AMERICASREPORT2018

MODERN SLAVERY:
A HIDDEN, EVERYDAY PROBLEM.
In 2016, 40.3 million people were living in modern
slavery. It exists in every corner of the world, yet isseemingly invisible to most people. Unravelling thisproblem requires sustained vigilance and action.
Take this fire in a clandestine textile workshop in
Buenos Aires, Argentina. These images are from2006, yet the fight for justice for the five boys and apregnant woman who were forced to work at thisfacility, and died in this fire, is still ongoing. In 2016,a court sentenced the workshop operator to 13 years
prison for servitude and destruction of property
causing death. This year, the court called for adeposition from the owner of the clothing brands,
who also owns the property.
The fight to end modern slavery continues.
We can, and must, do more.

Copyright © 2018. The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd.
All rights reserved.

Americas Report

CONTENTS
Spotlight on progress

3

Executive Summary

4

Estimating modern slavery in the Americas

4

Key findings from the Global Slavery Index

5

About the Index

8

Methodology

10

Estimating prevalence

10

Measuring vulnerability

12

Measuring government response

13

Modern slavery in the Americas

22

Prevalence

26

Vulnerability

28

Importing risk: G20 countries and import of products tainted bymodern slavery in the Americas region

32

Government responses

34

Regional response

40

Regional recommendations

41

Strengthen legislation

41

Improve victim support

41

Strengthen coordination and transparency

42

Address risk factors

42

Eradicate modern slavery from the economy

43

Appendix: Endnotes

44

1

2

Global Slavery Index 2018

AMERICASREGION HIGHLIGHTS

CanadaUnited States
Cuba

Jamaica

Haiti

Dominican Republic
Barbados

MexicoGuatemalaTrinidad
And Tobago

El Salvador

Venezuela
GuyanaHonduras
Costa Rica

Nicaragua

Suriname

PanamaPeru
EcuadorBrazilBolivia

Colombia

Paraguay

Chile

high

Argentina

Uruguaylow

Estimated Number ofPeople in Modern Slavery

Forced labour
percentage

66%

Forced marriage
percentage

34%

41/100B

CC1,950,000
Regional Proportionof Global Estimate

5%

Average Vulnerability Score

Average Government Response Score

AAA

AA

A

BBB

BB

CCC

C

D

Americas Report

3

SPOTLIGHT ON PROGRESS
While no government has a fully comprehensive response to modern slavery,
all countries in the Americas region have either maintained or improved
their response. Most notably, the United States has retained its position asdemonstrating the strongest response to modern slavery in the region, andthe strongest response globally to prevent governments and business fromsourcing goods or services linked to modern slavery. The United States isjoined by Argentina and Chile, both of which have made improvements that
result in the highest government response ratings in the Americas region of“BBB”. Other countries that have improved their response to modern slavery
this year include Peru, Uruguay, Trinidad and Tobago, Panama, and Bolivia.

In terms of tackling modern slavery in supply chains,
the United States and Brazil are two countries in theAmericas that have taken significant steps. With regard
to public procurement, the United States has legislation,
guidelines, and public policies for minimising the purchaseand import of products tainted with forced labour and has
provided specific training for its procurement officials.
This is important given that the US annually imports anestimated US$144 billion worth of products at-risk of being
produced with modern slavery.1 Similarly, Brazil showedcommitment to keep forced labour out of governmentand business procurement through its “Dirty List,” which
publicises a list of businesses that have been found totolerate forced labour in their supply chains.2 The Dirty
List’s power to impede financing opportunities for noncompliant businesses continues to be critical,3 although
there are questions regarding its ongoing utility as only afraction of known businesses with supply chain issues are

represented on its current iteration.4 Brazil and the UnitedStates are also taking the most action more generally torespond to modern slavery. These countries tend to havelower vulnerability scores across all measures, whichreflects effective governance across a broad range ofareas, in particular a strong capacity to provide protections
for vulnerable subgroups and ensure access to necessities
such as food and water. Collectively, these factors mitigate
risks of enslavement for citizens. However, high prevalenceof modern slavery among these countries suggests thatcritical gaps remain around the implementation of existinglegislation and policies and in tackling the root causes of
exploitation. It is very likely that this reflects the reality thateven in countries with seemingly strong systems, there aregaps in protections, with certain groups, such as irregularmigrants, the homeless, or minorities, subject to intense
and widespread discrimination, and typically less able toaccess protection.

4

Global Slavery Index 2018EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Americas region encompasses countries that are destination, transit, andorigin countries for modern slavery victims. Modern slavery is characterisedby migrant flows within the region, with individuals moving from lessdeveloped areas to relatively more developed countries in search of workand economic opportunities.5 More restrictive immigration policies in the
United States and as a broader regional trend have forced prospective
migrants to undertake riskier methods of entering countries, such as trusting
human smugglers to facilitate their entry.6 Some unaccompanied minors
from Central America are vulnerable to physical abuse, sexual abuse, andextortion while attempting to enter the United States.7

These and other massive flows of migrant labour throughout
the region contribute to the immense risk of exploitation thatthese populations face once at their destination.8 Additionalrisks are presented in informal or rural labour contexts
where there is limited regulation or oversight and few
labour inspections.9 Some agricultural seasonal, temporary,
and undocumented workers are vulnerable to modern
slavery in the United States,10 and sexual exploitation
occurs throughout the region.11 Child sex tourism in the
Caribbean results in the exploitation of many children eachyear.12 Child combatants have been used in protracted civil
conflicts in Colombia resulting in long-lasting trauma forcombatants and the need for intensive civil reintegration
efforts.13 Forced marriage also remains a major concern forthis region.14 Protracted economic and political instability
in Venezuela has left its population vulnerable to modern
slavery and has resulted in Venezuelan migrants moving
to local regional economies such as Colombia, where they
may become vulnerable to exploitation.15 Forced labour that
occurs in global supply chains also remains an issue in thisregion and throughout the world.16

Estimating modern slavery in theAmericas
In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the International
Labour Organization (ILO), together with the International
Organization for Migration (IOM), produced the Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery, which estimated that 40.3
million people were living in modern slavery on any given
day in 2016. Of these, an estimated 1.9 million men, womenand children were living in modern slavery in the Americas.
This region had a prevalence of 1.9 people in modern
slavery for every 1,000 people in the region. Althoughthese are the most reliable estimates of modern slavery todate, they should be interpreted cautiously and consideredvery conservative, given the gaps and limitations of data
generally and for this region in particular.
The current Global Estimates of Modern Slavery do notcover all forms of modern slavery; forms such as trafficking
for the purposes of organ removal, child soldiers, or childmarriage that could also constitute modern slavery cannot
be adequately measured at this stage. Further, there aregaps in survey coverage at the sub-regional level that may
impact on the regional estimates produced in the Global
Estimates. For example, there are no surveys conducted in
North America where household surveys are not consideredan effective approach to measuring modern slavery.

Americas Report

Key findings from the Global
Slavery Index
In the Americas region, there are two main trends that arise
from an analysis of the regional and national estimates ofprevalence, measures of vulnerability, and assessment ofgovernment responses.

5

Mexico scored highly across all measures of vulnerability,with Haiti scoring highest on disenfranchised groups andlack of basic needs, which also shows the ongoing effectsof the 2010 earthquake and 2016 Hurricane Matthew andthe continued vulnerability of its population to exploitation.
Mexico and Colombia also scored highly on measuresof conflict; the link between conflict, displacement andmodern slavery is well documented.27 Vulnerability scoresin the region ranged from a high vulnerability score of 70
percent in Haiti to a relatively low vulnerability score of 10
percent in Canada.

First, the protection of migrant and undocumented
labourers is a major concern for this region. Within theAmericas region, Venezuela, Haiti, the Dominican Republic,
High levels of vulnerability related to migration are reflected
and Cuba are the countries with the highest prevalencein the government response data. Cuba, Suriname, andof modern slavery. The United States, Brazil, and Mexico
Venezuela score poorly on all measures of a strong
have the highest absolute numbers – together they accountgovernment response to modern slavery (CC ratings) infor over half (57 percent) of the victims, and 66.4 percent
comparison to the regional average (B rating). The political
17of the population, in this region. Several countries in thecrisis in Venezuela, for example, has led to a breakdown
region have experienced high levels of immigration or
in normal government functions, which has led to more
emigration of undocumented migrants in recent years.
Venezuelan citizens migrating overseas and seeking asylum
Political crisis and economic collapse has seen a rise inin Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Panama, Argentina, and Chile.28
the exodus of Venezuelan nationals to 66,000 a year in
While protections for migrants exist in legislation across2015.18 The Dominican Republic, Haiti, andthe region, these are generally limited in
Cuba have among the largest diaspora intheir implementation. Twenty-two of the 27
absolute terms in the Caribbean region,
The protection
countries included in the Americas region inaccounting for over a million emigrantsof migrant and
the Global Slavery Index have labour laws
19
each. A significant number of Haitianthat cover all workers, including migrant
undocumented
migrants work informally in the Dominican
workers and those in the informal economy,
labourers
is
a
major
Republic with estimates ranging from one
such as in domestic work and the fishingmillion to 1.5 million individuals; any figure
concern for theand construction sectors. However, onlyis an estimate, with only a small proportion
Americas region
15 of 27 countries regularly conduct labourof Haitians registered and holding a work
inspections in the informal economy to20
permit. Many Dominicans move to theidentify cases of modern slavery. Despite
United States; while almost a million live
having the strongest response in the region,
legally, there are estimates of a further 100and one of the strongest responses globally, the United21
300,000 undocumented Dominican migrants. By 2015,
States (BBB rating) has excluded domestic workers fromthe total number of migrants from the Americas living inlaws allowing them to unionise and develop protections
22
the United States had reached 22.8 million. Brazil andfor working in the private home of a family. Only Barbados,
Mexico have shown declines in immigration rates in
Brazil, and Honduras have implemented laws to ensure thatrecent years with immigration rates of 0.07 percent per
migrant workers do not pay recruitment fees and that theseyear and with a six percent decline of migration to Mexico
are instead covered by employers. Canada and the United
23
between 2010 and 2015. Brazil has also attempted inStates have regulations that prohibit recruitment fees fromrecent years to regularise the status of South American andbeing charged to the employee, but the provision is not
Haitian migrants through its National Immigration Council
included in federal legislation in either country. These limited
24(CNIg). However, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico haveprotections allow migrant workers to slip through safety
25
seen increases of immigrants from Asia in recent years,
nets, thus increasing their vulnerability to modern slavery.
while Mexico continues to be a significant transit country
Secondly, additional work must be done to addressin the region, with an estimated 377,000 Central American
modern slavery in supply chains. The products andmigrants crossing Mexico in 2015.26
services produced as a result of the exploited labour of
The role that migration plays in compounding vulnerability
those in the Americas and further afield permeate global
to modern slavery is widely recognised and reflected insupply chains. Very little action has been taken in thethe Walk Free Foundation’s vulnerability data. A regional
Americas to combat the forced labour that ends up in global
analysis of vulnerability measures suggests there is a higher
supply chains, with only four countries, the United States,
risk of modern slavery in the Americas than is evident inBrazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia, taking any action at all. Bolivia
the prevalence data. While having the second lowest
and Paraguay have implemented policies to ensure thatvulnerability score (41 percent) globally, vulnerability related
goods are not produced by child labour, such as the Bolivian
to inequality was highest in the Americas in comparison to“Triple Seal” certification, which is awarded to companies
all other regions. This reflects increasing income inequality,that have reduced the use of child labour, discrimination,
significant problems associated with violent crime, andand forced labour in the production of goods. In 2014, thelower confidence in judicial systems, all of which canseal had only been awarded to sugarcane products.29
disproportionately affect migrants. Haiti, Venezuela, and6

Global Slavery Index 2018

G20 countries, encompassing the world’s strongest
These governments are beginning to recognise that public
economies, are in a unique position to combat forced labour
procurement is also at high risk of modern slavery. In Brazil,
in supply chains by holding businesses and governments tothe “Dirty List” is used by public sector companies to inform
account for any exploitation that occurs within their directcontracting decisions. Executive Order 13126 (1999) andsupply chains and those of their suppliers. The five G20
Executive Order 13627 (2012) in the United States require
countries in the region, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico,
mandatory reporting and due diligence from all federal
and the United States, collectively import US$172 billion percontractors and subcontractors to ensure that government
annum of products at risk of being produced
agencies do not procure goods andwith modern slavery. However, government
services tainted by child labour, forced
33
response data reveals that of these five G20
Additional work must be labour, and human trafficking. Guidelines
countries, only Brazil and the United States
and training on forced labour is provided todone to address modern all procurement officials, while the closure
are currently taking action to respondslavery in supply chains of a loophole in the 1930 Tariff Act (19 U.S.C.
to forced labour in the private or public
economy. The United States and Brazil lead
§ 1307) has meant that goods are regularly
the way globally in engaging with businessseized and inspected if they are believed toon addressing modern slavery. For example,
be produced with forced or child labour.34
the 2010 California Transparency in Supply
More remains to be done, however, with GSI
Chains Act requires retailers and manufacturers to disclose
data revealing that the largest proportion (by US$ value) of
their efforts combating modern slavery in their direct supply
products at risk of modern slavery across all G20 countries
chains.30 Similarly, despite recent criticisms,31 Brazil’s “Dirty
are imported into the United States (US$144 billion per
List” continues to publicise a list of business that have been
annum). The United States, and the Americas region as afound to tolerate forced labour in their supply chains.32
whole, should do more to ensure that goods and services
are not produced using forced labour.

Americas Report

7

Recommendations›› Governments must collectively and independently
work to ensure protections for migrant workers
regardless of whether their entry was legal andincrease efforts to protect vulnerable populations,particularly minors, from abuse and exploitation by
exploiters. Governments should strengthen laws toprotect labour rights in both the formal and informal
economies, including the rights of migrant workers,
domestic workers, and workers in the fishing andconstruction sectors, regardless of whether their entry
was legal. Labour laws did not cover informal sectors
in five countries. Where necessary, reform labour laws
to provide basic safety nets for vulnerable migrantgroups across this region, provide more Spanishlanguage legal resources in Northern America andBrazil, and conduct regular labour inspections in
informal industries and rural contexts.
›› Governments should establish effective mechanisms
to monitor the recruitment and employment of
migrant workers. Origin countries should closelycooperate with the region’s destination countries, theUnited States, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, and Canada,
to track and monitor unscrupulous recruitment
agencies. Laws or policies in labour sending countries
must ensure that recruitment fees are paid by theemployer and not the employee. Only three countries
banned recruitment agencies from charging fees tojob seekers.
›› Governments must improve victim support for
all victim populations regardless of gender andcitizenship. Governments must extend victim services
throughout the Americas, and in particular for the
23 countries in the region where services were notavailable to all victims of modern slavery, with men,children, and migrants being the most regularly
excluded groups. Provide assistance to all persons
at risk of modern slavery and exploitation, especiallyin informal industries and rural contexts.

Caracas, Venezuela, 23 July 2018
A woman walks in front of a closed store with agraffiti reading ‘Hay Pan?’ (‘Is there bread?’). Amid
the financial and humanitarian crisis in Venezuela,
the country is expected to see hyperinflation reach
epic proportions: a million percent a year by the endof 2018, the International Monetary Fund said on
23 July. Political crisis and economic collapse has
seen a rise in the number of Venezuelan nationals
fleeing to 66,000 a year in 2015. These individuals
are heading to neighbouring countries Colombia,
Brazil, Ecuador, Panama, Argentina, and Chile andcan become vulnerable to modern slavery.
Photo credit: Juan Barreto/AFP/Getty Images.

