● Article ●An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s
Early Twentieth Century Anti-dramatic
Attitude on the Development of
Tsubouchi’s Child Drama
Takeo FUJIKURA
Abstract
Shoyo Tsubouchi’s concept,“Kateiyo Jido Geki”or“Child Drama for Domestic
Presentation,”introduced unique and innovative theories for child-participating drama.
For the first time in Japan, such aspects as a child-centered approach, process-orientation,and the employment of age-appropriate materials were addressed. Publicly, Tsubouchi
began encouraging the ideal concept of his child drama in 1921; however, in reality, he
had acknowledged the significance of these elements as early as 1902, but seems to havethought that their practice was“infeasible”at that time. Thus, he had to continue todevelop his concept until the time was right for its acceptance.
An in-depth study of the process of his concept formation reveals how his
ideal drama theories were the result of his adaptation amidst the conventional public
antipathy to dramatic activities. Tsubouchi found a way to incorporate elements ofdrama into school education while at the same time avoiding public criticism. In doingso, he necessarily shifted his original dramatic approach from product-orientation to asmore process-oriented one. Through an examination of this trajectory of Tsubouchi’dramatic endeavors in various circumstances over time, this paper illustrates how his final
child drama concept came to be formed in response to the influences of political, social,educational and aesthetic systems.

Shoyo Tsubouchi’s concept of“Kateiyo Jidogeki”or“Child Drama for
Domestic Presentation”was one of the earliest and most innovative theories
affecting the development of Japanese child drama. It was a child-centered,process-oriented drama activity employing age-appropriate materials for the
first time in Japan. It was designed to be performed by children with only17

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

family members as the side-coaches and audience.
Tsubouchi first presented this concept in 1921 during the Taisho New
Education Movement that had developed as an antithesis to the previous Meijis knowledge- and skill-based education. Tsubouchi himself, in retrospect,Era’
maintained:
Although the pageant attempts［ which preceded his child drama
activity］partially failed under complex circumstances leaving only their
theoretics behind, I am proud that the child drama activities, throughplay creation and several demonstrational performances, created a
1（“Shogen”1）
significant sensation with an intrinsic influence on society”
s innovation in theoretical aspects was“an epoch-making movement
Tsubouchi’（K. Ichikawa 66）in the field of childanswering the needs of a new era,”
drama in Japan, introducing new concepts such as child-centeredness, ageappropriateness, and the educational value of dramatic activity, all bolstered bycontemporary scientific theory. In addition to these new concepts, Tsubouchi
provided detailed guidance on how to select, approach, and direct the childdrama. All these elements of his child drama concept are, as Toshio Kawatake
maintains, still regarded as the essential principles of child drama in Japan（“Jidogekini Okeru Tsubouchi Shoyo”70）.
However, this ideal notion was not a new one for Tsubouchi; he had
been fostering it for some time. Already in a 1902 article, Sazanami Iwaya（1870-1933）reported on Tsubouchi’s approval of child-centered drama. It isevident that, although acknowledging the value of child-participating drama,
Tsubouchi was unable to materialize it until the Taisho Era. Close examinations dramatic activities with his students reveals thatof the trajectory of Tsubouchi’
there had been a crucial social limitation: the strong antipathy against theatricalactivity under which the formation of an ideal child drama was not realisticallyfeasible. In response to the anti-dramatic criticism, Tsubouchi gradually
started to shift his attitude and attempted to integrate drama with educational
endeavors. Thus, the conventional anti-dramatic social view functioned as adriving force for Tsubouchi to integrate drama and education.
s attitude toward student
In this paper, I will examine Tsubouchi’s skeptical views against drama
performance to illustrate how the public’affected his direction of dramatic endeavors. According to Sazanami Iwaya,
Tsubouchi had already indicated his approval of child drama in which children
18Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

themselves perform. As will be illustrated later in this paper, I contend that,
due to the deep prejudice and hostile reaction of the society against dramatic
performance, Tsubouchi strategically shifted the emphasis of his dramatic
assertion from performance toward its process, emphasizing its educational
aspect. This process-oriented focus can be observed both in his teaching
method and in his National Reader Textbook creation, which had been
conceived and practiced well before his child drama endeavor. By illustratings inherent dramatic methodologies in the readers as well as the
Tsubouchi’
trajectory of the strategic shift in his attitude toward dramatic practice, I will
clarify the detailed adaptation process that Tsubouchi underwent within theexisting social anti-dramatic social view before his child drama activities weredeveloped.

Tsubouchi’s Ideal Child Drama and His Acknowledgementof Society’s Negative View of Dramatic Activity
In Iwaya’s 1902 article, in which he introduced German“otogi shibai”（fairy tale drama）for children to the Japanese people, Iwaya reported twos idealistic child drama. First, along
important issues regarding Tsubouchi’with the child drama performed by adult actors, many scripts had alreadybeen published for a form of child drama that was designed to be performedby children under the direction of German schoolteachers. Iwaya went on tosuggest that this type of child drama should also be considered for practical“Doitsu no Otogishibai”3）. Thus, by 1902, Iwaya
use in Japanese society（
had introduced both child drama performed by adult actors and by children
themselves.
In his article, Iwaya also reported on his discussion with Tsubouchi
concerning the possibility of practicing the child drama by children:
Mr. Shoyo Tsubouchi also once insisted that this［the child drama
designed to be performed by children］should be practiced in Japan. I
discussed with him the possibility of disseminating this type of childdrama in Japan before I had left for Germany; however, as it was
infeasible then, it was left untouched（3）There is no further information as to the details of their conversation, but these
remarks certainly support the fact that Tsubouchi had been acquainted with19

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

this style of child drama well before Iwaya’s trip to Germany in 1900 and that
Tsubouchi was encouraging it to be practiced in Japan. It is evident that childs
drama designed for children to act out had long been incubating in Tsubouchi’（3）. This
mind. Nevertheless, at this point it was, as Iwaya stated,“infeasible”
s dramaticsocial condition, in turn, assumed a crucial role in forming Tsubouchi’s early
activity as well as his attitude toward it. I will first examine Tsubouchi’
experience with student production that may have reinforced his perspective ofchild drama feasibility.

