The
GlobalSlavery
Index
2013

The
GlobalSlavery
Index
2013

Highlights of the Global Slavery Index
This is the first edition of the Global Slavery Index.
It is the first Index of its kind – providing an estimate, country by country,of the number of people living in modern slavery today.

29.8 million
A key finding from this Index is that there are an estimated…

The Global Slavery Index report is publishedby the Walk Free Foundation (“Walk Free”).
Walk Free is committed to ending all formsof modern slavery in this generation. Modern
slavery includes slavery, slavery-like practices(such as debt bondage, forced marriage and saleor exploitation of children), human trafficking
and forced labour, and other practices describedin key international treaties, voluntarily ratified
by nearly every country in the world.1

people in modern slavery globally

According to
the Index, theprevalence ofmodern slavery ishighest in…

Walk Free’s strategy includes mobilisinga global activist movement, generating thehighest quality research, enlisting business,and raising unprecedented levels of capital todrive change in those countries and industries
bearing the greatest responsibility for all
forms of modern slavery today. Walk Free wasfounded by Andrew and Nicola Forrest, global
philanthropists. More information on Walk Free
can be found at www.walkfreefoundation.org.
Information is a critical driver of change. Overtime, the Global Slavery Index report will fillgaps in information about the size and natureof the problem, risk factors, and the effectivenessof responses. The intention is to informand empower civil society groups working
on this issue, and to assist governments tostrengthen their efforts to eliminate all formsof modern slavery.

Mauritania
Haiti
Pakistan
India
Nepal
Moldova
Benin
Cote d’Ivoire
The Gambia
Gabon

However, when
considered inabsolute terms,
the countries
with the highest
numbers ofenslaved
people are…

2

India
China
Pakistan
Nigeria
Ethiopia
RussiaThailand
Democratic
Republic of Congo
MyanmarBangladesh

Taken together,
these ten countries
account for…

76%of the total estimateof 29.8 million
enslaved people.

About the Global Slavery Index report
This inaugural edition of the Global Slavery Index report:
1 Provides a ranking of 162 countries around the world, based on a combined measure of three factors:
	estimated prevalence of modern slavery by population, a measure of child marriage, and a measureof human trafficking in and out of a country.
2 	Identifies factors relevant to risk of slavery and provides a standardised measure of these factors that allows
comparison country by country.
3 	Examines the strength of government responses to modern slavery for the 20 countries at the top andbottom of the Index ranking.3 These studies describe the problem, government responses, and action needed.
The Index provides an estimated range of the number of people in modern slavery, for each of the 162 countries covered by the Index. The lower range of the estimate is 28.3 million
in modern slavery, and the upper range of the estimate is 31.3 million in modern slavery. The figure of 29.8 million is the mean of these estimates.
3
20 Country Studies, for the worst 10 and best 10 countries in the Index, are contained in this report. A supplementary set of further Country Studies can be found on the Index
website www.globalslaveryindex.org
2

Key definitions are located in: 1926 Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery; the 1957 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade andInstitutions and Practices Similar to Slavery; the ILO Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour; and the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
Persons, especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime.
11.

Terminology and abbreviations

Terminology and Abbreviations

2

Modern slavery includes slavery, slavery-like practices (such as debt bondage, forced marriage, and sale or
exploitation of children), human trafficking and forced labour.

Section 1: Overview and Methods
Index – Ranking of Countries by Prevalence of Populationin Modern Slavery
Constructing the Global Slavery Index

6
8

The Walk Free definition of modern slavery includes the definitions in the box below:

MODERN SLAVERY
Trafficking

Slavery1	Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or
receipt of persons.

The status or condition of a person over whom any or all of
the powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised.

2	By means of threat or use of force or other forms of
coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of theabuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of thegiving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve theconsent of a person having control over another person(these means are not required in the case of children).

Includes slavery-like practices: debt bondage, forced or servile
marriage, sale or exploitation of children (including in armed
conflict) and descent-based slavery.

3 With the intent of exploiting that person through:
Prostitution of others;
Sexual exploitation;
Forced labour;
Slavery (or similar practices);
Servitude; andRemoval of organs.

What is modern slavery?
Why a Global Slavery Index?
How is slavery defined in the Index?
How are the country rankings generated?
How is risk analysed?
What is in the country studies?

Section 2: Analysis of Prevalence, Risk and Responses
Regional Analysis of Prevalence and Risk

(The Slavery Convention (1926) and Supplementary Slavery
Convention (1956))

EuropeThe Americas
Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Russia and Eurasia
The Middle East and North Africa

Forced Labour
All work or service which is exacted from any person underthe menace of any penalty and for which the said person
has not offered himself voluntarily.

Responses
Responses – Worst 10 on Index(ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29))

(UN Trafficking Protocol, 2000)

2.

Abbreviation

Full title

Abolition of Forced Labour Convention

Convention Concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour(ILO No. 105)

CRC Optional Protocol on Children in Armed Conflict

Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of theChild on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict

CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of
the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution andChild Pornography

European Trafficking Convention

Council of Europe Convention on Action against
Trafficking in Human Beings

Forced Labour Convention

Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour(ILO No. 29)

Domestic Work Convention

Convention Concerning Decent Work for Domestic
Workers (ILO No. 189)

Slavery Convention

Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and Similar Institutions
and Practices Convention of 1926

Supplementary Slavery Convention

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery,
the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar
to Slavery of 1956

UN Trafficking Protocol

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
Persons, especially Women and Children, supplementing
the United Nations Convention against Transnational
Organized Crime

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention

Convention Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate
Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child
Labour (ILO No. 182)

Mauritania
Haiti
Pakistan
India
Nepal
Moldova
Benin
Cote d’Ivoire
The Gambia
Gabon

Responses – Best 10 on Index

Table ofcontents

Denmark
Finland
Luxembourg
NorwaySwedenSwitzerland
New ZealandUnited Kingdom
Ireland
Iceland

Correlation Trends
Modern slavery and corruption
Human development
GDP
Access to financial services

Section 3: Appendices
Appendix 1: Methodology
How is the Index Constructed?
a) Estimating the number of people in modern slaveryb) Data on level of human trafficking to and from a countryc) Data on child marriage in each country

WeightingNormalisation Process
How is the Ranking of Risk Constructed?
How were Country Responses Assessed?
Appendix 2: Data Tables

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10
11
11
12
12
15
16
19
21
23
25
27
29
30
32
36
39
43
50
54
59
62
65
69
72
75
79
82
85
88
91
94
98
101
104
104
105
106
107
109
110
110
110
113
113
114
114
114
115
118

3.

Section One

OVERVIEWAND
METHODS

4.

OVERVIEW and methods
This is the first year of the Global Slavery Index. A key finding from this inaugural Index is that there arean estimated 29.8 million people enslaved around the world.4

1. Country ranking by prevalence of population in modern slavery

2. Estimated number of population in modern slavery

The Global Slavery Index provides a ranking of 162 countries, reflecting a combined measure of three factors:
estimated prevalence of modern slavery by population, a measure of child marriage, and a measure of humantrafficking in and out of a country. The measure is heavily weighted to reflect the first factor, prevalence. A
number one ranking indicates a more severely concentrated modern slavery situation; 160 shows the least.
Detailed methodology is provided in Appendix 1.

The Global Slavery Index also provides insight into the estimated absolute numbers of people in modern
slavery, in 162 countries. When the estimated number of enslaved people is considered in absolute terms as asingle factor, the country ranking shifts considerably.

Mauritania, a West African nation with deeply entrenched hereditary slavery, is ranked number 1 in the Index.
This reflects the high prevalence of slavery in Mauritania – it is estimated that there are between 140,000 –
160,000 people enslaved in Mauritania, a country with a population of just 3.8 million. This ranking also
reflects high levels of child marriage, and to a lesser extent, human trafficking.
Haiti, a Caribbean nation plagued by conflict, natural disasterand with deeply entrenched practices of child slavery (the restavek
system), is second on the Index. This reflects high prevalenceof modern slavery – an estimated 200,000 – 220,000 people
are in modern slavery in Haiti, a country with a population ofjust 10.2 million. This ranking also reflects high levels of childmarriage, and human trafficking from Haiti itself.

Table 1: Countries with highest
prevalence of modern slavery
Country Name

1

Mauritania

2

Haiti

3

Pakistan

4

India

Pakistan, with its porous borders to Afghanistan, large
populations of displaced persons and weak rule of law, is third
on the Index. It is estimated that there are between 2,000,000 –
2,200,000 people in various forms of modern slavery in Pakistan,a country with a population of over 179 million.

5

Nepal

6

Moldova

7

Benin

8

Côte d’Ivoire

9

The Gambia

Iceland, Ireland and the United Kingdom are tied with aranking of 160 in the Index. This does not mean these countries
are slavery free. On the contrary, it is estimated that there are
between 4,200 – 4,600 people in modern slavery in the United
Kingdom alone. The estimated size of the problem in Irelandand Iceland is much smaller, with Ireland estimated to have 300– 340 people in modern slavery, and Iceland less than 100. An
analysis of the UK response on this issue confirms much more
can be done, as the Government response is fragmented anddisjointed, and that there have been alarming systemic failures,
including the loss of trafficked children from care.

10

Gabon

The country with the largest estimated number of people in modern slavery is India, which is estimated tohave between 13,300,000 and 14,700,000 people enslaved. The India country study suggests that while
this involves the exploitation of some foreign nationals, by far the largest proportion of this problem is the
exploitation of Indians citizens within India itself, particularly through debt bondage and bonded labour.
The country with the second highest absolute numbers of enslaved is China, with an estimated 2,800,000
to 3,100,000 in modern slavery. The China country study5 suggests that this includes the forced labour ofmen, women and children in many parts of the economy, including domestic servitude and forced begging,
the sexual exploitation of women and children, and forced marriage.
The country with the third highest absolute number in modern slavery is Pakistan, with an estimated2,000,000 to 2,200,000 people in modern slavery.

Table 3: Ten countries with highest estimated number of population in modern slavery
Country Name

Table 2: Countries with lowest
prevalence of modern slavery
Rank

Country Name

150

Denmark

150

Finland150

Luxembourg

150

Norway150

Sweden150

Switzerland

159

New Zealand160

United Kingdom

160

Ireland160

IcelandThe Index provides an estimated range of the number of enslaved for every country measured. The low range of the estimate for those enslaved globally is 28.3 million and thehigh estimate is 31.3 million. The figure 29.8 million is the median of these estimates.
4

6.

Rank

The countries with the highest numbers of enslaved people are India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Ethiopia,
Russia, Thailand, Democratic Republic of Congo, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Taken together, thesecountries account for 76% of the total estimate of 29.8 million in modern slavery.

5
6

Population6

Estimate of populationin modern slavery

Lower rangeof estimate

Upper rangeof estimate

India

1,236,686,732

13,956,010

13,300,000

14,700,000

China

1,350,695,000

2,949,243

2,800,000

3,100,000

Pakistan

179,160,111

2,127,132

2,000,000

2,200,000

Nigeria

168,833,776

701,032

670,000

740,000

Ethiopia

91,728,849

651,110620,000

680,000

Russia143,533,000

516,217490,000

540,000

Thailand

66,785,001

472,811450,000

500,000

Democratic Republic of the Congo

65,705,093

462,327

440,000

490,000

Myanmar52,797,319

384,037

360,000

400,000

Bangladesh

154,695,368

343,192

330,000

360,000

Available on the website: www.globalslaveryindex.org
All data from World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indcator/SP.POP.TOTL/Countries?display=default

7.

O V E R V I E W A N D M E TH O D S con t i n u ed

Index – ranking of countries
by prevalence of population in modern slavery

Country Name

The Global Slavery Index presents a ranking of 162 countries, based on a combination of three factors:
estimated prevalence of modern slavery by population, levels of child marriage, and levels of human trafficking
into and out of the country. This gives the “weighted measure.”
Not all the countries in the world are represented in the Global Slavery Index. The 162 countries that areincluded, however, represent nearly all of the world’s 7 billion people. These countries collect a sufficientamount of standardised data to allow comparison across countries and regions. While equally as important,those countries that have not been included are for the most part, those having fewer than 100,000 citizens.7
Country Name

Ranking

Weighted
MeasureCountry Name

Ranking

Weighted
MeasureMauritania

1

97.90

Mali

35

20.07

Haiti

2

52.26

Equatorial Guinea

35

20.07

Pakistan3

32.11

Cambodia

38

19.99

India

4

30.84

Botswana

39

19.92

Nepal

5

26.56

Zambia40

19.83

Moldova

6

25.68

Burundi

41

19.64

Benin

7

23.57

Myanmar42

19.63

Côte d’Ivoire

8

23.35

Rwanda43

19.62

Gambia9

23.20

Lesotho

44

19.34

Gabon

10

23.03

Zimbabwe

45

19.33

Senegal11

22.31

Namibia46

18.89

Ethiopia

12

22.06

Uzbekistan

47

15.67

Sierra Leone

13

21.82

Nigeria

48

13.99

Togo

14

21.53

Russia49

12.43

Cape Verde

15

21.31

Georgia50

11.56

Eritrea15

21.31

Albania51

11.07

Guinea17

21.26

Azerbaijan

51

11.07

Ghana

18

21.04

Montenegro

53

10.94

Republic of the Congo

19

21.01

Czech Republic

54

10.82

Guinea-Bissau

20

20.87

Hungary54

10.82

Cameroon

20

20.87

Bulgaria

56

10.80

Sudan

22

20.86

Armenia57

10.57

Democratic Republic of the Congo

23

20.80

Afghanistan

58

10.50

Thailand

24

20.78

Bosnia and Herzegovina

59

10.45

Uganda25

20.73

Serbia59

10.45

Burkina Faso

26

20.65

Croatia

61

10.32

Somalia27

20.64

Poland

61

10.32

Niger

28

20.50

Slovakia

61

10.32

Tanzania

29

20.47

Vietnam

64

10.18

Laos

30

20.38

Peru

65

10.04

Central African Republic

31

20.36

Djibouti

66

10.00

Liberia32

20.32

Slovenia

67

9.83

Malawi33

20.20

Suriname

68

9.79

Chad

34

20.19

Ecuador69

9.78

Mozambique

35

20.07

Tajikistan

70

9.59

For some more populous countries, such as Kosovo, Cyprus and Taiwan, slavery has not been estimated because the information needed for global comparisons requires that it
be collected uniformly across all countries. For various reasons there is insufficient comparable information available for these countries at the time of conducting secondary source
analysis. We hope to include these countries within the Index as soon as such information can be obtained.

Ranking

Weighted
MeasureCountry Name

Ranking

Weighted
MeasureBangladesh

71

9.54

Belarus117

4.82

Uruguay72

9.51

Sri Lanka

118

4.81

Colombia73

9.50

Lebanon119

4.72

Paraguay74

9.49

Timor-Leste

120

4.56

Venezuela

75

9.34

Malaysia

121

4.48

Bolivia76

9.30

Argentina

122

4.35

Guyana77

9.29

Tunisia

122

4.35

Libya

78

9.11

Jamaica124

4.03

Dominican Republic

79

9.01

Romania125

4.00

Macedonia

80

8.94

Swaziland

126

3.95

Kyrgyzstan

81

8.73

Brunei

127

3.72

Saudi Arabia

82

8.73

Lithuania

128

3.63

Turkmenistan

83

8.67

Estonia

129

3.47

China

84

8.59

Japan

130

3.31

Kazakhstan

85

8.51

Latvia131

3.21

Ukraine

86

8.42

Italy

132

3.12

Jordan87

7.87

Trinidad and Tobago

133

2.81

United Arab Emirates

88

7.74

United States

134

2.77

Chile

89

7.44

Barbados

135

2.70

Turkey90

7.40

Germany136

2.63

Algeria91

7.29

South Korea

137

2.32

Yemen

92

7.28

Australia

138

2.15

Morocco93

7.23

France139

2.13

Brazil94

7.16

Netherlands

139

2.13

El Salvador

95

7.12

Hong Kong, SAR China

141

1.84

Bahrain

96

6.75

Singapore

142

1.82

Qatar

96

6.75

Mauritius

143

1.81

Philippines

98

6.73

Canada

144

1.73

Oman

99

6.66

Panama145

1.67

Kuwait100

6.63

Costa Rica

146

1.66

Guatemala

101

5.75

Portugal

147

1.64

Kenya

102

5.72

Spain

147

1.64

Iran

103

5.70

Cuba

149

1.28

Iraq

104

5.61

Austria

150

1.14

Syria

105

5.59

Belgium

150

1.14

Papua New Guinea

106

5.58

Greece150

1.14

Mexico107

5.57

Denmark150

1.14

Nicaragua

108

5.47

Finland150

1.14

Mongolia

109

5.45

Luxembourg

150

1.14

Honduras

110

5.42

Norway150

1.14Israel111

5.23

Sweden150

1.14Madagascar

112

5.22

Switzerland

150

1.14

Egypt

113

5.09

New Zealand

159

1.10

Indonesia

114

5.08

United Kingdom

160

1.00

South Africa

115

4.99

Ireland160

1.00

Angola116

4.84

Iceland

160

1.00

7

8.

9.

O V E R V I E W A N D M E TH O D S con t i n u ed

Constructing the Global Slavery Index
What is modern slavery?
In 2013, modern slavery takes many forms, and is known by many names. Whether it is called humantrafficking, forced labour, slavery or slavery-like practices (a category that includes debt bondage, forced orservile marriage, sale or exploitation of children including in armed conflict) victims of modern slavery havetheir freedom denied, and are used and controlled and exploited by another person for profit, sex, or the thrillof domination.
Today some people are still being born into hereditary slavery, a staggering but harsh reality, particularly inparts of West Africa and South Asia.8 Other victims are captured or kidnapped before being sold or kept for
exploitation, whether through ‘marriage’, unpaid labour on fishing boats, or as domestic workers.9 Others
are tricked and lured into situations they cannot escape, with false promises of a good job or an education.
Modern slavery can involve using children in the military, whether as combatants, porters, cooks or for otherjobs.10 The chains of modern slavery are not always physical – sometimes escalating debts, intimidation,
deception, isolation, fear or even a ‘marriage’ that is forced on a young woman or girl without her consent
can be used to hold a person against their will without the need for locks or chains.
Modern slavery is poorly understood, so it remains hidden within houses, communities and worksites.
Criminals are creative and will use any available means to conceal, rationalise, and justify slavery – be it race,
ethnicity, religion, gender, caste, ‘custom’ or any other excuse or vulnerability they can exploit. Modern
slavery is not always as self-evident as some other crimes, such as homicide or even theft. Modern slavery
involves an extreme abuse of power, which is not always immediately apparent but requires understanding
the people and the relationships involved.
While most forms of modern slavery are illegal all over the world, existing information suggests these laws
are rarely used and enforced. The 2013 US Trafficking in Persons Report notes that while 46,570 victimsof human trafficking were officially identified in 2012, there were only 7,705 prosecutions, and 4,750
convictions recorded globally.11
The reality of modern slavery is millions of people who cannot walk away, who are trapped and denied
freedom and lives of dignity, and bound only to serve and profit the criminals that control them.

Why a Global Slavery Index?
Modern slavery is a global issue. Some countries have a bigger problem than others but the crime affects allof us. Human trafficking reaches across borders, and the products of modern slavery flow into global supply
chains, into local shops, and ultimately into our homes. Many of the problems that help modern slavery toflourish are also global: corruption, conflict, poverty, discrimination and the impact of poor or declining
economic conditions and adverse environmental change.
Nearly every country in the world has committed to prevent and eradicate modern forms of slavery –whether through their national policies and laws, or their agreement to international conventions.12 Whileindividuals, civil society organisations, trade unions and businesses all have a role to play, the role ofgovernments in addressing this human rights violation is paramount. Only governments can enact and enforce
criminal and other relevant laws. Only governments can ensure that victims are treated as such and not ascriminals. Only governments can allocate national budgets to fund law enforcement and other responses.
Efforts are being made to understand the size of modern slavery globally,13 and a handful of countries haveundertaken national or representative surveys to more accurately estimate the size of the problem in theirSee for example, “Slavery in Mauritania”, Anti-Slavery International: http://www.antislavery.org/english/slavery_today/descent_based_slavery/slavery_in_mauritania.aspx
See for example, “Sold to the Sea: Human Trafficking in Thailand’s Fishing Industry”, Environmental Justice Foundation: http://ejfoundation.org/soldtotheseafilm.
10
See for example, “Lord’s Resistance Army and the Central African Region”, (15 May 2013) Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed
Conflict: http://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/lords-resistance-army-and-the-central-african-region/
11“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, US Department of State: p46: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210737.pdf
1297 countries, or 49.7% of members of the United Nations, are party to the 1926 Slavery Convention; 23 countries, or 63.7% of members of the United Nations, are party to the1957 Supplementary Slavery Convention; 176 countries, or 91.1% of members of the United Nations, are party to the Forced Labour Convention.; 154 countries, or 79.7% ofmembers of the United Nations, are party to the UN Trafficking Protocol.
13
See for example, “ILO Global Estimate of Forced Labour: Results and Methodology”, (2012), International Labour Organisation, and, Kevin Bales, “The Social Psychologyof Modern Slavery” (2004), Scientific American Journal: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-social-psychology-of
8

9

10.

countries.14 However, to truly understand and effectively respond to modern slavery, we need more reliable
information on this issue generated more often.
The Global Slavery Index aims to be a tool that citizens, civil society groups, public authorities, and theirpartners can use to understand the size of the issue and assess progress in the eradication of all forms ofmodern slavery. The Index will help countries and citizens to understand their strengths and challenges inaddressing modern slavery, and to build sound policies on that knowledge.

How is slavery defined in the Index?
The Index is intended to provide information about all modern forms of slavery. Internationally, there areseveral existing legal definitions relevant to modern slavery, including the international treaty definitions ofslavery, slavery-like practices, human trafficking and forced labour.15
While very important, the existing legal definitions are complex. Also, there are several of them, and there
are continuing debates about how the different definitions overlap or should be reconciled. Countries apply
them differently. Accordingly, given the Index is a tool designed for measurement and policy development,
the Index uses an operational definition of slavery, one that is informed by the legal definitions but primarily
focuses on the key defining features of modern slavery.
The operational definition used in the Index is as follows:

Slavery is the possession and control of a person in such a way as to significantly deprivethat person of his or her individual liberty, with the intent of exploiting that person throughtheir use, management, profit, transfer or disposal. Usually this exercise will be achieved
through means such as violence or threats of violence, deception and/or coercion.
This central feature – the control of one person by another, depriving them of their freedom for the purposesof exploitation – is common to all forms of modern slavery – whether these practices are, either in law orcommon conversation, called servitude, slavery, forced marriage, bonded labour, debt bondage, forced
labour, or human trafficking.
The Global Slavery Index seeks to cover all forms of modern slavery. It also aims to illuminate the different
ways that people are moved into modern slavery: fraud and deception, abduction in conflict, false recruitment
practices, the application of ‘customary laws’ that sanction forced marriages, and any other way that criminals
devise to enslave people.

How are the country rankings generated?
The rankings are generated using three variables in the Global Slavery Index:
A composite estimate of the number of people in slavery in each country.
An estimate of the level of human trafficking from and into each country.
An estimate of the level of child and early marriage in each country.16
For the ranking of countries by percentage of population in modern slavery, the greatest emphasis is given
to the estimated percentage of people living in modern slavery in each country (95% weighting).
Modern slavery is a crime that is especially difficult to measure. When a person is enslaved, they are notnormally available to be found and counted, and criminals wish to keep it that way. We have used a mix ofmethods to estimate the extent of modern slavery in the 162 countries covered in the Global Slavery Index,
but we are very much aware that of all the factors and activities counted in this Index, the estimate of slavery
prevalence is our weakest, most approximate, measure.
See for example, “Statistical Review 1: Moldova: Migration and Trafficking Survey” (2012), International Labour Organisation: http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/published_docs/books/data_res_human.pdf; “Bureau International du Travail, Enquête National sur le Travail des Enfants au Niger” (2009)
Volet: Travail forcé des adulated et des enfants, INS Niger (October 2011); and “The Cross-National Market in Human Beings” (2009), Julia R. Pennington, A. Dwayne Ball,
Ronald D. Hampton and Julia N. Soulakova, ‘29 Journal of Macromarketing 119.
15
Key definitions are located in: the Slavery Convention, the Supplementary Slavery Convention; the Forced Labour Convention and the UN Trafficking Protocol.
16
For details on all variables see Appendix 1.
14

11.

O V E R V I E W A N D M E TH O D S con t i n u ed

While we believe we have overcome some obstacles to the estimation of modern slavery, many remain. For
that reason we welcome any efforts that will improve the estimation of the extent of modern slavery. Our data
are available to any researcher for examination or analysis, and we are keen to learn from and work with any
person or government seeking to expose the true prevalence of this crime. The estimation of the prevalenceof modern slavery is not a static measure. Our aim is year-on-year improvement in our slavery estimate,including through the expansion of representative random-sample surveys. The first set of these surveys
are planned for 2013-2014.
Further detail on the choice of variables, and data sources, is provided in Appendix 1.

How is risk analysed?
For most people the risk of being enslaved is very small, but for a significant number of people around theworld that risk can be dangerously high. The variation in the amount of modern slavery across countries
suggests that risk also varies in meaningful ways.
Exploring the risk of enslavement is a new area of research. As a hidden and diverse crime the factors that
affect the risk of enslavement are still coming to be understood. The Global Slavery Index report explores risk
country by country in order to suggest how the risk of enslavement might be reduced and where effective
prevention might take place.
To understand the variation in the risk of enslavement, the report draws together factors that are significantly
related to this crime. Some of these factors help create a context of vulnerability, others reflect the presence orabsence of the rule of law, and others point to the impact of discrimination and exclusion. In this first editionof the report, 33 variables are used to explore how the risk of enslavement varies from country to country.
These variables are grouped into five dimensions:
Anti-Slavery Policies
Human Rights
Economic and Social Development
State Stability
Women’s Rights and Discrimination

give context to the numbers but also to better understand whether national responses are complete andeffective. Who is affected by modern slavery in these countries and how? Are there nationally or locallyspecific types of enslavement? What national responses are in place and are these having the intended effect?
How could they be improved?
Criminal justice responses are clearly at the heart of any response to modern slavery. However, other key
considerations include government coordination, budget allocation and accountability, victim support
services, and responses to clearly identified, vulnerable sectors (whether migrant workers or workers in
the informal economy).
The country studies in this report provide a short, succinct description and analysis of key aspects of thenational responses to modern slavery, for a selection of countries covered by this Index (key indicators are in
Appendix 1 at page 116-117). In this first year of the Index, it was not possible to cover all 162 countries in
the country studies. Consequently, a decision was made to focus on countries at the more extreme end of theslavery spectrum. Accordingly, the countries included are: he worst countries in the Index (Mauritania, Haiti, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Moldova, Benin,
T
Cote d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Gabon; included in the body of this report);
 he best countries in the Index (Iceland, Ireland, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Switzerland, Sweden,
T
Norway, Luxembourg, Finland, Denmark; included in the body of this report);
 he ten countries with the highest estimated absolute numbers in modern slavery (India, China, Pakistan,T
Nigeria, Ethiopia, Russia, Thailand, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Myanmar and Bangladesh; on thewebsite www.globalslaveryindex.org); and selection of other major countries of particular interest, either because they are major sending, transit orA
destination countries (e.g.: Yemen and the United States), or their response is emerging to be particularly
innovative (e.g.: Brazil and Philippines; on the website).
More detailed information on the methodology for the country studies is in Appendix 1.
In future editions of the report we plan to expand the country studies to all countries covered by the Index,
so as to provide a robust comparable assessment of responses.

A full list of the individual variables, with information about their origin and method of measurement,
is given in Appendix 1.
We are aware that other critical factors, such as different forms of discrimination – whether of certain ethnic
minorities, groups of stateless people, or on the basis of perceived national, racial, or religious differences– contribute to the risk of enslavement that we are not, at this time, able to measure for all countries.
We know that some factors, such as caste and tribal systems, are unique to certain regions, cultures orcountries. Some of those influences will be named and explored in the in-depth discussion of regions andcountries that follows. At the same time, one aim of the report is to present information about the risk ofenslavement in ways that can be compared across countries and regions, and be understood as a global crime.
The measurement of the risk of enslavement in this Index report refers primarily to policies and conditions
within a country. At present, the Index does not account for the reality that, for example, the risk of a Japanesecitizen being enslaved in Japan might be very low, whereas the risk of a Philippine or Thai citizen being
enslaved in Japan might be much higher, due in part to policies and conditions that apply both within Japan,
or within the Philippines or Thailand. The same point applies to most of the wealthier countries of North
America and Western Europe. When it comes to human trafficking across borders, this measurement of risk
must be understood within the webs and networks that tie together the origin, transit, and destination countries.

What is in the country studies?
The country studies in this report describe the nature of the problem in each country, and some of
the components of the national response to modern slavery. The primary purpose of this examination is to
12.

13.

Section Two

ANALYSIS OF
Prevalence,
RISK ANDRESPONSEINDEX RANKING
BEST

WORST

The best countries have a lower prevalence ofmodern slavery while the worst countries havea higher prevalence of modern slavery.
Grey indicates countries not included in this study.

Regional analysis of Prevalence and risk

16.

The following tables and charts present the Index ranking and the risk of enslavement by region and country.
The ranking is shown on the maps in the colour shading of each country and the accompanying tables givethe rank of each country, by region and globally. In these tables a lower number in the ranking denotes amore severe modern slavery situation, so the country with the highest levels of modern slavery in a region
will be ranked number 1 in that region.

1
2
3
4
5

The risk of enslavement is also shown in two ways. On the maps each country has a risk graphic, shown
as a circle divided into five parts. These five parts represent the score for that country on each of the fivedimensions used to measure risk. These five dimensions are:Thirty-three variables are used to measure and compute these five dimensions. More detail on each of thesevariables is found in Appendix 1. The regional tables also include an overall risk score for each country, whichis the mean of the five dimensions of risk. Data on the variables for each country can be found in Appendix 2.

The extent of the policies adopted by that country to fight modern slavery;
The extent of the guarantees of human rights that are given to the citizens of that country;
The level of the human and economic development of that country;
The stability or instability of that country, reflecting such factors as unrest or high levels of corruption; andThe level of discrimination faced by women in that country.

17.

ICELANDESTONIA

4.4

12.7

39.9

16.3

14.5 11.2

47

1

IRELAND

UNITED
KINGDOM

10.5

16.8

18.3

22.2 17.9 17.8

15.1

20.5

17.3 18.2
20.3

NETHERLANDS
18.3

2

6.7

4.5

39.9

12.7

SLOVAKIA

35.6

22.9

21.6

24.4

10.2 9.3
4.5

31.3 28.5
36.4

25.6 40.8
15.1

2.5

34.2

24.7

HUNGARYSERBIA

22.9

36.7 35.9

28.3

34.9 22.3
61.1

36.8 52.2
22.2

40

37.1

3.8

GERMANY

19.4

31.5
11.6

9.8

8.1

13.8

15.3
4.6

6.4

24.7

25.7
42.4

25.1

51

1

40.90

Montenegro

53

2

36.41

Czech Republic

54

3

22.09

Hungary

54

3

34.90

Bulgaria

56

5

30.52

Bosnia and Herzegovina

59

6

45.09

22.2 30.5 49.5

Serbia

59

6

36.83

15.5

Croatia

61

8

34.30

Poland

61

8

25.70

Slovakia

61

8

25.58

Slovenia

67

11

16.32

Macedonia

80

12

38.67

Turkey

90

13

48.54

Romania

125

14

35.96

Lithuania

128

15

31.27

Estonia

129

16

27.77

Latvia

131

17

36.93

Italy

132

18

28.47

Germany

136

19

15.27

France

139

20

21.00

Netherlands

139

20

11.09

Portugal

147

22

21.38

Spain

147

22

21.24

Austria

150

24

7.74

Belgium

150

24

12.48

Denmark

150

24

12.68

Finland

150

24

10.13

Greece

150

24

34.23

Luxembourg

150

24

16.91
10.15

36 42.8

BULGARIA

14.9

34.7 30.7

20.9

21

18.7

Albania

35

28

FRANCE

17.6

Mean18

22.2

30.2

21.1

19.2

TURKEY
SPAIN

70.3

20.3 20.4
22.2

21.2

43.4

37.3

48.5 45.2
46.4

22.5

20.8

13.9 25.3

8.8

21.4 17.9

32.8

25.8

15.1

17.6

11.5

20.5
8.1

20

24

PORTUGAL SWITZERLAND

21.1

22.1

25.1

3
4.5

7.7

6.9

15.3

8.1

2.7

35.7

CZECH
REPUBLIC

13.2

22.1

16.3

15.6

29

AUSTRIASLOVENIA
30.7
29.3

21.5

28.5 39
21.9

ITALY

39.7
39.9

28.4

34.3 32.5
31

CROATIA

56.3
39.9

36.8

45.1 48.4
44.1

BOSNIA &HERZEGOVINA
33.4

MEAN SLAVERY RISK SCORE
BEST

WORST

Countries shown in grey were not includedin this study or are not part of this region.

31.9

34.8

37.1

34

25.4

The relationship between risk and prevalence is not always clear. For example, Turkey has the highest averagerisk within the European grouping but not the highest prevalence ranking.
Regional Rank

51.8

23.3

Estimates of the prevalence of trafficking and slavery, based on random sample surveys, exist for two countries
in Europe, Bulgaria and Romania. These estimates suggest tens of thousands of victims exist in this region
rather than the low thousands of cases that are reported to governments.17

Overall Rank

ROMANIAPOLAND12.5 15.3

16.9

LITHUANIA1

LUXEMBOURG
36.4

3.4

14.9

19.4

14.4

44.4

10.1 9.5

8.1

36.9 33.6

16.8

BELGIUM
3.7

39.9

21.6

DENMARK

14.7

11.1 14.7

1

8.1

NORWAY
19.5

40.6 26.2

FINLAND

11

1.8

15.9

The countries of Western Europe have the lowest overall risk of enslavement by region, reflecting low levelsof corruption, the lowest levels of measured discrimination against women, a strong respect for humanrights, and effective and comprehensive anti-slavery laws (in some countries). Given their equally efficient law
enforcement and relatively well-funded governments, the disappointment is that some countries in Western
Europe fail to bring sufficient resources to bear on human trafficking and slavery. Many of these countries
could, with sufficient political will, be slavery-free.

LATVIA

16.8

7.8

1

It is estimated that 1.82% of the estimated total 29.8 million people in modern slavery are in Europe.

27.8 25.7
32.9

SWEDEN
8.3

Europe20.5

32.6 33.5

EUROPE Country Name

36.4 44.9
32.8

40.9 57.1
32.8

34.2 43.9
36.4

38.7 55.5
32.8

Norway

150

24

39

42.7

31.5

38.9

Sweden

150

24

7.80

MONTENEGROALBANIAGREECE

MACEDONIA

Switzerland

150

24

17.63

Iceland

160

33

14.55

Mean Risk Score

Ireland

160

33

17.87

Human Rights

United Kingdom

160

33

17.29

30.7

21.5

Development Rights

Slavery Policy 29.3 28.5 39 State Stability
21.9

Discrimination

17“The Cross-National Market in Human Beings,” (June 2009) Pennington, Ball, Hampton, and Soulakova, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 119-134:
http://jmk.sagepub.com/content/29/2/119.full.pdf.
18This is the mean of the five separate risk categories: slavery policy risk, human rights risk, development rights risk, state stability risk and discrimination risk.

19.

The Americas
CANADA

It is estimated that 3.78% of the estimated total 29.8 million people in modern slavery are in the Americas.

2.5

The relative wealth of Canada and the United States, their demand for cheap labour and relatively porous
land borders, makes them prime destinations for human trafficking, as reflected in the underlying prevalence
estimates. However, both countries score very low on overall risk, reflecting in large part very strong measureson slavery policy.

16.4

10.7 10.9

4.5

19.1

Aside from the United States and Canada, Nicaragua, Argentina and Brazil have the lowest (best) rankings onslavery policy, and Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Cuba have the highest (worst) rankings on this sub-issue.
The countries of the Caribbean basin show a lower level of risk of enslavement and other violations of rights thanmost Latin American countries. Haiti, however, is a special case within the region, with the highest average riskin the regional grouping. The long history of poor government, a strong legacy of slavery and exploitation,
and an ongoing environmental crisis has pushed its population into extreme vulnerability to enslavement.

UNITED STATES
10.8
8.1

15.6

18.1 26.9
29.4

CUBA

29.8 48.3

88.1 49.2
78.8

MEXICO
51.6
36
39.9

43.4

46.3

48.5
60.4

55.7

32.8

44.7

44

49.9 80.1

56.9

61.1

51.8

17.5

DOMINICAN
REPUBLIC

HAITI

JAMAICA

66.1

36.9 39.9

65.2

43.4

74.1

46.9
53.2

61.2

TRINIDADAND TOBAGOBARBADOS
15.6 36.7
71.7

36.8

27.4

25.9

34

29.3

38.6

47.6 61.2

39

43.1

59.9

67.7

53.8 50.2

61.1

51

SURINAME
30.6 49.4

43.4 66.3

VENEZUELA

54.1

COLOMBIA

EL SALVADOR
47

The Americas Country Name

GUYANA

43

52.9

43.7

36.5

GUATEMALA
24.2

31.4

42.1

71.7

Mexico is a critical transit country for South and Central Americans seeking to enter the United States,
one result of this is a highly developed criminal economy that preys on economic migrants, trafficking
and enslaving them.

56.4 36.9

57.2

60.9 63.8

58.9 76.3

15.1

49.8 61.5

14.9
57.6

36.2

39.9

32.9 32.5

61.3

47.6

23.1

HONDURASNICARAGUACOSTA RICA

51.7

65

82
32.8

50.5

40.5

53.7

57.6 43.7 55.7

45.6

39.9

46.1

53.9

48.7

50.5

43.9

ECUADOR

49.8
49.7

MEAN SLAVERY RISK SCORE

36.4

27.6

29.5
46.2

BEST

WORST

24.5

25.8

32.3
22.3

53.4

69

4

45.34

Uruguay

72

5

32.18
51.72
46.77

57.9

Venezuela

75

8

53.66

Bolivia

76

9

49.83

Guyana

77

10

53.80

Dominican Republic

79

11

46.94

Chile

89

12

29.48

94

13

38.63

95

14

43.37

27.7

Guatemala

101

15

48.49

Mexico

107

16

47.60

Nicaragua

108

17

49.81

Honduras

110

18

58.94

Argentina

122

19

32.34

Jamaica

124

20

43.91

Trinidad and Tobago

133

21

42.14

United States

134

22

18.12

Barbados

135

23

36.77

Canada

144

24

10.69

URUGUAY

Panama

145

25

43.65

13.9

Costa Rica

146

26

32.85

Cuba

149

27

55.68

34.7

38.6

56.7

PARAGUAY

29.4 30.9

44.94

EcuadorEl Salvador

39.9

12.7

3

7

61.4

ARGENTINA

68

Brazil

32.1

CHILE

45.65

Suriname

634.8 52.7

43.4 45.3 53

66.08

2

74

48.4

BOLIVIA

37.6

1

65

BRAZIL
25.8

PANAMA

2

Peru

73

72.7

48.2

Haiti

Paraguay

40.2

38.9

Mean19Colombia

PERU
47.3

Regional Rank

44.9 36.3

60.4

28.2 30.6

Overall Rank

39.9

42

46.8
57.5

62.3

28.4

32.2
51.6

27

Countries shown in grey were not includedin this study or are not part of this region.
Mean Risk Score
Human Rights

30.7

Slavery Policy

28.5 39
29.3

21.5

Development Rights
State Stability

21.9

Discrimination

19

This is the mean of the five separate risk categories: slavery policy risk, human rights risk, development rights risk, state stability risk, and discrimination risk.

21.

Asia
NEPAL
67.3

BANGLADESH
60.3

65.3

58.8 58.9

61.1

71.7

It is estimated that 72.14% of the estimated total 29.8 million people in modern slavery are in Asia.

65.2

SOUTH KOREA

59.5 59.7

22.4

40.7

41.3

The region holds a number of countries with relatively low prevalence and risk of enslavement (suchas Australia and New Zealand), and some countries where the prevalence and risk of enslavement are high(such as Pakistan, India and Thailand).

24.9

20.9 20.6

18.7

18

MONGOLIA
AFGHANISTAN
86

93

89.4

79.2 79.5
48.1

PAKISTAN
71.9
78.8

32.1

60

41.1

12.6

46 44.1

68.2

16.1

29.5 12.2
61.1

44.3

63.7 68.9

India is the site of far more modern slavery than any other country. However, the risk of enslavement varies
across the country. Many Indian states are as populous as entire countries and have significantly different
cultural and economic profiles. The states of Uttar Pradesh (44 million people) and Bihar (83 million people),for example, are both known to have high levels of hereditary forms of debt bondage in rural areas, as well as
trafficking of persons to and between other Indian states.

JAPAN

45.7

LAOS

39

93.5

CHINA
91.1
64.6

54

44.5

42

The correlation between prevalence and risk is not always clear. For example, India has a high estimatedprevalence but a medium estimated risk, pointing to possible limitations in the capacity of existing data to
fully capture the complexity of the risk factors present in India, such as historical practices of debt bondage
and the ongoing impact of discrimination and the caste and tribal system.

62.1

61

51.1

HONG KONG,SAR CHINA

59.9 48.8
5310

There is wide variation in the implementation of anti-slavery law and policy across the Asia region. Australia
has a strong legal and policy response, and the Philippines continues to innovate, including through ratifying
the Domestic Work Convention. Some countries, such as Myanmar, have well drafted laws so the challenge
relates to implementation. Other countries, such as Papua-New Guinea, Japan and China, have enacted few
anti-slavery laws or policies.

18.4

32.4
64.6

10.7

58.2

INDIA
51.2
71.7

90.7

50.3

54.4 57.1

VIETNAM

Asia Country Name

74.6
71.7

75.3

69

MYANMAR54

36.4

49.7 45.1
47.2

THAILAND
75.8
61.1

43.6

57.3 58.6

80

32.6

71.7

54.8 37.4

61.2
18.7

19.6

34

27.7

85.9
36.4

3

1

63.71

4

2

54.42

45.5

Nepal

5

3

58.78

Thailand

24

4

49.71

Laos

30

5

61.04

43.4 60.5
36.4

Cambodia

38

6

62.68

38.7

Myanmar

42

7

76.08

PHILIPPINES

Afghanistan

58

8

79.23

Vietnam

64

9

53.02

Bangladesh

71

10

59.52

China

84

11

52.4

42.9

50.5

59.90

Philippines

98

12

MALAYSIASINGAPORE

BRUNEI

43.42

Papua New Guinea

106

13

65.64

Mongolia

109

14

45.96

Indonesia

114

15

48.69

Sri Lanka

118

16

57.31

Timor-Leste

120

17

51.25

Malaysia

121

18

54.82

Brunei

127

19

48.95

Japan

130

20

29.54

South Korea

137

21

20.93

Australia

138

22

10.18

Hong Kong, SAR China

141

23

32.39

Singapore

142

24

34.02

New Zealand

159

25

11.22

PAPUA
NEW GUINEASRI LANKA
39.9

49.7

48.7 51.9

66.3

78.2

47.5

59.8

48.2

65.6 49.5
89.4

48.9 27.7

26.2
64.6

61.7

51.2 52.2

42.3

51.5

INDONESIA

TIMOR-LESTE

10

16.6

4.5

10.2 13.4
6.4

AUSTRALIANEW ZEALAND
9.3
11.6

17.3

11.2

6.8

11.1

MEAN SLAVERY RISK SCOREBEST

Mean20

India

44.7

44.3

Regional Rank

Pakistan

56.2

33.3

83.5

Overall Rank

62.7 65.3

CAMBODIA

76.1 63.9

65.9

49

43.6

41.8

88.8

42

53

39.9

WORST

Countries shown in grey were not includedin this study or are not part of this region.
Mean Risk Score
Human Rights

30.7

Slavery Policy

28.5 39
29.3

21.5

Development Rights
State Stability

21.9

Discrimination

20

This is the mean of the five separate risk categories: slavery policy risk, human rights risk, development rights risk, state stability risk, and discrimination risk.

