AFRICAREGION REPORT2018

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all those individuals and organisations who contributed to the production of this report.
In particular, the authors extend their sincere thanks to the authors of essays featured in the report and all external reviewers.
The sharing of new research, experiences, and informed opinions on current issues across the region are critical in deepening
our understanding of modern slavery in the region.

Recommended citation
Walk Free Foundation (2018). The Global Slavery Index 2018: Africa Report. Perth, Australia

Further readingThis report is part of a series that builds on the information presented in The Global Slavery Index 2018 to provide an in-depth
look at modern slavery at a regional level. The reports will be available from https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/resources/
downloads/ as they are released. The Global Slavery Index 2018 is now available to download.

Copyright © 2018. The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd.
All rights reserved.

Africa Region Report

CONTENTS
Spotlight on progress

3

Executive summary

4

Estimating modern slavery in Africa

4

Key findings from the Global Slavery Index

5

Recommendations

7

About the Index

8

Methodology

10

Estimating prevalence

10

Measuring vulnerability

12

Measuring government response

13

Essays14

Modern slavery in Africa

20

Prevalence

24

Vulnerability

28

Importing risk: G20 countries in the Africa region and importof products at-risk of modern slavery

32

Government responses

34

Regional response

42

Regional recommendations

44

Strengthen legislation

44

Improve victim support

44

Strengthen coordination and transparency

45

Address risk factors

45

Eradicate modern slavery from the economy

45

Appendix: Endnotes

46

1

2

Global Slavery Index 2018

AFRICAREGION HIGHLIGHTS
Tunisia
Cameroon
Central African
Republic

MoroccoSenegalAlgeria

Cape Verde

Mauritania

Libya

Egypt

Eritrea

Djibouti
Mali

Niger
Chad

Sudan
Somalia

GambiaGuinea-Bissau

Nigeria

GuineaSierraLeone
Liberia

Ethiopia

South
Sudan

Togo

Côte
d'I voire

Ghana

Uganda

Kenya

Benin
Democratic
Republicof the Congo

Equatorial
GuineaRwandaSeychelles
BurundiTanzania

MalawiBurkina Faso

Gabon

AngolaZambiaRepublicof the Congo

Mauritius
Namibia
Madagascar

BotswanaSouth Africa

Mozambique

Lesothohigh

Zimbabwe

Swaziland

low

Estimated Number Of
People in Modern Slavery

Forced labour
percentage

37%

Forced marriage
percentage

63%

62/100B

CC9,240,000
Regional Proportionof Global Estimate

23%

Average Vulnerability Score

Average Government Response Score

AAA

AA

A

BBB

BB

CCC

C

D

Africa Region Report

3

SPOTLIGHT ON PROGRESS
Although African countries face challenges in effectively responding to all
forms of modern slavery, many countries in the region are taking steps tostrengthen their responses. Improvements in the legislative framework haveoccurred across the region with some notable examples. Côte d’Ivoire,1Morocco,2 and Tunisia3 enacted comprehensive trafficking legislation in2016 – a new development since the 2016 Global Slavery Index. As a result,in 2017, nearly 70 percent of African countries had criminalised humantrafficking, an increase from the nearly 60 percent reported in the previous
Global Slavery Index in 2016.

Kenya has demonstrated increasing efforts to eliminate
modern slavery. In 2016, the government assigned labour
attachés to Kenyan missions in Qatar, the United ArabEmirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia to protect vulnerable
citizens employed in those countries.4 This is in responseto the exploitation of large numbers of Kenyans migrating
to the Middle East every year. These individuals are
generally lured by promises of work, in the hope of sending
remittances back to their families in Kenya. Instead they are
exploited and abused by their employers.5 Overall, Kenya
improved its government responses rating since the 2016
Global Slavery Index (from a CC rating to a CCC rating).
When compared with countries that have stronger
economies, Sierra Leone also stands out as taking relatively
robust action. Most notably, Sierra Leone’s coordination
body, the Inter-Agency Human Trafficking Task Force,
resumed activities in 2015 and approved the 2015-2020
National Action Plan. There is also evidence that an informal
National Referral Mechanism has been implemented in
Sierra Leone and is being used by the government andNGOs to refer victims of modern slavery.6

Elsewhere in the region, some governments are to becommended for collaborative efforts to end modern
slavery. The Nigerian government is collaborating with
the UK’s National Crime Agency, Border Force, and the
Crown Prosecution Service to build its capacity to respondto human trafficking,7 including joint operations at Gatwickand Heathrow airports on profiling and identifying victimsof trafficking and suspected traffickers.8 The governmentsof Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana have taken steps to work withbusiness and civil society to end the worst forms of childlabour in the production of cocoa under the Harkin-Engel
Protocol9 and the associated International Cocoa Initiative.10
Although the effectiveness of the protocol in reducing thenumber of children in hazardous child labour has beenquestioned,11 it is an important example of cross-sectoralcollaboration – a critical factor in eliminating modern slavery
from the economy.

4

Global Slavery Index 2018EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Slavery is often, and mistakenly, understood as a relic of the past. Modern
slavery exists in every country in the world today and takes many forms
in African nations. As recent as 2017 and 2018, we have seen men from
Sub-Saharan Africa auctioned at slave markets in Libya12 and Nigerian girls
kidnapped by Boko Haram and subjected to sexual slavery13 and forced
marriages.14 In Mauritania and Niger, where descent-based slavery is stillpracticed, people are born into slavery, live their entire lives under the directcontrol of their masters, and are treated as property.15

The sheer scale of displacement in the region is a major
factor leading to high levels of prevalence of modern
slavery. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, more thanfour million people were internally displaced in 2017,16
and in South Sudan as of May 2017, civil war had led tothe displacement of more than four million people.17 This
displacement, together with other consequences of conflict,such as physical and sexual violence, political instability,
disruption to rule of law, and weak law enforcement,
has contributed to increased vulnerabilities of people toexploitation, human trafficking, forced labour, and forced
marriage in the region.
Migration from countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, either toneighbouring Sub-Saharan countries, or further afield toEurope or the United States has increased dramatically.
Between 2010 and 2017, the total number of emigrants
worldwide from all Sub-Saharan African countries grew by 31
percent.18 As a result of this increased migration, hundreds ofthousands of Sub-Saharan African migrants have gathered in
North Africa, particularly in Libya, which has become a transit
zone for migrants to Europe and other countries outside
Africa. Living in overcrowded camps and detention centres,
migrants are at severe risk of different types of exploitation,
including abuse, rape, kidnapping, and trafficking.19
Africa has the highest prevalence of forced and childmarriage in the world. UNICEF data indicate that if current
trends continue, half of the world’s child brides will befound in Africa by 2050.20 The interplay between conflict
and forced marriage is evident through numerous reportsof armed and insurgent groups forcing young girls into
marriage. Forced and child marriage in Africa is also driven
by poverty and gender inequality.

Estimating modern slavery in Africa
In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the International
Labour Organization (ILO), together with the International
Organization for Migration (IOM), produced the Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery, estimating that 40.3 million
people were living in modern slavery on any given day in2016. Of this number, an estimated 9.2 million men, women,
and children were living in modern slavery in the Africa
region.21 Although these are the most reliable estimates ofmodern slavery to date, they should be interpreted cautiously
and considered very conservative, given the gaps andlimitations of data generally and for this region in particular.
The current Global Estimates of Modern Slavery do notcover all forms of modern slavery; forms such as trafficking
for the purposes of organ removal, child soldiers, or childmarriage cannot be adequately measured at this stage.
Given that the UN documented some of the highest
numbers of cases of children recruited and used in conflictin 2016 in the Africa region, such as in Nigeria, Somalia, andSouth Sudan,22 the estimated prevalence of modern slavery
would likely be much higher if this form of exploitation was
included. In Africa, efforts to produce accurate estimates ofmodern slavery were hampered by substantial gaps in theavailable data, which include lack of data from countries
in conflict and data on forced marriage. It is typically notpossible to survey in countries that are experiencing
profound and current conflict, such as Libya, South Sudan,and parts of Nigeria, and data from these countries are likely
to understate the problem.23 Taken together, these gaps
point to a significant underestimate of the extent of modern
slavery in this region.

Africa Region Report

Key findings from the Global
Slavery Index
In the Africa region, there are three key trends that arise
from the regional and national estimates of modern slavery,measures of vulnerability, and assessment of government
responses.