Tsubouchi’s First Stage Production with Students andSociety’s Reaction
In 1890, with the foundation of the literature department at the Tokyo
Senmon Gakko（later to be Waseda University）, Professor Tsubouchi formed
the Recitation Study Group called Ekifu-Kai and began teaching elocution
techniques to his students. The earliest record of a performance produced by
Tsubouchi with his students goes back to April, 1894, when he was teachingat the Tokyo Senmon Gakko. This performance was a pageant performed bys spring
the Ekifu-Kai students as part of an entertainment during the school’athletic festival held at the Sumida-en Park, Tokyo. The first production wasmade possible by the enthusiasm of those students who had been passionately
demanding an opportunity to demonstrate the result of their elocution training.
They performed a few scenes from Jishin Kato（Earthquake and the Warrior
Kato）, a historical drama written by the noted Kabuki playwright, Mokuami
Kawatake（1816-1893）. Harukazu Kitami, the author of Tetteki to Shunsho –Kindaiengi no Hajimari, reported,“It was an unprecedented radical event in（57）.
Japan both as a student production and as pageantry”
As a consequence, Tsubouchi and his students became the target of harshsocial criticism. Biyo Minakuchi（1873-1940）, a member of the Ekifu-Kai
and one of the actors of the production, recalled the social reaction after the
production:
Public opinion began attacking us. Some said mistakenly it wass athletic
unforgivable to invite professional actors to the school’festival though I am not so sure we looked good enough to be taken as
professional actors. Newspapers such as Japan also harshly reproached our20Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

production in their articles the next day, stating that it was outrageous tolet students put on rouge and imitate actors’mannerisms and intonations（43）

Even the words“acting”or“drama”incited contempt, for these words wereassociated with such words as“beggars”or“prostitution”in the traditional
narrative of Kabuki. Shigetoshi Kawatake reported that newspapers such as theYomiuri News and The Hochi News even attacked Tsubouchi, stating,“On topof letting students imitate riverbed beggars［actors］, he himself passionately（S. Kawatake and Yanagita 367）. Kenko Ichijima,
supported the production”
one of the founders of the Tokyo Senmon Gakko and a close friend of
Tsubouchi, recollected that he“did not think it was an appropriate thing to be
（6）
.
done”
However, it should be taken into account that the target of criticism was
not only the Kabuki production itself but also the post-production activities
during which excited actors came out onto the stage in makeup and costumes,
dancing wildly in exhilaration. Tsubouchi was criticized harshly for producing
this play in public and allowing what society considered self-indulgent post
activities to follow.
In fact, Tsubouchi had been well aware of the hostile view his theatricaldemonstration would likely generate. According to Minakuchi, Tsubouchi
had been persistently beseeched by his Recitation Study Group students for
permission to do a public demonstration performance, but he had stubbornly（qtd. in S.Kawatake
told them to wait, stating that the time was“not yet right”
and Yanagita 460）. Shigetoshi Kawatake also reported that when Tsubouchi
established the Recitation Study Group and conducted a few recitation
demonstrations in school prior to the public play production, there was alreadys peers towards his unorthodox attempt tostrong antipathy among Tsubouchi’
use play scripts for the recitation material（231）. Ichijima maintained that evens attempts at dramatic research and recitation study were“viewed as
Tsubouchi’（6）.
something inconceivable”
Ichijima reported that within the school, the recitation demonstration
grew into a big social debate when a reporter from the Yomiuri Newspapers recitation demonstration, stating,“It is quite outrageous
reviewed Tsubouchi’
to see the students take pride in imitating the riverbed beggars in the（6）. Tsubouchi’s students vigorously attempted to defendclassroom setting”
21Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

the appropriateness of their activity. The heated dispute continued between
the students and the commentators for some time, but Tsubouchi withdrew
the study group from the school setting and began holding sessions at his own
s reputation.
house so that it would not hurt the school’
These incidents indeed demonstrate how the Japanese public considered
it outrageous and antisocial to witness students demonstrating recitation
technique, let alone the dramatic performances.2 As demonstrated earlier, wheneven college students were not commonly allowed to participate in dramatic
activity, it naturally followed that dramatic activities by children were out（“Doitsu noof the question. As Iwaya had stated, it was indeed“infeasible”
Otogishibai”3）.

Tsubouchi’s Shift in the Direction of His Dramatic Activity
The deeply rooted social antipathy against dramatic activity that hads series of dramatic ventures as“scandalous”gradually beganlabeled Tsubouchi’s attitude towards his work. Around this time, his
to influence Tsubouchi’attitude about recitation and dramatic activity began to shift from productoriented activities to process-oriented and educationally motivated operations.
The first indication of this shift of focus can be observed in his stance regarding
an incident that occurred in 1898.
In that year（ Year 31 of the Meiji Era）, a controversy arose when
students at the Niigata Normal School performed a scene from the Kabuki play
Taikoki for Kigensetu, the National Foundation day. The performance involved
a love scene, and this production, as well as the school itself, became the targetof heated accusations and criticism in several newspaper articles. Eventually,
the principal, Sadanori Kubota, had to resign due to his responsibility forthe production. In contrast, the magazine Taiyo defended the students andquestioned the newspapers ’attitude of targeting the school production,
pointing out that society held a biased view against dramatic activity itself“Niigata Shihan Gakkono Engeki Jiken”
without even examining the content（
43）.
In that same year, in the midst of this heated controversy among
educators, Tsubouchi wrote an article“Gakko ni okeru Gakusei no Engeki”（ Student Performance in the School Setting ）. In this article, Tsubouchi
22

Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

commended a few magazines like Taiyo that supported the students ’performance as precursors for the coming era. However, Tsubouchi concluded
that it was a mistake on the part of Niigata Normal School, which executed this“Mere pastime-driven
performance without enough preparation. He contended,
performance by students without a sufficient understanding of literature is not
only meaningless, but also can be harmful given the present social condition”（“Gakko ni okeru Gakusei no Engeki”7-8）.
s side on this debate, conscious of
Tsubouchi took the government’
the conventional view of society against theatrical activities. He was hesitantto support the school production in this case since it had no educationalsignificance. But at the same time, Tsubouchi did not oppose the school
production itself; he was writing against the superficial, gaudy and noneducational aspects of a school production that fostered self-conceited attitudes
in students and provoked antipathy toward theatrical activity in Japanesesociety.
s other article on recitation（rodokuho）in the same issue
Tsubouchi’of Waseda Bungaku further elaborated his attitude toward the theatre activity（Recitation as anof this time. In the article,“Gakka Toshiteno Rodokuho”
Academic Subject）, Tsubouchi stressed his belief that both literature andaesthetics, including drama activities, had the potential to contribute to thecultivation of human sentiment if they were“applied with appropriate caution”（8）. He contended:
Nevertheless, in order to follow the proper sequence, one should initiate
this process first by learning to attain an aesthetically critical view ofliterary works. For example, one should begin with developing the ability
to analyze the characters of the play, to empathize with the characters’emotional state, to demonstrate those emotions（thus skill of expression）
and the like. One must be trained in these disciplines（8）.
Tsubouchi emphasized the importance of a process that laid a soundfoundation, stating,“ Dramatic performance without the foundation will
either end up being disorganized, contemptible drama or turn into despicable（8）.
imitative trifles”
Here, Tsubouchi was shifting his main concern toward the process as wellas its quality as if to dodge public criticism. In the same article, he insisted thatin order to achieve this goal, the recitation class should be incorporated into a23

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

secondary school program because it promoted“the critical view of aesthetics（8-9）. By stressing the effectas well as knowledge of language and rhetoric”
of emotional cultivation in recitation study, Tsubouchi maintained that therecitation study was thereby“far more productive than unprepared, impulsively（9）.
conducted shallow drama”
It is worthy of attention that Tsubouchi began to overtly focus on the
preparatory process of drama by stressing its educational aspect. This shift ins strong conviction of theorientation to the process was based upon Tsubouchi’
educational significance of drama; it also had significance as a strategic appeal
to society for the legitimate use of drama. This marked a turning point whereins cautious treatment of dramatic activities affected even the field of
Tsubouchi’
adult theatre. He became very conscious of how to manage activities as well as
how the people involved should behave so that none of them could become atarget of societal criticism.
For example, when his Recitation Study Group, Ekifu-Kai evolved
into the formation of a theatre group called the Bungei Kyokai（LiterarySociety）in 1906, Tsubouchi intentionally founded this group independentof Waseda University so no responsibility would fall on the university. Afterthe formation of the Second Bungei Kyokai in 1909, he established a training
department to which he invited amateurs, many of whom had no previous
acting experience. This was the first coed actor training school in Japan to
be made up of amateurs. The department curriculum stressed academic
discipline and employed various innovative classes such as“modern drama”and“English conversation,”in addition to such academic classes as psychology andphilosophy, thus emphasizing the foundational study he insisted on in“Gakka
toshiteno Rodokuho.”
The most conspicuous example of his attempt to rid his dramatic activityof the negative aspect of theatre during this training period can be seen by his
control of dramatic, academic, and moral life of his students, even dictating theactivities he expected them to follow during their private daily life. He even
imposed a dating prohibition among the students. One couple was expelledfrom the school after being discovered to be walking under one umbrella（Matsumoto 46）.
Although this example may seem extreme, it becomes understandable if
we recognize the situation of these actors. To illustrate how skeptical the public
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Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

view against drama was at this time, despite Tsubouchi’s efforts, Taro Akiba
related a discussion he had with Shigetoshi Kawatake, who had participateds first production of Hamlet in the Second Bungei Kyokai inin Tsubouchi’
1911. When Akiba questioned why he could not find Kawatake’s name in the
program of Hamlet, Kawatake confessed that his mother had forbidden him touse his real name in the program; therefore, he had no choice but to be listed
under a false name, Tozo Satake（Inagaki and Oka 287）. Akiba reported thats mother but also many other parents of Tsubouchi’s
it was not only Kawatake’students who came to Tsubouchi begging that he not let their children“imitate（287）. The fact that Tsubouchi acquiesced to their wishes illustrates
actors”
how desperate he was not to have any negative aspect of his dramatic activity
pointed out by the public.