›› Governments should introduce and implement
legislation criminalising forced marriage and raise
the age of marriage to 18 for men and womenacross all countries in the Americas. Five countries
have legislation in place fully criminalising forced
marriage; governments should enact equivalent laws
in the remaining 22 countries. In countries where
legislation exists, its effective implementation should
be ensured by governments providing ongoingtraining and resources for police, prosecutors, andjudges. Mainstreaming women’s rights into national
action plans and supporting the empowerment of
women and girls through education will also support
the reduction of forced marriage.
›› Governments within the region with the capacity
to do more must lead efforts to eradicate modern
slavery from the national economy by implementing
laws to minimise risk of modern slavery in public
supply chains and to encourage business to practicedue diligence. In particular, G20 countries in theAmericas should enact federal legislation requiring
mandatory reporting for all large businesses withregard to the presence of modern slavery in their
supply chains. All countries in the region should
establish, and in the case of the US, implement
legislation requiring all government contractors
and suppliers to take steps to detect and eliminate
modern slavery from publicly funded supply chains.

8

Global Slavery Index 2018

ABOUT THE INDEXWalk Free Foundation
Modern slavery is a complex and often hidden crime thatcrosses borders, sectors, and jurisdictions. The Walk Free
Foundation believes that a strong multifaceted approachis needed to end modern slavery. This includes building arobust knowledge base to inform action, driving legislativechange in key countries and harnessing the power ofbusinesses and faiths. Through a combination of direct
implementation, grassroots community engagement, andworking in partnership with faiths, businesses, academics,
NGOs, and governments around the world, the Walk Free
Foundation believes we can end modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation provides the Secretariat for theBali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons
and Related Transnational Crime, and champions businesssector engagement in this regional program. It is also
advocating strongly for all leading global economies toenact laws to ensure all organisations are held accountable
for taking proactive steps to remove modern slavery fromtheir supply chains.

The Walk Free Foundation’s Global Slavery Index has
developed world leading research to provide measurementof the size and scale of modern slavery, as well as assesscountry-level vulnerability and governmental responses.
Together with the International Labour Organization (ILO)
and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), theWalk Free Foundation developed the joint Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery.
Alongside this, the Global Freedom Network is working tocatalyse world faiths in the fight against modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation is also scaling effective antislavery responses in partnership with the Freedom Fundand seed funded the global activist movement, Freedom
United, whose community of eight million supporters
are campaigning for change. The Walk Free Foundation
continues to work with faiths, governments and NGOs
throughout the world to agitate for change and support
initiatives dedicated to the eradication of modern slavery
in all its forms.

Americas Report

About modern slavery

What is modern slavery?

Modern slavery is a hidden crime that affects every country
in the world. In the period between this Index and the last
(published in 2016), modern slavery was found in manyindustries including garment manufacturing, mining, andagriculture, and in many contexts, from private homes tosettlements for internally displaced people and refugees.
Instances have been identified in Thai fishing, coal mining
in North Korea, in the homes of diplomats in Australia, carwash stations in the United Kingdom, cocoa agriculture in
Côte d’Ivoire, and cattle ranching in Brazil, just to name afew examples.

FIGURE 1
Modern slavery is an umbrella term

DERN SLAVERY
MO
Trafficking for labourand sexual exploitation

Forced labour

Forced labour
as a result offorced marriage

Human
trafficking(cross border andwithin a country)

Slavery andslavery like practices(including forced
marriage)9

Trafficking for slavery
and slavery likepractices

Terminology
Countries use differing terminologies to describe modern
forms of slavery. This includes how they describe slavery
itself, but also other concepts such as human trafficking,forced labour, debt bondage, forced or servile marriage,
and the sale and exploitation of children.
In this report, modern slavery is used as an umbrella termthat focuses attention on the commonalities across theseconcepts. Essentially, it refers to situations of exploitation thata person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence,
coercion, abuse of power, or deception.
Refer to Appendix 1 in the 2018 Global Slavery Index for
full terminology, available for download atwww.globalslaveryindex.org.

Modern slavery impacts on all of us, from the food we
consume to the goods we purchase. It is everyone’s
responsibility to address and eliminate this crime
everywhere it occurs.
Nearly every country in the world has committed toeradicate modern slavery through their national legislationand policies. Governments have a central role to playby enacting legislation, providing safety nets to their
populations, and pursuing criminals who participate inthis heinous crime. As no single actor can address allthese challenges, governments need the support andengagement of the private sector, civil society, and thecommunity at large.

The Index
The Global Slavery Index is a tool for citizens, non-governmentorganisations (NGOs), businesses, and governments tounderstand the size of the problem, existing responses, andcontributing factors so that they can advocate for and build
sound policies that will eradicate modern slavery.
All supporting data tables and methodology are available
to download from the Global Slavery Index website:www.globalslaveryindex.org.

10

Global Slavery Index 2018

METHODOLOGY
Estimating prevalence
In 2017, the inaugural Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
were produced by the ILO and the Walk Free Foundationin partnership with IOM35. The regional estimates produced
through this collaboration form the starting point for thenational level estimates presented here for 167 countries.
These national estimates were calculated36 using individualand country-level risk factors of modern slavery. The
analysis draws on data from nationally representative
surveys implemented through the Gallup World Poll,
including a module on modern slavery in 48 countries,
and data from the Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model.

The final set of risk factors were selected from an
exhaustive list of variables to optimally predict confirmed
cases of forced labour and forced marriage. The model wasthen used to generate average predicted probabilities ofmodern slavery by country. The regional totals in the 2017
Global Estimate were then apportioned based on eachcountry’s average predicted probability of modern slavery.
A final calculation accounting for state imposed forced
labour was performed to reach the final estimatedprevalence of all forms of modern slavery.
A detailed description of the methodology is set out inAppendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

Interviewer for Gallup conducting
an interview in Nepal.
Photo credit: Gallup.

Americas Report

11

FIGURE 2
Estimating the prevalence of slavery at the national-level1/

Individual and country-level risk factors wereidentified and then used to build a model thatpredicts modern slavery. This drew on data fromthe Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model andnationally representative surveys.

AFRICA

2/

Individual predictions were aggregated into
country-level risk scores.

40.3m
EUROPEAMERICAS

ASIA PACIFIC

ARAB STATES

3/

 egional-level population estimates of modernRslavery from the 2017 Global Estimate wereallocated to individual countries in the region,
proportionate to each country’s relative risk.

4/

 he number of victims was then estimated byT
applying the country prevalence estimate topopulation data for each country and estimates ofstate imposed forced labour added to arrive at the
final estimate of all forms of modern slavery.

12

Global Slavery Index 2018

Measuring vulnerability
The Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model is built on
statistical testing and processes to identify the factorsthat explain or predict the prevalence of modern slavery.
The 2018 Vulnerability Model provides a risk score for 167
countries based on an analysis of data covering 23 risk
variables across five major dimensions.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part A in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.
FIGURE 3
Vulnerability Model 2018

01 Governance Issues
Political Instability,
GSI Government Response,
Women’s Physical Security,
Political Rights, Regulatory
Quality, Disabled Rights,
Weapons Access

02 Lack of Basic Needs

05 Effects of Conflict
Impact of Terrorism,
Internal Conflicts Fought,
Internally Displaced
Persons
Vulnerability
Score

04 DisenfranchisedGroups
Acceptance of Immigrants,
Acceptance of Minorities,
Same Sex Rights

Undernourishment,
Social Safety Net,
Ability to Borrow Money,
Tuberculosis, Accessto Clean Water,
Cell Phone Users

03 Inequality
Ability to Obtain
Emergency Funds, Violent
Crime, Gini Coefficient,
Confidence in the
Judicial System

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13

Measuring government response
The Government Response Index provides a comparative
assessment of the legal, policy, and programmatic actions
that 181 governments are taking to respond to modern
slavery. This is based on data collected on 104 indicatorsthat are relevant to understanding how each governmentis tracking towards achieving five milestones:
1 / Survivors of slavery are identified and supported to exit
and remain out of slavery.
2 / Criminal justice mechanisms function effectively
to prevent modern slavery.

3 / Coordination occurs at the national and regional
level, and governments are held to account for their
response.
4 / Risk factors such as attitudes, social systems, andinstitutions that enable modern slavery are addressed.
5 / Government and business stop sourcing goods andservices produced by forced labour.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part C in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

FIGURE 4
Government Response Index 2018

Milestone 01
Identify andsupport survivors

Milestone 05
Clean upgovernmentand businesssupply chains

Milestone 02
Establish effective
criminal justicemechanisms

Government
Response Index

Milestone 04
Address risk
factors

Milestone 03
Strengthen
coordination andhold governments
to account14

Global Slavery Index 2018

LOGGING AND SLAVERY IN THE AMAZON:THE RESPONSIBILITY OF BRAZIL AND
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
André Campos | Researcher, Reporter Brasil*

Logging is a major contributor of deforestation in the Americas
and illegal extraction still occurs in an enormous share of the
exploited areas. Much of these crimes take place on indigenous
lands and within environmental protection territories, thus
threatening the preservation of the Amazon’s wildlife and thesurvival of many traditional communities.

This is a relatively well-known and well-documented reality.
Certainly, much more exposed than the lives of the menbehind the chainsaws, who make a living by filling up trucks
with precious logs. These workers, often described as cold
criminals, are often subjected to contemporary forms ofslavery while laboring at the very bottom of a complex
supply chain, with many global ramifications.
Since 1995, when the Brazilian government acknowledged
before the United Nations the persistence of modern slavery
in the country, timber extraction is one of the key economic
sectors where the problem has been identified. According
to data from the Ministry of Labor and the Catholic’s Church
Pastoral Land Commission, 931 extracting workers were
rescued during federal inspections from 2003 to 2016.
They surely account for a minor part of the problem, since
many cases are never reported or inspected at all.
One of the reasons is that slave labor is almost always
associated with illegal logging. For fear of being charged
with environmental crimes, exploited victims rarely seek
authorities.

But even when they do, inspectors must deal withsawmill owners’ “counter-intelligence” expertise to avoid
investigation. When they realise that inspectors or the police
are arriving in a region, they even use radio communication
to disperse groups working in extraction areas.
Inside the forest, men and women are subjected to a toughroutine, including months of isolation in precarious shacks
with dirty floors and no walls. Risk of snake bites, and noaccess to clean water or decent food are commonplace.
The payment is calculated based on the amount extracted,
which encourages exhausting working hours. It is no
surprise that many serious accidents, including amputationand crushing deaths, are linked to worker fatigue.
Worker’s testimonies also reveal situations where they areforced to remain on-site until the task is finished. Commonly
they find themselves in isolated camps from where it issimply impossible to leave by your own means. Lack of
payment after the job is done is also a common complaint– as well as death threats when people attempt to collectwhat they were owed by their employers.

Americas Report

15

Slavery hidden in wood exports
The sawmills who recruit these workers are usually small
fish in a big business. Their role is to saw the trees into
boards, planks or beams, which are then sold to larger
Brazilian industries, which use this as raw material for
producing higher value-added products – like decking.
Much of this is sold overseas. Europe and the United States
together account for more than half of the Amazon’s timber
exports. Trading companies in these countries distributetimber products to local retailers, furniture makers, andconstruction sites.
With so many middlemen between workers and the final
buyer, cases of forced labor might easily remain hidden
along the way. But an investigation from Repórter Brasil
revealed how major multinationals are at risk of having
products derived from forced labour on their shelves. These
multinationals had bought wood products from traders
supplied by a fragmented network of industries, including
sawmills officially caught using modern slavery by Brazilian
inspectors.37
The global wood market has barely started to wake up to
the problem. One first and basic step for dealing with itis developing traceability systems accounting for all the
manufacturing steps of their products. This is particularly
challenging in an industry operating largely under the
shadows, where documentation fraud is widespread.

The illegal logging industry takes specific measures toensure the timber they extract isn’t traced back to where it
was harvested. When market-valuable trees are cut down
in indigenous lands or protected areas, the logs are taken
to sawmills on trucks without license plates. At the sawmill,the illegal origin is “laundered” with handling documentsthat change the harvest location to legal sites. That’s how
not only environmental crimes, but also slavery, can be
washed-out of global supply chains.
The Brazilian government dramatically fails to avoid thisfraud on a large scale. From the companies’ perspective,
this means that a different approach to sourcing policies isneeded. Necessary steps include an independent tracking
process of extracting areas, as well as establishing labor
standards capable of reaching all of the supply chain,including workers inside the forest. For this to becomea reality, importers must go beyond simply relying on
information provided by their immediate supplier.
(*) André Campos is a researcher from Repórter Brasil, aBrazilian NGO who investigates modern slavery in global
supply chains

Porto Velho, Brazil, 26 June 2017.
A man works in a sawmill in a deforested
section of the Amazon rainforest near Porto
Velho, Brazil. Deforestation, caused by humanactivity, is increasing in the Brazilian Amazon
and rose 29 percent between August 2015 andJuly 2016. According to the National Institutefor Space Research, close to two million
acres of forest were destroyed during thistimeframe amid a hard hitting recession in the
country. Work not related to extractive andexploitative industries is limited in the region.
Workers earn $US21 per day at the pictured
sawmill. Many others are subjected to modern
slavery while labouring at the bottom of acomplex global supply chain.
Photo credit: Mario Tama/Getty Images.

16

Global Slavery Index 2018

CHILD LABOUR IN THE UNITED STATES:ABUSE PERSISTS DESPITE RECENTEFFORTS
Davina Durgana | Senior Researcher, Walk Free Foundation

On any given day in 2016, there were 24.9 million people inforced labour in the world. Of these, 16 million were victims offorced labour exploitation in sectors such as agriculture/fishing,construction, domestic work, and manufacturing.38 Agriculture
is a particularly risky industry as 11.3 percent of victims of forced
labour worldwide were exploited in agriculture and the fishingindustry. 39 Globally, 68 percent of victims of forced labour inagriculture, forestries, and fishing were male and 32 percent
were female.40 Forced labour prevalence in the Americas is asignificant problem and represents 1.3 per 1,000 people.41

In the Americas region, there are several inherently
vulnerable populations that comprise known victims ofmodern slavery, such as seasonal and temporary agricultural
workers, international migrants, and undocumented
migrants, situations in which children are even moreendangered. The third largest number of internationalmigrants globally was born in Latin America and the
Caribbean (38 million).42 While there are many migration
trends throughout the Americas, one notable country ofdestination is the United States. These migrant populations
to the United States are especially vulnerable due to recent
border control measures, including recent controversy
over the separation and subsequent detention of at least
2,342 children from their parents during attempted bordercrossings by US border officials.43
In 2017, the United States held the largest number ofinternational migrants (50 million), which is 19 percent of
the world’s total international migrant population.44 Many ofthese are seasonal and temporary agricultural workers who
also face hazardous and exploitative working conditions.

Often, children of undocumented seasonal and temporary
workers, who may or may not be US citizens themselves,are particularly vulnerable and involved in hazardous andexploitative labour. This is exacerbated because existinglabour laws and protections for children are difficult to
enforce if the populations are not easy to find and whenthe exact nature of the work conditions of the minors isdifficult to ascertain,45 such as on tobacco farms in the
United States.46
There were an estimated 1.3 million child labourers in
tobacco fields in 2011.47 Human Rights Watch has found that
hundreds of thousands of children work in agriculture in the
United States, often forgoing educational opportunities andrequirements, fair wage payments and labour protections,and imperil their health and lives, while facing potential
exploitation in modern slavery as they continue to work
under exploitative conditions.48 “Men, women, and children
who cultivate tobacco experience long hours of stoop
labour, harassment in work activities, abject poverty,
staggering debt, exposure to nicotine and pesticides, andAmericas Reportpoor health.”49 Work on tobacco farms is considered to
be dangerous for children due to the potential for acutenicotine poisoning from close proximity and handling of
tobacco. Acute nicotine poisoning includes symptoms
such as nausea, vomiting, headaches, loss of appetite, andsleeplessness.50 This poisoning, also called “green tobacco
sickness”, occurs when workers absorb nicotine throughtheir skin while having contact with tobacco plants.51 In
fact, in the United States, agriculture as an industry often
involves vulnerable children without work authorisation orwith limited English language skills due to limited oversightand regulation by the government, representing one of
the most vulnerable groups in the Americas to labour
exploitation.52
While the tobacco companies benefitting from this childlabour must be held accountable, there are many efforts
that the United States government can and should
also undertake to ensure the protection of minors inall hazardous fields. While comprehensive reform to
US legislation regarding child labour on farms and inhazardous conditions is still necessary to ensure that theireducation and health are safeguarded, there are positive
developments to protect minors from the dangers of
tobacco farming. The Sustainable Tobacco Programme(STP) covers 180 tobacco leaf suppliers and five million
smallholder farms in 52 countries.

