Rights Watch, 2015), accessed 08/10/15:
http://features.hrw.org/features/HRW_2015_reports/Cambodia_
Garment_Workers/index.html

57	'Cambodia raises minimum wage for garment workers', BBC
News, accessed 08/10/15: http://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia-34474397

58	

|

'Busting Sex Tourists in Dominican Republic', Reuters, January
4, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.newsweek.com/busting-sex-tourists-dominican-republic-318735

1	

Charles Rollet, 'Progress Seen On Trafficking', Phnom Penh Post,
August 20, 2015, accessed 03/02/16: http://www.phnompenhpost.
com/national/progress-seen-trafficking

48	

192

Dominican Republic

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labor Report: Dominican Republic, (United States Department of State, 2014), accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.dol.gov/
ilab/reports/child-labor/dom_republic.htm
United Nations Population Fund,Child Marriage Country Profile:
Dominican Republic, (United Nations Population Fund, 2012), p. 1,
accessed 21/10/15: http://www.devinfo.info/mdg5b/profiles/files/
profiles/4/Child_Marriage_Country_Profile_LACDOM_Dominican%20Republic.pdf"The World Bank: Poverty Headcount Ratio At National Poverty
Lines (% of Population)", World Bank, accessed 30/10/2015: http://
data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC/countries/DO?display=graph17	Programme for the Promotion of Formalization in Latin America
and the Caribbean, Notes on Formalization: Evolution of Informal
Employment in the Dominican Republic International Labour Organization, (International Labor Organisation, 2014), p. 6, accessed:
10/03/2016: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---americas/---ro-lima/documents/publication/wcms_245893.pdf

18	Rosario Espinal, Jana Morgan and Elizabeth J. Zechmeister,
Cultura Política de la Democracia en República Dominicana y en Las
Américas, 2014: Gobernabilidad Democrática a Través de 10 Años delBarómetro de Las Américas (United States Agency for International
Development, 2014), accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.vanderbilt.
edu/lapop/dr/AB2014_Dominican_Republic_Country_Report_
V6_W_081815.pdf

19	

As above.

20	Personal communication.

21	Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labor Report: Dominican Republic, (United States Department of State, 2014), accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.dol.gov/
ilab/reports/child-labor/dom_republic.htm

22	

Government of the Dominican Republic, 'Law no 66-97', article 4,"Ley General de Educación" (1997),23	Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labor Report: Dominican Republic, (United States Department of State, 2014), accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.dol.gov/
ilab/reports/child-labor/dom_republic.htm

24	Country cont.
'Busting Sex Tourists in Dominican Republic', Reuters, April 1,
2015, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.newsweek.com/busting-sex-tourists-dominican-republic-318735

25	"The World Bank, Overview: Dominican Republic", World Bank,
last modified 8 September 2015, accessed 30/10/2015: http://www.
worldbank.org/en/country/dominicanrepublic/overview

26	Peter Granitz, 'Haiti Border Crisis Grows as Dominican Republic
Expels 'Migrants'', Reuters, September 19, 2015, accessed 30/10/16:
http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/09/19/us-haiti-dominican-deportees-idUSKCN0RJ05O20150919

27	

We Are Dominican, (Human Rights Watch, 2015) accessed
30/10/16: https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/01/we-are-dominican/arbitrary-deprivation-nationality-dominican-republic28	Government of the Dominican Republic, Public Law no 137-03,'Sobre Tráfico ilícito de migrantes y trata de personas,' August 7,
2003, accessed 10/03/2016: https://www.unodc.org/cld/document/
dom/2003/ley_no._137-03_sobre_trafico_ilicito_de_migrantes_y_trata_de_personas.html?

29	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Person, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Dominican Republic Country Narrative, (UnitedStates Department of State, 2015), p. 145, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243559.pdf

30	Personal communication.

31	'IOM Aids Prosecutor’s Office to Combat Human Trafficking andSmuggling in Dominican Republic', International Organisation for
Migration, October 28, 2014, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.
iom.int/news/iom-aids-prosecutors-office-combat-human-trafficking-and-smuggling-dominican-republic

32	National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of theannex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21:'Dominican
Republic, Human Rights Council Working Group on the Universal
Periodic Review Eighteenth session', (UN General Assembly, 27January–7 February 2014).

33	Personal communication.

34	

Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labor Report: Dominican Republic, (United States Department of State, 2014), accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.dol.gov/
ilab/reports/child-labor/dom_republic.htm

35	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Person, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Dominican Republic Country Narrative, (UnitedStates Department of State, 2015), p. 145, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243559.pdf

36	Celso Perez, 'The Dominican Republic’s Tortured Relationshipwith its Haitian Minority', Human Rights Watch, June 19, 2015,
accessed 10/03/2016: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/06/19/dominican-republics-tortured-relationship-its-haitian-minority-049	Personal communication.

50	'Haitian Migrants Returning from the Dominican Republic Facedwith Drought, Poverty and Lack of Opportunities', International Organisation for Migration, September 18, 2015, accessed
10/03/2016: https://www.iom.int/news/haitian-migrants-returning-dominican-republic-faced-drought-poverty-and-lack-opportunities

51	

India
Rajiv Kumar, India 2015: Towards Economic Transformation (The
Legatum Institute, 2015), 2, last accessed April 4, 2016, https://lif.blob.core.windows.net/lif/docs/default-source/publications/india_nedtransitions_a4pweb.pdf ?sfvrsn=41	

As above, 5.

2	Table 162: Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line,(Reserve Bank of India, 2012), last accessed April 4, 2016, https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=16603

3	

Sonalde Desai and Amaresh Dubey, "Caste in 21st Century India:
Competing Narratives" (2012) 46(11) Economic and Political
Weekly, 40–49, accessed April 4, 2016, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC3379882/

4	

Random sample surveys were conducted by Gallup in 2016 in
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, West Bengal. Survey
sample size in each State was 1000 except for Andra Pradesh
and Telangana which was split into two states during the survey
process, where a sample of 500 was applied to each.

5	

A. Arunkumar, "Occupational health hazards and causative factorsof male adult bonded labourers of South India: a mixed methodpilot study" (2016) 3(3) International Journal of Community Medical
Public Health, 735-740, accessed April 6, 2016, http://www.ejmanager.com/mnstemps/109/109-1453314813.pdf ?t=1462509644

6	"Domestic Workers in India", Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing, last accessed April 4, 2016, http://wiego.
org/informal_economy_law/domestic-workers-india

7	As above.

8	Personal communication.

9	

Anastasia Moloney, 'Dominican Republic Busts Child Sex
Parties to Combat Trafficking', Reuters, April 1, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016: http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0MS4TJ20150401

11	

UNICEF Annual Report 2014: Dominican Republic, (United Nations
Children’s Fund, 2014), p. 1, accessed 20/03/2016: http://www.
unicef.org/about/annualreport/files/Dominican_Republic_Annual_Report_2014.pdf

12	

Anastasia Moloney, 'Dominican Republic Busts Child Sex
Parties to Combat Trafficking', Reuters, April 1, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016: http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0MS4TJ20150401

13	

37	

38	

39	

Personal communication.

40	Bureau of International Labor Affairs Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labor Report: Dominican Republic, (United States Department of State, 2014), accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.dol.gov/
ilab/reports/child-labor/dom_republic.htm

41	Personal communication.

42	Personal communication.

43	Personal communication.

44	Personal communication.

45	

We Are Dominican: Arbitrary Deprivation of Nationality in the Dominican Republic, (Human Rights Watch, 2015), accessed 10/03/2016:
https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/01/we-are-dominican/arbitrary-deprivation-nationality-dominican-republic46	As above.

47	'Haitian Migrants Returning from the Dominican Republic Facedwith Drought, Poverty and Lack of Opportunities', International Organisation for Migration, September 18, 2015, accessed
10/03/2016: https://www.iom.int/news/haitian-migrants-returning-dominican-republic-faced-drought-poverty-and-lack-opportunities48	As above.

10	National Crime Records Bureau, Statistics 2014, Table 6A.1,
Incidence & Rate of Crime Relating To Human Trafficking During
2014, page 202, http://ncrb.nic.in/StatPublications/CII/CII2014/
Statistics%202014.pdf"Early and Child Marriage: A Landscape Analysis", Nirantar Trustand American Jewish World Service, last accessed April 6, 2016,
https://ajws.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/EarlyChildMarriageinIndia_Landscape'The Marriage Bazaar: How Female Foeticide has Made Bride
Trade a Roaring Business', Hindustan Times, December 28, 2014,
accessed 04/04/2016: http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/themarriage-bazaar-how-female-foeticide-has-made-bride-trade-aroaring-business/story-U7egbgiWQnStSBjM4MZnmI.html'India's Bride Trafficking Fuelled by Skewed Sex Ratios', The
Guardian, December 17, 2014, accessed 06/04/2016: http://
www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/dec/17/india-bride-trafficking-foeticide14	

'Bare branches, redundant males', The Economist, accessed
05/04/2016: http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21648715-distorted-sex-ratios-birth-generation-ago-are-changing-marriage-and-damaging-societies-asias

15	

India Report to the Committee on the Rights of the Child in advance ofIndia's initial report on the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the
Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict,(Child Soldiers International, 2013), p.2, accessed 05/04/201616	As above.

17	Children in Armed Conflict, Report of the Secretary-General to
the Security Council (A/69/926–S/2015/409), (Office of the Special
Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed
Conflict, 2015), accessed 05/04/2016: https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/india/

18	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

193

Sanjay Pandey, 'Forcing Children to Fight in India's Restive East',
Al Jazeera, March 22, 2015, accessed 05/04/2016: http://www.
aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/03/forcing-children-fight-india-restive-northeast-150315075033994.html

19	

Table 162: Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty
Line, Reserve Bank of India, https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=16603

20	

Action Aid and Tata Instiute of Social Studies, Making Street
Children Matter A census study in Mumbai City, (Action Aid andTata Instiute of Social Studies, 2013), accessed 05/04/2016: http://
actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/mumbai_street_children_v3.pdf

21	National Statistical Survey Organisation, Informal Sector andConditions of Employment in India, (Government of India 2014),
accessed 05/04/2016: http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/
nss_report_557_26aug14.pdf

22	Anuradha Nagaraj, 'India's booming cities built from "blood
bricks" of bonded labourers', Thomson Reuters Foundation,
March 11, 2016, accessed 03/04/2016: http://news.trust.org/
item/20160311000331-s5a8y/?source=dpagetopic

23	

As above.

40	

See Statistics 2014,National Crime Records Bureau, p. 60, Table
1.13, http://ncrb.nic.in/StatPublications/CII/CII2014/Statistics%202014.pdf

41	Silvia Palomba, Sr. Namrata Joseph Cfmss, Modern Slavery inIndia: cases of bonded labour, (Franciscans International, 2012),
p. 13, accessed 16/09/2014: http://franciscansinternational.org/
fileadmin/docs/Contemporary_Forms_of_Slavery/Modern_Slavery_in_India___Bonded_Labour_Cases_FINAL_17_Sept_2012.
pdf

42	

43	

'Cleaning Human Waste: "Manual Scavenging," Caste, andDiscrimination in India', Human Rights Watch, August 25, 2014,
accessed 20/04/2016: https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/08/25/
cleaning-human-waste/manual-scavenging-caste-and-discrimination-india

44	

25	

See for example, the report of Justice Verna, in the aftermath of agang rape in Delhi that galvanised public opinion and led to reforms of laws: Justice Verna, Justice Seth, G Subramanium, Reportof the Committee on Amendments to Criminal Law, (Committee on
Amendments to Criminal Law, 2013), accessed 13/05/2016: http://
www.prsindia.org/uploads/media/Justice%20verma%20committee/js%20verma%20committe%20report.pdf

26	"Early and Child Marriage: A Landscape Analysis", Nirantar Trustand American Jewish World Service, last accessed April 6, 2016,
https://ajws.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/EarlyChildMarriageinIndia_LandscapeAnalysis_SUMMARY.pdf

27	As above.

28	"Statistics on Labour Migration within the Asia Pacific", Red
Cross, last accessed April 5, 2016, http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Documents/Asia-pacific/201505/Map_Infographic.pdf

29	See for example, Verité, Indian Workers in Domestic Textile Production and Middle East-Based Manufacturing, Infrastructure, andConstruction, (Verité, 2010), accessed 06/04/2016: https://www.
verite.org/sites/default/files/images/HELP%20WANTED_A%20
Verite%CC%81%20Report_Indian%20Migrant%20Workers.pdf;
see also Amnesty International, Exploited Dreams: Dispatches from
Indian migrant workers in Saudi Arabia, (Amnesty International,2014), accessed 05/04/2016: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ASA20/025/2014/en/30	

Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 (as amended in 2016).

31	'Govt readies domestic workers policy, proposes Rs 9,000
minimum pay with benefits', F.India, August 17, 2015, accessed
05/04/2016: http://www.firstpost.com/india/govt-readies-domestic-workers-policy-proposes-rs-9000-minimum-pay-benefits-2395116.html

32	

Suraksha P., ''Khoya Paya':What do parents of missing children
stand to gain and lose', Times of India, October 21, 2015, accessed
05/04/2016: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/KhoyaPaya-What-do-parents-of-missing-children-stand-to-gain-andlose/articleshow/49483730.cms

33	"India", Child Soldiers International, accessed 05/04/2016: http://
www.child-soldiers.org/country_reader.php?id=734	Government of India, Response to 6 Monthly Update on Response
to Modern Slavery - Case Study, (Walk Free Foundation, 2014),
accessed 14/07/2014: http://www.globalslaveryindex. org/country/
india/

35	"Statistics 2014", National Crime Records Bureau, last accessed
October 21, 2015, http://ncrb.nic.in/StatPublications/CII/CII2014/
Statistics%202014.pdf

36	Government of India, "Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act
1976", accessed 16/09/2014: http://www.childlineindia.org.in/
CP-CRDownloads/Bonded%20Labour%20System%20(Abolition)%20Act%201976%20and%20Rules.pdf

37	

|

"Abolition of Bonded Labour", National Human Rights Commission,
last accessed September 16, 2014, http://nhrc.nic.in/hrissues.
htm#no139	On the caste system see for example, Gabriel Domínguez, “Modern Slavery Widespread in India”, Deutche Welle, http://www.
dw.com/en/modern-day-slavery-widespread-in-india/a-17180433

24	

194

Silvia Palomba, Sr. Namrata Joseph Cfmss, Modern Slavery inIndia: cases of bonded labour, (Franciscans International, 2012),
p. 13, accessed 16/09/2014: http://franciscansinternational.org/
fileadmin/docs/Contemporary_Forms_of_Slavery/Modern_Slavery_in_India___Bonded_Labour_Cases_FINAL_17_Sept_2012.
pdf

38	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

"About Us", Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, lastmodified January 27, 2014, http://stophumantrafficking-mha.nic.
in/forms/Mainlinks.aspx?lid=7
See for example, Himadri Ghosh, 'West Bengal: The Epicentre
of India's Boom in Sexual Slavery', Scroll.in April 25, 2016, lastaccessed 08/04/2016 ; see also Report of the National Legal Services
Authority Submitted to the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India in the Writ
Petition (C) No. 56/2004 titled Prajwala v. Union of India and Others,
page 17. This also reflects personal communications. http://scroll.
in/article/807092/west-bengal-the-epicentre-of-indias-boom-insexual-slavery
Victim compensation available for victims of human trafficking
in some states – see Government of India, Response to 6 Monthly
Update on Response to Modern Slavery - Case Study, (Walk Free
Foundation, 2014), accessed 14/07/2014: http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/india/

45	Alex Woods, 'Justice Triumphs! Four Traffickers Convicted in India', HuffPost Impact, March 11, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016: http://
www.huffingtonpost.com/free-the-slaves/justice-triumphs-fourtra_b_9400846.html

46	

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Current Status ofVictim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on
Anti-Human Trafficking, (United Nations, 2013), p. 36, accessed
14/07/2014: http://www.unodc.org/documents/southasia//reports/
Human_Trafficking-10-05-13.pdf

47	

See The Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act 1956,
section 16, https://www.wcwonline.org/pdf/lawcompilation/India_
SUPPRESSION%20OF%20IMMORAL%20TRAFFIC%20IN%20
WOMEN%20AND%20GIRLS%20AC.pdf

48	

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Current Status ofVictim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on
Anti-Human Trafficking, (United Nations, 2013), p. 36, accessed
14/07/2014: http://www.unodc.org/documents/southasia//reports/
Human_Trafficking-10-05-13.pdf

49	

Government of India, Response to 6 Monthly Update on Response
to Modern Slavery - Case Study, (Walk Free Foundation, 2014),
accessed 14/07/2014, http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/
india/

50	

Press Information Legal, 'Memorandum of Understanding
between India and Bahrain on Cooperation for Prevention of
Human Trafficking especially trafficking in Women and Children',
Ministry of Home Affairs, March 10, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016:
http://uphome.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Images/MoU.pdf

51	

Rina Chandran, 'India, Bahrain agree on action to curb human trafficking, help victims', Thomson Reuters Foundation,
March 10, 2016, accessed 04/04/2016, http://news.trust.org/
item/20160310160022-ngwy5/

52	Press Information Bureau, 'Memorandum of Understanding
between India and Bahrain on Cooperation for Prevention of
Human Trafficking especially trafficking in Women and Children',
Ministry of Home Affairs, March 10, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016,
http://uphome.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Images/MoU.pdf

53	"India Says Will Sign Accord with UAE to Stop Human Trafficking", The Economic Times, April 13, 2016, accessed 14/04/2016,
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/india-says-will-sign-accord-with-uae-to-stop-human-trafficking/articleshow/51812864.cms?from=mdr

54	Country cont.
In the Supreme Court of India Civil Original Jurisdiction Writ
Petition (C) No. 56 of 2004 Prajwala… Petitioners vs Union ofIndia and Ors… Respondents, Judgement, Justice Anil R Dave,
December 9, 2015).