Tsubouchi’s Stance in the Field of Education
Around the time that Tsubouchi shifted his direction to the processoriented operation of drama, he was also involved in middle school educationand the creation of The Reader, the compilation of the National Textbook. In
1897, a publisher, Fuzanbo, asked him to create elementary school textbooks,
and in 1900, Tsubouchi published his first text, Kokugo Dokuhon（The Reader）.
s policy both in ethics teaching and compilation of The Reader
Tsubouchi’shows how his educational principles toward children had already been fosteredand shaped by this time. Specifically, the basic educational attitude that becames future child drama activity, including age specificthe backbone of Tsubouchi’appropriateness and his preference of triggering methodology over impositionof knowledge, had already been established. In addition, Tsubouchi constantly
attempted to incorporate a dramatic approach to both his teaching and theReader creation – this also forecasted his future child drama endeavor.
Tsubouchi was invited to be the vice-principal of Waseda Middle School
when it was established in 1896. He began teaching practical ethics at theschool（while continuing his lectures at Tokyo Senmon Gakko）. According
to Tsubouchi, the process of finding material for his texts stimulated him
to conduct his first research on elementary school education and made him
aware of problematic issues inherent in contemporary educational policy. After
conducting research on the status quo of elementary education by visiting a few
25

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

elementary schools, Tsubouchi maintained:
For the first time, I discovered that there were many defects andmisunderstandings both in their educational policy and textbooks. I felt
a sense of righteous indignation wherein I even thought that I should
devote myself to the reformation of educational programs by assuming“Toyokan kara
the position of principal of a private elementary school（
Fuzanbo e”109）
This new research marked a turning point for his interest in children’sliterature and became a foundational step for his future work in child drama.
s literature
According to Tsubouchi, he first became interested in children’
around 1900 while he was editing the Elementary School Reader series（16volumes for boys and girls each）for the Fuzanbo Publisher（Tsubouchi,“Shogen”2）. Thus, both the teaching and the textbook creation were an
important preparation phase for his future child drama activity.
In the article“Houkonno Shouchugakko niokeru Tokuiku Oyobi sono（
“The Present Condition of Ethics Education in Elementary/Middle
Hei”）, Tsubouchi discussed his philosophy in the
Schools and Its Drawback”
context of his discovery of the conditions in elementary and middle school
education. Acknowledging his lack of experience in child education, he began
to visit middle and elementary schools and devoured books both on ethics andeducation. He concluded that ethics education both in elementary and middle
schools was“too formalistic, utilitarian, as well as shallow, thus, very superficial”（3）.
First, in his comments on the way in which the Kyoikuchokugo（Imperial
Rescript on Education）3 was being taught, Tsubouchi pointed out that only
a cursory knowledge of loyalty and filial piety was discussed in class. He
contended:
They［teachers］are simply ordering the children to obey the teaching ofloyalty and filial piety, without any attempt to trigger moral spirit. Whats moral character
they［teachers］are attempting is only to mold children’
inculcating superficial knowledge about loyalty and filial piety（3-4）
s completely authoritative methodology, insisting on
He criticized education’s initiative and motivation.
the importance of encouraging children’
Second, he criticized the current educational methodology, indicating
how the teachers’reinforcement of loyalty and filial piety was founded on such
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Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

self-centered utilitarian motivation as“the sake of social obligation”or“to attain; thus, it was not based on sincerity（5）. Deploring
good social reputation”“In this regard, I cannot help but castsuch motivations, Tsubouchi maintained,s influence［of utilitarian teaching］”（6）.
blame upon Mr. Fukuzawa’In a third comment, Tsubouchi indicated the importance of ageappropriateness for the texts. Because educators were using only the original
texts of Confucianism for all age groups, Tsubouchi insisted,“The originalConfucian texts should only be used for normal school4 or higher age groups.”
He further maintained:
The Discourses of Confucius, though it should be of immutable value toboth teachers and other intellectuals, should not be taught directly toyoung children. It is like offering hard beef or mutton to babies without
canine teeth, because the text only would be truly worthwhile when usedwith some empirical knowledge（6-7）.
He insisted that each age group should have its own textbook with appropriately
selected content.
Finally, Tsubouchi discussed the practical methodology of primaryeducation. He contended that it was insufficient to impose mere memorizationof lofty ideals on children, insisting that they should be led to practice the ideals
within the range of their familiar daily activities. He further elaborated thatsuch ideals discussed in the Kyoikuchokugo（Imperial Rescript on Education）
should be considered the end result of the lifelong endeavor; therefore, it was
important to proceed in an educationally legitimate order. He contended,“This ideal status should be attained gradually following the right process”（9）. In addition, Tsubouchi insisted upon the foremost importance of practicalexecution of educational content accusing present teachers of lecturing on“what（10）.
they themselves have not even practiced in actuality”
When we compare these educational assertions with the claims of
his child drama, it is evident that they lie on the same continuum. In bothendeavors, Tsubouchi asserted four ideals. First, the policies of both theconventional child drama before Tsubouchi and ethics education were based on
authoritative infusion, and attempted to mold children into an adult ideal. Thiss initiative, and therefore triggered by theshould be replaced by valuing children’
learning. Second, neither of these endeavors should be motivated by utilitarianreasons such as reputation enhancement or obligation（or money making and27

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

self-complacency in case of child drama）, but must come purely from sincerity.
s ages and cognitive levels should be taken into consideration
Third, children’
when using materials either in drama or ethics. Finally, Tsubouchi thought
it was very important that children be led step by step to the ideal result by acarefully conceived process, beginning with familiar matters through to actual
practice with adult facilitation.
Thus, it is clear that the spirit or the basic attitude of his child drama hads involvement in middle school
already begun to form at this time; Tsubouchi’
education and his child drama activity were part of the materialization of his
educational ethics.