17

Under this commitment and in compliance with the UK
Modern Slavery Act, the British American Tobacco has
recently complied with audits of their direct supply chains
and risk assessments of indirect supply chains.53 However,the challenge of removing child labourers from the tobacco
industry is described as a “double burden”54 both due tothe labour issues involved, as well as the dangerous natureof this crop for children and others to handle.
Additionally, as more scrutiny is given to this issue inthe United States, it appears that total numbers of childlabourers in American tobacco fields has decreased
but also increased in other areas with less available
protections. This population is believed to have shiftedfrom more developed countries such as Turkey, Brazil,
and the United States, to Argentina, India, and Zimbabwe
between 2000 and 2013.55 Despite these changes, many
child labourers still believe that child labour will persist as amajor issue in tobacco farming in the United States. Former
child labourer, Jacqueline Castillo, states, “You can barely
spot us, because we’re really small and short…There’s still
a lot of 7, 12, 13-year-olds working. I don’t think it’s evergoing to change.”56

Washington, DC, 15 May 2014.
Former child farm workers Celia (centre), 20,
and Eric, 17 (right), recount their experiences
harvesting tobacco in North Carolina during
a news conference organized by Human
Rights Watch at the US Capitol visitors
center. Human Rights Watch published astudy on child labour in US tobacco farming,
highlighting the package of unique risks
children face when working with tobacco,including nicotine poisoning, exposure topesticides and physical injury.
Photo credit: Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images.

18

Global Slavery Index 2018

SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN
AND ADOLESCENTS IN BRAZIL
Luciana Temer | Director President, Liberta InstituteThe situation of sexual exploitation of children and adolescentsin Brazil is very serious. We are the country with the second
highest rates. And the impression is that no one knows this,because nobody talks about it.

In an effort to resolve the problem, the Brazilian Ministry of
Human Rights has created a national free hotline to reporthuman rights violations, including human rights abuses.
The national hotline, “Dial 100”, (Disque 100) records
cases of sexual exploitation in thousands of municipalities
across Brazil. Cases occur in different contexts, such as
big construction projects; criminal gangs and militias inurban slums; along highways; and within the coastal andAmazonian tourist areas.
Integrated into Disque 100 is Proteja Brasil, a mobile
application created by UNICEF and the government’s
Human Rights Secretariat, which facilitates reporting of
violations against children. It was launched as part of the“Convergence Agenda for the Promotion, Protection andDefense of the Rights of Children and Adolescents in
Major Events” with the aim of preventing the exploitationof children during sporting and other events.
Even so, there is a lack of in-depth research on the scale ofthe problem. Recent studies estimate that 500,000 children
and adolescents are exploited per year. Most of them are
between seven and fourteen years of age.
One of the best research reports we have is by the Federal
Highway Police in partnership with Childhood Brazil, whichis responsible for mapping the vulnerability points of thesexual exploitation of children and adolescents on federal
highways.

Vulnerability mapping began in 2004 and since 2009,
they have classified vulnerabilities at four levels: low to
medium risk, high risk, and ultimately critical. From 2005
until today, this work has already removed 4,766 vulnerable
children and adolescents from places of risk. Police actions
are planned and carried out according to the degree ofvulnerability, which determines the form and urgency of
the responses.
The last edition of the study was conducted between 2017and 2018 and identified 2,487 vulnerability points for sexual
exploitation of children and adolescents, an increase of 20
percent over the previous report conducted in 2014.
This is one of the good initiatives supported by NGOs at thenational, state, and local levels.
Another good example that we can mention is the initiativeof some NGOs (Liberta Institute, Plan Internacional,
Childhood Brazil, Abrinq Institute) that, together with
the National Secretariat for the Rights of Children andAdolescents, joined forces to form a coalition a year ago
to face the problem of sexual exploitation of children andadolescents. Each organisation with its expertise, works
together to build national awareness campaigns, with theintention of making Brazil see how serious this problem isand, above all, make our society react to this tragic situation.

Americas Report

The big problem is that in a society with strong patriarchal
values, sexual exploitation tends to be normalised andoften victims are blamed for the situation in which theyfind themselves. These factors obviously result in a very
low number of reported cases. There is also a tendency to
distinguish between exploitation affecting younger victims,
under 14, and adolescents aged 15 to 17 years of age. It
is assumed that older victims are voluntarily involved incommercial sex.
A recent survey commissioned by the Liberta Instituteshows us something very important. Almost all respondents
know that paying to have sex with a 10-year-old or even16-year-old is a crime seriously punished by criminal law.

19

However, 74 percent of those who saw something like thisdid not report it. These data confirm that Brazilians do notattach much importance to this crime. Probably for cultural
reasons that naturalise the woman as a sexual object. And
this also tells us that the last campaign whose slogan is:“Sexual exploitation of children and adolescents. You are
not a client, you are a criminal”, is on the right track.
Like other forms of sexual violence, the sexual exploitationof children and adolescents is a criminal problem but,above all, a cultural problem, and cultural issues take time
to change. But we believe that we have already begun theslow and difficult process of change here.

Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil, 8 May 2018
Adolescents live on the streets of the cityand survive by engaging in prostitution.
Reports to a national hotline operated by
the National Ombudsman’s Office for
Human Rights reveal thousands of casesof sexual exploitation of children occurring
across Brazil.
Photo credit: Ricardo Nogueira / Folhapres.

20

Global Slavery Index 2018

FORCED LABOUR IN ARGENTINA
Marina Sala | General Director and Georgina Introini, Public Relations Coordinator, Fundación para la Democracia Internacional

Slavery is abolished in most countries of the world but has notceased to exist. At the moment, it is presented in more complex
forms, more elusive to a superficial look, but equally crueland degrading. That is why we seek to give greater visibility tothis scourge, since although it happens around us, it seems to
be invisible.

According to Forced Labour Convention No. 29, Article 2,of the International Labour Organization (ILO), “the term
forced or compulsory labour shall mean all work or service
which is exacted from any person under the menace ofany penalty and for which the said person has not offeredhimself voluntarily”. Argentina ratified this Convention in1950 and in 2016 ratified the Protocol of 2014 to the Forced
Labour Convention.
Previously, in 2008 the National Congress approved Law
26,364 on Prevention and Punishment of Trafficking in
Persons and Assistance to its Victims and amended
it in 2012, through Law 26,842. The updated text
defines trafficking in persons as the offer, recruitment,
transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons
for the purpose of exploitation, either within the national
territory, from or to other countries. Furthermore, the law
also defines exploitation and it includes forced labour orservices, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude,different forms of sexual exploitation, forced marriage, andremoval of organs.
According to the National Rescue Programme for Victimsof Human Trafficking, since the enactment of Law 26,364
until December 31st, 2017, 11,853 victims were rescued
and assisted. Fifty-four percent of the victims had been
subjected to labour exploitation.

In addition, 53 percent of the victims were foreigners andnine percent were minors.57 It is important to highlight that
there is no disaggregated information about the forms oflabour exploitation these people were subjected to, nor on
the companies responsible for it.
The report “Telephone reports about trafficking in persons.
Analysis of the cases received through Line 145”58, of
2016, indicates that 19 percent of the cases received from
July 2015 to January 2016 corresponds to situations oftrafficking for labour exploitation purposes and 45 percent
refers to sexual exploitation purposes. Of that nineteen
percent of complaints, 43 percent are connected to textile
sweatshops, 31 percent to commercial establishments,
and 17 percent to situations of exploitation in rural areas.
However, there is no disaggregated information about the
responsible companies or the type of establishment where
people were subjected to exploitation. Nevertheless, as
the report “Child labour, forced labour and quality youth
employment in Argentina: contributions from the United
Nations System 2000-2017”59 shows, there is a clear
difference between the number of complaints made in theurban and in the rural area. It does not mean that labour
exploitation has greater occurrence and incidence in one
space than in another, but simply that exploitation in urban
areas is reported more regularly.

Americas Report

The 2017 report entitled “Trafficking in persons for the
purpose of labour exploitation. Strategies for the detection
and investigation of the crime”60, quoted the report madeby the same Office in 2014.61 This report shows there are
not any people connected to large textile or agriculturalcompanies among people accused of labour trafficking.
Finally, it is important to observe the lack of information on
forced labour in Argentina. Because of that, it is necessary
to mention the work done by the Ombudsman of the

21

City of Buenos Aires regarding the situation of textile
sweatshops,62 where forced labour and trafficking inpersons for the purpose of labour exploitation are present
in the production process of the clothing industry. Besides,
Fundación para la Democracia Internacional has begun
to analyse the situation of tobacco workers in the North ofArgentina in order to determine if there is forced labour or
not in this sector of the economy.

Buenos Aires, 5 April 2006.
Bolivian citizens listen to a speech during
a demonstration in the streets of the Flores
neighbourhood in Buenos Aires, where alarge part of the Bolivian community lives.
The demonstrations were in response to a firein a clandestine textile workshop that left
five boys and a pregnant woman dead.
While this image is from 2006, the fightfor justice is still ongoing. In 2016, a court
sentenced the workshop operator to 13 years
prison for servitude and destruction ofproperty causing death. This year, the court
called for a deposition from the owner of theclothing brands, who also owns the property.
Photo credit: Daniel Garcia / AFP /Getty Images.

22

Global Slavery Index 2018

MODERN SLAVERYIN THE AMERICAS
Modern slavery in the Americas affects men, women, and children andmanifests as forced labour, forced marriage, and forced sexual exploitation.
Forced labour in South America and some parts of the Caribbean has been
identified more often than in Central America.63

Brazil has documented cases of forced labour on cattle
ranches, logging and mining camps, and on soybean, corn,and cotton plantations.64 Between 1995 and 2016, Brazil’s
Pastoral Commission of the Land reports that 16,816 people
were rescued from forced labour on ranches, 11,635 people
from sugarcane agriculture, 4,969 people from temporary
crops agriculture, 4,784 people from permanent crops
agriculture, 3,787 people from charcoal industries, 2,771
people from deforestation activities, 2,426 people fromconstruction industries, and 344 from mining, among otherindustries.65

Between 1995 and 2010, the number of domestic workers in
the Americas region increased by nine million, particularly
due to the economic growth in Mexico, Brazil, andArgentina and increased demand for domestic workers.70
Those working in domestic work in Latin America and the
Caribbean also represent 37 percent of the 52.6 million
domestic workers globally.71 Domestic workers experience
forced labour in the Americas whereby their passports
are confiscated and threats of violence and actual assault
are used to keep victims from leaving their situation.72 In
Nicaragua, the International Organization for Migration
identified cases of women trafficked toAdditionally, indigenous people in Peru,
the western coast of the country and to
Bolivia, and Paraguay are vulnerable to
Between 1995 and 2010, Spain for domestic servitude.73 Diplomatic
exploitation in the mahogany, brickmaking,the number of domestic officials and private citizens have been
and gold mining industries in Peru andworkers
in the Americas reported to exploit domestic workers
Ecuador.66 Gold mining in illegal mines
within their homes, including in the United
region increased byin Peru often involves modern slavery.67
States. A survey of over 2,000 domestic
Debt bondage is frequently employed tonine million
workers across the United States foundmaintain control over these vulnerable
that 19 percent of all respondents had been
populations and has also been used tothreatened, bullied or verbally abused in the prior year,
coerce indigenous groups in nut harvesting and sugarcane
which signifies the vulnerability of this group to forms of
production in Bolivia.68 While general awareness of the
exploitation and modern slavery. It was reported that 36
issue is increasing and labour inspections are taking place
percent of live-in domestic workers experienced abuse.74
in many of these industries, these inspections are not able
to keep pace with the scale of the exploitation. In Brazil,
In 2017, Northern America, encompassing Bermuda,
for example, inspections are delayed by up to four or five
Canada, Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, andmonths due to the remoteness of the location where thethe United States, hosted the third largest number of
exploitation is taking place, and the decreasing number ofinternational migrants (58 million) and Latin America andmobile units of labour inspectors.69 This can prevent the
the Caribbean (10 million) hosted the fifth largest number
detection of modern slavery.
of international migrants in the world.75 These internationalmigration flows have also contributed to significant changes
Domestic servitude is a difficult form of modern slavery
in the demographics of the Americas region with positive net
to detect as victims are often held within the confines of
migration accounting for up to 42 percent of the population
private homes with limited interaction with the public.

Americas Report

growth observed in Northern America between 2000 and2015.76 In 2017, the United States held the largest numberof international migrants (50 million), which is 19 percent of
the world’s total international migrant population.77 The thirdlargest number of international migrants globally was bornin Latin America and the Caribbean (38 million).78 In 2017,17 million migrants from Asia, eight million migrants from
Europe, and 26 million migrants from Latin America and the
Caribbean moved to Northern America.79 In this context oflarge-scale global migration to the Americas region, many
migrants are vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.