5

In such environments, women and girls are abducted byarmed groups and forced to marry rebel soldiers, enduring
sexual, physical, and psychological abuse.31 This is also
supported by national-level data on vulnerability to modern
slavery: many of the countries where early and forced
marriage rates are suspected to be high exhibit high levelsof vulnerability due to the effects of conflict, such as theCentral African Republic, Nigeria, South Sudan, and Mali.

It is, however, important to also consider the role of genderinequality in instances of child marriage in Africa. Childmarriage is driven by longstanding sociocultural practices,such as dowry or bride price, and underlying beliefs about
gender roles and sexuality.32 Other drivers include poverty33
and limited educational opportunities for women and girls.34
Government response data also highlight gaps in the legal
framework and policy responses. While 34 of the 50 Africancountries assessed under the Government Response Index
The role that conflict plays in compounding vulnerability
have criminalised human trafficking, only seven haveto modern slavery is widely recognised. Not only has thecriminalised forced marriage.35 Further, only 15 countries
Africa region the highest average vulnerability score (62have provided access to primary education for over 90
percent) of the five regions in the Global Slavery Index, but
percent of the population.36 An effective approach tovulnerability data at the national level also
eliminating this practice must go beyond ashows that all African countries with highlegislative response to address underlying
prevalence rates also display high levels
cultural and belief systems that drive
The Africa region hadof vulnerability. This is particularly true
forced and child marriage. For example,
the highest averagewhen looking at indicators of the effects ofcommunity empowerment programs, such
vulnerability scoreconflict and governance issues. This finding
as the Tostan program, has been found tois unsurprising given the disruption to, andempower women and girls and reduce rates(62 percent) of the fiveoften complete dismantling of, the rule ofof child marriage.37 It is therefore importantregions in the Global
law, damage to critical infrastructure, andthat countries in Africa scale up their efforts
Slavery Index.
limited access to education, health care,to respond to forced marriage, starting withand food and water as a result of conflict.
criminalising this form of modern slavery, all
Across all dimensions of vulnerability, thethe way through to investing in education
highest score was found in the Central African Republic (100and community and women’s empowerment programs.
percent). Similarly, government response data highlights
Third, the two countries with the highest estimatedthe disruption caused by conflict to government functions.
prevalence of modern slavery within the Africa region,
Libya, Eritrea, and the Central African Republic score lowest
Eritrea and Burundi, also have a strikingly high prevalenceon government responses in the region (D rating) and allof state-imposed forced labour. In Eritrea, nearly one in 10
have experienced conflict and high levels of displacement
people are in modern slavery, many of whom are exploitedin recent years. Due to the ongoing conflict and extreme
as conscripts and forced to work for indefinite periods of
disruption to government functioning, South Sudan wastime under the government’s system of national service. 38
excluded from the government responses assessment thisIn Burundi, compulsory civic service means that citizens
year.
are forced to work without compensation in “spheres ofSecond, Africa has by far the highest prevalence of forced
public interest,” such as education, national defence, ormarriage globally, at 4.8 victims for every 1,000 people.25
reconstruction, to boost economic development.39 Both
According to the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery, more
Burundi and Eritrea score particularly low on governancethan one-third of victims living in a forced marriage globallymeasures of vulnerability, which means that they are more
were children at the time of marriage and 96 percent ofpolitically unstable, more autocratic, have less effective
those were girls.26 Our surveys confirm that all countries
government responses, and typically do not provide asurveyed in Africa have high forced marriage rates.27 Thishigh level of physical security for women. The presence
finding is also consistent with data on child marriage thatof state-imposed forced labour undermines at best, and atshows that Africa is home to 17 of the 20 countries withworst renders meaningless, any government response to
the highest rates of child marriage in the world.28 Theremodern slavery. Eritrea and Burundi are both among the fiveare many reasons for vulnerability to forced marriage,
countries with the weakest response to modern slavery in
but the interplay between conflict and forced marriage
the Africa region (D and C rating respectively).
is particularly evident where forced marriage is often
used as a weapon of war, such as in Nigeria or the DRC.29
Conflict can create a climate in which sexual violence tends
to be more widespread, as there is limited rule of law andimpunity for perpetrators.30
First, the countries with the highest prevalence of modern
slavery in Africa are all severely affected by conflict.
Eritrea, the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Somalia,
and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are among the
10 countries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery
in the Africa region and all have been affected by protracted
conflict or civil war and have experienced record high rates
of displacement.24

6

Global Slavery Index 2018

Africa Region Report

7

Recommendations›› Governments should strengthen existing legislative
responses to ensure all forms of modern slavery are
criminalised. Benin, Burkina Faso, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Ghana, Madagascar, Rwanda,
and South Africa are the only countries that havecriminalised forced marriage in the region. All othercountries should follow suit by criminalising forced
marriage and raising the age of marriage to 18 formen and women.
›› Governments must ensure that legal loopholes thatfacilitate state imposed forced labour are closed
and that state imposed forced labour is abolished inpractice. The governments of Burundi, Egypt, Eritrea,
Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Rwanda, and Swaziland
should work closely with the International Labour
Organization to eliminate state imposed forced labour
among their populations.
›› All governments should increase the focus onmodern slavery caused by conflict and forced
displacement. Increase funding and resources,
by seeking funding from donor governments andworking with international organisations if required,to improve living conditions for migrants in refugee
camps and detention centres, particularly in the Hornof Africa and North Africa, and to establish alternatives
to migrant detention, including safe spaces for
women, children, and other vulnerable migrants.

A family prepare their meal on 7 March 2007 insidetheir shack made of corrugated iron and wood ina shanty town in Nouakchott’s El-Mina quarter,
Mauritania, which is mainly inhabited by thedescendants of ancient slaves.
Photo credit: Georges Gobet/AFP/Getty Images.

›› Governments should scale up efforts to address
root causes and risks of (labour) migration. Expand
protection for victims exploited in other countries by
establishing labour migration agreements between
African countries that include protection for migrant
workers and extending labour inspections in theinformal sector. Destination countries, particularly inNorth Africa, should protect the rights of migrants
regardless of whether their entry was legal. Reduce“pull factors” of migration by providing economic
opportunities in home countries, especially for African
youth in Sub-Saharan Africa.
›› All governments should ensure that a gender
perspective is incorporated into any modern
slavery response. Governments should provide
victim support services specialising in supporting
victims of gender-based violence (such as victims
of forced sexual exploitation and forced marriage),mainstreaming understanding of women’s rights
into national action plans, and the empowermentof women and girls through education. Support andextend existing community empowerment programs
to increase understanding and respect of humanrights and tackle related social issues, such as childmarriage. Scale up support for displaced persons,particularly women and girls in conflict zones, toprevent trafficking and exploitation.

8

Global Slavery Index 2018

ABOUT THE INDEXWalk Free Foundation
Modern slavery is a complex and often hidden crime thatcrosses borders, sectors, and jurisdictions. The Walk Free
Foundation believes that a strong multifaceted approachis needed to end modern slavery. This includes building arobust knowledge base to inform action, driving legislativechange in key countries and harnessing the power ofbusinesses and faiths. Through a combination of direct
implementation, grassroots community engagement, andworking in partnership with faiths, businesses, academics,
NGOs, and governments around the world, the Walk Free
Foundation believes we can end modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation provides the Secretariat for theBali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons
and Related Transnational Crime, and champions businesssector engagement in this regional program. It is also
advocating strongly for all leading global economies toenact laws to ensure all organisations are held accountable
for taking proactive steps to remove modern slavery fromtheir supply chains.

The Walk Free Foundation’s Global Slavery Index has
developed world leading research to provide measurementof the size and scale of modern slavery, as well as assesscountry-level vulnerability and governmental responses.
Together with the International Labour Organization (ILO)
and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), theWalk Free Foundation developed the joint Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery.
Alongside this, the Global Freedom Network is working tocatalyse world faiths in the fight against modern slavery.
The Walk Free Foundation is also scaling effective antislavery responses in partnership with the Freedom Fundand seed funded the global activist movement, Freedom
United, whose community of eight million supporters
are campaigning for change. The Walk Free Foundation
continues to work with faiths, governments and NGOs
throughout the world to agitate for change and support
initiatives dedicated to the eradication of modern slavery
in all its forms.

Africa Region Report

About modern slavery

What is modern slavery?