Tsubouchi’s Policy for Textbook Creation
During the process of his textbook creation, Tsubouchi also employed
the same principles as in the ethics teaching. The importance of promptings initiative in learning, the danger of“forced”knowledge, age andchildren’cognitive considerations, and even dramatic approaches were all constantly
stressed in the creation process, anticipating his future child drama theory. The
textbooks published in 1900 consisted of eight volumes of Kokugo Dokuhon
Jinjo Shogakko Yo（Reader for Ordinary Elementary School）and eight volumes of
Kokugo Dokuhon Koto Shogakko Yo（Reader for Higher Elementary School）.5
In the foreword of the first volume, as well as in its“Points of Editing,”
Tsubouchi expressed the basic purposes of the textbook. According to him,
there were“direct purposes”and“indirect purposes”of textbook-based teaching.
As“the direct purpose,”Tsubouchi contended that the teachers should use
the textbook to 1）invest children with the ability to speak well, read well,and compose sentences well, 2）equip them with the foundation of common“Shogaku
knowledge, and 3）cultivate their moral and aesthetic character（“. The indirect purpose”was to“trigger
Kokugo Dokuhon Hashigaki”691）s minds so that they voluntarily start and continue reading”afterchildren’“learning the joy and the benefit of reading”（691）; he maintained that this was. Thus, he insisted upon the importance ofas important as the“direct purpose”
a textbook to effectively cultivate the pupils’interest in reading. Regarding thequality of conventional textbooks, he contended that because they overstressed
the second direct purpose - the knowledge foundation - they became prosaic in28

Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

their quality, thus discouraging a desirable effect on children（691-692）.
Tsubouchi then discussed the criteria for his selection of the materials
in the Readers. He had selected material that was age-appropriate and“Shogaku Kokugo Dokuhon Hensan Yoshi”698）.
would gain students’interest（
He maintained that, even among the Japanese traditional fairy tales, it wass spiritual
important to be very selective, and he carefully considered the content’
influence on children（698）. Tsubouchi also revealed his policy of considerations level of both intellectual and emotional cognitive capabilities
for the children’in the distribution of the materials.
Next Tsubouchi discussed the six principles upon which he based his
choice of material to be included in his textbooks. His primary concern lays appeal to children. He thought that the most dreadful outcomein the text’swould be to present prosaic or dull materials. In order to appeal to children’
curiosity, Tsubouchi aimed at“describing things so that events in the story
sounded so lively that children would feel they were actually witnessing thoses language was used so the words sounded natural,
events.”Second, children’
lively, and as close to reality as possible. Third, by using“as many allegories ass intuitive knowledge, the stories aimed
possible,”in order to appeal to children’at cultivating their minds. Fourth, in order to avoid rote learning, his texts weres learning on their own initiative. Fifth, he attempted
written to trigger children’
to insert practical knowledge into the entertaining materials. As the sixth
principle, he treasured the rhythm of language, writing some of the materials
in song form and utilizing simple, yet natural language so children could recite
and learn easily. Thus, they would remember necessary names as well as the
feeling of the content（702-3）. Theoretically, all these principles had beens viewpoint with consideration to the appeal, cognitive level,
made from a child’and even the musicality of the language, all of which resonated as ideals in hischild drama.
Even more interesting was the manner in which Tsubouchi drew on
many dramatic factors in order to carry out his ideals both in ethics educationand the Reader creation. A dramatic factor seems to have infiltrated histeaching style. For example, in his teaching of ethics, Tsubouchi was reported
to have devoted himself to presenting“concrete, familiar, and interesting
examples,”sometimes acting them out himself in such an entertaining way thatchildren could comprehend the concept. This was in contrast to the traditional
29

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

ethics class in which teachers spent most of their time explaining abstract
concepts（Inagaki and Oka 336）. Chikara Igarashi, then a pupil of Tsubouchi,
recollected,“... in the ethics class, our teacher［Tsubouchi］used to teachs dialogue with students, Buddha’sclass, following such styles as Confucius’
preaching, and Socrates’art of midwifery incorporating his unique dramatic
expression on top of it; it was really entertaining, and at the same time, of（S. Kawatake and Yanagita 305）. Indeed, a dramatic
highly refined quality ...”
factor seems to have infiltrated his teaching style.
s Reader, Toshio Inoue, the editor
Regarding the quality of Tsubouchi’and the commentator of Kokugo Kyoiku Shiryo: Kyokasho Shi（Documents ofs reader,History of Japanese Language Education）, contended that Tsubouchi’
which was designed for ordinary elementary schools, could be characterized as
simplified by lively language. He described the language of Volume 1 as“freeand spirited”and that of Volumes 2 and above as“bearing increased colloquial（129）. As to the content of material as a whole, Inoue maintained
expressions”
that“the amount of knowledge infusion is decreased compared to the textbook
readers of other publishers”and that even in scientific materials there was“frequent use of literary expressions, like personifications, which were deriveds interest and daily experiences”（129）.
from children’
Within the content of the materials created by Tsubouchi, dialoguebased short materials containing many playful make-believe game elements
such as Akinai Goto（Shopping Scene at a Store）and Tegami（A Letter）stoodout. For example, the Shueido Publisher had used a textbook that containeds Akinai Goto titled Akinai no Asobi
the same thematic material as Tsubouchi’（Shopping Game）, a short skit in which a brother and a sister interact as a fruit
shop owner and a customer. A comparison of these two similar stories reveals
how Tsubouchi filled his story with many playful elements. For example,s Akinai Goto used daily objects for pretending props; the leaves
Tsubouchi’of camellia were used as money and Japanese apricots as their merchandise
fruit（17-8）. The other story did not use props.6 Moreover, the language wass skit. For example,“how much”was expressedmuch more casual in Tsubouchi’（17）, which is used evenin such colloquial expression as“Ikura desu ka?”
now as colloquial language, while the other skit used the expression,“Ikura de（Akinai no Asobi 19）, formalized language used by adults.
arimasuka?”s Momotaro（ The Peach Boy）in an
Another example is Tsubouchi ’
30Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