23

as an industry often involves vulnerable children withoutwork authorisation or with limited English language skills
due to limited oversight and regulation by the government.87
Work on tobacco farms is considered to be dangerous forchildren due to the potential for acute nicotine poisoning
from close proximity and handling of tobacco. Acutenicotine poisoning includes symptoms such as nausea,
vomiting, headaches, loss of appetite, and sleeplessness.88
Generally, working conditions in rural areas are known to bechallenging and potentially hazardous due to their mostly
informal nature with few available protections or written
contracts to formalise employment relationships.89

Importantly, it is estimated that approximately 1.5 million
seasonal farm workers from South America and theConflict and political instability drives modern slavery in
Caribbean migrate to the United States to work in theSouth America. Children are at risk of exploitation as childagricultural sector each year.80 These populations arecombatants in armed conflict in Colombia. Although a final
particularly at risk of abuse because seasonal andpeace agreement was signed between the government
temporary workers are often located in rural and isolatedof Colombia and Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias
locations and may not speak local languages, making itde Colombia (FARC) in 2016, there is evidence thatvery difficult for them to understand their rights or accessapproximately 230 children were recruited and used inlocal support networks and services. Exploitation of Central
conflict by FARC and other armed groups in 2017.90 Children
American and South American migrant agricultural workers
have been used as guerrilla fighters in this protracted
are not limited to the United States. Victims
conflict to install landmines, transportof modern slavery in the agricultural sector
explosives, kidnap other minors, and otherhave been identified in other strong regional
violent activities.91 Many of these children
In this context of
economies as shown by the exploitation of
faced threats of execution if they attempted
large-scale global
Guatemalan workers in Mexico.81
to leave the fighting forces. Additionally,
migration to the
Colombia’s National Police and military
There are several contributing factors topreviously included over 15,000 children.92
Americasregion,many
the vulnerability of seasonal and temporary
migrants are vulnerable Among 70 percent of those captured were
workers migrating from South and
14 or younger, with children as young
Central America to the relatively stronger
to exploitation
as eight involved in the fighting.93 The
economies in Mexico, United States, andfinal peace agreement includes special
Canada. Stricter immigration and borderprovisions to separate and reintegrate
control policies compel vulnerable migrants to trustchildren associated with FARC and to not prosecute82
smugglers to deliver them into the United States. For
those who were under 18 when they committed acts in theexample, approximately 70-80 percent of unaccompanied
context of armed conflict.94 However, children exposedminors from Central America are believed to be reliant on
to this type of violence at young ages are vulnerable tohuman smugglers to enter the United States through Mexico.
further exploitation later in life, including sexual andMany of these minors are sexually and physically abused inphysical abuse. Many of these child soldiers feel isolated
addition to being used in extortion schemes involving theiras they attempt to reintegrate into society and the risk for83
families to ensure their safety. Not only is the process of
relapse among minors is greater than it is for adult former
migration inherently dangerous due to several obstacles
combatants, with increased risk that these former childto regular migration, once seasonal workers arrive in theirsoldiers will return to violent lives.95 Venezuela’s ongoing
destination, they remain vulnerable. Research into thepolitical and economic crises have forced many to flee toworking and living conditions of farmworkers in the United
regional cities in Colombia and in the Amazon region toStates reveals that the power inequity between employers
attempt to obtain food, medicine, and other resources.
and their low-wage immigrant workers contributes to a
These vulnerable migrants are at risk of modern slavery in84
climate of rampant sexual violence. Trafficking occurs attheir new environments and are left with limited options toborder crossings throughout Central America and Mexico
return to Venezuela.96
when undocumented persons who have not been able toenter the United States are forced into commercial sex work,
Forced sexual exploitation of adults and commercial
which is also a trend along the Mexico-Guatemala border.85
sexual exploitation of children are also serious problems
in the Americas region. While children are often trafficked
Many of these seasonal and temporary agricultural
domestically, young women and men may be trafficked
workers also face hazardous working conditions. Childreninternally or internationally, sometimes with familialof undocumented seasonal and temporary workers, who
involvement.97 Vulnerable individuals are attracted to themay or may not be US citizens themselves, are involved inprospect of gainful employment and prosperity in relatively
hazardous and exploitative labour, particularly on tobaccostronger economies and often aspire to escape poverty,
farms in the United States.86 In the United States, agriculture

24

Global Slavery Index 2018

violent conflict, and limited opportunities for growth in theirHaitian children are exploited in these countries as well,own countries and localities. Victims from Guatemala, Elwith Haitian children crossing the border between Haiti
Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua have been identified
and the Dominican Republic and forced into commercial
in Chiapas, Mexico, where they are exploited in bars andsexual exploitation.102
98
brothels. Reports from UNICEF and the International
Forced and child marriage occurs in every region in theCommission Against Impunity in Guatemala indicate thatworld but represents a substantial problem in the Americas
in Guatemala City, Guatemala there were approximatelythat has not yet been adequately addressed, despite
15,000 children identified by civil society organisations as
significant attention focusing on this issue. A 2017 report
99
victims of commercial sexual exploitation.
by UNICEF estimates that approximately 25
A United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
percent of Latin American girls are married(UNODC) report on trafficking within Central
Forced sexual
before age 18.103 This report also estimates
America indicates that most sex trafficking
exploitation of adults
that forced or child marriages are mostvictims in the region are identified inoften reported in the Dominican Republic,andcommercial
sexualMexico, Guatemala, Panama, Costa Rica,
Brazil, Mexico, Nicaragua, Honduras, and100
exploitationand El Salvador.
Guatemala. Forced marriage also occurs inof children are also
Tourism and the commercial sexual
the United States and Canada. The United
serious problems in
exploitation of children remains a problem
States lacks federal legislation prohibitingin the Caribbean. Difficult economic
forced and child marriage, with the minimum
the Americas
conditions in the Dominican Republic andage for consent to marry as young as 12 in
Jamaica encourage households to exploit
some US states. According to research on
the income-generating capacities of children throughmarriage license data in the United States from 2000 tocommercial sex tourism.
2010, 167,000 children in 38 states were married to men
mostly over the age of 18. Most of these 167,000 children
There is also the reality of children who must support
were girls, and some were as young as 12 years old.104
themselves without familial support and who remain
vulnerable to participation in modern slavery in commercial
sex tourism.101

Comparability of theprevalence estimates with theprevious Global Slavery Index
This edition of the Global Slavery Index introduces
important improvements to the ways prevalence of modern
slavery is measured. Building on the collaborative work
undertaken with the ILO and IOM on the Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery, the Global Slavery Index results reflectchanges to scope, methodology, and expanded data
sources. The estimates are presented as a stock (or point
in time) calculation rather than a flow (total over a periodof time), include state imposed forced labour, and better
estimates of sexual exploitation, and children in modern
slavery. Further, we were able to count exploitation where
it occurred more consistently due to a considerably larger
number of surveys.
As a result of these advancements, the national prevalence
estimates are not comparable with previous editions of
the Global Slavery Index. Nonetheless, the strengthened
methodology reflects stronger data, increased levels of
data, and more systematic coverage of different formsof modern slavery. As such, while comparability fromprevious years is lost, the changes are justified by the needto continually improve our knowledge base. A detailed
description of the changes to the methodology is set out
in Appendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

Ixtepec, Mexico, 5 August 2013
Genenis Yamileht, 20, from El Salvador, spends
a night at the Hermanos en el Camino immigrant
shelter in Ixtepec, Mexico. She said she planned
to ride a freight train north with her husband thenext night as part of their journey to the US borderand eventually to Houston, Texas. She hopes toget employment as a domestic worker. Thousandsof Central American migrants ride atop the trains,
known as ‘la bestia’, or the beast, during their longand perilous journey through Mexico. Many of theimmigrants are robbed, extorted, raped or otherwise
assaulted by gangs who control the train tops. Those
who make it to the border and past the considerable
US border apparatus, then face potential forced
labour exploitation upon arrival at their destination.
Photo credit: John Moore/ Getty Images.

Americas Report

25

26

Global Slavery Index 2018

PREVALENCEFIGURE 5
Prevalence rating by country

CanadaHaiti
Cuba

United States

Jamaica
Dominican
Republic
Barbados

MexicoTrinidad
And Tobago

GuatemalaVenezuela
GuyanaEl Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua

Suriname

Costa Rica

BrazilPanamaPeru
Bolivia

Colombia

Paraguay

Ecuador

Uruguayhighlow

In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the International
Labour Organization (ILO), together with the International
Organization for Migration (IOM), produced the Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery, estimating that 40.3 million
people were living in modern slavery on any given day in2016. Of these, an estimated 1.9 million men, women andchildren were living in modern slavery in the Americas.
This region had a prevalence of 1.9 people in modern
slavery for every 1,000 people in the region.

Chile

Argentina

When considering the forms of modern slavery, the rateof forced labour (1.3 victims per 1,000 people) was higher
than the rate of forced marriage (0.7 victims per 1,000).
A little over a third of victims of forced labour exploitation
were held in debt bondage (37.9 percent), with similar
proportions of men and women in the region trapped
through debt. The region also accounted for four percent
of all victims of forced sexual exploitation worldwide.

Americas Report

Within the region, Venezuela, Haiti, and the Dominican
Republic have the highest prevalence of modern slavery,
however the United States, Brazil, and Mexico have thehighest absolute numbers and together account for overhalf (57 percent) of the victims in the region (Table 1) and66.4 percent of the region’s population.105
These regional figures, while important, should beinterpreted cautiously given the gaps and limitations ofdata in key regions. The current Global Estimates of Modern

27

Slavery do not cover all forms of modern slavery; forms
such as trafficking for the purposes of organ removal,
child soldiers, or child marriage that could also constitutemodern slavery cannot be adequately measured at thisstage. Further, there are gaps in survey coverage at the subregional level that may impact on the regional estimates
produced in the Global Estimates. For example, there areno surveys conducted in North America where household
surveys are not considered an effective approach tomeasuring modern slavery.

TABLE 1:
Estimates of prevalence of modern slavery by country

Regional
rankCountry

Estimated prevalence(victims per 1,000
population)

Estimated absolute
number of victims

Population
31,155,000

1Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of

5.6

174,000

2

Haiti

5.6

59,00010,711,000

3Dominican Republic

4.0

42,00010,528,000

4

Cuba

3.8

43,00011,461,000

5Honduras

3.4

30,0008,961,000

6

Trinidad and Tobago

3.0

4,000

1,360,000

7Guatemala2.9

47,000

16,252,000

8Nicaragua

2.9

18,0006,082,000

9

Barbados

2.7

1,000

284,000

10

Colombia

2.7

131,000

48,229,000

11Mexico2.7

341,000

125,891,000

12Guyana2.6

2,000

769,000

13

Jamaica

2.6

7,000

2,872,000

14

Peru

2.6

80,00031,377,000

15El Salvador

2.5

16,0006,312,000

16

Ecuador

2.4

39,00016,144,000

17Suriname

2.3

1,000

553,000

18

Bolivia, Plurinational State of

2.1

23,00010,725,000

19Panama2.1

8,000

3,969,000

20

Brazil1.8

369,000

205,962,000

21

Paraguay

1.6

11,0006,639,000

22

Argentina

1.3

55,00043,418,000

23

United States

1.3

403,000

319,929,000

24

Costa Rica

1.3

6,000

4,808,000

25

Uruguay

1.0

4,000

3,432,000

26

Chile

0.8

14,00017,763,000

27Canada0.5

17,00035,950,000

28

Global Slavery Index 2018

VULNERABILITY
FIGURE 6
Overall vulnerability scores map

CanadaHaiti
Cuba

United States

Jamaica
Dominican
Republic
Barbados

MexicoTrinidad
And Tobago

GuatemalaVenezuela
GuyanaEl Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua

Suriname

Costa Rica

BrazilPanamaPeru
Bolivia

Colombia

Paraguay

Ecuador

Uruguayhighlow

Our assessment of vulnerability is conducted at the national
level and covers five dimensions: governance issues, lackof basic needs, inequality, disenfranchised groups andeffects of conflict. The average vulnerability score in theAmericas (41 percent) suggests a higher risk of modern
slavery in this region than is evident in the prevalence
data. The Americas region performed relatively well on thedimensions that measure impact of conflict and acceptance

Chile

Argentinaof minority groups, with a better average score than otherregions, but relatively poorly on the governance andthe inequality dimensions, which can reflect increasing
income inequality, significant problems associated withviolent crime, and lower confidence in judicial systems (seeFigure 7). Across all dimensions of vulnerability, scores in
the region ranged from a high of 70 percent in Haiti to a lowof 10 percent in Canada.

Americas Report

Haiti, Venezuela, and Mexico had the highest overallvulnerability scores in the region, while Canada, theUnited States, and Uruguay had the lowest overallvulnerability scores. Uruguay, for example, ranked 35th
globally and remains at the top of regional rankings in
the 2017 Global Peace Index,106 illustrating its relative
peacefulness compared to other states in the region.
However, it is important to realise that within any single
country there are clear areas and populations of vulnerability
that may be masked by well-performing national figures.
For example, the relative wealth and work opportunities in
the United States and Canada attract vulnerable migrant
populations from their countries of origin. Some of these
populations have heightened vulnerabilities, such as thelarge migrant worker populations and unaccompanied
migrant youth in the United States who can experiencelabour exploitation.107

29

challenges with high poverty rates and limited access toelectricity, water, sanitation, or healthcare for many people.
Hurricane Matthew in 2016 illustrated these challenges
when 806,000 people were left in need of urgent foodassistance.109 Such disasters add to vulnerability by leaving
populations desperate to meet their needs, displaced, or
willing to migrate to areas that leave them more vulnerable
to exploitation. At the opposite end of the scale, Suriname,
Argentina, and Trinidad and Tobago were rated withrelatively low vulnerability to the above factors.
Paraguay, Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica are highest
rated in terms of inequality, which includes income
inequality, violent crime, confidence in judicial systems,
and the ability to come up with emergency funds. Though
improving, inequality in Paraguay remains widespread withdata from the General Statistics Surveys and Census Bureausuggesting that the poorest 40 percent of Paraguayans
earn only 12.5 percent of the nation’s revenues, while
the richest 10 percent earn 37.1 percent of all income.110
This inequality exacerbates existing vulnerabilities. In
Trinidad and Tobago, violent crime remains a major social
problem that has intensified insecurity and lack of trust in
the government’s capacity to deal with this issue.111 Thisis illustrated in Trinidad and Tobago’s drop in score in the2017 Global Peace Index, which measures the level ofpeacefulness in each state.112

Our vulnerability data indicates that Venezuela, Haiti,
and Cuba had the highest vulnerability scores relating
to governance issues. This includes political instability,
women’s physical security, weapons access, and thegovernment’s response to modern slavery. In Venezuela,
tension between an increasingly authoritative governmentand opposition groups has intensified, and President
Nicolas Maduro’s efforts to consolidate power amid a
deepening economic and humanitarian crisis are adding
to the vulnerability of people, whereby severe shortagesof food and medicines are making it difficult for people tomeet their basic needs.108 These factors have contributed tolarge numbers of people leaving the country and heading
to Colombia and Brazil.

In terms of disenfranchised groups, certain populationsin Haiti, Barbados, Cuba, Jamaica, and Trinidad andTobago have the highest vulnerability. This variable
is assessed on measures such as the acceptance ofimmigrants, acceptance of same sex rights, and acceptanceof minorities in these countries. In Jamaica, the LGBTQI
community, particularly among the poor and homeless,have a heightened vulnerability to sex trafficking andexploitation. Discriminatory laws and high levels of violenceand harassment contribute to their vulnerability.113 The
stigma of same sex relationships and same sex prostitution
forces these vulnerable populations to remain hidden
and discourages them from reporting or seeking help asnecessary, further adding to their vulnerability.114

Extreme poverty and unequal income distribution,
particularly between rural and urban populations, persist as
serious economic challenges within the region. According
to our assessment of vulnerability, Haiti, the Dominican
Republic, and Honduras were rated with the highest
vulnerability in terms of lack of basic needs.
This includes undernourishment and lack of access towater, health services and social safety nets. Haiti continues
to face significant humanitarian and developmental

FIGURE 7
Regional average vulnerability scores by dimension, Americas

44.3

Governance issues
21.4

Lack of basic needs

49.9

Inequality
Disenfranchised groups

33.5

Effects of conflict

22.9

Overallweighted average

41.4
0

20

40

60

80

100

30

Global Slavery Index 2018

Our vulnerability data highlight Mexico, Colombia, andHonduras as having the highest vulnerability to modern
slavery due to high levels of conflict, terrorism, anddisplacement. Ongoing conflicts in the region continued
to create vulnerability through displacement. Large drug
cartels and criminal gangs operating in Central and SouthAmerica create hostile, violent conditions, increasing therisk of modern slavery and human trafficking for vulnerable
populations. With the limited capacity of states to respondto organised crime and reported complicity of police indealing with these crimes,115 criminal syndicates can operatewith relative impunity.
This is evident in Mexico where the escalation ofviolence and conflict between criminal organisations andgovernment forces since 2006 has seen drug-related

violence kill an estimated 80,000 Mexican soldiers, police
officers, politicians, and civilians.116 In Colombia, internal
conflict between the government and various insurgent
groups including the Revolutionary Armed Forced of
Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN)
has left as many as 220,000 dead and 5.7 million displaced
over the last half century.117
The ceasefire and ongoing peace process did see an
improved score on a series of indicators in the 2017 Global
Peace Index, but a slight deterioration of Colombia’s overall
score reflects continued incidents of armed conflict by the
ELN and a lag in financial contributions to UN peacekeeping
missions.118 Displacement also rose in Colombia despite thepeace process,119 putting already vulnerable populations atfurther risk of forced sexual and labour exploitation.