55	Bhanupriya Rao, 'Women in the Police Force- Numbers andBeyond', Factly, August 19, 2015, https://factly.in/women-in-thepolice-force-numbers-beyond/56	

Elizabeth Donger and Jacqueline Bhabha, Is this Protection?
Analyzing India's Approach to the Rescue and Reintegration ofChildren Trafficked for Labour Exploitation, (FXB Center for Healthand Human Rights at Harvard University, 2016), p. 12, accessed
05/04/2016: https://cdn2.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/
sites/5/2016/03/Is-this-Protection-Final.pdf

57	Personal communication.

58	"Uttar Pradesh Population Census data 2011", Census 2011, lastaccessed 13/04/2016, http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/uttar+pradesh.html

59	"Industrial Development and Economic Growth in Uttar Pradesh",India Brand Equity Foundation, last accessed 06/04/2016: http://
www.ibef.org/states/uttar-pradesh-presentation

60	"Table 162: Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty
Line", Reserve Bank of India, September 16, 2015, accessed
06/04/2016

61	

Note the total number of Dalits is possibly much higher as Muslim
and Christian Dalits are not included in these figures.

62	"India: Official Dalit Population Exceeds 200 Million", International Dalit Solidarity Network, May 29, 2013, accessed 03/04/2016:
http://idsn.org/india-official-dalit-population-exceeds-200-million/

63	"Initiatives in Uttar Pradesh: Anti Human Trafficking", October
7, 2015, last accessed April 3, 2016, http://stophumantrafficking-mha.nic.in/writereaddata/Uttar%20Pradesh.pptx

64	"States bordering Nepal look to curb human trafficking post
earthquake", Live Mint, June 18, 2015, last accessed April 6, 2016,
http://www.livemint.com/Politics/pH6yeE2kKjiesjnpTOuIJK/States-bordering-Nepal-looking-to-curb-human-trafficking-pos.
html

65	

'One in Five Child Labourers is from Uttar Pradesh', The Hindu,
June 11, 2015, accessed 02/04/2016: http://www.thehindu.com/
news/national/cry-releases-report-on-child-labourers-in-india/
article7305797.ece

66	

As above.

67	"Census 2011", Ministry of Labour and Employment, last accessed
April 2, 2016, http://labour.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Divisions/childlabour/Census-2001%262011.pdf

68	

'Indian Town Where Glass-Making is a Household Craft', Al
Jazeera, February 13, 2015, accessed 02/04/2016: http://www.
aljazeera.com/indepth/inpictures/2015/02/indian-town-glassmaking-household-craft-150209200924438.html

69	'India: Official Dalit population exceeds 200 million', International
Dalit Solidarity Network, May 29, 2013, accessed 02/04/2016: http://
idsn.org/india-official-dalit-population-exceeds-200-million/

70	

The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their
Rehabilitation Act, 201371	

Human Rights Watch, Cleaning Human Waste: "Manual Scavenging", Caste and Discrimination in India, (Human Rights
Watch, 2014), accessed 18/03/2016: https://www.hrw.org/
report/2014/08/25/cleaning-human-waste/manual-scavenging-caste-and-discrimination-india

72	

Prachi Salve, 'India's 13 Million Child Brides, Their 6 Million
Children', IndpaSpend, March 9, 2015, accessed 02/04/2016: http://
www.indiaspend.com/cover-story/indias-13-million-child-bridestheir-6-million-children-71955

73	

Dean Nelson, 'Teenager exposes India's 'one month wives' sex
tourism', The Telegraph, April 14, 2013, accessed 03/04/2016:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/9993453/
Teenager-exposes-Indias-one-month-wives-sex-tourism.html

74	Kamal Saksena, 'Combating Human Trafficking in Uttar Pradesh',Indian Police Service, accessed 04/04/2016: http://uphome.gov.in/
writereaddata/Portal/Images/AHTI.pdf

75	"The Uttar Pradesh Victim Compensation Scheme", Government ofIndia, last accessed April 4, 2016, http://uphome.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Images/victim.PDF

76	

Kamal Saksena, 'Combating Human Trafficking in Uttar Pradesh',Indian Police Service, accessed 04/04/2016: http://uphome.gov.in/
writereaddata/Portal/Images/AHTI.pdf

77	"Initiatives in Uttar Pradesh: Anti Human Trafficking", October
7, 2015, last accessed April 3, 2016, http://stophumantrafficking-mha.nic.in/writereaddata/Uttar%20Pradesh.pptx

78	"Operation Smile: Cracking the puzzle of missing children", India
Today, November 17, 2014, accessed 03/03/2016: http://indiatoday.
intoday.in/story/operation-smile-missing-children-ghaziabad-police/1/401187.html

79	Kamal Saksena, 'Combating Human Trafficking in Uttar Pradesh',Indian Police Service, accessed 04/04/2016: http://uphome.gov.in/
writereaddata/Portal/Images/AHTI.pdf

80	

'UP Government to Install CCTV Cameras to Check Human Trafficking', NDTV, June 11, 2015, accessed 04/04/2016: http://www.
ndtv.com/india-news/up-government-to-install-cctv-cameras-tocheck-human-trafficking-770846

81	

"Bihar Population Census data 2011", Census 2011, accessed April
3, 2016: http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/bihar.html; seealso "Industrial Development and Economic Growth in Bihar",India Brand Equity Foundation, accessed April 3, 2016, http://www.
ibef.org/states/bihar-presentation82	"Industrial Development and Economic Growth in Uttar Pradesh",India Brand Equity Foundation, last accessed 06/04/2016: http://
www.ibef.org/states/bihar-presentation

83	

Ginny Baumann, Rohit Dwivedi and Paras Jha, Modern Slavery
Landscape in the State of Bihar, India, (The Global Fund to End
Slavery, 2014), p. 28.

84	"Census of India 2011", Census 2011, last accessed April 3, 2016,
http://www.census2011.co.in/

85	'The Bahari Bihari: Story of five Bihar migrants and why theycount', The Indian Express, November 8, 2015, last accessed April
3, 2016, http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/
the-bahari-bihari-story-of-five-bihar-migrants-and-why-theycount/86	Ginny Baumann, Rohit Dwivedi and Paras Jha, Modern Slavery
Landscape in the State of Bihar, India, (The Global Fund to End
Slavery, 2014), p. 28.

87	"Crimes against Persons Belonging to SCs/STc," National Crime
Records Bureau, 2011.

88	

Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies, A report on crime
against women in Bihar, (Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary
Studies, 2011), accessed April 3, 2016, http://www.rgics.org/test/
wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Crime-Against-Women-In-Bihar.pdf

89	

Ginny Baumann, Rohit Dwivedi and Paras Jha, Modern Slavery
Landscape in the State of Bihar, India, (The Global Fund to End
Slavery, 2014), p. 37.

90	

'14 Minors Rescued from Jacket Factory', The Times of India,
September 9, 2015, accessed 04/04/2016, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ludhiana/14-minors-rescued-from-jacket-factory/
articleshow/48879345.cms

91	

'16 children rescued from bangle-making unit in Jaipur', Hindustan Times, March 30, 2016, accessed 04/04/2016: http://www.
hindustantimes.com/jaipur/16-children-rescued-from-banglemaking-unit-in-jaipur/story-K0pIYwEJmS0Z9cDJoA41TL.html;
see also Alok Pandey, 'Child Trafficking in Bihar: Villages Despair
Over Lost Income', NDTV, January 31, 2015, accessed 04/05/2016:
http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bihars-sold-children-villages-despair-over-rescue-735884#Comments

92	

'Child trafficking: 11 children rescued in Ludhiana', Hindustan
Times, 7 May 2015, accessed 05/04/2016: http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/child-trafficking-11-children-rescued-in-ludhiana/story-6G8b4S4QHqngAEGIeXge2J.html

93	

'Child Labourers from Bihar, UP rescued from Rajasthan factory', Business Standard, January 5, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016:
http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/
child-labourers-from-bihar-up-rescued-from-rajasthan-factory-116010500366_1.html

94	

'Bengaluru: 8 Bihari Minors Rescued from Bonded Labor', India
Today, February 2, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016: http://indiatoday.
intoday.in/story/bengaluru-8-bihari-minors-rescued-from-bonded-labor/1/585338.html

95	

Ginny Baumann, Rohit Dwivedi and Paras Jha, Modern Slavery
Landscape in the State of Bihar, India, (The Global Fund to End
Slavery, 2014).

96	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

195

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Current Status ofVictim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on Anti
Human Trafficking, United Nations, 2013), accessed 04/04/2016:
http://www.unodc.org/documents/southasia/reports/Human_
Trafficking-10-05-13.pdf

97	"Bihar launches operation against child trafficking", Yahoo,
January 1, 2015, accessed 04/04/2016: https://in.news.yahoo.com/
bihar-launches-operation-against-child-trafficking-152404085.
html

98	

"Maharashtra Population Census", Census 2011, last accessed
April 4, 2016, http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/maharashtra.html

99	"Industrial Development and Economic Growth in Uttar Pradesh",India Brand Equity Foundation, last accessed 06/04/2016: http://
www.ibef.org/states/bihar-presentation

100	"Maharashtra Population Census data 2011", Census 2011, lastaccessed 05/04/2016: http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/maharashtra.html

101	"Population of Mumbai", India Online Pages, last accessed April 5,
2016, http://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/mumbai-population.html

102	

Jason Burke, 'Few grieve for the passing of Mumbai's red-light district', The Guardian, December 23, 2014, last accessed 05/04/2016:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/22/time-running-out-mumbai-red-light-district-kamathipura

103	Walk Free Foundation, Modern Slavery in Maharashtra: Understanding the problem and existing responses 2014 (draft), (Walk Free
Foundation, 2015), p. 3, accessed 05/04/2016

104	

Anu Anand, 'India's bride trafficking fuelled by skewed sex ratios',
The Guardian, December 17, 2014, last accessed 05/04/2016:
http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/dec/17/
india-bride-trafficking-foeticide105	

Rina Chandran, 'Bonded labourers in India brick kilns
slowly learn they have rights', Thomson Reuters Foundation,
March 22, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016: http://news.trust.org/
item/20160322010257-wtcxt/

106	Rohit Alok, 'No headway by Mumbai police in human trafficking
cases', The Indian Express, January 31, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016:
http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/no-headway-bymumbai-police-in-human-trafficking-cases/120	As above.

121	Shiv Sahay Singh, 'West Bengal, Maharashtra ink pact on
victims of human trafficking', The Hindu, June 3, 2014, accessed
05/04/2016: http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/
west-bengal-maharashtra-ink-pact-on-victims-of-trafficking/article6075890.ece

122	

As above.

123	Saurav Roy, 'Five states to jointly fight human trafficking',
Hindustan Times, June 24, 2015, accessed 05/04/2016: http://www.
hindustantimes.com/india/five-states-to-jointly-fight-human-trafficking/story-q0LlwKeepv66Zk0GadAwEN.html

124	

Iraq
Personal communication.

1	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Iraq Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), accessed 14/08/15: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243458.htm

2	

Republic of Iraq, Investment Overview of Iraq, (National Investment
Commission, 2015), p. 12, accessed 21/07/15: http://www.mofa.
gov.iq/trash/assets/investmentoverview.pdf

3	

Syed Zain Al-Mahmood and Niharika Mandhana, 'South Asia
Migrant Workers Stuck in Wartorn Iraq', The Wall Street Journal,
July 2, 2014, accessed 16/07/15: http://www.wsj.com/articles/
south-asian-migrant-workers-stuck-in-wartorn-iraq-1404317860

4	

As above.

5	"Migrant Workers Caught up in Libya and Iraq Conflicts",
Migrant-Rights, last modified August 14, 2014, http://www.
migrant-rights.org/2014/08/migrant-workers-caught-up-in-libyaand-iraq-conflicts/

6	Rina Chandran, 'Bonded labourers in India brick kilns
slowly learn they have rights', Thomson Reuters Foundation,
March 22, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016: http://news.trust.org/
item/20160322010257-wtcxt/

7	

108	

J. Venkatesan, 'Court orders fresh, nationwide survey to free bonded labourers', The Hindu, October 16, 2012, accessed 05/04/2016:
http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/court-orders-fresh-nationwide-survey-to-free-bonded-labourers/article4000135.ece

109	As above.

110	"Know Yours Rights Bonded Labour", National Human Rights Commission, last accessed April 5, 2016, http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents/
Publications/KYR%20Bonded%20Labour%20English.pdf

111	

Rina Chandran, 'Bonded labourers in India brick kilns
slowly learn they have rights', Thomson Reuters Foundation,
March 22, 2016, accessed 05/04/2016: http://news.trust.org/
item/20160322010257-wtcxt/

112	Walk Free Foundation, Modern Slavery in Maharashtra: Understanding the problem and existing responses 2014 (draft), (Walk Free
Foundation, 2015), p. 4, accessed 05/04/2016113	

Sushant Kulkarni, "Mathadi unions run amok as police ‘turn ablind eye'", The Indian Express, March 17, 2014, last accessed
05/04/2016: http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/mathadiunions-run-amok-as-police-turn-a-blind-eye/

114	Walk Free Foundation, Modern Slavery in Maharashtra: Understanding the problem and existing responses 2014 (draft), (Walk Free
Foundation, 2015), p. 3, accessed 05/04/2016115	As above.

116	Surendra P Gangan, 'Now, Maharashtra domestic workers to getbenefits of minimum wages act', Hindustan Times, August 29, 2013,
accessed 05/04/2016: http://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai/
now-maharashtra-domestic-workers-to-get-benefits-of-minimum-wages-act/story-W69wX4CrZVqMpuZBTEdN7H.html

117	

|

As above.