ordinary elementary school textbook. A textbook published by Kokko Sha alsos version of Momotaro was presented
took up Momotaro. While the Kokko Sha’s Momotaro included
in a simple narrative form（Kokko Sha 56-62）, Tsubouchi’many dialogues among the narrative attempting to make it more theatrical andmore interesting to the children（Tsubouchi, 25-6）.
s textbook for higher elementary school also contained
Tsubouchi’
many“dramatic elements”including elements such as a simplified Noh song,
Hagoromo, or the simplified Noh story, Ataka. Kisaburo Akita, pointing out“Indeed, as might be expected from the leadingthese dramatic elements, stated,
drama practitioner, it［the textbook］must have been compiled from hiss view point and ideas. It is very interesting because these elements
dramatist’s policy and stories in his later child drama endeavor”
correspond to Tsubouchi’（250）.
s adherence to his sixth principle
In addition to these factors, Tsubouchi’for choosing materials reveals his belief in the necessity of dramatic elements.
Because he recognized the importance of language and, in particular, the toneof language, he published some of his materials in song form to facilitate easy
recitation and memorization. This resonates with his recitation teaching policy,
which he favored as the preparation step to drama activity.
Finally, it is worthy of special attention that, among the materials in thesetextbooks, there are several themes and stories that were developed into dramas child drama collection such as, Kateiyo Jidogeki（Childlater in Tsubouchi’
Drama for Domestic Presentation- Play Collection）and Gakkoyo Shou Kyakuhon［A Short Play Collection for School Presentation］. The following table provides alist of the stories and plays that correspond to the later plays in his child drama
activity, revealing how his research on children at this time became the essential
foundation for his later drama creation.
s former pupils who had once used
Takeshi Kimura, one of Tsubouchi’s Reader in elementary school, succinctly analyzed the connection
Tsubouchi’s readers and his child drama endeavor. Kimura reported
between Tsubouchi’（“The Three Butterflies”, Vol. 7,that a story from the reader,“Sanwa no Chou”
Chap. 9）which was originally written in operetta style was later republishedalong with musical notes by the same publisher and was often seen performed
both at schools and churches（Inagaki and Oka 313）. He further stated:［Much later］when we heard that Mr. Tsubouchi had begun his child31

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

Table 1．List of Stories in Tsubouchi’s Reader that Correspond to His Later Child Drama.
Title of Tsubouchi’sDrama（Title of Play
Collection）

Story in Tsubouchi
Reader（Reader/
Volume/Chapter）

Gold Touch（Kateiyo Vol. 1）（Ordinary, Vol. 6, Ch. 18, Midas Touch
19）

Eight Headed Snake Dragon

Original Source

Gold Touch

Prince God, Susano.

Amaterasu and her brotherSusano from Kojiki（Kateiyo Vol. 1）（Higher, Vol. 1, Ch. 4）（Kateiyo Vol. 2）（Ordinary, Vol. 3, Ch. 6）（Gakkoyo）（Higher, Vol. 1, Ch. 21, 22） （Anon.）（Gakkoyo）（Ordinary, Vol. 1, p. 27）（Kateiyo Vol. 3）（Ordinary, Vol. 3, Ch.22）（Kateiyo Vol. 3）（Ordinary, Vol. 3, Ch. 16）（Shoyo Senshu Vol. 9）（Ordinary, Vol. 6, Ch. 7）

Meeting of Little Mice
Dokan and Kakezara

A Hat Maker and Monkeys
A Pretentious Crow.
Haughty Weathercock

Little Masatsura

Discussion of Little Mice.
Story of Oshin,
Ten Monkeys
Crow.

Weathercock.

Kusunoki Masatsura

Little Mice Plan to Bell theCat by Aesop
Ota Dokan: Story of Ochikubo
Noh Play, Eboshi Ori
And Noh Song, Seisei

The Jay and the Peacock by
Aesop
Unknown
Onna Kusunoki by
Monzaemon Chikamatsu.

Source: Tsubouchi, Kateiyo Jidogeki（vol. 1, 2, 3）, Gakkoyo Shou Kyakuhon, Shoyo Senshu（Shoyo Anthology Vol. 9）, Kokugo Dokuhon Jinjo Shogakko Yo（Reader for Ordinary Elementary
School）, and Kokugo Dokuhon Koto Shogakko Yo（Reader for Higher Elementary School）.

drama, I knew immediately by intuition that it was something of thiskind［something similar to the productions of The Three Butterflies］... I
am quite convinced that he already had his idea of child drama in mind（313）.
as early as the 30th year of Meiji（1897）
s own pupil who had earlier studied The
This remark, coming from Tsubouchi’s ReaderReader, is a convincing indication of the relevance between Tsubouchi’and later child drama. At the same time, this remark reveals how much his
textbooks, as well as his teaching, had an impact on his pupils, as it was still
remembered over seventy years later.