TABLE 2:Estimated vulnerability to modern slavery by country (%, the higher the score, the higher the level of vulnerability)

Inequality

Disenfranchised
groups

Effects ofconflict

Overallweighted
average

49.7

54.1

56.8

20.1

69.6

65.1

19.7

60.4

34.3

27.8

57.9

47.3

23.7

59.0

37.8

68.8

57.3

Honduras

55.5

26.5

58.9

36.5

32.7

55.5

Cuba

60.2

25.9

37.6

47.8

17.3

52.4

Guatemala

51.0

25.8

58.1

40.9

27.4

52.1

Colombia

45.7

19.2

56.4

32.6

63.5

51.6

El Salvador

50.5

23.0

59.8

43.6

22.7

50.7

Guyana

49.5

25.6

60.4

28.1

12.4

45.4

GovernanceissuesLack of basic
needs

Haiti

62.4

Venezuela, Bolivarian RepublicofMexicoCountry

Peru

44.3

24.7

48.0

38.2

27.5

44.3

Jamaica

39.5

24.2

62.2

47.8

15.5

44.2

Bolivia, Plurinational State of

50.9

25.8

46.3

32.1

13.4

44.1

Nicaragua

48.2

24.5

43.3

35.3

22.8

43.9

Dominican Republic

42.5

28.7

46.1

38.8

21.8

43.1

Suriname

55.5

10.7

50.8

28.1

16.3

42.1

Barbados

47.6

14.3

52.5

47.8

9.2

41.9

Ecuador

46.0

23.0

46.4

29.1

23.0

41.3

Paraguay

38.3

21.0

64.7

32.7

22.7

40.9

Trinidad and Tobago

38.6

13.0

62.4

47.8

13.7

39.1

Panama

44.2

21.0

42.6

33.1

9.4

36.4

Brazil

43.1

13.6

56.2

19.8

24.0

36.4

Argentina

39.3

11.4

45.0

23.6

13.4

28.9

Costa Rica

35.2

16.7

40.7

29.4

12.2

28.4

Chile

28.5

13.8

50.0

23.5

20.3

25.6

Uruguay

31.9

13.5

34.3

15.4

9.5

19.7

United States

18.3

18.2

30.3

15.6

28.6

15.9

Canada

16.6

20.7

20.1

9.2

21.5

10.2

Americas Report

Corinto, Cauca department, Colombia, 6 July 2018.
A man of the Nasa ethnic group stands guard
during the indigenous trial of two ELN guerrillas,in Corinto, Colombia. Colombian indigenous people
tried two National Liberation Army (ELN) guerrillas
captured in rural Caloto, Cauca department, andsentenced them to 37 lashes and eight years ofprison. Conflict in Colombia has heightened the
population’s vulnerability to modern slavery throughdisplacement and use of child soldiers. Although apeace agreement was signed with Fuerzas Armadas
Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC) in 2016, thereis evidence that approximately 230 children wererecruited and used in conflict by FARC and otherarmed groups in 2017. There also continues to beincidents of armed conflict by ELN.
Photo credit: Luis Robayo/AFP/Getty Images.

31

32

Global Slavery Index 2018

IMPORTING RISK:

G20 countries and import of products tainted by modern slavery in the Americas region

As the analysis in the Global Slavery Index confirms, citizens in G20 countries
enjoy relatively low levels of vulnerability to the crime of modern slavery
within their borders and many aspects of their government responses
to preventing it are comparatively strong. Nonetheless, businesses andgovernments in G20 countries are importing products that are at risk ofmodern slavery, with hardly any effort being applied by governments toregulate the labour conditions involved in their production. Accordingly, we
conducted research globally to identify and validate a short list of products at
risk of modern slavery, and then map out the extent to which these products
are imported by G20 countries.120

There are five G20 countries in the Americas region:
Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
G20 countries in the Americas region represent both thelower and upper ends of the range of annual imports of
at-risk products by G20 nations, with Argentina importing
goods worth US$740 million and the United States
importing US$144 billion.
One of the G20’s member countries, the United States,is one of the world’s largest exporting and importing
economies. While this list is not exhaustive, the top fiveproducts at risk of modern slavery (according to US$ value)
imported by G20 countries in the Americas region arepresented in Table 3. These products are sourced from 18
countries and are valued at US$172 billion. These imports
are primarily from China (84.7 percent).

While G20 countries have imported risk for some time, they
are in the early stages of responding to the connection
between modern slavery and supply chains of businesses
and public procurement. The Government Response Index
tracks the progress of governments towards achievementof five milestones, including “Government and businessstop sourcing goods and services produced by forced
labour” and it is clear that existing efforts fall short of what
is required. G20 countries achieved an average score of
only 11 percent for their efforts to stop sourcing goods andservices produced by forced labour. Argentina, Canada,
and Mexico are among the G20 countries that scored zeroon these indicators, while the highest score in the Americas
and in the entire Global Slavery Index was reported for theUnited States (65 percent). Brazil also scored highly in theAmericas (26.7 percent). Argentina, Canada, and Mexico
have yet to implement laws to minimise the risk of modern
slavery in public supply chains, or to encourage businessto practice due diligence.

Americas Report

TABLE 3:Top five products at risk of modern slavery (according to US$ value) imported into G20 countries in theAmericas region
G20 country

Import product at risk of modern slavery

Argentina

1/
2/
3/
4/
5/

Laptops, computers and mobile phones
Apparel and clothing accessories
TimberFish
Carpets

Brazil

1/
2/
3/
4/
5/

Apparel and clothing accessories
Laptops, computers and mobile phones
Fish
CattleCocoa

Canada

1/
2/
3/
4/
5/

Laptops, computers and mobile phones
Apparel and clothing accessories
Gold
Fish
Sugarcane

Mexico

1/
2/
3/
4/
5/

Laptops, computers and mobile phones
Apparel and clothing accessories
Fish
TimberCocoa

1 / Laptops, computers and mobile phones
2 / Apparel and clothing accessories
United States

3 / Fish
4 / Cocoa
5 / Timber

33

34

Global Slavery Index 2018

GOVERNMENT RESPONSESFIGURE 8
Government response rating to modern slavery by country

CanadaHaiti
Cuba

United States

Jamaica
Dominican
Republic
Barbados

MexicoTrinidad
And Tobago

GuatemalaVenezuela
GuyanaEl Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua

Suriname

Costa Rica

BrazilPanamaPeru
Bolivia

Colombia

Paraguay

Ecuador

UruguayA

BBB* BBBBB

B

CCC CC

C

D

Not
rated

In 2017, the United States remained the country that took
the most steps in response to modern slavery acrossthe Americas. This was evident across most aspects of agovernment response,121 including tackling forced labourin business supply chains and public procurement. The
United States also remains a model for survivors’ leadership
through the United States Advisory Council on Human
Trafficking, which draws upon the expertise, experience, andadvice of 11 survivor leaders to develop recommendations

Chile

Argentina

to improve federal anti-trafficking policies.122 However, not
all victims are able to access support services in the UnitedStates, with gaps in longer term services for men, victimsof labour trafficking, and LGBTQI victims.123 There is also
evidence that foreign victims were detained for immigration
violations rather than being identified as potential trafficking
victims and provided with support,124 as well as evidence ofstate imposed forced labour in administrative detention.125

35

Americas Report

Argentina, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Trinidad and Tobago,
Panama, and Bolivia all improved their ratings since 2016(see Table 4). Argentina improved its rating from BB to BBB
due to recent evidence of government organised training
for social workers, doctors, and teachers,126 the opening offive regional counter-trafficking offices providing physicaland mental health services,127 and evidence of the firstsuccessful issuing of restitution for a trafficking case in
2016.128 Chile improved from B to BBB, Peru and Uruguay
improved from B to BB, and Trinidad and Tobago, Panama,
and Bolivia improved from CCC to B.
Chile and Trinidad and Tobago significantly increased their
responses to modern slavery thanks to combined efforts
across all milestones. Chile increased its prosecution
efforts, but penalties remain inadequate; none of the eight
convicted traffickers served prison terms.129 Similarly,
Trinidad and Tobago made significant steps forward,
implementing its 2016-2020 National Action Plan,
identifying more victims, and initiating more prosecutions
for trafficking-related crimes.130 Nevertheless, there has yet
to be a conviction for human trafficking with 23 cases still
awaiting scheduling before the magistrate court.131
Cuba, Suriname, and Venezuela continue to havethe weakest responses to modern slavery, all threemaintaining their CC rating – the lowest in the region.
In general, this reflects a combination of limited politicalwill, political instability, and a lack of resources. Venezuela
continues to be affected by protracted economic andpolitical instability,132 which has left the government unable
to respond to modern slavery. Corruption and official
complicity In Suriname,133 and poverty and limited resourcesin Cuba,134 hinder their responses to modern slavery.
This year, for the first time, the Global Slavery Index included
smaller Commonwealth countries and island states in theassessment of government responses. Within the Americas
region, we included the Bahamas, Antigua and Barbuda,Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Saint
Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, and Dominica. Given this is thefirst year that data has been collected for these countries,
and thus, we cannot suitably compare progress with that ofother countries in the region, we have not publicly reported
their milestone and overall ratings.
However, we found that in general, victim support services
are lacking in these smaller countries. For example, in
Grenada there were no reporting mechanisms for modern
slavery crimes and support services are available only forvictims of domestic violence or sexual abuse.135 Similarly,
in Saint Kitts and Nevis there are no services available totrafficking victims or any mechanisms to report these crimes,
and domestic legislation did not exempt modern slavery
victims from prosecution for crimes committed during
their enslavement, except for violations of immigration
law.136 A positive development is the Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines’ 2011 Prevention of Trafficking in Persons Act, acomprehensive law that provides important legal rights for
trafficking victims, including immunity from criminal liability
and immigration-related offenses as well as assistancewith obtaining temporary, permanent residence permits
and citizenship.137

TABLE 4:
Change in Americas government response rating2016 to 2018

Country

2016
RatingChangein rating2018
RatingUnited States

BBB*

BBB*

Argentina

BB

BBB

Chile

B

BBB

CanadaBB

BB

JamaicaBB

BB

Dominican
Republic

BB

BB

Brazil

BB

BB

Peru

B

BB

MexicoBB

BB

Uruguay

B

BB

Costa Rica

BB

BB

Trinidad andTobagoCCC

B

EcuadorB

B

Nicaragua

B

B

GuatemalaB

B

PanamaCCC

B

Bolivia,
Plurinational State
of

CCC

B

Colombia

B

B

Paraguay

B

B

Haiti

CCC

CCC

Barbados

CCC

CCC

El Salvador

CCC

CCC

Honduras

CCC

CCC

GuyanaCCC

CCC

Venezuela,
Bolivarian
Republic of

CCCC

Suriname

CC

CC

Cuba

CC

CC

Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Belize, Dominica,
Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines***Countries that scored -1 on a negative indicator could not score above a
BBB rating**Included for the first time in 2018, therefore a rating is not provided.
All data are still available via the Global Slavery Index website

36

Global Slavery Index 2018

Overall government response trends in the region weremixed, with the identification of victims remaining weak. A
third (9) of the countries in the Americas region reported in
the 2018 Global Slavery Index have adopted and used clear
guidelines for screening and identifying potential victims,
and only eight countries – Barbados, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru,
the Dominican Republic, Chile, Argentina and the UnitedStates– currently have a National Referral Mechanism inplace. While most (25 out of 27) countries (all but Bolivia
and Cuba) provided a reporting mechanism, in just over ahalf (16 countries) were these hotlines operating on a 24/7
basis, and only in nine countries were they available inmultiple languages.

Among other impacts, corruption in a country facilitates
the abuse of regular migration channels for vulnerable
populations and prevents sufficient penalties from being
levied against perpetrators.138
Similarly, gaps in enforcement can be found in coordination
and accountability mechanisms. More than 77 percent ofcountries in the Americas region have a National Action
Plan (NAP) to combat some form of modern slavery, but only
three (Brazil, Jamaica, and Uruguay) have an independent
body to monitor the government’s response and only
five countries use the NAP as a framework for reporting
their actions. Furthermore, evidence of full funding forthese Plans was found only in Bolivia, Brazil, and Canada.
Cooperation across borders is a more common with 17 outof 27 countries in the region providing labour agreementsthat include explicit protections for migrant workers.

A majority of countries provided and supported victim
support services, however in 23 countries in the region,
services were not available to all victims of modern slavery,
with men, children and migrants being the most regularly
In general, states have taken steps to implement laws,
excluded groups. In terms of legal support and protection
policies, and programs to reduce the risk of slavery by
for victims, only 11 countries have legal provisions meaning
addressing the attitudes and social systems that contributethat victims of modern slavery will not be criminalised for
to vulnerability. Awareness campaigns on human trafficking
crimes committed while exploited. Providing compensation
have been conducted by almost all theor restitution was more common, with 21
countries of the region with only one exceptionof 27 countries allowing victims to access(Barbados). However, the effectiveness of
Overallgovernment
compensation as part of their modern
these campaigns is unclear. Over half of the
response trends in theslavery legislation. Child friendly legal
countries in the Americas have conductedservices, such as the use of child friendly
region were mixed, with labour inspections in the informal sector toquestioning, was less prevalent, with only
the identification ofidentify cases of modern slavery. In addition,
18 countries providing these services.
22 countries, with the notable exception of
victims
remaining
weakThis shows a trend that while government
the United States, have labour legislation
responses are improving at a basic level,that extends to everyone, including migrant
there is still room for improvement in terms of providing
workers, domestic workers, and those in the fishing andsupport to all victims of modern slavery.
construction sectors. In the United States domestic workers
A similar mixed response could be found in criminal
are excluded from laws to unionise and form protections when
justice responses, with strong legislation accompanied
working in the private home of a family. In terms of recruitment
by gaps in enforcement. Sixteen of the 27 countries in thefees for migrant workers, Barbados, Brazil, and Honduras have
Americas region included in the Global Slavery Index have
implemented laws to ensure that recruitment fees are notcriminalised human trafficking. However, fewer than halfcharged to the employee. Canada and the United States have
have criminalised slavery (11 countries) and forced labour
regulations that prohibit recruitment fees from being charged(12 countries), and only five countries in the Americas region
to the employee, but the provision is not included in federal– Argentina, Canada, Chile, Mexico, and Paraguay – havelegislation in either country. Furthermore, 20 countries out oflegislation fully criminalising forced marriage. Training forthe 27 countries in the region provided training on modern
front line police, prosecutors, and the judiciary remains
slavery to their diplomatic and consular staff. Gaps in thestable, with 17 countries out of the 27 providing this training,
implementation of protections for migrant workers continue
but systematic training for non-police “first responders”,
to leave this group vulnerable to exploitation.
including labour inspectors, border guards, immigration
In terms of tackling modern slavery in supply chains,
officials, doctors, nurses, teachers, and social workers,
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and the United States are the only
occurs in only four countries.
four countries in the Americas that have taken any steps
Corruption remains an issue in modern slavery cases
towards responding to this issue. Bolivia and Paraguay
throughout the Americas region. In 12 countries there
have implemented policies to ensure that goods are notwere reports that allegations of individual officials’
produced by child labour, such as the Bolivian “Triple Seal”
complicity in modern slavery cases were not investigated.
certification, which is awarded to companies that have
Non – investigation into alleged official complicity has
reduced the use of child labour, discrimination, and forced
been reported in Argentina, Colombia, Guyana, Mexico,
labour in the production of goods. In 2014, the seal had only
Peru, among others, despite national laws criminalising
been awarded to sugarcane products.139 With regard tocorruption in the public sector.
public procurement, the United States has clear guidelines
and public policies for minimising the purchase of products

Americas Report

El Ingenio, Peru, 3 March, 2007.
An informal artisan miner exits a gold mine in
El Ingenio, Peru, 420 kms south of Lima. Artisan mining
accounts for the livelihood of more than 40 thousand
Peruvian families, though almost 15 percent of thenation’s gold production comes from this activity. Since
the 1980s many extracting camps have been converted
into small mining towns lacking basic services andcontaining high levels of pollution. Indigenous people
in Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay are vulnerable toexploitation in the mahogany, brickmaking, and gold
mining industries in Peru and Ecuador. Gold mining inillegal mines in Peru often involves modern slavery.
Photo credit: Ernesto Benavides/AFP/Getty Images.