119	Walk Free Foundation, Modern Slavery in Maharashtra: Understanding the problem and existing responses 2014 (draft), (WalkFree Foundation, 2015), p. 2, accessed 05/04/2016 http://www.
census2011.co.in/census/state/maharashtra.html

107	

196

"Exceptional Work done by Anti Human Trafficking Units", Anti
Human Trafficking Unit Maharashtra, last accessed 05/04/2016:
http://www.icds-wcd.nic.in/trafficking/CAC%20pdf/Presentation%20by%20Maharastra%20Police%20AHTU.pdf

118	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

"Iraq: Grave Fears for Kidnapped Migrant Workers", International
Trade Union Confederation, last modified 25 June, 2014: http://
www.ituc-csi.org/iraq-grave-fears-for-kidnapped?lang=en; seealso "Hundreds of Indian Construction Workers Possibly Stranded
in Iraq", Amnesty International, 21 June, 2014, accessed 25/07/15:
http://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/06/hundreds-indian-construction-workers-possibly-stranded-iraq/
As above.

8	'Iraq: ISIS Escapees Describe Systematic Rape, Yezidi Survivors in Need of Urgent Care', Human Rights Watch, April 14,
2015, accessed 22/07/15: http://www.hrw.org/news/2015/04/14/
iraq-isis-escapees-describe-systematic-rape9	

'Islamic State (ISIS) Releases Pamphlet on Female Slaves', MEMRI's
Jihad and Terrorism Threat Monitor, December 4, 2014, accessed
25/07/15: http://www.memrijttm.org/islamic-state-isis-releasespamphlet-on-female-slaves.html

10	Personal communication.

11	

Christoph Wilcke, 'No Child's Play: Kids Fighting One Anotherin Iraq Conflict', Human Rights Watch, October 30, 2015, accessed
12/01/16: http://www.hrw.org/news/2015/10/30/no-childs-playkids-fighting-one-another-iraq-conflict; see also, Office of theHigh Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention on the Rights of
the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8, paragraph 1, of
the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on
the involvement of children in armed conflict, (United Nations, 2015)
p. 4, accessed 12/01/16: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/
UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement12	Country cont.
In June 2014, following the call by the Prime Minister and the
fatwa issued by Sistani for Iraqis to join the fight against IS, a Popular Mobilization Commission (PMC) was established. A Councilof Ministers' Decision in April 2015 instructed ministries andstate institutions that the PMC should be considered a formal institution under the Prime Minister's Office (PMO). PMF are often
referred to as pro-government militias, despite their formalisation.
International Organizations have questioned the control PMO hasover the PMF. There are also many groups fighting under the PMF
label.

13	

Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8,paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rightsof the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, (United
Nations, 2015), p. 5, accessed 12/01/16: https://documents-dds-ny.
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement

14	Lizzie Dearden, 'ISIS Kidnaps up to 500 Children in Iraq to use
as Suicide Bombers and Child Soldiers', The Independent, 1 June,
2015, accessed 22/07/15: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/
world/middle-east/isis-kidnaps-up-to-500-children-in-iraq-touse-as-suicide-bombers-and-child-soldiers-10288989.html

15	Personal communication.

16	Personal communication.

17	Personal communication.

18	Omar Jaffal, "Underage Marriage of Iraqi Girls Rises", Al-Monitor,
2012, accessed 22/07/15: http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/ar/
culture/2012/12/the-underage-marriage-crisis-in-iraq.html#

19	

Personal communication.

20	

Miriam Puttick, The Lost Women of Iraq: Family-based violence
during armed conflict, (Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and Minority Rights Group International, 2015) p. 25, accessed 22/07/15:
http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/MRG-report-A4_OCTOBER-2015_WEB.pdf

21	

Personal communication.

31	Walk Free Foundation have chosen to use the term IS (IslamicState) recognising the group are known by different terms, including, but not limited to, Daesh, ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and theLevant), ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria), and ISWK (IslamicState Wilayat Khorasan, also ISIL-K).

32	"Displacement Tracking Matrix, Round XXVIII", International
Organization for Migration, 2015, accessed 21/02/16:

33	

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2015 Iraq
Humanitarian Response Plan Overview: Iraq on the Brink, (United
Nations, 2015), p. 2, accessed 21/02/16: https://docs.unocha.org/
sites/dms/Iraq/iraq_hrp_overview.pdf

34	

Rania Abouzeid, 'Out of Sight', The New Yorker, October 5,
2015, accessed 21/02/16: http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/05/out-of-sight-letter-from-baghdad-rania-abouzeid35	Julia St. Thomas King and Dennis Ardis, 'Identity Crisis? Documentation for the Displaced in Iraq', Humanitarian Practice
Network, 2015, accessed 21/02/16: http://odihpn.org/magazine/
identity-crisis-documentation-for-the-displaced-in-iraq

36	Special Feature: The Crisis in Iraq Number 65, (Humanitarian
Exchange, Humanitarian Practice Network), p. 5, November 2015.

37	2014 Global Slavery Index, (Walk Free Foundation, 2014), p. 27, accessed 21/02/2016: http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/download/

38	

Laura Lungarotti, Sarah Craggs, Agnes Tillinac, 'Trafficking in
Persons in Times of Crises – A Neglected Protection Concern: The
Case of Iraq', Humanitarian Policy Group of the Overseas Development Institute, October 2015, available at: http://odihpn.org/magazine/human-trafficking-in-crises-a-neglected-protection-concern/39	As above.

40	Julia St. Thomas King and Dennis Ardis, 'Identity Crisis? Documentation for the Displaced in Iraq', Humanitarian Practice
Network, October 2015, accessed 21/02/16: http://odihpn.org/magazine/identity-crisis-documentation-for-the-displaced-in-iraq/41	As above.

42	As above, p. 21.

43	Personal communication.

44	

22	

23	

Miriam Puttick, The Lost Women of Iraq: Family-based violence
during armed conflict, (Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and Minority Rights Group International, 2015) p. 21, accessed 22/07/15:
http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/MRG-report-A4_OCTOBER-2015_WEB.pdf

24	

Legal Clinic Network, Survey Report on Marriage Outside the
Court, 16 May 2015, found in: Miriam Puttick, The Lost Women of
Iraq: Family-based violence during armed conflict, (Ceasefire Centre
for Civilian Rights and Minority Rights Group International,
2015) p. 23, accessed 22/07/15: http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/MRG-report-A4_OCTOBER-2015_WEB.
pdf

25	

Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8,paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rightsof the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, (United
Nations, 2015), p. 3, accessed 12/01/16: https://documents-dds-ny.
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement26	

Minority Rights Group International, Istifhal thahirat zawaj
al-qasirat fi al-'iraq', 30 August 2013, as cited in Miriam Puttick,
The Lost Women of Iraq: Family-based violence during armed conflict,(Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and Minority Rights GroupInternational, 2015), p. 24, http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/11/MRG-report-A4_OCTOBER-2015_WEB.pdf

27	

Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8,paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rightsof the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, (United
Nations, 2015), p. 5, accessed 12/01/16: https://documents-dds-ny.
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement28	As above.
Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8,paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rightsof the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, (United
Nations, 2015), p. 3, accessed 12/01/16: https://documents-dds-ny.
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement
As above, p. 5.

45	As above, p. 6.

46	Iraqi Penal Code (1969) Act No. 111, Article 398, accessed
21/07/15: http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/
opendocpdf.pdf ?reldoc=y&docid=52d3b0314

47	Personal communication.

48	

Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8,paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rightsof the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, (United
Nations, 2015), p. 3, accessed 12/01/16: https://documents-dds-ny.
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement49	"Iraq", Office of the Special Representative of the Security-General forChildren and Armed Conflict, last accessed June 21, 2015, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/iraq/

50	

Humanitarian Practice Network, Special Feature: The Crisis in Iraq,(Humanitarian Exchange, 2015), p. 5, accessed 12/02/16: http://
www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/9936.pdf

51	Miriam Puttick, 'The Lost Women of Iraq: Family-based Violence
During Armed Conflict', (Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights
and Minority Rights Group International, 2015), p. 23, accessed
22/07/15: http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/
MRG-report-A4_OCTOBER-2015_WEB.pdf

52	

Personal communication.

53	Josh Halliday, 'Female Jihadis Publish Guide to Life Under IslamicState', The Guardian, February 5, 2015, accessed 21/07/15: http://
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/05/jihadist-girl-marry-liberation-failed-islamic-state

54	

29	
30	

As above, p. 25.
Constitution of the Republic of Iraq (2005) Article 37, accessed
21/07/15: http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf
Law No.28 on Trafficking in Persons (2012) accessed 21/07/15

55	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|197

Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, and Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers against
Exploitation in the Middle East, (International Organisation for
Migration and Walk Free Foundation, 2015), accessed 17/02/16:
https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

56	Personal communication.

57	The shelter is located in a relatively unsafe area and requires
concrete barriers for protection. MOLSA has requested further
protection from MOI but as of February 2016 no further information was found.

58	The Ministry of Justice must approve an internal work system forthe operation of the shelter. Only victims referred by judge orders
will be able to access the shelter.

59	

Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, and Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers against
Exploitation in the Middle East, (International Organisation for
Migration and Walk Free Foundation, 2015), accessed 17/02/16:
https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

60	Personal communication.

61	Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, and Hana Abul
Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers against
Exploitation in the Middle East, (International Organisation for
Migration and Walk Free Foundation, 2015), accessed 17/02/16:
https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf

62	'PM Al-Abadi Calls for Considering Child Recruitment as a Crime
against Humanity', Prime Minister's Office, June 15, 2015, accessed
27/07/15: http://pmo.iq/pme/press2015en/15-6-20152en.htm

63	

Christoph Wilcke, 'No Child's Play: Kids Fighting One Anotherin Iraq Conflict', Human Rights Watch, October 30, 2015, accessed
12/01/16: http://www.hrw.org/news/2015/10/30/no-childs-playkids-fighting-one-another-iraq-conflict64	

Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Concluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8,paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rightsof the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict, (United
Nations, 2015), p. 2, accessed 12/01/16: https://documents-dds-ny.
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement65	Iraqi High Tribunal Act No. 10 (2005) article 13, accessed
27/07/15: http://gjpi.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/iraqstatuteengtrans.pdf

66	"Iraq", Office of the Special Representative of the Security-General forChildren and Armed Conflict, last accessed June 21, 2015, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/iraq/

67	

United Nations Security Council, 'Security Council Presidential
Statement Says Human Trafficking Might Constitute War Crimes,
as Members Consider Issue for First Time', United Nations, 16
December, 2015, accessed 12/02/16: http://www.un.org/press/
en/2015/sc12165.doc.htm

68	

Mauritania
Anti-Slavery International, Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania
for the UN Human Rights Committee, 107th session, 11–28 March
2013. Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania, Anti-Slavery International, (United Nations Office of the HighCommissioner for Human Rights, 2013), accessed 10/03/2016:
http://bit.ly/Za4MyV

1	

Walk Free Foundation Survey Data, Gallup World Poll, 20152	

Marrying Too Young – End Child Marriage, (United Nations Population Fund, 2012), p. 23, accessed 05/09/14: http://www.unfpa.org/
webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2012/MarryingTooYoung.pdf

3	Emma Batha, 'Mauritania Must Ban Deadly Force Feeding ofChild Brides – Activists', Thomson Reuters Foundation, January 18,
2014, accessed 10/03/2016:4	Personal communication

5	

Protecting the Girl Child: Using the Law to End Child, Early andForced Marriages and Other Human Rights Violations, (Equality
Now, 2014), p. 26, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.equalitynow.
org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf

6	

Judith Ann-Walker, Sarah Mukisa, Yahaya Hashim and Hadiza
Ismail, Mapping Early Marriage in West Africa: A Scan of Trends,
Interventions, What Works, Best Practices and the Way Forward,(Ford Foundation, 2013), p. 6, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.
girlsnotbrides.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Ford-Foundation-CM-West-Africa-2013_09.pdf

7	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Mauritania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 241, accessed 2/10/15: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf; see also, Equality
Now, Protecting the Girl Child: Using the Law to End Child, Earlyand Forced Marriages and Other Human Rights Violations, (Equality
Now, 2014), p. 43, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.equalitynow.
org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf

8	

As above.

9	Anti-Slavery International, Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania
for the UN Human Rights Committee, 107th session, 11–28 March
2013. Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania, Anti-Slavery International, (United Nations Office of the HighCommissioner for Human Rights, 2013), accessed 10/03/201610	As above.

11	'Mauritanian Women Kept as Slaves in Saudi Arabia', International
Trade Union Confederation, September 24, 2015, aacessed 10/03/16:

12	

Jeroen Beirnaert, 'Stop the Trafficking of Mauritanian Women
to Saudi Arabia', Equal Times, September 22, 2015, accessed
10/03/2016: http://www.equaltimes.org/stop-the-trafficking-of#.
Vgt3Jsuqqko

13	Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Including its Causes and Consequences,(United Nations General Assembly, 2010), accessed 10/09/14:
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/slavery/rapporteur/docs/A.
HRC.15.20.Add.2_en.pdf

14	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Mauritania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2014), p. 268, accessed 22/07/14: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/226847.pdf

15	Personal communication.

16	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Mauritania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2014), p. 241, accessed 22/07/14: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/226847.pdf

17	

Human Rights Council, Human Rights Council 26th session,
Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism,racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, (United
Nations General Assembly, 2013), p. 4, accessed 10/03/2016:18	Personal communication.

19	Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, Country Reports
on Human Rights Practices for 2013 – Mauritania, (United States
Department of Labor, 2013), accessed 10/09/14: http://www.state.
gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/#wrapper

20	

As above.

21	

198

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Country cont.
Human Rights Council, Human Rights Council 26th session,
Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism,racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, (United
Nations General Assembly, 2013), p. 4, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Racism/A-HRC-26-49.
pdf

22	

'UN Expert Urges Mauritania to Take More Vigorous Efforts to
Eliminate Slavery', United Nations News Centre, February 27, 2014,
accessed: 05/09/14: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=47243#.VAltsfmSzUw

40	

Mauritania’s Culture of Impunity for Slavery: Failures of the Administrative, Police and Justice Systems, (Anti-Slavery International,2013), p. 4, accessed 22/09/14 via personal communication

41	"Poverty and Equity Data", The World Bank, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/region/SSA

42	'IOM Combats Food Insecurity in Mauritania', International Organisation for Migration, September 22, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016:
https://www.iom.int/news/iom-combats-food-insecurity-mauritania

43	

23	

24	

Bureau of Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor
Report (United States Department of Labor, 2014), p. 2, accessed
10/03/2016: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/findings/2014TDA/mauritania.pdf

25	

Human Rights Council, Human Rights Council 26th session,
Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism,racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, (United
Nations General Assembly, 2013), p. 4, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Racism/A-HRC-26-49.
pdf

26	

'Birth Certificates Issued by Mali Open Doors for Mauritanian
Refugee Children', United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
April 20, 2015, accessed 2/10/15: http://www.unhcr.org/5534fc0f1b.html

27	

'Mauritania: WFP Continues to Support Refugees Fleeing Mali Violence', World Food Programme, May 28, 2015, accessed 02/10/15:
https://www.wfp.org/stories/search-food-and-peace-wfp-supports-refugees-fleeing-violence-mali28	Misha Hussain, 'Slaves, Fake Refugees and Lentils: the Mbera
Camp in Mauritania', Trust, October 9, 2013, accessed 02/10/15:
http://www.trust.org/item/20131009133413-snelw/29	"2015 UNHCR Country Operations Profile – Mauritania", UNHCR, accessed 02/10/15: http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486026.
html

30	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Mauritania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 242, accessed 2/10/15: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

31	

'IOM Holds Training of Trainers Workshop on Human Trafficking in Mauritania', International Organisation for Migration,
March 20, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016: https://www.iom.int/news/
iom-holds-training-trainers-workshop-human-trafficking-mauritania

32	

Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Including its Causes and Consequences,(United Nations General Assembly, 2010), accessed 10/09/14:
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/slavery/rapporteur/docs/A.
HRC.15.20.Add.2_en.pdf

33	'Mauritanian New Anti-Slavery law: Effective Enforcement is the
Key – UN Rights Expert', United Nations Human Rights Office of theHigh Commissioner August 21, 2015, accessed 24/03/2016: http://
www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16338&LangID=E

34	Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Mauritania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 242, accessed 2/10/15: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

35	

Mauritania’s Culture of Impunity for Slavery: Failures of the Administrative, Police and Justice Systems, (Anti-Slavery International,2013), p. 4, accessed 22/09/14 via personal communication

36	John D. Sutter, 'Slavery's Last Stronghold', The CNN Freedom Project, March 17, 2012: http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/
world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html

37	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons Trafficking
in Persons Report: Mauritania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 242, accessed 2/10/15: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

38	

Creating a National Agency for the Fight Against the Legacy of
Slavery, (National Commission for Human Rights in Mauritania,
March 21, 2013), accessed 05/09/14: http://www.cndh.mr/content/
view/180/1/

39	'Mauritania creates new courts to try slavery cases,' Daily Mail
Australia, December 12, 2015, accessed 01/04/2016: http://www.
dailymail.co.uk/wires/afp/article-3356335/Mauritania-creates-new-courts-try-slavery-cases.html
Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Including its Causes and Consequences,(United Nations General Assembly, 2010), accessed 10/09/14:
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/slavery/rapporteur/docs/A.
HRC.15.20.Add.2_en.pdf'Mauritania becomes the second African country to commit toending modern slavery', International Labour Organization, March
14, 2016, accessed 29/03/16: http://www.ilo.org/global/about-theilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_459559/lang--en/index.htm

44	Megan O’ Toole, 'Mauritanians head to polls amid dissent', Al
Jazeera, June 19, 2014, accessed 05/09/14: http://m.aljazeera.com/
story/201461874846807471

45	

'Biram Dah Abeid Still Imprisoned: Latest Developments', Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation, July 14, 2015, accessed
10/03/2016: http://unpo.org/article/17712

46	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 'Trafficking
in Persons Report: Mauritania Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 241, accessed 2/10/15: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

47	

'IOM Holds Training of Trainers Workshop on Human Trafficking in Mauritania', International Organisation for Migration,
March 20, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016: https://www.iom.int/news/
iom-holds-training-trainers-workshop-human-trafficking-mauritania48	As above.