23.

Sub-Saharan Africa
It is estimated that 16.36% of the estimated total 29.8 million people in modern slavery are in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa is the largest of the regions measured for the Global Slavery Index, and also holds thegreatest diversity in terms of the risk of enslavement.
GAMBIA
64.1

81.5

59

50.5

42.3

56.8

SENEGAL
48.3
54

57.1

57.6

32.8

MAURITANIA

44.4

62
82.3

55.9

MALI

75.3

NIGER

44.1 82.8

66.4 64.8

78.8

47.6

41.4

70.7 76.3

71.1

61.1

57.7

GUINEA
71.1

60.3 52.8

66.9 75.9
64.6

25.1

75.4 72.6

95.9 94.9

61.8

67

66.2 78.6

85.9 74.3 77.1

85.9

58.1

66.1 74.8

68.2

61

35.5

54.4

61.1

54.6

60.7

TOGO

BENIN

48.5

49.5

CÔTE
D'IVOIRE

GHANA

85

Regional
Rank

Mean21Sub-Saharan Africa
Country Name

Overall
Rank

Regional
Rank

Mean21

Mauritania

1

1

66.41

Central African Republic

31

23

73.85

Benin

7

2

54.62

Liberia

32

24

62.63

Côte d’Ivoire

8

3

66.15

Malawi

33

25

56.54

Gambia

9

4

59.02

Chad

34

26

74.26

Gabon

10

5

48.33

Mozambique

35

27

55.93

Senegal

11

6

58.98

Mali

35

27

61.85

Ethiopia

12

7

62.04

Equatorial Guinea

35

27

68.66

Sierra Leone

13

8

60.29

Botswana

39

30

53.02

Togo

14

9

61.00

Zambia

40

31

59.68

Cape Verde

15

10

40.85

Burundi

41

32

67.64

MADAGASCAR

Eritrea

15

10

80.58

Rwanda

43

33

62.98

78.9 78.7

Guinea

17

12

68.50

Lesotho

44

34

53.76

69.9

Ghana

18

13

51.58

Zimbabwe

45

35

77.16

Republic of the Congo

19

14

61.33

Namibia

46

36

52.74

Guinea-Bissau

20

15

70.90

Nigeria

48

37

65.01

Cameroon

20

15

60.21

Djibouti

66

38

62.96

Democratic Republicof the Congo

23

17

80.89

Kenya

102

39

63.49

Madagascar

112

40

69.94

Uganda

25

18

60.75

South Africa

115

41

43.70

Burkina Faso

26

19

57.45

Angola

116

42

64.78

Somalia

27

20

88.05

Swaziland

126

43

61.62

Niger

28

21

59.64

Mauritius

143

44

36.31

Tanzania

29

22

56.57

91.1

60.5 54.8

81.1

62

62.4

64.6

92.9

84.1 69.8

84.1

80.9

80.5

67.6

78.8

TANZANIA

69.9

82.7 53.7

47.6 50.3

47.3 67.1

68.7 63.5
92.9

48.3 55.4
39.9

61.3 67.2
71.7

50.5

48.5

53.3

EQUATORIALGUINEAGABONREPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO

42

77.8

45.2

40.9

ANGOLA

82.3

37.9 86.8
37.2 47.6

52.7 36.7
75.3

34.9 47.3

53
89.4

64.6

56.5

28.9

67

64.6

NAMIBIABOTSWANA

56.6 56.7

47

55.9 54.2
64.6

64.2

59.2

50.6

47

46.4

MALAWI

93.1
89.4

BEST

54.6 79.4

MOZAMBIQUE

62.9 62.5

44.1

45.2

67.7 80.2

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO

64.8

63

71.7

BURUNDI

41.7

MEAN SLAVERY RISK SCORE

Sub-Saharan Africa
Country Name

63.5 69.4
68.2

62.6

LIBERIA

Overall
Rank

KENYA

61.9

42.8 82.7

45.7

Ongoing conflicts, extremes of poverty, high levels of corruption, and the impact of resource exploitation to
feed global markets all increase the risk of enslavement in many African countries. Child and forced marriages
are still tolerated in the context of informal or ‘traditional’ legal systems in many countries.

RWANDA

71.7

62.6 63.1

67

49.8

51.6 4860.3

88.1 86.1

96.5

47.2

ETHIOPIA
25.8

53.5

46.1

71.7

63 47.9

The high prevalence measured for such countries as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Mauritania
reflect centuries-old patterns of enslavement, often based on colonial conflicts and injustice exacerbatedby contemporary armed conflict.

73.9 77.9

69.1

77

42.6

86

80.6 56.8
96.5

CHAD

67.1

SIERRA
LEONE
78.8

96.6

71.2

60.8 61.9
32.8

65.5

59.4 82.6

85.7

76

66.2 84.1

65

54

GUINEABISSAU

31

SOMALIA

75.9 60.6

54.5

71.7

DJIBOUTI

71.7 59.6 55.6

NIGERIA

70.9 69.8
85.9

ERITREA

54.7 84.5

61.8 62.1

61.7 82.6

UGANDACENTRAL AFRICAN
REPUBLIC

31.8

68.5

60.2 61.7
57.3

47.1

40.9 34.3

5477.5 71.8

57.5 60.3

57.6

Mauritius leads the region in stability and the protection of human and worker rights, but is eclipsed bySouth Africa and Gabon in terms of the extent of policies on modern slavery.

CAMEROON

38.1 84.2

77.9

59

CAPE VERDE
15.6

BURKINA FASO

26.4 38.8

37.1 70.1

43.7 54.5
43.4

53.8 46.9
68.2

55.3

46.6

67.7

SOUTH AFRICALESOTHOSWAZILAND

64

77.2

72.8

50.6 69.4
57.6

59.7

61.6

27.3 37.8
61.1

36.3

21.4

66.6

59.3

34

ZIMBABWE

ZAMBIA

MAURITIUS

68.5 53.2
71.7

61.6 47

WORSTCountries shown in grey were not includedin this study or are not part of this region.
Mean Risk Score
Human Rights

30.7

Slavery Policy

28.5 39
29.3

21.5

Development Rights
State Stability

21.9

Discrimination

21

This is the mean of the five separate risk categories: slavery policy risk, human rights risk, development rights risk, state stability risk, and discrimination risk.

25.

Russia and Eurasia
It is estimated that 3.36% of the estimated total 29.8 million people in modern slavery are in Russia and Eurasia.
Three of the troubled former Soviet Republics of Central Asia (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan) show
very high levels of risk for enslavement and significant threats to basic human rights.
According to a report from Human Rights Watch, the government of Uzbekistan forces up to a million of
its citizens to work in the cotton harvest each year for a period of approximately two months. This seasonal
estimate is in addition to the Global Slavery Index’s annual estimate of 160,000 to 180,000 in modern
slavery. This policy of forced labour means that for two months of the year Uzbekistan is the country with thesecond highest prevalence of modern slavery (after Mauritania) in the world.22
There are mixed modes of labour migration, some of which result in exploitation, between the countries ofCentral and Eastern Europe. Russia’s large economy draws vulnerable workers, some of whom are ultimately
enslaved in agriculture or construction from many of the former Soviet Republics as well as from Eastern
European countries such as Moldova.

RUSSIA
86.8

BELARUS
93
57.6

50.5

35.8

55.9

24.5

55.1

66.3

Estimates of the prevalence of modern slavery, based on random sample surveys, exist for three countries inthis region: Belarus, Moldova, and the Ukraine. These estimates suggest tens of thousands of victims exist in
this region rather than the low number of cases that are reported by governments.23

47.3

56.4

36.6

Russia and Eurasia Country NameKAZAKHSTAN
52.3
61.1

39.2

49.6

82.2

30.3

49 58.1
36.4

59.4

36

38.1

UKRAINE
61.6
8.1

56.3

42.5

39.2

50.5

53.4

38.6

49.8

73.5

55.4

30.4

48.3

MOLDOVAGEORGIA

64.6

46.1

57.6

59.6

44.1

KYRGYZSTAN
77.2
4.5

38.3

43.4 57.5

89
39.9

36.3

92.4 56.9

53.6 60.8

39.7

42

ARMENIAAZERBAIJAN

32.8

57.1

63.8

39.6
97.1
71.7

53.2

67.2 66.4

97.1
54

43.7

Overall Rank

Regional Rank

Mean24

Moldova

6

1

39.20

Uzbekistan

47

2

60.57

Russia

49

3

55.09

Georgia

50

4

49.82

Azerbaijan

51

5

53.61

Armenia

57

6

43.45

Tajikistan

70

7

57.09

Kyrgyzstan

81

8

57.57

Turkmenistan

83

9

67.25

Kazakhstan

85

10

49.00

Ukraine

86

11

49.59

Belarus

117

12

55.90

TAJIKSTAN

60.6 63.5

47.9

44.5

TURKMENISTANUZBEKISTANMEAN SLAVERY RISK SCORE
BEST

WORST

Countries shown in grey were not includedin this study or are not part of this region.
Mean Risk Score
Human Rights

30.7

Slavery Policy

28.5 39
29.3

21.5

Development Rights
State Stability

21.9

Discrimination

22“Uzbekistan: Forced Labour Widespread in Cotton Harvest” 26 Jan., 2013, Human Rights Watch, http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/01/25/uzbekistan-forced-labor-widespreadcotton-harvest
23“The Cross-National Market in Human Beings,” (June 2009) Pennington, Ball, Hampton, and Soulakova, Journal of Macromarketing, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 119-134:
http://jmk.sagepub.com/content/29/2/119.full.pdf
24This is the mean of the five separate risk categories: slavery policy risk, human rights risk, development rights risk, state stability risk, and discrimination risk.

27.

The Middle East and North Africa
It is estimated that 2.54% of the estimated total 29.8 million people in modern slavery are in the Middle
East and North Africa.

TUNISIA

JORDANLEBANON

SYRIA

IRAQ

KUWAIT

85.4 49.3

53.1 34.9

94.9 58.6

84.6 61.7

75.2 30.9

59.7

60.4

70.8

68.3

64.6

85.9

92.9

63.8

68.2

43.8

76.6

89.4

66.8

Globally, this region has the highest measured level of discrimination against women. One result is the highlevel of forced and child marriages within the region, as well as the widespread exploitation of trafficked
women in forced prostitution and as domestic workers.

38.3

100

50.7

Rapid political change following the Arab Spring calls into question continuing political commitment to
the implementation of anti-slavery policies in a number of key countries. In recent years, several countries
including Egypt, Syria and Morocco have all passed relevant laws on this issue but due to ongoing conflictand social unrest these laws are not being effectively enforced.

50.7 19.8

68.5 44.3

58.9

83.5

62.4

56.1 48.6
48.4

MOROCCO

68.2

54.4

76.7 38.4
68.2

44.9

The risks of enslavement in Middle Eastern and North African countries are not the highest in the world,
but the level of risk is relatively high across the region with little variation. Trafficking of migrants from
Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia is widespread.

29.3

34

34.5

35.6

47.7

IRAN

ISRAEL48

A number of Middle Eastern countries host large numbers of migrant workers. On average, foreign workers
make up 40-90% of the populations of Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Israel, the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait.
Not all migrants are enslaved, but some will find themselves in situations that can foster enslavement.

91.6 42.8

ALGERIA

LIBYA

EGYPT

90

84.6

77.9 40.7

92.9

46.1

62.3 50.1

96.5

47

65.5 65.6

39.9

34

32.3

50.6

96.5

71.3 57.6
67.8

SAUDI ARABIA

55.1

67.8

78.8

84.6 22.1

53.4

83.5

61.1

50.7

26.5

96.6 81.2

77.8 81.8

72.4 36.2

78

62.2

47.6

92.9

69.4

89.4

37.5

61.1

67

34

YEMEN

BAHRAIN

OMAN

22

1

77.76

2

65.54

82

3

67.78

84.8 29.2

Jordan

87

4

59.72

United Arab Emirates

88

5

47.28

Algeria

91

6

62.29

Yemen

92

7

77.97

Morocco

93

8

58.86

Bahrain

96

9

62.22

Qatar

96

9

50.69

Oman

99

11

47.56

Kuwait

100

12

66.76

Iran

103

13

71.26

Iraq

104

14

68.34

Syria

105

15

70.79

Israel

111

16

33.97

Egypt

113

17

50.64

Lebanon

119

18

60.41

Tunisia

122

19

56.06

34.1

67.3

Sudan

78

UNITED ARAB
EMIRATES
78.7 38.6

Mean25

Saudi Arabia

50.5

95.3 64.8

Regional Rank

Libya

47.3 35.6
36.4

43.3

Overall Rank

QATAR

59.1

SUDAN*
85.9

Middle East and North Africa
Country Name

92.2 31.1

39.6

MEAN SLAVERY RISK SCORE
BEST

WORST

Countries shown in grey were not includedin this study or are not part of this region.
Mean Risk Score
Human Rights

30.7

Slavery Policy

28.5 39
29.3

21.5

Development Rights
State Stability

21.9

Discrimination* Data on Sudan was collected prior to South Sudan becoming an independant state in 201125

This is the mean of the five separate risk categories: slavery policy risk, human rights risk, development rights risk, state stability risk, and discrimination risk.

29.

Responses
What is being done at the national level to combat modern slavery? What needs to be done? This section
examines the national responses in: he worst countries in the Index (Mauritania, Haiti, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Moldova, Benin,
T
Cote d’Ivoire, The Gambia and Gabon); and he best countries in the Index (Iceland, Ireland, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Switzerland, Sweden,
T
Norway, Luxembourg, Finland and Denmark).
The country studies are intended to be a short and sharp summary of major features of the problem ofmodern slavery as it manifests in each country, the government response to it and what needs to happen
to improve the situation.
More information on methodology is in Appendix 1. Further supplementary country studies are on thewebsite www.globalslaveryindex.org.

The response of New Zealand has included moves to impose New Zealand labour standards onto crews ofthese vessels as soon as they are within territorial waters, effective 2016.
An analysis of the responses in the ten best countries in the Index shows that there are:significant national budget allocations to this issue;comprehensive national laws in place;trained, equipped, well-funded specialist law enforcement units to enforce those laws;
systems and processes to identify and support victims and to refer them between different parts of the system;
systems to coordinate both within and across government and with civil society;non-government organisations are both funded and permitted to operate freely and as partners in the response;accountability through mechanisms such as national rapporteurs or at the very least, research and datacollection is both supported and respected; andinstitutions respond quickly to emerging trends in the modus operandi of offenders.

Responses of worst countries in the index
The worst ten countries in the Index share some characteristics: each is struggling with very low GDP per
capita and low levels of human development generally. The manifestations of modern slavery in these ten
countries also share some common characteristics. In at least five of the ten countries, it is not the exploitationof foreigners but the enslavement of citizens, through culturally sanctioned or tolerated forms either ofslavery or slavery-like practices, that are endemic: such as the chattel slavery of the Haratins in Mauritania,
the exploitation of children through the restavek practice in Haiti, the cultural and economic practices of bothcaste and debt bondage in India and Pakistan, and the exploitation of children through vidomegon in Benin.
In other words, it is culturally tolerated forms of institutionalised poverty and discrimination that impact
on enslavement. In several countries, namely India, Nepal, Gabon and Moldova, cross-border migrationis heavily linked to vulnerability to exploitation. In almost every country in this group, child and forced
marriage is both prevalent and largely culturally tolerated, and formal child protection systems are either
weak or non-existent.
The response of the ten national governments in the countries with the highest prevalence varies widely.
For most countries in this group, at least some national laws criminalising some forms of modern slavery
are in force. However, low or non-existent investigations and prosecutions confirm that it is much easier tomake laws than to implement them. Also there are gaps in the laws in most of these countries. Two of thecountries in this group, Moldova and Cote d’Ivoire, are working hard to address modern slavery within
their borders and beyond. In Cote d’Ivoire, a unique system of protection has been formed, harnessing themarket forces of cocoa purchasers as a mechanism to drive overall improvement in labour practices and movetowards the eradication of worst forms of child labour and forced labour in cocoa production. In Moldova,
the Government has established a system that continues to detect victims overseas, even when the support ofdestination countries and international donors has fallen away for these initiatives. In several other countries
in this group – Mauritania, Haiti, and Pakistan – the national response is token at best and non-existent
at worst. Other countries in the group are making efforts at the national level but this is yet to translate
throughout the country into an end to the impunity of offenders, or justice for victims.

Responses of best countries in the index
The best ten countries in the Index also share some characteristics: each has a very high GDP and high levelsof human development. Each has strong rule of law, with low levels of corruption, and all are relatively very
peaceful societies. All have strong child protection systems. The forms of modern slavery that manifest inthese countries tend to involve the exploitation of vulnerable migrants, whether this is domestic workers in
diplomatic households or irregular migrants working in the informal economy.
Geography also plays a role in shaping prevalence, with New Zealand having recently detected forms of modern
slavery as a result of foreign-flagged fishing vessels from South East Asia operating in their national waters.
30.

31.

Mauritania
Estimated number enslaved
140,000 – 160,000
Population
3,796,141 (2012) 26
GDP$4.199 billion (2012) 27
GDP/capita$1,106 (2012) 28
US Tip report ranking
Tier 3 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP Not available (2011) 29

INDEX r a n k

1

1. The problem
Mauritania has the highest proportion of people in slavery in the world. According to one NGO in Mauritania,
up to 20 percent of the Mauritanian population is enslaved.2308 While not identical to the Global Slavery
Index estimated of prevalence, these two figures, in the absence of more precise measurement, point
to a growing consensus of high levels of enslavement in Mauritania.
Slavery in Mauritania primarily takes the form of chattel slavery, meaning thatu p to 20 percent
adults and children in slavery are the full property of their masters who exerciseof the Mauritanian
total ownership over them and their descendants. Slave status has been passed
popul ation isdown through the generations from people originally captured during historicalensl aved
raids by the slave-owning groups.31 People in slavery may be bought and sold,
rented out and given away as gifts. Slavery is prevalent in both rural and urban areas. It is reported thatwomen are disproportionately affected by slavery; for example, they usually work within the domestic sphere,
and a high level of control is exercised over their movements and social interactions. They are subject tosexual assault by their masters. Women’s roles include childcare and domestic chores, but they may also herd
animals and farm, as men in slavery do.32
Beyond the context of private homes, it is reported that some boys, who have been sent to attend Koranic
schools to become talibes (students), have been forced into begging. Although the scale of this problem is notknown, it is thought to be quite significant; affecting local boys as well as boys trafficked into Mauritania fromthe surrounding regions.33
It is also reported that women have been subjected to forced marriage and sexual exploitation, both within
Mauritania but also in the Middle East.34
Slaves are not permitted to have any possessions, as they are considered to be possessions themselves.
As such they are denied inheritance rights and ownership of land and other resources. When an enslaved person
marries, the dowry is taken by the ‘master’ and if they die their property can be claimed by the ‘master’.35

Notable aspects of the problem
Mauritanian society is made up of three main ethnic groups, commonly known as Black Moors or Haratins,
Afro-Mauritanians, and White Moors.
Haratins, whose name literally means “ones who have been freed”, are descendants of the Black Moors, thehistorical slave population (‘Haratin’ is not a term that is used by Haratin people use to identify themselves
as it can be discriminatory). The Haratins are understood to be the ‘property’ of the White Moors, who area minority in the country but wield disproportionate (majority) political and economic power.36
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
29“Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows” 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD030“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p258, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210740.pdf
31
Ibid.
32
“Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania for the UN Human Rights Committee – Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania” (11- 28 March 2013),
107th Session, Anti-Slavery International: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:0y9lgefcbFAJ:www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Anti-Slavery
International_Mauritania_HRC107.doc+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au
33“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p258, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210740.pdf
34
Ibid.
35
“Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania for the UN Human Rights Committee – Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania” (11- 28 March 2013),
107th Session, Anti-Slavery International: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:0y9lgefcbFAJ:www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Anti-Slavery
International_Mauritania_HRC107.doc+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au
36“United Nations Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, including its Causes and Consequences” (24 August 2010), Shahinian, p5, United Nations General
Assembly Report: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/slavery/rapporteur/docs/A.HRC.15.20.Add.2_en.pdf
26
27
28

32.

Indoctrination to ensure people in slavery accept their situation of ownership is a key feature of slavery in
Mauritania, with understandings of race and class, as well as some religious teachings being used to justify slavery.
Without access to education or alternative means of subsistence, many believe that it is God’s wish for them to beslaves.37 As most people in slavery are kept illiterate and uneducated, they are unaware of the fact that according
to Islamic law, a Muslim cannot enslave a fellow Muslim. Compounding this, the legal and policy framework toprotect women’s rights in Mauritania is extremely deficient, with many discriminatory laws. Indeed, according
to the 2001 Family Code (Code du Statut personnel), women remain perpetual minors. Harmful traditional
practices, including early and forced marriages and female genital mutilation, are commonplace. There is no
specific law against violence against women and marital rape is not a crime. Although Mauritania has ratified
the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), it entered areservation stating that only articles that comply with Sharia Law and the Mauritanian Constitution would
be applied. The Sharia Law and the Criminal Code currently pose grave violations to women’s rights; forinstance, women who are victims of rape can be prosecuted for the crime of Zina (adultery).38

2. What is the government doing about it?
Mauritania has ratified a number of key international treaties regarding modern slavery but not the Domestic
Work Convention. The ILO Committee of Experts has repeatedly expressed concern about the situation in
Mauritania, and has called on the Government to take steps including: adopt a comprehensive strategy against
slavery; ensure that victims can actually assert their rights and seek help; ensure that authorities undertake
investigations promptly; and ensure that prison sentences are actually imposed on perpetrators.39
Slavery has been prohibited by Mauritanian law
Mauritania
Ratifiedsince 1961, when the Government redrafted
Slavery Convention
Yes
the Constitution, following independence from
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
France, and incorporated various principles
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yesfrom the Universal Declaration of Human
Forced Labour Convention
Yes
Rights. In 1981, after a coup d’état, Mauritania
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yesagain declared slavery illegal, through Decree
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
No. 81234. However, no legislation was
Domestic Work ConventionNo
introduced to implement the Decree.40 It was
only in 2003 that a law was passed against trafficking in persons,41 and four years later, the 2007-048 law
provided a new definition for slavery42 and attached to it a penalty of five to 10 years’ imprisonment and afine for violations of the law. Taken together, these laws criminalise trafficking in persons and most formsof slavery. The 2007-048 law provides for victim compensation and assistance for those released fromslavery and makes liable those who do not follow-up a denunciation of slavery to sentencing and a fine.
This includes police officers and chiefs who may be complicit to these crimes.43 There are some gaps in
Mauritania’s criminal laws on modern slavery as some practices, including forced marriage and debt-bondage,
are not criminalised.
Despite the existence of national laws, it is reportedly very difficult for victims of slavery to seek access tojustice in Mauritania. The burden of proof lies with the victim and investigations cannot be pursued unless
Ibid
Information from field based source.
“Forced Labour Convention, 1930, Mauritania”(2013) Direct Request (CEARC) – adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session, International Labour Organisation, Information
System on International Labour Standards: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3058243; and “Forced Labour Convention,
1930, Mauritania”(2010) Observation (CEARC) – adopted 2009, published 99th ILC session, International Labour Organisation, Information System on International Labour
Standards: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3058243
40“Information on Mauritania Compliance with ILO Convention No.29 on Forced Labour”, (July 2008), Anti-Slavery International, p2: http://www.antislavery.org/includes/
documents/cm_docs/2009/2/2008_mauritania.pdf and Haratin: Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, September 2011: http://www.unpo.org/members/13228
41“United Nations Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, including its Causes and Consequences” (24 August 2010), Shahinian, p5, United Nations General
Assembly Report: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/slavery/rapporteur/docs/A.HRC.15.20.Add.2_en.pdf.
The 2003-025 Act defines ‘trafficking in persons as the “recruitment, transportation, transfer of persons by force or use of force or threats or other forms of coercion, of abduction,
abuse of power or exploitation of a position of vulnerability or of the giving of the acceptance of payment or advantage to achieve the consent of a person having control over anotherperson for exploitation.” The 025-2003 Act falls under the Mauritanian Land Legislation, and is part of the amended Land Reform Act passed in 1983.
42
The 2007 law “defines slavery as the exercise of one or all of the attributes of the right of ownership over another” and prohibits ‘crimes of slavery’ by means of “reducing someone
to slavery; inciting someone to relinquish their freedom; and inciting a person to allow someone under their control or guardianship to be reduced to slavery.” The legislation also
defines ‘offences of slavery’ to include “appropriating goods, products or earnings resulting from the labour of a slave; prejudicing the physical integrity of a slave or denying thechild of a slave access to education.” In addition, this Law states that anyone supporting slavery can be imprisioned up to two years. Offences of slavery are also punishable with aprison sentence of 6 months to 2 years and a fine.
43
Section 12 of the 2007/48 law, cited in “Forced Labour Convention, 1930, Mauritania”(2013) Direct Request (CEARC) – adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session,
International Labour Organisation, Information System on International Labour Standards.
37
38
39

33.

M a u r i tan i a con t i n u ed

a victim files a complaint. Human rights organisations for example, cannot file a case on behalf of a victim.44
This is highly problematic in light of the fact that most victims are illiterate, making it impossible to manage
the paperwork. Victims of slavery often do not know about their rights and their claim to protection from thelaw.45 The Government provides no support for programmes to assist victims
to file complaints of slavery.46 As many victims have been indoctrinated byDespite the existence
the practice of intergenerational slavery, it is extremely difficult for themof national l aws,
it is reportedly very
to pursue legal challenges against their ‘masters’ in court.47 These and otherdifficult for victims
difficulties are reflected in low levels of investigations and prosecutions underof sl avery to seek
the relevant laws.

access to justiceIn 2012, the ILO Committee of Experts referred to information fromin Mauritania
the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) that even thoughseveral victims had tried to take action against their ‘masters’, only one conviction has been handed down in
November 2011 and the convicted offender was released on bail pending the appeal of this sentence.48 The
appeal has still not taken place at the time of writing (July 2013) and he remains at liberty. The Government
is known to have only investigated two cases in 2013.49
Beyond information about the existence of national laws, very limited information is available about theMauritanian Government response to this issue. Information about the budget allocated by the Government
to supporting the eradication of slavery is unclear. According to one report,
the Government allocated 1 billion ouguiyas (MRO) (approximately USe ven though several
victims had tried to$3.3 million) to a National Programme for the Eradication of the Vestiges
take action againstof Slavery in 2009,50 which focused on preventing slavery by improving
their masters only
education and health, and alleviating poverty. It did not focus on awarenessone conviction has
raising or efforts to combat the impunity of offenders, or protect victims.51
been handed down
The extent to which it was implemented is unclear, with no detailed results
52
having been released, and the Programme has now been closed. The Programme was replaced by a newnational Agency against the Vestiges of Slavery, for Integration and against Poverty (established in March2013), but no information has been published on its mandate or work plans. The likely impact of this Agency
on the practice of slavery is unclear, given its reported focus on poverty alleviation without any focus on thesocial context that permits and fosters slavery.53
In terms of measures to combat the impunity of offenders, there is no special law enforcement unit, andno system in place to collect and record data concerning slavery.54 It is reported that more than 500 law
enforcement and judicial officials have participated in training on the implementation of the anti-slavery law.
Mauritania has a Labour Inspectorate but, in addition to being confronted with corruption, the Inspectorate
does not have the resources to carry out enough work to enforce the country’s labour laws.
The only victim protection mechanism in place in Mauritania is limited to child victims. Delivered throughthe Government and NGOs, assistance takes the form of training and education within child protection
centres, with an effort to reintegrate children back into public schools. The Ministry of Social Affairs,
Childhood and the Family operate four National Centres for the Protection and Social Integration ofChildren.55 NGOs have noted that these centres are not fully functioning, due to a lack of funding,56 and“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p258, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210740.pdf“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p244, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192596.pdf
46“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p258, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210740.pdf
47“Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania for the UN Human Rights Committee – Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania” (11- 28 March 2013),
107th Session, Anti-Slavery International: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:0y9lgefcbFAJ:www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Anti-Slavery
International_Mauritania_HRC107.doc+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au
48“Forced Labour Convention, 1930, Mauritania”(2013) Direct Request (CEARC) – adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session, International Labour Organisation, Information
System on International Labour Standards: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3058243
49“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p258, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210740.pdf
50“Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania for the UN Human Rights Committee – Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania” (11-28 March 2013),
107th Session, Anti-Slavery International: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:0y9lgefcbFAJ:www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Anti-Slavery
International_Mauritania_HRC107.doc+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au
51
Ibid.
52
Ibid.
53
Information from field based sources.
54
Ibid.
55
“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p259, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210740.pdf
56“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, Mauritania Country Narrative, p244, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192596.pdf

it is unknown how many of the total number of children assisted are victims of modern slavery (ninety children
received services from the centres in 2012-13 according to the US TIP Report 2013).
In 2010, an office of the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
opened in Nouakchott. It has since focused on developing a ‘road map’ to ending slavery and plans to workwith the Government to implement the necessary steps. However, int here is no special l aw
December 2012, the road map had not yet been finalised or published.57

enforcement unit, andWhile there are recent examples of NGO and Government cooperation
no system in pl ace toon this issue, cooperation with civil society on forced labour, trafficking
collect and record dataand slavery is not institutionalised. Only the multi-stakeholder Child
concerning sl avery
Trafficking, Smuggling and Labour Group includes NGOs and othermembers of the civil society in a systematic manner. There exists no involvement of social partners.

Notable aspects of the response
As noted above, in March 2013, the President of Mauritania established a new agency to combat slavery, theNational Agency to Fight against the Vestiges of Slavery, Integration, and Fight against Poverty.58 This agency
has the aim to tackle poverty, and to promote integration of refugees, with the aim to end slavery throughabolishing some of the factors pertaining to it. Further information on its mandate and practical functioning
remain to be observed.

3. What needs to happen?
Mauritania should:
Perform a nationwide study to collect more precise data on prevalence and nature of existing formsof slavery, as part of a larger focus on eradication.
■■ Publish an annual report on efforts and progress made in the work of the National Agency to Fightagainst the Vestiges of Slavery, Integration, and Fight against Poverty.
■■ Focus on removing and addressing barriers to access to justice for victims, including through allowing
NGOs to assist victims to file complaints.
■■ Focus on ending the impunity of offenders, through ensuring that all slavery cases are investigated andwhere sufficient evidence, prosecuted.
■■ Clearly mandate and task one central unit of law enforcement with responsibility for investigating, andreporting quarterly on progress of investigations of slavery.
■■ Clearly mandate and task one central unit of the prosecution service with responsibility for prosecuting,and reporting quarterly on progress of prosecutions of slavery.
■■ Establish a victim-support mechanism, with emergency shelter and assistance, legal assistance andreintegration programmes.
■■ Ensure existing poverty reduction strategies include a focus on enabling enslaved people and former
slaves to generate income independent from their former masters.
■■

44

45

34.

“Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania for the UN Human Rights Committee – Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania” (11-28 March 2013),
107th Session, Anti-Slavery International: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:0y9lgefcbFAJ:www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Anti-Slavery
International_Mauritania_HRC107.doc+&cd=2&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au
58“Creating a National Agency for the Fight against the Legacy of Slavery” (21 March 2013), National Commission for Human Rights in Mauritania: http://www.cndh.mr/content/view/180/1/
57

35.

Haiti
Estimated number enslaved
200,000 – 220,000
Population
10,173,775 (2012) 59
GDP$7.843 billion (2012) 60
GDP/capita$771 (2012) 61
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2-watchlist (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 21% (2011) 62

children’s vulnerability to modern slavery. Access to schools is extremely limited, and despite a new programmeof ‘free education for all’ implemented by the current Haitian Government (discussed in relation to theGovernment’s response, below), most schools in Haiti remain fee-paying or run by NGOs. Many Haitians cannot
afford to send their children to schools, especially as Haitian families (most notably in rural areas) are large.

INDEX rank

2

1. The problem
High levels of poverty combined with a lack of access to social services and information regarding thedangers of human trafficking have allowed a system of child labour in Haiti called ‘restavek’ to thrive. The
concept of restavek is a cultural practice where disadvantaged children from rural areas are sent to work as
domestic helpers for wealthier families, usually living in urban areas. The term ‘restavek’ is not necessarily
sinister and can cover a form of family solidarity where families help other children, not their own, throughthe provision of food and board. However the restavek system is widely
a nywhere between
abused and anywhere between 1 in 10, or 300,000 – 500,000 children in
1 in 10, or 300,000 –Haiti are exploited.63 Many of these children suffer the cruelest form of
500,000 children inneglect – denied food, water, a bed to sleep in and constant physical andHaiti are exploited
emotional abuse.
Children represent the most vulnerable population to modern slavery in Haiti, although adults have been
identified in forced labour in agriculture, construction and sexual exploitation within Haiti and in the Dominican
Republic, other Caribbean countries, the United States and South America.64 Street children, many of whom are
runaway restaveks, can end up being trafficked into forced begging and commercial sexual exploitation.65
Since the catastrophic earthquake in January 2010 which killed an estimated 300,000 people and forced
an estimated 1.5 million into camps for Internally Displaced People (IDP), the country’s efforts as well as
the efforts of international humanitarian partners have been directed atrelief and recovery. Consequently, few resources have been set aside forS ince the catastrophic
earthquake in January 2010,combating modern slavery. In addition, the estimated 357,785 people
few resources have been
who still remain in IDP camps as of March 2013, especially women andset
aside for combating
children “were at an increased risk of sex trafficking and forced labour.”66

modern sl avery

Though most victims of modern slavery in Haiti are Haitian nationals, there
have been some reports of women being trafficked into Haiti from the Dominican Republic for the purpose of
sexual exploitation. The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) has reported that up to 200 Dominican
women are trafficked into Haiti every year, most of which end up in commercial sexual exploitation in affluent
areas and at major sea-ports.67 Men and women are trafficked from Haiti into other countries, the Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil, as well as North American countries for the purpose of forced
labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Haiti is also a transit country for victims of trafficking en route to
the United States.68

Children in restavek situations, most of whom have been promised free schooling in exchange for theirlight labour, are often prevented from attending school, or are able only to attend sporadically, which
seriously impedes their development. It is estimated that only 20 percent of restaveks are allowed access toschool and only one percent reach secondary school. Often they are physically, sexually and mentally abused,and deprived of food and sleep. According to IOM data, of the 1,786 cases assisted since 2005, 30 percent
had been sexually abused and 80 percent had suffered aggravated physical abuse, that left them withlong-term consequences.71

2. What is the government doing about it?
Haiti has ratified a number of key international treaties on modern slavery, but not the Optional Protocolon the Sale or Children or the Domestic Work Convention. The provisions of the UN Trafficking Protocol,
ratified by Haiti, have no effect domesticallyHaiti
Ratifieduntil they are transposed into national
Slavery Convention
Nolegislation. A draft law on human trafficking
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
was at the time of writing (June 2013) before
UN Trafficking ProtocolYes
the Haitian Parliament.72 This bill would
Forced Labour Convention
Yesmake child trafficking a criminal offence andWorst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yes
would strengthen Haitian authorities’ ability
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
No
to prosecute traffickers.73
Domestic Work Convention

No

In rural Haiti, severe poverty and a chronic lack of social services such as schools and basic healthcare increase

Article 335 of the Haitian Labour code,
enacted in 2003, prohibits the employment of minors under the age of 15, the mistreatment and abuse ofchildren, as well as their placement into restavek service.74 This law prohibits abuse and violence of any kindtowards children, including child exploitation and work which is likely to harm the safety, health or morals
of a child.75 The law stipulates that a child can only be entrusted to a ‘host’ family within the confines of a
relationship of assistance and solidarity – that is, it requires that a child in domestic service must be treated in
the same manner as the biological children of the family. This law however suffers from important flaws thatmake it practically unusable. As it is currently drafted, it does not provide for criminal sanctions, and contains
a critical loophole in that it does not prevent abuse of an ‘accommodated‘ child if the biological children of
the family also suffer abuse.76

2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
61
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
62“Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows” 2011, The World Bank http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
63
Information from field based sources.
64
Ibid.
65
“Report of the Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in Haiti” (7 February 2013), Forst, p13, United Nations General Assembly Human Rights Council: http://
www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/A-HRC-22-65_EN.pdf
66“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Haiti Country Narrative, p187, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf
67“Haiti Counter Trafficking Factsheet” (May 2012), International Organisation for Migration: http://www.iomhaiti.info/en/pdf/factsheets-august12/Factsheet_Counter_
Trafficking_Aug_2012.pdf
68
Ibid.

Information from field based sources.
“Report of the Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in Haiti” (7 February 2013), Forst, p13, United Nations General Assembly Human Rights Council: http://
www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/A-HRC-22-65_EN.pdf
71
Information from field based sources.
72“Report of the Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in Haiti” (7 February 2013), Forst, p13, United Nations General Assembly Human Rights Council: http://
www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/A-HRC-22-65_EN.pdf
73
Ibid.
74
“Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999, Haiti” (2010) Observation (CEARC) – adopted 2010, published 100th ILC session, International Labour Organisation,
Information System on International Labour Standards: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3058243
75“Haiti – Restavek: The Persistence of Child Labour and Slavery” (3-14 October 2011), p12, Submission to the United Nations, Universal Periodic Review: http://lib.ohchr.org/
HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/HT/RF-Restav%C3%A8kFreedom-eng.pdf
76Information from field based sources.

Notable aspects of the problem

59
60

36.

When a ‘koutchye’ (or middleman/woman) offers to take a child, andt hey are physically,transport them to the city where they can work in exchange for food, shelter
sexually andand education, a parent is faced with an impossible choice. Sometimes money
mentally abused,
is exchanged, but in the majority of the cases, a promise of a better life for theand deprived ofchild in the city is sufficient leverage.69 For the most part, the ‘host’ families arefood and sleep
poor themselves,70 living in the larger towns’ and cities’ slums. Because families
have little access to running water and electricity, restavek children are used to perform domestic tasks,
essentially being used as substitutes for non-existent public services and utilities. These children’s daily tasks
include visiting the public water fountain, washing clothes and cooking food.

69
70

37.

Ha i t i con t i n u ed

When President Michel Martelly was elected in 2011, he introduced a development programme for Haiti
focusing on five priorities: employment, education, rule of law, energy and environment.77 In order tofulfill the education priority, the “Programme for Universal Free and Obligatory Education” (Programmede scolarisation universelle gratuite et obligatoire )78 was launched with the aim to subsidise primary schoolfor all children. However, the programme has encountered many problems, with allegations of fraud andquestionable standards.79

Notable aspects of the response
The NGO situation on the ground in Haiti is crowded and chaotic. One of the major challenges is a lackof NGO coordination across all sectors of civil society.
There are no government-run trafficking victim shelters. However, IOM has been cooperating with local
NGOs and governmental partners to tackle human trafficking. The programming consists of three pillars:
direct assistance, awareness raising and capacity building. Direct assistance consists of the delivery of
medical and psychological services, income generating activity trainings, micro-grants, and long-term return
monitoring to minimise the risk of re-trafficking.
There are several Haitian NGOs such as Foyer l’Escale, Centre d’Action pour le Developement and Organisation
des Jeunes Filles en Action that have significant experience in providing accommodation, educational andpsycho-social services to victims. All IOM operations are undertaken in cooperation with the Ministry ofSocial Affairs, the Institute for Social Welfare and Research or the Brigade for the Protection of Minors ofthe Haitian National Police. Awareness-raising campaigns are equally led by governmental partners and
IOM provides targeted expertise and services to support the Government’s efforts.80

3. What needs to happen?
Haiti should:■■

Work with donors to ensure that key elements of the criminal justice response to this issue are markedly
improved across investigations, prosecutions and adjudications. This needs to include, at a minimum:
Enacting a law which explicitly criminalises trafficking in persons;
Capacity building for law enforcement to identify victims of modern slavery, particularly adults; Capacity building of law enforcement to ensure they can effectively investigate modern slavery
situations. This will need to include ensuring the appropriate mandate, funding and transparency
mechanisms are in place;
A focus on corruption within law enforcement; Capacity building for the local judiciary on the use of this new instrument, and its features, andsensitising them about the specificity of this crime and the specific needs of its victims; andIdentifying ways to ensure that the accused are tried in a timely and speedy manner.

Set an a National Committee as envisaged by the current draft law on counter-trafficking to strongly
coordinate efforts (including of NGOs) and draft a National Plan of Action.
■■ Publish an annual report on steps taken by the Government to combat modern slavery, including criminal
justice data.
■■ Launch awareness campaigns to reach all people in Haiti. Educate parents and children of the risksof trafficking, and spread awareness within all communities of the illegality of the restavek system.
■■ Equip and empower communities who wish to rid themselves of modern slavery by providing training
to community leaders and encouraging them to spread awareness in a grassroots manner.
■■“UN Country Programme document for Haiti (2013-2016)” United Nations Development Programme: http://web.undp.org/latinamerica/countryprogramme.shtml“Michel Martelly’s education plan in Haiti marked by mismanagement and inflated claims”, (9 April 2013), Ross, Rabble Canada: http://rabble.ca/blogs/bloggers/rogerannis/2013/04/michel-martelly%E2%80%99s-education-plan-haiti-marked-mismanagement-and-i
79“Report of the Independent Expert on the Situation of Human Rights in Haiti” (7 February 2013), Forst, p13, United Nations General Assembly Human Rights Council: http://
www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/A-HRC-22-65_EN.pdf
80
Information from field based sources.
77

78

38.

Pakistan
Estimated number enslaved
2,000,000 – 2,200,000
Population
179,160,111 (2012) 81
GDP$213.2 Billion (2012) 82
GDP/capita$1,290 (2012) 83
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 6% (2011) 84

INDEX rank

3

1. The problem
A weak economy, the deteriorating security situation and rule of law,85 and a growing population86 have allcontributed to an increase in reports of modern slavery, particularly of children and bonded labourers inPakistan.87 Poverty and illiteracy are severe,88 both of which make people, especially children, vulnerable tovarious forms of modern slavery. Modern slavery occurs in Pakistan in primary industries, manufacturing,commercial sexual exploitation, forced begging and domestic servitude.

