Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)

The perception of Muslim motifs
and juridical authorities of theconcept of health and its function
in issuing fatwas on abortion- Saeideh Sayari
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email: saeideh_sayari@aol.com- Darryl Macer
American University of Sovereign Nations- Siti Nurani binti Nor
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract

Muslim jurisprudents and muftis issue fatwas on
abortion based on Ijtihad. Three fundamental
principles of Ijtihad indicate that jurisprudence has
to consider the changes of the time and place, thepublic interest, and the least harm in issuing fatwas.
However, many ignore these principles since they
stick to the traditional concept of health which istheir basis to issue fatwas. In this paper, we analyze
how Islamic jurisprudence, through using theseprinciples in perception of the concept of health,can help to solve the illegal abortion crisis in
Muslim countries.

1. Introduction

Abortion is a global health issue and illegal andunsafe abortions lead to the deaths of an estimated
68,000 women every year. Many of these deaths
occur in countries with a large Muslim population,and in some of these countries the laws are basedon Islamic law. A summary of the legal provisions ispresented later in this paper in Table 1.
Since two main sources of the polices forlegislation about abortion are the political policies
and religious transitions, in Islamic countries which
follow the Islamic law (shari‘a) the guidance on theact of abortion originates from religious decrees
which jurisprudents extract from the sources ofreligion, Qurʾān and tradition.
The jurisprudents extract some decrees basedon dignity of human life and hadith (narrations
from the prophet’s life and decisions) in which theprophet and other religious leaders made decisions
based on the concepts of human life. The key point
here is that these decrees normally originated fromthe jurisprudents’ interpretations of the hadith andalso the main doctrine of the dignity of human life.
These interpretations reflect the historical, cultural,social, political, economic, ethical, and scientificrealities of the era. In other words, thejurisprudents issue the decree based on theirknowledge of their time and concepts which they
have, for example, the concept of human life and91

human health. According to Muslim juridical
attitudes, healthy life is identified as physical healthalthough some of jurisprudents recently also
consider mental health in issuing fatwas. Based on
this approach, juridical authorities issue fatwas on
abortion in the cases in which mother’s life isendangered.
According to the holistic concept of healthdefined by the World Health Organization (WHO),
health includes physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease. 1
Therefore, healthy life is considered as acomplicated,
integrated,intertwined,
andmultidimensional net which is related to all aspectsof human life, such as physical, mental, social, andspiritual aspects. The elimination of any aspects ofthis multi-faceted phenomenon may lead to making
harmful decisions on human life.
In this paper, we argue that the reductionist
ideas of some Muslim juridical authorities on theconcept of health follows on the traditional conceptof health according to which the concept of healthwas limited to physical health. We will discuss thatthe adherence to the traditional concept of healthcauses us to ignore the fundamental principles of
ijtihad (making effort to extract the rules form theQurʾān and Sunnah). These principles are:1- Laws change with changes in time and place
2- Choosing the lesser of two harms
3- Preserving public interest2
The importance of discussing the subject is that
not only we can see the effects of the religious ideas
and decrees about the concept of the heath on
reproductive behavior in Muslim countries, eventhose such as Turkey with a secular parliament, butalso they are seen among the Muslim migrants inthe secular countries (Arousell & Carlbom, 2016).

2. Methods
This study is qualitative using published data andanalyses, and academic papers on a variety of
topics about abortion, and uses philosophical andtheological analysis. This research looks at the issue
through the lens of Islamic jurisprudence.

1 Preamble to the Constitution of the World HealthOrganization as adopted by the International HealthConference, New York, 19-22 June, 1946; signed on 22
July 1946 by representatives of 61 States (Official
Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100)and entered into force on 7 April 1948.
2 Subhi Mahmassani, Falsafat al- Tashri‘ fi al-Islam, Dar
al-‘Ilm lil-Malayin, Beirut, 1961, pp. 200-207, 408; Azizah
Y. al-Hibri, “Islamic constitutionalism and the concept of
democracy.” Case western reserve journal of Internationallaw. 24, 1 (1992): 3-10.