49	

Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Including its Causes and Consequences(United Nations General Assembly, 2010), accessed 10/09/14:
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/slavery/rapporteur/docs/A.
HRC.15.20.Add.2_en.pdf

50	

John D Sutter, 'Slavery's Last Stronghold', The CNN Freedom Project, March 17, 2012, accessed 10/03/16: http://edition.cnn.com/
interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html

51	'Jemal Oumar, 'Mauritania Uses Mosques to Fight Slavery', All Africa, December 17, 2014, accessed 10/03/16: http://allafrica.com/
stories/201412180783.html

52	Key recommendation from Anti-Slavery International Mauritania
country report, information retrieved through personal communication

53	"Field Listing – Exports", The World Fact Book, accessed
10/03/2016: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/fields/2050.html#mr54	MexicoDiagnostico Nacional: Sobre le Situacion de Trata de Personas en
Mexico, (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2014), accessed 02/04/16: https://www.unodc.org/documents/mexicoandcentralamerica/Diagnostico_trata_de_personas.pdf

1	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: Mexico Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 244, accessed 02/02/16: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

2	

Ioan Grillo, 'The Mexican Drug Cartels’ Other Business: Sex Trafficking', Time Magazine, July 31, 2013: accessed 03/02/16: http://
world.time.com/2013/07/31/the-mexican-drug-cartels-other-business-sex-trafficking/3	Currently, the most active cartels include the Zetas, the Knights
Templar, Barrio Azteca, BLO, Tijuana, Juarez, Sinaloa, Gulf, and
EPR.

4	

Mexico’s Disappeared: The Enduring Cost of a Crisis Ignored, (Human Rights Watch, 2013), pp. 20–30, accessed 03/02/16: http://
www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/mexico0213_ForUpload_0_0_0.pdf

5	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|199

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: Mexico Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), pp. 243-244, accessed 02/02/16: http://
www.state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

6	

Miriam Wells, 'Criminal Groups Enslaving Mexicans in‘Forced Labor Camps', Insight Crime, July 15, 2013: http://www.
insightcrime.org/news-briefs/criminal-groups-enslaving-mexicans-in-forced-labor-camps; and Mexico’s Disappeared: The
Enduring Cost of a Crisis Ignored (Human Rights Watch, 2013), pp.
20–30, acessed 03/02/16: http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/
reports/mexico0213_ForUpload_0_0_0.pdf

7	Nina Lakhani, 'Teancingo: The Small Town at the Dark Heart of
Mexico’s Sex-Slave Trade', The Guardian, April 5, 2015: http://
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/05/tenancingo-mexico-sex-slave-trade-america; see also: Juan Diego Quesada,'El Pueblo de los Ninos Proxenetas', El Pais, June 30, 2013,
accessed 03/02/16: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/30/actualidad/1372556638_992102.html

8	

Anel Hortensia and Gomes San Luis, 'Prostitution of Young Girlsand Adolescents: an Approach to Their Social Representation
Among Traders o' "La Merced'', Peninsula 9, no.2, (August 2014),
accessed 04/03/16: http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S187
0-57662014000200006&script=sci_arttext

9	Christina Sterbenz, 'City-to-Farm Sex Pipelines Expose a Disturbing Trend in America', Business Insider, February 7, 2015, accessed
04/02/16: http://www.businessinsider.com.au/city-to-farm-sexpipeline-2015-2

10	

Judith Matloff, 'Brothel State in Mexico is Conduit for Human
Trafficking in New York', Al Jazeera America, June 1, 2015, accessed 04/02/16: http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2015/6/
sex-slavery-links-mexico-with-new-york-city.html

11	

Personal communication.

12	'IOM Works with Puerto Vallarta, Mexico to Combat Child Trafficking', International Organization for Migration, October 24, 2014,
accessed 04/02/16: https://www.iom.int/news/iom-works-puerto-vallarta-mexico-combat-child-trafficking

13	Goldenberg et al., 'Exploring the Impact of Underage Sex Work
Among Female Sex Workers in Two Mexico–US Border Cities',
AIDS and Behavior 16(4) (2012): pp. 969–981, accessed 04/02/16

14	Personal communication.

28	Katy Watson, 'Maids in Mexico: Defending the Rights of Domestic
Workers', BBC News, December 23, 2015, accessed 06/02/16:
http://www.bbc.com/news/business-35113707

29	

"At a Glance: Mexico", UNICEF, accessed 01/04/2016: http://www.
unicef.org/infobycountry/mexico_statistics.html

30	Erin Siegal, 'Mexico Adoption Bust Reveals Vast Child Trafficking Ring', The Huffington Post, February 29, 2012: http://www.
huffingtonpost.com/erin-siegal/mexico-adoption-child-trafficking_b_1311404.html; See also: 'Women Held in Mexico-to-Ireland’Adoption Racket', MSNBC, July 17, 2012, accessed 01/04/16:
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/46020446/ns/world_news-americas/t/women-held-mexico-to-ireland-adoption-racket/#.U_
NnCvmSyAV

31	

Carolin Schurr and Laura Perler, ''Trafficked’ into a Better
Future? Why Mexico Needs to Regulate its Surrogacy Industry(and Not Ban It)', Open Democracy, December 17, 2015, accessed
03/03/16: https://www.opendemocracy.net/beyondslavery/carolin-schurr-laura-perler/trafficked-into-better-future-why-mexico-needs-to-regulate

32	'Tabasco lawmakers end foreign surrogacy', Mexico News Daily,
December 15, 2015, accessed 03/03/16: http://mexiconewsdaily.
com/news/tabasco-lawmakers-end-foreign-surrogacy/

33	Joshua Partlow, 'Kidnappings in Mexico Surge to the Highest
Number on Record', The Washington Post, August 15, 2014,
accessed 02/04/16: https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/
the_americas/kidnappings-in-mexico-surge-to-the-highest-number-on-record/2014/08/15/3f8ee2d2-1e6e-11e4-82f9-2cd6fa8da5c4_story.html

34	

Edson Servan-Mori et al, 'Migrants Suffering Violence While inTransit through Mexico: Factors Associated with the Decision toContinue or Turn Back;, Journal of Immigrant Minority Health 16,
no.1 (February 2014), pp. 53–59, doi: 10.1007/s10903-012-9759-3.

35	

36	

'Mexico Rescues 275 Workers From ‘Slavery’ At Tomato Plant inToliman', Agence France Presse, June 13, 2013, accessed 04/02/16:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/12/mexico-workers-slavery-toliman_n_3427120.html?ir=Australia

37	

16	

Richard Marosi, 'Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S.
Tables', Los Angeles Times, December 7, 2014, accessed 04/02/16:
http://graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/

17	Namely, Sinaloa, Sonora, Baja California, Baja California Sur,
Chihuahua, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Nayarit, Colima, San
Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Veracruz, Morelos, Hidalgo, Michoacán,
Mexico State and Chiapas

18	'More Farm Labourers Working as Slaves, Mexico News Daily,
March 24, 2015, accessed 04/02/16: http://mexiconewsdaily.com/
news/farm-laborers-working-slaves/19	As above.

20	

Guillermo Castillo, 'San Quintin Valley: From Labor Abuse toLabor Mobilization', Americas Program, July 16, 2015, accessed
04/02/16: http://www.cipamericas.org/archives/15532

21	

'Human Trafficking and Farmworkers', Freedom Network USA,
March 2013: http://freedomnetworkusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Farmworkers-FINAL-1.pdf; See also: "Who are
guestworkers?", National Guestworker Alliance, 2013: http://www.
guestworkeralliance.org/about-guestworkers/

22	Stephen Stock and David Paredes, 'Child Labor: Young Hands
Picking Our Food', NBC Bay Area Investigative Unit, August 31,
2012, accessed 06/02/16: http://www.nbcbayarea.com/investigations/series/children-in-the-field/Children-in-the-Field-PickingOur-Food-164796976.html

23	

Sheldon Zhang, Looking for a Hidden Population: Trafficking of
Migrant Laborers in San Diego County, (San Diego State University,2012), p. 11, accessed 05/02/16: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/
nij/grants/240223.pdf

24	

As above, p. 12.

25	

|

'Mexico Rescues 129 Workers, Including Children, ‘Abused’at Garment Factory', ABC News, February 6, 2015, accessed
06/02/16: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-02-06/mexico-rescues-129-workers-from-factory/6075492

27	

Richard Marosi, 'Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S.
Tables', Los Angeles Times, December 7, 2014, accessed 04/02/16:

15	

200

'Mexico – Country Mining Guide', (KPMG International, 2013),
p. 17, accessed 06/02/16: http://www.kpmg.com/Ca/en/industry/
Mining/Documents/Mexico.pdf

26	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Diagnostico Nacional: Sobre le Situacion de Trata de Personas en
Mexico, (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2014), accessed 02/04/16: https://www.unodc.org/documents/mexicoandcentralamerica/Diagnostico_trata_de_personas.pdf
Arun Kumar Acharya, 'Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking of
Women and Girls in Mexico: An Analysis on Impact of Violence
on Health Status', Journal of Intercultural Studies 35 no.1 (March2014), p. 189, accessed 02/03/16: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
pdf/10.1080/07256868.2014.885414'Mexico’s Disappeared: The Enduring Cost of a Crisis Ignored',(Human Rights Watch, 2013), pp. 20–30, accessed 06/02/16:
http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/mexico0213_ForUpload_0_0_0.pdf

38	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons ,Trafficking in Persons Report: Mexico Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 244: accessed 02/03/16: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

39	Personal communication.

40	

Clare Ribando Seelke and Kristin Finklea, U.S.-Mexican Security
Cooperation: The Merida Initiative and Beyond, (Congressional
Research Service, 2016), p. 1, accessed 05/03/16: http://fas.org/
sgp/crs/row/R41349.pdf

41	Personal communication.

42	'PGJDF Rescued 27 Trafficking Victims in Cuauhtemoc Colony',
Quadratin Veracruz, October 25, 2015, accessed 05/03/16: https://veracruz.quadratin.com.mx/Rescata-PGJDF-a-27-victimas-de-trata-en-colonia-Cuauhtemoc/

43	Heriberto Santos, 'Condenan a Cuatro Personas por Explotación
Laboral en Edome', El Milenio, June 15, 2014 accessed 04/02/16:
http://www.milenio.com/estados/explotacion_laboral-condenan_a_cuatro_personas_en_Edomex-trata_de_personas_0_317968408.html

44	

Personal communication.

45	Country cont.
Programa Nacional para Prevenir, Sancionar y Erradicar los Delitos
en Materia de Trata de Personas y Para la Protección y Asistencia alas Víctimas de Estos Delitos 2014–2018, (Mexico Secretary of theInterior, 2014), p. 28, accessed 16/02/16: http://sn.dif.gob.mx/
wp-content/uploads/2014/05/PROGRAMANacionalPrevenirSancionarErradicarDelitosTrataPersonas2014-2018.pdf

46	

Mexico’s Disappeared: The Enduring Cost of a Crisis Ignored,(Human Rights Watch, 2013), p. 3, accessed 04/02/16: http://www.
hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/mexico0213_ForUpload_0_0_0.
pdf; see also Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons,Trafficking in Persons Report: Mexico Country Narrative (UnitedStates Department of State, 2015), p. 271, accessed 04/02/16:
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf

47	

'IOM Works with Puerto Vallarta, Mexico to Combat Child Trafficking', International Organisation for Migration, October 24, 2014,
accessed 09/02/16: https://www.iom.int/news/iom-works-puerto-vallarta-mexico-combat-child-trafficking;nmm

48	Personal communication.

49	PolandKatie Harris, 'Forced Labour in the UK: ‘There Was No Escape.
I Lived Every Day in Fear', The Guardian, November 21, 2013,
accessed 24/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/nov/20/forced-labour-uk-escape-fear-polish-migrant1	Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
2016.

2	

As above.

3	Maxim Tucker, 'Sex, Lies and Psychological Scars: Inside Ukraine's
Human Trafficking Crisis', The Guardian, February 4, 2016
accessed 05/02/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/feb/04/sex-lies-psychological-scars-ukraine-human-trafficking-crisis

4	Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
2016.

5	

Unit Against Trafficking in Human Beings, Trafficking in
Human Beings, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 6, accessed
25/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/other-documents/6826,Trafficking-Human-Beings-2014-report.html

6	

Colin Freeman, 'Poland and Malta Accused of Using North Korean'Forced Labour'', The Telegraph, September 30, 2015, accessed
22/01/15: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/
northkorea/11901507/Poland-and-Malta-accused-of-using-NorthKorean-forced-labour.html

7	Anti-Slavery International and International Trade Union Confederation, Never Work Alone: Trade Unions and NGOs Joining Forces
to Combat Forced Labour and Trafficking in Europe, (Anti-Slavery
International and International Trade Union Confederation,2011), pp. 30–31.

8	Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
p. 35, accessed 22/01/2016: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/publications/trafficking-human-beings-eurostat-2015-edition_en9	

As above.

10	As above.

11	The cost of accommodation and transport is then deducted fromtheir wages upon arrival, see Unit Against Trafficking in Human
Beings, Trafficking in Human Beings, (Ministry of the Interior,2015), p. 10, accessed 25/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.
eu/hle/database/other-documents/6826,Trafficking-Human-Beings-2014-report.html

12	Dominic Casciani, 'Rise in UK Trafficking, Slavery and Exploitation', BBC, September 30, 2014, accessed 12/04/2016:13	

Unit Against Trafficking in Human Beings, Trafficking in
Human Beings, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 6, accessed
25/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/other-documents/6826,Trafficking-Human-Beings-2014-report.html

17	

As above.

18	As above.

19	As above.

20	

Nobody's Children Foundation, Trafficking in Children: The Problem in Poland and in the World, (Nobody's Children Foundation,2012), accessed 22/01/2016,

21	

Ministry of the Interior, Implementation of the National Action Plan,(Ministry of the Interior, 2014) cited in Zbigniew Lasocik et al.,; see also Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery Landscape in
Poland 2014, (Walk Free, 2014), p.16, accessed 24/01/2016.