The brick making industry
Bonded labour is the greatest problem in Pakistan. The Asian
has a particul arly highDevelopment Bank estimates that 1.8 million people89 are bonded
level of bonded l abourers,
90
labourers, though many NGOs place the estimate much higher.
exploiting not only
Bonded labour affects men, women and children largely from rural
vulnerable children, but
areas who travel to cities to find work, and has been reported in many
also traditional ‘low-caste’family l abourers
industries, primarily brick kilns,91 but also in agriculture, fisheries andmining. Debt bondage is a significant problem, particularly in the
Sindh and Punjab provinces. Particularly vulnerable to exploitation are the 1.6 million Afghan refugees wholargely work in the informal economy.92 The brick making industry has a particularly high level of bonded
labourers, exploiting not only vulnerable children, but also traditional ‘low-caste’ family labourers. Unofficial
sources claim that Punjab has as many as 5,000 kilns.93
Many adult Pakistani men and women migrate voluntarily to the Gulf states, Iran, Turkey, South Africa,
Uganda, Maldives, Greece and other European countries for low skilled employment such as domestic work,
driving or construction work.94 Many migrants fall victim to fraudulent recruiting practices by illegal labour
agents: coercion, non-payment of wages, withholding of passports and physical abuse.
There are reports of children subjected to forced labour, begging95 and sexual exploitation in Pakistan, andforcible recruitment into extremist and non-state militant groups where they suffer physical, sexual andpsychological abuse.96 There are reports of child sex trafficking between Iran and Pakistan. High levels of childlabour exist in Pakistan.97 The Federal Bureau of Statistics estimates 3.8 million children between the ages of fiveand 14 are working in Pakistan.98
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD83
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
84
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
85
Transparency International ranks the Pakistan 139th of 176 countries in its Corruption Perceptions Index, which rates countries based on how corrupt their public sector isperceived to be.
86
The highest in South Asia at 1.7% growth rate: “Population Growth (Annual %) (2008-2012)”, World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW
87“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Pakistan Country Narrative, p290, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
88
As of 2008, 60% of Pakistan’s population was living on less than $2 per day, according to World Bank figures. See data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.2DAY
89
1.8 million people is one percent of Pakistan’s population, according to the Asian Development Bank. See http://www.refworld.org/topic,50ffbce4c9,50ffbce4db,4fe30ca3c,0,,,PAK.html
90“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, Pakistan Country Narrative, p276, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2012/192368.htm
91
Fieldwork suggests that more than half a million men, women and children work in brick kilns. The majority work as makers of unbaked bricks, followed by those doing work
kiln stacking and unloading, cited in: “Unfree labour in Pakistan: Work, debt and bondage in brick kilns” (March 2004), p11, Pakistan Institute of Labour Education and Research,
International Labour Organisation: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/WCMS_082028/lang--en/index.htm
92
According to the IOM, 2.3% of the population of Pakistan were immigrants, with a negative net migration rate, thus more people leaving than coming to Pakistan. Immigrants,
including a large refugee population, mainly come from neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh and Afghanistan. Most immigrants and refugees are undocumented. http://
iom.int/cms/Pakistan
93“Unfree labour in Pakistan: Work, debt and bondage in brick kilns” (March 2004), p11, Pakistan Institute of Labour Education and Research, International Labour Organisation:
http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/WCMS_082028/lang--en/index.htm
94“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Pakistan Country Narrative, pp. 290-291, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
95“Child victims of Pakistan’s ‘begging mafia’”, (1 June 2013), Mobeen Azhar, BBC News Magazine: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22729351
96
Ibid.
97
“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, Pakistan Country Narrative, p276, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2012/192368.htm
98
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan: http://www.pbs.gov.pk/
81

82

39.

Pa k i s tan con t i n u ed

Organ trafficking is a problem: in mid 2011 there were reportedly a total of 42 illegal kidney transplantfacilities in the country, 14 of which are in Punjab.99

Notable aspects of the problem
Cultural practices play a significant role in modern slavery in Pakistan. Individuals belonging to lower kinshipgroups among Muslims and scheduled castes among Hindus are particularly
vulnerable. Additionally, Vaani and Swara are still practiced.100 These practices
t here are high rates
of forced marriage ofare methods of settling blood feuds between clans by forcing a young girl towomen and girls
marry a man from the enemy clan. Attributable to this, there are high rates
of forced marriage of women and girls.
The Child Marriages Restraint Act 1929 states the legal marriageable age of females as 16, two years younger
than the international minimum. Males cannot legally be married until 18, highlighting obvious gender
discrimination. Shariah law however uses puberty as a criterion for marriage and does not specify any age.
This conflicts with provisions of the Child Marriages Restraint Act making the law hard to implement andtherefore being largely ineffective as prevalence of child marriage persists.101

2. What is the government doing about it?
Government efforts to address modern slavery in Pakistan are poorly coordinated and executed. There arestill large gaps in rules and regulations and no rehabilitation programmes for people affected by modern
slavery seem to be in place.
Pakistan
Ratified
Pakistan has ratified several key treaties onmodern slavery but not the UN Trafficking
Protocol or the Domestic Work Convention.

Slavery Convention

Yes

Supplementary Slavery Convention

Yes

UN Trafficking Protocol

No

The budget allocated by the Government
Forced Labour Convention
Yesof Pakistan to respond to modern slavery
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yes
is not known. The responsibility for labour
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
inspections sits with provincial governments
Domestic Work Convention
Nosince devolution of central responsibility in2010, and the mandate of labour inspectorates differs from province to province under local laws. There is alack of clarity in available information about the status of this process, and how much responsibility provincial
governments have taken for anti-slavery initiatives. Generally poor labour conditions, a lack of enforcement oflabour laws and standards, and high levels of corruption persist. A lack of adequate labour inspection machinery
was identified as a key reason by the ILO Committee of Experts in 2012 on its observations on Convention 29
as to why bonded labourers were not being identified and released.
Pakistan has a National Action Plan for Combating Human Trafficking, developed by the Ministry of Interior,
to guide the country’s responses to modern slavery. The Federal Investigative Agency (FIA) hosts an antitrafficking unit, although this unit’s budget, capacity and level of training are unclear. It also appears that the
FIA is primarily concerned with transnational trafficking and does not focus on slavery of Pakistani nationals.
The criminalisation of modern slavery in Pakistan occurs through a complex framework of several legislativeand regulatory mechanisms. It does not appear that there is an effective coordinating mechanism for theGovernment’s multiple responses to modern slavery. Slavery is prohibited in Pakistan’s Constitution. Someforms of modern slavery are criminalised in the Pakistan Penal code but significant gaps remain. Transnationaltrafficking, but not domestic trafficking, is criminalised under the Prevention and Control of Human
Trafficking Ordinance 2002 (PACHTO). While prosecutions and convictions under this Ordinance have beenreported by the Government, it is not clear if these convictions are for irregular migration (also cover by thisOrdinance) or modern slavery situations.102“Cash for kidneys: Pakistan’s flourishing trade in illegal transplants” (23 July 2012), Ali Usman, The Express Tribune: http://tribune.com.pk/story/411570/cash-for-kidneyspakistans-flourishing-trade-in-illegal-transplants/
100‘Vaani’ is a word used in Punjab while ‘Swara’ is the name of this practice among the Pashtuns.
101“Pakistan: Government urged to increase legal marriageable age for girls” (23 February 2011) Child Rights International Network: http://crin.org/resources/infodetail.asp?id=24251
102“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Pakistan Country Narrative, p290, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf

The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) (BLSA) Act of 1992 and the corresponding BLSA Rules of 1995
prohibit and punish bonded labour and provide a mandate for some services to victims. Under the devolution
process, federal laws apply to the provinces until provincial laws are enacted. However, it is reported that the
Punjab is the only province to have enacted laws on bonded labour. It is also reported that Pakistan has yet
to secure a conviction under the forced labour laws, despite them being
in place for nearly 20 years.103
Pakistan has yet tosecure a conviction
The Government has started a social protection programme for the poorest
under the forced l abour
segment of the population which is likely to affect modern slavery in thel aws, despite theircountry. The Benazir Income Support Programme (BISP) was initiatedhaving been in pl ace
by the Government of Pakistan in 2008 as an unconditional cash transfer
for nearly 20 years
targeted to women in poor households. BISP represents a major scaling up
of social protection systems in Pakistan with a three-fold increase in budgetary outlay in this area in its firstyear. It currently claims to reach 5 million beneficiaries or up to a fifth of all households. Its use of the census
method in beneficiary identification through a poverty scorecard survey ensures that the poorest are targeted.
Due to the intersection between the poorest households and people vulnerable to debt bondage BISP is likely
playing a part in the reduction of modern slavery in the country.
In response to reports of organ trafficking, the Government enacted the Transplantation of Human Organs
and Tissue Act 2010, which provides penalties of up to 10 years in jail. The Ministry of Health has been
criticised for not implementing the law strongly enough, with a newspaper source stating that 450 casesof organ trade have occurred in Punjab villages since March 2010 when the law was enacted.104

Adequate focus on victim identification and assistance is severely lacking in Pakistan and data about victims
is scarce. While modern slavery is widespread, community knowledge of labour rights and the rights ofvictims of exploitative labour in Pakistan is low.
No protections for the privacy and security of victim-witnesses exist in Pakistani law. The PACHTO makes
provision for safe repatriation assistance and confers some temporary immigration rights on victims whose
repatriation is not immediately possible, however it is unclear how these rights are applied in practice. The
2013 US TIP Report cited comments of local NGOs to the effect that trafficking victims were sometimes
criminalised for offences related to their trafficking, and victims of debt bondage who sought the help ofpolice were sometimes returned to their places of work as “runaways.”105
There is neither a mechanism to coordinate action among provinces nor a national referral mechanism. Thereis no effective coordination between government actors and NGOs. Some coordination has been achieved
though ILO efforts to engage NGOs on the issue of bonded labour. There is no institutional mechanism fordata collection and research. The national Government sporadically publishes information on bonded labourand human trafficking. Little information about state budgetary allocations is available, and it is impossible
on available information to get an idea of the size of the resources allocated to the issue country-wide.

Notable aspects of the response
Notwithstanding these challenges, some positive developments have taken place in recent years. Training of
judges and labour inspectors on bonded labour and internal trafficking has been conducted in the last yearby the ILO. Initiatives run jointly by the Government and the ILO in the brick kiln sector have resulted in
the Elimination of Bonded Labour in Brick Kilns programme. Such initiatives have been directed at outreachto communities in which brick kiln labour is common, and have focused on education, microcredit schemes,
and registration of sector workers with government.
Community welfare attachés have been established in major destination countries for Pakistani migrant
workers including Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Libya and the UK. Various
NGOs work to assist Pakistanis overseas. In addition, a February 2013 draft of the National Policy
for Overseas Pakistanis calls for embassies to take a greater role in protecting Pakistani workers abroad.

99

40.

Ibid.
“Alarm over organ trade resurgence” (29 April 2011), Dawn Newspaper: http://beta.dawn.com/news/624839/alarm-over-organ-trade-resurgence
105“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Pakistan Country Narrative, p292, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
103
104

41.

Pa k i s tan con t i n u ed

The Foreign Service Agreement (FSA) procedure provides some checks and balances on overseas recruitment,
but is not used by the majority of emigrants.
Women in Pakistan face significant discrimination and high levels of violence (with proportions as high as fourin five women having faced some sort of domestic abuse). The Prevention of Anti-Women Practices Bill, thatprohibits forced marriages, was passed in 2011, however no information is available in relation to the law’s
enforcement, and there is still much work to do in this regard.

3. What needs to happen?
Pakistan should:
Ratify and implement the UN Trafficking Protocol.
■■ Ensure that national laws clearly criminalise all forms of modern slavery, and treat this issue separately toirregular migration and people smuggling.
■■ Publish an annual report on implementation and progress under the National Action Plan for Combating
Human Trafficking, including clear data on budget expenditure, and criminal justice statistics ontransnational trafficking but also other prevalent forms of modern slavery, such as debt bondage andforced marriage offences.
■■ Undertake national prevalence estimates on modern slavery, with a specific focus not only on transnational
cases but also debt bondage and forced marriage situations.
■■ Provide budgets to provincial governments to develop and execute action plans, and require reportingon progress.
■■ Establish a mechanism for coordination across all forms of modern slavery, between government and civilsociety working on these issues.
■■ Strengthen efforts to identify and punish those who facilitate and profit from modern slavery, whether this isowners of brick kilns, organisers of physical markets in which victims are sold, or brokers of forced marriages.
■■ Increase measures to prevent modern slavery, including conducting national community awareness andmobilisation campaigns in local languages, with a particular focus on debt bondage and forced marriage.
■■ Increase efforts to actively identify and assist victims, strengthen protections for victims of modern slavery
and ensure that they are not criminalised, or detained in “women’s shelters.”106■■ Continue efforts to raise the status of women and girls. In particular, it should consider measures toreduce the incidence of forced and child marriage.
■■ Find ways to allow the public to more rapidly and publicly report corruption and complicity of
government officials in modern slavery.
■■ Continue efforts directed at addressing the underlying causes of modern slavery – such as poverty,
illiteracy, underemployment, violence against women, discrimination and social exclusion.
■■

India
Estimated number enslaved
13,300,000 – 14,700,000
Population
1,236,686,732 (2012) 107
GDP$1.842 trillion (2012) 108
GDP/capita$1,489 (2012) 109
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 3% (2011) 110

INDEX r a n k

4

1. The problem
India’s challenges are immense. The world’s second most populous country with a population of over
1.2 billion people, India exhibits the full spectrum of different forms of modern slavery, from severe forms
of inter-generational bonded labour across various industries to the worst forms of child labour, commercial
sexual exploitation, and forced and servile marriage. India’s own 2008 Integrated Plan of Action to Prevent
and Combat Human Trafficking describes the problem as follows: “India is a country of vast dimensions.
The formidable challenge is the enormity of the problem, both in number of trafficked persons and increasing
number of locations.” The 2013 US TIP Report cites figures of an estimated 20 to 65 million Indian citizens
in forced labour within India as a result of debt bondage.111 While this estimate is much larger than the Walk
Free estimate, both estimates underscore the enormity of the problem within India itself.
Reports consistently note that India’s most significant challenge is them any of India’s ensl aved
high number of Indian citizens in various forms of modern slavery withinhave not been moved
India’s borders. For example, the 2013 US TIP Report that suggests
from one pl ace to112ninety per cent of trafficking in India is internal. Some of this results
another – they arefrom internal migration, as migrants can originate from poor rural
ensl aved in their own
communities, lured to relatively wealthier cities by brokers on the false
vill ages
pretence of employment. Internally trafficked men, women and children
make up significant shares of the workforce in construction, textiles, brick making, mines, fish and prawn
processing and hospitality.113 However it is important to note that many of India’s enslaved have not been
moved from one place to another – they are enslaved in their own villages. Many are trapped in debt bondage
to a local landowner or born into slavery because of caste, customary, social and hereditary obligations.
Forced labour has been identified in factory work, agriculture, brick making, mining and quarrying, thetextiles and garments industries, domestic work, and forced begging. Bonded labour, whether through debt
or other forms of ‘bondage’ of workers, is rife in stone quarries, brick kilns, construction and mining.114 The
difficulty for internal migrant workers in accessing protections and government entitlements, such as the foodrations card, which is based on a worker’s residence, is thought to increase vulnerability to exploitation.115
Likewise for those enslaved in their own area, corruption or non-performance of safety nets (such as the
National Employment Guarantee, food rations, primary health care and pensions) and practices of land
grabbing and asset domination by high caste groups (or for commercial development) leaves people without
protections. Some of those affected by slavery in India do not officially exist – they have no birth registration
or ID so it can be hard for them to access protective entitlements.
Cross-border migration affects India on a massive scale. Low skilled migrant workers – both internal andforeign (regular and irregular) – are at particular risk of exploitation. Vast numbers of Nepali and Bhutanesemigrants, who are exempt from Indian migration visa regulations, fall victim to unscrupulous recruiters andexploiters who take advantage of their vulnerability as new arrivals. Among these vulnerable cross border2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
109
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
110
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
111“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, India Country Narrative, p290, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf
112
Ibid.
113
Information from field based sources.
114
Ibid.
115
Ibid.
107

108

42.

106

“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Pakistan Country Narrative, p290, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf

43.

Ind i a con t i n u ed

migrants are droves of undocumented Bangladeshis who, as unskilled labourers, are not able to qualify for
employment visas,116 and turn to illegal brokers to facilitate employment.
Sexual exploitation of Indian women, men and transgender people within India, both adults and children,
is widespread.117 Commercial sexual exploitation takes place in specificS exual exploitation of
established areas but is also now much more dispersed into rural areas,
Indian women, men andtransport hubs, roadside restaurants and houses in suburban areas, extensivelytransgender peopleusing cell phones, making it harder to locate and tackle. Foreign women,
within India, bothlargely from Nepal and Bangladesh, have been identified in situations ofadults and children,commercial sexual exploitation.118
is widespread
In 2011, the ILO Committee of Experts “noted the Government [of India’s]
indication in its 2008 Report that since the enactment of the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976
(BLSA), 287,555 bonded labourers had been identified, of whom 267,593 had been rehabilitated.”119
However, the ILO Committee of Experts also noted that “findings from research studies showed that bonded
labour in agriculture and in industries like mining, brick kilns, silk and cotton production, and bidi making
was likely to be affecting millions of workers across the country.”120 The ILO Committee of Experts has
urged India to undertake national bonded labour surveys. Also, the identification and rehabilitation notedby the ILO Experts happened a long time ago, and in many Indian States local officials are not currently
encouraged or supported to find bonded labourers.121
The 2012 UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons noted a “global dimension to the [trafficking]flows originating in South Asia.” Indian nationals who have migrated for work have found themselves inmodern slavery – often involving recruitment intermediaries and debt bondage – around the world. They
have been exploited in various industries including construction, mining, agriculture and hospitality, in
manual labour and commercial sexual exploitation, as well as in private domestic work and as domestic staff
at Indian diplomatic missions abroad.

Notable aspects of the problem
The World Bank estimated in 2012 that 32.7% of Indians lived below the international poverty line of lessthan US$1.25/day (PPP). Poverty and India’s caste system are significant contributing factors to its modern
slavery problem. Indians most vulnerable to modern slavery are those from the ‘lower’ castes (dalits), and theindigenous communities (adivasis), especially women and children. In surveys of violence and discrimination
against women, India is consistently ranked poorly. The low status of women and severity and prevalence ofdomestic violence in society puts them at risk of modern slavery.122‘Non-labour’ forms of modern slavery, including forced and servile marriage, fraudulent adoption andorgan trafficking have been identified in India. Forced marriage is partly fuelled by sex-ratio disparity – thosestates with worst disparity import girls into servile marriages from poorer states.123 Commercial surrogacy islegal in India and is an area of concern because of the potential for exploitation to occur, however no casesthat would constitute modern slavery have been publicly verified, and surrogacy laws are in the process of
being tightened.124

2. What is the government doing about it?
The Government has taken some important steps to set up the infrastructure of a response to various formsof modern slavery. For example, if fully implemented, the social safety net provisions such as the Employment

US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, India Country Narrative, pp. 184-185, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192595.pdf“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, India Country Narrative, p195, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf
118
Ibid.
119
Observation (CEACR) – adopted 2011, published 101nd ILC session (2012), Forced Labour Convention, 19030, (No. 29): http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_ID:3080704
120
Ibid.
121
Information from field based sources.
122“India: Worst country in G20 to be a woman?”, (31 July 2012), BBC Radio Four: http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_9741000/9741747.stm
123
United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2013, US Department of State, p195: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf
124“India’s new surrogacy laws are only part of the equation”, (14 March 2013), Monash University, Dr Liz Bishop: http://monash.edu/news/show/indias-new-surrogacy-lawsare-only-part-of-the-equation
116

117

44.

Guarantee could be a best practice to be followed by other countries. However, considering the power andresources of the Indian Government, the Government has not fulfilled its duty to protect its citizens. Until
recently, the response to human trafficking focused almost exclusively on the sexual exploitation of women andchildren, and other forms of human trafficking including those affecting men were barely recognised. National
leaders tend not to recognise the violent criminality of bonded labour and instead see it as a vestige of poverty.125
India has ratified a number of key Conventions
India
Ratifiedrelevant to modern slavery. However, India
Slavery Convention
Yes
is one of the few remaining countries in the
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
world not to have ratified the Worst Forms of
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yes
Child Labour Convention. While not always
Forced Labour Convention
Yes
slavery, these so called “worst forms” of child
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Nolabour covered by this Convention, occurs
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
on a significant scale in India and are deeply
Domestic Work Convention
No
connected to the modern slavery issue. India’s
Right to Education – whereby the authorities are required to ensure all children of school going age are inschool – is important, as is the Integrated Child Protection Scheme, which is making a difference in someareas. There have been efforts in many places to enforce child labour laws. India has not ratified the Domestic
Work Convention.
Until recently, Indian legislation on modern slavery was complicated and confused. However, following
amendments to the Penal Code in April 2013, section 370 Penal Code criminalises all forms of humantrafficking in accordance with the definition taken from the UN Trafficking Protocol. The definition usedin the amended Penal Code appears broad enough, at least on paper, to include most if not all forms offorced labour, bonded labour and forced marriage (as bonded labour and forced marriage are covered within
the meaning of the term ‘slavery like practice’). However, it remains to be seen if the Penal Code will be usedin this way.
Bonded labour has been criminalised in India, under the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976
(BLSA)126 for close to three decades. However, enforcement has been sporadic and weak. The Act declaresthat bonded labour is abolished as of 25 October 1975, and that bonded labourers were relieved of their
obligation to repay their bonded debt. However, in 2013, bonded labour continues to be prevalent andNGOs report having insufficient resources to empower communities to shed the burden of forced labour.
Human rights defenders have also been targeted for anti-slavery work:
one NGO reported an attack on their workers, as well as victims ande nforcement of l aws
criminalising modern sl avery
officials while in process of assisting bonded labourers to leave theis inconsistent, and theworkplace where they had been held in slavery.127 Penalties under thiscomplicity or interference
law are low, set at a maximum of three years imprisonment, comparedof government officials has
to ten years under the recent human trafficking amendments to thebeen widely reported
Penal Code.
NGOs have stated that enforcement of laws criminalising modern slavery is inconsistent, and the complicity
or interference of government officials has been widely reported.128 As a result national and state level
responses are not benefitting those in slavery as much as they should, due to complicity of local officials andtheir avoidance of conflict with locally powerful slaveholders and traffickers. The justice system is very slow
generally, so victims have little or no confidence in its capacity to deliver a result.129 NGOs have also reported
a focus on the trafficking of women and children, particularly for sexual exploitation, and less willingness on
the part of government and law enforcement to deal with the exploitation of adult males, or to address the far
more locally prevalent forms of debt bondage or bonded labour.
“India official: it’s not slavery” (10 March 2011), CNN Freedom Project: http://thecnnfreedomproject.blogs.cnn.com/2011/03/10/india-official-its-not-slavery/
The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976, Child Line India: http://www.childlineindia.org.in/CP-CR-Downloads/Bonded%20Labour%20System%20(Abolition)%20
Act%201976%20and%20Rules.pdf
127“Human Rights Worker Hospitalized as Brick Kiln Owner and Henchmen Attack Rescued Slaves During Police Raid” (13 June 2013), Free The Slaves blog: http://ftsblog.
net/2013/06/13/human-rights-worker-hospitalized-as-brick-kiln-owner-and-henchmen-attack-rescued-slaves-during-police-raid/128“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, India Country Narrative, p195, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf
129
Information from field based sources.
125

126

45.

Ind i a con t i n u ed

Information is not available about the Indian Government’s total budget allocation to responding to modern
slavery. It is known that the Indian Government has increased funding of anti-trafficking activities to state
governments, however there is notable variation among states’ budgetary allocations and responses to the
problem of modern slavery.130 For example, the May 2013 UNODC Country Assessment for India notedthat in Uttar Pradesh in India’s north and bordering with Nepal,
The justice system is very
“the state has not taken any concrete steps to combat trafficking.”131
slow generally, so victims
In the state of Odisha in India’s East, on the other hand, preventative
have little or no confidence
steps have been taken and various initiatives are in place to identify
in its capacity to deliver
132
vulnerable communities and provide services to victims.
a result

In 2005, the Ministry of Rural Development introduced the Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (NREGA), aimed at enhancing the livelihood
security of people in rural areas by guaranteeing one hundred days of wage-employment in a financial year
to a rural household whose adult members agree to do unskilled manual work.133 This scheme provides analternative for those trapped in bonded labour and the national Government and NGOs are working hard to
popularise this. In some states, the ability of NREGA to benefit those in need depends on NGO mobilisationof local populations to pressure local village leaders. More investment in NGO outreach and enforcementof NREGA is needed to ensure its proper implementation. If fully implemented, NREGA would be a
programme of global significance in the fight against modern slavery.

The National Advisory Committee to Combat Trafficking focuses on the trafficking of women and children
for sexual exploitation. Meetings of the Committee occurred in 2009, 2011 and 2012. Reports of the
National Advisory Committee are not publicly available but the main issues discussed are shared throughpress notes as well as the advisories issued by the Central Government to the state governments to combat
trafficking. For example, a 2012 Advisory on Human Trafficking as an Organised Crime, issued under the
integrated Plan of Action, focuses on the requirements of an effective criminal justice response to humantrafficking. This Advisory notes the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is the national lead, and single
point of liaison between the Ministry of External Affairs and State parties on conventions and protocols.
The Advisory recommends several key action points; primarily the establishment and training of Anti-Human
Trafficking Units (AHTU) at State level including the training of local
police officers for law enforcement and local intelligence units. AccordingI f fully implemented,
NREGA would be ato the Advisory, State police agencies may set up help lines and special desks
programme of global
in police stations and control rooms to address this issue on a real time
significance in the fightbasis. However, the number of AHTUs that have been established at theagainst sl avery
State level that meet this standard is unknown.
The Ministry of Home Affairs, along with UNODC, developed standard operating procedures (SOPs) for
the identification of victims of trafficking, in 2009. State governments were advised to implement them, but
as of March 2013 no evaluation of the implementation of the SOPs has been conducted. Many officials areunaware of relevant laws and procedures, however recent initiatives aimed at increasing awareness of modern
slavery among police, such as a new academic course for police run by the Indira Gandhi National Open
University,134 are encouraging.
Significant gaps remain in the support provided to victims of modern slavery in India. Gaps include a failure
to provide Release Certificates for rescued bonded labourers, especially in States that do not acknowledge
bonded labour.135 Even for those with Release Certificates there are serious delays in issuing payments ofcompensation.136 There is a critical need for clearer, faster and more victim-focused processes of repatriation
For detailed analysis of services on state by state basis, see “Current Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on Anti-Human Trafficking” (May2013), pp. 61-156, UNODC Country Assessment Report: http://www.unodc.org/documents/southasia//reports/Human_Trafficking-10-05-13.pdf
131“Current Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on Anti-human Trafficking” (2013), p151, UNODC Regional Office for South East Asia: http://
www.unodc.org/documents/southasia//reports/Human_Trafficking-10-05-13.pdf
132
Ibid.
133
“Mahatma Ghandi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005”, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India: http://nrega.nic.in/netnrega/home.aspx.
134“55 CID officials join course against human trafficking” (29 June 2013), The Times of India: http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-06-29/ahmedabad/40271354_1_
human-trafficking-ignou-officials-ips-officers
135
Information from field based sources.
136
Ibid.
130

46.

and visa assistance for foreign victims, who can sometimes be stuck in shelters for years. Services to foreign
migrant workers are ad hoc and are mainly delivered by NGOs and IOs. For example, Migrant Resource
Centres exist in Kerala and Hyderabad and are run by the Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs (MOIA) in
collaboration with local government and IOM. Limited support and services are available to Indian nationals
exploited abroad, through embassies and labour attaches. MOIA has also set up Indian Community Welfare
Fund to provide legal, medical and repatriation support to the stranded Indian workers abroad. The Ministry
for Women and Child Development funds a number of services run by NGOs for women victims. It is notclear whether any surveys have been carried out regarding client-victim satisfaction with services provided.
No services are offered under these programmes to adult male victims. The quality of government run shelter
homes ranges from acceptable to very poor, with women in some states being left to languish in these homes,
with poor nutrition and medical care, and few opportunities to improve their skills for the future. There is noeffective inspection and regulation system in some states, with shelter homes (including those run by NGOs)
operating as closed systems without any effective protections for theThe quality of government
women. Adult women survivors are not necessarily free to leave.

run shelter homes ranges
from acceptable to very poor,
with women in some states
being left to l anguish in thesehomes, with poor nutrition
and medical care, and few
opportunities to improvetheir skills for the future

Provisions within the Penal Code allow a victim of trafficking to seek
compensation against a perpetrator. No information is available as towhether or not these have ever been successfully used. There is alsoa state fund for victims of bonded labour under the BLSA, throughwhich victims of bonded labour are entitled to compensation of
20,000 rupees (approx. $450); however disbursement of funds has
been uneven.137 Women and children in bonded labour in commercial
sexual exploitation do not get access to this standard compensation because their cases are not prosecuted
under the BLSA.138

Notable aspects of the response
In 2011, Indian National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), which is mandated by the Supreme Court
to monitor the implementation of the BLSA, established a Core Group on Bonded Labour. The Core Groupis chaired by NHRC and brings together government and non-government actors working to end bonded
labour to review laws and policies, identify best practice, and coordinate the country’s response. It seems thecore group has only met once.
On 15 October 2012, the Supreme Court issued a judgment, requiring all states to carry out surveys toidentify and release those in bonded labour. It is understood that the State of Karnataka is leading in thisregard, with a detailed Karnataka State Action Plan on Bonded Labour 2008, which provides detailed
guidance for every responsible official, and specifies the exact support available to victims in the State.139
Other States are yet to follow this lead. Karnataka has recently trained officials across the whole state in how
to carry out these surveys and register individuals found in bonded labour.140
Other important directions in the Supreme Court judgment include mandating the rural and urban local
bodies to report cases of bonded labour to the District Magistrates who in addition to use of the BLSA,
are able to properly and effectively implement the Minimum Wages Act, the Employees Compensation Act,the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, and the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act.
The enactment of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act in 2012 and the recent increase inactivity of the National Commission for the Protection of Children’s Rights are important measures that
demonstrate the Government’s renewed commitment to fighting against the exploitation of children.
Sale of sexual services is prevalent but highly stigmatised, and, to the extent that it is ‘organised,’ it is criminalised
in India. A 2009 UNDP research paper estimated that there were over 3 million sex workers in India,“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2011”, India Country Study, pp. 188-191, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2011/164232.htm
According to field-based sources in India, if these cases are prosecuted, it is under ITPA or other parts of the penal code (kidnapping, rape etc) – but almost never bonded labour
under the BLSA. Under ITPA, or if children are assisted by using the Juvenile Justice Act, there may be some discretionary assistance given but they do not have the same right toa substantial compensation grant. Law enforcement and NGOs do not consider commercial sexual exploitation as bonded labour
139
Information from field based sources.
140
Ibid.
137
138

47.

Ind i a con t i n u eda significant proportion of whom were “seasonal migrants and commuters.” Many of these people began thiswork as children. A focus on brothel raids and ‘rescue’ of victims is a prominent feature of India’s response.
There have been several reported instances of women being detained against their will in ‘shelters’ and forced
into social programmes.141 Since the case of Buddhadev Karmaskar vs State of West Bengal142 in the Supreme
Court, a committee has been established to “examine the issue of rehabilitation of sex workers and trafficked
victims.”143 Any response should first and foremost respect the human rights of those affected, and ensurethat they are not criminalised, detained or forced into ‘rehabilitation’ programmes. Responses to modern
slavery should be careful to take into account that while victims of human trafficking need to be assisted to
freedom, some adults work in the sex industry for survival.

Strengthen efforts directed at stamping out corruption and complicity of government officials in modern
slavery, including through encouraging innovative, no-cost mechanisms to report suspected official complicity.
■■ Continue efforts directed at addressing the underlying causes of modern slavery – such as poverty,
illiteracy, underemployment, violence against women, discrimination, lack of access to entitlements suchas functioning schools and health services, and social exclusion.
■■ Seek to address the “grass is greener over there” stories with information dissemination about therealities of migration, and mobility – and also build specific institutional capacity to inform people andcommunities about mobility.
■■

3. What needs to happen?
India should:
Report annually on implementation and progress of efforts to combat all forms of modern slavery,
including through provision of criminal justice statistics. This will require the establishment of protocols
on the collection and compilation of data.
■■ Undertake national prevalence estimates on modern slavery.
■■ Ratify and implement the Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, and the Domestic
Work Convention.
■■ Require States to report on how they have followed up on the Supreme Court Judgement of October 15,
2012, requiring all states to carry out surveys to identify and release those in bonded labour. The efforts
currently being made in the State of Karnataka should be promoted and followed by other States.
■■ Update rules for use in implementing the Bonded Labour Act.
■■ Update the 2008 integrated Plan of Action to combat human trafficking so that it reflects current
conditions, the new law and targets the full spectrum of modern slavery.
■■ At the State level, develop and implement action plans on bonded labour in every state and union
territory, following the example of the Karnataka State Action Plan on Bonded Labour 2008. Appoint ahigh level responsible officer at the State and District level, who focuses only on tasks related to bonded
labour and other forms of modern slavery. Official District Bonded Labour Vigilance Committees should
be made active, involving committed NGO representatives and slavery survivors.
■■ Undertake an assessment to understand whether the AHTUs established are consistently applying relevantlaws and guidance, and understand whether all forms of modern slavery are in fact being investigatedand prosecuted.
■■ Strengthen protections for victims of modern slavery and ensure that they are not criminalised. Victims
must be protected (including protecting their identities) throughout the duration of their cases andmethods of speeding up trials should be implemented. Ensure follow-up with reintegrated survivors.
■■ Invest in well-supported outreach to typical sites of slave labour to raise awareness about rights.
■■ Upgrade shelter homes and take steps to ensure that the human rights of shelter home residents areobserved and penalties imposed on those who violate their rights. Sheltering of victims (by both
NGOs and government) should not in reality be a system of false imprisonment and punishment.
The qualification of leadership of these institutions, as well as the training and re-training of staff should
be given close attention. A programme of investment in upgrading and of independent participation in
unannounced inspections should be initiated.
■■ Clarify legal, policy and law enforcement responses to commercial sexual exploitation, and respect thehuman rights of those affected by any response, including those who depend on working in the sex
industry for survival, who are not in slavery.
■■ Ensure ‘raids’ follow victim-centred procedures to ensure they help more than harm.
■■

48.

141
For example, “25 women rescued in trafficking cases escape,” (21 April 2013), Times of India: http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-04-21/hyderabad/38709893_1_
rescue-home-rescued-women-uppal
142“Budhadev Karmaskar vs State of West Bengal” (14 February, 2011), Criminal Appeal No 135 of 2010, Indian Supreme Court: http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1302025/
143“Current Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on Anti-human Trafficking” (2013), p16, UNODC Regional Office for South East Asia: http://
www.unodc.org/documents/southasia//reports/Human_Trafficking-10-05-13.pdf

49.

NepalEstimated number enslaved
250,000 – 270,000
Population
27,474,377 (2012) 144
GDP$19.41 (2012) 145
GDP/capita$707 (2012) 146
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 22% (2011) 147

INDEX r a n k

5

1. The problem
Nepal is considered a source, transit and destination country for men, women and children in modern slavery.
Within Nepal itself, modern slavery takes the form of forced labour, especially in brick kilns and embroidered
textiles, and forced sex work. Historical forms of bonded labour also persist in agriculture, cattle rearing, brickkilns, the stone-breaking industry and domestic work.148
Large numbers of Nepali workers migrate for work – overseas remittances alone made up 22% of the economy
in 2011.149 In the 2010-2011 fiscal year, 354,716 Nepali migrated abroad for work.150 Approximately 90% of
the 2.5 million Nepalese women working abroad are undocumented.151 An estimated 1300 Nepalese citizens
go abroad for work every day.152 Conditions indicative of forced labour, such as withholding of passports
and restrictions on movement, have been reported of migrant workers in India, the Gulf countries, Malaysia,
Israel, South Korea and Lebanon.153 The abuse and exploitationof Nepali female migrant workers in Gulf countries led to a ban
a buse and exploitation of Nepali
by the Nepali Government of women migrating for work as
female migrant workers in Gulf
countries led to a ban of women
domestic workers in the UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Qatar
migrating for work as domestic(since revoked except for women under 30), but that did little
workers but that did little toto stop or ensure the safety of those who migrated anyway.
stop or ensure the safety of
Official figures show that the number of Nepalese migrating
those who migrated anyway
abroad has increased five-fold since 2000.154
Trafficking of Nepali migrant workers to, and within these destination countries is linked to registeredand unregistered recruitment agencies based in Nepal, which are known to charge exorbitant fees for theirservices, which can increase vulnerability to exploitation. The line between legal and illegal recruitment isoften thin with corruption playing a role at many steps in the process. In October 2012, the Labour Minister
resigned after he was allegedly caught seeking bribes from foreign recruitment agencies.155

Notable aspects of the problem
In the seven years since the end of Nepal’s decade-long civil war, a prolonged political transition has createdfavourable conditions for various forms of modern slavery to thrive. A crippled economy, widespread
corruption, weak infrastructure, low social mobility and institutionalized ethnic and gender discrimination
provide an extremely exploitable work force. The negative effects of the conflict and crippled economic
growth encourage Nepali men, women and children to seek work overseas and in poorly-regulated
environments, even when they may know the risks this places them in.156
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
147
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank:
148“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Nepal Country Narrative, p275, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
On traditional forms of debt bondage and domestic work, see “Nepal Belatedly takes action on slavery following Srijana Chaudhary tragedy”, 15 June 2013, The Guardian: http://
www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2013/jun/14/nepal-action-slavery-srijana-chaudhary
149
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
150“Labour Brokerage and Trafficking of Nepali Migrant Workers”, Verite Report, p7: http://www.verite.org/sites/default/files/images/Humanity%20United-Nepal%20
Trafficking%20Report-Final_1.pdf
151“Illegal Employment Abroad Increases Health Risks for Nepalese Women” (June 11 2013), Global Press Institute: http://www.globalpressinstitute.org/asia/nepal/illegalemployment-abroad-increases-health-risks-nepalese-women152“Nepalese dying to work” (May 13 2012), CNN Freedom Project – Ending Modern Day Slavery: http://thecnnfreedomproject.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/13/nepalese-dying-to-work/
153“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Nepal Country Narrative, p275, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
154“Nepal: Protect Nepalese migrants from ‘false promises’ of work abroad” (12 December 2011), Amnesty International News: http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/nepal-protectnepalese-migrants-false-promises-work-abroad-2011-12-12
155“Nepalese Minister Resigns over Bribery Charges”, (21 October 2012), The Guardian: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/10493096
156
Information from field based sources.
144
145
146

50.

Modern slavery within Nepal is tied to widespread ethnic and gender inequalities. Members of the lower
social castes, particularly women and children, are frequently denied access to basic rights and infrastructurethat might mitigate their risks of enslavement, such as education, healthcare, employment and justice.
Domestic violence is implicated in women and girls being vulnerable to exploitation through humantrafficking. Members of the lower castes and indigenous ethnic groups are especially vulnerable to forced
labour in brick and gravel making, agriculture, domestic servitude, street begging, forced and child marriage,
and sexual exploitation.
There are large numbers of children engaged in the workforce, many of whom experience abuse andexploitation. The ILO estimates that more than 600,000 Nepali children work in the worst forms of childlabour, which includes conditions of sexual exploitation, hazardous and dangerous working conditions,and forced and enslaved labour.157

2. What is the government doing about it?
Nepal is party to a number of key international laws relevant to modern slavery but not the UN Trafficking
Protocol. Nepal is party to the more limited SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking
in Women and Children for Prostitution.
In terms of national laws, Nepal passed the Human Trafficking and Transportation Control Act (HTTCA)
in 2007. The law criminalizes the selling or purchasing of a person for any purpose, forced sex work, andunlawful organ extraction, punishable by fines
Nepal
Ratifiedand 5-20 years of imprisonment. However, theSlavery Convention
Yes
legislation has many shortcomings: it does not
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yescriminalise forced marriage, or address nonUN Trafficking Protocol
Noprosecution of victims for trafficking-related
Forced Labour Convention
Yes
crimes, and clarifying language is needed on
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yeswhat constitutes the “selling or purchasing of
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
a person.” The law criminalizes all forms of sex
Domestic Work Convention
Nowork. This has resulted in the arrest of people
working in the sex industry, including victims of abuse and exploitation. In some reported instances this has
resulted in the increased indebtedness of girls who were already trafficked victims, as a result of having theirbail cost added to their debt.158
Nepal outlawed bonded labour in 2002 with the Kamaiya Labour Prohibition Act (Kamaiya Act). ThisAct only stipulates that persons held in bonded labour be freed; no penalties are provided under the law.
A government intervention followed the passing of the Kamaiya Act in which Kamaiya labourers were freed,and some were resettled and provided land and job training. However, other Nepali groups held in similar
bonded labour systems, such as the Haruwas (bonded plougher),159 Charuwas (bonded cattle herder),160
and Haliyas, are not covered by this legislation. In September 2008, Nepal declared Haliya bondage tobe outlawed and all Haliya loans annulled. However, no resettlement or rehabilitation programmes were
implemented, which has left many freed Haliyas indigent or in a debt bondage system known as zirayat
to the same landlords from whom they were previously freed. Bonded labour systems are still present for
Haruwas and Charuwas161 and labour relations between local landowners and Kamaiya and Haliya labourers
continue to be strained and volatile. Since the Kamaiya system was abolished in 2002, the system of zirayat
is re-emerging, a practise of share cropping where produce is divided between landlords and tenants, andtenants are required to till additional land for the landlords without any wages.162

157“Nepal child labour report based on data drawn from the Nepal Labour Force Survey 2008” (31 May 2012), ILO and Central Bureau of Statistics Nepal: http://www.ilo.org/
ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_182002/lang--en/index.htm
158“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Nepal Country Narrative, p276, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
159
Assessment of Socio-Economic Status of Bonded Labour (Haruwa/Charuwa) of Siraha District, 20 September 2012, WOREC Nepal: http://www.worecnepal.org/publication/assessment-socio-economic-status-bonded-labour-haruwa-charuwa-siraha-distirct
160
Ibid.
161
Ibid.
162
“Information on Nepal, Compliance with ILO Convention No.29 on Forced Labour” (July 2009), Anti-Slavery International: http://www.antislavery.org/includes/documents/
cm_docs/2009/f/forced_and_bonded_labour_in_nepal_july_2009.pdf

51.

N epal con t i n u ed

Due to the recent growth in exported labour,163 Nepal also passed the Foreign Employment Act (FEA) in
2007. The FEA primarily outlines the necessary steps that foreign-based entities must take to obtain a license
to employ Nepali workers. The Government has registered approximately 220 recruitment brokers in 2012,a marked increase from previous years – and clarified lines of responsibility.164 The Foreign Employment
Promotion Board collects fees from departed registered migrants for a welfare fund but most of the funds
remain unused.165
There is no specialist investigation unit for human trafficking in the Nepal Police or Prosecution service.166
Statistics on criminal justice interventions demonstrate a bias towards a focus on cross-border trafficking forsexual exploitation and limited or no focus on other forms of modern slavery. In December 2012, the Nepal
National Human Rights Commission noted that in 2011, there were 118
There is no specialist
cases of trafficking recorded in Nepal police: of these, 4 were trafficking
investigation unit forwithin Nepal and 114 were cross-border trafficking and all the cases were
human trafficking in
related to sexual exploitation while none of the cases was reported as
the Nepal Police ortrafficking for marriage, labour exploitation or for removal of organs.167
Prosecution service
In terms of accountability and coordination, Nepal has a National Planof Action on Human Trafficking 2011-2016, developed in consultation with civil society. Nepal also hasformed a National Committee against Human Trafficking, which includes cross-government representatives
and three female nominees with human trafficking expertise, and two female victims of trafficking inpersons.168 The Committee is tasked with formulating and executing national anti-human trafficking
policies, plans and programmes, coordinate and monitor work at the district level, and maintain national
level statistics about human trafficking. Significantly, Nepal also has a Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in
Women and Children. In December 2012, the Special Rapporteur published a 229 page report on antitrafficking efforts, including detailed analysis of statistics on victim support and criminal justice interventions,and recommendations for reforms.169 It is not known what budget allocation the Government has given tomodern slavery efforts.
Given the high numbers of Nepali migrant workers, it is significant that Nepal has bilateral agreements inplace with Malaysia, Bahrain, Japan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Kuwait and South Korea, and Nepal has
trained and posted labour attachés in each of those countries. The Nepali Government also operates safe
shelters in Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait; some repatriated slavery survivors are able to receive
direct services from NGOs upon repatriation.
In terms of victim support, all facilities that assist victims of trafficking
in Nepal are run by NGOs. The Nepal Government has allocated somefunding for protection efforts, reported in December 2012 to be 10 million
Rs ($102,000 USD).170 In June 2013, it was reported that this fund remains
171
largely unspent. There is operational guidance setting minimum standards for victim care but there is asevere lack of monitoring mechanisms.172 In 2013, it is still reported that at least some shelters are effectively
detaining victims,173 raising issues about whether services intended to help are in fact abusing rights of themost vulnerable. It appears that there are no shelter services available for men.

t here are no shelter
services avail able
for men52.