Modern slavery is a hidden crime that affects every country
in the world. In the period between this Index and the last
(published in 2016), modern slavery was found in manyindustries including garment manufacturing, mining, andagriculture, and in many contexts, from private homes tosettlements for internally displaced people and refugees.
Instances have been identified in Thai fishing, coal mining
in North Korea, in the homes of diplomats in Australia, carwash stations in the United Kingdom, cocoa agriculture in
Côte d’Ivoire, and cattle ranching in Brazil, just to name afew examples.

FIGURE 1
Modern slavery is an umbrella term

DERN SLAVERY
MO
Trafficking for labourand sexual exploitation

Forced labour

Forced labour
as a result offorced marriage

Human
trafficking(cross border andwithin a country)

Slavery andslavery like practices(including forced
marriage)9

Trafficking for slavery
and slavery likepractices

Terminology
Countries use differing terminologies to describe modern
forms of slavery. This includes how they describe slavery
itself, but also other concepts such as human trafficking,forced labour, debt bondage, forced or servile marriage,
and the sale and exploitation of children.
In this report, modern slavery is used as an umbrella termthat focuses attention on the commonalities across theseconcepts. Essentially, it refers to situations of exploitation thata person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence,
coercion, abuse of power, or deception.
Refer to Appendix 1 in the 2018 Global Slavery
Index for full terminology, available for download atwww.globalslaveryindex.org.

Modern slavery impacts on all of us, from the food we
consume to the goods we purchase. It is everyone’s
responsibility to address and eliminate this crime
everywhere it occurs.
Nearly every country in the world has committed toeradicate modern slavery through their national legislationand policies. Governments have a central role to playby enacting legislation, providing safety nets to their
populations, and pursuing criminals who participate inthis heinous crime. As no single actor can address allthese challenges, governments need the support andengagement of the private sector, civil society, and thecommunity at large.

The Index
The Global Slavery Index is a tool for citizens, non-governmentorganisations (NGOs), businesses, and governments tounderstand the size of the problem, existing responses, andcontributing factors so that they can advocate for and build
sound policies that will eradicate modern slavery.
All supporting data tables and methodology are available
to download from the Global Slavery Index website:www.globalslaveryindex.org.

10

Global Slavery Index 2018

METHODOLOGY
Estimating prevalence
In 2017, the inaugural Global Estimates of Modern Slavery
were produced by the ILO and the Walk Free Foundationin partnership with IOM.40 The regional estimates produced
through this collaboration form the starting point for thenational level estimates presented here for 167 countries.
These national estimates were calculated41 using individualand country-level risk factors of modern slavery. The
analysis draws on data from nationally representative
surveys implemented through the Gallup World Poll,
including a module on modern slavery in 48 countries,
and data from the Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model.

The final set of risk factors were selected from an
exhaustive list of variables to optimally predict confirmed
cases of forced labour and forced marriage. The model wasthen used to generate average predicted probabilities ofmodern slavery by country. The regional totals in the 2017
Global Estimate were then apportioned based on eachcountry’s average predicted probability of modern slavery.
A final calculation accounting for state imposed forced
labour was performed to reach the final estimatedprevalence of all forms of modern slavery.
A detailed description of the methodology is set out inAppendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

Interviewer for Gallup conducting
an interview in Nepal.
Photo credit: Gallup.

Africa Region Report

11

FIGURE 2
Estimating the prevalence of slavery at the national-level1/

Individual and country-level risk factors wereidentified and then used to build a model thatpredicts modern slavery. This drew on data fromthe Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model andnationally representative surveys.

AFRICA

2/

Individual predictions were aggregated into
country-level risk scores.

40.3m
EUROPEAMERICAS

ASIA PACIFIC

ARAB STATES

3/

 egional-level population estimates of modernRslavery from the 2017 Global Estimate wereallocated to individual countries in the region,
proportionate to each country’s relative risk.

4/

 he number of victims was then estimated byT
applying the country prevalence estimate topopulation data for each country and estimates ofstate imposed forced labour added to arrive at the
final estimate of all forms of modern slavery.

12

Global Slavery Index 2018

Measuring vulnerability
The Global Slavery Index Vulnerability Model is built on
statistical testing and processes to identify the factorsthat explain or predict the prevalence of modern slavery.
The 2018 Vulnerability Model provides a risk score for 167
countries based on an analysis of data covering 23 risk
variables across five major dimensions.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part A in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.
FIGURE 3
Vulnerability Model 2018

01 Governance Issues
Political Instability,
GSI Government Response,
Women’s Physical Security,
Political Rights, Regulatory
Quality, Disabled Rights,
Weapons Access

02 Lack of Basic Needs

05 Effects of Conflict
Impact of Terrorism,
Internal Conflicts Fought,
Internally Displaced
Persons
Vulnerability
Score

04 DisenfranchisedGroups
Acceptance of Immigrants,
Acceptance of Minorities,
Same Sex Rights

Undernourishment,
Social Safety Net,
Ability to Borrow Money,
Tuberculosis, Accessto Clean Water,
Cell Phone Users

03 Inequality
Ability to Obtain
Emergency Funds, Violent
Crime, Gini Coefficient,
Confidence in the
Judicial System

Africa Region Report

13

Measuring government response
The Government Response Index provides a comparative
assessment of the legal, policy, and programmatic actions
that 181 governments are taking to respond to modern
slavery. This is based on data collected on 104 indicatorsthat are relevant to understanding how each governmentis tracking towards achieving five milestones:
1 / Survivors of slavery are identified and supported to exit
and remain out of slavery.
2 / Criminal justice mechanisms function effectively
to prevent modern slavery.

3 / Coordination occurs at the national and regional
level, and governments are held to account for their
response.
4 / Risk factors such as attitudes, social systems, andinstitutions that enable modern slavery are addressed.
5 / Government and business stop sourcing goods andservices produced by forced labour.
Refer to Appendix 2: Part C in the Global Slavery Index,
available for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

FIGURE 4
Government Response Index 2018

Milestone 01
Identify andsupport survivors

Milestone 05
Clean upgovernmentand businesssupply chains

Milestone 02
Establish effective
criminal justicemechanisms

Government
Response Index

Milestone 04
Address risk
factors

Milestone 03
Strengthen
coordination andhold governments
to account14

Global Slavery Index 2018

GOVERNANCE AS A CRITICAL FACTOR
IN THE FIGHT AGAINST MODERNSLAVERY
Carolina Rocha da Silva | Researcher, Mo Ibrahim Foundation

In 2016, an estimated 9.2 million people were living in modern
slavery in Africa. Insecurity, civil strife and the sheer scaleof displacement are major causes of modern slavery in thecontinent, as seen in slave markets in Libya, leading to humantrafficking, forced labour, child slavery, and forced and earlymarriage. Additionally, in places such as Mauritania and Niger,
descent-based slavery persists. There has been improved
governance in Africa which can help tackle these issues, butmore can be done to address areas that allow modern slavery
to exist.

Governance, broadly defined by the Mo Ibrahim Foundationin the Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) as theprovision of the political, social and economic public
goods and services that any citizen has the right to expectfrom their state, and that a state has the responsibility todeliver to its citizens, is on a positive trajectory in Africa.
Over the last decade, 40 countries improved their Overall
Governance score in the IIAG, including higher-scoring
countries such as Mauritius and Tunisia but also lowerscoring countries such as Angola and Congo. However, in
recent years governance progress in Africa has moved ata slower pace. Many countries have struggled to build on
recent progress or to reverse negative trends, and more
can be done.
Of Africa’s 40 improving countries, more than half have
either progressed at a slower pace or are showing decline
in the latter part of the last decade.42

This is the case of Cabo Verde or Zambia, which haveregistered improvement over the last decade but
decline since 2012. Furthermore, of the 12 countries thathave declined in Overall Governance over the last ten
years, more than half have seen an accelerated pace ofdeterioration since 2012. Three countries in particularregister large declines over the past decade: Libya,
Madagascar and Burundi (South Sudan also registers oneof the largest declines since its independence in 2011). A
common theme in these countries, and in Africa in general,
is deteriorating Safety & Rule of Law. As one of the four
categories comprised in Overall Governance, Safety &Rule of Law measures the progress of Africa in Rule of Law,
Accountability, Personal Safety and National Security. Even
though governance is on the rise, Safety & Rule of Law
shows an African average decline over the last decade,holding back greater progress on the continent.