22	

Unit Against Trafficking in Human Beings Trafficking in Human
Beings, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), pp.6–7, accessed
25/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/other-documents/6826,Trafficking-Human-Beings-2014-report.html

23	

W. A. Kusek and N. Wise, 'Artistic Perceptions of Poles in
London', Scottish Geographical Journal, 130, 2, p.99, (2014), citedin Weronika A. Kusak, 'Transnational Identities and ImmigrantSpaces of Polish professionals in London, UK', Journal of Cultural
Geography 32, 1, 102 (2015).

24	Unemployment rate as a percentage of the labour force. Labour
force is the total number of people unemployed and employed
aged 15 to 74. Seasonally adjusted. "Harmonised Unemployment Rate by Sex", Eurostat, last modified September 28, 2015,
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=teilm020&tableSelection=1&plugin=1.

25	

20.9% in 2015. Youth unemployment rate is the number of
unemployed people aged 15 to 24 as a percentage of the active
population of the same age. "Youth Unemployment Rate — % of
Active Population in the Same Age Group", Eurostat, last modified
September 28, 2016, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.
do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tipslm80&plugin=026	"Poland", International Organization for Migration, last accessed
January 22, 2016, https://www.iom.int/countries/poland/general-information

27	

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 'Country Notes: Recent Changes in Migration
Movements and Policies', in International Migration Outlook 2015,(OECD Publishing, 2015), p. 236, http://www.keepeek.com/
Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2015_migr_outlook-2015-en

28	

Zbigniew Lasocik & Łukasz Wieczorek, 'Trafficking for Forced
Labour in Poland: Research Report' in Trafficking for Forced Labour and Labour Exploitation (FLEX): Towards Increased Knowledge,
Cooperation and Exchange of Information in Estonia, Finland andPoland, eds. Anniina Jokinen, Natalia Ollus and Kauko Aromaa(Warsaw: Heuni, 2011), p.199. http://www.heuni.fi/material/attachments/heuni/reports/6KmRLQd2d/HEUNI_report_68_netti.
pdf

29	

Z. Ciupijus, 'Mobile Central Eastern Europeans in Britain:
Successful European Union Citizens and Disadvantaged Labour
Migrants?', Work, Employment and Society, 25, 540 (2011) cited in
Gabriella Albertia, Jane Holgatea and Maite Tapiab, 'Organising
Migrants as Workers or as Migrant Workers? Intersectionality,
Trade Unions and Precarious Work,' The International Journal of
Human Resource Management, 24, 22: 4133 (2013).

30	

Marcin Piatkowski, 'How Poland Became Europe's GrowthChampion: Insights from the Successful Post- Socialist Transition',
Brookings, February 11, 2015, accessed 08/02/2016: http://www.
brookings.edu/blogs/future-development/posts/2015/02/11-poland-post-socialist-transition-piatkowski

31	Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
p. 35, accessed 22/01/2016: https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/publications/trafficking-human-beings-eurostat-2015-edition_en32	Expert Group for Cooperation on Children at Risk, Children Trafficked for Exploitation in Begging and Criminality: A Challenge for
Law Enforcement and Child Protection, (Council of the Baltic Sea
States, 2013), p. 10.

33	

14	

15	

Maxim Tucker, "Sex, Lies and Psychological Scars: Inside
Ukraine's Human Trafficking Crisis", The Guardian, February 4, 2016 accessed 05/02/2016: http://www.theguardian.
com/global-development/2016/feb/04/sex-lies-psychological-scars-ukraine-human-trafficking-crisis

16	

G. Szymanska-Matusiewicz, 'Intergenerational Conflicts in
Vietnamese Families in Poland', in People on the Move in Searchof Work, Refuge and Belonging, eds. K. Um and S. Gaspar, (Sussex
Academic Press, 2016).
Zbigniew Lasocik & Łukasz Wieczorek, 'Trafficking for Forced
Labour in Poland: Research Report' in Trafficking for Forced Labour and Labour Exploitation (FLEX): Towards Increased Knowledge,
Cooperation and Exchange of Information in Estonia, Finland andPoland, eds. Anniina Jokinen, Natalia Ollus and Kauko Aromaa(Warsaw: Heuni, 2011), p.199. http://www.heuni.fi/material/attachments/heuni/reports/6KmRLQd2d/HEUNI_report_68_netti.
pdf

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|201

Discrimination tests conducted by the Institute of Public Affairs
indicated that five out of 100 foreigners faced unequal in Warsaw
but that figure was up to four times that in other cities. Joanna
Fomina, 'Ukrainians in Poland: In Pursuit of a Better Life?', New
Eastern Europe, July 15, 2015, accessed 22/01/2016: http://neweasterneurope.eu/articles-and-commentary/1815-ukrainians-in-poland-in-pursuit-of-a-better-life

34	Luciana T. Hakaka and Akram A. Ariss, 'Vulnerable Work andInternational Migrants: A Relational Human Resource Management Perspective', The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 24, 22, 4125 (2013).

35	Adam Leszczyński, 'Poles Don't Want Immigrants. They Don't
Understand Them, Don't Like Them', The Guardian, July 2, 2015,
accessed 22/01/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/
jul/02/poles-dont-want-immigrants-they-dont-understand-themdont-like-them36	The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,'Country Notes: Recent Changes in Migration Movements andPolicies', in International Migration Outlook 2015, (OECD Publishing, 2015), 236, http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2015_migr_outlook-2015-en

37	Matthew Luxmoore, "In Poland, a Challenge to Integrate ‘Invisible'
Ukrainian Refugees", Aljazeera America, August 23, 2015, accessed 21/01/16: http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/8/23/
poland-integrates-invisible-refugees-east-ukraine.html

38	

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,'Country Notes: Recent Changes in Migration Movements andPolicies', in International Migration Outlook 2015, (OECD Publishing, 2015), 236, http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2015_migr_outlook-2015-en

39	Joanna Fomina, 'Ukrainians in Poland: In Pursuit of a Better
Life?', New Eastern Europe, July 15, 2015, accessed 05/02/2016:
http://neweasterneurope.eu/articles-and-commentary/1815-ukrainians-in-poland-in-pursuit-of-a-better-life40	Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
2016

41	

Joanna Fomina, 'Ukrainians in Poland: In Pursuit of a Better
Life?', New Eastern Europe, July 15, 2015, accessed 05/02/2016:
http://neweasterneurope.eu/articles-and-commentary/1815-ukrainians-in-poland-in-pursuit-of-a-better-life

42	Zbigniew Lasocik and Łukasz Wieczorek, "Trafficking for Forced
Labour in Poland: Research Report" in Trafficking for Forced
Labour and Labour Exploitation (FLEX): Towards Increased
Knowledge, Cooperation and Exchange of Information in Estonia,
Finland and Poland, eds. Anniina Jokinen, Natalia Ollus and Kauko Aromaa (Warsaw: Heuni, 2011), 172, accessed 06/03/14: http://
www.heuni.fi/material/attachments/heuni/reports/6KmRLQd2d/
HEUNI_report_68_netti.pdf

43	International Labour Organisation, Project Brief: Elimination of
Human Trafficking from Moldova and Ukraine through Labour Market
Based Measures, (International Labour Organisation, 2008), 1.

44	

Maxim Tucker, 'Sex, Lies and Psychological Scars: Inside Ukraine's
Human Trafficking Crisis', The Guardian, February 4, 2016,
accessed 05/02/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/feb/04/sex-lies-psychological-scars-ukraine-human-trafficking-crisis

45	

Field sources.

46	

Ministry of the Interior and KCIK, Report on the Implementationof the 'National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beingsfor 2013–2015' for 2014, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 14,
accessed 27/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/national-action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-againstTrafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html

47	

As above.

48	As above.

49	Ministry of the Interior and KCIK, Report on the Implementationof the 'National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beings for
2013–2015' for 2014, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 26-29,
accessed 27/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/national-action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-againstTrafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html

50	

202

|

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

National Consulting and Intervention Centre for the Victimsof Trafficking, National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human
Beings 2013–2015, (KCIK, 2013), pp. 6–7, accessed 11/03/2014,
http://www.kcik.pl/en/doc/POLAND_NAP_2013-2015__EN_.pdf.

51	Zbigniew Lasocik et al., Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Poland 2014, (Walk Free, 2014), 54.

52	Ministry of the Interior and KCIK, Report on the Implementationof the 'National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beingsfor 2013–2015' for 2014, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p.39,
accessed 27/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/national-action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-againstTrafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html

53	Zbigniew Lasocik et al., "Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery Landscape in Poland 2014," (Walk Free, 2014), 30.

54	Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
2016

55	

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings,
Report Concerning the Implementation of the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Poland", (Council of Europe, 2013), p. 38, accessed 10/03/14: http://
www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRETA_2013_6_FGR_POL_with_comments_en.pdf

56	Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
2016

57	

Government of Poland, Progress Report, (Walk Free Foundation,2014), accessed 01/09/14: http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/
country/poland/58	The penal code was amended with the addition of "at work or inservice of a compulsory nature, begging, slavery… Zbigniew Lasocik & Łukasz Wieczorek, Trafficking for Forced Labour in Poland:
Research Report, (Human Trafficking Studies Centre, Warsaw
University, 2010), p. 22.

59	

Field sources.

60	

Unit Against Trafficking in Human Beings, "Trafficking in
Human Beings," (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 5, accessed
25/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/other-documents/6826,Trafficking-Human-Beings-2014-report.html

61	

Zbigniew Lasocik, Emilia Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, "Human Trafficking for Forced Labour in Poland: Effective Prevention
and Diagnostics of Mechanisms", (Council of the Baltic Sea States,2014), pp. 46–47, accessed 22/01/2016: http://www.cbss.org/
wp-content/uploads/2012/11/raport_polish_english_ONLINE.pdf

62	

According to the report prosecutors have demonstrated a preference for charging defendants with crimes such as deprivationof liberty or falsifying documents rather than human trafficking.
Reasons for this include the complexity of trafficking cases andthe reduced chance of a success. Zbigniew Lasocik, Emilia Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, Human Trafficking for Forced Labour
in Poland: Effective Prevention and Diagnostics of Mechanisms,(Council of the Baltic Sea States, 2014), p.47, accessed 22/01/2016:
http://www.cbss.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/raport_polish_english_ONLINE.pdf

63	

A representative of the labour inspectorate reported that only fivecases of suspected forced labour had been referred to the publicprosecutor's office in recent years. Zbigniew Lasocik, Emilia
Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, Human Trafficking for Forced
Labour in Poland: Effective Prevention and Diagnostics of Mechanisms, (Council of the Baltic Sea States, 2014), p. 46, accessed
22/01/2016: http://www.cbss.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/
raport_polish_english_ONLINE.pdf

64	

As part of the NAP (2013-2015) the government of Poland increased its efforts to train officials in the identification of victims
and human trafficking in general. However it is unclear if thisincluded adequate information on forced labour. Ministry of theInterior and KCIK, Report on the Implementation of the 'National
Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beings for 2013–2015'
for 2014, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), pp. 23–26, accessed
27/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/nationalaction-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-against-Traffickingin-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html

65	

Zbigniew Lasocik & Łukasz Wieczorek, "Trafficking for Forced
Labour in Poland: Research Report," (Human Trafficking Studies
Centre, Warsaw University, 2010), 68–72.

66	Country cont.
Ministry of the Interior and KCIK, "Report on the implementationof the 'National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beingsfor 2013–2015' for 2014," (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), 28–29,
accessed 27/01/2016: http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/national-action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-againstTrafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html

67	

Government of Poland, Law No. 99. "Promotion of Employment
and Labour Market Institutions ['ustawy z dnia 20 kwietnia 2004
r. o promocji zatrudnienia i instytucjach rynku pracy']", 2004,
Journal of Laws, 20/04/2004, Article 85/2 item 7 and Article 121/2.

68	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Poland Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), p. 282, accessed 21/01/2016: http://www.
state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/69	Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
2016.

70	

Zbigniew Lasocik, E. Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, Handelludźmi do pracy przymusowej: mechanizmy powstawania i efektywne
zapobieganie, (Council of the Baltic Sea States, 2014), pp. 45–47.

71	

Polish law requires all employment agencies to be registered.
Government of Poland, 'Law No. 99, "Promotion of Employment
and Labour Market Institutions ['ustawy z dnia 20 kwietnia 2004 r.
o promocji zatrudnienia i instytucjach rynku pracy']"', Journal ofLaws, 20/04/2004, Article 121/1.

72	For example, in collaboration with the NGO Nobody's Children
the Orbis Hotel Group established a Code of Conduct whichaims to prevent commercial sexual exploitation of children in its'
hotels. Zbigniew Lasocik et al., Country Strategy Report: Modern
Slavery Landscape in Poland 2014,, (Walk Free, 2014), p. 59.

73	

Qatar
"Economically Active Population (15 years and above) by Nationality, Sex & Economic Activity", Qatar Information Exchange, lastaccessed February 12, 2016, http://www.qix.gov.qa/discoverer/
viewer?cn=cf_a101&wb=LABOUR_FORCE1&wsk=249&subject_area=183

1	Ray Jureidini, Migrant Labour Recruitment to Qatar, (Qatar Foundation, July 2014) p. 43, accessed 12/02/16: http://www.qscience.
com/userimages/ContentEditor/1404811243939/Migrant_Labour_
Recruitment_to_Qatar_Web_Final.pdf

2	Personal communication.

3	

See also Decree No.8 of 2005 which covers some minimum protections for workers and requirements for employers.

4	Amnesty International, My sleep is my break: Exploitation ofMigrant Domestic Workers in Qatar, (Amnesty International, 2014),
p. 9, accessed 25/06/14: http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/
MDE22/004/2014/en/7b7121b8-37c1-4e49-b1a1-2d8a005450a3/
mde220042014en.pdf

5	Personal communication.

6	'Migrant Fishermen Hit by a Double Whammy: Regional Politics
and Stifling Kafala System', Migrant-Rights, p. 26, November, 2014,
last accessed 24/06/2015: http://www.migrant-rights.org/2014/11/
migrant-fishermen-hit-by-a-double-whammy-regional-politics-and-stifling-kafala-system/

7	

As above.

8	"Vital Statistics, Annual Bulletin: Marriages and Divorces", Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics, last accessed February
21, 2016, http://www.qsa.gov.qa/eng/publication/pdf-file/Social/
AnalyticalSummaryMarriage_Divorce_En.pdf

9	

Qatar's Fourth National Human Development Report: Realising Qatar
National Vision 2013, (Ministry of Development Planning andStatistics, 2015), p. 40, accessed 10/07/15: http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/
portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/knowledge_center/Tab2/NHDR4%20
Complete%20Report%20English%20LowResolution%20
28May2015.pdf

10	

As above.

11	"Population inside Qatar in 30/09/2015", Ministry of Development
Planning and Statistics, last accessed February 21, 2016, http://
www.gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/statistics_en/latest_statistics_en/statistical_updates_detail_en?item_id=2425176

12	

Ray Jureidini, Migrant Labour Recruitment to Qatar, (Qatar Foundation, July 2014), p. 43, accessed 12/02/16: http://www.qscience.
com/userimages/ContentEditor/1404811243939/Migrant_Labour_
Recruitment_to_Qatar_Web_Final.pdf

13	

As above.

14	

ITUC Special Report - The Case Against Qatar, (International Trade
Union Confederation, 2014), accessed 21/07/15: http://www.ituccsi.org/ituc-special-report-the-case15	Personal communication.

16	'My sleep is my break': Exploitation of Migrant Domestic Workers in
Qatar, (Amnesty International, 2014), p. 37, accessed 25/06/14:
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE22/004/2014/
en/7b7121b8-37c1-4e49-b1a1-2d8a005450a3/mde220042014en.
pdf

17	

Personal communication.

18	James M. Dorsey, 'New Qatari labour law: too little, too late', The
Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer, October, 2015, accessed
10/02/16: http://mideastsoccer.blogspot.dk/2015/10/new-qatarilabour-law-too-little-too.html

19	"Global Slavery Index: Qatar Country Study", Walk Free Foundation, last accessed July 7, 2015: http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/
country/qatar/

20	

Human Rights Watch, World Report 2013: Qatar, (Human Rights
Watch, 2014), accessed 27/07/15: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/qatar21	As above.