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)92
3. The traditional
concept of health

vs.

the

modernThe traditional notion of health was considered as
being in a disease-free state. While this concept issilent about the mental and social aspects, theWorld Health Organization (WHO) refers to three
aspects of health, physical, mental, and social wellbeing. According to Balgo (1978), health is definedas, “a state of body and mind functioning well which
affords man the ability to strive towards his both
functional objectives and culturally desired goals.”
In the past, healthy life was limited to physicallife since human knowledge was limited to simple
rules of the physical body. Although Plato, Aristotle
and other philosophers dealt with the non-physicalpart of the human being as the soul 3 , their
explanations were connected to moral rules.
Therefore, their attitudes refer to the responsibilityof the human being to improve her/his soul.
However, psychology as a scientific field beganaround 200 years ago with Fechner’s critique ofKant’s stricture against quantitative study of mind.4
Then, many schools and fields developed in
psychology. These developments in psychology
clarified the effects of the physical body on themental aspect, and vice versa.
On the other hand, new findings threw light on
the dependence of the social and environmental
factors on the physical and mental part of humanbeings. In fact, human life was considered as asystem in three dimensions, physical, mental, andsocio-environmental. Hence, the healthy life also
depends on the three mentioned parts. As a result,in 1946, WHO declared that health includes
physical, mental, and social well-being and not only
physical health. Therefore, the policy of health inmany countries changed. For example, the UK
government published a document as a policy for
health in 2010. This document states that, “mental
health and well-being are also critical dimensions ofhealth. We know that mental ill health is responsible
for a high proportion of the overall burden of ill
health and prevalence has been rising. We also knowthat mental health and well being are importantfactors for physical health” (Our Health and Well
Being Today, 2010).5 Islamic countries, especiallythe countries mentioned in this research are
member countries of WHO. Therefore, since thedefinitions, rules, and principles of WHO include
the members, Islamic countries are also expected tofollow its rules.
3 Aristotle's
Psychology. Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
4 Thomas H. Leahey, A History of Modern Psychology, 3rd
Edition, Pearson, 2001.
5 Our Health and Well Being Today, Department of
Health, Wellington House, 2010, p. 3. www.dh.gov.uk.

In fact, by adding the social and psychologicalaspects, WHO (and thus all member states
officially) acknowledge that the concept of healthand illness are multi-causal, and the focus shiftedfrom a strictly medical perspective in the absenceof illness to evaluation of a person’s status(Boruchovitch & Mednick 2002). Over history wecan see cycles of over-emphasis on law and overemphasis on love as the guidance of religions andpractice, but the abortion laws need to consider
more of the love of life for all moral agents, not justfor the fetus (Macer 1998).

4. The traditional concept of health incontrast to the fundamental principles
of ijtihad
4.1. The first principle: Laws change withchanges in time and place
As mentioned above, in the past, healthy life wasconsidered as life without physical illness.
Therefore, two other aspects of health, mental andsocial well-being were generally not consideredamong the authorities in health and among law
makers.
Muslimjurisprudents
were
notexceptional. In issuing the fatwas, they considered
the traditional concept of health, as they do today.
However, based on the fundamental principle of
ijtihad, laws change with changes in time and place.
In Islam, God has the supreme legislative
power; however, God changed His commands
which He sent to people through prophets. God saidin Qurʾān, “None of Our revelations do We abrogate
or cause to be forgotten, but We substitutesomething better or similar: Knowest thou not that
Allah Hath power over all things?” 6 We can findmany examples on the issue.
Changing the divine rules and command(abrogation) does happen within a religion or
between religions. For example, the Torah allowed
the believers to divorce;7 however, Christ rejected itfor his followers. 8 Another example is about theabrogation of a divine law within Islam; God at firstcommanded to strict punishment for women who
committed adultery; then God changed thepunishment into the milder law. 9 The reason
behind these changes, in general, is that changes
happened in the human cultural, social, historical,
political, individual, and even physiologicalcircumstances.
Therefore, the fundamental principle ofchanging the laws based on the time and place
originate from God Himself. In many cases, the6

2: 106.