Africa Region Report

National Security results are particularly concerning.
The African average decline for this sub-category whichmeasures the levels of conflict, both state and non-state,internal and external, and levels of displacement that
African countries are facing, has more than doubled its
pace of deterioration in recent past years. It is now the mostdeteriorated sub-category in the IIAG, with 31 countries inAfrica declining over the last five years – Burundi, South
Sudan and Libya doing so at the fastest pace. National
insecurity can be linked to an increase in modern slavery:
Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Eritrea, Somalia and South Sudan, which are among thecountries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery
in Africa, are also among the lowest scoring countries in
National Security in the IIAG. Government Involvementin Armed Conflict, one of the dimensions measured in
National Security, is the fastest deteriorating indicator in
the sub-category. In 2007, 43 countries had reached thebest possible score, 100.0 out of 100.0, in this indicator(indicating no involvement).

15

In 2012, this number was down to 36, and in 2016 it was
halved to only 18. There are also some concerningly large
declines in the indicator Violence by Non-state Actors.
Conflict feeds forced migrations and modern slavery. The
five countries with the highest prevalence of modern slavery
in Africa are all severely affected by conflict: Central African
Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Somalia
and South Sudan. All five except Democratic Republic ofCongo also register the worst possible score (0.0 out of
100.0) in Political Refugees. As stated in the Global Slavery
Index, conflict-driven displacement has contributed toincreased vulnerabilities of people to exploitation, humantrafficking, forced labour, and forced marriage in Africa.
Although many countries and key areas have known
governance progress in Africa, more can be done. Sectors
such as national security continue to represent greatchallenges on the continent and may be at the root offurther difficulties such as migrations and modern slavery.

Refugees stand on a step during a visit byUnder-Secretary General of United Nationfor Humanitarian affairs Valery Amos tothe refugee camp of Kibati in Goma on
August 8, 2012. Unrest in the country has
led to the displacement of some 250,000
people. Political instability and displacement
are known drivers of modern slavery andexploitation.
Photo credit: Michele Sibiloni/AFP/
Getty Images.

16

Global Slavery Index 2018

I JUST WANT YOU
TO REASON WITH ME
James Kofi Annan | President, Challenging Heights

It has been fifteen years of fighting against child trafficking in
Ghana. It has been fifteen years of real challenges, but also
fifteen years of true freedom, real impact, and meaningfulness,from the day I announced my resignation from the bank, to thefirst day I received a death threat.

Fighting against child trafficking in Ghana takes on the
dynamics which are not too different from other countries,
except that it comes with pains of disposable children who
are hidden in plain sight, too close, but too far to reach, forfreedom, and for help.
There are over 20,000 children in forced labour on Lake
Volta alone, according to an ILO report. Challenging Heights
has so far supported over 1,500 of such children, since its
inception. The situation is fueled by economic vulnerabilityof families, and Challenging Heights has so far supported
over 2,000 of such vulnerable families, including young
persons, women, and men who need stability to reduce thenumber of children falling victim to trafficking.
We recently announced a new 5-year ambitious strategy
aimed at rescuing 700 children from slavery in the next five
years. We are already off to a flying start, having brought
nearly 120 children to safety within the short time since theplan was announced.
Our aim is to make it extremely expensive for any individual
to trade in children, for labor, for sex, and for any otherpurposes. Never again should we fold our arms as the tradein human lives happens in plain hidden sight. That is why
there is now a strong emphasis on pre-emptive support,
prosecution, and increased awareness.

After 61 years of Ghana’s independence, we cannot haveany more excuse for the continued abuse of our children,and taking their childhood away from them; because wewant them to fish for the pleasure of adults who need tofeed their children, and because we need children to supply
our fish needs?
As someone who suffered the same fate as these children,
I have never, for a moment, forgotten the pains of childhood
torture that travels my adult life with me. It seizes my adultconscience, as though I committed the crime myself, andit makes me angry, that adults failed to take action, and by
failing to take action, they allowed their fellow adults toabuse me, to the levels where I still live with the effects of
the absence of childhood.
Of course, we now have state laws. Ghana’s Human
Trafficking Law is being implemented. Thanks to sustained
advocacy, there is a functional Anti-Human Trafficking Unitof the Ghana Police Service. There is now a dedicatedMinisterial Secretariat, and a Board that runs an Anti-Human
Trafficking Fund, and a National Plan for the Elimination of
Human Trafficking.

Africa Region Report

All these government initiatives face their own challenges.
The incongruence between institutional and legal
structures, and practical action, the lack of adequate
resource commitments from government consolidated
funds, and the insufficient political will to aggressively
prosecute offenders, and to root out the exploitations of
the victims, are all offensive to my thinking.
But as we collaborate nationally and internationally, inbringing pressure to bear on the issues, as we keep on
shedding light on successes and failures, and as we keep
sharing the stories of our impact, we believe we would bemaking small progress in big ways that will see our children
all back to school, and back to freedom.

17

I will encourage you to visit Challenging Heights on
www.challengingheights.org, to learn more of what we
do in Ghana, and to know how you can get involved.
I also encourage you to look out for The Rescue List, a fulllength documentary film independently done on our work(www.therescuelist.com), and I will encourage you to lookout for ways you can join the momentum building around
the Walk Free Foundation to rid the world of modern
slavery.
It should be said, in the next history when it is being written,
that when the chance presented itself, for the second time,
for the world to resist slavery, we all (you and I) became
counted, and that our individual contributions, regardless of
their forms and sizes, when they were all plotted, became anecessary part of supporting the diminishing of the chain ofhuman suffering, one shackle at a time, and that put a final
end to human slavery – one human at a time.

Boys fishing on Lake Volta in Ghana,West Africa. There are an estimated 20,000
children in forced labour on Lake Volta.
Photo credit: MyLoupe/UIG via Getty Images.

18

Global Slavery Index 2018

FORCED AND CHILD MARRIAGE IN AFRICA
AS A MANIFESTATION OF GENDER-BASEDVIOLENCE AND INEQUALITY
Stella Freitag, Researcher | Walk Free Foundation

Forced marriage disproportionately affects women and girls
around the world and is most prevalent in Africa. The Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery estimate that globally 13 million
women and girls were living in a forced marriage on any given
day in 2016,43 representing 84 percent of all people living in
a forced marriage.44 Of those, an estimated 37 percent werechildren at the time the forced marriage took place, with
44 percent being forced to marry before the age of 15 years.
Girls were much more likely to be married off against their will:of all child victims of forced marriage, 96 percent were female,and 4 percent were male.

The prevalence of forced marriage among all world regions
is by far the highest in Africa at an estimated 4.8 victims forevery thousand people.45 Sub-Saharan Africa is particularly
affected by child marriage,46 with 38 percent of women
married before the age of 18, and 12 percent married before
the age of 15.47 It is further estimated that if current progresspersists, Sub-Saharan Africa will have the largest number
and global share of child brides by 2050.48
In Africa, child and forced marriage persist due tolongstanding religious and sociocultural traditions. For
example, many communities see these practices as a way toreinforce and strengthen tribal or familial connections,49 toguarantee a girl’s future and safety, or to prevent dishonour
for the girl and her family in the event that she was raped or
sexually abused outside of wedlock. In South Africa, there
is a practice called ukuthwala by which young girls andwomen are kidnapped by men and coerced into marriage,
often involving sexual violence or rape.50 An Ethiopian

tradition called telefa involves the kidnap and rape of girls;
the girl’s subsequent pregnancy is then used to justify themarriage. Although made illegal in 1996, telefa is allegedly
still practiced in rural parts of North-eastern Ethiopia.51 In
Niger, which has the highest rate of child marriage in theregion with 76 percent of women being married before theage of 18,52 it is often a desperate, “economic” decision forparents to sell off their daughters to wealthier men to boost
their family’s income.53
The right to freely and fully consent to a marriage isrecognised in Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and in the Supplementary Convention on
the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions
and Practices Similar to Slavery. Therefore, forced and childmarriage is a fundamental violation of human rights.
There are several drivers behind the existence of suchmarriage practices in Africa and other parts of the world,
including poverty, perceived lack of future prospects, andAfrica Region Reporta desire to protect children through marriage during timesof conflict. Yet, there seems to be one overarching theme– forced and child marriage practices are usually driven bysocial and cultural patterns that reinforce gender inequality.
Simply put, women and girls are often affected by forced
marriage purely because they are female.
There is abundant research demonstrating that forced andchild marriage has severe physical, mental, intellectual, andemotional impacts on women and girls, altering their lives
forever. They often face life-threatening health risks, suchas being more susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases
due to forced sexual intercourse and complications duringchildbirth in young girls.54 It robs women and girls of theireducational opportunities. They either have to drop out ofschool to tend to home duties and raise children once they
are married or were never sent to school in the first placeas many parents believe an investment in their daughter’s
education will be wasted if she is simply going to be amother and wife.55 Once married, opportunities for personal
development are slim.
But beyond the personal impact on the victims, thesubjugation of women and girls through forced and childmarriage practices perpetuates gender inequality andconsequently impedes development of communities,
nations, and the region as a whole.