22	Personal communication.

23	"Qatar: Renaming Kafala is not Ending Kafala", Migrant Rights, 9
November, 2015, accessed 21/02/16: http://www.migrant-rights.
org/2015/11/qatar-renaming-kafala-is-not-ending-kafala/?mc_cid=a50a5d768e&mc_eid=4c6fb43a80

24	"Qatar's labour law 'reforms' a sham", International Trade Union
Confederation, 28 October, 2015, accessed 21/02/16: http://www.
ituc-csi.org/qatar-s-labour-law-reforms-a-sham

25	Peter Kovessy, Riham Sheble and Heba Fahmy 'Qatar's Emir signs
into law kafala changes (updated)', Doha News, 27 October, 2015,
accessed 21/02/16: http://dohanews.co/qatars-emir-approves-kafala-reforms-changes-more-than-one-year-away/26	

RussiaElena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Poletaev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014).

1	

Rebecca Surtees, Trafficked at Sea. The Exploitation of Ukrainian
Seafarers and Fishers, (International Organisation for Migration,2013), pp. 15–18, accessed 28/02/14: http://lastradainternational.
org/doc-center/2981/trafficked-at-sea-the-exploitation-ofukrainian-seafarers-and-fishers-20122	Maxim Tucker, 'Sex, Lies and Psychological Scars: Inside Ukraine’s
Human Trafficking Crisis', The Guardian, February 4, 2016,
accessed 07/02/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/feb/04/sex-lies-psychological-scars-ukraine-human-trafficking-crisis

3	

Elena Platonova, 'In the New Year Without Turks', Gazeta, January
11, 2016, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.gazeta.ru/business/2016/01/10/8014499.shtml

4	

Lin Jenkins, 'Vladimir Putin Announces Russian Sanctions
Against Turkey', The Guardian, November 29, 2015, accessed
10/03/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/28/
vladimir-putin-calls-for-greater-sanctions-against-turkey

5	Personal communication.

6	"Where We’re From", International Organisation for Migration,accessed 9/08/14: http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/about-migration/world-migration.html

7	Country Profiles - Europe and Central Asia, (United Nations Officeon Drugs and Crime, 2012), p. 99, accessed 08/09/14: http://www.
unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/Country_Profiles_Europe_Central_Asia.pdf

8	

Sharon Shpurer, 'Biggest Trafficker of Women in Israeli History
Finally Exposed', Haaretz, February 4, 2013, accessed 11/07/14:
http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/biggest-trafficker-of-women-in-israeli-history-finally-exposed.premium-1.501461

9	

Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Poletaev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)10	

As above.

11	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report 2015: Russia Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015) accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf

12	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|203

Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Poletaev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)38	As above.

39	

13	

14	

As above.

15	However the law specifically prohibits benefitting from theproceeds of child prostitution. See: Government of the Russian Federation, Public Law No 63 of 1996, 'Criminal Code of
the Russian Federation', February 29, 2012, Art242.1, accessed
10/03/2016: https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_
LAW_10699/23ac064057d5bca235050872f65b23a1a1db092a/

16	Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labor: Russia, (United States Department of Labor, 2014),
accessed 05/01/2016: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/
findings/2014TDA/russia.pdf

17	

Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Poletaev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)18	Vitalu Shevchenko, 'Ukraine Conflict: Child Soldiers Join theFight', BBC News, November 26, 2016, accessed 10/03/2016: http://
www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30134421

19	

Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labor: Russia, (United States Department of Labor, 2014),
accessed 05/01/2016: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/
findings/2014TDA/russia.pdf

20	

Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Poletaev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)21	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report 2015: Russia Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf

40	

As above.

41	'Putin Allowed to Expel From Russia Are Not Working in theSpecialty of Migrants', Rosbalt, July 1, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://m.rosbalt.ru/main/2015/07/01/1414422.html

42	

As above.

43	Catherine Chevalier, 'What is Contingent Labor and Why It Was
Banned?', AIF.RU, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.aif.ru/dontknows/eternal/1163702

44	

Russia’s deportation procedure can be reviewed here (in Russian):
Postanovlenie RF ot 30.12.2013 No. 1306 "Ob Utverzhdenii Pravil
Soderzhaniia (Prebyvaniia) v Spetsialnykh Uchrezhdeniiakh
Federalnoi Migratsionnoi Sluzhby Inostrannyh Grazhdan" [Decreeof the Russian Federation No. 1306 passed on 30 December 2013
'On Approval of the Rules of (stay) in Institutions of the Federal
Migration Service of Foreign Citizens'] http://www.consultant.ru/
document/cons_doc_LAW_157232/?frame=145	Personal communication.

46	South Africa

Personal communication

1	

23	

Steven Eke, 'Russia: new rules hit foreign workers', BBC World
Service, accessed 06/02/16: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/119_wag_climate/page9.shtml

24	"GDP per capita", The World Bank, accessed 07/02/2016: http://
data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD25	GFK Ukraine, Human Trafficking Survey: Ukraine, (International
Labour Organisation, 2015), accessed 07/02/2016

26	

It is necessary to differentiate between West and Eastern Ukraine.
Eastern Ukraine, being predominantly Russian speaking, saw
many flee to Russia during the conflict and considered 'refugees'
although they were not necessarily given such official status.

27	

GFK Ukraine, Human Trafficking Survey: Ukraine, (International
Labour Organization, 2015), accessed 07/02/2016: http://www.
iom.org.ua/sites/default/files/pres_gfk_iom2015_ukraine_eng_
fin_3_2.pdf

28	'Norway Sends Syrian Refugees Back to Russia', EuroNews,
January 20, 2016, accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.euronews.
com/2016/01/20/norway-sends-syrian-refugees-back-to-russia/

29	'Remittances Growth to Slow Sharply in 2015, as Europe andRussia Stay Weak; Pick Up Expected Next Year', The World Bank,
April 13, 2015, accessed 10/03/2015: http://www.worldbank.org/
en/news/press-release/2015/04/13/remittances-growth-to-slowsharply-in-2015-as-europe-and-russia-stay-weak-pick-up-expected-next-year30	As above.

31	David Trilling, 'Tajikistan: Remittances to Plunge 40% – World
Bank', Central Asia Today, May 26, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016:
http://www.eurasianet.org/node/73591

32	

Karoun Demirjian, 'New Russian Migration Law Boosts IslamicState Recruitment in Tajikistan', The Guardian, July 14, 2015,
accessed 10/03/2016: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/
jul/14/russian-migration-law-tajikistan-islamic-state-recruits

33	

As above.

34	

Kommersant, 'Russia Toughens Migration Policy for CIS Citizens',
Russia Beyond the Headlines, June 24, 2014, available at: http://rbth.com/news/2014/06/24/russia_toughens_migration_policy_for_cis_citizens_37673.html

35	Personal communication.

36	Matthew Luxmoore, 'Ruble Ripple: New Russian Laws Make
Life Difficult for Migrant Workers', Al Jazeera, February 27,
2015, accessed 10/03/2016: http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/2/27/new-russian-laws-make-life-difficult-for-migrantworkers.html

37	

|

Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Poletaev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)

As above.

22	

204

World Report 2016: Russia Narrative, (Human Rights Watch, 2016),
accessed 10/03/2016: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/
country-chapters/russia

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

'Modern Day Slavery South Africa', International Organization for
Migration, October 9, 2015, accessed 12/02/16: http://southafrica.
iom.int/modern-day-slavery-south-africa/
Government of South Africa, 'Criminal Law (Sexual Offenses andRelated Matters) Amendment Act 32 of 2007', accessed 10/02/16: ;note: the purchasing of sex was criminalised long before this Act –in the Sexual Offences Act 23 of 1857 (of which many sections are
now replaced/repealed by the 2007 Act) https://www.issafrica.org/
crimehub/uploads/sexual_offences_act32_2007_eng.pdf

2	

Chandre Gould, 'Sex Trafficking and Prostitution in South
Africa', The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political andSocial Science 653 no.1 (May 2014), accessed 09/02/16: doi:
10.1177/0002716214521557, see also; Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: South Africa Country Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2014),
pp. 308–309, accessed 11/02/16: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf

3	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: South Africa Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2014), p. 309, accessed 11/02/16: http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf

4	Lenyaro Sello, 'Combating Human Trafficking: Working the law',eNews Channel Africa, July 28, 2015, accessed 09/02/16: http://
www.enca.com/south-africa/combating-human-trafficking-working-law

5	"A Profile of Child Marriage in Africa", UNICEF, accessed
10/02/16: http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_pdfs/corecode/UNICEF-Child-Marriage-Brochure-HighSingle_246.pdf

6	Marcel van der Watt, 'Human trafficking in South Africa: anelusive statistical nightmare', eNews Channel Africa, July 17, 2015,
accessed 10/02/16: http://www.enca.com/life/human-trafficking-south-africa-elusive-statistical-nightmare

7	"Ukuthwala", Justice and Constitutional Development Republic ofSouth Africa, accessed 10/02/16: http://www.justice.gov.za/brochure/ukuthwala/ukuthwala.html#sthash.ZIxgFjNf.dpuf

8	

Evaluation of Stepping Stones: A Gender Transformative HIV Prevention Intervention' (Medical Research Centre, Gender and HealthResearch Unit, 2011) http://www.justice.gov.za/brochure/ukuthwala/ukuthwala.html#sthash.ZIxgFjNf.dpuf

9	Luso Mnthali, 'South Africa's Domestic Workers Gains a Minimum Wage', Equal Times, August 4, 2015, accessed 12/02/16:
http://www.equaltimes.org/south-africa-s-domestic-workers#.
Vrg-Bfl97IV

10	Country cont.
Mariam Seedat-Khan, Gunasekharan Dharmaraja and Sinethemba
Sidloyi, 'A New Form of Bonded Labour: A Comparative Study
between Domestic Workers of South Africa and India', Journal of
Sociology and Social Anthropology, accessed 12/02/16: http://www.
krepublishers.com/06-Special%20Volume-Journal/JSSA-00-Special%20Volume/JSSA-SV-04-14-Singh-Anand/JSSA-SV-04-057031-14-Seedat/JSSA-SV-04-057-031-14-Seedat-Tx[5].pdf

11	'Domestic Worker Minimum Increases from 1 December 2015',
South African Department of Labour Online, December 2015,
accessed 12/02/16: http://www.labour.gov.za/DOL/downloads/legislation/sectoral-determinations/basic-conditions-of-employment/
domesticwages_dec2015.pdf

12	Luso Mnthali, 'South Africa’s Domestic Workers Gain a Minimum
Wage', Equal Times, August 4, 2015, accessed 12/02/16: http://
www.equaltimes.org/south-africa-s-domestic-workers#.VrhQTPl97IU

13	Emma Thelwell and Corli van der Merwe, 'Don’t look away: SA’s
dirty slavery secret in 2014', News24, November 10, 2014, accessed
11/02/16: http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Dont-lookaway-SAs-dirty-slavery-secret-in-2014-20141110

14	

Ray Mwareya, 'South Africa’s 'Gold Slaves'', Equal Times, December
2, 2014, accessed 11/02/16: http://www.equaltimes.org/south-africa-s-gold-slaves?lang=en#.VpNscBV97IU

15	'Modern Day Slavery South Africa', International Organisation for
Migration, October 9, 2015, accessed 12/02/16: http://southafrica.
iom.int/modern-day-slavery-south-africa/

16	Government of South Africa, 'Basic Conditions of Employment
Act (1997)', accessed 12/02/16: http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.
za/files/a75-97.pdf

17	

Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labour Report: South Africa, (United States Departmentof Labor, 2014), accessed 05/01/2016: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/
reports/child-labor/findings/2014TDA/southafrica.pdf

18	

As abovee.

19	'Modern Day Slavery South Africa', International Organisation for
Migration, October 9, 2015, accessed 12/02/16: http://southafrica.
iom.int/modern-day-slavery-south-africa/

20	"World Report 2016: South Africa", Human Rights Watch, 2016,
accessed 06/02/16: https://www.hrw.org/africa/south-africa

33	

Naemah Abrahams, Shanaaz Mathews et al., Every Eight Hours:
Intimate Femicide in South Africa 10 years later!,(South African
Medical Research Council, 2012), accessed 07/02/16: http://www.
mrc.ac.za/policybriefs/everyeighthours.pdf

34	'Third of South African Men Admit to Rape: Study', ABC News,
November 27, 2010, accessed 07/02/16: http://www.abc.net.au/
news/2010-11-27/third-of-south-african-men-admit-to-rapestudy/2353188

35	

David Smith, 'South African Girl’s Gang-Rape and Murder Triggers Political Outrage', The Guardian, Februray 8, 2013, accessed
06/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/07/southafrica-girl-gang-rape-murder36	Annie Kelly, 'Raped and Killed for Being a Lesbian: South Africa
Ignores ‘Corrective’ Attacks', The Guardian, March 13, 2009,
accessed 06/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/
mar/12/eudy-simelane-corrective-rape-south-africa

37	David Smith, 'South African Girl’s Gang-Rape and Murder Triggers Political Outrage', The Guardian, February 8, 2013, accessed
06/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/07/southafrica-girl-gang-rape-murder38	'South Africa: Justice Served for Disebo Gift Makau', Gender Links,
accessed 07/02/16: http://www.genderlinks.org.za/article/southafrica-justice-served-for-disebo-gift-makau-2015-05-21

39	'After Just Two Days in Court, Botlhokwane Gets Two Life
Sentences for Murdering Young Lesbian, Disebo Makau', Iranti,
accessed 06/02/16: http://www.iranti-org.co.za/content/Africa_
by_country/South_Africa/Gift_Makau/2015-Gift-Makau/DiseboGift-Makau_Press-Statement-Iranti-org_21-May-2015.pdf

40	

Kate Wilkinson, 'Is a Child Raped Every Three Minutes in South
Africa? The Data is Flawed', Africa Check, November 13, 2014,
accessed 06/02/16: https://africacheck.org/reports/is-a-childraped-every-three-minutes-in-south-africa-the-statistic-is-flawed/

41	'Public Trust in Government Dwindles', Corruption Watch, February 4, 2016, accessed 09/02/16: http://www.corruptionwatch.org.
za/public-trust-in-government-dwindles/42	As above43	David Smith, 'Calls for Inequality to be Tackled in South Africa
as Violent Crime Rises', The Guardian, October 1, 2015, accessed
06/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/01/
south-africa-violent-crime-murders-increase-inequality

44	

21	
22	

'Factsheet: South Africa’s Official Crime Statistics for 2013/14,(Institute for Security Studies and Africa Check, 2014), accessed
15/03/16: https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-south-africas-official-crime-statistics-for-201314/; see also, Crime Situation
in South Africa, (South African Police Service, 29 September 2015)
http://www.saps.gov.za/resource_centre/publications/statistics/
crimestats/2015/crime_stats.php

23	Personal communication.

24	Patrick Mcgroarty, 'South Africa Unemployment Hits 11-YearHigh', The Wall Street Journal, May 26, 2015, accessed 06/02/16:
http://www.wsj.com/articles/south-africa-unemployment-hits-11year-high-1432640795

25	

As above.

26	

Statistics South Africa, Quarterly Labour Force Survey, Quarter 3:2015 (Statistics South Africa, 2015), page iv, accessed 07/02/16:
http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02113rdQuarter2015.pdf

27	

Ray White, 'SA’s Economy on brink of recession, says World Bank',
Eyewitness News, February, 2016, accessed 08/02/16: http://ewn.
co.za/2016/02/02/World-Bank-SA-economy-on-brink-of-recession

28	Brent Swails and Jason Hanna, 'South Africa deploys troops tohelp stem immigrant attacks', CNN News, April 22, 2015, accessed
08/02/16: http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/21/africa/south-africa-xenophobia-attacks/29	'Cape Town protests against attacks on immigrants', Euronews, April 23, 2015, accessed 07/02/16: http://www.euronews.
com/2015/04/23/cape-town-protests-against-attacks-on-immigrants/

30	David Smith, 'Calls for inequality to be tackled in South Africa
as violent crime rises', The Guardian, October 1, 2015, accessed
06/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/01/
south-africa-violent-crime-murders-increase-inequality

31	Personal communication"Proclamation by the President of the Republic of South Africa",
Government Gazette, August 7, 2015, accessed 09/02/16: http://
www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/39078_proc32.pdf
Beatri Kruger, 'Celebrating the New Law to Combat Human Trafficking in South Africa', Gateway News, August 20, 2015, accessed
11/02/16: http://gatewaynews.co.za/celebrating-the-new-law-tocombat-human-trafficking-in-south-africa/

45	Government of South Africa, 'Prevention and Combating ofTrafficking in Persons Act (2013)', article 29, accessed 11/02/16:
http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/36715_gon544.pdf

46	

As above, Article 8.