163
In 2012, 354,716 Nepali migrated to other countries for work as stated in “Labour Brokerage and Trafficking of Nepali Migrant Workers”, Verite Report, p7: http://www.verite.
org/sites/default/files/images/Humanity%20United-Nepal%20Trafficking%20Report-Final_1.pdf
164“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Nepal Country Narrative, p277, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
165
Ibid.
166
“Trafficking in Persons, especially on Women and Children in Nepal National Report 2011” (December 2012), p14, National Human Rights Commission, Office of the Special
Rapporteur on Trafficking in Women and Children, Nepal: http://www.nhrcnepal.org/nhrc_new/doc/newsletter/National%20Report%20on%20Traffiking%20in%20Persons%20%20Especially%20%20on%20women%20and%20Children%20in%20Nepal%20-%202012.pdf
167“Nepal National Human Rights Commission website” (2013), Office of National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Women and Children: http://www.nhrcnepal.org/nhrc_contact.html
168“Trafficking in Persons, especially on Women and Children in Nepal National Report 2011” (December 2012), p14, National Human Rights Commission, Office of the Special
Rapporteur on Trafficking in Women and Children, Nepal: http://www.nhrcnepal.org/nhrc_new/doc/newsletter/National%20Report%20on%20Traffiking%20in%20Persons%20%20Especially%20%20on%20women%20and%20Children%20in%20Nepal%20-%202012.pdf
169
Ibid.
170
Ibid.
171
“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Nepal Country Narrative, p276, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
172
Ibid.
173
Ibid.

Notable aspects of the response
From 1998-2010, Nepal banned women from migrating to the UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
for domestic work. The ban did little to protect Nepali migrant workers, as women and girls continued
to migrate illegally to those countries in search of work; their undocumented status only increased theirvulnerability to exploitation. In 2012, Nepal reinstated the ban, but limited it to women and girls under
the age of 30. Implementation, however, is weak due to a severe lack of resources and endemic corruption.
The Nepali Government and the IOM plan to open Migration Resource Centres throughout the country toempower migrant workers, and the police have established specialised units to protect women and children
in each of the 75 districts across Nepal. The US TIP Report 2013 called for the ban on migration of women
under 30 to be lifted, as such bans drive migration further underground and increase risk of trafficking.174

3. What needs to happen?
Nepal should:
Lift the ban on women under the age of 30 migrating to the Middle East, and instead put in placestronger outreach and protection systems for women working in these countries.
■■ Ensure national laws clearly and comprehensively criminalise all forms of modern slavery. Begin thisprocess by ratifying the UN Trafficking Protocol to give national laws a clear basis in international law.
■■ Establish a commission to oversee the protection of various ethnic groups’ and lower castes’ human rights.
■■ Ensure that the new Constitution includes clear provisions against all forms of modern slavery and ensuresequal and accessible citizenship rights for women and girls.
■■ Focus on improving implementation of existing laws including with regard to forced prostitution,
exploitative foreign recruitment organisations, child labour, and workplace conditions.
■■ Increase the Ministry of Labour and Employment’s capacity to collaborate with the National Committee
to Combat Human Trafficking through hiring and training more labour inspectors to identify and reportmodern slavery.
■■ Report on results of investigations into government corruption and complicity in modern slavery.
■■ Fund monitoring of implementation of operational guidelines for rehabilitation centres, protection andcare of victims and survivors or modern slavery.
■■ Coordinate with NGOs to collect data on regions, organisations and populations that are most affectedby trafficking and to streamline response and direct services protocols.
■■ Establish cross-border collaborations, including on law enforcement, repatriation of victims and provisionof services, with India and China.
■■ Focus on ways to facilitate low cost, quick, safe labour migration, while minimising opportunities for“rent seekers” to profit from that process.
■■ Ensure that victims of fraudulent brokers can lodge complaints against them from within their home
Districts rather than travelling to Kathmandu.
■■“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Nepal Country Narrative, p276, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf. See also
“Nepal: Protect, Don’t Ban Young Women Migrating to the Gulf” (14 August 2012), Human Rights Watch: http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/08/14/nepal-protect-don-t-banyoung-women-migrating-gulf
174

53.

Moldova
Estimated number enslaved
32,000 – 35,000
Population
3,559,541 (2012) 175
GDP$7.254 billion (2012) 176
GDP/capita$2,038 (2012) 177
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 23% (2011) 178

INDEX r a n k

6

1. The problem
Moldova is considered primarily a source country for modern slavery, reflecting regional inequalities andtrafficking patterns. In proportion to its cost of living, Moldova’s GDP per capita provides a comfortable life;
however, its GDP is the lowest in Europe, creating a push factor for emigration. In 2011, remittances from
Moldovan’s working overseas made up 23% of GDP, and forward estimates place the value of remittances in2012 at $1,770 million.179 The primary destination countries for documented Moldovan emigrants are the
Ukraine, Russia, USA, Israel, Germany and Belarus.180 The largest share of documented emigration flows is to
Russia and Ukraine, which hosted during 2005-2010, about 80% of the population that left the country eachyear. It is also important to note that each year, the USA hosts about 10 per cent of the Moldovan emigrants,
followed by Israel and Germany with almost 5 per cent of the total emigrants leaving Moldova.181 About 65% of
Moldovan emigrants are less than 39 years old182 and leave the country for employment opportunities abroad.
Moldovan nationals have been identified in modern slavery situations inin the Ukraine, more thanmany countries, involving exploitation in the sex industry, construction,
half the victims ofagriculture, and domestic work. From the statistics of victims assisted
trafficking identified andby IOM in 2012, it appears that in that year, Moldovan men, womenassisted were men, withand children were exploited primarily in the Ukraine, but also in Russia,
92% of men and women
the UAE, Turkey and Kosovo.183 With regard to victims exploited intrafficked for l abour
exploitation
the Ukraine, more than half the victims of trafficking identified andassisted were men, with 92% of men and women trafficked for labour
exploitation; and in Russia, 37% of all victims identified were exploited for labour, while 24% were sexually
exploited. With regard to victims exploited in Kosovo, the UAE and Turkey, all victims identified were
women, and all were trafficked for sexual exploitation.184
Moldova is also, to a lesser extent, a site of modern slavery and a transit country for human trafficking.
The IOM identified 16 internally trafficked victims in 2012, more than half of whom were minors, witheight exploited for their labour, five for sexual exploitation, one a mixture of both labour and sexual
exploitation, and one for begging.185
Trafficking for the purpose of organ removal was identified in Moldova in the late 1990s and early 2000s,
but has been decreasingly reported.
Unlike most countries, in Moldova, various efforts have been made to estimate the scale of the modern
slavery problem. A 2009 paper186 based on a survey of returned migrant workers and the family membersof absent migrant workers conducted in 2006, estimated the number of Moldovans trafficked abroad to be2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
177
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
178
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
179
Ibid.
180
“Extended Migration Profile of the Republic of Moldova” (2012), International Organisation for Migration: http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/110_emp_report.pdf
181
Ibid.
182
“Statistical Review 1: Moldova: Migration and Trafficking Survey” (2012), International Labour Organisation: http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/
shared/mainsite/published_docs/books/data_res_human.pdf
183“Victims of Human Trafficking: A Statistical Profile” (2012), Moldova, International Organisation for Migration: http://www.usaim.org/sites/default/files/IOM%20MD_VoT%20
Statistical%20Profile%202012.pdf
184
Ibid.
185
Ibid.
186
“The Cross-National Market in Human Beings”, 2009, Journal of Macromarketing, Julia R. Pennington, A. Dwayne Ball, Ronald D. Hampton and Julia N. Soulakova: http://
jmk.sagepub.com/content/29/2/119.short
175
176

54.

in the range of 29,000 to 54,000. More recently, the International Labour Organization (ILO) added a
module of questions to the 2008 Labour Force Survey, and obtained information on approximately 5600
migrant workers.187 Roughly 9% of the surveyed migrant workers were victims of forced labour abroad; theILO therefore estimates that, assuming the surveyed group is representative of all Moldovan migrant workers,
the number of Moldovans trafficked for labour in 2008 was 29,500.188

Notable aspects of the problem
Between 2005 and 2010, the IOM noted there are significant differences in relation to the choice of countryof destination according to gender. Women mainly left for Italy, Spain, Germany and Cyprus. (In 2010,
the number of women who went to Italy accounted for two thirds of the total number of persons leaving
Moldova.) Men mostly left for the Russia, Romania, Austria and theMoldovans most vulnerable
Czech Republic.189 During 2007-2010, the number of documented
to human trafficking include
women living abroad exceeded that of men by 20%.190

victims of domestic violence,families in extreme economic
hardship, single mothers andfathers, persons withdisabilities and children whoseparents are working abroad

In 2012 GRETA identified Moldova’s “difficult economic situation,high rate of rural unemployment and the problem of violenceagainst women” as the most significant factors in its citizens’
vulnerability to modern slavery.191 GRETA noted that groups
particularly vulnerable to modern slavery in Moldova include“women from socially disadvantaged families, women subjected to domestic violence, children left withoutparental care and children placed in state institutions.” From analysis of client information, IOM found that
Moldovans most vulnerable to human trafficking include “victims of domestic violence, families in extreme
economic hardship, single mothers and fathers, persons with disabilities and children whose parents areworking abroad.”192

2. What is the government doing about it?
The Government is making considerable efforts to address modern slavery. From a legal perspective,
Moldova has ratified a number of treaties relevant to modern slavery but not the Slavery Convention
or the Supplementary Slavery Convention, nor
Moldova
Ratifiedthe Domestic Work Convention.
The Moldovan Constitution prohibits slavery,
servitude and forced labour. The Moldovan
Criminal Code prohibits trafficking in children,
forced or compulsory labour, and trafficking inhuman beings. The 2005 Law on Preventing
and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings(Anti-Trafficking Law) is consistent withinternational and regional standards.

Slavery Convention

No

Supplementary Slavery Convention

No

UN Trafficking Protocol

Yes

Forced Labour Convention

Yes

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention

Yes

CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Yes

Domestic Work Convention

No

From a coordination and accountability perspective, Moldova has a National Committee for Combating
Trafficking in Human Beings (National Committee) as the permanent consultative body of the Moldovan
Government on modern slavery issues. Established in 2001, the National Committee has been performing
its functions efficiently and effectively since 2008. It undertakes law and policy reform and has as its aim themonitoring and coordination of all relevant ministries (including the Ministry of Labour, Social Protection
and Family) and other government bodies. While representatives of relevant International Organisations and“Statistical Review 1: Moldova: Migration and Trafficking Survey” (2012), pp. 6-9, International Labour Organisation: http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/published_docs/books/data_res_human.pdf
188
Ibid.
189
Ibid.
190
Ibid.
191
“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Republic of Moldova” (22 February 2012),
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRETA_2011_25_FGR_MDA_en.pdf
192“Migration Health Project Information Sheet – Moldova” (October 2010), International Organization on Migration: http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/
mainsite/activities/health/promotion/Moldova-Health-Project-Info-Fact-Sheet.pdf“Victims of Human Trafficking: A Statistical Profile” (2012), Moldova, International Organisation for Migration: http://www.usaim.org/sites/default/files/IOM%20MD_VoT%20
Statistical%20Profile%202012.pdf “Moldovan Migrants’ Health - Impact of the Socio-Economic Welfare.” International Organization on Migration: www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/
shared/shared/mainsite/activities/health/promotion/Moldova-Health-Project-Info-Fact-Sheet.pdf
187

55.

M oldova con t i n u ed

NGOs are actively engaged with the National Committee193 NGO La Strada has raised the concern that thestructure was not finalised and the seat of NGOs is not permanent.194 Moldova’s National Committee clarified
its mandate and established a full-time executive secretariat in 2011. Critical for transparency, the Committee
publishes a report on activities and progress on the plan annually.

In 2012, GRETA also identified a need for increased resources to organisations providing assistanceto victims of trafficking.201 Moldova has recently increased the budget allocated to these services, andestablished a fund-sharing programme to address this issue. A number of regional centres have funding fromstate and local governments, a programme that has also been identified as a best practice in the region.

Moldova has a National Plan of Action (NPA) 2012-2013 and is currently drafting a new NPA for
implementation beginning fall 2013. The interventions outlined in thein 2012, the Government
current NPA are recognised for setting best practices in the region,
reported 171 trafficking
and respond directly to various recommendations made by external
investigations,commentators. Anti-trafficking action at the local level is co-ordinated bycompared to 135 theterritorial commissions for combating trafficking in human beings, which
previous year
are set up in each region as well as in each administrative district.195

Moldova publishes basic data on criminal justice interventions and victims assisted, in its annual report under
the National Committee. However, according to Article 11(3) of the Anti-Trafficking Law, the Ministry of
the Interior is responsible for developing, administering and maintaining a database on human trafficking.
GRETA notes lack of research and knowledge on labour trafficking, especially of men. In response, theMinistry of Interior and the National Committee’s Secretariat are collecting data from several different
sources to create a database with a wider perspective. Until this initiative, the Ministry of Interior could only
collect information about their own initiated cases. The Secretariat will support the data collection exercise,by collecting data from all law enforcement agencies, prosecution and judiciary, to create a better pictureof the problem nationally.

Moldova has specialist police tasked with investigating and prosecuting modern slavery crimes. The Centre
for Combating Trafficking in Persons (CCTP) was established in 2006 under the Ministry of the Interior witha view to improving the investigation and prosecution of cases of human trafficking. It is composed of officials
assigned by the Ministry of the Interior, the Prosecutor General’s Office, the Customs Service, the National
Bureau for Migration and Asylum, the Border Guard Service, the Information and Security Service, and theCentre for Combating Economic Crimes and Corruption. As part of a highly anticipated set of reforms for
the Ministry of the Interior, La Strada’s former president was installed in 2012 as the director for CCTP and
has begun to make changes in the organisation’s activities and operations. In 2012, under new leadership, theCentre implemented a series of reforms aimed at prioritising a focus on more complex cases. The number ofinvestigations being conducted is growing: in 2012, the Government reported 171 trafficking investigations,compared to 135 the previous year.196
While investigations are growing, reports suggest that the biggest difficulty in prosecuting trafficking is
the judiciary; therefore, new interventions are focused on awarenessMoldova has a system ofraising, training and capacity building of the judiciary. Problems have
victim protection, for which
been noted with appeal judges overturning convictions with little
the government provides
or no explanation appeal, or giving a token sentence to an offendera clearly articul atedfollowing conviction.197
budget, in partnershipwith civil society

Moldova has a system of victim protection, for which the Government
provides a clearly articulated budget, in partnership with civilsociety. In terms of coordination across that system, Moldova’s National Referral System for Assistance andProtection of Victims and Potential Victims of Trafficking (NRS) seeks to “establish co-operation and coordination between the counter-trafficking actors at every level: state structures, international organisations,non-governmental agencies and individuals at the local, national and transnational levels.”198 The NRS utilises
multi-disciplinary teams (police, social workers, lawyers, prosecutors etc) as the main operational unit of
the NRS. The NRS’s approach is termed “proactive prevention” and has received praise from NGOs and
GRETA, and according to the 2013 US TIP Report “is viewed as a model for other countries in the region.”
Information from NGOs recorded in the 2012 US TIP Report did indicate that victim services were
inadequate, especially in certain regions. According to the US TIP Report 2013, the NRS was not activein Transistria.199 Nonetheless, in 2012, IOM introduced the NRS methodology in 6 out of 7 regions inTransnistria, meaning this is used informally as best practice but is not yet a fully-fledged system.200“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Republic of Moldova” ( 22 February2012) Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRETA_2011_25_FGR_MDA_en.pdf
194“Abuse of a Position of Vulnerability and other “Means” Within the Definition of Trafficking in Persons” (n.d.), La Strada International, United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime: http://lastradainternational.org/?main=documentation&document=2940&search=moldova&so1=1&so2=1&so3=1&so4=1
195“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Republic of Moldova” (22 February 2012)
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRETA_2011_25_FGR_MDA_en.pdf
196“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Moldova Country Narrative, pp. 265-266, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
197
Ibid.
198
“Victims of Human Trafficking: A Statistical Profile” (2012), Moldova, International Organisation for Migration: http://www.usaim.org/sites/default/files/IOM%20MD_VoT%20
Statistical%20Profile%202012.pdf
199“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Moldova Country Narrative, pp. 265-266, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
200“Victims of Human Trafficking: A Statistical Profile” (2012), Moldova, International Organisation for Migration: http://www.usaim.org/sites/default/files/IOM%20MD_VoT%20
Statistical%20Profile%202012.pdf
193

56.

Provisions exist in Moldovan law for compensation to be paid to victims of modern slavery, through a civil
action attached to criminal proceedings, under the Anti-Trafficking Law. According to forthcoming IOM
research, in the period of 2006-2010 one out of two victims in theanalysed cases of trafficking in human beings (article 165) and one
Moldova is paying serious
attention to this issue, without of five victims in cases of trafficking in children (article 206)
the national anti- corruption
claimed that they suffered material and moral damage as result ofcentre reportedly opening 13
their exploitation. The courts sustained the victims’ civil claims in 29
criminal investigations
cases. Ten claims were rejected and another 16 were not referred torel ating to official complicity
in the court decision. The fact that the court does not pronounce ain human trafficking in 2012decision on a certain issue means its merits have not been resolved.
The average amount of awarded damages was about MDL 11,000 (USD 916) in human trafficking cases,
and about MDL 45,000 (USD 3,750) in cases of trafficking in children. Presently, there is an ongoingfeasibility study on compensation led by the Permanent Secretariat with expert and financial support fromIOM Moldova, with US funding.

Notable aspects of the response
Moldova ranks 94th of 176 countries on Transparency International’s 2012 Corruption Perceptions Index.202
Both GRETA and the US TIP Report note the issue of corruption and complicity of Moldovan Government
officials in modern slavery.203 However, it appears that Moldova is paying serious attention to this issue,
with the national anti-corruption centre reportedly opening 13 criminal investigations relating to official
complicity in human trafficking in 2012.204 This includes investigations of officials and investigators from theanti-trafficking unit itself, a public housing official, a professor from a State University, an army official andformer police officer, and an officer from the national anti-corruption centre. The involvement of the anticorruption centre with the broader anti-trafficking response is commendable and rarely seen globally.
In around 2006, a number of international donors began to remove funding from victim identification andrepatriation programmes in destination countries. Moldova responded by examining how it could harness
the resources it had at home, and managed to establish the NRS drawing on existing local services. As aresult, the NRS was established and the level of victim identification went up not down, even though fundingfor victim identification in destination countries was being withdrawn. Also, Moldovan consulates play animportant role in identification abroad.
In 2012, GRETA noted the need for protection of Moldovans abroad and measures for repatriation and“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Republic of Moldova” (22 February 2012),
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRETA_2011_25_FGR_MDA_en.pdf
202“Transparency International - Country Profiles: Moldova.” (n.d.). Transparency International - the global coalition against corruption: http://www.transparency.org/country#MDA
203“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Republic of Moldova” (22 February 2012),
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRETA_2011_25_FGR_MDA_en.pdf“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Moldova Country Narrative, p265, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
204“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Moldova Country Narrative, p266, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
201

57.

M oldova con t i n u ed

assistance of victims need to be strengthened.205 Given that Moldova already has a system in place to provide
support to victims identified at home through the NRS, and to provide outreach through its consulates incountries of destinations, there is arguably a need for destination countries (some of which simply detain
victims and deport them) to step forward to share the burden in this regard.

3. What needs to happen?
Moldova should:
Work towards, prevention with a focus on groups that are most vulnerable to modern slavery; such as
populations living in poverty and those without access to opportunities for education and employment.
■■ Consider establishing a national compensation scheme for victims of modern slavery, and otherwise
strengthening the rights of victims.
■■ Increase law enforcement efforts under relevant laws prohibiting modern slavery.
■■ Increase efforts to train prosecutors and members of the judiciary on modern slavery, and ensureaccountability systems are in place (e.g.: case watch systems).
■■ Continue to focus on official complicity in modern slavery, and ensure perpetrators are brought to justice.
■■ Continue to engage in community awareness-raising and outreach to vulnerable groups, with a focus onsafe migration pathways and rights when working abroad.
■■

Benin
Estimated number enslaved
76,000 – 84,000
Population
10,050,702 (2012) 206
GDP$7.557 billion (2012) 207
GDP/capita$752 (2012) 208
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 3% (2011) 209

INDEX r a n k

7

1. The problem
Modern slavery in Benin involves mainly women and children who are trafficked internally or from abroad forthe purpose of sexual exploitation, domestic work or forced labour. Children are trafficked into Benin from
Niger, Togo, Burkina Faso and Nigeria, and some women from other parts of Africa, are trafficked throughBenin, mostly en route to Europe.210
Women and children are trafficked within Benin from rural areas to the cities, and children are trafficked into
countries in the region like Togo, Nigeria, Ghana, Gabon, Côte d’Ivoire, Cameroon and Guinea.211 Children
from Benin are also trafficked to Congo where they end up in forced labour or sexual exploitation. UNICEF
has estimated that at least 1800 children in Congo have been trafficked, and most of these children will haveoriginated from Benin.212

Notable aspects of the problem
The IOM has estimated that more than 40,000 children are victims of trafficking in Benin.213 The main
sectors children work in are domestic service and agriculture, such as farming cotton or cashews. Other
forms of forced labour include fishing, mining in quarries, street vending,m ore than 40,000
and work in the transportation industry. Children are also sexuallychildren are victims of214
exploited for commercial gain.

trafficking in Benin

Domestic service is a form of child labour which is typical to the regionof West Africa. In a practice called Vidomegon,215 girls, some as young as seven years old, are engaged as
domestic workers in exchange for accommodation and subsistence. Originally intended to aid children frompoor families, this practice often results in conditions of modern slavery for the child as he/she is forced towork long hours, deprived of sleep and food, and abused physically and sexually.
In a practice which runs parallel to the Trokosi system in Ghana, the persistence of the Vudusi, or ‘shrine
slavery’ affects young girls in Benin, who are offered as sacrifices to religious shrines, and subsequently forced
to live in and care for the shrine, and often being habitually sexually abused.216
Benin also has a high rate of child marriage, a practice which in some circumstances can constitute modern
slavery. In a survey of married 20 to 24 year old women, 34 per cent of them claimed to have been married
before reaching the age of 18.217
The minimum age for work in Benin is fourteen years old, and education is free and compulsory until theage of eleven. This creates a gap within which children are vulnerable to modern slavery. Children aged 12 to
14 are legally permitted to carry out ‘light work’, such as domestic work, or temporary work, as long as it does2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx“2012 GDP $US Data”, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
208“2012 GDP per capita $US Data”, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
209
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0210“Children for Sale: UK’s new slave trade” (Jan. 27, 2008), The Sunday Telegraph: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1576727/Children-for-sale-UKs-new-slave-trade.html
211­ “Benin - The World Factbook” (2009) Central Intelligence Agency: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bn.html“A Human Rights Report on Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children – Benin” The Protection Project: http://www.protectionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/
Benin1.pdf
212“Congo, Brazaville and Benin sign accord to fight human trafficking”, 21 September 2011, UNICEF Press Centre: http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/media_59883.html
213“Benin: Facts and Figures”, International Organisation for Migration: http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/benin
214“2011 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor” US Department of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA.pdf
215“Child trafficking in Benin: Difficult choices and devastating consequences”(3 May 2013), DAGBE: http://www.dagbe.org/?p=858; “Vidomégons, les enfants-esclaves duBénin” (10 March 2011), Slate Afrique: http://www.slateafrique.com/731/vidomegon-enfants-esclaves-benin: and “A Human Rights Report on Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children – Benin” (n.d.), The Protection Project: http://www.protectionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Benin1.pdf
216“Ghana’s Slaves to the Gods”, Sarah C. Aird http://www.wcl.american.edu/hrbrief/v7i1/ghana.htm.
217“Percentage of women aged 20-24 who were first married/in union before the age of 18” (January 2013), UNICEF: http://www.childinfo.org/marriage_countrydata.php
206

207

“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Republic of Moldova” (22 February 2012),
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRETA_2011_25_FGR_MDA_en.pdf
205

58.

59.

Ben i n con t i n u ed

not prevent them from attending school.218 Official birth registration is very low in Benin, with forty per centof children under five having no birth certificates, impeding their access to education.219

2. What is the government doing about it?
Benin has ratified a number of key conventions on modern slavery but not the Slavery Convention itself
or the Supplementary Slavery Convention, or the Domestic Work Convention.

Notable aspects of the response

Benin was one of the first African countries to pass an anti-human trafficking law in 1961.220 Since thattime, the Government of Benin has been active in implementing laws and ratifying all the key treaties forthis purpose. However, it has failed to support their implementation with the necessary financial backing.
The national budget implementing existing laws and policies on modern slavery is currently $0.221
The 2006-04 Act Relating to the Transportation of Minors and the Suppression of Child Trafficking
criminalises all forms of child trafficking with a penalty of 10 to 20 years imprisonment. However, the law
against trafficking does not cover persons
Benin
Ratifiedabove 18 years of age. The law prohibits
Slavery Convention
Nominors from engaging in dangerous work,
Supplementary Slavery ConventionNoaccording to the Hazardous Work List (inUN Trafficking Protocol
Yes
Decree No.2011-29).222 The Labour CodeForced Labour Convention
Yesof Benin prohibits forced labour, but only
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yesascribes a penalty of two months to one
CRC
Optional
Protocol
on
the
Sale
of
ChildrenYes
year’s imprisonment or a fine.223
Domestic Work Convention

their Declaration condemning human trafficking,230 as well as the Multilateral Agreement to Combat
Trafficking in West Africa.231 With assistance from the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the joint
Benin and Nigeria Committee to Combat Child Trafficking developed a 2009 to 2010 Joint Action Plan
to combat the Trafficking of Children from Benin to Nigeria, for labour in stone quarries.

No

Benin does not have any specialist law
enforcement capacity to investigate modern slavery.224 On a more positive note, 126 labour inspectors are
employed within the Ministry of Labour and Civil Service to ensure the enforcement of the Labour Code,and their mandate includes protecting against forced labour.225 However, these inspections only take place inthe formal work sector, while the majority of forced child labour is to be found in the informal sector.226 Also,
resources are extremely limited.227

The Brigade de Protection des Mineurs has been active since 1991 as the Government appointed law
enforcement unit for child protection.232 Their responsibility lies in rescue and prevention work,233 and they
are also responsible for collecting data on child trafficking on behalf of the Ministry of Justice. Since 2008,
this mechanism has changed to the Central Office for the Protection of Minors (OCPM). It collaborates
with the Ministries of Family, Social Protection and Solidarity, Foreign Affairs and Labour. Its mandate
includes the prohibiting of human trafficking of all forms, including of adults.234

3. What needs to happen?
Benin should:
Allocate a clear proportion of the national budget to responding to this issue.
Amend existing legislation on human trafficking to include human trafficking of adults.
■■ Amend existing legislation on forced labour to ensure it includes proportionate penalties.
■■ Focus on building the capacity of law enforcement to identify and investigate modern slavery cases.
■■ Increase efforts to collect data on all forms of modern slavery.
■■ Implement a nationwide awareness campaign to educate people about modern slavery.
■■ Make the compulsory schooling age higher, and ensure that all children have access to education despite
their not having birth certificates.
■■ Encourage the setting up of local watch committees to empower communities to detect and reportmodern slavery.
■■ Develop a victim protection system to ensure the rehabilitation and reintegration of both child andadult victims.
■■■■

The Central Office for the Protection of Minors provides support to child victims, and has a temporary
reception centre with capacity of 120 children, supported by UNICEF
and Terres des Hommes.228 However, the care of child victims is mostlyinspections only takepl ace in the formal workat the remit of NGOs. There is no government initiated long-term plan
sector, while thefor the protection and rehabilitation of victims.

majority of forced childl abour is to be found in
the informal sector

The Government, supported by UNICEF, put in place a National Policy
and Action Plan for Child Protection (2008-2012). It also drafted a
National Action Plan to Combat Child Trafficking and Labour. Due toa lack of funding for both of these Action Plans, their implementation has been weak.229
Benin has some agreements with neighbouring countries aimed at preventing and responding to modern
slavery. In 2005, Benin signed the ‘Agreement Between the Republic of Benin and the Federal Republic of
Nigeria on the Prevention, Repression, and Abolition of Human Trafficking, Especially Women and Children’and is an active member of the Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS), having signed“2008 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labour – Benin” (10 September 2009), United Nations High Commission for Refugees: http://www.refworld.org/
country,,USDOL,,BEN,,4aba3eef33,0.html
219­ “2011 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor” US Department of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA.pdf
220
A 5 July 1961 Act, prohibited the displacement of men, women and children without their consent, cited in “A Human Rights Report on Trafficking in Persons, Especially Womenand Children – Benin” (n.d.) The Protection Project: http://www.protectionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Benin1.pdf
221
Information from field based sources.
222“2011 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor” US Department of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA.pdf
223“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2011”, Benin Country Study, pp. 89-90, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192594.pdf
224
Information provided by field based contacts.
225“Guide Methodologique de L’inspection du Travail” Ministere du Travail et de la Fonction Publique, Direction Generale du Travail, Republique du Benin: http://www.ilo.org/
wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---lab_admin/documents/genericdocument/wcms_167754.pdf
226“2008 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labour – Benin”, 10 September 2009, UNHRC: http://www.refworld.org/country,,USDOL,,BEN,,4aba3eef33,0.html
227“Benin 2012 Human Rights Report” US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/204301.pdf
228
Information from field based sources.
229“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2011”, Benin Country Study, pp. 89-90, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192594.pdf
218

60.

“A Human Rights Report on Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children – Benin” The Protection Project: http://www.protectionproject.org/wp-content/
uploads/2010/09/Benin1.pdf
231
Ibid.
232
“Global Report on Trafficking in Persons” (February 2009), United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: https://www.unodc.org/documents/Global_Report_on_TIP.pdf
233
Information from field based sources.
234
Ibid.
230

61.

Côte d’Ivoire
Estimated number enslaved
150,000 – 160,000
Population
19,839,750 (2012) 235
GDP$24.68 billion (2012) 236
GDP/capita$1,244 (2012) 237
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP Not available (2011) 238

the National Oversight Committee for Actions against Child Trafficking, Exploitation and Labour, aims tosignificantly reduce the worst forms of child labour by 2014. This renewed effort, headed by the First Lady
of Côte d’Ivoire, incorporating government agencies, NGOs and the private sector as key actors in the sector,
shows stronger ambition and commitment than has been demonstrated before.246

INDEX r a n k

8

1. The Problem
Côte d’Ivoire is a source, transit and destination country for women and children who are subjected to forced
labour and sexual exploitation. The majority of victims are children who end up in situations of forced labourin agriculture, mining, fishing, construction and domestic work. Children are also forced into work as street
vendors and shoe-shiners and girls have been trafficked both internally and from neighbouring countries
Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Mauritania and Togo for the purposeof forced domestic work and sexual exploitation.239
 The majority of victims
Women and girls have been trafficked internally and from neighbouring
countries such as Ghana and Nigeria for sexual exploitation anddomestic servitude.240

Notable aspects of the problem

are children who end
up in situations of forced
l abour in agriculture,mining, fishing,construction work

Côte d’Ivoire’s primary export is cocoa, providing 40 per cent of the world’s cocoa, making it the world’s
leading supplier. It was discovered in 2000 that many children were being subjected to the worst formsof child labour in this sector, forced to work in hazardous conditions.241 A government report from 2010
estimated that over 30,000 children were in conditions of forced labour in rural areas. Apart from cocoa,
children are employed in the production of grains, vegetables, coffee, fruit, cotton, palm, rice and rubber.242
This estimate, however, does not take into account the larger number of children working on their families’
farms under conditions which can be akin to the worst forms of child labour.243 An estimated 600,000 to
800,000 children are working on small family-owned farms in Côte d’Ivoire.244
Political instability in Côte d’Ivoire, following the election of Laurent Gbagbo in 2010 caused civil conflict,from which unconfirmed reports emerged of children being used by the armed forces on both sides as guides,
cooks and guards. Because of the conflict, external agencies that had been monitoring the use of child labour
were unable to access the relevant areas and confirm these reports, or assess the scale of the problem.245

2. What is the government doing about it?
Côte d’Ivoire has ratified a number of the key international treaties relevant to modern slavery but not the
Slavery Convention itself, or the Domestic Work Convention.
The Government of Côte d’Ivoire has established special agencies to deal with the worst forms of child labour in thecocoa sector, and has developed hazardous child labour frameworks. In 2007, the Government issued a National
Plan of Action with the aim to reduce child slavery by 50 percent over a three-year period – a goal that was notachieved. In 2012, a renewed national plan was launched targeting trafficking, exploitation and child labour.
The renewed 2012-2014 National Action Plan, implemented through the Inter-Ministerial Committee andChild and forced labour are addressed in Côte
Côte d’Ivoire
Ratifiedd’Ivoire’s Constitution. In Article 3 of the
Slavery Convention
No
Constitution, slavery, forced labour, inhumane
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
and cruel, degrading and humiliating
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yestreatment, physical or mental torture,
Forced Labour ConventionYesphysical violence and mutilation and all
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yes
forms of debasement of the human being are
CRC
Optional
Protocol
on
the
Sale
of
ChildrenYesprohibited. In 2010, Law No. 2010-272 wasDomestic Work Convention
No
passed to make the trafficking of children andthe worst forms of child labour illegal with theaim to “identify, prevent, and suppress trafficking and hazardous child labour as well as to support victims.”247
In terms of policy coordination, there is a Joint Ministerial Committee on the Fight against Trafficking,Exploitation, and Child Labor248 and also a National Monitoring Committee on Actions to Fight Trafficking,Exploitation, and Child Labor,249 created to assess and monitor the actions of the Government in thefight against the trafficking, exploitation and child labour. Under the auspices of the First Lady of Côte
d’Ivoire, this latter committee is made up of international and non-governmental organisations working
in child protection.
Côte d’Ivoire has established a specialist anti-trafficking law enforcement unit, overseen by a police chief andstaffed by four police officers and two social workers. This unit investigates cases of child trafficking. New
monitoring brigades established as part of the new National Monitoring Committee for Actions to Fightagainst Trafficking, Exploitation and Child Labor in 2011 also are responsible with investigating trafficking.250
There are no government-operated shelters for victims of trafficking, but local NGOs operate two‘multipurpose shelters’.251 The Government is planning to build shelters for child victims of trafficking,supporting this project with the equivalent of US$ 206,000.252
Distributers and consumers of Côte d’Ivoire’s primary export – cocoa – have implemented various efforts
in the cocoa industry. The Netherlands, which processes more thanThe government has
20% of the world’s cocoa beans,253 signed a Letter of Intent in 2010
established special agencies
committing that all cocoa consumed in the Dutch market would beto deal with the worst‘guaranteed sustainable’ – proscribing therein the worst forms offorms of child l abourchild labour – by the year 2025. This approach applies pressure on
in the cocoa sector
companies to engage product certifiers and to comply with productstandards. If successful, this method will have a significant impact of the worst forms of child labour in Côte
d’Ivoire and ought to be engaged by all other cocoa processing and distributing nations.
In 2000, a bilateral accord was signed with Mali aiming to prevent child trafficking between the two countries.254

Notable aspects of the response
Since the emergence of reports of child slavery in the cocoa sector, the Ivorian Government has placed a highlevel of importance on the issue. The 2001 Harkin-Engel Protocol, a public-private agreement that worked“2011 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor”, US Department of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA.pdf“Law No. 2010-272, Prohibiting Trafficking and the Worst Forms of Child Labor,” (30 September 2010), Ministry of State & Ministry of Employment, Social Affairs and Solidarity,
Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, International Labour Organisation, p6: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex_browse.details?p_lang=en&p_classification=04&p_origin=SUBJECT&p_
country=CIV&p_country_all_any=ALL&p_keyword_all_any=ALL&p_start=1
248
Created by the decree N°2011-365 of 03 November 2011. Led by the Ministry of Labor, bringing together representatives from 13 Ministries, including the Ministry of Justice;
the Ministry of Interior; the Ministry of Education; the Ministry of Family, Women and Children; and the Ministry of Agriculture. Cited in “Côte d’Ivoire Country Analysis” (2011)
United Department of State Country Overview: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA/CotedIvoire.pdf
249
Created by the decree N° 2011-366 of 03 November 2011. See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2011): http://www.achpr.org/files/sessions/52nd/statereports/1-1994-2012/rapport_initial_et_cumul_rapport_priodique_1994___2012.pdf
250“Côte d’Ivoire Country Analysis” (2011), United Department of State Country Overview: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA/CotedIvoire.pdf
251
Information from field based sources.
252“Oversight of Public and Private Initiatives to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor in the Cocoa Sector in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana” (2011) Payson Centre for International
Development and Technology Transfer, Tulane University: http://www.childlabor-payson.org/
253
Ibid.
254
Ibid.
246
247

2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx“2012 GDP $US Data”, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
237“2012 GDP per capita $US Data”, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
238“Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows”, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
239“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, Côte d’Ivoire Country Narrative, pp. 130-132, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192594.pdf
240
Ibid.
241
“Oversight of Public and Private Initiatives to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor in the Cocoa Sector in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana” (2011) Payson Centre for International
Development and Technology Transfer, Tulane University: http://www.childlabor-payson.org/
242“2011 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor”, US Department of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA.pdf
243
Information from field based sources.
244“Ending Child Trafficking in West Africa – Lessons from the Ivorian cocoa sector” (December 2010), Paul Robson, Anti-Slavery International: http://www.antislavery.org/
includes/documents/cm_docs/2011/c/cocoa_report_for_website.pdf
245
Ibid.
235
236

62.

63.

C o t e d’ Ivo i re con t i n u ed

towards the goal of producing cocoa in accordance with the ILO Convention 182 concerning the Worst
Forms of Child Labour, has had a significant impact in Côte d’Ivoire. The International Cocoa Initiative
was established in 2002, and has since implemented initiatives to regulate the production of cocoa. In 2010a Declaration of Joint Action Support Implementation of the Harkin-Engel Protocol and a Framework of
Action to Support Implementation of the Harkin-Engel Protocol were signed by the Ivorian Governmentand representatives of the international cocoa industry, renewing theirI vorian government
commitment to the goals of the Protocol, and engaging other stakeholders
has pl aced a highin the industry to eradicate the worst forms of child labour, aiming tolevel of importance255
reduce it by 70% by the year 2020.

on child sl avery

In 2007 the Government formed the Child Labour Monitoring System(SSTE), which is in charge of implementing certification mechanisms in line with the Protocol. However it
is not fully functioning and does not have a wide geographical coverage.256
In 2010, the Service Autonome de Lutte Contre le Travail des Enfants (Directorate for the Fight Against
Child Labour) was created with the primary aim to develop, monitor and implement the national policies
concerning the fight against the worst forms of child labour.257

3. What needs to happen?
Côte d’Ivoire should:
Carry out household surveys in different regions of the country to assess the scale and nature of modern
slavery and the need for services.
■■ Investigate the conditions wherein children work, placing a special focus on hazardous work in all sectorsof employment.
■■ Continue to prioritise issues of modern slavery, and increase efforts to strengthen the rule of law.
■■ Create new partnerships and legal mechanisms in collaboration with companies in the cocoa market tocommit to a policy of full disclosure regarding the sourcing of their product, similar to the mechanism
implemented for the sourcing of minerals under the U.S. Conflict Mineral Law. Such an initiative would
require cooperation from governments around the world.
■■ Working alongside the Ivorian Government, the cocoa industry should contribute greater financial
support to mechanisms like the International Cocoa Initiative and country level child labour units, inorder to ensure that the targets of the Harkin-Engel Protocol are met.
■■ Increase victim support programmes, to properly care for children who have been involved in the worst
forms of child labour, and reintegrate them into education and society.
■■ Increase efforts in investigating other forms of modern slavery, and the trafficking patterns of the area,
which are unrelated to child labour.
■■

The Gambia
Estimated number enslaved
13,000 – 15,000
Population
1,791,225 (2012) 258
GDP$917.3 million (2012) 259
GDP/capita$512 (2012) 260
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 Watch list (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 8% (2011) 261

INDEX r a n k

9

1. The problem
Forced begging, child marriage, domestic servitude and forced prostitution, including child sex tourism, are
The Gambia’s most prevalent forms of modern slavery. Forced begging victims are primarily boys exploitedby unscrupulous teachers in local madrassas,262 but there are cases of madrassa teachers transporting boys
to neighbouring nations to beg as well. Women, girls and boys are trafficked to The Gambia from Senegal,
Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana, Nigeria, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Benin for commercial sexual exploitation.
Gambian victims of modern slavery have been identified in the UK. Women and children are also traffickedwithin the Gambia for child marriage and domestic servitude.

Notable aspects of the problem
Children are The Gambia’s most vulnerable population, and the concept of child protection was only taken
up decisively within the past decade. UNICEF estimates that there are more than 60,000 children in theGambia that are vulnerable to modern slavery, including orphans and other street children. The Government
has cracked down on forced street beggars, or almudos,263 in the past 5 years, turning Gambian victims overto NGOs for care and deporting foreign victims—primarily Senegalese—to their home countries.
The Gambia’s economy draws about one-fifth of its GDP from tourism, and the Government and private
stockholders have invested heavily in expanding the tourism industry. The Government will need to plan
carefully to expand tourism while addressing the risk of abuse and commercial sexual exploitation of children.
Due to unfavourable weather patterns over the past two years, both tourism and agriculture have suffered,adversely affecting the Gambian economy. Increases in forced and child marriage
are often linked to decreases in economic stability,264 and child marriage isC hild marriage
is traditional to
traditional to Gambian culture, especially in rural areas. According to UNICEF,
Gambian culture,
48% of Gambian girls marry before the age of 18.265

especially inrural areas

Under national law, children under the age of 18 are not permitted to marry.266
This however, operates subject to Sharia law (which 90% of the population
267
practice ) which states that children are permitted to marry on physical maturity, which is often before
the age of 18.
In addition to child marriage, it is common practice for children to be sent to live with a relative with accessto more opportunities for social mobility. It is understood that these children will assist with householdchores in return for room, board and opportunities, but they are often forced into domestic servitude orother forms of sex or labour exploitation.268

2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD260
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
261
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
262
Religious school for the study of Islam.
263
Term for street children in The Gambia.
264“Three Things to Know About Child Marriage” (21 May 2013), Rachel Vogelstein, Council on Foreign Relations Development Channel: blogs.cfr.org/developmentchannel/2013/05/21/guest-post-three-things-to-know-about-child-marriage/
265“Gambia – The Children – Adolescence”, UNICEF: http://www.unicef.org/gambia/children_1266.html
266“Harmonisation of Children’s Laws in Gambia” (n.d.), p3, The African Child Policy Forum: http://acerwc.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/English-ACERWC-GambiaHarmonisation-of-Laws-on-Children.pdf
267“The World Factbook: Religions” (2013), Central Intelligence Agency: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html
268“Convention on the Rights of the Child Periodic Report” (2009), United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/
CRC-C-50-2_en.pdf
258

259

Ibid.
Information from field based sources.
257“Law No. 2010-272, Prohibiting Trafficking and the Worst Forms of Child Labor,” (30 September 2010), Ministry of State & Ministry of Employment, Social Affairs and Solidarity,
Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, International Labour Organisation, p6: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex_browse.details?p_lang=en&p_classification=04&p_origin=SUBJECT&p_
country=CIV&p_country_all_any=ALL&p_keyword_all_any=ALL&p_start=1
255
256

64.

65.