19

Africa has had very limited success in achieving six of theeight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), including
poverty, education, gender equality, child mortality,
maternal health, and HIV/AIDS56 – all of which are issues
related to forced marriage. Efforts such as the African
Union’s Campaign to End Child Marriage in Africa andNigeria’s National Strategy to End Child Marriage 20162021 are encouraging developments sending a clear
political message that such practices must end. Yet, it is
to be seen if the growing support from African leaders
can translate into fundamental, bottom-up change inattitudes toward forced marriage and the status of women.
Community empowerment programs play an important rolein changing perceptions of gender equality and tackling
harmful practices toward women, such as forced and childmarriage, at a grassroots level. For example, the Tostan
program, which operates in Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali,
Mauritania, Senegal, and the Gambia, aims to bring aboutsocial transformation through education and respect forhuman rights. The program has been found to empower
women and girls and reduce rates of child marriage.57
It seems clear that tackling poverty and guaranteeing better
access to education for all women and girls must be partof the solution to end forced marriage. If Africa is to be
successful in realising the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs), including the elimination of modern slavery (SDG
8.7) and the elimination of child, early and forced marriage(SDG 5.3), a change in deeply rooted cultural perceptions
and attitudes toward women and girls is vital. It is not achallenge faced by this region alone, but a critical first step
towards unlocking the potential of women and girls.

Kwassaw, Niger: Zainab Oussman, 16, in thevillage of Kwassaw, Niger on June 15, 2012.
She was 14 when her family tried to marry
her away. But she refused, and stayed inschool. She’s now starring in a video thataid workers are using to convince villagers
to stop marrying their women away at earlymarriages. Ousman is from the village of
Kwassaw, south of the town of Maradi.
Nearly 60% of all girls in Niger are marriedoff before the age of 15, some as young as
seven or eight.
Photo credit: Sudarsan Raghavan/
The Washington Post via Getty Images.

20

Global Slavery Index 2018

MODERN SLAVERY IN AFRICA
Modern slavery is prevalent in conflict zones throughout Africa, in part causedby the sheer scale of displacement. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
more than four million people were internally displaced in 2017,58 and inSouth Sudan as of May 2017, civil war had led to the displacement of morethan four million people.59 There are numerous reports throughout Africa
of displaced people being exploited and trafficked into forced labour andforced marriage. For example, in the Horn of Africa, Eritreans and Ethiopians,60
and also Sudanese and Somalian refugees and asylum seekers who havefled conflict, are kidnapped or otherwise lured from refugee camps, sold,and subsequently held captive in Libya or in the Sinai desert for purposes of
exploitation through extortion.61

Victims are kidnapped in eastern Sudan, then sold to
According to the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery,
Bedouins who transport them across the Sinai desert toforced labour globally was found to occur across a widecamps where they are tortured until a ransom is paid byrange of sectors including domestic work, construction,
their families. Whereas this type of trafficking had previously
manufacturing, agriculture and fisheries, hospitality, andmainly occurred in Egypt, Libya, and along the desert
mining.69 The same trends are reflected in Africa. For
route through Sudan and Libya, this trafficking ‘industry’
example, forced labour allegedly occurs in in domestic work
has reportedly grown in eastern Sudan in recent years.62
in Benin70 and Niger,71 in cattle rearing and agriculture in
There is also evidence that in the Central
Niger,72 in tobacco farming in Zimbabwe,73
African Republic, the Lord’s Resistancein the Lake Volta fishing industry in Ghana,74
Army subjects the population in areas underand gold mining in the DRC.75
There are numerous
their control to forced labour, sexual slavery,
reports throughout
Trafficking for forced labour exploitation has
and forced marriage.63 A similar situation is
also been reported in the cocoa sector of
Africaofdisplacedfound in Nigeria where the militant group
West Africa.76 Recent research by the Walk
people being exploited
Boko Haram actively recruits children forFree Foundation and Tulane University in
use as cooks, porters, and look-outs.64
and trafficked into
2017 in medium and high cocoa growing
Girls kidnapped by Boko Haram also faceforcedlabourandareas of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana found highsexual slavery65 and are subject to forced
prevalence of forced labour among adults
forcedmarriage.
marriages.66 In February 2018, Boko Haramand children working in cocoa agriculture.
insurgents kidnapped more than 100 girls
State-imposed forced labour is a feature
in Dapchi, Nigeria; there are concerns thatof certain countries in the Africa region. State-imposed
they would be subjected to forced marriage as the girls
forced labour is defined by the ILO as covering fourkidnapped in the town of Chibok were in 2014.67 Most of thecategories: citizens forced to work by their state
Dapchi girls were released in March 2018 but were warned
authorities in sectors such as agriculture or construction
by Boko Haram that they should stay away from school.
for purposes of economic development; young military
At least four girls are still missing at the time of writing.68

Africa Region Report

Modern slavery in cocoa agriculture in Ghana
and Côte d’Ivoire
Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire are the two largest cocoa producers
globally, with their combined production contributing around
60 percent of the world’s annual supply of cocoa.77 The
Walk Free Foundation, in partnership with Tulane University,
New Orleans, and funded by Dutch chocolate company
Tony’s Chocolonely and the Chocolonely Foundation,
undertook representative surveys in medium and highcocoa producing areas of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire with theaim of estimating the prevalence of forced labour of both
adults and children, along with an estimate of child labour incocoa agriculture in these areas. Representative surveys of
cocoa-growing households were administered in medium
and high cocoa-producing areas of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire
between August and November 2017.
The study found evidence of forced labour of both adults
and children working in cocoa agriculture in medium andhigh cocoa producing areas of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire.
Among adults, estimates ranged from 3.3 victims per 1,000
workers in cocoa agriculture in Ghana, to 4.2 victims per
1,000 workers in Côte d’Ivoire. For children, estimates
ranged from 1.7 children forced to work by someone
other than a parent per 1,000 children working in cocoa
agriculture in Côte d’Ivoire, to 20 child victims per 1,000
children working in the cocoa sector in Ghana.
Consistent with prior research on the extent of childlabour in cocoa agriculture, the study found that forced
labour of children takes place in the context of high levelsof child labour in both Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire and thiswas characterised largely by children’s involvement inhazardous work. As the survey results confirm, within thiscontext, it is not surprising that forced labour also occurs.

conscripts forced to perform work that is not of militarynature; citizens forced to perform communal services
that were not decided upon at the community level anddo not benefit them; or prisoners forced to work against
their will.81 In Swaziland, there is evidence of the continuing
practice of Kuhlehla, where the community is forced torender services for the King or local chief.82 In Burundi,
compulsory civic service means that citizens are forced towork without compensation in “spheres of public interest”
such as education, national defence, or reconstruction,
to boost economic development.83 Exploitation of civic
duties also occurs in Rwanda.84 We find evidence ofabuse of conscription in Egypt,85 Madagascar,86 Mail,87 andperhaps most significantly in Eritrea. Under the pretext of“defending the integrity of the state and ensuring its selfsufficiency,”88 the Eritrean government has developed asystem of national service in which conscripts are exploitedand forced to labour for indefinite periods of time. Those inforced labour are required to build infrastructure and workon other projects for economic development that help toprop up the Eritrean government.89

21

UNDERSTANDING THE DRIVERS
As with the drivers of modern slavery seen in othersectors, what underlies an individual’s risk to modern
slavery in cocoa agriculture is an interplay of individualand environmental factors that create a setting primed forlabour exploitation to take place. The factors which drive
and reinforce this exploitation in cocoa farming include:›› The reported income by cocoa workers in both Ghana
and Côte d’Ivoire remains very low, indicating thatpoverty is a root cause of child labour and forced
labour. Cocoa farmers and their families’ livelihoods
are highly dependent on farm yields and cocoa
prices, and for various reasons, increasing profits
in the sector have not reached cocoa farmers. The
clear majority of workers do not earn what can beconsidered a living wage in their countries.78 Beyond
the many stresses and constraints associated withpoverty, this leaves cocoa-growing households withvery little capacity to hire adult workers.
›› The price instability of cocoa on the world market incombination with weak bargaining power of smallscale farmers constantly puts farmers under pressure
to find ways to sustain their livelihoods, which may
include cutting labour costs.79›› Given that most cocoa is grown on independent
smallholder plots and most farmers are not part oflarger farmer organisations, there is a clear lackof governance structures and oversight,80 which
provides opportunities to exploit workers with little
fear of penalty.
This spotlight summarises a longer set of findings thatcan be found in the report Bitter Sweets: Prevalence offorced labour and child labour in the cocoa sectors ofCôte d’Ivoire and Ghana, available for download fromwww.globalslaveryindex.org.