37

38

Global Slavery Index 2018

tainted with forced labour and has provided specific training
While in 2014 the Supreme Court of Brazil suspended thefor its procurement officials. The California Transparency
disclosure of the Dirty List, a court ruling in 2017 orderedin Supply Chains Act (2010) is an importantthe government to resume its publication.
piece of legislation in ensuring slavery-free
Despite this, there is criticism that the list
procurement, requiring retail sellers andhas not been updated143 as the 2017 list
Bolivia, Brazil,
manufacturers (wherever incorporated)
identifies only 68 businesses as opposed
Paraguay, and the
doing business in California and withto the 609 names listed in 2014 at theUnited States are thea global annual revenue of more thantime it was suspended,144 raising concerns
only four countries in
US$100 million to disclose their efforts toabout the credibility of the list as well as
eradicate modern slavery from their direct
the Americas that have the broader issue of how to tackle supply
supply chain for tangible goods offered fortaken any steps towards chain 145transparency in business withinsale.140 While it applies only to one state
Brazil. This list is used by public sector
tackling modern slavery companies by preventing those on thein the United States, California itself is thein supply chainsworld’s sixth largest economy and thereby
list from tendering for public contracts.146
has considerable influence on corporate
Businesses on the list are subjected tobehaviour.141
investigations, bank lending penalties,
and are barred from receiving public funds. The Dirty List’s
Similarly, Brazil showed commitment to keep forced labour
power to impede financing opportunities for non-compliant
out of supply chains through its “Dirty List,” which publicises
businesses continues to be critical.147
a list of businesses that have been found to tolerate forced
labour in their supply chains.142.

Americas Report

39

TABLE 5:Government response by milestone percentage, overall score, and rating
Supportsurvivors

Criminaljustice

Coordination

Addressrisk

SupplychainsUnited States

92.6

75.6

56.3

66.7

65.0

71.7

Argentina

70.0

70.6

62.5

78.6

0.0

62.6

Chile

76.5

53.9

50.0

76.2

0.0

62.3

Canada

52.4

72.8

75.0

61.9

0.0

58.6

BB

Jamaica

50.6

72.8

75.0

64.3

0.0

58.6

BB

Dominican Republic

69.1

78.3

37.5

69.0

0.0

58.0

BB

Brazil

38.9

47.8

87.5

73.8

26.7

55.6

BB

Peru

75.9

42.2

62.5

54.8

0.0

52.5

BB

Mexico

53.7

62.8

56.3

69.0

0.0

52.4

BB

Uruguay

40.6

49.4

50.0

78.6

0.0

50.4

BB

Costa Rica

53.7

41.7

62.5

59.5

0.0

50.0

B

Trinidad and Tobago

67.2

50.0

31.3

66.7

0.0

49.9

B

Ecuador

61.1

55.6

37.5

52.4

0.0

46.4

B

Nicaragua

34.4

70.0

25.0

66.7

0.0

46.3

B

Guatemala

42.2

25.6

62.5

69.0

0.0

45.2

B

Panama

32.6

60.0

31.3

78.6

0.0

43.9

B

Bolivia, Plurinational State of

21.3

43.9

62.5

61.9

8.3

41.3

B

Colombia

40.4

42.2

62.5

69.0

0.0

41.1

B

Paraguay

26.1

56.7

37.5

71.4

10.0

40.9

Haiti

49.6

42.8

18.8

47.6

0.0

39.7

CCC

Barbados

53.3

26.1

37.5

45.2

0.0

39.4

CCC

El Salvador

31.7

39.4

43.8

64.3

0.0

37.4

CCC

Honduras

27.6

25.6

62.5

54.8

0.0

37.0

CCC

Guyana

33.1

44.4

25.0

45.2

0.0

31.5

CC

Venezuela, Bolivarian
Republic of

23.3

43.9

12.5

52.4

0.0

28.2

CC

Suriname

24.3

5.6

31.3

54.8

0.0

27.1

CC

Cuba

13.0

15.0

18.8

42.9

0.0

20.8

No
ratingAntigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines148

RatingCountry

BBB*
BBB
BBB
BB

CCC

TOTAL

*Indicates where a country could not score above a BBB. These countries have received a negative rating for policies that hinder their response to modern
slavery.

Immokalee, Florida, US, 25 September 2015.
Silvia Perez works at The Coalition of Immokalee
Workers (CIW) headquarters, a nonprofit that fights
for worker rights, in Immokalee, Florida. Perez,
originally from Guatemala, worked in the fields andwas sometimes abused by the men. Agricultural workers
from Central America and Haiti are often subject tolabour trafficking, underpaid, and forced to work longhours without breaks in agriculture in the US. CIW’s
fair food program acknowledges farms that have signed
onto providing good labour practices for its agricultural
workers by placing fair food labels on their produce.
The nonprofit is largely run by former farm workers.
Photo credit: Melanie Stetson Freeman/The Christian
Science Monitor via Getty Images.

40

Global Slavery Index 2018

REGIONAL RESPONSE
In terms of a regional response, institutions and mechanisms in theAmericas have largely focused on facilitating the exchange of information,
experiences, and strategies to achieve a more cohesive and coordinatedresponse. The challenge remains to increase the individual responsibility
and accountability of each state in taking steps to reduce modern slavery.

The Organization of American States (OAS) continues to
However, it is important to note that in April 2018, six
play an active role in promoting anti-trafficking policies
countries – Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, andand facilitating training programs to assist member
Paraguay – suspended their membership in UNASUR due
states in their anti-trafficking efforts.149 In 2014, the OAS
to disagreements with the group’s leadership and priorities,
approved the Second Work Plan Against Trafficking inwhich may affect their effectiveness in combating modern
Persons in the Western Hemisphere 2015-2018. This planslavery in the region.155
works as a reference to guide actions by member states
Focusing on migration, the Regional Conference onand to inform the OAS General Secretariat as they assist
Migration (RCM), also known as the “Puebla Process,” is astates in combating trafficking in persons.150 It also allows
multilateral regional forum for the exchange of information,member states and the Secretariat to follow up on theexperiences, and best practices. This
implementation of the work plan by, in part,
includes providing technical assistance tohelping member states develop common
immigration authorities of member states
The
Inter-American
indicators in the areas of prevention,
Court of Human Rights and producing general guidelines andprosecution, and punishment, along withmanuals regarding the return of migrants,
assistance for and protection of victims.151
is taking a proactive
assistance for migrant children and women,
Under the OAS, the Inter-American Court ofstance in holding states and repatriation of trafficked persons.156
Human Rights is taking a proactive stanceaccountable for modern The RCM works primarily in three areas,in holding states accountable for modern
namely migration policy and management
slavery and humanslavery and human trafficking crimes. For(including human trafficking and migrantexample, in a landmark decision, the Court
trafficking crimes
smuggling), human rights (including groups
in 2016 ordered the Brazilian government
in vulnerable situations), and migration
to pay more than US$5 million to 128
and development (including remittances,former farm workers who were enslaved on a Brazilian
temporarymigrant
workers, and the private sector).
farm between 1988-2000.152
The Ibero-American Association of Public Prosecutors
In South America, the Union of South American Nations
is a mechanism that enables prosecutors to exchange(UNASUR) promotes cooperation between the judicial
information on trafficking cases and promote joint
authorities of its member states through the exchange
investigations. In 2017, 17 prosecutors signed a declarationof information, experience, and training. UNASUR hasand “guidelines of action” outlining the need to change
also created a high-level Human Rights Cooperation andthe network into a formal cooperation channel for joint
Coordination Group, the objectives of which include theinvestigation teams. Importantly, the declaration emphasises
regional prevention and elimination of human trafficking.153
the need to view cases within a regional context rather thanThis group promotes the exchange of good practices andisolated situations in an individual country.157
has recently encouraged adherence to the UNODC Blue
Heart campaign against Human Trafficking.154

Americas Report

41

REGIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Governments should:

Strengthen legislation›› Ratify and implement ILO Domestic Workers
Convention, 2011 (No. 189) and the ILO P029 Protocolof 2014 to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, andtranslate these into national legislation to ensure
protection for migrant workers.
›› Enact legislation, or strengthen existing legislation, toensure that all forms of exploitation are criminalised
and penalties for crimes associated with humantrafficking, child exploitation, forced labour, andmodern slavery are appropriate for the severity of
the crime.
›› Introduce and implement legislation criminalisingforced marriage and raise the age of marriage to 18 formen and women. Only five countries in the Americas
region – Argentina, Canada, Chile, Mexico, andParaguay – have legislation fully criminalising forced
marriage – equivalent laws should be enacted in theremaining 22 countries.
›› Investigate all allegations of government complicity
in modern slavery crimes. There were reports that
official complicity in modern slavery cases were notinvestigated in 12 of the 27 countries assessed in theregion.
›› Ensure all workers, irrespective of sector or status,
are granted equal protection under national labourlaws and that these laws cover the informal sector
across the region. Labour laws did not cover informal
sectors in five countries and only three countries
banned recruitment agencies from charging fees tojob seekers. Where necessary, reform labour laws
to provide basic safety nets for vulnerable migrantgroups across this region.
›› Implement existing legislation effectively by
establishing training programs on modern slavery
legislation, conducting modern slavery investigations,and on victim-centred approaches, drawing on
existing model curricula and standard operatingprocedures, for police, prosecutors, judges, anddefence attorneys.

Improve victim support›› Improve victim support and identification efforts for
all victim populations throughout the Americas, andin particular for the 23 countries in the region whereservices were not available to all victims of humantrafficking, with men, children and migrants being themost regularly excluded groups.
›› Build the capacity of embassies in receiving countries
to support domestic workers who have escaped
exploitative workplaces. Twenty of 27 governments
have provided training on modern slavery for consular
staff. Ensure all embassy staff are trained and able
to provide counselling and legal support, and that
decent and safe living arrangements are available forthese victims while their cases are resolved.
›› Establish a National Referral Mechanism for victims
of modern slavery and ensure that the mechanism isactively being used to direct victims to support services.
Only eight countries had National Referral Mechanismsthat were active during the reporting period.
›› Ensure through legislation and policy thatcompensation and restitution mechanisms exist
so that victims can access redress, including backpayment of wages. Currently, Cuba, Ecuador, Peru
and Suriname do not have laws which allow victims
to receive compensation or restitution for damages
incurred as a result of exploitation.
›› Bolster victim access to justice mechanisms by
ensuring their inclusion in existing laws. For example,
only 18 of the 27 countries assessed provide childfriendly services during the criminal justice process– these should be extended to cover children in all
countries.
›› Improve victim assistance programming by hostingmeetings and capacity building workshops for civilsociety organisations, especially those that work withvictims, and government representatives to sharegood practices and learnings, with an additional focus
on the efficacy of longer-term reintegration programs
aimed at breaking the cycle of exploitation.

42

Global Slavery Index 2018

Strengthen coordination andtransparency›› Governments of labour sending countries should
cooperate with one another to advocate common
standards for the protection of migrant workers, inpart so that a destination country cannot simply shift
its recruitment to other sources if it is banned fromreceiving migrant workers by a particular sending
country.
›› The governments of sending and receiving
countries should cooperate in establishingeffective mechanisms to monitor the recruitment
and employment of migrant workers to ensure thatworkers’ rights are upheld following migration.
›› Governments should develop their own National
Action Plans or strategies, in coordination with
relevant stakeholders, that are based on research anddata on the nature and trends of human trafficking andchild exploitation. In the Americas region, 21 countries
have a National Action Plan with clear indicators andallocation of responsibilities. Among those countries,
only five – Brazil, Canada, Jamaica, Mexico, andUnited States – have a government that routinely uses
the National Action Plan as a framework for reporting
its actions. Only three countries – Bolivia, Brazil,
and Canada – have fully funded all activities in the
National Action Plan. These Plans should be drafted,
implemented, and fully funded in all remaining
countries in the Americas region.
›› Countries should work together to improve migration
governance by developing standard form migrationagreements, including those that holistically protect
migrant workers and that ensure repatriation isvoluntary. Only 17 of the 27 countries assessed in
the region have agreements with other countries onlabour migration that provide protection for labour
migrants, which given the prevalence of exploitationof migrant workers, should be extended to cover theremaining countries.
›› All national governments in the region should work
together to standardise data collection on modern
slavery and encourage the formation of a central
repository for data on modern slavery.
›› Each country in the region should have an
Independent Slavery Commissioner to address all
efforts in the public and private sector to end modern
slavery. Currently only three countries, Brazil, Jamaica,
Uruguay have a such a Commissioner in place.

Address risk factors›› In destination countries, particularly in North
America, protect the rights of migrants regardlessof whether their entry was legal. Across the region,
increasingly restrictive immigration policies havethe potential to increase vulnerability of migrant
workers. All governments should do more to ensurethat increased control of borders does not occur
at the expense of migrants’ rights by reviewing
existing policies to identify their impact on migrating
populations, providing alternative safe migration
pathways, ensuring labour laws cover all workers, andestablishing visa options for those who have been
exploited.
›› The governments of this region should collectively
and independently work to reform immigration
opportunities for migrant workers and increase efforts
to protect vulnerable populations, particularly minors,
from abuse and exploitation by human smugglers.
›› Closely cooperate with the region’s host countries,
often the United States, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, andCanada, to establish effective mechanisms to monitor
the recruitment and employment of migrant workers.
›› Host countries in Northern America and Brazil should
provide more Spanish-language legal resources
and assistance to all persons at risk of modern slavery
and exploitation, especially in informal industries
and rural contexts. Regular labour inspections areimportant in many informal industries and ruralcontexts to ensure the protection of vulnerable
migrants.
›› Launch targeted information campaigns to ensurethat prospective migrants are informed both of therisks they may face on the journey, as well as risks
they may face living and working in the host country
and their rights with respect to authorities.
›› Monitor local recruitment agencies for deceptive
recruitment practices, such as substituting contracts
and charging excessive recruitment fees, and enforce
national laws in all countries in the Americas region
to ensure compliance. In the Americas region, there
are only three countries – Barbados, Brazil, andHonduras – with laws or policies that state that private
recruitment fees are paid by the employer, not theemployee.
›› Cooperate with other sending countries to advocate
common standards for the protection of domestic
workers and availability of resources for assistancein countries of destination in multiple languages.

Americas Report›› Conduct widespread, systematic education
campaigns to counter stereotypical attitudes of
migrant workers and promote diversity. Alongside a
growth in restrictive immigration policy, is a growth
in anti-immigrant sentiment. All governments should
work with schools, universities, and religious leaders
to encourage inclusivity via all media platforms.
›› As a major donor of foreign aid, the United Statesshould support programming in origin countries topromote women’s empowerment, education for
all, and support for displaced persons. Patriarchal
structures and conflict are among the risk factorsthat increase vulnerability to modern slavery.
Strengthening respect for women’s rights and tacklingtrafficking that occurs as a result of conflict helps toprevent exploitation of these populations on the move.