7 Book of Deuteronomy, chapter 2.

The New Testament, Gospel Matthew: 19; Gospel Luke:
16.
9 Qurʾān, 4: 15 and 16; 24: 2
8

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)juridical muftis changed their fatwas. For example,
to have more than one wife for men in Islamic
realm was accepted; however, in some Islamic
countries such as Iran, it has caused many
problems for families, children and women. Finally,some jurisprudents reformed their fatwas; in thiscase, they argue that if a woman considers thisIslamic rule as an insulting law to herself as ahuman being, it should be prohibited in thatsociety.10
4.2. The second principle: Choosing thelesser of two harms
One of the most important reasons for changing thelaws (the first Principle) is to reduce harms inhuman life. For example, before Islam, marriage to
two sisters at the same time for a man was allowed
in some Abrahamic traditions11 but Islam forbade
it12 since it was harmful to the sibling relationship.
The clearest example of this principle is theprohibition of drinking wine in the Qurʾān. “Theyask thee concerning wine and gambling. Say: ‘inthem is great sin, and some profit, for men; but thesin is greater than the profit’.”13 God explained topeople about the advantages and disadvantages ofdrinking wine, however, since its disadvantages are
greater, Muslims were not allowed to drink
although it was not forbidden in previous religions(e.g. Judaism and Christianity).
Therefore, the supreme lawmaker, God, enacts
based on the less harmful side. Some jurisprudents
also followed this principle in social cases; forexample, marriage to non-Muslims often was
forbidden but recently some Islamic scholars or
jurisprudents rejected that and allow all people tomarry to people in other religions.14
4.3. The third principle: Preserving public
interest
The third principle highlights the public interest. In
Islamic jurisprudence, there are many cases inwhich muftis issued or changed the fatwas becauseof public interest. For instance, in 1892, Ayatullah
Shirazi, one of the muftis in Iran, issued a fatwa
according to which using tobacco was forbidden(ḥarām) for Iranian Muslims; then, people broke all
hookahs, so the king was forced to cancel the treaty
with a tobacco company in UK. In another example,
in 1808, Russia attacked Iran and the government
needed to ask people to fight. Then, the king asked

the mofties to issue a fatwa for encouraging people
to fight with enemy. They also allowed thegovernment to take religious payments such as
zakāt to provide the needs of the soldiers.15 Thesejurisprudents issued the fatwa based on a wellknown principle in Islamic tradition; the profit ofMuslim community must be kept, therefore,
everything which is harmful or has disadvantage
for Muslims should be avoided.

5. The concept of health on abortion
according to principles of Ijtihad
The current fatwas on abortion indicate thatabortion is generally forbidden except in serious
conditions in which mother’s life is endangered.
Table 1 shows the abortion laws in various Islamic
countries. The base of these laws are fatwas which
are issued by religious authorities.
The first principle of Ijtihad refers to changes
in terms of time and place. The concepts of time andplace, indicate the social, cultural, economic, andpolitical conditions. Jurisprudents issue fatwas
according to the need of people for a better life.
Also, they issue fatwas in conditions in whichsociety faces a problem. Based on these facts,
abortion is a crisis in most of the Islamic countries,
such as Iran, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.16
To solve the problem, lawmakers need new fatwas
in Islamic countries.
The crisis is not limited to individuals orfamilies, but it affects all the society of a country
and even the global society. The high rate of unsafe
abortions, of unhealthy children, of maternalmortality, and of economic crises clearly
demonstrates a need to revise the rules and fatwas.
According to the second principle of ijtihad, thejuridical circles must issue a fatwa with less harm.
We argue that legal abortion has somedisadvantages such as physical and mental
problems after the abortion; however, illegal
abortions and unwanted children impose a hugecost on society. In legal abortion, mother and family
will get over the physical and mental problems
after a few weeks or a few months, but in the caseof unsafe abortion, it may lead to the death ofmother or serious infections or disabilities. Beside
this, in the case of unwanted children, mother, theunwanted child, the existing children, family, andShykh Jafar Kāshif al-Gheṭā, kashf al-ghiṭā, n.d., Qum,
daftar tablighat islami.
16“New project to help reduce unsafe abortion death rates
in disaster zones “University of Leicester-led research aimed
to implement intervention measures for reproductive healthissues in disaster-prone countries.
http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/pressreleases/2015/november/new-project-to-help-reduce-unsafeabortion-death-rates.
15

10 http://fararu.com/fa/news/10568. 30 April 2008.
11 Such as the marriage of Jacob to Shuaib’s daughters.
12 Qurʾān, 4: 23.
13 Qurʾān, 2: 129.