Also, in 2016 there were numerous reports of slave markets
in Libya, where migrant men, women, and children weresold off to the highest bidder. Alongside this, there arereports that the Libyan Coast Guard and the Department
for Combating Irregular Migration have forced migrants indetention into forced labour.90
Some countries still experience descent-based slavery
where children are born into slavery and whole families have“belonged” to the slave-owning families for generations. In
Niger, reports from 2015 indicate this practice exists in the
Tuareg, Fulani (Peul), Toubou, and the Arab ethnic groups– despite being legally abolished.
The slaves are at the disposal of their masters, reportedly
working long hours in cattle rearing, agriculture, and domestic
work, without being paid for their labour.91 Similar cases
can be found in Mauritania, where the practice of inherited
slave status is deeply rooted in social castes and the widersocial system. Historically, people belonging to the Haratine
ethnic group have been enslaved by the White Moors.92

22

Global Slavery Index 2018

Slaves cannot inherit property or possessions fromIn April 2018, Yemen’s Interior Minister removed from power
their families nor do they have freedom to own land.93
a detention centre commander who was overseeing the
The exploitation of children is prevalent across the region.
systematic rape of women and children in detention and
In Swaziland, local chiefs continue to force citizens,
forced returns across the Red Sea to Djibouti.106 The war
including children, to engage in agricultural and domesticin Yemen has also contributed to a reverse migration
work. Refusal to work can result in penalties such asof Yemenis and Africans returning to Africa, aboard
threats, confiscation of livestock, and even eviction of theseovercrowded vessels at risk of capsizing run by smugglers
children and their families.94 In Angola, research confirms
who attempt to extort more money on the route backundocumented migrant children from the DRC are working
to Djibouti.107 Once in Djibouti, Yemeni refugees live inin diamond-mining districts and experiencing conditions ofcamps with no power and with limited food rations. There
forced labour or commercial sexual exploitation in mining
are reports that many of these refugees are now risking
camps.95 In the DRC, children are reportedly exploited by
the journey back to Yemen to escape these poor living
non-state armed groups for use as combatants, armed
conditions.108
escorts, porters, cooks, and sex slaves. Children there
In South Africa, human trafficking often occurs in the context
are also subject to forced marriage.96 In Ghana, researchof internal migration from the economically disadvantaged
conducted in 2015 reveals the presence of child trafficking
rural areas to cities and urban settlements within thein fishing communities; the majority of children working incountry.109 South Africa receives large influxes of migrants
97
Lake Volta’s fishing industry are 10 years old or younger.
in search of work from neighbouring countries in Southern
Trafficking of children for domestic servitude is also
Africa, including Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho, andcommon. In Benin, “vidomégon” children are placed with
Zimbabwe. Individuals fleeing war and poverty in thefamilies who are supposed to be responsible for their
DRC, Rwanda, and countries in the Horn of Africa, are alsocare and education, but many do not go
increasingly migrating to South Africa.110 In
to school and fall victim to labour or sexual
2015, South Africa hosted over 1.2 million
exploitation in markets, quarriers or fields98
The abuse of migrants
asylum seekers and refugees. 111 It is a
and are exploited in street trading andpopular destination for these migrants asfrom Sub-Saharandomestic work.99 Across West Africa, and
it is the only country in the region where
Africaenroute
toparticularly Senegal, talibés, who are young
refugees are free to move and work, rather
Europe and Northboys sent to traditional Quranic boarding
than being confined to camps – althoughschools (daaras), are commonly abused
Africa is becoming
it has been recently announced that thisand exploited by their teachers (marabouts).
policy may be changing in the near future.112
systematic,
with
many
The talibés are forced to beg in the streets
reported cases of forced South Africa and the Southern Africa subfor daily quotas of food or money and are
region differs from other parts of the Sublabour, sex trafficking,beaten, chained, and subjected to other
Saharan continent in that it also receives
forms of physical and psychological abuse
and abuse of migrants
individuals trafficked from overseas, such as
100
by their teachers. Despite a program
East and South Asia, and to a lesser extent
whileintransitandannounced by the Senegalese government
from Eastern Europe.113 Migrants often use
uponarrivalinthese
in 2016 to eliminate this practice, a 2017smuggling networks to get to Southern
destinations.
Human Rights Watch report found that
Africa,114 and fall victim to traffickers before
101
exploitation of talibé children persists.
reaching the South African border or cross
East African migrants and refugees, many of whom are
the vast northern border of South Africa at unpatrolled
fleeing chronic hunger and violence, continue to travel topoints.115 Some traffickers reportedly disguise themselves
the Middle East for employment as low-skilled domestic
as taxi drivers (malaishas) and are therefore difficult toworkers, cleaners, labourers and construction workers.102
detect by authorities.116 Upon arrival in South Africa, irregular
In March 2017, the government of Saudi Arabia ordered all
migrants are reportedly at risk of forced labour, such as
undocumented Ethiopian migrants to leave the country
those employed through labour brokers in South Africa’s
voluntarily; those migrants who chose to stay are now
mining industry,117 but also in agriculture, food services, or
facing deportation back to Ethiopia. Such deportation
domestic work,118 and sexual exploitation.119 Women andreportedly involves severe human rights violations,girls are particularly at risk of sexual exploitation in South
including migrants being beaten and kept in facilities under
Africa.120
103
inhumane conditions.
The abuse of migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa en route
The traditional and highly risky migratory route, departingto Europe and North Africa is becoming systematic, with
Djibouti to Saudi Arabia, via Yemen, has long provided amany reported cases of forced labour, sex trafficking, andsteady flow of Africans who are extorted, exploited and held
abuse of migrants while in transit and upon arrival in theseto ransom by Yemeni criminal networks.104, 105
destinations.121 Migrants attempting to reach North Africa forwork or as a transit zone to Europe travel through various
Though the deteriorating security situation in Yemen has
overland desert routes that are dangerous and pose theseen decreased use of the Djibouti to Saudi Arabia via
threat of kidnapping, abuse, and rape.122 Forced sex andYemen route in 2017-2018, those who remain trapped in
debt bondage have been reported, where sex and money
Yemen have been subject to torture, rape and executions
are extracted as payment for permission to proceed withby the Yemeni government.
the journey.123

Africa Region Report

Interviews conducted with 1,602 migrants in 2017 who had
arrived in Italy from North Africa revealed that the majority
had directly experienced some form of exploitation during
their journey, with 64 percent being held against their will
and 36 percent being forced to perform activities against
their will.124
Women migrating from Nigeria to the European Union(EU) are particularly at risk of being exploited in Italy andthroughout Europe in the sex industry. In 2016, more than
27,000 Nigerian migrants arrived in Italy, around 7,500
of whom were women.125 The IOM estimates that about
80 percent of Nigerian women and girls who arrived in
Italy by sea that year are likely to have been trafficked
for the purpose of sexual exploitation in Italy or other EU
countries.126 In many cases, Nigerian women come fromEdo State and seek to migrate to Europe for a complex
series of reasons including poverty and limited educationand economic opportunities.127 These women are forced
into slavery through contracts signed in Nigeria involving
specific forms of religious blackmail, known as juju,128 where
victims are psychologically bound to their traffickers to
repay the debt incurred to pay for their travel to Italy.129
These traffickers have associates operating in Italy andEurope, called madams, who bring the victims under theircontrol and force them to work in the sex industry to repay
these debts.130
Libya is one of the key destination countries for migrants
from Sub-Saharan Africa who are attempting to flee toEurope by boat. It has traditionally served as a destination
for Egyptian migrants seeking employment, although thenumber of Egyptian workers in Libya has sharply declined
since the 2011 uprising that deposed the country’s leader,
Muammar Gaddafi.131 Migrants in Libya are reportedly held
captive after kidnappings in various locations, including“connection houses,” farms, and warehouses, where they
are forced to work until they or their family is able to pay aransom.132 There are reported incidents of women forced
into domestic servitude or sold to brothels in Brak Shatiin the southwest part of the country and in Girgaresh in
Tripoli.133 There are frequent reports that Islamic State
militants in Libya are abducting migrants and forcing theminto armed conflict training.134