32

Waseda Global Forum No. 9, 2012, 17－36

Conclusion
Tsubouchi’s ideas both in theory and in implementation, althoughcontroversial, were very innovative. In particular, some of the theories remain
as the foundational ideas for ideal child drama. Thus far, I have examineds child
how much of the foundational policy and philosophy of Tsubouchi’drama had already been nurtured and formed in his early days. As seen in thediscussion, his ideas were affected by many complex issues:（1）his personal
experiences with his students both in Ekifu-Kai and Bungei Kyokai,（2）hiss status quo,（3）his textbook formation, andresearch on education and school’（4）the conventional anti-dramatic social climate that would not allow the
involvement of ordinary people in dramatic activity. As Tsubouchi formed his
ideas, he was adapting his drama to the world in which he lived.
It is evident that these endeavors were the result of his adaptation toconventional public opinion, which had long been antipathetic to dramatic
activities. By shifting his attitude of dramatic pursuit from product-oriented tomore process-oriented activities, Tsubouchi had hoped somehow to incorporate
elements of drama into school education while at the same time dodging public
criticism. In other words, these dramatic elements were already being developed
during his process-seeking years.
sThus, it is appropriate to say that his effort toward triggering children’
learning initiative in school formed the major foundation of his later childdrama philosophy. This contention is supported by information about both his
ethics teaching policy and textbook creation, including original materials in the
textbook that were later incorporated into his child drama collection. Tsubouchi
was also constantly seeking a chance to incorporate actual drama materials into
school. We have seen some of the actual drama appearing in his Reader as wellas in his ethics teaching.
It was quite natural that Tsubouchi had agreed to the idea of childdrama performed by children before 1900, as Iwaya reported in his article.
However, while Iwaya, as chief editor of a publishing company, had somewhat
more freedom to idealize child drama, Tsubouchi was realistic about thenegative attitude of society against dramatic activity, having been the recipientof criticism as both theatre practitioner and educator. This difference in theirsituations determined the different paths they were to travel. Iwaya started
33

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

experimenting with his ideas of child drama in his magazines, while Tsubouchi,
as an educator, attempted to utilize dramatic elements as educational tools
while continuously seeking the chance to materialize his ideal drama activity.
It was also true that in regard to the concrete approaches and measures hesused to realize his ideals, such as age-appropriateness and triggering children’
initiative learning attitude in the child drama, he had to wait until later in the
Taisho era when the time was ripe and he could use source material from his
American predecessors in order to bolster his original ideas.
s notion that“Historical
In conclusion, I refer to Thomas Postlewait’
events reside in no one place: not in the specific past, nor the documents, nor
the codes and discourses, nor the history books, nor the historians, nor thereaders of history, but instead in a complex and dynamic interrelationship（178）. He also believed that,among all these historical locations of meaning”“Theatre is not a self-contained, aesthetic enterprise. It always occurs within
the shaping, often determining, influences of political, economic, social,（165）. I contend that
ethical, educational, and aesthetic systems and ideas”
Tsubouchi and his child drama activity were no exception to this. Thus, I havedemonstrated the sometimes circuitous path Shoyo Tsubouchi had to travel inorder to bring his ground-breaking concept of“Kateiyo Jidogeki”to acceptance,
first within the Japanese educational establishment, and then, to the public as awhole.
Bibliography
Akinai no Asobi［Shopping Game］, Shinsen Teikoku Dokuhon［Newly Selected Imperial Reader］
3. 19. Ed. Gakkai Shishin Sha. Tokyo: Shueido, 1901. 19-20.
Akita, Kisaburo. Shoto Kyoiku Kokugo Kyokasho Hattatsushi［Development of Elementary
Japanese Reader］. Hiroshima: Bunkahyoron Shuppan, 1977.
［Establishment of
Ichijima, Kenkichi.“Tokyo Senmon Gakko Bungakuka no Sosetsu”
Literature Department at the Tokyo Senmon Gakko］. Waseda Gakuho. Rpt. in Shoyo
Senshu［Shoyo Anthology］. Vol. 12. Tokyo: Shunyodo, 1927. Supplement 3-6.
Ichikawa, Kenichi.“Tsubouchi Shoyo no Jidogeki Riron: Alice Minnie Herts no Jido
［Shoyo Tsubouchi’s Theory of Child Drama:
Kyoikugekijo wo Chushin Toshite”
s Relation to Alice Minnie Herts’s Children’s Educational Theatre］.
With Focus on It’.
: 66-82.
Engekigaku［Studies on Theatre Arts］2（1960）
Inagaki, Tatsuro, and Yasuo Oka, eds. Zadankai Tsubouchi Shoyo Kenkyu［Discussion: Study of
Shoyo Tsubouchi］. Tokyo: Kindai Bunka Kenkyujo, 1976.
Inoue, Toshio, et al., eds. Kokugo Kyouikushi Shiryo II: Kyokasho Shi［Documents of Historyof Japanese Language Education II: History of Readers］. Tokyo: Tokyo Horei Shuppan,
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1981.
［ Fairy Tale Drama in Germany ］. Kabuki
Iwaya Sazanami.“ Doitsu no Otogishibai”
32（1903）: 1-4.
Kawatake, Shigetoshi, and Izumi Yanagida. Tsubouchi Shoyo. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1939.
［Shoyo Tsubouchi in the field of
Kawatake, Toshio.“Jidogeki ni Okeru Tsubouchi Shoyo”
Child Drama］. Sogo Sekai Bungei［The World Literature］Vol. 16. Tokyo: Risosha, 1959.
69-79.
Kitami, Harukazu. Tetteki to Shunsho – Kindaiengi no Hajimari［Tetteki and Shunsho – The
beginning of Modern Acting］. Tokyo: Shobunsha, 1978.
Kokko Sha, ed, Momotaro［The Peach Boy］. Jinjo Shogaku Kokubo Dokuhon［Reader for
Ordinary Elementary School］. 3. 27, 28. Tokyo: Kokko Sha, 1900. 56-62.
Koyama, Shizuko. Kodomotachi no Kindai: Gakko Kyoiku to Katei Kyoiku［Modern Age
for Children: School Education and Home Education］. Rekishi Bunka Raiburari 143.
Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2002.
Matsumoto, Kappei. Nihon Shingekishi: Shingeki Binbou Monogatari［History of JapaneseModern Theatre: Story of Struggling Actors］. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1966.
［Mr. Tsubouchi at the Time of Ekifukai］.
Minakuchi, Biyo.“Ekifukai Jidai no Sensei”
Waseda Bungaku 244（1926）: 41-45.
“Niigata Shihan Gakkono Engeki Jiken wa Ronzuruni Tarazu”［Niigata Normal School’s.
: 42-43.
Issue Has been Overblown］. Taiyo 4. 6（1898）
Postlewait, Thomas.“Histroriography and the Theatrical Event: A Primer with Twelve
Theatre Journal 43（1991）: 157-178.
Cruxes.”Tsubouchi, Shoyo［Yuzo］. Akinai Goto［Shopping Scene at a Store］. Kokugo Dokuhon Jinjo
Shogakko Yo［Reader for Ordinary Elementary School］3. 15. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1900. 17-18.
---. Ataka［ Barrier at Ataka］. Kokugo Dokuhon Koto Shogakko Yo［ Reader for Higher
Elementary School］. 8. 19. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1900. 46-50.
［Recitation Technique as A School Subject］. Waseda---.“Gakka toshiteno Rodokuho”
Bungaku 8（1898）: 8-9.
［Student Performance in the School Setting］.
---.“Gakko ni okeru Gakusei no Engeki”
Waseda Bungaku 8（1898）: 3-8.
---. Gakkoyo Shou Kyakuhon［A Short Play Collection for School Presentation］. Tokyo: Waseda
Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1923.
---. Hagoromo［Legendary Robe of Feathers］. Kokugo Dokuhon Koto Shogakko Yo［Reader forHigher Elementary School］. 6. 12. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1900. 27-30.
［Present Condition of---.“Houkonno Shouchugakko niokeru Tokuiku oyobi sono Hei”
Ethics Education in Elementary/Middle Schools and Its Drawback］. Waseda Bungaku
7（1898）: 24-35. Rpt. in Shoyo Senshu［Shoyo Anthology］Vol. 6. Tokyo: Shunyodo,
1926. 3-13.
---. Kateiyo Jidogeki.［Child Drama for Domestic Presentation I］Tokyo: Waseda Daigaku
Shuppanbu, 1922.
---. Kateiyo Jidogeki Dai Ni Shu［Child Drama for Domestic Presentation II］. Tokyo: Waseda
Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1923.
---. Kateiyo Jidogeki Dai San Shu［Child Drama for Domestic Presentation III］Tokyo: Waseda
35