Ahmad,Ghabel. 2013. jurisprudence, functions andcapabilities . SHariate Aqlani publisher, www. Ghabel.
Net.
14

93

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)94

Table 1 The number of reasons (1, 2, …) justifying legal abortions in Muslim-majority countries (2011)
1
2
3
4
5
6

7

Afghanistan L

Comoros L.PH

Algeria L.PH.MH

Burkina Faso L.PH.F.I/R

Albania

Bangladesh L

Iran L.F

Chad L.PH.F

Guinea L.PH.F.I/R

Azerbaijan

Brunei L

Jordan L.PH

Gambia L.PH.MH

BahrainDjibouti L

Mali L.I/R

Kuwait L.PH.F

Kazakhstan

Egypt L

Maldives L.PH

Malaysia L.PH.MH

Kyrgyzstan

Guinea-Bissau L

Morocco L.PH

Niger L.PH.F

Tajikistan

Indonesia L

Pakistan L.PH

Qatar L.PH.F

Tunisia

Iraq L

Saudi Arabia L.PH Sierra Leone L.PH.MH

TurkeyLebanon L

Sudan L.R

Turkmenistan

Libya L

Uzbekistan

Mauritania L
Nigeria L
Oman L
Senegal L
Somalia L
Syria L
United Arab Emirates L
Yemen L
18 (38.30%)

9 (19.15%)

8 (17.02%)

2 (4.26%)00

10 (21.28%)

Grounds: L: Abortion allowed to save the life of the woman; PH: Abortion allowed in cases where the pregnancy threatens awoman’s physical health; MH: Abortion allowed in cases where pregnancy threatens the woman’s mental health; F:
Abortion allowed in cases of fetal impairment; I/R: Abortion is allowed in cases of incest or rape; SER: Abortion allowed on
additional enumerated grounds relating to such factors as a woman’s age or capacity to care for a child.
Source: Gilla K Shapiro, “Abortion law in Muslim-majority countries: an overview of the Islamic discourse with policy
implications,” Health policy and planning, 2014: 29, 483-494.

the society will be influenced by physical, mental,
and social health problems.
Finally, regarding the third fundamental
principle of ijtihad, juridical authorities should
consider the public interest which is not limited tojust one society but relates to the whole of humansociety. For example, according to the Center for
Biological Diversity, “A 2009 study of therelationship between population growth and global
warming determined that the “carbon legacy” of justone child can produce 20 times more greenhouse gas
than a person will save by driving a high-mileage car,recycling, using energy-efficient appliances and lightbulbs, etc. Each child born in the United States will
add about 9,441 metric tons of carbon dioxide to thecarbon legacy of an average parent. The study
concludes, “Clearly, the potential savings fromreduced reproduction are huge compared to thesavings that can be achieved by changes inlifestyle.”17
17 “Human population growth and climate change”.

Center for biological diversity.
http://www.biologicaldiversity.org.

According to the United Nations Population
Fund, “human population grew from 1.6 billion to 6.1
billion people during the course of the 20th century.
During that time emissions of CO2, the leading
greenhouse gas, grew 12-fold. And with worldwide
population expected to surpass nine billion over the
next 50 years, environmentalists and others areworried about the ability of the planet to withstandthe added load of greenhouse gases entering theatmosphere and wreaking havoc on ecosystems.”18
6. Conclusion
Ijtihad relies on three fundamental principles whichindicate the flexibility of shari‘a’s laws in terms ofthe changes in the human societies. The concept ofhealth on which jurisprudents issue their fatwaschanged in the new world. In the past, this conceptrefereed to merely the absence of illness. However,
now, this concept includes physical, mental, andsocial well-being. Juridical authorities issue fatwas
about abortion based on the previous concept ofhealth. This fatwas ignore the fundamental
18“Does population growth impact climate change?”
Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com.

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)
principles of the ijtihad from which these fatwas
originated.

References

Ahmad,Ghabel. 2013.
jurisprudence, functions andcapabilities . SHariate Aqlani publisher, www. Ghabel.
Net.
J, Arousell, A. Carlbom. 2016. “Culture and religious
beliefs in relation to reproductive health.”Best practice& research clinical obstetrics and gynaecology. 32: 7787.
Balog, J. E. (1978). An historical review and philosophicalanalysis of alternative concepts of health and theirrelationship to health education (Unpublisheddissertation). Maryland: University of Maryland, p.
115.
Boruchovitch, E. Mednick, B. R. (2002). “The meaning ofhealth and illness: some considerations for healthpsychology.” Psico-USF. 7 (2): 175-183.
Macer, D.R.J., Bioethics is the Love of Life. Eubios Ethics
Institute, 1998.
Gilla K Shapiro, “Abortion law in Muslim-majority
countries: an overview of the Islamic discourse with
policy implications,” Health policy and planning, 2014:
29, 483-494.