23

There are also reported instances of forced labour andphysical and sexual abuse in detention centres in Libya,
where migrant detainees are informally contracted out toprivate employers who force them to work in conditions offorced labour.135
Early and forced marriage remains a critical issue in theregion. Africa is home to 17 of the 20 countries with thehighest rates of child marriage in the world, with the top
three being Niger, the Central African Republic, and Chad.136
UNICEF data indicate that if current trends continue, half of
the world’s child brides will be found in Africa by 2050.137
In South Africa, there is a practice called ukuthwala bywhich young girls and women are kidnapped by men andcoerced into marriage, often involving sexual violence orrape.138 An Ethiopian tradition called telefa involves the
kidnap and rape of girls; the girl’s subsequent pregnancy
is then used to justify the marriage. Although made illegal
in 1996, telefa is allegedly still practiced in rural parts ofNorth-eastern Ethiopia.139 The interplay between conflictand marriage is highlighted through numerous reports ofarmed groups and insurgent groups forcing young girls
into marriage. This is particularly evident throughout
conflict areas in Africa, such as Nigeria or the DRC whereforced marriage is often used as a weapon of war.140
As is apparent in the DRC, conflict creates a climate inwhich sexual violence tends to be more widespread, as
there is limited rule of law and impunity for perpetrators.141
It is reported that during humanitarian crises and natural
disasters, families see child marriage as way of securing
their daughter’s physical and economic security.142 It is,however, also important to consider the role of genderinequality in instances of child marriage in Africa. Childmarriage is driven by longstanding sociocultural practices,such as dowry or bride price, and underlying beliefs about
gender roles and sexuality,143 which place high value on
marriage as a way of preventing the shame associated withpregnancy outside of wedlock and conferring social statuson females who are often viewed primarily as mothers
and wives.144 Other drivers include poverty,145 and limited
educational opportunities for women and girls.146

24

Global Slavery Index 2018

PREVALENCEFIGURE 5
Prevalence rating by country
Tunisia
Cameroon
Central African
Republic

MoroccoSenegalAlgeria

Cape Verde

Mauritania

Libya

Egypt

Eritrea

Djibouti
Mali

Niger
Chad

Sudan
Somalia

GambiaGuinea-Bissau

Nigeria
South
Sudan

GuineaSierraLeone
Liberia

Togo

Côte
d'I voire

Ghana

Ethiopia

Uganda

Kenya

Benin
Democratic
Republicof the Congo

Equatorial
GuineaRwandaSeychelles
BurundiTanzania

MalawiBurkina Faso

Gabon

AngolaZambiaRepublicof the Congo

Mauritius
Namibia
Madagascar

Botswana

high

low

Mozambique

South Africa

Lesotho

In 2017, the Walk Free Foundation and the International
Labour Organization, together with the International
Organization for Migration produced the Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery, estimating that 40.3 million people
were living in modern slavery on any given day in 2016.
Of this number, an estimated 9.2 million men, women,
and children were living in modern slavery in Africa. While
the proportion of the world’s modern slavery victims in
Africa (23 percent) is second highest among regions, Africa

Zimbabwe

Swaziland

has the highest rate of prevalence with 7.6 people living
in modern slavery for every 1,000 people in the region.147
When considering the forms of modern slavery, the rate offorced marriage (4.8 victims per 1,000 people in the region)
was higher than the rate of forced labour (2.8 victims per
1,000 people in the region).148 Over half of all victims offorced labour exploitation (54 percent) were held in debt
bondage, with similar proportions of men (55 percent) andwomen (53 percent) in the region trapped through debt.

Americas Report25

Comparability of the prevalence estimates withthe previous Global Slavery Index
This edition of the Global Slavery Index introduces
important improvements to the ways prevalence of modern
slavery is measured. Building on the collaborative work
undertaken with the ILO and IOM on the Global Estimatesof Modern Slavery, the Global Slavery Index results reflectchanges to scope, methodology, and expanded data
sources. The estimates are presented as a stock (or point
in time) calculation rather than a flow (total over a periodof time), include state imposed forced labour, and better
estimates of sexual exploitation, and children in modern
slavery. Further, we were able to count exploitation where
it occurred more consistently due to a considerably larger
number of surveys.

As a result of these advancements, the national prevalence
estimates are not comparable with previous editions of
the Global Slavery Index. Nonetheless, the strengthened
methodology reflects stronger data, increased levels of
data, and more systematic coverage of different formsof modern slavery. As such, while comparability fromprevious years is lost, the changes are justified by the needto continually improve our knowledge base. A detailed
description of the changes to the methodology is set out
in Appendix 2: Part B of the Global Slavery Index, available
for download at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

An estimated 400,000 people in the region were victims
of forced sexual exploitation, accounting for eight percent
of all victims of forced sexual exploitation and commercial
sexual exploitation of children worldwide.149 Forced sexual
exploitation is particularly widespread where conflict andpolitical instability exist. The interplay between conflict andforced marriage is also evident throughout conflict areas
in Africa.

These regional and national figures, while the most accurate
reported to date, should be interpreted cautiously given
the gaps and limitations of data in certain countries. The
current Global Estimates of Modern Slavery do not cover
all forms of modern slavery; forms such as trafficking for the
purposes of organ removal, child soldiers, or child marriage
cannot be adequately measured at this stage. Given that the
UN documented some of the highest numbers of cases ofchildren recruited and used in conflict in 2016 in the Africa
region, including in Nigeria, Somalia, and South Sudan,150
estimates of modern slavery would likely be much higher
if this form of modern slavery was included. In addition, it
is not possible to survey in countries that are experiencing
profound and current conflict, such as Libya, South Sudan,and parts of Nigeria. The lack of data from countries
experiencing conflict means that modern slavery estimatesin these countries are likely to understate the problem.151

On a national level, the Global Slavery Index estimatesthat within the region, Eritrea, Burundi, and the Central
African Republic have the highest prevalence of modern
slavery. However, Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo (DRC) have the highest absolute number andtogether account for over one quarter (26.3 percent) of all
victims in the region.

26

Global Slavery Index 2018

TABLE 1
Estimates of prevalence of modern slavery by country

Country

Estimated prevalence(victims per 1,000
population)

Estimatedabsolute number ofvictims

Population

Eritrea

93.0

451,000

4,847,000

2

Burundi40.0

408,000

10,199,000

3Central African Republic

22.3

101,000

4,546,000

4Mauritania

21.4

90,0004,182,000

5South Sudan

20.5

243,000

11,882,000

6Somalia

15.5

216,000

13,908,000

7Congo, Democratic Republicof the13.7

1,045,000

76,197,000

Regional
rank
1

8

Sudan

12.0

465,000

38,648,000

9

Chad

12.0

168,000

14,009,000

10Rwanda11.6

134,000

11,630,000

11

Swaziland

8.8

12,0001,319,000

12

Congo

8.0

40,0004,996,000

13

Guinea7.8

94,00012,092,000

14

Libya

7.7

48,0006,235,000

15Nigeria

7.7

1,386,000

181,182,000

16

Uganda7.6

304,000

40,145,000

17Madagascar

7.5

182,000

24,234,000

18

Malawi7.5

131,000

17,574,00019Guinea-Bissau

7.5

13,0001,771,000

20

Liberia

7.4

33,0004,500,000

21

Angola7.2

199,000

27,859,000

22

Djibouti

7.1

7,000

927,000

23

Kenya

6.9

328,000

47,236,000
22,835,000

24

Cameroon

6.9

157,000

25

Togo

6.8

50,0007,417,000

26

Niger

6.7

133,000

19,897,000

27

Zimbabwe

6.7

105,000

15,777,000

28Equatorial Guinea

6.4

7,000

1,175,000

29

Tanzania, United Republic of

6.2

336,000

53,880,000

30

Ethiopia

6.1

614,000

99,873,000
23,108,000

31

Côte d'Ivoire

5.9

137,000

32

Gambia5.8

11,0001,978,000

33

Zambia5.7

92,000

16,101,000

34

Egypt

5.5

518,000

93,778,000

35

Benin

5.5

58,000

10,576,000

36

Mozambique

5.4

152,000

28,011,000

37

Sierra Leone

5.0

36,0007,237,000

38

Ghana

4.8

133,000

27,583,000

39

Gabon

4.8

9,000

1,930,000

40

Burkina Faso

4.5

82,00018,111,000

41

Lesotho

4.2

9,000

2,175,000

42

Cape Verde

4.1

2,000

533,000

43

Mali

3.6

62,00017,468,000

44Botswana

3.4

8,000

2,209,000

45

Namibia

3.3

8,000

2,426,000

46

Senegal2.9

43,00014,977,000

47South Africa

2.8

155,000

55,291,000

48

Algeria

2.7

106,000

39,872,000

49

Morocco2.4

85,00034,803,000

50

Tunisia

2.2

25,00011,274,00051

Mauritius

1.0

1,000

1,259,000

Africa Region Report

A migrant holds his head as he stands in a packed room at
the Tariq Al-Matar detention centre on the outskirts of the
Libyan capital Tripoli on November 27, 2017.
Photo credit: Taha Jawashi/AFP/Getty Images.