43

Eradicate modern slavery from theeconomy›› The region’s G20 countries, Argentina, Brazil, Canada,
Mexico and the United States should enact federal
legislation requiring mandatory reporting for all large
businesses with regard to the presence of modern
slavery in their supply chains.
›› All countries in the region should establish and, inthe case of the United States, implement legislation
requiring all government contractors and suppliers
to take steps to detect and eliminate modern slavery
from publicly funded supply chains.

44

Global Slavery Index 2018

APPENDIX:
Endnotes

1

Walk Free Foundation 2018, Global Slavery Index, WFF. Available from:https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/. [15 May 2018].

2

Walk Free Foundation 2013, Response to 6 Month Update on
Government Responses to Modern Slavery, Walk Free Foundation.
Available from: https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/brazil/.
[26 January 2018].

3

4

Feasley, A 2015, ‘Deploying Disclosure Laws to Eliminate Forced Labour:
Supply Chain Transparency Efforts of Brazil and the United States ofAmerica,’ Anti-Trafficking Review, Special Issue: Forced Labour andHuman Trafficking, no. 5, p. 1. Available from: https://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2732885. [14 November 2017].
Labour Exploitation Accountability Hub 2017, One step forward and two
steps back? Brazil’s journey to combat labour exploitation. Available
from: http://accountabilityhub.org/blogs/one-step-forward-and-two-stepsback-brazils-journey-to-combat-labour-exploitation/. [8 November 2017].

5

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime n.d., Trafficking of Women andGirls within Central America, UNODC. Available from: https://www.unodc.
org/documents/toc/Reports/TOCTASouthAmerica/English/TOCTA_
CACaribb_trafficking_womengirls_within_CAmerica.pdf.
[20 March 2018].

6

United States Office of the Vice President Joe Biden 2014, “Remarks
to the Press with Q&A by Vice President Joe Biden in Guatemala,” The
White House. Available from: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/
the-press-office/2014/06/20/remarks-press-qa-vice-president-joe-bidenguatemala. [18 April 2018].

7

As above.

8

United Nations 2017, International Migration Report, Available from: http://
www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2017_Highlights.pdf. [1 May 2018].

9

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization n.d., “Decent Rural
Employment,” FAO. Available from: http://www.fao.org/rural-employment/
work-areas/working-conditions/en/. [18 April 2018].

10

Fair Food Standards Council 2017, Fair Food Program 2017 Annual
Report, FFSC. Available from: http://www.fairfoodprogram.org/cms/wpcontent/uploads/2018/05/Fair-Food-Program-2017-Annual-Report-Web.
pdf. [29 May 2018].

11

Ribando Seelke, C 2011, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
Caribbean, Congressional Research Service. Available from: https://fas.
org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf. [18 April 2018].

12

Save the Children 2001, “Tourism and the commercial sexual exploitationof children in Jamaica and the Dominican Republic.” Available from:https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/2399/pdf/2399.pdf.
[18 April 2018].

13

McKenzie, S and Clarke, R 2016, “Colombia’s FARC release childsoldiers in potential peace deal,” CNN, Available from: https://www.cnn.
com/2016/09/10/americas/farc-colombia-release-child-soldiers/index.
html. [18 April 2018].

14

UNICEF 2017, The State of the World’s Children 2017: Children in a Digital
World, UNICEF. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_101992.html. [20 March 2018].

15

Moloney, A 2017, “Venezuela crisis forces women to sell sex in Colombia,
fuels slavery risk,” Reuters, Available from: https://www.reuters.com/
article/us-venezuela-colombia-trafficking/venezuela-crisis-forceswomen-to-sell-sex-in-colombia-fuels-slavery-risk-idUSKBN18W1EX.
[1 May 2018].

16

Walk Free Foundation 2013, Response to 6 Month Update on
Government Responses to Modern Slavery, Walk Free Foundation.
Available from: https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/brazil/.
[26 January 2018].

17

United Nations Population Division 2017, “World Population Prospects”.
Available from: https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/. [30 June 2017].

18

Organization of American States and Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development 2017, International Migration in theAmericas: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on
International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), OAS & OECD, p. 29.
Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/
SICREMI-2017-english-web-FINAL.pdf. [15 May 2018].

19

International Organization for Migration 2017, Migration in the Caribbean:
Current Trends, Opportunities and Challenges, IOM, p. 11. Available
from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Working%20
papers_%20en_baja_20.06.17.pdf. [15 May 2018].

20International Organization for Migration 2017, Migration in the Caribbean:
Current Trends, Opportunities and Challenges, IOM, p. 84. Available
from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Working%20
papers_%20en_baja_20.06.17.pdf. [15 May 2018].

21

International Organization for Migration 2017, Migration in the Caribbean:
Current Trends, Opportunities and Challenges, IOM, p. 82. Available
from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Working%20
papers_%20en_baja_20.06.17.pdf. [15 May 2018].

22

Organization of American States and Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development 2017, International Migration in theAmericas: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on
International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), OAS & OECD, p. xvii.
Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/
SICREMI-2017-english-web-FINAL.pdf. [15 May 2018].

23

Organization of American States and Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development 2017, International Migration in theAmericas: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on
International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), OAS & OECD, p. 6.
Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/
SICREMI-2017-english-web-FINAL.pdf. [15 May 2018].

24

Organization of American States and Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 2017, International Migration in the Americas:
Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on International
Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), OAS & OECD, p. 14. Available from:https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/SICREMI-2017english-web-FINAL.pdf. [15 May 2018].

Americas Report25

26

Organization of American States and Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development 2017, International Migration in theAmericas: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on
International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), OAS & OECD, p. 23.
Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/
SICREMI-2017-english-web-FINAL.pdf. [15 May 2018].
Organization of American States and Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development 2017, International Migration in theAmericas: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on
International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), OAS & OECD, p. 125.
Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/
SICREMI-2017-english-web-FINAL.pdf. [15 May 2018].

45

42

United Nations, 2017, International Migration Report. Available from:http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/
publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2017_Highlights.pdf.
[1 May 2018].

43

Domonoske, C and Gonzales, R 2018, “What we know: Family Separationand ‘Zero Tolerance’ at the Border,” National Public Radio. Available
from: https://www.npr.org/2018/06/19/621065383/what-we-know-familyseparation-and-zero-tolerance-at-the-border. [19 June 2018].

44

United Nations 2017, International Migration Report. Available from: http://
www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2017_Highlights.pdf. [1 May 2018].

27

United Nations 2017, “Security Council Reiterates its Condemnation of
Trafficking in Persons, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2388 (2017)”,UN, 21 November. Available from: https://www.un.org/press/en/2017/
sc13081.doc.htm. [1 June 2018].

45

Iszler, M 2017, “Could a 7-year-old have picked the food you’re eating?
The law says no. Workers say yes,” News & Observer. Available from:http://www.newsobserver.com/news/business/article160293514.html[18 April 2018]28

Organization of American States and Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development 2017, International Migration in theAmericas: Fourth Report of the Continuous Reporting System on
International Migration in the Americas (SICREMI), OAS & OECD, p. 29.
Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/
SICREMI-2017-english-web-FINAL.pdf. [15 May 2018].

46

Human Rights Watch 2015, “Teens of the Tobacco Fields: Child Laborin United States Tobacco Farming.” Available from: https://www.hrw.
org/report/2015/12/09/teens-tobacco-fields/child-labor-united-statestobacco-farming. [18 April 2018].

47

Boseley, S 2018, “Child labour rampant in tobacco industry,” The
Guardian, Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/
jun/25/revealed-child-labor-rampant-in-tobacco-industry?CMP=Share_
iOSApp_Other. [25 June 2018].

48

Human Rights Watch 2010, United States Fields of Peril: Child Labor in
US Agriculture. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/
reports/crd0510webwcover_1.pdf. [18 May 2018].

49

Otanez, M 2008, Social Disruption caused by Tobacco Growing,
Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education, University ofCalifornia. Available from: https://www.laborrights.org/sites/default/
files/publications-and-resources/social-disruption-caused-by-tobaccogrowing.pdf. [18 April 2018]. Human Rights Watch 2010, United States
Fields of Peril: Child Labor in US Agriculture. Available from: https://www.
hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/crd0510webwcover_1.pdf.
[18 May 2018].

29

30

Cuevas A 2014, “En Guabirá erradican el trabajo de niños en 55%,” La
Razon, 4 December. Available from: http://www.la-razon.com/sociedad/
Ingenio-Guabira-erradican-trabajo-ninos_0_2174182577.html.
[15 May 2018].
Becerra, X n.d., The California Transparency in Supply Chains Act, Stateof California Department of Justice. Available from: https://oag.ca.gov/
SB657. [16 February 2018].

31

Kaye, L 2017, “Brazil’s Political Turmoil Endangers 20 years of Progresson Forced Labor”, Triple Pundit, 11 January. Available from: https://www.
triplepundit.com/special/cotton-sustainability-c-and-a-foundation/brazilpolitical-turmoil-forced-labor/. [13 November 2017].

32

Walk Free Foundation 2013, Response to 6 Month Update on
Government Responses to Modern Slavery, Walk Free Foundation.
Available from: https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/brazil/.
[26 January 2018].

50

Federal Register 1999, Executive Order 13126 of June 12, 1999 –Prohibition of Acquisition of Products Produced by Forced or Indentured
Child Labor. Available from: https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1999-0616/html/99-15491.htm. [October 21, 2017].

Human Rights Watch 2015, “Teens of the Tobacco Fields: Child Laborin United States Tobacco Farming.” Available from: https://www.hrw.
org/report/2015/12/09/teens-tobacco-fields/child-labor-united-statestobacco-farming. [18 April 2018].

51

Human Rights Watch 2015, “Teens of the Tobacco Fields: Child Laborin United States Tobacco Farming.” Available from: https://www.hrw.
org/report/2015/12/09/teens-tobacco-fields/child-labor-united-statestobacco-farming. [18 April 2018].

52

As above.

53

British American Tobacco, 2017, Sustainable Tobacco Programme: New
Programme drives industry-wide supplier standards. Available from:http://www.bat.com/group/sites/uk__9d9kcy.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/
DO9DEEBL. [18 April 2018].

54

Boseley, S 2018, “Child labour rampant in tobacco industry,” The
Guardian. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/
jun/25/revealed-child-labor-rampant-in-tobacco-industry?CMP=Share_
iOSApp_Other. [25 June 2018].

55

As above.

56

Iszler, M 2017, “Could a 7-year-old have picked the food you’re eating?
The law says no. Workers say yes,” News & Observer. Available from:http://www.newsobserver.com/news/business/article160293514.html.
[18 April 2018].

57

National Programme For Rescue Human Trafficking Victims, Ministryof Justice and Human Rights, “Statistics”, government of Argentina.
Available from: http://www.jus.gob.ar/noalatrata.aspx. [30 May 2018].

58

Anti-trafficking Prosecutor’s Office (PROTEX) 2016, Telephone reports
about trafficking in persons. Analysis of the cases received through Line145. Available from: https://www.mpf.gob.ar/protex/files/2016/06/ProtexInforme-L%C3%ADnea-145.pdf. [30 May 2018].

33

34

United States Congress 2016, H.R. 644 – Trade Facilitation and Trade
Enforcement Act of 2015, Available from: https://www.congress.gov/
bill/114th-congress/house-bill/644/text. [28 October 2017].

35

International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology of the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labourand Forced Marriage, ILO, p. 10. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/global/
topics/forced-labour/publications/WCMS_586127/lang--en/index.htm.
[14 March 2017].

36

Analyses were conducted by Gallup, Inc. and WFF and are describedin full in a forthcoming paper: Diego-Rosell P & Joudo Larsen J(forthcoming), Modelling the risk of modern slavery.

37

Repórter Brasil n.d., “Wood and Slavery”. Available from http://
reporterbrasil.org.br/loggers. [18 April 2018].

38

Walk Free Foundation and International Labour Organization 2017, Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage
Methodology Paper. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/
forced-labour/publications/WCMS_586127/lang--en/index.htm.
[18 April 2018].

39

As above.

40

Walk Free Foundation and International Labour Organization 2017, Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage
Report. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/
WCMS_575479/lang--en/index.htm. [18 April 2018].

41

As above.

46

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

Global Slavery Index 2018

ILO, UNICEF, UNDP, IOM, World Bank, FAO, UN Women, ECLAC and
UNHCR 2017, Child labour, forced labour and quality youth employment
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Supervisory, Promotion and Protection of the Human Rights Board
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Ribando Seelke, C 2011, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
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Ribando Seelke, C 2016, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
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fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf. [20 March 2018].
Darlington, Shasta, 2017, “Slavery in the Amazon: Thousands forced towork on Brazil’s cattle ranches,” CNN. Available from: https://www.cnn.
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[18 April 2018].
Ribando Seelke, C 2011, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
Caribbean, Congressional Research Service. Available from: https://fas.
org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf. [18 April 2018].

77

As above.

78

As above.

79

As above.

80

Ribando Seelke, C 2011, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
Caribbean, Congressional Research Service. Available from: https://fas.
org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf. [18 April 2018].

81

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime n.d., Trafficking of Womenand Girls within Central America, UNODC. Available from: https://www.
unodc.org/documents/toc/Reports/TOCTASouthAmerica/English/
TOCTA_CACaribb_trafficking_womengirls_within_CAmerica.pdf. [20March 2018].

82

United States Office of the Vice President Joe Biden 2014, “Remarks
to the Press with Q&A by Vice President Joe Biden in Guatemala,” The
White House. Available from: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/
the-press-office/2014/06/20/remarks-press-qa-vice-president-joe-bidenguatemala. [18 April 2018].

83

As above.

84

Human Rights Watch 2012, “Cultivating Fear: The Vulnerability of
Immigrant Farmworkers in the US to Sexual Violence and Sexual
Harassment.” Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/05/15/
cultivating-fear/vulnerability-immigrant-farmworkers-us-sexual-violenceand-sexual. [18 April 2018].

85

Ribando Seelke, C 2011, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
Caribbean, Congressional Research Service. Available from: https://fas.
org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf. [18 April 2018].

86

Human Rights Watch, 2015, “Teens of the Tobacco Fields: Child Laborin United States Tobacco Farming.” Available from: https://www.hrw.
org/report/2015/12/09/teens-tobacco-fields/child-labor-united-statestobacco-farming. [18 April 2018].

87

As above.

88

As above.

89

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization n.d., “Decent Rural
Employment,” Available from: http://www.fao.org/rural-employment/workareas/working-conditions/en/. [18 April 2018].

67

As above.

68

Issa, D 2017, Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking in Latin America,
Latin American Perspectives Sage Journals. Available from: http://
journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0094582X17725488.
[18 April 2018].

90

Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General forChildren and Armed Conflict 2017, “Colombia”, UN. Available from:https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/where-we-work/other-countries/
colombia/. [1 June 2018].

69

Darlington, S 2017, “Slavery in the Amazon: Thousands forced to workon Brazil’s cattle ranches,” CNN. Available from: https://www.cnn.
com/2017/04/26/americas/brazil-amazon-slavery-freedom-project/.
[18 April 2018].

91

McKenzie, S and Clarke, R 2016, “Colombia’s FARC release childsoldiers in potential peace deal,” CNN. Available from: https://www.cnn.
com/2016/09/10/americas/farc-colombia-release-child-soldiers/index.
html. [18 April 2018].

70

International Labour Organisation 2013, Domestic Workers across theWorld: Global and Regional Statistics and the extent of legal protection.
Available from: http://www.ilo.org/travail/Whatsnew/WCMS_173363/lang-en/index.htm. [1 May 2018].

92

Human Rights Watch 1998, “Child Soldiers Used by All Sides inColombia’s Armed Conflict,” HRW. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/
news/1998/10/07/child-soldiers-used-all-sides-colombias-armed-conflict.
[20 March 2018].

71

As above.