Takeo FUJIKURA：An Examination of the Influence of Japan’s Early Twentieth Century Antidramatic Attitude on the Development of Tsubouchi’s Child Drama

Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1924.
---. Momotaro［The Peach Boy］. Kokugo Dokuhon Jinjo Shogakko Yo［Reader for Ordinary
Elementary School］3rd ed. 2. 25, 26. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1900. 23-27. in Chapter 25 and
26 of Volume 2 for an ordinary elementary school textbook［Foreword for Elementary School Reader］. Shogaku---.“Shogaku Kokugo Dokuhon Hashigaki”
Kokugo Dokuhon［Elementary School Reader］. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1901. Rpt. in Shoyo
Senshu［Shoyo Anthology］separate Vol. 3. Tokyo: Shunyodo, 1977. 691-694.
［Policy of Editing for Elementary School---.“Shogaku Kokugo Dokuhon Hensan Yoshi”
Reader］. Shogaku Kokugo Dokuhon［Elementary School Reader］. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1901.
Rpt. in Shoyo Senshu［Shoyo Anthology］separate Vol. 3. Tokyo: Shunyodo, 1977. 695-710.
［Preface］. Shoyo Senshu［Shoyo Anthology］Vol. 9. Tokyo: Shunyodo, 1926.
---.“Shogen”
1-2.
---. Tegami［A Letter］. Kokugo Dokuhon Jinjo Shogakko Yo［Reader for Ordinary Elementary
School］3. 10. Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1900. 12-3.
［From Toyokan to Fuzanbo］. Fuzanbo［Fuzanbo Publisher］.
---.“Toyokan kara Fuzanbo e”
Tokyo: Fuzanbo, 1932. 106-118.
１

All translations, unless otherwise indicated, are mine.
Despite people’s prejudice and contempt against actors, it was not taboo to take pleasure
in talking about or even going to see professional dramatic performances with family
members, including children. Shizuko Koyama contended that, at least until the late Meiji‘vulgar’Era, household conduct, such as“taking children to see［what is thought to be］
plays or variety shows, singing worldly folk songs［usually of love affairs］or playing theshamisen or koto［the songs and musical instruments that are associated with‘pleasure］... had been quite ordinary Japanese customary habits”（130）. Indeed, forquarters’
Tsubouchi and his mother, too, it was natural to go to see or discuss dramatic productions
with household members so long as the production was done by professional players -“riverbed beggars.”It is fair to say that, in actuality, play appreciation was tacitly left to theprivate discretion of an individual family.
３
Kyoikuchokugo was issued one year after the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in
1890. It clarified the national morals and the principles of national education strictly
based upon modern nationalism and Confucian familism with its emphasis on such ethics（loyalty to the emperor and patriotism）and“chuko icchi”（integration
as“chukun aikoku”
of loyalty and filial piety）.”
４
Generally normal school started after elementary education; however, in fact, it varied
from locale to locale around this time.
５
The duration of education in“Jinjo Shogakko”（Ordinary Elementary School）at thistime varied from six to nine years depending on area. Some of the pupils would then go（Higher elementary school）for about four years but that number
on to“Koto Shogakko”
seems also to have varied from area to area.
６
For Gakkai Shishin Sha Publisher’s Akinaino Asobi, see Toshio Inoue 119.
２36