T h e Gam b i a con t i n u ed

2. What is the government doing about it?
The Gambia has ratified several key treaties relevant to modern slavery but not the Slavery Convention or its
Supplementary Slavery Abolition Convention, or the Domestic Work Convention.
The Gambia has national laws that criminalise modern slavery: the Tourism Offences Act (2003) prohibits
child sex trafficking and provides that it
The Gambia
Ratified
is punishable by 10 years in prison; theSlavery Convention
No
Children’s Act (2005) criminalises child
Supplementary Slavery ConventionNo
trafficking with a penalty of life imprisonment;
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yes
the Trafficking in Persons Act (2007)
Forced Labour Convention
Yesprohibits all forms of human trafficking269 and
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yescarries a sentence of 50 years to life in prison.
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Yes

Domestic Work Convention

No

The Gambia has not allocated any budget tothis issue. However, The Gambia’s Ministry ofSocial Welfare received US$11,500 from the US Department of Labour for the purpose of running a national
hotline and a shelter. There is also a mixed-needs drop-in centre for street children and other vulnerable
children involved in forced begging and other exploitation called the Shelter for Children and the Elderly.
In 2011, the Ministry of Justice established the National Agency Against Trafficking in Persons (NAATIP
or TIP Task Force) as its national coordination unit, which operates with a budget of US$40,000 (with allfunds from external sources) and is charged with developing a trafficking database to compile trafficking datafrom across all government agencies.270 The Task Force has 14 members who are appointed by the President
and their function and responsibilities are laid down in the Trafficking in Persons Act. According to Article 4of this Act, the ex officio members will be joined by four other persons’from the private sector, two of whom shall be selected from the nonLittle progress has
beenmade in prevention
governmental organisations with keen interest in the prevention andcampaigns,
victim271
suppression of trafficking, especially in women and children’. Despite
identification andthe Task Force itself receiving financial support, no fund for victims has
protection and in
been established and there is no funding for repatriation of shelters orprosecuting offenders
support and no training has been undertaken.
The Gambia does not currently have a national referral mechanism to connect victims with services andsupport. Government agencies that are involved in enforcing anti-trafficking laws include the Tourism
Security Unit, the Child Protection Unit, and the Department of Justice, which serves as the Executive
Secretariat for the Anti-Trafficking National Task Force. The Department of Justice has also stipulated
that all law enforcement agencies have units dedicated to either anti-trafficking or child protection.
Although The Gambia has passed adequate legislation, received funds
and launched a dedicated anti-slavery agency, little progress has been
made in prevention campaigns, victim identification and protection,and in prosecuting offenders. There is a gap between the institutionalframework and implementation of interventions. The hotline staff are
not trained and are not available 24 hours a day, or 7 days a week. The Ministry of Social Welfare funds are
not currently being used for direct services for victims; the shelter and drop in centre do not have adequate
resources, so trafficking victims and other vulnerable groups rarely use them. In 2011, there was a courth otline staff are nottrained and are notavail able 24 hours a day,or 7 days a week

The Gambia defines trafficking in persons as “(a) the recruitment of, provision of, transportation of, transfer of, harbouring of, receipt of, or trading in, persons; (b) the useof threat, force or other forms of coercion, abduction, kidnapping, fraud, deception, the abuse of power, or a position of vulnerability; or (c) the giving or receipt of payments or
benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation within or across national borders.” It further defines trafficking as “(a)placement for sale, bonded placement, temporary placement, placement for service, where exploitation by another person is a motivating factor; and (b) transportation of anotherperson within or across an international border for the purpose of exploiting that persons’ prostitution.” Exploitation is defined as “(a) keeping a person in a state of slavery; (b)subjecting a person to practices similar to slavery; (c) compelling or causing a person to provide forced labour or services; (d) keeping a person in a state of servitude, including sexual
servitude; (e) the prostitution of a person; (f) illicit removal of human organs; (g) exploitation during armed conflicts.” Gambian law also prohibits “the use of victims of trafficking,”
but does not specify whether it is known use or not that is outlawed.
270
Information from field based sources.
271
The TIP Task Force includes representatives from the Ministries of Justice (NAATIP), of Foreign Affairs, and of Basic and Secondary Education, the Department of Social Welfare,
Gambia Immigration Department, ChildFund/The Gambia (PROTECT Project), Department of Labour, Child Welfare Unit (Police Headquarters), Interpol (Police Headquarters),
Child Protection Alliance, Gambia Police Force (Police Headquarters), Center for Street Children and Child Trafficking Studies, and UNICEF. When UNICEF does not attend
representatives of the Gambia Armed Forces and the Child & Environment Development Association: Gambia (CEDAG) fill those seats.

case on trafficking but it was dropped. In 2012, there was only one prosecution for trafficking. Despite thepunishments provided under the law, the culprit was ordered to pay a nominal fine and he and his victims
were repatriated.272

Notable aspects of the response
The Gambia was placed on the Tier 2 Watch List for the third year in a row by the US 2013 TIP Report, andhas responded by re-committing itself to addressing the issue. The Gambia’s Trafficking in Persons Act does
not stipulate the inclusion of social partners in NAATIP activities, nor does it officially name particular civilsociety partners. However, The Gambia is taking some measures to address
The Gambia was pl aced
the issue of human trafficking within its borders. On 10 April 2013, theon the Tier 2 Watch
National Assembly ratified an agreement between the Ministries of Interior
List for the thirdof The Gambia and Taiwan, on
year in a row‘Co-operation on Immigration Affairs and Human Trafficking Prevention’.273
The Government is also receiving assistance from relevant NGOs, such as the Child Protection Alliance(CPA) and UNICEF, on how to move forward. In April 2013, the CPA staged a training course incollaboration with ECPAT Netherlands and The Gambia Tourism Board to prepare the country’s Tourism
Security Unit to protect children from abuse during the high season.274 In February 2013, the CPA trainedlaw enforcement officers on methods for protecting child victims and prosecuting their traffickers.275 The CPA
also established five Adolescent Neighborhood Watch Groups in the tourism development area and trained
them on sexual abuse and child protection. The Gambia is working with UNICEF and the CPA to advise local
parent-teacher associations on the importance of gender parity in education as a means for reducing childmarriage. Currently, there are 87 girls for every 100 boys in Gambian schools.
In 2008, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) developed a Regional Plan of Action
against trafficking for West Africa as well as a Multilateral Cooperation Agreement with Central Africancountries. As a result, 12 of the 16 States in the region have passed national laws that recognise humantrafficking as a crime, prescribe penalties, protect victims and establish bodies to fight the phenomenon.
ECOWAS requires that all member states adopt a National Plan of Action against Human Trafficking (NPA);
accordingly, The Gambia’s NPA for 2012-2016 has been adopted.
Aside from training sessions, the CPA is assisting the Government on other aspects of counter-slavery. The
CPA identifies and grooms child and youth leaders to voice concerns about their vulnerabilities and to assist
in developing solutions. The CPA also hosts community discussions on child sexual abuse, forced begging
and domestic servitude in order to educate children about their rights and the resources available to them.
ChildFund International and the group of public and private sector stakeholders involved with the TIP Task
Force are working together on a two-year initiative called the PROTECT Project,276 funded by the US State
Department. PROTECT seeks to develop a viable national child protection system that is focused on limiting
child trafficking, including forced begging, forced marriage and child sexual abuse. To date, PROTECT
has trained more than 320 local stakeholders on identifying, preventing and responding to child trafficking
situations. PROTECT’S approach to prevention focuses on raising awareness about children’s rights andcultural practices that can be at odds with those rights. It also trains community members to identify andinterrupt violations of children’s rights, such as situations of forced begging, forced marriage, commercial
sexual exploitation of children and domestic servitude.

269

66.

“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, Gambia Country Narrative, pp. 162-164, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192595.pdf“Gambia: Agreement on Immigration Affairs, Human Trafficking Agreement Ratified” Faal & Ceesay, (12 April 2013), The Daily Observer: http://allafrica.com/
stories/201304150875.html
274“CPA, stakeholders warm up for campaign against child sex tourism.” Camara, A, ( January 29 2013), The Daily Observer: http://observer.gm/africa/gambia/article/cpastakeholders-warm-up-for-campaign-against-child-sex-tourism
275“Gambia: Child Protection Alliance train prosecutors on legal issues.” Camara, S. (March 1 2013), FOROYAA: http://allafrica.com/stories/201303040859.html
276
Press Release – Attorney General’s Chambers, 8 August 2012, Banjul, Ministry of Justice
272

273

67.

T h e Gam b i a con t i n u ed

3. What needs to happen?
The Gambia should:
Implement the provisions of the 2012-2016 National Plan of Action and report publicly onthat implementation.
■■ Build capacity around child protection among all stakeholders, including law enforcement, teachers,
communities, social services providers, and private businesses.
■■ Continue establishing counter-trafficking agreements with neighbouring nations and trade partners onsafe migration and human trafficking in order to standardise protocols for identification and protectionof victims and the identification and prosecution of perpetrators.
■■ Train law enforcement to identify victims of modern slavery.
■■ Build the capacity of law enforcement for investigating and prosecuting modern slavery cases.
■■ Establish protocols for victims to access medical and psychological treatment, housing, law enforcement,
immigration, financial, education, safe repatriation, protective detail, a reflection period, and otherprotections from further harm.
■■ Focus more resources on awareness raising and training both the general public and service providers,
not only on the risks of modern slavery but the obligations and opportunities for being part ofchild protection.
■■

Gabon
Estimated number enslaved
13,000 – 14,000
Population
1,632,572 (2012) 277
GDP$18.66 billion (2012) 278
GDP/capita$11,430 (2012) 279
US Tip report ranking
Tier 2 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP Not available (2011) 280

INDEX r a n k

10

1. The problem
Gabon is considered a destination and transit country for victims of modern slavery originating from otherparts of West and Central Africa. Regionally, Gabon has a relatively stable economy and infrastructure, which
attracts young people from surrounding areas looking for educational and economic opportunities. Girls andboys under 18 years of age, mostly from Mali, Benin and Togo, are trafficked into and within Gabon. In somecases, young people have crossed the border voluntarily, but end up being forced into modern slavery. There
have also been some reports of internal trafficking of girls within Gabon. Girls are primarily trafficked into
domestic servitude or sexual exploitation, and boys are trafficked for manual labour and other forms of work in
the informal sector. Forced and child marriages are also common in the region, and girls might also be forced
to work in restaurants or in market stalls. Other forms of forced labour include street vending and work in small
workshops, agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, and mining.281 Adult women, mostly from other countries inWest Africa, are trafficked to the Gabon for domestic servitude or commerical sexual exploitation.

Notable aspects of the problem
In a common practice in the West African region, a large number of young girls are entrusted as domestic
workers to relatives or wealthy families. This practice is often a form of modern slavery as children are bought
and sold without their consent, and forced to work for no pay. Gabon, being a wealthier state than its
neighbouring countries, is largely a destination country for victims of this traditional practice.

2. What is the government doing about it?
Gabon has ratified a number of treaties relevant
to modern slavery with the exception of the
Slavery Convention and the Supplementary
Slavery Convention. It has also signed theEconomic Community of West African States’(ECOWAS) Abuja Agreement, the multilateral
cooperation agreement to combat trafficking inpersons, especially women and children in West
and Central Africa. Gabon has not ratified theDomestic Work Convention.

Gabon

Ratified

Slavery Convention

No

Supplementary Slavery Convention

No

UN Trafficking Protocol

Yes

Forced Labour Convention

Yes

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention

Yes

CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Yes

Domestic Work Convention

No

Gabon has laws that criminalise the trafficking, forced prostitution and forced labour of children under theage of 18. It defines trafficking as “all forms of forced displacement, bargaining, exchange of children throughsale, trade and servitude of children for debts (debt-bondage). It also includes the recruitment, offer andplacement of children for the purpose of domestic work or to make profit within for the family, whether for
payment or not.” However, there is no specific law on modern slavery or trafficking of men and women. The
law criminalises the trafficking of persons under the age of 18 for both labour and sexual exploitation andprescribes penalties of five to 15 years’ imprisonment.282 Article 4 of the Gabonese Labour Code (Act No. 3/94)
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
279
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
280
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
281“Gabon: UN expert urges action to tackle trafficking of children from West and Central Africa “(23 May 2012) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights: http://www.
ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12187&LangID=E
282
Law No.09/2004 on the Prevention and Fight against Trafficking in Children
277

278

68.

69.

Ga b on con t i n u ed

criminalises all forms of forced labour, ensuring that ‘all workers (including disabled persons) are equal before
the law and enjoy the same protection and guarantees’,283 with a sentence of one to six months imprisonment,a penalty which is not sufficiently stringent for the serious level of the crime. Despite the laws in place, no caseof human trafficking has been brought before the courts, with criminals
There is no specificbenefiting from a high level of impunity.

l aw on sl avery or

Gabon does not have a government mechanism in charge of coordinating
trafficking of adultthe national response against modern slavery. It has the Inter-Ministerial
men and womenCommittee for the Fight against Child Exploitation, which is composedof the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Human Rights, the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, andthe Ministry of Labour. The committee is in charge of cooperation between different organisations,communicating with the Government and ensuring the identification and proper care of victims of child
exploitation. It has been reported, however, that this committee is inadequately funded and unable to fully
carry out its responsibilities.
Though the Government provides some accommodation to some street children and identified child victimsof abuse, government shelters are insufficient, inadequately funded and poorly
coordinated. There exists no procedure of follow-up or reintegration efforts
G overnment shelters
are insufficient,
to assist child victims after their release from the shelters. There are a few
inadequately funded
shelters specifically for trafficking victims.

and poorly
coordinated

The inter-ministerial committee advertises a telephone hotline for childvictim, but this service is not free. In coordination with UNICEF, theGovernment implemented a door-to-door awareness raising campaign to sensitise the public to signs ofmodern slavery in Gabon’s capital of Libreville.
Some training programmes have been delivered to police, labour inspectors and social workers through theGovernment and UNICEF,284 but this initiative reached approximately 80 people, too few to have a serious
impact on implementation.

education and psychosocial services to vulnerable children, some of whom are child trafficking victims.
Education is free in Gabon and compulsory until the age of 16, but it has been found that the cost of books
and reports of physical and sexual abuse in schools has led many children to drop out of school, leaving themvulnerable to abuse including modern slavery.

3. What needs to happen?
Gabon should:
Work with donors to ensure that key elements of the criminal justice response to this issue are markedly
improved, across investigations, prosecutions and adjudications. This needs to include at a minimum:	Ensure that Gabon’s criminal code prohibits all forms of modern slavery; notably, that the definitionis expanded to include adult victims, victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation, and victims of
trafficking for illicit organ removal;■■

	
Ensuring that the existing hotline becomes a free service;	Capacity building for law enforcement to identify victims of modern slavery, particularly adults; and	Capacity building of law enforcement to ensure they can effectively investigate modern slavery
situations. This will need to include ensuring the appropriate mandate, funding and transparency
mechanisms are in place.
Focus on improving victim support, to ensure all victims (and not just child victims) receive protection
and assistance.
■■ Prioritise the Inter-Ministerial Committee in the Government, ensuring a budget to allow forsuccessful coordination across agencies, and ensuring proper delivery of programmes and public
reporting on progress.
■■ Launch a national awareness campaign regarding child slavery.
■■ Carry out a national survey to build a greater picture of modern slavery.
■■ Ensure that labour inspections, including for child labour, are carried out in rural as well as urban areas.
■■

Notable aspects of the response
Through collaboration with the NGO community, the Government has established a National Action
Plan on Child Labour and Trafficking. This plan focuses on ‘building government capacity to enforce laws
against trafficking and encouraging civil society to participate in local vigilance committees (LVCs).285 LVCs
were established in 2001 in an agreement between nine West African nations286 through an International
Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Project entitled “Combating the trafficking inchildren for labour exploitation in West and Central Africa.” The primary role of LVCs is “to mobilise thecommunity to take action against trafficking, monitor the well-being of children and migrant behaviour,
identify and intercept children at risk of becoming victims of trafficking and coordinate the offering of
direct assistance services to children in need.”287 In these nine nations, LVCs take the lead on prevention,
identification, monitoring and repatriation. They accomplish this through community-based childmonitoring, institutional presence, and public information events.
The Ministry of Economy has assigned inspectors to examine the implementation of child labour laws aroundthe country. However most inspections are carried out in the capital city, as rural areas, with forested, roughterrain do not allow for easy access.288 Some Local Vigilance Committees have been set up to monitor casesof child exploitation, trained by the Inter-Ministerial Committee, but no statistics have been released as aresult, and their impact is unknown. A Council to Prevent and Combat the Trafficking of Children is in place,
responsible for the identification and care of victims, but there has been no activity within this mechanism todate. The Government supports four centres in Libreville and Port Gentil that provide shelter, medical care,“Slavery in Domestic Legislation – Gabon”, Allain & Lynch, Queen’s University Belfast: http://www.qub.ac.uk/slavery/?page=countries&category=3&country=62“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2012”, Gabon Country Narrative, pp. 161-162, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf
285“2011 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Gabon”, US Department of Labor: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/ocft/2011TDA/Gabon.pdf
286
These nations include Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Togo.
287“Going the distance to stop child trafficking: Local vigilance committees” (1 May 2010), International Labour Organization: http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/
WCMS_IPEC_PUB_15435/lang--en/index.htm
288
Ibid.
283
284

70.

71.

Denmark
Estimated number enslaved
700 – 760
Population
5,590,478 (2012) 289
GDP$314.2 billion (2012) 290
GDP/capita$56,210 (2012) 291
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 0% (2011) 292

2011-2014. Denmark’s institutional framework for addressing modern slavery includes an Inter-Ministerial
Working Group, the Danish Centre against Human Trafficking, the Danish Immigration Service, national andregional referral groups, police training, andDenmark
Ratifiedcollaboration with NGOs.
Slavery Convention
Yes

INDEX r a n k

150

1. The problem
As a country with a high level of GDP, and relatively high levels of immigration, the forms of modern slavery
that manifest in Denmark tend to involve exploitation of vulnerable migrants, whether in domestic work,
the sex industry or the informal economy. Recent research has highlighted the high numbers of migrants,
including a large stream from Eastern Europe, working in the cleaning industry, agriculture and nurseries andas au pairs.293 The research concluded that while the vast majority of migrants benefit from the opportunity,
there are indicators of forced labour in some instances.294
Until recently, the most visible form of modern slavery has involved women and children who have been
trafficked to Denmark from Eastern Europe, West Africa and Asia for sexual exploitation. According to theDanish Centre for Human Trafficking, in 2007, NGOs offering services to victims of trafficking in Denmark
had contact to 250 women who were described as potential victims of human trafficking. From October 2003
to August 2008, 150 women identified as victims of trafficking, have resided at women’s shelters throughout
Denmark. However, as the Government shifted increasing focus to exploitation outside of the sex industry,
an increasing number of victims were identified in forced labour in other industries. Up until 2009 only one
person had been identified as a victim of forced labour, but the number rose sharply with the increase in focus– with one new case being identified every month in 2012.295

Notable aspects of the problem
Considered within a broader perspective, modern slavery is not just an issue within Denmark itself. As a leadingindustrialised nation, Danish businesses are involved in the provision of goods and services globally, resulting
in their exposure to modern slavery in their supply chains and their operations in other countries. For example,
NGO reports have drawn attention to a Danish company that sought to pro-actively notify their contractorsthat their employees are working under slave-like conditions, involving confiscation of passports, contracts thatchange on arrival, and inhumane living conditions.296 However, the company involved received no response
from the contractors, so has been unable to do more than cease to deal with those contractors.297

2. What is the government doing about it?

Denmark has allocatedDenmark has ratified a number of key conventions relevant to modern
85 million DKK (approx.
US$15 million) towardslavery, and also the COE Convention on Action against Trafficking
eradicating modernin Human Beings. Denmark is also a member of the Council of thesl avery in the current
Baltic Seas States Task Force against Trafficking in Human Beings andNational Action Pl an
participates in its regional anti-trafficking initiatives. Denmark has not
2011-2014
ratified the Domestic Work Convention.Denmark has allocated 85 million
DKK (approx. US$15 million) toward eradicating modern slavery in the current National Action Plan
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
291
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
292
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
293“Human Trafficking for Forced Labour in Denmark?”, 2012, Anders Lisbourg, p10: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/entity.action;jsessionid=0232R3jG1BHSp2BGrpNX01Px
TspLfjz2yZWx4LZpyZdh2nSSSrvq!1207144150?path=Publications%2FForced_labour_Denmark
294“Human Trafficking for Forced Labour in Denmark?”, 2012, Anders Lisbourg, p18: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/entity.action;jsessionid=0232R3jG1BHSp2BGrpNX01Px
TspLfjz2yZWx4LZpyZdh2nSSSrvq!1207144150?path=Publications%2FForced_labour_Denmark
295“Human Trafficking for Forced Labour in Denmark?”, 2012, Anders Lisbourg, p10: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/entity.action;jsessionid=0232R3jG1BHSp2BGrpNX01Px
TspLfjz2yZWx4LZpyZdh2nSSSrvq!1207144150?path=Publications%2FForced_labour_Denmark
296“Rambolls partners use slave labour”, 21 February 2011, http://www.danwatch.dk/en/articles/ramboell-partners-use-slaves/6
297
When words are not enough”, 18 January 2012, http://www.danwatch.dk/en/articles/naar-ord-ikke-er-nok/240
289

Denmark first established the Inter-Ministerial
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
Working Group at the same time that it
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yescriminalised trafficking in human beings inForced Labour Convention
Yes
2002. The Group serves as the coordinating
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yesmechanism for government responses and
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
ensures the implementation of National Action
Domestic Work Convention
No
Plan (NAP) elements. The Group is comprisedof representatives from the Department of Gender Equality and the Ministries of Justice, Immigration,
Social Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Employment, Taxation, and Interior. The Group issues an annual report on
Denmark’s progress against the NAP, as well as quarterly reports on the progress of the Government’s various
programmes and interventions.
Denmark has, since 2007, had various National Action Plans to combat trafficking. While earlier plans
focused exclusively on trafficking for sexual exploitation, the current action plan (2011-2014) refers to
the need to extend the focus beyond sexual exploitation, to a focus on forced labour in the agriculture,
construction and cleaning industries and in organised crime. To this end, the Danish Centre against Human
Trafficking (CMM) has build new partnerships with actors in the labour market, including governmental
authorities (regulating work and taxation) and trade unions. Two working groups on forced labour have been
established, one with government authorities and one with trade unions, the purpose of which is to exchange
knowledge on vulnerable sectors, information on methods of identifying victims, and agree on procedures forcooperation. The initiative has reportedly led to an increase in numbers of victims of forced labour identified.
Danish law prohibits trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced labour.298 The National Centre of
Investigation (NCI) within the Danish National Police is, together with the local police districts, responsible
for criminal investigations regarding modern slavery. The NCI receives reports and collects data fromthe local police districts in all cases of human trafficking. It also prepares an annual report to the Danish
Parliament including statistics on the number of criminal investigations, prosecutions and convictions. In
2008, a special anti-trafficking unit was established within the Copenhagen Police. However, the unit mainly
handles cases that involve trafficking in women for sexual exploitation.299
In addition to the reporting that the Inter-Ministerial Working Group does to Parliament, Denmark
participates in EUROSTAT data collection. According to the most recent Eurostat figures released in2013, Denmark identified 53 victims of trafficking in 2010, 47 in 2009 and 28 in 2008.300 There were 11
convictions for human trafficking 2010, 10 convictions in 2009 and 7 in 2008.301
The Director of Public Prosecutions has published guidelines concerning withdrawal of charges against
victims of modern slavery, and identification of such victims. These guidelines were provided to the Police
Commissioner and the Chief Prosecutor. They provide for the withdrawal of charges if it is certain that thesuspect has been a victim of trafficking, that the alleged offence relates to trafficking and that the alleged
offence cannot be characterised as a serious crime.302
In terms of victim support, Denmark provides shelter, medical and psychological services, a stipend and legal counsel,
and a 30 day reflection period for victims of modern slavery to decide on next steps. Recent research suggeststhat this period is more a time where the victim must prepare for repatriation, rather than a period of reflection.303

290

72.

Section 262A of the Danish Criminal Code, http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/NIP/Denmark#A2“Together Against Trafficking in Human Beings” (2013), European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/NIP/Denmark#A3
300“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p31, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
301“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
302
Information from field based sources.
303“Balancing protection and prosecution in anti-trafficking policies” Anette Brunovskis, Fafo, p30, A comparative analysis of reflection periods and related temporary residence
permits for victims of trafficking in the Nordic countries, Belgium and Italy, Nordon: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/download.action?nodePath=/Publications/Balancing+protection+and+prosecution+in+anti-trafficking+policies.pdf&fileName=Balancing+protection+and+prosecution+in+anti-trafficking+policies.pdf
298
299

73.

D enmar k con t i n u ed

Denmark has partnered with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) to facilitate safe returnand rehabilitation in victims’ home countries. Since 2008, IOM had assisted 44 victims of trafficking toreturn under the project: with Thailand (11), Nigeria (7) and Romania (5) reflecting the largest geographic
groupings. Following concerns raised in a 2010 evaluation of the Government’s National Action Plan about
victim’s unwillingness to access repatriation assistance, an evaluation of this programme was conducted.304
The reflection period has been extended from 3 to 6 months under this project, and the IOM offers asubsistence allowance, reintegration assistance such as income generation, and optional medical assistance.
As a result of the evaluation, it is reported that some elements of the assistance level have been adjusted inorder to enhance sustainability.305

Notable aspects of the response
Denmark has undertaken an evaluation of the effectiveness of its previous National Action Plan.306 While theevaluation methodology and depth is not clear from the evaluation report itself, the fact that an evaluation
was undertaken at all, and its results made public is a positive step. It is not clear if the evaluation involved
interviews with users of the services themselves, namely victims of modern slavery.
The evaluation noted the critical role that the Danish Centre against Human Trafficking (CMM) played in
improvements to Denmark’s response to human trafficking. The evaluators noted that “it is difficult to see
how the protection activities would have achieved the same level of success without CMM’s contribution.”307
The CMM was established in 2007 to coordinate victim services, liaise between relevant governmental andnongovernmental actors, and collect data. The CMM collaborates with the National Centre of Investigation
to monitor and evaluate anti-trafficking programmes and interventions. The CMM has established a national
hotline, as well as a drop-in centre in Copenhagen to serve migrant sex workers. Part of the CMM’s new
focus will be to train government employees from a spectrum of ministries and departments on recognising,identifying and reporting instances of modern slavery outside of the sex industry.
The Danish Financial Statements Act requires large and public companies to practice integrated reporting.
In other words, they must say if they undertake any corporate social responsibility activity, and if they do,they must provide details of their policies, their implementation and results. Public companies are more
inclined to report on corporate responsibility anyway, in order to show their investors how they avoid andaddress current and future threats. However, the law resulted in an increase in the number of businesses
reporting on their corporate responsibility policies (from 69% in 2009 to 95% in 2010), actions (from 60%
in 2009 to 89% in 2010) and results (from 37% in 2009 to 65% in 2010).308

3. What needs to happen?
Denmark should:
Focus on building up capacity for investigating modern slavery outside of the sex industry in Denmark.
Ensure the reflection and recovery period is used for that purpose, not simply as a preparation forrepatriation.
■■ Repeat the evaluation of the National Action Plan, paying particular attention to the voices of survivorsof modern slavery who have been ‘end-users’ or clients of the national response.
■■ Focus on how Danish companies can play a leading role in eradicating modern slavery from supply chains,and in their global corporate operations.
■■■■Finland
Estimated number enslaved
670 – 740
Population
5,414,293 (2012) 309
GDP$250.0 billion (2012) 310
GDP/capita$46,179 (2012) 311
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 0% (2011) 312

INDEX rank

150

1. The problem
Known cases of modern slavery in Finland have primarily involved the exploitation of vulnerable migrants,
including children. In her 2012 report, the Finnish National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings
provides two recent case studies: one involving a Vietnamese woman who
was promised work in Finland, who borrowed heavily to make the trip,
t he clear majorityof identified victims
and was then subjected to unpaid, forced labour for more than fifty hours
have been Nigeria, andeach week in a nail salon, including three days after giving birth. The otherhave been victimisedcase study involves a 16 year old Romanian girl, who came to Finland withnot only in Finl andher boyfriend having discussed the idea of making money through selling
but in Mediterranean
sex but ultimately was forced to provide sexual services to pay off his debt,
countries
through threat of violence.313 The Rapporteur notes that the majority ofvictims of modern slavery involving sexual exploitation were from asylum seeker backgrounds.314
The existing statistics suggest most cases to date have involved forced labour, for example, in the restaurantor gardening business. However, in 2013, the majority of clients accepted by the Joutseno Reception Centre(that provides victim support services) have been victims of sexual exploitation. From 1 January to 30 June2013 a total of 24 people, one of whom is a minor, have been accepted into the system of assistance. Reflecting
statistics since 2006, the clear majority of identified victims have been Nigerian, and have been victimised not
only in Finland but in Mediterranean countries.315 The next largest group of victims are from Thailand andVietnam, the majority of whom are usually victims of labour related exploitation.316

Notable aspects of the problem
Although immigration to Finland has steadily risen since the late 1980s, a sharp inflow of migrants began in
2006.317 Finland’s social welfare programmes and trade unions were built to serve a local population with low
mobility, and hinge on residence; therefore, the surge in temporary labour migration, transient workers and theinformal economy has flourished outside the parameters of Finland’s welfare infrastructure. These are optimal
conditions for modern slavery to thrive. The Finnish Government and other institutions such as trade unions,have not yet fully developed means for adequately responding to its immigrant population’s vulnerabilities.

2. What is the government doing about it?
Finland has ratified a number of key treaties relevant to modern slavery, as well as the Council of Europe
Convention against Trafficking in Human Beings. Finland has not ratified the Domestic Work Convention.
The budget allocation of Finland to modern slavery is not known. However, Finland is currently
implementing its second National Action Plan (NAP) and has programming related to prosecution,2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
311
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
312
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
313“The Finish National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings, Report 2012, Publication 12”, Ombudsman for Minorities, pp.26-34, http://www.vahemmistovaltuutettu.
fi/download/39494_SM_ihmiskauppa_uk_web.pdf
314“The Finish National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings, Report 2012, Publication 12”, Ombudsman for Minorities, p21, http://www.vahemmistovaltuutettu.fi/
download/39494_SM_ihmiskauppa_uk_web.pdf
315“Number of victims of sexual exploitation in the system of assistance for the victims of human trafficking has increased”, Press Release 23.07.2013, Finnish Immigration Service,
http://www.migri.fi/for_the_media/bulletins/press_releases/press_releases/1/0/number_of_victims_of_sexual_exploitation_in_the_system_of_assistance_for_the_victims_of_human_trafficking_has_increased
316
Ibid.
317
“Finland’s Balancing Act: The Labor Market, Humanitarian Relief, and Immigrant Integration.” Tanner, A., (n.d.) Migration Information Source: http://www.migrationinformation.
org/feature/display.cfm?ID=825
309

310

“Information, Assisted Voluntary Return and Victim Assistance for Vulnerable Migrants from Denmark”, (2011), International Organisation for Migration: http://www.iom.
int/files/live/sites/iom/files/What-We-Do/docs/Annual_Report_2011_Counter_Trafficking.pdf
305
Information from field based sources.
306“Evaluation of the Danish Action Plan for Combatting of Trafficking in Human Beings”, 2007-2010, Department for Gender Equality: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/download.action?nodePath=/National+Info+Pages/Denmark/6.+RESOURCES/6.3+Reports/6.3.1+National+reports+on+implementation/Summary+of+evaluation+of+
Action+Plan+2007-2010_en.pdf&fileName=Summary+of+evaluation+of+Action+Plan+2007-2010_en.pdf&fileType=pdf
307
Ibid.
308
Sustainable fashion design: learning from Denmark’s example (2013) Guardian Sustainable Business Blog: http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/sustainablefashion-design-denmark
304

74.

75.

F i nland con t i n u ed

protection and prevention of modern slavery in all its forms. Following recommendations from a 2011assessment of Finland’s anti-trafficking institutional framework, the Government is currently drafting a
new law on anti-trafficking and a new NAP
Finland
Ratifiedto go along with it. The inter-ministerial
Slavery Convention
Yes
coordination committee, or Inter-Agency
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
Steering Group, also has representatives fromUN Trafficking ProtocolYes
the Border Guard, the police, the National
Forced Labour Convention
Yes
Bureau of Investigation, the Office of the
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yes
Prosecutor General, and various NGOs.
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Yes

Finland’s National Rapporteur on Trafficking in
Domestic Work Convention
No
Human Beings is a function of the Office of the
Ombudsman for Minorities. The National Rapporteur monitors, evaluates and reports on the scope of modern
slavery in Finland and issues statements, reports, proposals and recommendations on combating modern
slavery and meeting the needs of victims. These publications provide important information on the progressof the Finnish Government against the NAPs, and the Government has been receptive to and proactive about
implementing the Rapporteur’s recommendations.318 The National Rapporteur also works directly with victims
and ensures legal advice is provided when necessary, but does not coordinate the country’s response.
In addition to the accountability provided by the National Rapporteur function, Finland also participates inEurostat data collection on human trafficking. According to the most recent Eurostat figures published in 2013,
Finland identified 79 victims of trafficking in 2010, 64 in 2009 and 29 in 2008.319 There were 0 convictions forhuman trafficking 2010, 0 convictions in 2009 and 5 in 2008.320

The Government has
been receptive toand proactive about
implementing therapporteur’srecommendations

Finland has several national laws criminalising various aspects of modern
slavery, including the Criminal Code, the Aliens Act and the Act on the
Integration of Immigrants and Reception of Asylum Seekers.321 Since 2004,
each of these laws has been amended to address the issue of modern
slavery. As there is no all-encompassing law regarding the various aspects ofmodern slavery, Finland’s Ministry of the Interior has undertaken The Law
Drafting Project, which seeks to develop one separate law on human trafficking, which will outlaw all formsof trafficking and regulate the victim assistance system. The Ministry of Justice is also working on revising
the current anti-trafficking legislation in the Finnish Penal Code. The revisions aim to clarify the definitionof trafficking in human beings by differentiating it from procuring and extortionate work discrimination.
While the sale of sexual services in Finland is not prohibited,322 under immigration law, an individual fromoutside the EU can be deported from Finland if suspicion arises that he or she is selling sexual services.
Deportation is usually combined with a year’s ban on entry – suggesting a heavy disincentive for migrants
to interface with the authorities or even seek NGO support, and underscoring the importance of screening
for indicators of modern slavery in immigration procedures. Women in sex work are often stigmatised,complicating efforts to identify trafficking victims exploited in the sex industry. This stigma also makes it
difficult to meet the burden of proof for trafficking. Alleged traffickers are often convicted for lesser crimes,
such as pandering. Finland has had more success identifying and prosecuting labour trafficking cases than casesof trafficking in a sex industry context323 however, victims of commercial sexual exploitation have had more
success in accessing direct services.
While the Parliament recommended establishing a specialist police unit, this was criticised by police for too

76.

318
“The Finnish National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings: Report 2012,” Helsinki: Office of the Ombudsman for Minorities: http://www.vahemmistovaltuutettu.fi/
download/39494_SM_ihmiskauppa_uk_web.pdf
319“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p31, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
320“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
321“Child Labour” (2013), ILO Home: http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/child-labour/lang--en/index.htm
322
Pimping, procuring and organizing brothels is prohibited, purchasing sex from minors is prohibited. Selling sex in public places is also prohibited. The purchase of sexual services
from a victim of human trafficking has been criminalised since October 2006. The Finnish Government is currently in a discussion about prohibiting the purchase of sexual services,
but no legislative drafting is yet underway. The Swedish model is currently the primary model under consideration, but alternative models may also be considered.
323“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Finland Country Narrative, p169 , US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf

heavily centralising competence. Finnish police are working toward establishing an expert network in humantrafficking and have published guidelines for all police to use in order to improve victim identification andresponse to their needs.324
Finland actively conducts trainings for police, border guards, prosecutors and judges on trafficking victim
identification, interview methods, referral to direct services, rights and protections in order to address theissue of victim misidentifications, prosecutions and deportations. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health hasdeveloped new guidelines for occupational safety and health inspectors, specific to non-Finnish workers, toassist in identifying trafficking victims and referring them to the system of victim assistance.325
Modern slavery-related prosecutions have both steadily increased over the past decade but victim support
services are reportedly largely underutilised. Victims are often unaware of the rights and protections available
to them, and law enforcement is only recently discovering how to identify, investigate and prosecute cases ofmodern slavery. A criminal justice outcome is not necessary for victims to receive support; suspicion of beinga trafficking victim is enough to access assistance. Victim support services include immediate assistance, suchas shelter, legal counsel, medical and psychological care, language interpretation, and physical protection.
Long-term assistance is also provided under law in the form of a reflection period, the option to assist inprosecuting the trafficker, a residence permit, a stipend and/or job placement, and safe repatriation. Issues thatare worthy of attention in relation to victim services include the appropriateness of mixed-needs shelters, thelack of clearance for NGO workers to assist law enforcement in victim identification and referrals, and lack ofawareness among vulnerable groups about their rights and legal protections against exploitative work.
Finland’s Joutseno Reception Center, which assists migrant workers, coordinates the multi-stakeholder group,and houses the expert group on trafficking and victim assistance. The expert group makes case assessments andreferrals to service providers. This expert group comprises several stakeholders, including NGO representatives.
Shelter is provided by NGOs and private accommodation services, but the shelters are often multi-needs
populations rather than shelters that serve trafficking victims exclusively. Given the small number of victims ofmodern slavery identified in Finland, specialist shelters are not considered to be feasible. However, the numbers
being identified are comparable to numbers identified in other countries that do have specialist shelters.

Notable aspects of the response
The Finnish Government has focused largely on raising public awareness about human trafficking, both among
the general public and among professionals who are likely to come into direct contact with trafficking victims.
The National Rapporteur suggests that greater attention be paid todecreasing demand for trafficking victims.
Finl and’s progress against

modern sl avery has been
Since 2010, the relationship between the National Rapporteur,hampered by the l ack of aParliament and the ministries has been such that the ministries
central national coordinatorprovide open access to all trafficking-related information, the National
to orchestrate an integrated
response to the problem.
Rapporteur issues a report on the scope of trafficking in human beings
containing recommendations for improvement, and Parliament takes
measures over the next year to draft legislation in line with the recommendations. The National Rapporteur
also issues an interim report on the progress of that legislation and related current cases. This system ofcommunication and mutual monitoring has proven to be unique and effective.

Finland’s progress against modern slavery has been hampered by the lack of a central national coordinator toorchestrate an integrated response to the problem. The National Rapporteur has noted that “integrated action
against human trafficking is still insufficient, and the permanent allocation of coordination responsibility for
integrated action (to a national coordinator) is yet to take place.”326“The Finnish National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings: Report 2012,” Helsinki: Office of the Ombudsman for Minorities, p12 http://www.vahemmistovaltuutettu.
fi/download/39494_SM_ihmiskauppa_uk_web.pdf
325“The Finnish National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings: Report 2012,” Helsinki: Office of the Ombudsman for Minorities, p6 http://www.vahemmistovaltuutettu.
fi/download/39494_SM_ihmiskauppa_uk_web.pdf
326“The Finnish National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings: Report 2012,” Helsinki: Office of the Ombudsman for Minorities, p5 http://www.vahemmistovaltuutettu.
fi/download/39494_SM_ihmiskauppa_uk_web.pdf
324

77.

F i nland con t i n u ed

3. What needs to happen?
Finland should:
Establish a central national coordinator on modern slavery.
■■ Ensure the expert network of police effectively results in a web of specialist police officers within the police
department, working in collaboration with local NGOs and other interested ministries.
■■ Establish shelters that are specifically set up for victims of modern slavery, to minimise re-victimisationand to increase understanding of how to effectively meet victims’ needs.
■■ Develop a more accessible means for providing housing, protection and other rehabilitation services
to victims.
■■ Develop more stringent laws and standards for organisations that routinely hire vulnerable populations,such as document authentication, labour inspectors, and recruiter certification.
■■ Revise trade unions, tax brackets, and social security programmes that are currently focused on residence,
so that they no longer contribute to transient and migrant workers’ vulnerabilities to modern slavery.
■■

Luxembourg
Estimated number enslaved<100
Population
531,441 (2012) 327
GDP$57.12 billion (2012) 328
GDP/capita$107,476 (2012) 329
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 3% (2011) 330

INDEX r a n k

150

1. The problem
Luxembourg is primarily a destination country for women and children trafficked for sexual exploitation from
Romania, Ukraine, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Russia, Bulgaria, Nigeria, France, Belgium, and Brazil. Luxembourg
is also a destination country for men, women and children trafficked for labour in the construction andrestaurant industries. Luxembourg has a sizable population of unaccompanied minors seeking asylum or
refugee status who are especially vulnerable to trafficking for sex and/or criminal activity.331
According to Eurostat figures, Luxembourg identified 8 victims of trafficking in 2010, 3 in 2009 and 7 in2008.332 There were 4 convictions for human trafficking 2010, 2 convictions in 2009 and 1 in 2008.333

Notable aspects of the problem
Immigrants make up 35.2% of Luxembourg’s population, and about half of all migrants to Luxembourg are
women.334 The top source countries for migrants to Luxembourg are Portugal, France, Belgium, Germany,
Italy, the Netherlands, the UK, Cape Verde, Spain, and Bosnia & Herzegovina.335 Luxembourg has a higher
GDP and lower immigration restrictions in comparison to its neighbours and is anecdotally considered atransit country, but more data-driven research is needed in this area.336
Luxembourg borders Germany, France and Belgium and is included in the tri-state grouping of Belgium,
the Netherlands and Luxembourg, referred to as Benelux. Child trafficking in Benelux is complex, in thatthe focus of anti-trafficking initiatives is on unaccompanied and undocumented migrants, while aid sources
assert that most of the victims are trafficked within state borders. Furthermore, the three nations report rates
of child trafficking that seem to reflect the scale of their respective anti-trafficking initiatives (that is, countries
with a bigger response to modern slavery find higher numbers of cases).

2. What is the government doing about it?
Luxembourg has ratified the key international and regional treaties relevant to modern slavery with the
exceptions of the Slavery Convention and the
Luxembourg
Ratified
Domestic Work Convention.
Luxembourg criminalised human trafficking
in 1999 by modifying the Criminal Codeto include the offences of trafficking inhuman beings for sexual exploitation and thesexual exploitation of children. Subsequent
amendments broaden the definition to include
forced labour and services, exploitation

Slavery Convention

No

Supplementary Slavery Convention

Yes

UN Trafficking Protocol

Yes

Forced Labour Convention

Yes

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention

Yes

CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Yes

Domestic Work ConventionNo2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
329
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
330
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0331
US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, Luxembourg Country Narrative, p240, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210739.pdf
332“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p31, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
333“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
334“Luxembourg Facts and Figures” (March 2012), International Organisation for Migration: http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/where-we-work/europa/europeaneconomic-area/luxembourg.html
335“Migration and Remittances Factbook” (2011), World Bank: http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTDECPROSPECTS/0,,contentMDK:
22759429~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:476883,00.html
336
According to field based sources, no data collection report or research on trafficking has been undertaken as of May 2013.
327

328

78.

79.

L u x em b o u r g con t i n u ed

for criminal activities and the removal of organs, and distinguish human trafficking from smuggling andundocumented migration. Punishments for violating this code range from five to ten years in prison. A May
2009 Law on Assistance, Protection and Security of Trafficking Victims337 mandates a committee to monitor
trafficking in human beings, but as of the writing of this report, the subordinate legislation necessary toestablish the structure and mission of the committee had not been adopted by the Parliament.
Luxembourg is implementing a National Action Plan on the Equalityof Women and Men for 2009-2014 that calls for the implementationof a monitoring system for legislation on human trafficking, but it does
not currently have a plan of action specifically on modern slavery. Anynational coordination of this issue is currently done on an ad-hoc basis.
Luxembourg has not implemented a national referral mechanism forconnecting victims with services.