93

72

Human Rights First 2016, “Domestic Servitude, an Especially Hidden
Form of Labor Trafficking. Available from: https://www.humanrightsfirst.
org/blog/domestic-servitude-especially-hidden-form-labor-trafficking.
[18 April 2018].

McKenzie, S and Clarke, R 2016, “Colombia’s FARC release childsoldiers in potential peace deal,” CNN. Available from: https://www.cnn.
com/2016/09/10/americas/farc-colombia-release-child-soldiers/index.
html. [18 April 2018].

94

Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General forChildren and Armed Conflict 2017, “Colombia”, UN. Available from:https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/where-we-work/other-countries/
colombia/. [1 June 2018].

95

Krygier, R 2016, “As Colombia Votes on Peace, Child Soldiers Struggle toAdapt,” Americas Quarterly. Available from: http://www.americasquarterly.
org/content/colombia-votes-peace-child-soldiers-struggle-adapt.
[18 April 2018].

96

Moloney, A 2017, “Venezuela crisis forces women to sell sex in Colombia,
fuels slavery risk,” Reuters. Available from: https://www.reuters.com/
article/us-venezuela-colombia-trafficking/venezuela-crisis-forceswomen-to-sell-sex-in-colombia-fuels-slavery-risk-idUSKBN18W1EX.
[1 May 2018].

97

Ribando Seelke, C 2016, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
Caribbean, Congressional Research Service, p. 6. Available from: https://
fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf. [20 March 2018].

73

74

75

76

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2014, GLOTIP: North America,
Central America, and the Caribbean, UNODC. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/GLOTIP14_Country_
profiles_NAmerica_CAmerica_Caribbean.pdf. [18 April 2018].
Burnham, L and Nik T 2012, Home Economics: The Invisible andUnregulated World of Domestic Work: Violations of Employment andLabor Laws in America, National Domestic Workers Alliance, Centerfor Urban Economic Development and University of Illinois at Chicago
DataCenter. Available from: gender.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/
HomeEconomicsEnglish.pdf. [18 April 2018].
United Nations 2017, International Migration Report. Available from: http://
www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2017_Highlights.pdf. [1 May 2018].
As above.

Americas Report47

98

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime n.d., Trafficking of Womenand Girls within Central America. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/
documents/toc/Reports/TOCTASouthAmerica/English/TOCTA_CACaribb_
trafficking_womengirls_within_CAmerica.pdf. [20 March 2018].

115

Beltran, A 2017, Children and Families Fleeing Violence in Central
America, WOLA Advocacy for Human Rights in America. Available from:https://www.wola.org/analysis/people-leaving-central-americas-northerntriangle/. [2 February 2018].

99

International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala and UNICEF
2016, Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation Purposes in Guatemala,
Editorial Servi Prensa. Available from: www.cicig.org/uploads/
documents/2016/Trata_Ing_978_9929_40_829_6.pdf. [20 March 2018].

116

Council on Foreign Relations 2018, Criminal Violence in Mexico, Council
on Foreign Relations. Available from: https://www.cfr.org/interactives/
global-conflict-tracker#!/conflict/criminal-violence-in-mexico.
[26 January 2018].

100

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime n.d., Trafficking of Womenand Girls within Central America, UNODC. Available from: https://www.
unodc.org/documents/toc/Reports/TOCTASouthAmerica/English/
TOCTA_CACaribb_trafficking_womengirls_within_CAmerica.pdf. [20March 2018].

117

Felter, C & Renwick, D 2017, Colombia’s Civil Conflict, Council on Foreign
Relations. Available from: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/colombiascivil-conflict. [23 January 2018].

118

Institute for Economics and Peace 2017, Global Peace Index 2017,
Institute for Economics and Peace, p. 17. Available from: http://
visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2017/06/GPI17-Report.pdf.
[6 February 2017].

119

Institute for Economics and Peace 2017, Global Peace Index 2017,
Institute for Economics and Peace, p. 37. Available from: http://
visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2017/06/GPI17-Report.pdf. [6 February2017].

120

For detailed methodology of how these products were identified andwhich data sources were used, please see Appendix 3 in the 2018 Global
Slavery Index report.

121

Government responses are assessed across five milestones ordimensions: victim assistance, criminal justice responses, coordination
and accountability, responding to risk, and tackling forced labour insupply chains.

122

United States Advisory Council on Human Trafficking, Annual Report
2017, United States Advisory Council on Human Trafficking, p. 5. Available
from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/277080.pdf.
[15 February 2018].

123

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: United States of America Country Narrative, UnitedStates Department of State, p. 417. Available from: https://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/271345.pdf. [23 January 2018].

124

Paarlberg, M & Hafiz, S 2017, Report: The Human Trafficking of Domestic
Workers in the United States, Institute for Policy Studies. Available from:http://www.ips-dc.org/report-the-human-trafficking-of-domestic-workersin-the-united-states/. [23 January 2018] and information collected throughthe Global Slavery Index 2018: NGO Survey with Coalition to Abolish
Slavery & Trafficking (CAST) in 2017. [23 January 2018].

125

Complaint for declaratory and injunctive relief and damages class action,
filed by the plaintiff on 19 December 2017, in the matter of Raul Novoa vs
The Geo Group, INC, US District Court, Central District of California, Civil
Action No. 5:17-cv-02514. Available from: http://www.burnscharest.com/
wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2017-12-19-Novoa-Dkt-1-Complaint2.pdf.
[31 January 2018].

126

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in
Persons Report: Argentina Country Narrative, United States Departmentof State, p. 66. Available from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271341.pdf. [30 January 2018].

127

As above.

128

As above.

129

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Chile Country Narrative, United States Departmentof State, p. 124. Available from: https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271339.pdf. [30 January 2018].

130

Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 2016, Post Cabinet
Press Briefing Summary – June 30, 2016, Government Information
Service. Available from: http://www.news.gov.tt/content/post-cabinetpress-briefing-summary-june-30-2016#.WmYWHKhl-Ul. [30 January2018].

131

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Trinidad and Tobago Narrative, United States
Department of State, p. 397. Available from: https://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/271339.pdf. [30 January 2018].

101

102

103

104

Save the Children 2001, Tourism and the commercial sexual exploitationof children in Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, Available from:https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/2399/pdf/2399.pdf.
[18 April 2018].
Moloney, A 2017, “Child sex tourists do ‘dirty business’ with impunity in
Dominican Republic,” Reuters. Available from: https://www.reuters.com/
article/us-dominican-sexcrimes/child-sex-tourists-do-dirty-business-withimpunity-in-dominican-republic-idUSKBN19727B. [18 April 2018].
UNICEF 2017, The State of the World’s Children 2017: Children in a Digital
World, UNICEF. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_101992.html. [20 March 2018].
Reiss, F 2017, “Why can 12-year-olds still get married in the UnitedStates?” Washington Post. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.
com/posteverything/wp/2017/02/10/why-does-the-united-states-still-let12-year-old-girls-get-married/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.4154b2b41692.
[18 April 2018].

105

United Nations Population Division 2017, “World Population Prospects”.
Available from: https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/. [30 June 2017].

106

Institute for Economics and Peace 2017, Global Peace Index 2017,
Institute for Economics and Peace, p. 17. Available from: http://
visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2017/06/GPI17-Report.pdf.
[6 February 2017].

107

Canizales, SL 2017, ‘How unaccompanied youth become exploited
workers in the US,’ The Conversation, 14 March. Available from: https://theconversation.com/how-unaccompanied-youth-become-exploitedworkers-in-the-us-73738. [23 January 2018].

108

Human Rights Watch 2016, Venezuela’s Humanitarian Crisis, Human
Rights Watch. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/10/24/
venezuelas-humanitarian-crisis/severe-medical-and-food-shortagesinadequate-and. [27 January 2018].

109

World Food Programme, Haiti, WFP. Available from: http://www1.wfp.org/
countries/haiti. [23 January 2018].

110

Lopez, M 2017, “Paraguay’s population is booming, But where are all
the jobs?,” HuffPost, 5 May. Available from: https://www.huffingtonpost.
com/entry/paraguays-population-is-booming-but-where-are-all_
us_590c5489e4b056aa2363d3d2. [23 January 2018].

111

Seepersad, R 2016, Crime and Violence in Trinidad and Tobago, InterAmerican Development Bank, p. 14. Available from: https://publications.
iadb.org/bitstream/handle/11319/7772/Crime-and-Violence-in-Trinidadand-Tobago-IDB-Series-on-Crime-and-Violence-in-the-Caribbean.
pdf?sequence=4. [5 February 2018].

112

Institute for Economics and Peace 2017, Global Peace Index 2017,
Institute for Economics and Peace, p. 17. Available from: http://
visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2017/06/GPI17-Report.pdf.
[6 February 2017].

113

Human Rights Watch 2014, Not Safe at Home: Violence andDiscrimination against LGBT people in Jamaica, HRW. Available from:https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/10/21/not-safe-home/violence-anddiscrimination-against-lgbt-people-jamaica. [30 January 2018].

114

Marinez, O & Kelle, G 2013, Sex Trafficking of LGBT Individuals: Author
Manuscript, National Institutes of Health, vol. 42, no 4. Available
from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4204396/pdf/
nihms567983.pdf. [27 January 2018].

48

Global Slavery Index 2018132

Moloney, A 2017, “Venezuela crisis forces women to sell sex in Colombia,
fuels slavery risk,” Reuters. Available from: https://www.reuters.com/
article/us-venezuela-colombia-trafficking/venezuela-crisis-forceswomen-to-sell-sex-in-colombia-fuels-slavery-risk-idUSKBN18W1EX.
[1 May 2018].

133

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Suriname Country Narrative, United States
Department of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2017/271289.htm. [1 June 2018].

134

Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons 2017, End of visit Statement
by Maria Grazia Giammarinaro, Special Rapporteur on trafficking inpersons, especially women and children, on her visit to Cuba, UN
Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner, 20 April. Available
from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.
aspx?NewsID=21518&LangID=E. [1 June 2018].

135

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 2018, Submission by the
UNHCR for the OHCHR Compilation report – Universal Periodical Review,
UNHCR, p. 3. Available from: http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/55474dbf4.
pdf. [28 January 2018].

136

Government of St. Kitts and Nevis, Trafficking in Persons (Prevention) Act
2008, Article 10.

137

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees n.d., Submission by
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees for the Office ofthe High Commissioner for Human Rights’ Compilation Report Universal
Periodic Review: 2nd Cycle, 25th Session, UNHCR. Available from: http://
www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/UPR/Pages/VCIndex.aspx.
[15 February 2018].

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

International Bar Association 2016, Human Trafficking and Public
Corruption: A Report by the IBA’s Presidential Task Force Against Human
Trafficking. Available from: https://www.ibanet.org/Document/Default.
aspx?DocumentUid=E34FFA1D-8038-4AEC-A631-E0E2A7E0AD86.
[1 May 2018].
Cueva,s A 2014, “En Guabirá erradican el trabajo de niños en 55%,” La
Razon, 4 December. Available from: http://www.la-razon.com/sociedad/
Ingenio-Guabira-erradican-trabajo-ninos_0_2174182577.html.
[15 May 2018].
Becerra, X n.d., The California Transparency in Supply Chains Act, Stateof California Department of Justice. Available from: https://oag.ca.gov/
SB657. [16 February 2018].
United States: California Transparency in Supply Chains Act of 2010
(SB 657).
Walk Free Foundation 2013, Response to 6 Month Update on
Government Responses to Modern Slavery, Walk Free Foundation.
Available from: https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/brazil/.
[26 January 2018].
Kaye, L 2017, “Brazil’s Political Turmoil Endangers 20 years of Progresson Forced Labor,” Triple Pundit, 11 January. Available from: https://www.
triplepundit.com/special/cotton-sustainability-c-and-a-foundation/brazilpolitical-turmoil-forced-labor/. [13 November 2017].
Labour Exploitation Accountability Hub 2017, One step forward and two
steps back? Brazil’s journey to combat labour exploitation. Available
from: http://accountabilityhub.org/blogs/one-step-forward-and-two-stepsback-brazils-journey-to-combat-labour-exploitation/. [8 November 2017].

145

Campos, A, Huijstee, M & Theuws, M 2015, From moral responsibility
to legal liability?, Repórter Brasil & SOMO, p. 30. Available from: http://
reporterbrasil.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/From-moralresponsibility-to-legal-liability.pdf. [13 November 2017].

146

Fragale, R 2017, Slavery in Brazil: Bringing back the ‘dirty list’, Slave Free
Trade, 21 September. Available from: https://slavefreetrade.org/brazilslavery-dirty-list/. [30 January 2018].

147

Feasley, A 2015, “Deploying Disclosure Laws to Eliminate Forced Labour:
Supply Chain Transparency Efforts of Brazil and the United States ofAmerica,” Anti-Trafficking Review, Special Issue: Forced Labour andHuman Trafficking, no. 5, p. 1. Available from: https://papers.ssrn.com/
sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2732885. [14 November 2017].

148

Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Saint
Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines were
included in our assessment of government responses in 2018, howeveras this was the first year we collected data for this country we did notinclude its rating in the Global Slavery Index. Data collected can be foundin the database at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

149

Organization of American States n.d., Fighting Human Trafficking in theAmericas. Available from: http://www.oas.org/en/news/oas_at_work_
article.asp?df_sCodigo=5059. [7 February 2018].

150

Permanent Council of the Organization of American States 2018, Fourth
Meeting on National Authorities on Trafficking in Persons, Organizationof American States. Available from: http://www.oas.org/csh/english/
fightingtraffikinginpersons.asp#IV. [7 February 2018].

151

Seelke, CR 2016, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and the
Caribbean, Congressional Research Service. Available from: https://fas.
org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf. [7 February 2018].

152

Gross, A 2017, “Brazil ordered to pay $5m to workers formerly enslavedon cattle ranch,” The Guardian, 10 January. Available from: https://www.
theguardian.com/global-development/2017/jan/09/brazil-ordered-to-pay5m-to-workers-formerly-enslaved-on-cattle-ranch. [13 November 2017].

153

Union of South American Nations n.d., UNASUR seeks joint strategies
to prevent and combat human trafficking in South America, UNASUR.
Available from: https://www.unasursg.org/en/node/904.
[7 February 2018].

154

Union of South American Nations n.d., UNASUR advances in promoting
and guaranteeing Human Rights, UNASUR. Available from: http://www.
unasursg.org/en/node/902. [7 February 2018].

155

Buenos Aires Times, 2018, “Six nations, including Argentina, quit
UNASUR regional bloc.” Available from: http://www.batimes.com.ar/news/
argentina/six-nations-including-argentina-quit-unasur-regional-bloc.
phtml. [8 May 2018].

156

International Organization for Migration n.d., Puebla Process. Available
from: https://www.iom.int/puebla-process. [7 February 2018].

157

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2017, 17 countries agree on
regional mechanism to combat human trafficking and migrant smugglingin Latin America, UNODC. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/
en/human-trafficking/glo-act/17-countries-agree-on-regional-mechanismto-combat-human-trafficking-and-migrants-smuggling-in-latin-america.
html. [6 February 2018].

Americas Report49

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all those individuals and organisations who contributed to the production of this report.
In particular, the authors extend their sincere thanks to the authors of essays featured in the report and all external reviewers.
The sharing of new research, experiences, and informed opinions on current issues across the region are critical in deepening
our understanding of modern slavery in the region.

Recommended citation
Walk Free Foundation (2018). The Global Slavery Index 2018: Americas Report. Perth, Australia

Further readingThis report is part of a series that builds on the information presented in The Global Slavery Index 2018 to provide an in-depth
look at modern slavery at a regional level. The reports will be available from https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/resources/
downloads/ as they are released. The Global Slavery Index 2018 is now available to download.

GLOBALSLAVERYINDEX.ORG