The Ethical Dilemma of Human
Germline Editing-Carol Rizkalla
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin,
Ireland [Postal Address: 104 Panatella Rise NW,
Calgary, Alberta]
Email: rizkalla.carol@gmail.com

1. Introduction

Gene editing provides us with the ability to designand edit genomes of biological entities giving themnew properties. A new technology named the
CRISPR/Cas9 system allows for fast andinexpensive gene editing (1). A piece of RNA, called
guide RNA, contains a set of bases which arecomplementary to the target sequence on the DNA.
The Cas 9 enzyme will follow the guide and will
make a cut across both DNA strands. The affected
cell then recognizes the DNA damage and tries torepair it; this is the point where scientists can use
DNA repair methods to introduce a genetic
mutation (2).
Deliberately manipulating the human germline
for the avoidance of severe inherited diseases has
generally been viewed as acceptable, whereas for‘enhancement’ of human capabilities in some cases
it has been deemed ethical, but in others not. A
disease is any disturbance to the structure orfunction of the body. There are various types of
diseases, ranging from metabolic to inflammatory,
from neoplastic to degenerative, and of course,95

there are also genetic diseases (3). If there was a
way to prevent one of these diseases, should
further exploration be encouraged? Assuming asolution is found, would it be acceptable to use thetechnology for human enhancement? Or are theethical differences too great to overcome?
Should a temporary or permanent global ban
on human germline editing be introduced and, if so,on what basis? Is there an ethical difference
between using gene editing for the avoidance ofsevere inherited diseases or for ‘enhancement’ ofhuman capabilities? Since the genetic changes madein the DNA of gametes and embryos will impact andwill be inherited through the generations, a broad
range of discussions on the prospect of enforcing a
global ban due to the implications of thistechnology has begun (4).

2. Offside effects

Regarding the CRISPR/Cas9 technology, one of theconcerns that have developed is regarding its
accuracy. In theory, it will bind to the target
sequence and no other region. However, whenworking with enzymes that cleave the chains of
nucleotides, such as CRISPR/Cas9, there are offtarget effects towards other locations in the
genome that share similar arrangements with thedestination (5). Since the side effects will be anissue, there have been cultural strategies (6) andchemical molecules (7) that have been reported toincrease the efficiency of genome editing. Further
examination is required to test the possible
detrimental effects on cells or embryos exposed tosuch conditions.
However, in the meantime, bioinformatics hasdeveloped a predictive scoring system that
identifies determinants that influence Cas9
efficiency towards targets, which should improveoutcomes by decreasing the mosaicism rate (whenthe genetic makeup of some cells varies fromothers)(8).

3. Human embryos, a requirement forthe development of research in the field
The concern regarding the inability to predict theconsequences of such a procedure highlights theneed for more data on the safety of suchinterventions, and techniques that could increase
the efficiency (9). The preferred solution todiscarding affected embryos would be using nonviable embryos. These embryos may result from In
Vitro Fertilization, but consent from the donor
couple must first be obtained.

102

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)

The Scottish Government (2015) Should the use of wild
animals in travelling circuses be banned in Scotland?
Consultation
Analysis,
availableat
http://www.gov.scot/Resource/0048/00480385.pdf;
Veterinary Ireland, Veterinary Organisation’s Opinion on
the Needs of Wild Animals in Travelling Circuses, July
29,
2016,
availableat
http://www.veterinaryireland.ie/images/Veterinary_I
reland_Press_Release_on_Wild_Animals_in_Travelling_
Circuses_29th_July_2016.pdf
Wells D. L., Hepper P. G. (1997) Pet Ownership andAdults' Views on the Use of Animals, Society andAnimals, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 45-63;
Zanola R. (2007) Major influences on circus attendance,
Department of Public Policy and Public Choice – POLIS,
Working paper n. 99, October 2007, in "POLIS Working
Papers", Universita’ del Piemonte Orientale “Amedeo
Avogadro” Alessandria, Italy;
Zoocheck (eds.) (2016) Take action for elephants. A
resource guide, Zoocheck, Toronto, Canada;*** (2012) The Circus - A Nightmare For Animals,
Humane Review, Spring/Summer 2012.