Luxembourg does nothave implementationof a national referralmechanism in pl ace
for connecting victims
with services

The EU has urged Luxembourg to “establish clear procedural rules in order to guarantee an effective
cooperation between the different actors involved in the fight against trafficking of human beings, to define
the respective roles of the persons involved and to assure an effective assistance to victims”338 In December
2012, GRETA administered a country visit to evaluate the implementation of the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings.

Notable aspects of the response
Luxembourg’s national police force works in close cooperation with those of its border countries within
EUROPOL, INTERPOL, the Benelux Treaty, the convention on police cooperation, the Prum Treaty,
and other regional agreements. Benelux border guards have been trained to identify possible victims ofhuman trafficking. Until the May 2009 Law on Assistance, Protection and Security of trafficking victims is
implemented through subordinate legislation, the police remain the only authorities permitted to formally
identify victims. Luxembourg’s vice squad does not currently utilise official guidelines to identify victims
from within sex worker communities; it relies on self-identification. Luxembourg signed a memorandumof understanding with IOM to cooperate on assisting victims with safe
repatriation and reintegration in January 2008. The beneficiaries of
t he Government did notprovide any assistancethe programme are non-European citizens (asylum seekers, rejectedor repatriation to any ofasylum seekers and migrants in irregular situations) willing to return to
the 95, mostly Estonian
their home countries. The programme foresees additional assistance forwomen, who had been
vulnerable cases, including victims of trafficking, in the countries of origin
traffickedof the returnees. To date, no such assistance has been given to victimsof trafficking. In December 2012, IOM reported to the GRETA delegation one possible case of humantrafficking amongst the beneficiaries of the programme.

four convicted in 2011 to serve jail time. It has been reported that the Government did not provide any
assistance or repatriation to any of the 95, mostly Estonian women, who had been trafficked in a nightclub
in Remich. While the four offenders were convicted, the court issued suspended sentences and one convicted
defendant received no jail time.339
The Ministry of Cooperation has collaborated with the European Commission and ECPAT to run two
campaigns to raise awareness of human trafficking. The campaigns aimed at patrons of the sex industry but
the outcomes were not evaluated. NGOs suggest that authorities and the general public have a relatively low
awareness of human trafficking within the country. There is a privately led initiative to launch anti-trafficking
campaigns targeting high school students and teachers.

3. What needs to happen?
Luxembourg should:
Enact the subordinate legislation necessary to ensure the 2009 Law on Assistance, Protection and Securityof Trafficking Victims can be implemented, thereby ensuring procedures for identifying, protecting andassisting victims of modern slavery.
■■ Ensure that front line service providers and law enforcement receive training in using the proposed victim
identification mechanisms.
■■ Establish a national referral mechanism to ensure that all victims of modern slavery receive appropriate
services and support, from identification to repatriation.
■■ Establish a national plan of action specifically on modern slavery, and mobilise the committee prescribed inlegislation, to oversee the plan’s implementation.
■■ Establish a means for victims and witnesses to anonymously and safely report cases of modern slavery.
■■ Use specialist prosecutors to pursue modern slavery cases, to ensure that sentences that are commensuratewith the crime are sought and obtained.
■■ Engage with judicial institutes to understand why suspended sentences are being used for such serious crimes.
■■

Luxembourg law enforcement reports that it has yet to encounter a victim of child trafficking in 2012, but it
has established special protective measures for child victims of trafficking. NGOs in the country have reported
providing services to child victims of sexual exploitation and forced begging, and two child victims of forced
labour were identified in 2011.
Victim services provided under the law of Luxembourg, include protection from criminalisation for crimes
committed under force, the provision of temporary residence permits, encouragement to participate ininvestigations and prosecutions of traffickers, a reflection period of 90 days (extended for prosecution
participation), and other protection and assistance measures. However, in 2010, however, only three of the
25 victims that participated in investigations and prosecutions were granted a 90-day reflection period andthere are no confirmed reports of victim receipt of temporary residency permits in 2011. This is despite thefact that in that year, four offenders were convicted, including a Brazilian man convicted of trafficking three
Brazilian women to Luxembourg for sexual exploitation. This particular trafficker was the only one of the

80.

337
“Loi du 8 mai 2009 sur l’assistance, la protection et la sécurité des victimes de la traite des êtres humains et modifiantle Nouveau Code de procedure civile”,(2009), European Commission http://
ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/download.action?nodePath=%2FNational+Info+Pages%2FLuxembourg%2F5.+RESOURCES%2F5.1.+Legislation%2FLaw+8+May+2009+Luxemburg_
fr.pdf&fileName=Law+8+May+2009+Luxemburg_fr.pdf&fileType=pdf
338“Together Against Trafficking in Human Beings: Luxembourg,” (11 January 2013), European Commission: ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/showNIPsection.action;jsessionid=tZmTPbG

339

United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2013” Luxembourg Country Analysis, p241, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf

81.

Norway
Estimated number enslaved
620 – 690
Population
5,018,869 (2012) 340
GDP$499.7 billion (2012) 341
GDP/capita$99,558 (2012) 342
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 0% (2011) 343

Report notes that a significant majority are foreigners.
Law enforcement and research have established particular patterns of coercion and deception for victims
from specific regions and countries: for example, according to the 2013 US TIP report, threats to family
and traditional religious practices have been used to coerce African victims, while victims from Eastern
Europe are typically trafficked through family organised crime groups.

INDEX r a n k

150

2. What is the government doing about it?
Norway has ratified all the key international treaties on modern slavery, and the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, but not the Domestic Work Convention.

1. The problem
All identified victims of modern slavery in Norway have been non-nationals. Norway is thus considered a
destination country for modern slavery, which has been detected in domestic work and nannying, healthcare, hospitality, construction and commercial sexual exploitation. In particular, false or exploitative aupair arrangements have been highly controversial in Norway and led to the Ministry of Justice to consider
abolishing the system because so much abuse has been reported.
As a very wealthy country with a high standard of living, many foreigners migrate to Norway to seek workand economic opportunity. Migrant workers have a high level of formal legal protection, being covered by
the same workplace laws as citizens.
A delegation of the Council of Europe’s Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings(GRETA) visited Norway to collect information in May 2012, and published its first draft report in May
2013 (the final report is expected in June after Norway gives its comments) along with comprehensive
recommendations.344
In 2012, one government-funded shelter received “146 contacts fromtrafficking victims,”345 16 of which were men. According to Eurostat
figures, Norway identified 36 victims of trafficking in 2010, 30 in 2009
and 35 in 2008.346 However, GRETA reported a higher number ofidentified potential (but not necessarily officially recognised) victims of
trafficking – between 150 and 200 per year.

 odern sl averY has beenmdetected in domestic workand nannying, health care,
hospitality, construction
and commercial sexual
exploitation

In 2012, the Norwegian Government reported identifying and providing services for 274 trafficking victims,
including 191 women, 18 men, and 65 children, compared with 272 trafficking victims assisted in 2011.347
A large proportion of trafficking victims identified in Norway have been from “Nigeria, Romania and
Lithuania, with an increase in the number of victims from Algeria and the Philippines.”348 42 modern
slavery-related prosecutions were initiated in 2011 (32 for commercial sexual exploitation and 12 forlabour trafficking).349 At least 7 trafficking offenders were convicted in 2011, all of whom received custodial
sentences. According to Eurostat data there were 0 convictions for human trafficking in 2010, 0 convictionsin 2009 and 5 in 2008 in Norway.350

Notable aspects of the problem
The 2012 UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, the 2013 US TIP Report and the GRETA
report all noted that children had been forced into begging and committing petty crimes in Norway. The
nationalities of trafficking offenders are not clear from the literature, however the 2012 UNODC Global
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
343
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
344“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Norway” (7 May 2013), First Evaluation Round,Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRETA_2013_5_FGR_NOR_with_cmnts_en.pdf
345“US Trafficking in Persons Report” (2013), Norway Country Narrative, pp. 287-288, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
346“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), pp. 35-37, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/
what-is-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
347“US Trafficking in Persons Report” (2013), Norway Country Narrative, pp. 287-288, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
348“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Norway” (7 May 2013), First Evaluation Round,Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRETA_2013_5_FGR_NOR_with_cmnts_en.pdf
349“US Trafficking in Persons Report” (2012), Norway Country Narrative, pp. 287-288, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
350“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
340
341
342

82.

Norway has a National Plan of Action and astrong institutional response coordinated by
the National Co-ordinating Unit for Victimsof Trafficking (KOM), which has an annual
budget of €250,000 (approx. US$336,000).

NorwayRatified

Slavery Convention

Yes

Supplementary Slavery Convention

Yes

UN Trafficking Protocol

Yes

Forced Labour Convention

Yes

Human trafficking is prohibited in Norway,
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yesthrough the Norwegian Human Rights
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yeslegislation and the General Civil Penal Code.
Domestic Work Convention
No
However, GRETA expressed concern thatslavery, practices similar to slavery and servitude were not included as types of exploitation in the legal definitionof trafficking in human beings, and has urged Norway to amend its law to include these types of exploitation.
Labour inspectors have previously identified victims of modern slavery but, according to GRETA, theirpowers and training are limited. The role of labour inspectors in detecting modern slavery is currently underreview, according to Norwegian authorities.351

Notable aspects of the response
Under the country’s National Plan of Action, government agencies work closely with community sector
workers to identify and support victims, regardless of their willingness to assist law enforcement. Norway’s
approach is ‘victim-centred,’ placing a high importance on the victim’s human rights and agency services
available for victims are “generous and diverse.”352 Victims who are identified receive a 6 month ‘reflection
period’ – with a special immigration status – to decide whether they want to assist law enforcement, pursue
residency in Norway, or return to their country of origin. During the reflection period, victims are supported
in the community. However, NGOs and GRETA have raised concerns about whether appropriate services
exist for male victims of modern slavery, whether significant information isNorway’s approach is
given to victims by Norwegian authorities and if significant services exist‘victim- centred,’ pl acing
for victims (before they are granted a reflection period).

a high importance on thevictim’s human rights

The Norwegian response recognises the importance of international andregional cooperation to end modern slavery. Most victims of modern
slavery in Norway have transited through other European countries on Schengen visas before arrival in
Norway.353 The Norwegian Government has previously supported anti-trafficking programmes in the Balkans
and in Asia, southern Africa and South America – the 2013 GRETA report noted that a total of 252,000,000
NOK (over US$43 million) was spent by Norway on 110 anti-slavery projects abroad between 2000 and2010.
The purchase of sexual services (but not the sale of sexual services) has been criminalised in Norway since2009, which was justified at the time as an anti-trafficking measure. However, there is to date no reliable,
publicly available data in relation to whether this has had any effect on the numbers of people being
subjected to commercial sexual exploitation. During 2013, Norway will conduct an evaluation of the“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Norway” (7 May 2013), First Evaluation Round,Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRETA_2013_5_FGR_NOR_with_cmnts_en.pdf
352“US Trafficking in Persons Report” (2013), Norway Country Narrative, pp. 287-288, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
353
Ibid.
354
“Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by Norway” (7 May 2013), First Evaluation Round,Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Beings: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRETA_2013_5_FGR_NOR_with_cmnts_en.pdf
351

83.

N or w ay con t i n u ed

effectiveness of this ban.354
In September 2012, the Norwegian Government published a Guide to Socially Responsible Public
Procurement which aims to help public procurers to set and monitor standards for decent working conditionsat productions sites. It references the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.355
The Norwegian Government has also: roduced a White Paper on Corporate Social Responsibility (2008-2009) that addresses sociallyP
responsible public procurement;Created regulations on pay and working conditions in public contracts, which entered into force on
1 March 2008; andPresented in June 2007, an action plan for 2007-2010 on environmental and social responsibility
in government procurement, with which all government agencies are required to comply.

3. What needs to happen?
Norway should use GRETA’s recommendations to refine its response to modern slavery. In particular,
Norway should:
Ensure that where children are identified as having been trafficked, they are not criminalised for activities
related to their trafficking.
■■ Increase focus on identification of modern slavery in industries where the workforce is primarily male,and develop services for male victims of modern slavery.
■■ Increase long-term shelter options and trauma services for victims of modern slavery.
■■ Strengthen law enforcement and labour inspectorate awareness of modern slavery beyond just thesex industry.
■■ Protect the human and labour rights of migrant workers, and ensure they have access to information
about their rights and safe migration pathways.
■■ Monitor cases of exploitation of its own nationals for indicators of modern slavery.
■■ Raise more public awareness through targeted campaigns.
■■

SwedenEstimated number enslaved
1,200 – 1,300
Population
9,516,617 (2012) 356
GDP$525.7 billion (2012) 357
GDP/capita$55,252 (2012) 358
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 0% (2011) 359

INDEX r a n k

150

1. The problem
Sweden is considered primarily a destination country for modern slavery, which has affected both foreigners
and, to a lesser extent, Swedish citizens.360 According to the US TIP Report 2013, sexual exploitation has been
the dominant type of modern slavery but “in 2011 the number of reported labour trafficking cases was larger
than the number of reported sex trafficking cases.” Forced criminal behaviour (begging and stealing) has also
been detected, and is primarily thought to affect nationals of Eastern European countries. Men, women andchildren have been identified, with approximately one third of all victims being under the age of 18.361
The reported labour trafficking cases concern victims originating fromt he number of reported
Eastern Europe and Asia. They have been detected in “domestic service
l abour trafficking
and hospitality, as well as in seasonal labour, when workers travel tocases was l arger than
Sweden to pick berries or perform construction or gardening.”362 In 2012,
the number of reported
Swedish law enforcement investigated 21 trafficking cases involving sexual
sex trafficking cases
exploitation, a decline from 35 in 2011. Law enforcement investigated 48
cases of forced labour, forced begging, or forced criminal activities, in contrast to 62 in 2011.363
According to Eurostat data, in 2010, 74 victims of trafficking were identified, 44 in 2009 and 21 in 2008.364
There were 8 convictions for human trafficking in 2010, 4 convictions in 2009 and 0 in 2008.365 In 2012,
Sweden initiated prosecutions of 35 suspected offenders, and 33 were convicted and received penalties of
up to five years in prison.366

Notable aspects of the problem
In 2011, police estimates of the number of people trafficked annually (which may be lower than the numberof people in modern slavery) were in the range of 400-600 per year.367 Poverty, migration or minority status
and disability are thought to increase vulnerability to trafficking in Sweden, reflecting regional and global
trends. The Swedish Migration Board states that the current migration legislation is such that it provides
loopholes that facilitate the exploitation of migrant workers, and recommends that trade unions should be
granted more oversight.

2. What is the government doing about it?
Sweden has ratified all key treaties in relation to modern slavery but not the Domestic Work Convention.
Sweden has comprehensive human rights protections and in general strong workplace laws and robust
institutions. Migrant rights are well protected and migrants are supported by a strong NGO sector. The 2008
Swedish Immigration Law reinforces that all workers have equal rights to fight exploitation. Sweden is in the2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
358
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
359
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
360
United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2012” Sweden Country Analysis, pp. 328 – 329, US Department of State,: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192597.pdf
361
Ibid.
362
United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2013” Sweden Country Analysis, p348, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
363
Ibid.
364
“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), pp. 31, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/whatis-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
365“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), pp. 84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/whatis-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
366
United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2013” Sweden Country Analysis, p348, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
367“2011 Trafficking in Persons Report - Sweden” (27 June 2011), p1, UNHRC: http://www.refworld.org/topic,50ffbce4c9,50ffbce4d5,4e12ee45c,0,,,SWE.html
356

357

“Submission No 57 – World Vision Submission” (8 February 2012) Inquiry into Slavery, Slavery-like Conditions and People Trafficking, Human Rights Sub-Committee, Joint
Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Australian Government.

355

84.

85.

S w eden con t i n u ed

early stages of undergoing evaluation by GRETA who conducted a country visit in May 2013 and theirfindings should be available by the end of 2013.
Sweden has a National Action Plan, under which 214 million SEK (approx. US$33.3 million) was spent
between 2008 and 2010. The current response
SwedenRatifiedstill occurs under the 2008-2010 National
Slavery Convention
Yes
Action Plan, which was due to be updated in
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
2011. The National Action Plan focuses on
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yessexual exploitation and does not in a formal
Forced Labour Convention
Yes
sense adequately address modern slavery
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yesoutside a sex industry context; however,CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
the increased number of forced labour cases
Domestic Work ConventionNo
identified shows that Swedish authorities arepaying greater attention to this issue. While a new NAP and corresponding mandate has not been drafted,
an extension of the 2008-2011 NAP established in April 2013 is currently being implemented. Interventions
addressing issues not covered in this NAP, such as labour trafficking and protecting male trafficking victims,
are being established. Data is collected and published by the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human
Beings in the form of Annual Situation Reports with recommendations for improving the country’s response.
The last available report online dates from 2012.368
Modern slavery is comprehensively criminalised under Sweden’s Penal Code and penalties for such conduct
are severe. The US TIP Report however has raised concerns about the standard of proof in relation to intent
in modern slavery cases, even after recent Swedish Government efforts toaddress inconsistencies.
increased number offorced l abour cases
identified shows that
Swedish authorities arepaying greater attention
to this issue

Victim assistance is decentralised so that local municipalities provide direct,
immediate assistance to referred parties. Direct services are provided by
local stakeholders including municipal bodies, county administration
and NGOs. The Stockholm County Administration has taken charge ofproviding support, training, provision systems, and protocol for victim
services, especially coordinating assisted returns with the International Organisation on Migration (IOM).
The National Support Method Team is a multi-stakeholder group that works with the Stockholm County
Administration to coordinate the sharing of information.
NGOs and regional agencies are funded by the Government to provide shelter, legal assistance, andsocial services to victims of modern slavery. These services are coordinated by the Stockholm County
Administration. NGOs have raised concerns about inconsistency in victim services and there is considerable
difference in the services provided between males and females.369 Temporary visas are available to victims
who cooperate with law enforcement, after a 30 day reflection period, but the reflection period is only
granted to victims whose cases law enforcement decided to pursue. NGOs suggest that the reflection period
is inadequate, and that not all victims are informed of their options with police not widely aware of theoperation of the reflection period.370 Victims who opt not to assist with the investigation, or whose cases
are not investigated may be allowed to stay in Sweden or to move within the Schengen Area, but they mustfind gainful employment or seek asylum. They may also opt to participate in the assisted return programmeby the IOM. Permanent visa options are available to victims who have assisted with law enforcement
activities. While there is no specialised compensation scheme for victims of modern slavery, the 2012 US
TIP Report noted that the Government’s Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority had awarded
compensation to victims of modern slavery. Compensation to victims of any crime can range from 10,000 –
325,000 Swedish kronor (approx. US$1,500 – $48500). Human trafficking cases in 1999-2009371 received“Trafficking in human beings for sexual and other purposes” (2011), Swedish National Police Board: http://www.polisen.se/Global/www%20och%20Intrapolis/
Informationsmaterial/01%20Polisen%20nationellt/Engelskt%20informationsmaterial/Trafficking_1998_/Trafficking_report_12_20120502.pdf
369
United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2013” Sweden Country Analysis, p349, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf
370
Ibid.
371
In this time period, there were 12 cases of human trafficking that requested compensation; 11 of those cases were awarded compensation. In the same time period, there were 22
cases on crimes related to human trafficking that requested compensation; 14 cases received awards. United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2013” Sweden Country Analysis,
US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210741.pdf

compensation awards ranging from 75,000 – 125,000 Swedish kronor (approx. US$11,200 – $18,700).
The Swedish Work Environment Authority (SWEA) is the administrative authority for issues relating to theworking environment and carries out inspections at workplaces. It has a broad mandate although information
is not available in relation to the frequency of detection of modern slavery by the SWEA.

Notable aspects of the response
The 2012 US TIP Report praised Sweden’s “creative methods to encourage all relevant actors in the
Government… involving non-traditional actors such as the tax authorities to investigate trafficking
crimes.” Training on modern slavery is provided to police, customs andNGOs suggest that theimmigration officials and tax authorities.

reflection period isPurchasing (but not selling) sexual services is criminalised under the 1998
inadequate, and that not
Act Prohibiting the Purchase of Sexual Services, which was a unique
all victims are informed
approach at the time of its introduction and was justified as an antiof their options
trafficking measure. A 2010 Swedish Government report claimed that“criminalisation of the purchase of sexual services has helped to combat prostitution and human trafficking
for sexual purposes,”372 at the same time noting “that it is difficult to assess the exact extent of humantrafficking for sexual purposes in Sweden.” However, the effectiveness of the ban specifically as a countertrafficking measure has not as been confirmed by independent research. Critics of the ban have argued that it
has pushed the sex industry into the informal economy beyond the reach of labour laws, and that it has madesex workers more vulnerable to HIV, violence and exploitative practices.373 There are conflicting accounts ofthe size of the illicit sex industry in Sweden, and the proportion of migrant sex workers.
A number of local governments in Sweden include social requirements in contracts, such as compliance with
fundamental ILO conventions. These terms are consistent with Swedish procurement law. To address therequirement for effective practices and tools to control a supplier’s compliance with the requirements, theSwedish Association for Local Authorities and Regions produce a sample code of conduct, and also a noteon the procedure for incorporating socially responsible public procurement.374

3. What needs to happen?
Sweden should:
Update its National Action Plan to reflect current conditions and adequately address all forms ofmodern slavery.
■■ Evaluate its legislative response to modern slavery, especially in relation the standard of proof required
to demonstrate intent and to how it deals with forced marriage.
■■ Conduct an evaluation of the effectiveness and appropriateness of its victim support programmes,
including a survey of users to better understand their experience.
■■ Ensure that law enforcement authorities are widely familiar with the reflection period provisions.
■■ Ensure that victims who are unwilling or unable to assist law enforcement have appropriate visa options.
■■ Ensure that the rights of migrant workers are protected, especially where visas are employer-linked.
■■ Commission an independent evaluation of the effectiveness of its ban on the purchase of sexual services
as an anti-slavery measure, and its effects on the safety of sex workers.
■■ Conduct targeted outreach and awareness raising to vulnerable groups.
■■

368

86.

“Evaluation of the prohibition of the purchase of sexual services” (2 July 2010), Government Offices of Sweden: http://www.government.se/sb/d/13420/a/151488“Critiques of Swedish Prostitution Law”, Sex Worker Rights Perspectives on Swedish Prostitution Laws: http://www.bayswan.org/swed/swed_index.html
374
Submission No 57 - World Vision Submission” (8 February 2012) Inquiry into Slavery, Slavery-like Conditions and People Trafficking, Human Rights Sub-Committee, Joint
Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Australian Government.
372
373

87.

Switzerland
Estimated number enslaved
990 – 1,100
Population
7,997,152 (2012) 375
GDP$632.2 billion (2012) 376
GDP/capita$79,052 (2012) 377
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 1% (2011) 378

INDEX rank

150

1. The Problem
Switzerland is considered a destination country for modern slavery primarily involving sexual exploitation,
forced begging and domestic servitude. The women and children who have been reportedly trafficked
into Switzerland originate, for the most part, from Central and EasternModern sl avery has
Europe, but some victims have also been identified as coming from Latin
alsobeen identified
America, Asia and Africa. In some cases (such as a case prosecuted in 2013
indomestic
work
379
involving 50 victims from Thailand ) women have come to Switzerland
including in diplomaticof their own accord knowing they would work in the sex industry but
households
have then been subjected to effective enslavement and exploitation.
Modern slavery has also been identified in domestic work including in diplomatic households, and it isthought to occur in a variety of other industries including hospitality, agriculture and commercial cleaning,but it has proven difficult to formally identify.
The true scale of modern slavery in Switzerland is unknown; however, federal police have estimated that there
are between 2,000 and 3,000 victims of human trafficking currently residing in the country, which is higher
than the Walk Free estimate.380

Article carries a sentence of up to 20 years or a fine.383 The minimum age for sex work is 16 years old, which
has been criticised for being too low. Article 27 of the Swiss Criminal Code ensures economic freedom,and the freedom to choose one’s profession.384
Switzerland
Ratified
The appointed mechanism charged withpreventing modern slavery in Switzerland is the
Swiss Coordination Unit against the Traffickingof Persons and Smuggling of Migrants (KSMM).
The KSMM is made up of federal and cantonalauthorities, as well as NGOs and IGOs. It
operates out of the Federal Office of Police.

Yes

Supplementary Slavery Convention

Yes

UN Trafficking Protocol

Yes

Forced Labour Convention

Yes

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention

Yes

CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Yes

Domestic Work Convention

No

Switzerland’s first National Action Plan against
Human Trafficking 2012-2014, was approved by the KSMM in October 2012. The Action Plan is based on
the four approaches of prevention, prosecution, protection of victims and partnership. This includes training
programmes for authorities in Switzerland. Awareness courses have targeted the police force and immigration
services.385
A unit dealing with human trafficking and migrant smuggling has been created within the Federal Criminal
Police. In response to the issue of forced domestic labour, the Federal Council implemented the Private
Household Employees Ordinance which set out stronger guidelines for employers of foreign domestic
workers within the diplomatic and international community.386
The Swiss Child Protection Foundation is currently convening a working group to develop recommendations
for local authorities to provide the best care for child victims of human trafficking. Currently, minors arecovered by child protection laws as well as victim assistance programmes, however there have been very few
cases of child victims identified and these cases have proven challenging from a victim assistance perspective.

According to Eurostat data, there were 46 victims of trafficking identified in 2010, then 33 in 2009.381 There
were 4 convictions for human trafficking in 2010, 9 convictions in 2009 and 10 in 2008.382

A unit dealing with humantrafficking and migrantsmuggling has beencreated within the Federal
Criminal Police

Notable aspects of the problem
The largest proportion of identified victims of modern slavery have involved sexual exploitation of, mostly
women and teenage girls, but children have been found to have been
cases of forced domestic
forced into begging, pick-pocketing and shoplifting in the larger cities like
work, notably in Geneva
Zurich, and Geneva. Cases have been identified in the city of Bern, but
in the homes of foreignsignificant efforts have reduced the occurrence of child exploitation in the
diplomatsregion, perhaps having pushed it to a different part of the country.

Slavery Convention

Organ transplantation is tightly regulated under a Federal Act since2008, making human trafficking for the removal of organs very rare
in Switzerland.387

Notable aspects of the response

There have also been cases of forced domestic work, notably in Geneva in the homes of foreign diplomats.

The Foreign Nationals Act, introduced in 2008, offers protection to
identified foreign victims of human trafficking. A 30 day reflection period
is offered for victims to decide whether they want to co-operate with the authorities. If they agree, they areentitled to apply for a residence permit in Switzerland for the duration of the legal process of their case. The
Swiss Victim Assistance Act entitles counselling and support to all victims whose sexual, physical or psychologicalintegrity has been violated in Switzerland, regardless of their nationality or residential status in Switzerland. The
Federal Act on Extra-Procedural Witness Protection offers support to victims who are still in danger.388

2. What is the government doing about it?

3. What needs to happen?

Switzerland has ratified a number of key international conventions relating to modern slavery but not
the Domestic Work Convention. In April 2013, the Swiss Government ratified the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings.

Switzerland should:

The Swiss Criminal Code outlaws human trafficking in Article 182, prohibiting human trafficking for the
purpose of sexual exploitation, the exploitation of labour or the removal of human organs. Violation of this2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD377
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
378
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
379“Thai Woman Jailed for Swiss Prostitution Ring”, (22 March 2013), The New Ages: http://www.thenewage.co.za/mobi/Detail.aspx?NewsID=88764&CatID=1020
380­ Ibid.
381“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p31, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what- isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
382“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what- isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf

Complete its evaluation of laws under which sex work by minors is permitted, pursuant to the Councilof Europe process currently in place.
■■ Continue to train law enforcement authorities, including frontline workers to recognise signs ofmodern slavery.
■■ Increase public awareness within cities surrounding forced child begging and theft.
■■

375
376

88.

383
“Overview of important legislation in Switzerland relating to human trafficking” (3 April 2013), Legal Provisions – Swiss Coordination Unit against Trafficking in Persons:
http://www.ksmm.admin.ch/content/ksmm/en/home/themen/menschenhandel/rechtliche_bestimmungen.html
384
Ibid.
385
Ibid.
386
Ibid.
387
“Human Trafficking for the removal of organs” (8 October 2010), Swiss Coordination Unit against Trafficking in Persons: http://www.ksmm.admin.ch/content/ksmm/en/
home/themen/menschenhandel/organentnahme.html
388“Victim Assistance, Victim Protection and Return Assistance” (28 May 2013), Swiss Coordination Unit against Trafficking in Persons: http://www.ksmm.admin.ch/content/
ksmm/en/home/themen/menschenhandel/opferhilfe-opferschutz.html

89.

S w i t z erland con t i n u ed

Increase awareness in source countries of the possibilities of human trafficking and ensure that migrant
workers are aware of their rights and where to access help.
■■ Strengthen regional cooperation efforts in relation to investigations and prosecution of modern
slavery crimes.
■■ Where prosecutions take place, ensure that the sentence reflects the gravity of the crime and that thesentence is fully served.
■■ Target specific fields of work associated with modern slavery to inform and assist where required.
■■ Set up and operate a multi-lingual hotline for victims to access help.
■■

New Zealand
Estimated number enslaved
470 – 520
Population
4,433,100 (2012) 389
GDP$167.3 billion (2012) 390
GDP/capita$37,749 (2012) 391
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP Not available (2011) 392

INDEX rank

159

1. The problem
Detected cases of modern slavery in New Zealand have primarily involved foreign nationals on board fishingvessels in New Zealand territorial waters. The issue of forced labour on foreign flagged fishing boats in New
Zealand’s waters received significant media attention in 2012 after a publication of a report of the Universityof Auckland Business School (UABS) and a media investigation.393
It has also been reported that migrant workers from the Asia-Pacific region have been subjected to modern
slavery in agriculture and in the wine-making industry,394 and investigations are underway into situations
involving exploitation of migrant workers in restaurants.395 Nonetheless the New Zealand Council of Trade
Unions (NZCTU) noted in 2012 statements to the ILO Committee of Experts that “that no independent
research has been conducted to determine the full extent of any trafficking problem in the country and that atpresent, there is little evidence of major trafficking in the country.”396

Notable aspects of the problem
Following from the UABS report, “over 120 possible victims of forced labour aboard foreign [mostly South
Korean-flagged] chartered vessels in the commercial fishing industry were identified. The majority of these
individuals, all men, claimed severe underpayment of wages, and some also alleged experiencing additional
abuse [including confiscation of passports, imposition of significant debts, physical violence, mental abuse andexcessive hours of work].”397 The victims were reported to originate from South East Asian countries with the
majority from Indonesia but smaller numbers from China, Myanmar and the Philippines. It is likely that the
problem of forced labour on fishing vessels is not confined to New Zealand waters but extends throughout
the Asia Pacific.

2. What is the government doing about it?
New Zealand has ratified a number of key treaties in relation to modern slavery but not the Domestic
Work Convention.
New Zealand
Ratified
New Zealand has criminal laws that prohibit
various forms of modern slavery, including
human trafficking, forced labour, childprostitution, sexual exploitation of children,servitude, slavery itself and servitude.398 In
addition, the crimes allegedly committed
against the seafarers in New Zealand waters
would potentially have been covered by parts

Slavery Convention

Yes

Supplementary Slavery Convention

Yes

UN Trafficking Protocol

Yes

Forced Labour Convention

Yes

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention

Yes

CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children

Yes

Domestic Work ConventionNo2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
391
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
392
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
393
Stringer, Simmons and Coulston, Not in New Zealand Waters, Surely? Labour and Human Rights Abuses aboard Foreign Fishing Vessels, New Zealand Asia Institute Working
Paper Series: http://docs.business.auckland.ac.nz/Doc/11-01-Not-in-New-Zealand-waters-surely-NZAI-Working-Paper-Sept-2011.pdf
394“2013 United States Trafficking in Persons Report – New Zealand Country Narrative”, US Department of State, p280: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2013/index.htm.
395“Employers abusing migrant workers face sanctions”, (13 June 2013), NewstalkZB: http://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/auckland/news/nbpol/1801760785-employers-abusingmigrant-workers-face-sanctions.
396“Forced Labour Convention, 1930, New Zealand” (2013) Direct Request (CEARC) – adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session, International Labour Organisation, Information
System on International Labour Standards: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3058243
397“United States Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, New Zealand Country Narrative, p266, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192597.pdf
398“Crimes Act 1961,” New Zealand Legislation, Parliamentary Counsel Office: http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1961/0043/latest/DLM327382.html
389

390

90.

91.

N e w Zealand con t i n u edof the Crimes Act 1961, covering assault and sexual assault. However, no prosecutions under these laws haveever been attempted, and gaps in these laws have been noted.399 The definition of trafficking under New
Zealand law, for example, requires cross border movement, out of step with international standards. However,
the New Zealand Department of Justice (DOJ) has previously responded to criticism along these lines,
stating that such conduct is likely criminalised under other laws: “New Zealand is more likely to deal with theforcible movement of persons within New Zealand (whether for sex work or other purposes) as kidnapping,slavery, or other related forms of offending.”400 At the time of writing, the New Zealand Government wasreviewing its legislative response to modern slavery.

conditions. In its 2012 comments on New Zealand’s implementation of the forced labour conventions,the ILO Committee of Experts noted the NZCTU’s concern that “[t]hose found working illegally will bedeported by Immigration New Zealand, so there is little incentive for illegal workers to report exploitative
employers… [and that] the Plan of Action to Prevent People Trafficking does not address in any depth theissue of non-cooperation with authorities for fear of deportation.”405

New Zealand has a National Plan of Action dating from 2009,401 whichp roblem of forced l abour
is administered and monitored by the Inter-agency Working Group on
on fishing vessels is not
People Trafficking, led by the Department of Labour. However, thisconfined to New Zeal andaction plan has not been updated since 2009. The national action planwatersincludes clear statements of objectives and measures of success but it does
not appear that regular reporting is done against this plan.402 New Zealand does not have a National Referral
Mechanism, or other system for formally identifying victims of modern slavery as victims, except throughthe criminal justice system. Given New Zealand has so far had zero prosecutions under its human trafficking
legislation, this creates problems for the victims who have already come forward and who need help. The sizeof the Government’s budget allocation on this issue is not known.

■■

New Zealand does not have a specialised law enforcement unit dealing with modern slavery. The Ministry ofBusiness, Innovation and Employment and the Ministry of Social Development have undertaken awarenessraising activities with vulnerable communities. Customs, immigration, labour, and police officers undertake
online training on identifying victims of trafficking and on victim interview techniques.403 The numbers ofofficials trained is not known.

3. What needs to happen?
New Zealand should:
Complete and publish its review of its legislation prohibiting modern slavery.
■■ Update its National Action Plan to reflect current conditions and emerging patterns of modern slavery.
■■ Undertake research and publish information on the extent and nature of modern slavery, including theresults of any research into slavery on fishing boats and information about investigations and prosecutionsof slavery offences.
■■ Establish a victim support programme specifically designed to meet the needs of victims of modern slavery.
■■ Evaluate the impact of employer-linked visas on migrant workers’ willingness to complain about
exploitative labour conditions.
■■ Appoint front-line welfare officers who can bridge the cultural gap between fishing crews on foreign
fishing vessels, and enforcement officials.
■■ Conduct targeted outreach and awareness raising to vulnerable groups, including foreign seafarers docking
at New Zealand’s ports, migrant agricultural workers and children at risk of exploitation.

There are no specific victim support services but victims of modern slavery can potentially access services
under the general victims of crime system.404 There have been ad hoc arrangements by NGOs who haveprovided immediate welfare care, for example, to men who have been exploited in the fishing industry.
In some cases the costs for welfare care have been reimbursed but has more often been borne by private
individuals, NGOs and church groups.

n o prosecutions under

Victims of modern slavery can access specialised visas related to their
these l aws have ever been
victim status, which must be certified by the police. According toattempted
information on the Immigration Department’s website, victims canbe “granted a 12 month temporary entry class visa provided they have received certification from the Policethat they are believed to be victims of people trafficking.” On the temporary visa, victims can access “publiclyfunded health and disability services, have access to financial assistance … and be able to work or, if a child,to study.” Victims can make an application for a permanent visa on expiration of the temporary visa, provided
they can “demonstrate they have not obstructed the police investigation… and require ongoing protection.”
Victim-witnesses can receive protection, including the protection of their identity, in relation to evidence
given in court under the Evidence Act 2006.
New Zealand has comprehensive workplace and human rights protections, and robust social institutions.
Corruption is not a major problem in New Zealand, which tied (with Denmark and Finland) in first placeof 176 countries on Transparency International’s 2012 Corruption Perceptions Index.

Notable aspects of the response
Migrant work visas are linked to employers. This could increase the likelihood of unscrupulous employers
exploiting migrant workers, and contribute to a reluctance of migrants to complain about abusive labour“2013 United States Trafficking in Persons Report – New Zealand Country Narrative”, US Department of State, p280: http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2013/index.htm.
“Report of the Prostitution Law review Committee on the Operation of the Prostitution Reform Act 2003” (May 2008), New Zealand Government: http://www.justice.govt.
nz/policy/commercial-property-and-regulatory/prostitution/prostitution-law-review-committee/publications/plrc-report/documents/report.pdf
401“People Trafficking”, (2009), Department of Labour, New Zealand Government: http://www.dol.govt.nz/publications/research/people-trafficking/people-trafficking.pdf
402
Current ‘action items’ cited here: “Inter-Agency Working Group – Action Items,” (2013) Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment: http://www.dol.govt.nz/publications/research/people-trafficking/action-items.asp
403“2013 United States Trafficking in Persons Report”, New Zealand Country Narrative, p281, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192597.pdf
404
Ibid.
399

400

92.

“Forced Labour Convention, 1930, New Zealand” (2013) Direct Request (CEARC) – adopted 2012, published 102nd ILC session, International Labour Organisation, Information
System on International Labour Standards: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID:3058243
405

93.

United Kingdom
Estimated number enslaved
4,200 – 4,600
Population
63,227,526 (2012) 406
GDP$2.435 trillion (2012)407
GDP/capita$38,514 (2012) 408
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 0% (2011) 409

INDEX rank

160

1. The Problem
Different forms of modern slavery affect men, women and children in the UK, and though most of thevictims are trafficked into the country from overseas, British citizens are within the top ten countries of origin,for suspected victims of trafficking referred to the UK’s National Referral Mechanism.410 Primarily originatingfrom Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe, victims of modern slavery are forced into sex work, domestic servitude,
agriculture, construction, food processing, benefit fraud, coerced criminality, and work in nail salons and foodservices. The most common countries of origin of identified victims include Nigeria, Vietnam, the United
Kingdom, Slovakia, China and Uganda.411
Forced labour has been identified within low, unskilled occupations in factories, agriculture, food processing,restaurants, nail salons, construction, door-to-door leaflet delivery and also in the tarmacking and blockpaving industries.412 Children have been found in forced labour in agriculture, construction, hospitality,
nail bars as well as in domestic work, forced criminality and benefit fraud.413 Recent research has identified
the vulnerability of asylum seekers and refugees in the UK to forced labour, as a result of their incredibly
precarious living situation arguably created by the UK asylum system.414
Understanding the scale of modern slavery in the UK is difficult.
C hildren have been found in
The UK has no official data capture mechanism so the main figures
forced l abour in agriculture,
available are from those victims who choose to interact with theconstruction, hospitality, nailUK’s National Referral Mechanisms, and also from the UKHTC
bars as well as in domestic
2011 baseline assessment (which only a minority of police forces,
work, forced criminality andlocal government agencies and NGOs contributed to). When thisbenefit fraudsituation is considered in the context of levels of under reporting
and lack of awareness frontline agencies especially amongst social services, it is likely that the Walk Freeestimate of 4,200 – 4,600 enslaved is conservative.
According to Eurostat data, there were 182 number of victims identified in 2010 and 141 in 2009.415 There
were 29 convictions for human trafficking 2010, 56 convictions in 2009 and 37 in 2008.416

Notable aspects of the problem
Vietnamese criminal gangs and networks are prominent in the cannabis trade, and children and young
adults have been found to have been trafficked from Vietnam into forced labour on cannabis farms. Albaniancriminal networks have also been noted moving into this arena.
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx‘2012 GDP $US Data’, The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
408‘2012 GDP per capita $US Data’, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
409‘Migration and Remittances Data’, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank:
410‘National Referral Mechanism data’ (2012), Statistical Data, The UK Human Trafficking Centre, Serious Organised Crime Agency: http://www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/aboutthe-ukhtc/national-referral-mechanism/statistics
411“2012 United States Trafficking in Persons Report”, United Kingdom Country Narrative, pp. 357-359, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192598.pdf; “A Baseline Assessment on the Nature and Scale of Human Trafficking in 2011” (23 August 2012), United Kingdom Human Trafficking Centre, Serious
Organised Crime Agency: http://www.soca.gov.uk/news/462-human-trafficking-assessment-published412“It Happens Here: Equipping the United Kingdom to fight modern slavery” (March 2013), p37, The Centre for Social Justice: http://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/
UserStorage/pdf/Pdf%20reports/CSJ_Slavery_Full_Report_WEB(5).pdf
413“A Baseline Assessment on the Nature and Scale of Human Trafficking in 2011” (23 August 2012), United Kingdom Human Trafficking Centre, Serious Organised Crime Agency:
http://www.soca.gov.uk/news/462-human-trafficking-assessment-published
414‘Exploring Experiences of Forced Labour among Asylum Seekers and Refugees in England’, (2 July 2013), Precarious Lives: http://precariouslives.org.uk/
415“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p31, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-is-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
416“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
406
407

94.

Rather than being identified as victims, children have been prosecuted for offences connected with theirsituation of slavery.417 Children can be forced to perform criminal activities like pick-pocketing, metal theft,
drug cultivation and begging, or may be sexually exploited. Some are trafficked into the UK and registeredfor financial aid from the Government then left destitute. In June 2013, three children from Vietnam who
had been trafficked for work in the UK for criminal gangs had their convictions quashed on appeal. The
court issued guidance to other courts on how to assess situations involving victims of trafficking, particularly
children, who are being prosecuted for crimes.418 The court noted the Director of Prosecutions will soon
issue directions on this to the Prosecution Service on this issue.

2. What is the government doing about it?
The UK has ratified all key treaties relating to modern slavery, and is a party to the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, but not the Domestic Work Convention.
Most forms of modern slavery are criminalised under UK law but relevant provisions are scattered throughout
different laws: the Sexual Offences Act 2003 criminalises trafficking for sexual exploitation; the Asylum
and Immigration Act 2004 criminalises
United Kingdom
Ratifiedtrafficking for exploitation; the Coroners
Slavery Convention
Yes
and Justice Act 2009 criminalises modern
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
slavery without a precondition of smuggling
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yes
into the UK, including slavery, servitude andForced Labour Convention
Yes
forced or compulsory labour; and the Scottish
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yes
legislation, Section 22 which refers to traffic
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
in prostitution. Consolidation of the existing
Domestic Work Convention
No
offences into a single law would make it easier
to apply and clearly identify gaps in the law.
There is also a need for the law to address the issue of non-prosecution of victims for crimes committed
while under the control of traffickers, and to ensure all modern slavery crimes are subject to asset recovery
provisions.419 As at September 2013 there are proposals being considered for review of both British andScottish modern slavery laws.420
The budget allocation of the UK on this issue is not known. On 10 April 2013, a question was posed
to UK Government on expenditure. The response was “A number of Government Departments andagencies are involved in work to combat human trafficking. Total expenditure for this work is not recorded
centrally.”421 It is known that the Government has made £3 million available to The Salvation Army to run
the contract for provision of support to adult victims of trafficking who have been referred through the
National Referral Mechanism (NRM).422
In the United Kingdom the response to the existence of human trafficking
and modern slavery has been placed in the jurisdiction of several government
departments, local government agencies and a wide range of NGOs. Within
the Government, the remit for human trafficking is delegated to the Minister
for Immigration in the Home Office. There is also a Human Trafficking team which operates under theOrganised and Financial Crime Unit and works on developing and implementing policy. The Home Officealso set up a Joint Strategic Board, comprising NGOs, government agencies, SOCA and UNHTC, to monitor
the progress of the Government’s 2011 Human Trafficking Strategy and identify issues and risks related tob udget allocation of
the UK on this issue
is not known“On the Safe Side: Principles for the safe accommodation of child victims of trafficking” (2011), End Child Prostitution and the Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes, United
Kingdom: http://www.ecpat.org.uk/sites/default/files/on_the_safe_side.pdf
418“Court Transcript”, (21 June 2013), Royal Courts of Justice: http://www.judiciary.gov.uk/Resources/JCO/Documents/Judgments/l-hvn-thn-t-v-r-judgment.pdf
419
Scottish Legislation – Section 22”, (2003), Traffic in Prostitution, UK Human Trafficking Centre, Serious Organised Crime Agency: http://www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/
about-the-ukhtc/relevant-legislation/scottish-legislation
420
As of 9 September 2013, there is a proposal for a Bill to comprehensively review Scottland’s laws and strategy on human trafficking, www.scottish.parliament.uk/paliamentarybusiness/
Bills/67134.aspx. In the UK see “Theresa May: Modern Slave Drivers, I’ll End Your Evil Trade.” (25 August 2013), The Sunday Times: http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/comment/regulars/guestcolumn/article1304361.ece
421“Home Department, Human Trafficking” (10 April 2013), They Work For You: http://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2013-04-10a.150248.h&s=human+trafficking+michael+connarty#g150248.q0
422“Justice, Salvation Army” (26 June 2013), They Work For You: http://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2013-06-26a.160976.h&s=human+trafficking+salvation+army#g160976.q0
417

95.