47	Personal communication.

48	Lenyaro Sello, 'Combating Human Trafficking: Working the Law',
eNews Channel Africa, July 28, 2015, accessed 11/02/16: http://
www.enca.com/south-africa/combating-human-trafficking-working-law

49	

As above.

50	Government of South Africa, 'Prevention and Combating ofTrafficking in Persons Act (2013)', article 39, accessed 11/02/16:
http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/36715_gon544.pdf

51	

Note: ukuthwala in toto was not declared unconstitutional (personal communication).

52	"Parliament on Court’s Rulings Following Ukuthwala Case in
Hewit", South African Government, accessed 10/02/16: http://www.
gov.za/speeches/government-welcomes-rulings-courts-ukuthwalacase-and-hewitt-26-mar-2015-0000; see also: Jezile v S and Others(A 127/2014) [2015] ZAWCHC 31 (23 March 2015): http://saflii.
org/za/cases/ZAWCHC/2015/31.html

53	'Eight Life Sentences for Human Trafficking', JBay News, accessed
21/03/16: http://www.jbaynews.com/eight-life-sentences-to-abusinessman-accused-of-human-trafficking/54	Marcel van der Watt, 'Human Trafficking in South Africa: An
Elusive Statistical Nightmare', eNews Channel Africa, July 17, 2015,
accessed 10/02/16: http://www.enca.com/life/human-trafficking-south-africa-elusive-statistical-nightmare55	As above.

32	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|

205

"New Immigration Regulations", Department of Home Affairs
Republic of South Africa, accessed 10/02/16: http://www.dha.gov.za/
files/Brochures/Immigrationleaflet.pdf

13	

Louise Ferreira, "Factsheet: How to Travel with Children Into andOut of SA (and What is an Unabridged Birth Certificate)", Africa
Check, accessed 10/02/16: https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-how-to-travel-with-children-into-and-out-of-south-africaand-what-is-an-unabridged-birth-certificate/14	Personal communication.

15	

56	

57	

58	

'Modern Day Slavery South Africa', International Organisation for
Migration October 9, 2015, accessed 12/02/16: http://southafrica.
iom.int/modern-day-slavery-south-africa/

59	

Chandre Gould, 'Sex Trafficking and Prostitution in South
Africa', The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653 no.1 (May 2014): 09/02/16, doi:
10.1177/0002716214521557.

60	Personal communication.

61	Personal communication.

62	"South Africa Tackles Human Trafficking", South Africa Info, lastmodified February 24, 2015, accessed 10/02/16: http://www.southafrica.info/services/rights/trafficking-240215.htm#.VrhfXPl97IV63	

As above.

64	ThailandBureau of International Labour Affairs, Findings on the Worst
Forms of Child Labour Report: Thailand, (United States Departmentof Labour, 2014), accessed 06/02/16: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/thailand.htm

1	

Elaine Pearson, Sureeporn Punpuing et al., "The Mekong Challenge - Underpaid, Overworked and Overlooked: The Realities ofYoung Migrant Workers in Thailand (Volume One)," (International Labour Organization, 2006), 10, http://www.ilo.org/asia/
whatwedo/publications/WCMS_BK_PB_67_EN/lang--en/index.
htm

2	

Dean Irvine, 'Slaves at Sea: Report into Thai Fishing Industry
Finds Abuse of Migrant Workers', CNN, March 6, 2014, accessed
04/02/16: http://edition.cnn.com/2014/03/06/world/asia/thailand-fishing-modern-slavery-report/index.html

3	Caught at Sea: Forced Labour and Trafficking in Fisheries, (International Labour Organization, Special Action Programme to
Combat Forced Labour, 2013), p. 15, pp. 19–20, accessed 04/02/16:
http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/
WCMS_214472/lang--en/index.htm

4	

Allan Beesey, From Lao PDR to Thailand and Home Again: The
Repatriation of Trafficking Victims and Other Exploited Women andGirl Workers - A Study of 124 Cases, (International Organization for
Migration, 2004), p. 21, 16/03/16: http://bit.ly/1R5DSeG
Situational Analysis of the Commercial Sexual Exploitation ofChildren in Thailand, (ECPAT International, 2015), p. 39, accessed
09/02/16

16	

Rebecca Surtees, After Trafficking: Experiences and Challenges in the(Re)Integration of Trafficked Persons in the Greater Mekong Sub-region, (United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking/NEXUS Institute, 2013), p. 134, accessed 09/02/16: http://un-act.
org/publication/view/trafficking-experiences-challenges-reintegration-trafficked-persons-greater-mekong-sub-region/

17	

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, 2015 Trafficking in Persons Report: Thailand Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 09/02/16: http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/243562.pdf

18	'Thailand’s Trafficking in Persons Report 2014: Country Report,(Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2014), p. 40, accessed 06/02/16:
http://www.mfa.go.th/main/en/media-center/14/54368-Thailand's-Trafficking-in-Persons-2014-Countr.html

19	

United Nations General Assembly Security Council, 'Reportof the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict(A/69/926-S/2015/409)', (United Nations, 2015), accessed
14/02/16: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/926&Lang=E&Area=UNDOC

20	

"Thailand", Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, June 2015, accessed 06/02/16:
https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/thailand/21	Southern Thailand: Ongoing recruitment and use of children by armed
groups, (Child Soldiers International, January 2015), accessed
14/02/16: http://www.child-soldiers.org/research_report_reader.
php?id=799

22	"Thailand", Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, June 2015, accessed 06/02/16:
https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/thailand/

23	

24	

Exploitation of Cambodian Men at Sea, (United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking, 2009), p. 5, accessed 15/08/14:
http://www.no-trafficking.org/reports_docs/siren/siren_cb3.pdf

25	

Personal communication.

26	

6	

7	

Note: This figure includes new deployments and contract renewal, labelled ʻre-entry'. Number of Thai Workers Deployed, by
Destination, (Ministry of Labour, Office for Thai Workers Going
Overseas, 2012,) accessed through personal communication.

8	Suttiporn Bunmak, 'Migrant Networks in Thailand and Malaysia: Irregular Nayu Workers in Tom Yam Restaurants in Kuala
Lumper', (Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, University of Wollongong,2010), accessed 30/07/14: http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=4317&context=theses9	

Jerrold W. Huguet, and Aphichat Chamratrithirong, eds., Thailand
Migration Report 2011 - Migration for development in Thailand:
Overview and tools for Policymakers, (International Labour Organization, 2011), p. 14 & p. 39, accessed 06/02/16: http://publications.
iom.int/system/files/pdf/tmr_2011.pdf

10	

A Raw Deal: Abuse of Thai Workers in Israel’s Agricultural Sector,(Human Rights Watch, 2015), accessed 14/01/16: https://www.hrw.
org/report/2015/01/21/raw-deal/abuse-thai-workers-israels-agricultural-sector

11	Jerrold W. Huguet, and Aphichat Chamratrithirong, eds., Thailand
Migration Report 2011 – Migration for Development in Thailand:
Overview and Tools for Policymakers, (International Organization
for Migration, 2011), p. 39, accessed 14/01/16: http://publications.
iom.int/system/files/pdf/tmr_2011.pdf

12	

|

Jerrold W. Huguet, and Aphichat Chamratrithirong, eds., Thailand
Migration Report 2011 – Migration for Development in Thailand:
Overview and Tools for Policymakers, (International Labour Organization, 2011), pp.39–48, accessed 10/01/16: http://publications.
iom.int/system/files/pdf/tmr_2011.pdf

Thailand’s Seafood Slaves: Human Trafficking, Slavery and Murderin Kantang’s Fishing Industry, (Environmental Justice Foundation,2015), accessed 15/03/16: http://ejfoundation.org/sites/default/
files/public/EJF-Thailand-Seafood-Slaves-low-res.pdf

5	

206

"Personal Remittances, Received (Current US$) – Thailand 2013",
World Bank, accessed 30/07/14: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.CD.DT/countries/TH?display=default

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Silvia di Gaetano, 'How to Solve Southeast Asia’s Refugee Crisis',
The Diplomat, September 28, 2015, accessed 06/02/16: http://
thediplomat.com/2015/09/how-to-solve-southeast-asias-refugeecrisis/'World Report 2016: Thailand', (Human Rights Watch, 2016),
accessed 17/01/16: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/thailand
Paul Chambers, 'Thailand Must End its Own Rohingya Atrocity',
The Diplomat, October 23, 2015, accessed 14/01/16: http://thediplomat.com/2015/10/thailand-must-end-its-own-rohingya-atrocity/'Malaysia, Indonesia, but not Thailand, Agree to Take in Rohingya
Migrants', The Japan Times, May 21, 2015, accessed 16/03/16:
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/05/21/asia-pacific/social-issues-asia-pacific/malaysia-indonesia-will-take-boat-peopleu-s-will-help-thailand-balks/#.VtQEU_l97IV

27	

Simon Lewis, '4 Things to Know About Thailand’s Trial of 92
Alleged Human Traffickers', Time, March 18, 2016, accessed
16/03/16: http://time.com/4263868/thailand-trial-92-human-trafficking/28	International Labour Organisation , 'Employment Practices andWorking Conditions in Thailand’s Fishing Sector', (ILO Tripartite
Action to Protect the Rights of Migrant Workers within and fromthe Greater Mekong Subregion, 2013), accessed 15/03/16: http://
www.ilo.org/dyn/migpractice/docs/184/Fishing.pdf

29	Personal communication.

30	

Jerrold W. Huguet, ed., 'Thailand Migration Report 2014', (United
Nations Thematic Working Group on Migration in Thailand,2014), accessed 15/03/16: http://th.iom.int/images/report/
TMR_2014.pdf

31	Country cont.
Transnational Organised Crime in East Asia and the Pacific, (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013), p. 8, accessed
14/08/14: http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/
Studies/TOCTA_EAP_web.pdf

32	Emanuel Stoakes, Chris Kelly & Annie Kelly, ‘Revealed: How theThai fishing Industry Trafficks, Imprisons and Enslaves', The
Guardian, July 20, 2015, accessed 07/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jul/20/thai-fishing-industry-implicated-enslavement-deaths-rohingya

53	

Review of the Effectiveness of the MOUs in Managing Labour Migration Between Thailand and Neighbouring Countries, (ILO Tripartite
Action to Protect the Rights of Migrant Workers within and fromthe Greater Mekong Subregion, 2015), accessed 16/03/16: http://
www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_356542.pdf

55	As above.

56	Personal communication; please note migrant workers in theseafood sector can change employers and districts, as noted in:
Trafficking in Persons Report 2015: The Royal Thai Government’s
Response, (The Royal Thai Government, 2015), p. 48, accessed
12/03/2016:

57	

33	

34	

35	

Personal communication.

36	

Jerrold W. Huguet, ed., Thailand Migration Report 2014, (United
Nations Thematic Working Group on Migration in Thailand,2014), accessed 16/02/16: http://th.iom.int/images/report/
TMR_2014.pdf

37	

"2015 UNHCR Country Operations Profile – Thailand", UNHCR,
accessed 08/02/16: http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e489646.html

38	

Personal communication.

39	Personal communication.

40	"Situational Analysis of the Commercial Sexual Exploitationof Children in Thailand', (ECPAT International, 2015), p. 21,
accessed 04/01/16:

41	

Gay Alcorn, Keryn Reynolds & Margaret Simons, 'Revealed:
Thailand’s Most Senior Human Trafficking Investigator to Seek
Political Asylum in Australia', The Guardian, December 10, 2015,
accessed 20/01/16: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/
dec/10/thailands-most-senior-human-trafficking-investigator-to-seek-political-asylum-in-australia

42	Personal communication.

43	'Thailand: Interim Constitution Provides Sweeping Powers', Human Rights Watch, July 24, 2014, accessed 04/02/16: https://www.
hrw.org/news/2014/07/24/thailand-interim-constitution-provides-sweeping-powers; 'Thai Junta to replace martial law but
retain key powers', Al Jazeera America, March 31, 2015, accessed
07/01/16: http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/3/31/
prayuth-to-replace-martial-law-but-retain-powers.html

44	

World Report 2016: Thailand, (Human Rights Watch, 2016),
accessed 24/04/16: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/thailand

45	'Thailand constitution: Military’s council rejects draft', BBC
News, September 6, 2015: http://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia-34149523; World Report 2016: Thailand, (Human Rights
Watch, 2016), accessed 24/04/16: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/thailand46	Personal communication.

47	'EU Warns Thailand on Illegal Fishing', International Centre
for Trade and Sustainable Development, May 8, 2015, accessed
14/01/16: http://www.ictsd.org/bridges-news/biores/news/euwarns-thailand-on-illegal-fishing48	Emanuel Stoakes, Chris Kelly & Annie Kelly, 'Revealed: How theThai Fishing Industry Trafficks, Imprisons and Enslaves', The
Guardian, July 20, 2015, accessed 15/02/16: http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jul/20/thai-fishing-industry-implicated-enslavement-deaths-rohingya

49	'Press releases: Thailand’s Progress in Combating IUU Fishing',
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Thailand, January
14, 2016, accessed 10/02/16: http://www.mfa.go.th/main/en/
media-center/14/63733-Thailand%E2%80%99s-Progress-in-Combating-IUU-Fishing.html

50	

'Thai Authorities Say Fishing Industry Crackdown Intensified', Associated Press The Big Story, February 1, 2016, accessed 09/02/16:
http://bigstory.ap.org/article/94b4719b851b46039127e1d24f8f2ca4/thai-authorities-say-fishing-industry-crackdown-intensified

51	'Press releases: Thailand’s Progress in Combating IUU Fishing',
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Thailand, January
14, 2016, accessed 08/02/16: http://www.mfa.go.th/main/en/
media-center/14/63733-Thailand%E2%80%99s-Progress-in-Combating-IUU-Fishing.html

52	

Jerrold W. Huguet, ed., Thailand Migration Report 2014, (United
Nations Thematic Working Group on Migration in Thailand,2014), accessed 09/02/16: http://th.iom.int/images/report/
TMR_2014.pdf

54	Personal communication.
'UNODC Assists Thailand to Criminalise Possession of Child
Sex Abuse Material', United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
Southeast Asia and the Pacific, May 18, 2015, accessed 07/01/16:
https://www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/2015/05/childhood-sex-abuse-material/story.html
Situational Analysis of the Commercial Sexual Exploitation ofChildren in Thailand, (ECPAT International, 2015), p. 7, accessed
06/01/16'Trafficking Ring Run by Thai Monk Crumbles with Leader
Behind Bars', International Justice Mission, June 2, 2015, accessed
06/01/16: https://www.ijm.org/articles/trafficking-ring-run-thaimonk-crumbles-leader-behind-bars

58	Personal communication.

59	'Human Trafficking Court Opens, More Traffickers Arrested', Thai
Anti-Human Trafficking Action, August 10, 2015, accessed 06/01/16:
http://www.thaianti-humantraffickingaction.org/Home/?p=157760	

As above.

61	

Situational Analysis of the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in Thailand, (ECPAT International, 2015), p. 8.

62	As above.

63	

United Kingdom
Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh and Bernard Silverman, 'Modern
Slavery in the UK: How Many Victims?', Significance, 12, 3, p. 25(2015).