For forthcoming conferences see:www.eubios.info or www.ausn.info
Email for information: darryl@eubios.info
Bioethics, Law, and Society: Joint AUSN,
Center for Ethics of Science andTechnology, and Eubios Ethics InstituteConference 24-26 June 2017 at theInternational Peace Park@kaeng Krachan,and Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok,
Thailand. Organizers: Center for Ethics of Scienceand Technology, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand,
American University of Sovereign Nations (AUSN),
USA, the International Peace and Development Ethics
Centre, and Eubios Ethics Institute.

Social Work, Human Security, Ethics andHuman Ability, 1 July 2017, UKM, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia. Organizers: UKM; American
University of Sovereign Nations (AUSN), USA, AsiaPacific Forum on Ethics.

Intensive courses on research ethics andbioethics in the Philippines:
Catanduanes State University, Virac, 6July 2017
Bicol University, Legapzi, 7-8 July 2017
University of San Jose-Recoletos, Cebu,
10-12 July
Visions of Social and Ethical Change in
ASEAN, and Beyond, 17 July 2017 (9:0017:00)
Chulalongkorn
University,

Bangkok, Thailand. Organizers: Center for Ethics
of Science and Technology, Chulalongkorn University,
Thailand, American University of Sovereign Nations(AUSN), USA, Youth's UNESCO Club, and Eubios
Ethics Institute.

Joint
AUSN-Bangladesh
SocietyofBioethics Intensive Bioethics Training
Course, 15-16 July 2017 in Dhaka,Bangladesh.
International
Bioethics
Roundtable:
Bioethics Across and Between Continents
and Peoples for the Betterment of All
AUSN, Arizona, USA, 2-5 September 2017
Eighteenth Asian Bioethics Conference:
The Future of Bioethics and Healthcare(ABC18), 25-28
October2017
inSeoul, Republic of Korea, followed by a Joint
AUSN-Gangneung-Wonju
National
University
Intensive
Bioethics
Workshop(ABA Satellite meeting) 29-30
October 2017 in Gangneung, Korea.
The Eleventh Kumamoto University
International
Bioethics
Roundtable: Philosophy and practice of
bioethics across and between cultures,
18-19
November
2017,
University, Japan.
Contact: Kimiko Tashima,ktashima@kumamoto-u.ac.jp

Kumamoto

EJAIB Editor: Darryl Macer
Associate Editor: Nader Ghotbi (Ritsumeikan Asia
Pacific University (APU), Japan)
Editorial Board: Akira Akabayashi (Japan), Sahin Aksoy(Turkey), Martha Marcela Rodriguez-Alanis (Mexico),Angeles Tan Alora (Philippines), Atsushi Asai (Japan),
Alireza Bagheri (Iran), Gerhold Becker (Germany),
Rhyddhi Chakraborty (India/UK), Shamima Lasker(Bangladesh), Minakshi Bhardwaj (UK), Christian Byk(IALES; France), Ken Daniels (New Zealand), Ole Doering(Germany), Amarbayasgalan Dorjderem (Mongolia),
Hasan Erbay (Turkey), Soraj Hongladarom (Thailand),Dena Hsin (Taiwan), Rihito Kimura (Japan), Abby
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Zealand), Pinit Ratanakul (Thailand), Qiu Ren Zong
(China), Hyakudai Sakamoto (Japan), Sang-yong Song
(Republic of Korea), Takao Takahashi (Japan), Noritoshi
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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)103

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Eds: Song Sang-yong, Koo Young-Mo & Darryl R.J. Macer
August 2003 ISBN 0-908897-19-7, 450pp.
Challenges for Bioethics from Asia Ed: Darryl R.J. Macer
November 2004 ISBN 0-908897-22-7 656 pp.
A Cross Cultural Introduction to Bioethics, Editor: Darryl Macer 2006, 300pp. (A4)
(Note 2nd edition published on iTunes Store as an iBook in 2015)
Bioethics in Iran, Editor: Alireza Bagheri, 2014. ISBN 978-0-908897-25-4 262 pp.
Bioscience Ethics Education Curriculum for Pre-Schoolers to Elementary Age Children,
Irina Pollard and Amara Zintgraff,. 2017 ISBN 978-0-908897-28-5, 60pp. (A4)
Getting Along: The Wild, Wacky World of Human Relationship, Laura R. Ramnarace 2017
ISBN 978-0-908897-29-2, 73pp. (A4)
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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 27 (May 2017)

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