Un i t ed K i n g dom con t i n u ed

the issue. The Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group, comprising of nine different UK-based organisations, wasestablished in 2009.
The Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group (IDMG) on human trafficking, first set up by the previous
government in 2005 and then re-assembled in 2010 under the current coalition government is the UK
Government’s response to the EU Directive which requires that all member states must appoint a ‘National
Rapporteur’ or an equivalent mechanism responsible for monitoring the activities of state institutions withregards to human trafficking. It is also required under this Directive that measures to combat trafficking
should be measured and statistics gathered. (Article 19 EU Directive)423
In 2006 the United Kingdom Human Trafficking Centre (UKHTC) was opened. This multi-agency centre
brings together expertise and information from a number of organisations,p rogrammes … do notboth state-run and non-governmental, including the National Referralreach vulnerable
Mechanism (NRM), which has the authority to identify and refer victims
communities alreadyfor care. Victims, or potential victims are referred to the NRM by firstwithin the United
responder agencies which include the UK Border Agency, police forces,
Kingdom, such as asylum
the Gangmaster’s Licensing Authority (a government agency which
seekers and refugees
licenses and regulates certain sectors where workers are particularly
vulnerable), local authorities and several NGOs. In 2012, the United Kingdom Human Trafficking Centre
identified received 1,186 referrals of potential victims of human trafficking.424
The provision of victim support falls under the remit of the Ministry for Justice and the Government-funded
Victim Support Programme with primary contract holder – The Salvation Army and sub-contractors.425
Identified victims are given a 45 day reflection period within which they are given accommodation andcared for, and allowed some time to recover from their experience. When a conclusive grounds decision is
made, then the Government’s support obligations end, so it can be shorter or longer than 45 days. After thereflection period, a conclusive grounds decision is made by the relevant Competent Authority UKHTC or
the UK Border Agency as to whether the victim has been trafficked or not. After that, if the victim wishes toremain in the country, the Salvation Army will provide ten hours of ‘resettlement’ assistance.426 Outside ofthis, a number of NGOs provide similar support services such as shelters for victims not engaging the NRM
process as well as legal advice.
NGOs play an important role in the UK in fighting modern slavery. Their responsibilities include raisingawareness, promoting events, conducting research, campaigning, lobbying. A small number provide safe
accommodation and support to victims and 11 provide first response services in correlation with the National
Referral Mechanism. The Government part funds a selection of these via the victim support service led by
The Salvation Army.427

to target at-risk individuals, and lacking in clarity. Also, programmes such as these do not reach vulnerable
communities already within the United Kingdom, such as asylum seekers and refugees, or officials working
with these communities as well as those legally entitled to enter the UK without a visa – EU and European
Economic Area nationals.

3. What needs to happen?
The United Kingdom should:
Appoint an independent commissioner for modern slavery and human trafficking issues.
Transfer leadership of modern slavery efforts from the Ministry for Immigration to the Ministry for
Policing and Criminal Justice, reflecting the fact that modern slavery is foremost a crime and immigration
issues are secondary, or may not even be present in all cases.
■■ Encourage collaboration between government administrations, local governments and NGOs with a viewto share information.
■■ Pass a modern slavery act to consolidate the legislative response on all aspects of the crime, including all
human trafficking and slavery offences, protection of victims from prosecution, obligations to identify andinvestigate cases of slavery.
■■ Review and update visa policy, which currently allows foreign national domestic workers to work in the UK
for 6 months with no possibility of extension, but restricts them to only one employer for the duration.
■■ Ensure private interviews are conducted with migrant domestic workers after their arrival to assess theirworking environments.
■■ Provide information to overseas workers obtaining visas to sensitise them to their rights, and informing
them of the help available.
■■ Target sea ports and smaller regional airports as well as the larger airports, for awareness campaigns.
■■ Increase general sensitisation training of front-line professionals as well as specific training for key officers
in all agencies so as not to let any potential victims of modern slavery go undetected (the prison systemshould be included as a frontline agency, offering all concerned the relevant training).
■■ Reconstruct the National Referral Mechanism into a two-tier system which allows for the recording ofdata where referrals are not chosen.
■■ Prioritise victim protection and aftercare, offering further assistance to agencies involved to provide bettersupport to victims of trafficking, especially in reintegration.
■■ Minimum standards of victim care should be agreed upon and monitored.
■■ Ensure business is brought to the table on this issue, including through the proper debate and introductionof legislation on transparency in supply chains.
■■■■Notable aspects of the response
Front line police play a critical role in addressing modern slavery within the UK. However, only 10% of
officers in England and Wales have undergone training, delivered through an e-learning package. Making
comprehensive, detailed training mandatory for all police officers in the UK would have a significant impact
on law enforcement and the protection of victims of slavery.428
Efforts to prevent trafficking in the UK have focused on transnational trafficking and sexual exploitation.
They have been dominated by official training programmes and awareness-raising campaigns targeted atborder entry points like airports.429 Such campaigns have been criticised for not reaching the scale necessary

96.

423
“Human trafficking: Inter-departmental ministerial group report 2012”, United Kingdom Inter-departmental Ministerial Report: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/human-trafficking-inter-departmental-ministerial-group-report-2012
424‘National Referral Mechanism data’ (2012), Statistical Data, The UK Human Trafficking Centre, Serious Organised Crime Agency: http://www.soca.gov.uk/about-soca/aboutthe-ukhtc/national-referral-mechanism/statistics
425‘Justice, Salvation Army’ (26 June 2013), They Work For You: http://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2013-06-26a.160976.h&s=human+trafficking+salvation+army#g160976.q0
426“It Happens Here: Equipping the United Kingdom to fight modern slavery” (March 2013), p37, The Centre for Social Justice: http://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/
UserStorage/pdf/Pdf%20reports/CSJ_Slavery_Full_Report_WEB(5).pdf
427‘About the UKHTC’ (2008): http://www.ukhtc.org/about-ukhtc/
428“It Happens Here: Equipping the United Kingdom to fight modern slavery” (March 2013), p37, The Centre for Social Justice: http://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/
UserStorage/pdf/Pdf%20reports/CSJ_Slavery_Full_Report_WEB(5).pdf
429“A Baseline Assessment on the Nature and Scale of Human Trafficking in 2011” (23 August 2012), United Kingdom Human Trafficking Centre, Serious Organised Crime Agency:
http://www.soca.gov.uk/news/462-human-trafficking-assessment-published97.

Ireland
Estimated number enslaved
300 – 340
Population
4,588,798 (2012) 430
GDP$210.3 billion (2012) 431
GDP/capita$45,832 (2012) 432
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 0% (2011) 433

begging and trafficking for criminal activities. The Criminal Law (Human Trafficking) Amendment Bill 2013means that people subjected to all forms of modern slavery are now recognised as victims of a crime, andperpetrators can be prosecuted.439

INDEX rank160

cases of children being subjected
to domestic servitude, benefit
fraud, sweatshop or restaurant
work, commercial sexual
exploitation, illegal removal oforgans, illegal adoption, forced
begging and pick-pocketing

1. The problem
Modern slavery in Ireland affects men, women and children. It is a ‘source’ and ‘transit’ country for victimsof trafficking for sexual exploitation, forced labour and forced criminal activity. Similarly to neighbouring
United Kingdom, children get trafficked to Ireland to work in cannabis farms. There have also been casesof children being sexually exploited, and exploited through domestic servitude, benefit fraud, sweatshop or
restaurant work, illegal removal of organs, illegal adoption, forced begging and pick-pocketing.434
For men and women, other forms of modern slavery include domestic, construction, and agricultural work,
as well as labour in the catering and entertainment industries.
According to Eurostat data, there were 78 of victims of human trafficking identified in 2010 and 66 in
2009.435 While covered by the Eurostat data, no information is available about the number of convictions
in Ireland for human trafficking in 2010, 2009 or 2008.436

Notable aspects of the problem
According to government statistics, the majority of victims identified of modern slavery are women who
have been trafficked for sexual exploitation, but some men and minors have also been involved in this typeof exploitation. Women have also been found to be working in conditions of modern slavery as domestic
workers, particularly in the homes of foreign diplomats.
Most victims originate from West Africa and some other parts of Africa. Others come from within theEuropean Union including Ireland itself. To a lesser extent, victims originate from non-EU Europe, Asia,
particularly South Asia and Latin America.

The Irish Government has ratified a number of treaties relating to modern slavery but not the Domestic
Work Convention. Ireland ratified the Council
Ireland
Ratifiedof Europe Convention on Action against
Slavery Convention
Yes
Trafficking in Human Beings in 2010.
Yes

In 2008, the Government passed the Criminal
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yes
Law (Human Trafficking) Act, which
Forced Labour Convention
Yescriminalises the trafficking of persons for the
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yes
purposes of labour or sexual exploitation or
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
No
for the removal of a person’s organs.437 This
Domestic Work Convention
No
Act was an amendment to the 1998 Child
Trafficking and Pornography Act, which covered only persons under the age of 17 years old.438 In June
2013, Ireland’s existing laws on modern slavery were amended to include reference to trafficking for forced
2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
432
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
433
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0
434“Services for victims of human trafficking” (July 2012), Anti-Human Trafficking Unit, Department of Justice and Equality: http://www.blueblindfold.gov.ie/website/bbf/
bbfweb.nsf/page/OACN-8XVHNX1421296-en/$File/Services%20for%20Victims%20of%20Child%20Trafficking.pdf
435“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), pp. 34-38, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/
what-is-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
436“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
437“Anti-Human Trafficking Measures” Irish Department of Justice and Equality: http://www.justice.ie/en/JELR/Pages/WP09000005
438“Child Trafficking and Pornography Act, 1998” Irish Statute Book, Office of the Attorney General: http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1998/en/act/pub/0022/sec0002.html#sec2
430
431

98.

The National Action Plan’s strategy to tackle human trafficking is afour tiered approach, including Prevention, Protection, Prosecution
and Child Trafficking. Prevention focuses on training frontline
professionals and a public awareness-raising effort, the ‘Blue Blindfold’ campaign, which has been running since2008. The four different units in charge of dealing with human trafficking under the National Plan are theAnti-Human Trafficking Unit, the Human Trafficking Investigation and Co-ordination Unit (HTICU), an
Anti-Trafficking Team within the National Health Service (HSE), and an anti-trafficking unit in the Legal Aid
Board. A data collection mechanism is also in place, within the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit to record reported
cases of modern slavery and to measure the scale of the problem and impact of the Government response.
An inter-agency National Referral Mechanism is in place to provide assistance to victims from the point ofidentification to reintegration into society. Other protective measures are in place to assist victims during thelegal process of their case, and with immigration issues if required.
Prosecution is emphasised, with a high priority being placed on human trafficking through the national policing
unit, the Garda Síochána (Police). The Human Trafficking Investigation and Co-ordination Unit operates asa centre for expertise, providing guidance to police in investigations and cases related to human trafficking.
The Director of Public Prosecutions has appointed particular prosecutors to deal with cases involving humantrafficking and equipped them with the knowledge, guidelines necessary for such cases, including sensitisation
regarding cases involving victims who broke the law as a result of being in a coerced situation.
Special attention is placed on victims of child trafficking, with a focus on raising public awareness, training
professionals, and strengthening inter-governmental agencies.

Notable aspects of the response

2. What is the government doing about it?

Supplementary Slavery Convention

In 2008, an Anti-Human Trafficking Unit (AHTU) wasestablished, within the Department of Justice and Equality. This
led to the publication of the ‘National Action Plan to Prevent andCombat Trafficking in Human Beings in Ireland 2009-2012.’

The Human Trafficking Act allows, through the 2010 Immigration, Residence and Protection Bill, forforeign victims to be granted a reflection period of 60 days to remain in Ireland to ‘recover from alleged
trafficking and escape the influence of the perpetrators of the alleged trafficking so that he or she can takean informed decision as to whether or not to assist the Garda Síochána or other relevant authorities with any
investigation or prosecution arising in relation to the alleged trafficking’.440
Identified victims of modern slavery are provided with state-funded support through the Reception andIntegration Agency (RIA), under the same programmes run for asylum-seekers. They are given material
assistance if necessary, health screenings, and legal aid and advice by the Legal Aid Board.
After an initial reflection and recovery period of 60 days, in some cases victims, originating from outside
the EU can be granted a 6 month temporary residence visa, in order to allow enough time to assist in theinvestigation and prosecution of their case. If a victim volunteers to be returned home, they can be assisted by
the IOM. No programme exists to assist victims who are not granted temporary residence in Ireland to safely
return to their country of origin, or to reintegrate them. This means victims might be returned to dangerous
situations, and increases their risk of being re-trafficked.
The Irish Government, in 2010, provided funding to some civil society organisations working in the field ofmodern slavery. Ruhama, a group dealing with violence against women, prostitution and human trafficking forthe purpose of sex work, as well as the Migrants Rights Centre Ireland, which provides assistance to migrant
workers and victims of forced labour, both received funding from the Department of Justice and Equality.441“Irish Government Criminalises Slavery” (28 June 2013), Press Release, Migrant Rights Centre Ireland: http:www.mrci.ie/press-centre/irish-government-criminalises-slavery“Immigration, Residence and Protection Bill 2010” Department of Justice and Equality: http://www.inis.gov.ie/en/INIS/IRP%20Bill%202010.pdf/Files/IRP%20Bill%202010.pdf
441“Together Against Trafficking in Human Beings” (25 March 2013) Ireland, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/showNIPsection.action?country=Ireland
439
440

99.

Ireland con t i n u ed

3. What needs to happen?
Ireland should:
Appoint an expert national rapporteur on modern slavery to oversee and coordinate efforts of the agencies
involved in responding to this issue.
■■ Increase the level of priority assigned to modern slavery, with a stronger focus on root causes.
■■ Coordinate with source countries to prevent human trafficking through awareness campaigns.
■■ Provide counselling as well as repatriation and reintegration assistance to victims in a way that guarantees
a safe return home and eliminates the danger of being exploited again.
■■ Ensure that the laws surrounding employment visas do not restrict workers to an employer, allowing
them to change jobs if conditions are substandard.
■■ Ensure that awareness campaigns are directed towards vulnerable people, in different languages, in ports
and airports and other public spaces.
■■ Set up a multi-lingual telephone line for victims to access help.
■■ Target schools for awareness campaigns to educate children and parents about the signs of modern slavery
and the services available for support.
■■ Increase frontline professional training.
■■ Ensure that all reported cases of modern slavery are recorded and investigated.
■■

Iceland
Estimated number enslaved<100
Population
320,137 (2012) 442
GDP$13.66 billion (2012) 443
GDP/capita$42,658 (2012) 444
US Tip report ranking
Tier 1 (2013)
Remittances as a share of GDP 0% (2011) 445

INDEX rank

160

1. The problem
Iceland is a wealthy, sparsely populated Nordic European island nation. Due to its prosperity, geographic
isolation and strong institutions, modern slavery occurs on a relatively small scale; however, the country is not
immune to this issue.
Modern slavery has primarily been detected in the sex industry, and also to a lesser extent in construction
and the hospitality industry. The Intercultural Centre of Iceland, a Reykjavik-based migrant rights centre, hasadditionally reported cases of possible trafficking for domestic servitude and forced marriage. According to
the 2013 US TIP Report, the Government identified “six female sex trafficking victims and one male labour
trafficking victim during the reporting period,” all of whom were referred to care.
In recent years, a small number of pregnant victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation have entered Iceland.
All of these women originated from African countries and had transited through various European countries
before entering in Iceland. It is believed that they were exploited elsewhere in Europe, and that theirtraffickers sent them to Iceland when they became pregnant. It is thought that this pattern has occurred inother Scandinavian countries.446
While covered by Eurostat data, no information is available about victims identified in 2008-2010.447 The
Eurostat report indicates that there were 5 convictions for human trafficking in 2010 (information is notavailable for any other years).448
Iceland experienced the collapse of its financial sector and economy in the late 2008 but the country has
now largely recovered. It is unclear whether this economic instability has had an effect on modern slavery
in the country.

2. What is the government doing about it?
Iceland has ratified all relevant treaties in relation to modern slavery. In June 2012, the Council of Europe
Convention on Action against Trafficking in
Iceland
Ratified
Human Beings came into force in Iceland andSlavery Convention
Nothe country is now subject to monitoring and
Supplementary Slavery Convention
Yes
periodic reviews of its responses to modern
UN Trafficking Protocol
Yes
slavery under the Group of Experts on
Forced Labour Convention
Yes
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
Yes(GRETA) process. Iceland has not ratified the
CRC Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children
Yes
Domestic Work Convention.
Domestic Work Convention

Iceland has a National Action Plan against
Trafficking in Human Beings which was updated in April 2013 for the period 2013-16. Article 227a of
Iceland’s criminal code prohibits trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced labour. Penalties for suchconduct are severe.

No

2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
2012 GDP $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD444
2012 GDP per capita $US Data, The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD/countries
445
Migration and Remittances Data, Inflows, 2011, The World Bank: http://go.worldbank.org/092X1CHHD0456
Information from field based source. See also http://www.dv.is/frettir/2012/11/27/nigerisk-kona-reynir-ad-losna-undan-juju-eidi-islandi/ (Icelandic)
457“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), pp. 35-37, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/
what-is-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
448“Trafficking in Human Beings”, (2013), p84, Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers, Eurostat, European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-isnew/news/news/2013/docs/20130415_thb_stats_report_en.pdf
442

443

100.

101.

Iceland con t i n u ed

Investigations and especially prosecutions are rare under these provisions, which are unsurprising given
the small number of victims identified; however Iceland should conduct an evaluation of law enforcement
activities to ensure that they are vigorous and broad enough to capture all types of modern slavery.
The 2012 US TIP Report described Iceland’s victim services as “robust” but suggested that Iceland needs
to strengthen its efforts to detect victims, especially outside the sex industry.

Notable aspects of the response
Iceland is a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States Taskforce against Trafficking in Human Beings,
the objective of which is “to counteract trafficking in human beings in the Baltic Sea Region throughpreventive and protective activities.” Iceland has also funded antitrafficking activities abroad, with an emphasis on activities in Russia,
I cel and has … fundedanti-trafficking activities
Belarus and the Baltic States.

Conduct an independent evaluation of the effectiveness of its ban on the purchase of sexual services
in preventing modern slavery.
■■ Strengthen investigation and prosecution capability in relation to all types of modern slavery.
■■ Publish information on the extent and nature of modern slavery, including the results of any researchand information about investigations and prosecutions of modern slavery offences.
■■ Conduct an evaluation of the effectiveness of its victim support programmes.
■■ Ensure that the rights of migrant workers are protected, and conduct an evaluation of its systemof workplace identity cards and inspections in preventing modern slavery.
■■ Ensure that male victims of modern slavery receive support and services.
■■ Ensure that the interests of children are protected in all of its responses to modern slavery.
■■

abroad, with an emphasison activities in Russia,
Bel arus and the Baltic
StatesOnce identified, female victims have access to housing and specialisedsocial services. Specialised services are not available to male victims,
however according to the US TIP report they have access to generalsocial services. Identified, suspected victims of trafficking have accessto a 6 month reflection period as well as extended visas if they cooperate with law enforcement or candemonstrate “compelling circumstances” – such as the fear of retribution or danger upon returning totheir country of origin.449
Shelter Kristínarhús (House of Kristine) opened in September 2011 and offers housing and counselling to sex
workers and victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation. Kristínarhús is a part of Stigamot, which is the main
counselling center in Iceland (based in Reykjavik) for victims of sexual abuse. In total, 20 women stayed in
Kristínarhús in 2012. The majority of the women were Icelandic but 9 of the women were foreign, comingfrom Africa and Eastern Europe. Of the 20 cases, 15 were thought to involve exploitation in the sex industry(the other 5 were living in Kristínarhús due to other forms of sexual violence). In 2012, three children
were born while their mothers stayed in Kristínarhús450 and staff have commented on the challenges andcomplexities of protecting the interests of children in such situations.451
Under Iceland’s workplace laws, workers in certain industries are required to be issued with ID cards. These
industries include building and construction industries, hospitality, some retail stores, manufacturing, meat
processing, and farming. Workplaces in these industries are also subject to inspections, the goal of whichto “ensure that employers and their employees comply with relevant legislation, regulations and wage
agreements.” Information as to the effectiveness of the scheme of workplace ID cards and inspections in
detecting modern slavery is unavailable.
Iceland criminalised the purchase, but not the sale, of sexual services in 2009, which was justified at the timeas an anti-trafficking measure. An evaluation of the effectiveness of this ban in reducing modern slavery has
not been conducted, however, this legislation receives wide public support in Iceland.452 Strip clubs are alsobanned in Iceland since 2010. Recent media reports have raised concerns about practices at “champagne
clubs,” where clients pay for private access to women.453 It has been alleged that, during visits by reporters,
women showed signs of human trafficking.454

3. What needs to happen?
Iceland should:■■

Review its legislation prohibiting modern slavery to ensure that is adequately captures all types andmodalities of modern slavery.

“US Trafficking in Persons Report 2013”, US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/210737.pdf
Stigamot Annual Report 2012 http://www.stigamot.is/files/pdf/arsskyrsla2012.pdf (Icelandic)451
Mbl.is: http://www.mbl.is/frettir/innlent/2013/04/03/kljast_vid_mjog_groft_ofbeldi/ (Icelandic)
452
Information from field based source.
453“Calls for Investigation of Champagne Club”, (19 July 2013), The Reykjavík Grapevine: http://grapevine.is/News/ReadArticle/Calls-For-Investigation-Of-Champagne-Clubs
454“Anything you want for Twenty Thousand Kronur”, (18 July 2013), The Reykjavík Grapevine: http://grapevine.is/News/ReadArticle/Anything-You-Want-For-TwentyThousand-Kronur
449
450

102.

103.

Correlation trends
Human Development

In this section we explore how the amount of modern slavery in a country is related to other importantfactors such as corruption and human development. It is important to uncover these relationships since they
can help to determine what effective efforts for ending modern slavery are. These statistical correlations455
tell us two things, firstly whether there really is a relationship between the occurrence of modern slavery andanother factor, and secondly, the strength of that relationship.456

The research literature frequently draws connections between levels of human development (including factors
such as availability of health care, education and levels of income) and modern slavery.
This graph examines the relationship between human development (as measured by the UNDP Human
Development Index)459 and prevalence of modern slavery (as measured by the Global Slavery Index).

It is important to note that global trends and relationships are broad and generalised findings, and will not
represent the unique situation of any one country. In future years we will explore these relationships at theregional level and down to the country level. What is important is that these measurements of co-relationships
point to patterns of risk, vulnerability, and interaction in the dynamic crime of modern slavery.

Note the downward sloping shape of the graph, which suggests higher levels of modern slavery correlate withlower levels of the Human Development Index (and conversely, lower levels of modern slavery correspond tohigher levels of HDI).
The level of a country’s human development reflects its economic wellbeing, which in turn affect the poverty
levels and deprivation a citizen might face. On the other hand, higher levels of educational attainment,elevated health care, and the chance of effective citizenship, all tend to allow people to protect themselvesfrom vulnerability to modern slavery. This finding is statistically significant (p>.01) and the correlation score(R2 = .74) points to a strong relationship between modern slavery and development.

Modern slavery and corruption
The research literature notes ample examples of corruption being implicated in modern slavery.457 This is no
surprise; if the rule of law is effective it protects citizens from being enslaved. If the rule of law is corrupted,
people are not protected and criminals can pay off officials and act with impunity.
This graph examines the relationship between corruption (as measured by the Transparency International
Index458 and prevalence of modern slavery (as measured by the Global Slavery Index). Each dot in the graphrepresents one of the countries in the Index dataset.

150

GDPPPP
20,000This figure shows a strong relationship between modern slavery and corruption (R2 = .61) which is statisticallysignificant (p>.01).

GDPPPP
20,000

PREVALENCE RANK

40,00060,000100

PREVALENCE RANK

150

40,00060,000100

80,000REGION
Americas50

Asia
Europe80,000REGION
Americas50

MidEastNAfrica
RussiaEurasia

0
40

Asia
Europe60
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX

80

SubSahAfrica(low score indicates low access to financial services, high score indicates increased access to financial services.)

MidEastNAfrica
RussiaEurasia

0
25

50
CORRUPTION75

SubSahAfrica(low score for corruption indicates more corruption, high score indicates less corruption)

Correlation is a measure of the relationship between two variables (such as the amount of slavery and the level of corruption). A correlation indicates whether the relationshipexists and, if it does, how strong it is. It can also show whether the two variables move together (slavery and corruption go up and down together), or if they have an “inverse”
relationship (when corruption goes up, slavery goes down). A correlation cannot determine whether one variable causes another variable to change (corruption causes slavery), only
if there is a relationship between the two variables.
456
Correlation measures the “statistical significance” of a relationship. This means it determines if there really is a relationship between the two variables, or if what seems to bea relationship simply happened by chance. For the correlations in this section all of the relationships we present have only a 1 in 1,000 likelihood of having occurred by chance.
457
See for example, Human Rights Watch (2010), From the Tiger to the Crocodile: Abuse of migrant workers in Thailand, New York, Human Rights Watch.
458
Data used is from 2012, available from http://www.transparency.org/whatwedo/pub/corruption_perceptions_index_2012”
455

104.

459

“Human Development Index”, (2012), UNDP: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/regional/latinamericathecaribbean/name,24269,en.html

105.

C orrelat i on t rends con t i n u ed

GDPAccess to Financial Services

The research literature points to poverty as one of the factors that increase vulnerability to enslavement.
Also, a lack of economic development can mean inadequate resources are available to maintain an effective
criminal justice or labour protection system.

A common pathway into modern slavery is through debt. When access to legal sources of credit is notpossible, the poor and vulnerable will sometimes turn to other types of lending, even to the mortgagingof their own lives – resulting in modern slavery. Access to financial services can be crucial for upward social
mobility. Without access to credit, there is often little the average family can do to improve its lot in life.

This graph examines the relationship between prevalence of modern slavery (as measured by the Global
Slavery Index) and GDP per capita in terms of purchasing power parity (as measured by the World Bank
Development Indicators460). A bivariate regression analysis reveals that the finding is statistically significant(p>.01) and relatively strong (R2= .63).

This graph examines the relationship between prevalence of modern slavery (as measured by the
Global Slavery Index) and access to financial services that the average citizen can obtain in a given country(as measured in 2007 for the World Bank461). The figure shows a negative relationship between access tofinancial services and the prevalence of slavery in a country. This finding is statistically significant (p>.01)
and suggests a strong relationship (R2 = .63).

150

GDPPPP
20,000100

40,000REGION
Americas50

Asia
EuropeMidEastNAfrica

0
0

25000

50000
GDPPPP

75000

PREVALENCE RANKPREVALENCE RANK

150

60,000100

80,000REGION
Americas50

Asia

RussiaEurasia

EuropeSubSahAfrica

MidEastNAfrica
RussiaEurasia

0
02

55

07
ACCESS TO FINANCIAL SERVICES

5100

SubSahAfrica(low score indicates low access to financial services, high score indicates increased access to financial services.)

106.

460

Data used in from 2012, available to download from http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/variableSelection/selectvariables.aspx?source=worlddevelopment-indicators.”

461

See: http:/ / siteresources.world bank.org/ INTFR/ Resources/ Cross_Country_Variation_In_Household _Access.pdf.

107.

Section Three

Appendices108.

Appendix 1: Methodology
How is the Index constructed?
Modern slavery is a hidden crime and exists in many forms. For these reasons it can be very difficult tomeasure. While the Global Slavery Index uses the most recent information sources and has called on theadvice of experts, the estimation of the amount and types of modern slavery is very much a work in progress.
By far the best method of estimating the extent of any crime, including any form of modern slavery, is the useof representative random sample surveys. These are particularly difficult to accomplish for modern slavery, butsome have now been conducted.462 Pending the availability of more national surveys, we have used the best
information available to us to build our estimates. We encourage further work and engagement with national
statistics offices to improve data on the prevalence of modern slavery, and we hope that the Global Slavery
Index will stimulate research in this area.
While the precision of our estimates will improve as we move forward, we believe that modern slavery can bedetected and adequately estimated both directly and indirectly.
The Index reflects a weighted combined measure of 3 factors:a)	Estimate prevalence of modern slavery in each country (this makes up the majority of the Index measure,accounting for 95% of the total)b) A measure of the level of human trafficking to and from each country (accounts for 2.5%)c) A measure of the level of child and early marriage in each country (accounts for 2.5%)
The reason for including each of these variables and the source of the underlying data is described below.

a) Estimating the number of people in modern slavery
The estimate of the number of people in modern slavery, country by country, is based on two types of
information. The first type of information was obtained from a review of the public record, also referred to as
secondary source information – published reports from governments, the investigations of non-governmental
and international organisations, and journalistic reports across all media.463 These included: reports ofgovernment agencies, including serials such as the US State Department Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices but also stand alone reports such as the Incidence of Bonded Labor in India; Area, Nature andExtent, carried out by Lal Bahadur Shastri, National Academy of Administration, in India; reports by theInternational Labor Organization, such as the Stopping Forced Labor Report, the reports on each sessionsof the ILO including the reports of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions andResolutions, and the reports of the Committee on the Application of Standards; reports by experts;464 reports
by non-governmental organisations, such as those of Anti-Slavery International and Human Rights Watch;and media reports on labour abuses.
From the information gathered from secondary sources and analysis by the research team, an estimate wasmade of the prevalence of slavery in each of the 162 countries. These estimates were then presented toexperts with personal knowledge of a country, a region, or an industry, often with a promise of anonymity.
They compared the information that had been collected with their own knowledge and suggested which
points might be exaggerations, which might be under- or over-estimates, and which might be indicative of
the social reality. In the process, they often suggested further sources of information. The experts were asked
to frame their response within a specific working definition of slavery so that there would be conceptual
comparability between their assessments.
Until recently the analysis of secondary sources was the only method available to estimate modern slavery,
See for example, ILO, “Statistical Review 1: Moldova: Migration and Trafficking Survey”, (2012), Bureau International du Travail, Enquête National sur le Travail des Enfants
au Niger (2009) Volet: Travail forcé des adulated et des enfants, INS Niger, October 2011; Julia R. Pennington, A. Dwayne Ball, Ronald D. Hampton and Julia N. Soulakova, ‘The
Cross-National Market in Human Beings”, (2009), 29 Journal of Macromarketing. Other sectoral and location specific surveys have been conducted but they do not provide national
figures in the same way as representative random sample surveys.
463
An explanation of how secondary source information can be used to generate national prevalence estimates can be found in: K Bales, “International Labor Standards: Quality ofInformation and Measures of Progress in Combating Forced Labor,” Comparative Labor Law and Policy, Vol. 24, No. 2, Winter 2004.
464
Examples of expert research that was relied on are research of the ILO Social Finance Unit and Institute for Human Development in their work on debt bondage; the work of
Dr. Anne Keilland of the World Bank on child trafficking in West Africa; reports from experts such as Jok Madut Jok, the Sudanese historian based in the US, who has written about
contemporary enslavement in Sudan; or the work of Bianca Le Breton who lives, and studies labor exploitation, in Brazil.
462

110.

but recent research has made possible an additionaland different type of information – information
about prevalence gained through representative
random sample surveys. This is the second type of
information used in our estimate of prevalence.465
These representative samples (meaning they arecollected randomly and thus can reliably represent thelarger population) yield a statistical estimate of theprevalence of slavery based on first-hand reports byindividuals. Information gained in this way is superior
to secondary sources, but is available for a limited
number of countries. Because this type of information
does not exist for many countries, the Index uses
representative sample data to statistically extrapolate
the prevalence of modern slavery for select countries
that have not yet had random sample surveys.

EXAMPLE 1: Ukraine – Estimating
Prevalence from a Population Survey
In 2006 a representative sample population
survey team visited 1,345 households in Ukraine.
As part of a larger questionnaire, a member of thehousehold was asked these questions:1	“How many members of your close family
traveled abroad because they were offereda domestic or nursing job, but on arrival were
locked and forced to work for no pay?”2	“How many members of your close family
traveled abroad because they were offered ajob, but on arrival they were locked and forced
to work at an enterprise/on construction/in
the agricultural field for no or little pay?”3	“How many members of your close family
traveled abroad because they were offeredemployment, but upon arrival to a countryof destination their passport was taken away
and they were forced to work to work in thesex business?”

As only a limited number of representative surveys
have been conducted, it was necessary to try to group
On the basis of the answers to these questions
the 162 countries so that the ratio of prevalence
it was determined that there were 21 traffickedand enslaved people in the sample, or 0.0155 ofthat is most relevant could be applied. To do this, athe 1,345 families interviewed. Adjusted for thecountry-by-country assessment was made based on
average number of families in Ukraine, this ratio
commonalities between the survey countries and thesuggests a mean estimate of 115,662 trafficked
remaining countries on such factors as GDP, levels of
people in Ukraine. For the Global Slavery Index we
present this information as a range from 110,000 toin- and out-migration, levels of conflict and stability.
120,000. A randomly sampled representative survey
The aim was to use both statistical comparisons
is the best method for estimating the prevalence of
where available and expert knowledge to groupmodern slavery, for this reason the Global Slavery
countries along the hypothesised range of prevalence
Index will be commissioning more such surveys.
proportions. For example, the prevalence ratio fromthe UK study was assumed to be relevant to other European island nations such as Ireland and Iceland,
whereas the prevalence ratio for USA was assumed to be relevant to developed Western European countries
such as Germany. Clearly, this method does not have the precision of a global random and representative
sample; rather it is the best estimation that can be derived from the extrapolation within an assumed range.
We look forward to future representative samples adding data points to the extrapolation.
These two indicators inform our estimate of the number enslaved people. We are the first to acknowledge
that these estimates have flaws. This is due to the fact that modern slavery is a criminal activity and hiddenfrom view, and from investigation and measurement in all countries. Secondary source reports can rarely“Statistical Review 1: Moldova: Migration and Trafficking Survey”, (2012), Bureau International du Travail, Enquête National sur le Travail des Enfants au Niger (2009) Volet:
Travail forcé des adulated et des enfants, INS Niger, October 2011; Julia R. Pennington, A. Dwayne Ball, Ronald D. Hampton and Julia N. Soulakova, “The Cross-National Market
in Human Beings”, (2009), 29 Journal of Macromarketing. Estimates for Haiti were drawn from Smucker, Glenn R. (ed.), Y-F Pierre, and J-F Tardieu, Lost Childhoods in Haiti:
Quantifying Child Trafficking, Restaveks, and Victims of Violence, Pan American Development Foundation and U.S. AID/ Haiti Mission, November 2009.
Additionally, estimated prevalence ratios were constructed for the United Kingdom and the United States since there has been no surveys. The UK estimate was derived from a
Memorandum to the (Parliamentary) Joint Committee on Human Rights – Inquiry into Human Trafficking, the Home Office submitted evidence suggesting there were about
4,000 victims of trafficking in the UK in 2003. See: Joint Committee for Human Rights, Human trafficking, 13 October 2006, HL 1127 2005-06. This estimate was then divided
by the UK population for 2003 of 59,834,900 (Source: Office for National Statistics; National Assembly for Wales; General Register Office for Scotland; Northern Ireland Statistics
and Research Agency). The US estimate was based on two sources: “Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the United States”, (2004) Free the Slaves: http://www.law.berkeley.edu/
files/hiddenslaves_report.pdf“Human Rights Center, University of California, Berkeley”, (2004); and “The Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons”, (2010) U.S. State Department, as reportedby the Congressional Research Service, (7-5700/RL34317): http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/147256.pdf.
Certain assumptions were made as we worked with these estimates. Firstly, we assume no country can have an indicative fraction below 0.0. Second, we assume the calculated fraction
for the United Kingdom (.00007), with its tightly controlled borders and comparatively efficient system of law enforcement is the minimum proportion of a country’s population
caught in trafficking/slavery. In other words, we assume the value for the UK is the lower bound for the range. Third, we assume that a mean value of .00013, taken as the mean of
the UK and U.S. proportions, can be used as the extrapolated population proportion for most Western European countries. Fourth, we assume the mean value of .002204, taken of
the proportions of Belarus, Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine, can be extrapolated as the population proportion for other Eastern European countries. Fifth, the proportion
derived from the sample data for Haiti is likely to be at or near the upper end of the range of prevalence proportions.
465

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EXAMPLE 2: Germany – Estimating Prevalence from Statistical Extrapolation
As of this writing, no representative sample survey of prevalence has been carried out in Germany. Without suchinformation, we need to employ other methods with which we can estimate the number of enslaved. In lieu ofrepresentative sample survey data (which is our most preferred method) we turn to other estimates from which we
can extrapolate a measure of prevalence for Germany. Extrapolation is a process of estimating, beyond the original
observed data, an unknown value in relation to a known one. In locating data for additional known values, the work
done by Pennington et al.466 is useful, from which we have we have survey data for five countries – Belarus, Bulgaria,
Moldova, Romania, Ukraine. Although these are Eastern European countries, they help us construct an upper rangeof modern slavery into which we can interpolate a value for Germany. However, because we also need data beyond
Eastern Europe from which to consider a lower bound of modern slavery (into which we can situate Germany), weturn to two additional estimates for which survey data are available – the United States467 and the United Kingdom.468
Combined, we have seven measures from which we are able to extrapolate an estimate for Germany (along withother Western European nations) based on several key assumptions from Datta and Bales.469 First, we assume that
Germany must have a modern slavery estimate that is at least greater than zero. That is, we know that Germany musthave at least some prevalence of modern slavery – it cannot be slave free, since no country is. Second, we assume theestimate of modern slavery for the United Kingdom (.007% of the population), with its tightly controlled borders
and comparatively efficient system of law enforcement, is the lower bound for modern slavery in Europe, and thus
provides a reference point for our estimate of Germany. Third, we assume that a mean value of the UK (.007% of
the population) and US (.019% of the population) can be used as the extrapolated population proportion for mostWestern European countries, like Germany. Fourth, we assume that mean of Belarus, Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania,
and Ukraine, can be used at the upper bound of modern slavery in Europe. Together, these assumptions give us areasonably sound foundation upon which to interpolate a figure for the number of enslaved in Germany.
We interpolate the percentage of the number of enslaved in Germany as .00013% of the population. Given that
Germany had a population of 81,889,839 in 2012 (based on data from the World Bank), we can now calculate theprevalence of modern slavery in Germany as .00013* 81,889,839, which gives us an estimate of 10,646 people inmodern slavery in 2012. This gives us a range of roughly 10,000 to 11,000 people in modern slavery in Germany.
Although this prevalence estimate is based on a mathematical calculation, we note with strong caution that thisfigure is at best an approximation of modern slavery in Germany, and not the true figure. Because modern slavery
is a hidden crime, the true number is most likely higher than our estimate.

For countries with more than 10,000 but less than
100,000 estimated enslaved people the estimate
was rounded to the nearest 1000th■■ For countries with more than 100,000 but lessthan 1,000,000 estimated enslaved people theestimate was rounded to the nearest 10,000th■■ For countries with more than 1,000,000 enslaved
people the estimate was rounded to the nearest
100,000th■■b) Data on level of human trafficking to andfrom a country
Data were coded from country reports in the 2013
US Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report.
Trafficking IN and OUT were extracted by the researchteam, and coded to an ordinal scale of 1-4, where 1
reflects a relatively low level of cross-border humantrafficking and 4 reflects a high level of cross-borderhuman trafficking.470 Trafficking levels are importantin the understanding of modern slavery for many
countries, especially the richer countries. As a rule,human trafficking flows from poorer countries toricher countries, and the modern slavery that occurs
in the richest countries tends to be the enslavementof foreign-born persons, not of their own citizens.

EXAMPLE 3: Nepal – Estimating
prevalence From Secondary Sources
When there are no surveys or the opportunity to
extrapolate from surveys of neighboring countries,
it is necessary to fall back on secondary source
information. Secondary sources vary dramatically fromcountry to country. In the best situations there are anumber of sources available and all will be searchedout and their data considered and tested. For thecountry of Nepal these included:1 	Reports of government agencies (including law
enforcement, immigration, trading and businessstatistics, etc.);
2 	Reports produced by international agencies, such as
the International Labour Organization, the United
Nations, or the World Bank;
3 	Reports by experts, these are often commissioned
by governments or international agencies,
or possibly by non-governmental organisations;
4 	Reports by non-governmental organisations, both
local and international;
5 The work of academic experts; and,6 Press and media reports.
All of these reports must be considered carefully – is thisorganisation or this government seeking to conceal orpresent the data in a particular to fit their agenda? Were
staff used to collect information trained to do researchor simply well-meaning volunteers? Is anything being
lost in translation? Each piece of information must be
weighed against other information and not accepted onface value. Once a combination of these have suggested
an estimation of prevalence, then that is tested as wellby asking country and issue experts to balance it against
their specialist knowledge and comment and suggest
adjustments. The judgments of experts are helpedby ensuring that they are all working to the samedefinition of modern slavery, and this are using thesame ‘measuring stick’ in their consideration. At the endof the process is an estimate that can be compared toestimates arrived at by other methods, and which can beconstantly tested and reconsidered as new information

be validated against the reality they claim to represent. Representative surveys, especially when conducted
to explore criminal activity, face significant problems in mis-reporting, under-reporting, and have sample
selection challenges. While setting out those caveats, the Global Slavery Index offers this estimate as a workin progress for two reasons. Firstly, the problem of modern slavery is too pressing to wait the many years thatwould be required before much more complete survey coverage is achieved. Secondly, we offer this estimate
in the spirit of transparent and open research following accepted scientific practice and aimed at ensuring
objectivity, utility, and integrity of shared information. We consider the estimates to make an important andgenuine contribution to the scholarship and debate about the size of modern slavery in particular countries.
Even if not as precise as data from national surveys, they represent well-informed estimates based on a reviewof the available information. Our datasets and research instruments are available at: www.globalslaveryindex.orgc) Data on child marriage in each country

The prevalence estimates used in this Index are in Appendix 2. The data has been rounded according to thefollowing protocol:■■ For countries with more than 100 but less than 1,000 estimated enslaved people the estimate was rounded
to the nearest 10th■■ For countries with more than 1,000 but less than 10,000 estimated enslaved people the estimate wasrounded to the nearest 100th

The variable on child marriages is included on the assumption that increased levels of child marriage,
or indeed early marriages will be highly correlated with increased levels of enslavement. While not all marriagesof persons under the age of 18 constitute a form of enslavement, some certainly will. In this regard it isrelevant to recall that forced marriage, servile marriage and some forms of child marriage are classified underinternational law as “practices similar to slavery.”471

The data source for the information on childmarriage in each country is from UNICEF(http://www.childinfo.org/marriage_countrydata.php).
This data provides estimates of the percentage ofwomen, aged 20-24, who were married or in a union
before the age of 18. Using these data, the researchers
created an ordinal child marriage measure, on a scaleof 1-5, where 1 = least child marriage and 5 = mostchild marriage.