1	

Lindsay Fortado, 'FT Seasonal Appeal: trapped and trafficked in
the UK', Financial Times, 10 December, 2015, accessed 21/02/16:

2	Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, 2015 Report of the Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery, (Department ofJustice, 2015), p. 14, accessed 10/02/16: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/469968/
IDMG_Report_Final.pdf

3	

National Crime Agency, National Referral Mechanism Statistics– End of Year Summary 2014, (National Crime Agency, January2015), p. 2, accessed 22/07/15: http://www.nationalcrimeagency.
gov.uk/publications/502-national-referral-mechanism-statistics-end-of-year-summary-2014/file4	

As above.

5	As above.

6	Personal communication; see also The APPG for Runaway andMissing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After
Children and Care Leavers, Report from the Joint Inquiry into
Children Who Go Missing From Care, (The APPG for Runaway
and Missing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After
Children and Care Leavers, 2012), accessed 10/02/16: https://www.
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/175563/Report_-_children_who_go_missing_from_care.pdf

7	Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, "2015 Report of theInter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery",(Department of Justice, 2015), 15, accessed 10/02/16: https://www.
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/469968/IDMG_Report_Final.pdf

8	

Alastair Sloan, 'UK tied visa system 'turning domestic workers
into modern-day slaves', The Guardian, 17 March 2015, accessed
21/07/15: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/17/
uk-tied-visa-system-turning-domestic-workers-into-modern-dayslaves9	

Kalayaan, Britain's forgotten slaves: migrant domestic workers in the
United Kingdom and the introduction of the tied Overseas Domestic
Worker visa (Kalayaan, 2015), p. 1, accessed 17/07/15: http://www.
kalayaan.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Kalayaan-3-yearbriefing.pdf

10	

As above.

11	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|207

Country cont.
"Statistics January to December 2014," Forced Married Unit, accessed 21/07/15: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/file/412667/FMU_Stats_2014.pdf

12	

As above.

13	Shaheen Hashmat, 'Forced marriage in Britain: It nearly happened
to me', The Telegraph, 30 September 2015, accessed 12/02/16:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/11899171/
Forced-marriage-in-Britain-It-nearly-happened-to-me.html

14	Personal communication; see also Sue Berelowitz, Jenny Clifton,
Carlene Firimin, Sandra Gulyurtlu and Gareth Edwards, If Only
Someone Had Listened, (Office of the Children's Commissioner's
Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Gangs and Groups,2013), accessed 16/07/15: https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov.
uk/sites/default/files/publications/If_only_someone_had_listened.
pdf

15	

Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, "2015 Report of theInter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery,"(Department of Justice, 2015), 21, accessed 10/02/16: https://www.
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/469968/IDMG_Report_Final.pdf

16	

As above.

17	"Big step in the right direction but deficiencies leave us – andvictims of modern slavery – wholly unsatisfied", Anti-Slavery
International, accessed 14/12/2015: http://www.antislavery.org/
english/press_and_news/news_and_press_releases_2009/analysis_of_modern_slavery_act.aspx

18	

Ms C Reyes and Ms T Suryadi v Mr J Al-Malki and Mrs Al-Malki
and Others [2015] EWCA Civ 32

19	

Benkharbouche/Janah v Sudan Embassy/Libya [2015] EWCA Civ
33

20	

Jorge Bustamante, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human
Rights of Migrants, (United Nations General Assembly, March
2010), p. 15, accessed 22/07/2016: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/
bodies/hrcouncil/docs/14session/A.HRC.14.30.Add.3_en.pdf

21	"Release Migrant Workers from Tied-Visas", London Assembly, lastmodified December 2, 2015, https://www.london.gov.uk/press-releases/assembly/release-migrant-workers-from-tied-visas

22	"Overseas Domestic Workers Visa: Independent Review," (HomeOffice and UK Visas and Immigration, 2015) accessed 17/07/15:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-domestic-workers-visa-independent-review

23	As above.

24	Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, 2015 Report of the Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery, (Department ofJustice, 2015), p.9, accessed 10/02/16: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/469968/
IDMG_Report_Final.pdf

25	

"Historic Law To End Modern Slavery Passed", Home Office, 26
March, 2015, accessed 12/07/15: https://www.gov.uk/government/
news/historic-law-to-end-modern-slavery-passed26	

As above.

27	

208

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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

In 2015, Walk Free, in conjunction with ECPAT ran a campaign
gathering 80,000 signatures, following a previous ECPAT campaign with The Body Shop that got 735,000 signatures. GRETA
has previously criticised the UK for lack of child advocates, see:Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings,
Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the United
Kingdom, (Council of Europe, 2012), accessed 17/07/15: https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRETA_2012_6_FGR_GBR_en.pdf

28	Personal communication.

29	

Review of the National Referral Mechanism for Victims of Human
Trafficking, (Home Office, November 2014), accessed 15/07/15:
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/467434/Review_of_the_National_Referral_Mechanism_for_victims_of_human_trafficking.pdf

30	Personal communication.

31	Personal communication.

32	

Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Scotland) Bill, (Human Trafficking Foundation, October 2015) ,accessed 12/02/16: http://
www.humantraffickingfoundation.org/blog/2015/10/human-trafficking-and-exploitation-scotland-bill

33	

Graeme Demianyk, 'Government Launches Helpline To Tackle
Modern Slavery Which Home Secretary Theresa May Calls An'Affront To Humanity', Huffington Post UK, December 9, 2015,
accessed 12/02/16: http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/12/09/
theresa-may-modern-slavery-helpline_n_8760642.html

34	Personal communication.

35	

Press Association, 'Businessman is the First Person Jailed Under
Forced Marriage Laws,' The Guardian, 11 June, 2015, accessed
27/07/15: http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jun/10/34year-old-man-first-person-to-be-convicted-under-forced-marriage-laws

36	

Shaheen Hashmat, 'Forced Marriage in Britain: It Nearly
Happened to Me', The Telegraph, 30 September, 2015, accessed 12/02/16: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/11899171/Forced-marriage-in-Britain-It-nearly-happened-to-me.html

37	"Law and the Justice System – Guidance: Forced Marriage",
Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Home Office, last modified
March 8, 2016, https://www.gov.uk/guidance/forced-marriage

38	ENDNOTES - Appendices
Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Monti Narayan Datta, and Kevin Bales,'Modern Slavery: A global reckoning', Significance (Royal StatisticalSociety October 2015. Available for download from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2015.00854.x/pdf

20	

The theoretical concept of human security builds on the United
Nations Development Programme's 1994 Report on Human Security that identifies the seven major areas of security as politicalsecurity, community security, personal security, environmental
security, food security, economic security, and health security.

21	

1	

2	

VIF references the Variance Inflation Factor, which assesses theseverity of multicollinearity by estimating the inflation of regression coefficients as compared to when the predictor variables are
not linearly related. While VIF scores between 1 and 5 indicate
moderate correlation, we established our threshold at any variable
over a VIF score of 10, which indicates very high correlation.

3	In statistics, tolerance is used as an indicator of multicollinearity
and is estimated by subtracting the R-squared value from 1, where
the R-squared value is calculated by regressing the independent
variable of interest onto the remaining independent variables.
Researchers generally desire higher levels of tolerance, because
when the tolerance levels are too low, or below 0.1, the resultsfrom multiple regression analysis can be affected.

4	

From series 'Borrowed any money, past year (% aged 15+)' in"Global Findex (Global Financial Inclusion Database)", The World
Bank, accessed: 24/03/2016: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=1228

5	From series 'Coming up with emergency funds, not at all possible(% aged 15+)' in "Global Findex (Global Financial Inclusion
Database)", The World Bank, accessed: 24/03/2016: http://databank.
worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=1228

6	From series 'Received wages in the past year (% aged 15+)' in"Global Findex (Global Financial Inclusion Database)", The World
Bank, accessed: 24/03/2016: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=1228

7	

"Mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100 people)", The World Bank,
accessed 24/03/2016: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.
SETS.P2

8	World Social Protection Report 2014/15, (International Labour Organization, 2015), pp. 186-194, accessed 24/03/2016: http://www.
ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/world-social-security-report/2014/WCMS_245201/lang--en/index.htm

9	"Food Security", Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, accessed 24/03/2016: http://faostat3.fao.org/download/D/*/E

10	

"Incidence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 people)", The World Bank,
accessed 24/03/2016: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.TBS.
INCD/countries

11	Percentage of respondents who stated 'yes' in response to whether
or not they had confidence in the judicial system and courts. Taken from: "Gallup Analytics", Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016:
http://www.gallup.com/products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx

12	'Improved water source (% of TOTAL population with access)' in"Data & estimates", WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme
for Water Supply and Sanitation, accessed 24/03/2016: http://www.
wssinfo.org/data-estimates/tables/

13	

Indicator 'Political Instability' in "Global Peace Index 2015: Global
Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015: http://www.
visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/2015

14	Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Terrorism Index, (Visionof Humanity, 2015), pp. 90-92, accessed 24/03.2016: http://static.
visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/2015%20Global%20Terrorism%20Index%20Report_2.pdf

15	Indicator 'Internal conflicts fought' in "Global Peace Index 2015:
Global Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015: http://
www.visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/2015

16	

Indicator 'Violent crime' in "Global Peace Index 2015: Global
Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015: http://www.
visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/201517	"Data", WomanSTATS Project, accessed 24/03/2016: http://www.
womanstats.org/data.html

18	

Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a goodplace for gay or lesbian people to live. Taken from "Gallup Analytics", Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016: http://www.gallup.
com/products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx"Table 3: Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index", United
Nations Development Program, accessed 24/03/2016: http://hdr.
undp.org/en/composite/IHDI
Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a goodplace for people with intellectual disabilities to live. Taken from
"Gallup Analytics", Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016: http://
www.gallup.com/products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx

22	Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a goodplace for immigrants to live. Taken from "Gallup Analytics",
Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016: http://www.gallup.com/
products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx

23	Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a goodplace for racial and ethnic minorities to live. Taken from "Gallup
Analytics", Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016: http://www.
gallup.com/products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx

24	

The total number of refugees (including refugee-like situations)by country/territory of asylum/residence. Taken from "Population
Statistics," United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, accessed
24/03/2016: http://popstats.unhcr.org/PSQ_TMS.aspx

25	

Total number of displaced persons from "Population Statistics", United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, accessed:
24/03/2015: http://popstats.unhcr.org/PSQ_TMS.aspx

26	

'POLITY2' variable in "The Polity Project", Center for Systemic
Peace, accessed 24/03/2016: http://www.systemicpeace.org/polityproject.html

27	

The Global Slavery Index, (Walk Free Foundation, 2016),28	

A survey was also conducted in Thailand in Thai language but theresults are not being used for estimation purposes in this Global
Slavery Index. Research confirms that migrant workers from
Cambodia and Myanmar are subject to high levels of exploitation(see Simon Baker, Human Trafficking Trends in Asia: Migration
Experiences of Cambodia Workers deported from Thailand in 2009,2010 and 2012, (UNDP & UN ACT, 2015): http://un-act.org/
publication/view/human-trafficking-trends-asia-migration-experiences-cambodian-workers-deported-thailand-2009-2010-2012/;
and UNIAP Trafficking Estimates, Estimating Labor Trafficking: A
Study of Burmese Migrant Workers in Samut Sakhon, (UNDP, 2011):
http://www.no-trafficking.org/reports_docs/estimates/uniap_estimating_labor_trafficking_report.pdf. Given the known limitationsof the Thai survey, we also undertook surveys in source countries,
Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar, partly to test out whether thiswould give us a sufficient sample of returned migrant workers toestimate prevalence in Thailand. However, on further consideration this method of estimation was rejected. We have therefore
used our extrapolation methodology for Thailand for this year.
Consultations prior to the launch of the Index confirmed this was
the best approach. We continue to seek alternative approaches for
estimating prevalence in Thailand.

29	

Initially this was 14 States but Andrha Pradesh state was split into
two in June 2014, with creation of the new state Telangana. As
the survey was already on foot in Andrha Pradesh, a decision wasmade to split the sample of 1000 across both States.

30	

See also the work of the Human Rights Data Analysis Group.
https://hrdag.org/2013/03/11/mse-the-basics/

31	

Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh, Bernard Silverman, 'Modern Slavery
in the UK: How Many Victims?' Significance (Royal StatisticalSociety), June 2015, pp. 16-21.

32	UK Human Trafficking Centre NCA Strategic Assessment: The
Nature and Scale of Human Trafficking in 2013, (National Crime
Agency, 2014, Ref. 0093-UKHTC. http://bit.ly/10j5pql

33	

Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh, Bernard Silverman, 'Modern Slavery
in the UK: How Many Victims?' Significance (Royal StatisticalSociety), June 2015, pp. 16-21.

34	

Jan Van Dijk and Peter GM van der Heijden, 'On the potential ofMultiple Systems Estimation for estimating the number of victimsof human trafficking across the world', Paper presented at the UN
Crime Commission, Vienna, May 2016.

35	

Indicator 'Weapons access' in "Global Peace Index 2015: Global
Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015: http://www.
visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/2015

19	

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016|209

Appendices cont.
Small Island Developing States (SIDS), United Nations, There
were three diversions from this general rule: (1) a similar adjustment was made for Madagascar as it has a socio-economic
environment similar to SIDS. (2) While the UN lists Singapore
as a SIDS, it is markedly different to other nations in this list due
largely to stronger economic conditions, which is a strong pull
factor. (3) No adjustment was made for Haiti. Although it is recognised as a SIDS, there was high confidence in the existing data
point for Haiti which was based on random sample survey data.
http://www.un.org/en/events/islands2014/smallislands.shtml

36	

In simple terms, K-means is a statistical method which groups
similar items into clusters, ensuring that items not in the samecluster are as different as possible. This is achieved by allocating
an item to the cluster with the nearest centroid, or the mean of
the cluster. The cluster's mean is then recalculated and the processof allocating items to clusters begins again until no items changegroups, or those changes do not make a substantial difference inthe definition of clusters.

37	Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Monti Narayan Datta, and Kevin Bales,'Modern Slavery: A global reckoning', Significance (Royal StatisticalSociety October 2015. Available for download from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2015.00854.x/pdf

38	Ronald Clarke and Ross Homel, 'A Revised Classification of
Situational Crime Prevention Techniques', in Crime Prevention
at a Crossroads, ed. Cincinnati, OH and Andersen, (1997), p. 17-27.; Paul Ekblom & Nick Tilley, 'Going equipped: criminology,
situational crime prevention and the resourceful offender', British
Journal of Criminology, 40, 3: (Summer 2000): 376; Klaus Von
Lampe, 'The application of the framework of Situational Crime
Prevention to 'organized crime', Criminology and Criminal Justice,
11 (2011): pp. 145-163.

39	

Kevin Bales, Ending Slavery: How we Free Today's Slaves, (University of California Press, 2007); Anne Gallagher & Paul Holmes,'Developing an Effective Criminal Justice Response to Human
Trafficking: Lessons from the Frontline', International Criminal
Justice Review, 18, 3, (September 2008), pp. 318-348; Office to
Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, The 3Ps: Prevention,
Protection, Prosecution, (Democracy and Global Affairs, 2011),
accessed 17/09/14: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/167334.pdf

40	

Due to the ongoing conflict and extreme disruption to government function, we have not included ratings for Afghanistan, Iraq,
Libya, Somalia, Syria and Yemen.

41	Calculated to equal a total of 100 points (so 100/28)

42	

A more detailed discussion of the limitations of not weighting
certain activities is included in the detailed methodology paper,
available for download on the Global Slavery Index website.

43	

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"Whenever I go back to my village I
feel so ashamed,"says Phany, wholives in the Cambodian capital,
Phnom Penh, after escaping life
as a trafficked bride in China.
Photo credit, Charlotte Per

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

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A talibe (boy studying in a Qur’anic school) is bound by chains in an isolation areaof a daara (Qur’anic school) in Senegal, 2015. In this daara the youngest talibes areshackled by their ankles to stop them from trying to run away. The chain’s length only
allows them to use an improvised bathroom in a separate area of the daara. These
children can stay like this for days, weeks, even months until they gain the marabout’s(Qur’anic teacher) trust. Their guardian explains, “When I release them, I give them
the freedom to beg like the rest of the talibes.”
Photo credit, Mario Cruz

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