Codebook is available on the Index website: http://www.globalslaveryindex.org
The relevant text of the 1956 UN Slavery Convention calls on all nations to bring about the complete abolition or abandonment of the following institutions and practices:(c) Any institution or practice whereby:(i) A woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or group; or(ii) The husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another person for value received or otherwise; or(iii) A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person;(d) Any institution or practice whereby a child or young person under the age of 18 years, is delivered by either or both of his natural parents or by his guardian to another person, whether
for reward or not, with a view to the exploitation of the child or young person or of his labour.
470
471“The Cross-National Market in Human Beings”, (2009), Pennington, Julie, Dwayne Ball, Ron Hampton, and Julia Soulakova, 29 Journal of Macromarketing (2), pp. 119-134
The U.S. estimate is based on two sources: “Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the United States”, (2004), Free the Slaves & the Human Rights Center at the University of California,
Berkeley; and information from the “Trafficking in Persons: U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress”, (2010), U.S. State Department, as reported by the Congressional Research Service Report.
468
The UK estimate is based on information from a Memorandum to the (Parliamentary) Joint Committee on Human Rights in October 2006.
469
Monti Narayan Datta and Kevin Bales, “Slavery in Europe Part 1: Estimating the Dark Figure,” Human Rights Quarterly, Volume 35, No. 4. Fall 2013.
466
467

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Weighting
The estimate of prevalence is given significantly greater emphasis in the calculation of the Index. In the Index
calculation, the estimate of prevalence is counted as 95% of the value of category. Together, the estimate ofhuman trafficking in and out of each country contributes 2.5% to the overall Index score, and the estimate ofchild marriage counts as 2.5% of the total Index score.

Normalisation process
Data in the Global Slavery Index come from a number of credible yet disparate sources. In their raw form,
many of the variables used on the Global Slavery Index are difficult to compare. In order to make meaningfulcomparisons, we require a method to examine each variable in relation to the other along the same linear
scale, from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 100. To do this, we employ a normalisation procedure based
upon the formula: y = 1 + (x-A)*(100-1)/(B-A)
This formula allows us to create a linear transformation of each variable used in the Global Slavery Index, in
which comparisons are straight forward. In this process, a given variable has one value (call it A) that maps tothe minimum value of 1 and another value (call it B) that maps to the maximum value of 100. This ensuresease of comparison of all variables in the index.

How is the ranking of risk constructed?
The ranking of risk is based on an assessment of 33 quantitative indicators that reflect five key dimensions thatmight create or support a risk of enslavement: a country’s anti-slavery policies; a country’s respect for humanrights; a country’s level of human and economic development; the stability of the Government and theinstitutions of the country; and the level of discrimination against women in a country. All of these indicators
are generated by respected sources external to the Global Slavery Index and were selected by the researchteam, on the basis of statistical testing of their relationship to the prevalence of modern slavery.
The variables that are included in each of these five dimensions are as follows:a) Slavery Policy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Prevention measure (drawn from Cho, Dreher, & Neumeyer, 2012)472
Protection measure (drawn from Cho, Dreher, & Neumeyer, 2012)
Prosecution measure (drawn from Cho, Dreher, & Neumeyer, 2012)
Presence of law enforcement training (drawn from US TIP report, 2013)
Migration regulation (drawn from US TIP report, 2013)
Monitoring of labor practices (drawn from US TIP report, 2013)
Parallel legal systems (drawn from information in CIA FactBook, 2013)b) Human Rights
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Access to Legal & Property Rights (World Bank, 2012)
Civil liberties (Freedom House, 2013)
Freedom of Assembly (CIRI Human Rights Data – Binghamton, 2010)
Freedom of Religion (CIRI Human Rights Data – Binghamton, 2010)
Freedom of Speech (CIRI Human Rights Data – Binghamton, 2010)
Political Rights (Freedom House, 2013)
Worker’s Rights (CIRI Human Rights Data – Binghamton, 2010)c) Development
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
114.

472

Access to Financial services (World Bank, 2007)
Cell phone users (World Bank, 2011)
Credit information (World Bank, 2012)
GDP-PPP (UNDP, 2012)
HDI (UNDP, 2012)
International Debt (World Bank, 2012)

The Codebook, setting out how this and the other variables under Slavery Policy, is available on the website: http://www.globalslaveryindex.org

7. Internet activity (World Bank, 2011)
8. Literacy (UNDP, data from various years as available by country)
9. Social safety net (John Dixon’s “A Global Ranking of National Security Systems”, 2010-2011)d) State Stability
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Corruption (Transparency International, 2012)
Governance (World Bank, 2011)
Independence of judiciary (CIRI Human Rights Data – Binghamton, 2010)
Peace Index (Global Peace Index – Vision of Humanity, 2012)
Political instability (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009-2010)
Violent crime (UNODC, 2011)
Weapons access (Global Peace Index – Vision of Humanity, 2013)e) Women’s rights and discrimination
1. Gender Gini coefficient (World Bank, data from various years as available by country)
2. Women’s economic rights (CIRI Human Rights Data – Binghamton, 2010)
3. Women’s political rights (CIRI Human Rights Data – Binghamton, 2010)
The scores of each of these indicators were normalised to ensure numerical compatibility and then averaged
to yield the score for each dimension of risk. The average of all five dimensions for a country yields the overallrisk score for that country. More information is available on each variable in the Codebook, along with thefull citation of sources, with the full dataset at the Index website.

How were country responses assessed?
The country studies are intended to be a short and sharp summary of major features of the problem ofmodern slavery as it manifests in each country, the Government response to it and what needs to happen to
improve the situation.
While the country studies are written in summary form, they are based on a review of a much larger set of
information. A guide to understanding the country studies follows.

Section 1: The problem
This section is intended to identify the major features of the problem as it manifests in each country. How
big is the problem thought to be, who does it affect and how and where is the problem? This section is based
primarily on a review of recent research literature.

Section 2: What is the government doing about it?
This section is based on a review of available information covering: government accountability, commitment
and coordination; criminal justice responses; victim support services; and other factors affecting vulnerability(see Table 1 on page 116). Key points were selected by the researchers reflecting their own judgement
about: which points were most notable or outstanding, for a short summary; and which information shedmost light on the strengths and weaknesses of the response as it really operates in practice, rather than simply
documenting institutional mechanisms (irrespective of whether or not they work).
This list of indicators was drawn from pre-existing work on effectiveness of responses,473 a review of feedback
and discussion on this issue provided at a working session of around 20 global experts, held in the United
Arab Emirates in October 2012,474 and a review of ideas put forward by the Advisory Group to the Index.
For some countries, information is available about many of the points noted below. However, for most of thecountries with higher prevalence, very little of this information is available. Efforts will be made to reflect thisinformation deficit in future years of the Index, as this fact in itself tends to reflect the level of focus on theissue in a country.
In particular, the “International Quality Standards”, (2011), included in ASEAN, Progress Report on Criminal Justice Responses to Trafficking in Persons in the ASEAN Region:
http://www.ungift.org/doc/knowledgehub/resource-centre/ASEAN_Progress_Report_TIP.pdf; Gallagher, A and Holmes, P, “Developing an Effective Criminal Justice Response
to Human Trafficking: Lessons from the Front Line”, (2008), 18(3) 1; International Criminal Justice Review 318; “Handbook on Performance Indicators for Counter-Trafficking
Projects”, (2008), IOM: http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/published_docs/brochures_and_info_sheets/pi_handbook_180808.pdf;
474
1-2 October 2012, transcript of discussions held by Walk Free.
473

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TABLE 1:
Information considered in “What is the Government doing about Modern Slavery?”Commitment, accountability and coordination

Other factors affecting vulnerability

Key question

Key question

Are there any particular locally relevant factors that have been identified in the
research as being relevant to vulnerability (eg. migrant workers, discrimination,
human rights and conflict)?

Key indicators■■

Key indicators

To what extent are leaders: committed to comprehensively tackle this issue;
accountable for that commitment; have committed resources; have taken steps
to ensure they have access to information to inform policy; and are facilitating
coordination of policies and programmes?
Size of government budget allocation to the problem■■ Recent notable political commitments■■ Ratifications of key treaties (that is, UN Trafficking Protocol; CRC Optional
Protocol on the Sale of Children; Forced Labour Convention; Worst Formsof Child Labour Convention; Slavery Convention; Supplementary Slavery
Convention; and where relevant European Trafficking Convention)■■ Is there a national plan of action? Are there gaps in coverage or duplication?
■■ Is information published each year indicating progress against national plan of action?
■■ Is there a coordination mechanism across government responses?
■■ Is there a coordination mechanism between government and civil society?
■■ Is information available that gives government’s reliable information about the
problem and risk factors? (e.g.: research programmes)■■ Are statistics published that indicate government activity on this issue(investigations, prosecutions, convictions)?
■■

Criminal justice responses
Key question

What is the extent to which the criminal justice system facilitates the identificationand prosecution of all forms of modern slavery.

Key indicators■■

Laws criminalise all forms of modern slavery, as per international standards(slavery, human trafficking, forced labour, worst forms of child labour).
■■ Are victims recognised as victims and not prosecuted?
■■ Victim compensation available either from the offender on conviction or fromthe State where no conviction.
■■ Witness protections in place for in and out of court.
■■ Laws support cross-border investigations / prosecutions.
■■ Are penalties proportionate?
■■ Specialist police unit exists and has: mandate, budget & training.
■■ Front line police in hot spot areas are trained on this issue.
■■ Protection is provided to victims by police as needed.
■■ Proportion of prosecutors who have had training on this issue in past 5 years?
■■ Victim protections in court are used?
■■ Is there evidence of witness tampering?
■■ Proportion of judges who have had training on this issue in past 5 years?
■■ Evidence of interference in cases?
■■ Are cases of corruption / interference in the system being investigated?

Victim support services

116.

Key question

What is the extent to which Governments are ensuring that victim-support services
exist; their capacity is proportionate to the size of the problem; and does this actually
meet the needs of victims?

Key indicators■■

Coverage of victim support services: (types: information services; physical andmental health; training and education; legal assistance; shelter)■■ Capacity (State provided or NGO?; Budget if state provided; number of clients;
has any form of evaluation been conducted in past 2 years?)

Severe unemployment level?
Particular size / shape / nature of informal economy?
■■ Are there sectors of the labour force that are really discriminated against?
■■ Are there vulnerable sectors of workforce not covered by labour law?
■■ Is there a lack of support and legal advice services for workers in vulnerable sectors?
■■ Are visa or other aspects of immigration laws unfair? (e.g.: workers required to liveon site or with employer; not permitted to change employer?)■■ Is there widespread practice of holding passports, and the practice is not illegal?
■■ Are there a lack of protections for overseas workers (e.g.: no labour attaches?)■■ Lack of services for vulnerable migrant workers (legal advice, assistance toregularise, assistance to leave abusive employer, repatriation in an emergency)?
■■ Are there sectors of the community that are subject to particularly extreme
discrimination and exclusion?
■■ Lack of response to conflict situations in the country?
■■ Lack of response to severe corruption?
■■ Other as identified in the research?
■■

Section 3: What needs to happen?
This section reflects an informed but subjective review of the information collected and analysed. Looking
at the totality of the information available, where do the highest priorities for action seem to be?

Which countries are covered and why?
In this first year of the Index, it was not possible to cover all 162 countries. Accordingly, a decision had to bemade about selecting a sub-set for special focus, and it was decided to focus on countries at the more extreme
ends of the Global Slavery Index.

Accordingly, the countries included are:
The ten countries with the worst ranking in the Index (Mauritania, Haiti, Pakistan, India, Nepal,
Moldova, Benin, Cote d’Ivoire, the Gambia, Gabon) (included in the body of the main report);■■ The ten countries with the best ranking in the Index (Iceland, Ireland, United Kingdom, New Zealand,
Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, Luxembourg, Finland, Denmark) (included in the body of the main
report);■■ The ten countries with the highest estimated absolute numbers in modern slavery (India, China, Pakistan,
Nigeria, Ethiopia, Russian Federation, Thailand, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Myanmar and
Bangladesh) (available on the website); and■■ A selection of other major countries of particular interest, either because they are major sending, transit or
destination countries (eg: Yemen and the United States), or their response is emerging to be particularly
innovative (eg: Brazil and Philippines) (available on the website).
The country studies were prepared by a small group of researchers. While the research was conductedprimarily in English, the research team included researchers with French, Creole, German, English and Arabic
language skills.
■■

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Appendix 2: Data tables
Table 1: Ranking by prevalences of population in modern slavery, plus national population, plus
estimate of absolute numbers of population in modern slavery per country
Country Name

Rank

Population475

Calculated
Number ofEnslaved476

Estimated
Enslaved(LowerRange)477

Estimate
Enslaved(Upper Range)

Mauritania

1

3,796,141

151,353

140,000

160,000

Haiti

2

10,173,775

209,165

200,000

220,000

Country Name

Rank

Population475

Calculated
Number ofEnslaved476

Estimated
Enslaved(LowerRange)477

Estimate
Enslaved(Upper Range)

Mali

35

14,853,572

102,240

98,000110,000

Equatorial Guinea

35

736,296

5,453

5,200

5,800

38

14,864,646

106,507

100,000

110,000

Pakistan

3

179,160,111

2,127,132

2,000,000

2,200,000

CambodiaIndia

41,236,686,732

13,956,010

13,300,000

14,700,000

Botswana

39

2,003,910

14,29814,00015,00040

14,075,099

96,17590,000100,000

Nepal

527,474,377

258,806

250,000

270,000

ZambiaMoldova

6

3,559,541

33,32532,00035,000Burundi41

9,849,569

71,14668,00075,00042

52,797,319

384,037

360,000

400,000

Benin

7

10,050,702

80,371

76,00084,000

MyanmarCôte d'Ivoire

8

19,839,750

156,827

150,000

160,000

Rwanda43

11,457,801

80,28476,00084,00044

2,051,545

14,56014,00015,00013,724,317

93,74989,00098,000Gambia9

1,791,225

14,046

13,00015,000

LesothoGabon

10

1,632,572

13,707

13,00014,000Zimbabwe45

Senegal11

13,726,021

102,481

98,000110,000

Namibia46

2,259,393

15,72915,00017,00047

29,776,850

166,667

160,000

180,000

Ethiopia

12

91,728,849

651,110620,000

680,000

Uzbekistan

Sierra Leone

13

5,978,727

44,64442,00047,000

Nigeria48

168,833,776

701,032

670,000

740,000

49

143,533,000

516,217490,000

540,000

Togo

14

6,642,928

48,79446,00051,000RussiaCape Verde

15

494,401

3,688

3,500

3,900

Georgia50

4,511,800

16,227

15,00017,00051

9,297,507

33,43932,00035,0003,162,083

11,372

11,00012,000Eritrea15

6,130,922

44,45242,00047,000Azerbaijan

Guinea17

11,451,273

82,19878,00086,000Albania

51

Ghana

18

25,366,462

181,038

170,000

190,000

Montenegro

53621,081

2,234

2,100

2,400

54

10,514,810

37,81736,00040,000

Republic of the Congo

19

4,337,051

30,88929,00032,000Czech Republic

Guinea-Bissau

20

1,663,558

12,186

12,00013,000Hungary

54

9,943,755

35,76334,00038,00056

7,304,632

27,73926,00029,000

Cameroon

20

21,699,631

153,258

150,000

160,000

Bulgaria

Sudan

22

37,195,349

264,518

250,000

280,000

Armenia57

2,969,081

10,67810,00011,00058

29,824,536

86,08982,00090,000

Democratic Republic of the Congo

23

65,705,093

462,327

440,000

490,000

Afghanistan

Thailand24

66,785,001

472,811450,000

500,000

Bosnia and Herzegovina

59

3,833,916

13,78913,00015,00059

7,223,887

25,981

25,00027,000Uganda25

36,345,860

254,541240,000

270,000

SerbiaBurkina Faso

26

16,460,141

114,745

110,000

120,000

Croatia

61

4,267,000

15,34615,00016,000Somalia27

10,195,134

73,15669,00077,000Poland61

38,542,737

138,619

130,000

150,00061

5,410,267

19,45818,00020,000Niger

28

17,157,042

121,249

120,000

130,000

Slovakia

Tanzania

29

47,783,107

329,503

310,000

350,000

Vietnam64

88,775,500

248,705

240,000

260,000

65

29,987,800

82,27278,00086,000Laos30

6,645,827

50,44048,00053,000

Peru

Central African Republic

31

4,525,209

32,17431,00034,000

Djibouti

66

859,652

2,929

2,890

3,100

67

2,058,152

7,402

7,000

7,800

Liberia32

4,190,435

29,50428,00031,000Slovenia

Malawi33

15,906,483

110,391

100,000

120,000

Suriname

68

534,541

1,522

1,500

1,600

Chad

34

12,448,175

86,32982,00091,000Ecuador69

15,492,264

44,07242,00046,000180,000

Tajikistan

70

8,008,990

23,802

23,00025,000

Bangladesh

71

154,695,368

343,192

330,000

360,000

Uruguay

72

3,395,253

9,978

9,500

10,000

Mozambique

35

25,203,395

173,493160,000

2012 Population Data, The World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx
476
The calculated number of enslaved is a figure obtained by multiplying the estimated proportion of the population enslaved in each country (derived from random sample surveys
and secondary source estimates) by the current population. Although this is a calculation, it is not the true number of enslaved in each country, given that the “dark figure” of slavery(that is, the underreported number of enslaved) is considerably higher than the reported number. We therefore urge due caution in inferring that the calculated number represents
the true number of enslaved. It is, most likely, a gross underestimate.
477
Our rounding protocol was as follows. For countries with more than 100 but less than 1,000 estimated slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 10th. For countries withmore than 1,000 but less than 10,000 estimated slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 100th. For countries with more than 10,000 but less than 100,000 estimated slaves
the estimate was rounded to the nearest 1,000th. For countries with more than 100,000 but less than 1,000,000 estimated slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 10,000th.
For countries with more than 1,000,000 slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 100,000th.
475

118.

119.

A ppend i ces con t i n u ed

Country Name

120.

Rank

Population475

Calculated
Number ofEnslaved476

Estimated
Enslaved(LowerRange)477

Estimate
Enslaved(Upper Range)

Country Name

Rank

Population475

Calculated
Number ofEnslaved476

Estimated
Enslaved(LowerRange)477

Estimate
Enslaved(Upper Range)

Colombia

73

47,704,427

129,923

120,000

140,000

Sri Lanka

118

20,328,000

19,26718,00020,000Paraguay

74

6,687,361

19,602

19,00021,000

Lebanon119

4,424,888

4,028

3,800

4,200

Venezuela

75

29,954,782

Bolivia

76

10,496,285

79,62976,00084,000

Timor-Leste120

1,210,233

1,020

970

1,100

29,88628,00031,000

Malaysia

121

29,239,927

25,26024,00027,000

Guyana77795,369

2,264

Libya

78

6,154,623

17,683

2,200

2,400

Argentina

122

41,086,927

35,36834,00037,00017,00019,000Tunisia122

10,777,500

9,271

8,800

9,700

Dominican Republic

79

10,276,621

23,183

Macedonia

80

2,105,575

6,226

22,00024,000Jamaica

124

2,712,100

2,386

2,300

2,500

5,900

6,500

Romania

125

21,326,905

24,141

23,00025,000Kyrgyzstan

81

5,582,100

16,027

15,00017,000Swaziland

126

1,230,985

1,302

1,200

1,400

Saudi Arabia

82

Turkmenistan

83

28,287,855

57,50455,00060,000Brunei

127

412,238

417

400

440

5,172,931

14,711

14,00015,000Lithuania

128

2,985,509

2,909

2,800

3,100

China
Kazakhstan

84

1,350,695,000

2,949,243

2,800,000

3,100,000

Estonia

129

1,339,396

1,496

1,400

1,600

85

16,797,459

46,66844,00049,000Japan

130127,561,489

80,03276,00084,000

Ukraine86

45,593,300

112,895

110,000

120,000

Latvia131

2,025,473

2,040

1,900

2,140

Jordan87

6,318,000

12,843

12,00013,000Italy

132

60,917,978

7,919

7,500

8,300

United Arab Emirates

88

9,205,651

18,71318,00020,000Trinidad and Tobago

133

1,337,439

486

460

510

Chile

89

17,464,814

37,84636,00040,000

United States

134

313,914,040

59,64457,00063,000Turkey90

73,997,128

120,201

110,000

130,000

Barbados

135

283,221

46

<100

<100

Algeria

91

38,481,705

70,86067,00074,000Germany

136

81,889,839

10,646

10,00011,000Yemen

92

23,852,409

41,30339,00043,000South Korea

137

50,004,000

10,451

9,900

11,000Morocco93

32,521,143

50,59348,00053,000Australia

138

22,683,600

3,167

3,000

3,300

Brazil94

198,656,019

209,622200,000

220,000

France139

65,696,689

8,541

8,000

9,000

El Salvador

95

6,297,394

10,49010,00011,000Netherlands

139

16,767,705

2,180

2,100

2,300

Bahrain96

1,317,827

2,679

2,500

2,800

Hong Kong, SAR China

141

7,154,600

1,543

1,500

1,600

Qatar

96

2,050,514

4,168

4,000

4,400

Singapore

142

5,312,400

1,105

1,100

1,200

Philippines

98

96,706,764

149,973

140,000

160,000

Mauritius

143

1,291,456

535

510

560

Oman

99

3,314,001

5,739

5,500

6,000

Canada144

34,880,491

5,863

5,600

6,200

Kuwait100

3,250,496

6,608

6,300

6,900

Panama145

3,802,281

548

520

580

Guatemala101

15,082,831

13,19413,00014,000

Costa Rica

146

4,805,295

679

650

710

Kenya

102

43,178,141

37,34936,00039,000Portugal147

10,526,703

1,368

1,300

1,400

Iran

103

76,424,443

65,31262,00069,000Spain

147

46,217,961

6,008

5,700

6,300

Iraq

104

32,578,209

28,25227,00030,000Cuba

149

11,270,957

2,116

2,000

2,200

Syria

105

22,399,254

19,23418,00020,000Austria

150

8,462,446

1,100

1,000

1,200

Papua New Guinea

106

7,167,010

6,131

5,800

6,400

Belgium

150

11,142,157

1,448

1,400

1,500

Mexico107

120,847,477

103,01098,000110,000

Greece150

11,280,167

1,466

1,400

1,500

Nicaragua

108

5,991,733

5,798

5,500

6,100

Denmark

150

5,590,478

727

700

760

Mongolia

109

2,796,484

4,729

4,500

5,000

Finland150

5,414,293

704

670

740

Honduras

110

7,935,846

7,503

7,100

7,900

Luxembourg

150

531,441

69

<100

<100

Israel111

7,907,900

8,096

7,700

8,500

Norway150

5,018,869

652

620

690

Madagascar

112

22,293,914

19,18418,00020,000Sweden150

9,516,617

1,237

1,200

1,300

Egypt

113

80,721,874

69,37266,00073,000

Switzerland

150

7,997,152

1,040

990

1,100

Indonesia

114

246,864,191

210,970

200,000

220,000

New Zealand

159

4,433,100

495

470

520

South Africa

115

51,189,307

44,54542,00047,000

United Kingdom

160

63,227,526

4,426

4,200

4,600

Angola116

20,820,525

16,767

16,00018,000

Ireland160

4,588,798

321

300

340

Belarus117

9,464,000

11,497

11,00012,000

Iceland160

320,137

22

<100

<100
121.

A ppend i ces con t i n u ed

Table 2: Absolute estimate, sorted from highest to lowest (with numbers rounded).
Country Name

Calculated Number
Enslaved478

Estimated Enslaved,
Lower Range479

Estimated Enslaved,
Higher Range

India

13,956,010

13,300,000

14,700,000

China

2,949,243

2,800,000

3,100,000

Pakistan

2,127,132

2,000,000

2,200,000

Nigeria

701,032

670,000

740,000

Ethiopia

651,110620,000

680,000

Russia516,217490,000

540,000

Thailand

472,811450,000

500,000

Democratic Republic of the Congo

462,327

440,000

490,000

Myanmar384,037

360,000

400,000

Bangladesh

343,192

330,000

360,000

Tanzania

329,503

310,000

350,000

Sudan

264,518

250,000

280,000

Nepal

258,806

250,000

270,000

Uganda254,541240,000

270,000

Vietnam

248,705

240,000

260,000

Indonesia

210,970

200,000

220,000

Brazil209,622200,000

220,000

Haiti

209,165

200,000

220,000

Ghana

181,038

170,000

190,000

Mozambique

173,493160,000

180,000

Uzbekistan

166,667

160,000

180,000

Côte d'Ivoire

156,827

150,000

160,000

Cameroon

153,258

150,000

160,000

Mauritania

151,353

140,000

160,000

Philippines

149,973

140,000

160,000

Poland138,619

130,000

150,000

Colombia

129,923

120,000

140,000

Niger

121,249

120,000

130,000

Turkey120,201

110,000

130,000

Burkina Faso

114,745

110,000

120,000

Ukraine112,895

110,000

120,000

Malawi

110,391

100,000

120,000

Cambodia

106,507

100,000

110,000

Mexico103,01098,000110,000

Senegal102,481

98,000110,000

Mali

102,240

98,000110,000

Zambia96,17591,000100,000

Zimbabwe

93,74989,00098,000Chad86,32982,00091,000Afghanistan

86,08982,00090,000The calculated number of enslaved is a figure obtained by multiplying the estimated proportion of the population enslaved in each country (derived from random sample surveys
and secondary source estimates) by the current population. Although this is a calculation, it is not the true number of enslaved in each country, given that the “dark figure” of slavery(that is, the underreported number of enslaved) is considerably higher than the reported number. We therefore urge due caution in inferring that the calculated number represents
the true number of enslaved. It is, most likely, a gross underestimate.
479
Our rounding protocol was as follows. For countries with more than 100 but less than 1,000 estimated slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 10th. For countries withmore than 1,000 but less than 10,000 estimated slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 100th. For countries with more than 10,000 but less than 100,000 estimated slaves
the estimate was rounded to the nearest 1,000th. For countries with more than 100,000 but less than 1,000,000 estimated slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 10,000th.
For countries with more than 1,000,000 slaves the estimate was rounded to the nearest 100,000th.

Country Name
Peru

Calculated Number
Enslaved478

Estimated Enslaved,
Lower Range479

Estimated Enslaved,
Higher Range

82,27278,00086,000Guinea82,19878,00086,000Benin

80,371

76,00084,000

Rwanda80,28476,00084,000Japan

80,03276,00084,000Venezuela

79,62976,00084,000Somalia

73,15669,00077,000Burundi71,14668,00075,000Algeria

70,86067,00074,000Egypt

69,37266,00073,000Iran

65,31262,00069,000

United States

59,64457,00063,000

Saudi Arabia

57,50455,00060,000Morocco50,59348,00053,000Laos50,44048,00053,000Togo

48,79446,00051,000

Kazakhstan

46,66844,00049,000

Sierra Leone

44,64442,00047,000South Africa

44,54542,00047,000Eritrea

44,45242,00047,000Ecuador44,07242,00046,000Yemen

41,30339,00043,000Chile

37,84636,00040,000Czech Republic

37,81736,00040,000Kenya

37,34936,00039,000Hungary

35,76334,00038,000Argentina

35,36834,00037,000Azerbaijan

33,43932,00035,000

Moldova

33,32532,00035,000Central African Republic

32,17431,00034,000

Republic of Congo

30,88929,00032,000Bolivia

29,88628,00031,000Liberia

29,50428,00031,000Iraq

28,25227,00030,000Bulgaria

27,73926,00029,000

Serbia25,981

25,00027,000

Malaysia

25,26024,00027,000Romania

24,141

23,00025,000

Tajikistan

23,802

23,00025,000Dominican Republic

23,18322,00024,000

478

122.

123.

A ppend i ces con t i n u ed

Country Name

124.

Calculated Number
Enslaved478

Estimated Enslaved,
Lower Range479

Estimated Enslaved,
Higher Range

Paraguay

19,602

19,00021,000Slovakia

19,45818,00020,000Country Name

Calculated Number
Enslaved478

Estimated Enslaved,
Lower Range479

Estimated Enslaved,
Higher Range

Equatorial Guinea

5,453

5,200

5,800

Mongolia

4,729

4,500

5,000

Sri Lanka

19,26718,00020,000

United Kingdom

4,426

4,200

4,600

Suyria19,23418,00020,000

Qatar

4,168

4,000

4,400

Madagascar

19,18418,00020,000

Lebanon

4,028

3,800

4,200

United Arab Emirates

18,71318,00020,000Cape Verde

3,688

3,500

3,900

Libya

17,68317,00019,000Australia

3,167

3,000

3,300

Angola16,767

16,00018,000

Djibouti

2,929

2,800

3,100

Georgia

16,227

15,00017,000Lithuania

2,909

2,800

3,100

Kyrgyzstan

16,027

15,00017,000Bahrain

2,679

2,500

2,800

Namibia

15,72915,00017,000Jamaica

2,386

2,300

2,500

Croatia

15,34615,00016,000

Guyana

2,264

2,200

2,400

Turkmenistan

14,711

14,00015,000Montenegro

2,234

2,100

2,400

Lesotho

14,56014,00015,000Netherlands

2,180

2,100

2,300

Botswana

14,29814,00015,000

Cuba

2,116

2,000

2,200

Gambia14,046

13,00015,000Latvia

2,040

1,900

2,100

Bosnia and Herzegovina

13,78913,00015,000Hong Kong, SAR China

1,543

1,500

1,600

Gabon

13,707

13,00014,000Suriname

1,522

1,500

1,600

Guatemala13,19413,00014,000Estonia

1,496

1,400

1,600

Jordan12,843

12,00013,000

Greece

1,466

1,400

1,500

Guinea-Bissau

12,186

12,00013,000Belgium

1,448

1,400

1,500

Belarus11,497

11,00012,000Portugal

1,368

1,300

1,400

Albania

11,372

11,00012,000Swaziland

1,302

1,200

1,400

Armenia

10,67810,00011,000Sweden

1,237

1,200

1,300

Germany

10,646

10,00011,000Singapore

1,105

1,100

1,200

El Salvador

10,49010,00011,000Austria

1,100

1,000

1,200

South Korea

10,451

9,900

11,000

Switzerland

1,040

990

1,100

Uruguay

9,978

9,500

10,000

Timor-Leste

1,020

970

1,100

Tunisia

9,271

8,800

9,700

Denmark

727

700

760

France

8,541

8,000

9,000

Finland

704

670

740

Israel

8,096

7,700

8,500

Costa Rica

679

650

710

Italy

7,919

7,500

8,300

Norway

652

620

690

Honduras

7,503

7,100

7,900

Panama

548

520

580

Slovenia

7,402

7,000

7,800

Mauritius

535

510

560

Kuwait

6,608

6,300

6,900

New Zealand

495

470

520

Macedonia

6,226

5,900

6,500

Trinidad and Tobago

486

460

510

Papua New Guinea

6,131

5,800

6,400

Brunei

417

400

440

Spain

6,008

5,700

6,300

Ireland

321

300

340

Canada

5,863

5,600

6,200

Luxembourg

69

<100

<100

Nicaragua

5,798

5,500

6,100

Barbados

46

<100

<100

Oman

5,739

5,500

6,000

Iceland

22

<100

<100

125.

A ppend i ces con t i n u ed

Table 3: Data from the risk analysis by country and mean

126.

Country Name

Slavery
PolicyHuman
RightsDevelopment

State
Stability

Discrimination

Mean

Afghanistan

89.39

86.02

93.05

79.55

48.14

79.23

Albania

32.82

34.81

37.05

57.11

42.68

40.90

Algeria

92.93

90.00

46.07

50.10

32.35

62.29

Angola

71.71

62.94

62.46

64.20

62.62

64.78

Argentina

25.75

29.37

30.89

53.44

22.26

32.34

Armenia

4.54

77.24

38.28

57.47

39.71

43.45

Australia

4.54

10.02

16.60

13.38

6.38

10.18

Austria

4.54

2.95

13.25

15.30

2.65

7.74

Azerbaijan

39.89

89.03

36.27

60.84

42.02

53.61

Bahrain

89.39

78.70

38.55

37.47

67.00

62.22

Bangladesh

71.71

60.33

65.21

59.65

40.70

59.52

Barbados

71.71

15.63

36.66

25.87

34.00

36.77

Belarus

57.57

93.01

35.84

56.41

36.65

55.90

Belgium

4.54

3.68

19.37

15.35

19.44

12.48

Benin

61.11

35.46

76.97

53.48

46.08

54.62

Bolivia

50.50

34.81

52.74

61.37

49.71

49.83

Bosnia and Herzegovina

39.89

56.27

36.78

48.43

44.09

45.09

Botswana

89.39

34.89

47.33

28.89

64.60

53.02

Brazil

25.75

27.66

34.66

56.68

48.39

38.63

Brunei Darussalam

36.36

85.86

44.30

27.74

50.50

48.95

Bulgaria

22.21

34.73

30.71

49.48

15.47

30.52

Burkina Faso

57.57

38.06

84.24

60.32

47.07

57.45

Burundi

78.79

67.65

80.19

69.89

41.69

67.64

Cambodia

71.71

74.64

56.23

65.31

45.50

62.68

Cameroon

32.82

77.49

71.75

61.67

57.32

60.21

Canada

4.54

2.46

16.44

10.91

19.11

10.69

Cape Verde

54.04

15.63

44.39

34.29

55.92

40.85

Central African Republic

85.86

66.19

78.61

77.90

60.71

73.85

Chad

85.86

66.19

84.15

77.05

58.07

74.26

Chile

36.36

12.70

27.58

24.49

46.24

29.48

China

64.64

91.06

41.96

48.82

53.02

59.90

Colombia

39.89

56.43

36.87

65.04

60.38

51.72

Democratic Republic of the Congo

92.93

85.04

84.12

80.47

61.87

80.89

Republic of the Congo

71.71

47.33

67.14

67.21

53.27

61.33

Costa Rica

57.57

14.90

36.21

32.51

23.08

32.85

Côte d’Ivoire

64.64

66.92

75.91

74.79

48.47

66.15

Croatia

39.89

39.69

28.42

32.49

31.02

34.30

Cuba

78.79

88.13

49.22

44.74

17.50

55.68

Czech Republic

8.07

20.51

21.10

25.09

35.65

22.09

Denmark

39.89

1.98

16.80

3.75

1.00

12.68

Djibouti

71.71

75.37

72.59

47.89

47.23

62.96

Dominican Republic

43.43

36.93

39.89

61.25

53.19

46.94

Ecuador

43.43

48.71

37.58

53.04

43.92

45.34

Egypt

39.89

77.89

40.68

55.13

39.62

50.64

El Salvador

29.29

24.17

43.02

66.26

54.10

43.37

Country Name

Slavery
PolicyHuman
RightsDevelopment

State
Stability

Discrimination

Mean

Equatorial Guinea

92.93

82.69

53.68

63.52

50.50

68.66

Eritrea

96.46

96.59

86.04

56.83

67.00

80.58

Estonia

46.96

12.70

20.52

25.74

32.92

27.77

Ethiopia

25.75

91.14

81.10

62.43

49.80

62.04

Finland

8.07

8.07

21.59

9.52

3.40

10.13

France

18.68

25.14

20.88

21.10

19.20

21.00

Gabon

39.89

47.57

50.28

55.41

48.47

48.33

Gambia

50.50

64.07

81.45

56.79

42.27

59.02

Georgia

50.50

56.27

38.57

55.45

48.31

49.82

Germany

11.61

31.48

13.76

14.94

4.56

15.27

Ghana

68.18

25.06

67.11

48.01

49.55

51.58

Greece

36.36

34.00

25.39

43.89

31.52

34.23

Guatemala

39.89

35.95

46.35

59.86

60.38

48.49

Guinea

71.71

59.36

82.57

71.11

57.74

68.50

Guinea-Bissau

85.86

61.72

82.63

69.77

54.51

70.90

Guyana

61.11

39.04

67.71

50.20

50.95

53.80

Haiti

61.11

49.93

80.11

65.16

74.11

66.08

Honduras

46.96

52.94

57.22

76.27

61.29

58.94

Hong Kong, SAR China

64.64

10.02

18.40

10.67

58.23

32.39

Hungary

61.11

22.86

28.30

22.27

39.95

34.90

Iceland

39.89

4.41

16.26

11.17

1.00

14.55

India

71.71

51.23

50.29

57.10

41.77

54.42

Indonesia

39.89

59.77

49.67

51.85

42.27

48.69

Iran

96.46

91.63

42.82

57.58

67.83

71.26

Iraq

68.18

84.56

61.68

76.56

50.71

68.34

Ireland

22.21

10.51

18.35

17.77

20.52

17.87

Israel

29.29

50.66

19.79

34.55

35.57

33.97

Italy

29.29

30.67

21.47

38.99

21.92

28.47

Jamaica

32.82

29.77

48.30

56.86

51.78

43.91

Japan

61.11

12.62

16.13

12.18

45.66

29.54

Jordan

64.64

85.37

49.27

44.88

54.43

59.72

Kazakhstan

36.36

82.20

30.26

58.05

38.14

49.00

Kenya

68.18

60.50

54.81

69.37

64.60

63.49

South Korea

18.68

22.38

24.91

20.63

18.04

20.93

Kuwait

89.39

75.21

30.87

38.32

100.0066.76

Kyrgyzstan

64.64

73.50

46.08

59.56

44.09

57.57

Laos

54.04

93.50

62.11

51.07

44.50

61.04

Latvia

39.89

40.58

26.19

33.57

44.42

36.93

Lebanon

68.18

53.10

34.91

62.36

83.50

60.41

Lesotho

68.18

37.09

70.07

46.88

46.57

53.76

Liberia

78.79

42.78

82.71

63.11

45.74

62.63

Libya

96.46

84.56

47.05

65.64

34.00

65.54

Lithuania

36.36

35.63

21.60

28.54

34.25

31.27

Luxembourg

36.36

14.41

6.42

9.77

17.62

16.91

Macedonia

32.82

32.62

33.54

55.47

38.88

38.67
127.

A ppend i ces con t i n u ed

128.

Country Name

Slavery
PolicyHuman
RightsDevelopment

State
Stability

Discrimination

Mean

Country Name

Slavery
PolicyHuman
RightsDevelopment

State
Stability

Discrimination

Mean

Madagascar

82.32

78.87

78.66

59.20

50.62

69.94

Serbia

22.21

36.68

35.90

52.23

37.14

36.83

Malawi

64.64

37.90

86.79

46.96

46.41

56.54

Sierra Leone

71.71

30.99

85.66

52.78

60.30

60.29

Malaysia

71.71

80.00

32.65

37.37

52.36

54.82

Singapore

18.68

61.23

19.58

27.66

42.93

34.02

Mali

78.79

44.08

82.80

62.14

41.44

61.85

Slovakia

15.14

22.95

24.38

40.80

24.65

25.58

Mauritania

82.32

61.96

75.31

64.80

47.65

66.41

Slovenia

8.07

6.85

22.08

15.65

28.95

16.32

Mauritius

61.11

27.25

37.80

21.38

34.00

36.31

Somalia

96.46

95.85

94.89

86.06

67.00

88.05

Mexico

43.43

51.64

38.60

61.22

43.10

47.60

South Africa

43.43

26.44

38.78

54.52

55.34

43.70

Moldova

8.07

61.64

42.48

53.37

30.44

39.20

Spain

22.21

20.26

20.40

22.50

20.85

21.24

Mongolia

68.18

32.13

41.05

44.10

44.34

45.96

Sri Lanka

61.11

75.78

43.60

58.58

47.48

57.31

Montenegro

32.82

33.43

31.93

44.90

38.96

36.41

Sudan

85.86

96.59

81.20

81.79

43.35

77.76

Morocco

85.86

68.46

44.31

47.68

47.98

58.86

Suriname

50.50

30.59

49.44

36.27

57.90

44.94

Mozambique

64.64

42.05

77.85

54.17

40.95

55.93

Swaziland

71.71

68.46

53.17

46.98

67.74

61.62

Myanmar

75.25

88.78

68.96

63.88

83.50

76.08

Sweden

1.00

8.32

16.79

11.05

1.83

7.80

Namibia

75.25

37.17

47.61

36.65

67.00

52.74

Switzerland

32.82

8.80

15.05

11.46

20.02

17.63

Nepal

61.11

67.33

65.30

58.87

41.28

58.78

Syria

92.93

94.88

58.58

63.79

43.76

70.79

Netherlands

1.00

18.31

14.71

14.74

6.71

11.09

Tajikistan

32.82

92.36

56.88

63.76

39.62

57.09

New Zealand

11.61

9.29

17.35

6.77

11.09

11.22

Tanzania

46.96

54.56

79.41

56.68

45.25

56.57

Nicaragua

15.14

60.90

63.80

61.54

47.65

49.81

Thailand

54.04

65.86

36.36

45.06

47.23

49.71

Niger

71.71

54.73

84.46

55.56

31.77

59.64

Timor-Leste

64.64

26.20

61.71

52.16

51.53

51.25

Nigeria

54.04

75.86

60.57

69.08

65.51

65.01

Togo

61.11

70.66

76.30

54.35

42.60

61.00

Norway

4.54

19.53

14.90

9.31

2.49

10.15

Trinidad and Tobago

71.71

27.42

31.39

43.68

36.48

42.14

Oman

61.11

72.45

36.16

34.08

34.00

47.56

Tunisia

68.18

76.67

38.40

48.65

48.39

56.06

Pakistan

78.79

71.88

59.99

68.92

38.96

63.71

Turkey

43.43

70.33

37.31

45.23

46.41

48.54

Panama

57.57

28.23

30.64

55.75

46.08

43.65

Turkmenistan

71.71

97.07

53.17

66.38

47.89

67.25

Papua New Guinea

89.39

44.73

66.33

49.52

78.25

65.64

Uganda

32.82

76.02

71.18

61.95

61.79

60.75

Paraguay

39.89

32.13

42.03

62.28

57.49

46.77

Ukraine

61.11

52.29

39.16

59.40

35.98

49.59

Peru

39.89

47.33

38.91

48.17

53.93

45.65

United Arab Emirates

36.36

84.80

29.18

35.57

50.50

47.28

Philippines

36.36

33.35

48.18

60.51

38.71

43.42

United Kingdom

15.14

16.85

15.93

18.24

20.27

17.29

Poland

8.07

24.65

23.28

30.15

42.35

25.70

United States

8.07

10.75

15.56

26.86

29.37

18.12

Portugal

25.75

13.92

25.32

17.92

23.99

21.38

Uruguay

39.89

13.92

28.43

27.04

51.62

32.18

Qatar

61.11

84.64

22.10

26.47

59.14

50.69

Uzbekistan

54.04

97.07

43.70

63.53

44.50

60.57

Romania

22.21

51.80

34.98

42.82

27.96

35.96

Venezuela

32.82

82.04

40.52

72.72

40.20

53.66

Russia

50.50

86.83

24.47

66.33

47.32

55.09

Vietnam

39.89

90.65

41.97

48.98

43.59

53.02

Rwanda

71.71

84.07

69.84

44.13

45.17

62.98

Yemen

92.93

95.29

64.84

69.44

67.33

77.97

Saudi Arabia

78.79

92.20

31.06

53.35

83.50

67.78

Zambia

57.57

50.58

69.39

61.56

59.31

59.68

Senegal

54.04

48.31

77.91

57.06

57.57

58.98

Zimbabwe

89.39

93.09

63.98

72.77

66.59

77.16

129.

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