27

28

Global Slavery Index 2018

VULNERABILITY
FIGURE 6
Overall vulnerability scores map
Tunisia
Cameroon
Central African
Republic

MoroccoSenegalAlgeria

Cape Verde

Mauritania

Libya

Egypt

Eritrea

Djibouti
Mali

Niger
Chad

Sudan
Somalia

GambiaGuinea-Bissau

Nigeria
South
Sudan

GuineaEthiopia

UgandaKenya
SierraLeone
Liberia

Togo

Côte
d'I voire

Ghana

Benin
Democratic
Republicof the Congo

Equatorial
GuineaRwandaSeychelles
BurundiTanzania

MalawiBurkina Faso

Gabon

AngolaZambiaRepublicof the Congo

Mauritius
Namibia
Madagascar

Botswana

high

low

Mozambique

South Africa

LesothoOur assessment of vulnerability is conducted at thenational level and covers five dimensions: governanceissues, lack of basic needs, inequality, disenfranchised
groups and effects of conflict. The Africa region has thehighest average vulnerability score (62 percent) among
the world’s regions. The region performed relatively
poorly on the governance issues, lack of basic needs, anddisenfranchised groups dimensions of the vulnerability
model (see Figure 7). These rankings reflect the challenges

Zimbabwe

Swazilandthat continue to plague certain countries in this regionin terms of resource allocation, effective governance,
and acceptance of minority groups. The Central African
Republic, South Sudan, and the DRC have the region’s
highest overall vulnerability scores, while Mauritius andTunisia had the lowest levels of vulnerability in the region.
In contrast, Botswana, Tunisia, and Mauritius havethe lowest overall vulnerability scores in the region.

Africa Region Report

In general, these countries have relatively good governanceand have made improvements in reaching development
goals, all of which provide important protection fromvulnerability to exploitation. Mauritius (first), Botswana(third), and Tunisia (seventh) were ranked among the top 10
scoring countries in overall governance in 2016 according
to the Ibrahim Index of African Governance, with Tunisia
showing increasing improvement over the last five years.152
Botswana and Tunisia were also rated as two of the least
corrupt African countries in the 2016 Corruption Perceptions
Index.153 Combined with continued efforts to improve
economic and social development, these factors resulted
in these countries having the lowest overall vulnerability incomparison with other African states.

29

According to our vulnerability assessment, Somalia,
Zambia, and Malawi were rated with the highest
vulnerability in terms of lack of basic needs. This includes
undernourishment and access to water, health services andsocial safety nets. In Somalia, as of September 2017, morethan three million people are unable to meet their daily
food requirements and an estimated 388,000 children
under the age of five are acutely malnourished.157 Morethan 5.7 million people are also in need of basic healthservices.158 Algeria, Mauritius, and Tunisia have a relatively
low vulnerability to the above factors.
South Sudan, the Central African Republic, and South
Africa are rated highest in terms of inequality, as theyshow high rates of income inequality, violent crime,
confidence in judicial systems, and the ability to come up
with emergency funds. South Africa has one of the highest
income inequality rates in the world; the World Bank reportsthat the poorest 20 percent of the South African population
consumes less than three percent of the country’s total
expenditure while the wealthiest 20 percent consumes 65
percent of total expenditure.159

Some countries in the region continue to exhibit politicalinstability, weak rule of law, and corruption, all of which
increase individuals’ risk of modern slavery. The Central
African Republic, Libya, Sudan, and Somalia have thehighest vulnerability scores relating to governanceissues. This includes political instability, women’s physicalsecurity, weapons access, and the government’s response
to modern slavery. In the Central African Republic, despite
anticipation that the 2016 election of President Faustin
Archange Touadera would usher in peace, the number ofpolitical and civil crises have in fact increased;154 violence
has intensified and armed groups, particularly ex-Seleka
and Anti-balaka militias, continue to control large areasof the country. 155 Similarly, in Libya, Sudan, and Somalia,
political divisions and armed conflict continue to inhibit
the governments’ responses to slavery and leave thepopulation particularly vulnerable to exploitation.156 Casesof armed conflict usually correspond with a weakening oflaw, thereby enabling traffickers to operate with impunity.
The demand for the state to respond to other humanitarian
emergencies also means that government protection forvulnerable people is limited and often not prioritised.

According to our assessments, disenfranchised groups
including immigrants and minorities have the highest
vulnerability in Malawi, the Central African Republic,
Madagascar, and South Sudan. Certain groups in other
African countries also face a heightened risk. For example,
in Uganda, discrimination and stigmatisation of the LGBTI
community contributes to its vulnerability to sex trafficking
and exploitation. Criminalisation of same-sex conduct andincreased homophobia after the announcement of the AntiHomosexuality Act in 2014 led many LGBTI Ugandans toflee their country, putting them in a position of increased
vulnerability.160 Alternatively, Mauritius has one of thelowest vulnerability scores for disenfranchised groups
due to having taken steps, such as the establishment of
an Equal Opportunity Commission, that have contributed
to inclusiveness and access to opportunity for minority or
disenfranchised groups.161

Extreme poverty and unequal income distribution,
particularly between rural and urban populations, persist
as serious economic challenges in Africa.

FIGURE 7
Regional average vulnerability scores by dimension, Africa

60.8

Governance issues
38.4

Lack of basic needs

43.1

Inequality
Disenfranchised groups

44.5

Effects of conflict

35.7

Overallweighted average

62.0
0

20

40

60

80

100

30

Global Slavery Index 2018

Our data highlight Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, and the DRC
as having the highest vulnerability to modern slavery due
to high levels of conflict, terrorism, and displacement.
Ongoing conflicts in the region continued to create
vulnerability through displacement. In the Central African
Republic since 2013, between 3,000 and 6,000 people
have been killed through executions and mutilations, andmore than 450,000 people have become refugees.162 The
United Nations Security Council also confirms reports that
Al-Shabaab, Boko Haram, IS and other terrorist groups are
exploiting boys and girls as sexual slaves or soldiers.163
Trafficking and slavery are used as strategies for terroristgroups that take advantage of the breakdown of rule of law
to work with impunity.

TABLE 2Estimated vulnerability to modern slavery by country (%, the higher the score, the higher the level of vulnerability)

Inequality

Disenfranchised
groups

50.2

62.7

58.0

81.6

100.0

51.1

62.9

56.1

85.7

94.7

GovernanceissuesLack ofbasic needs

Central African Republic

85.4

South Sudan

75.7

Country

Effects ofconflict

Overallweighted
averageCongo, Democratic Republic of

77.2

50.8

55.6

46.5

86.7

91.7

Somalia

80.6

56.8

49.6

22.7

88.4

89.5

Sudan

80.7

46.6

42.4

37.0

87.4

87.1

Chad

71.8

43.2

48.5

46.5

46.1

74.9

Nigeria

54.1

41.3

50.2

47.1

95.5

74.1

Libya

81.4

23.0

49.6

28.1

63.1

73.1

Burundi

72.4

42.6

42.1

48.1

41.7

72.9

Kenya

55.1

48.7

49.6

44.5

66.8

70.6

Guinea-Bissau

77.8

40.1

47.6

44.1

17.1

70.5

Cameroon

65.9

36.5

46.2

46.3

53.9

69.6

Eritrea

71.0

50.6

33.7

48.1

25.9

69.6

Congo

75.1

37.6

48.5

46.1

19.6

69.2

Zimbabwe

66.3

45.5

36.6

53.0

25.3

66.4

Guinea

68.3

32.4

54.7

46.4

28.6

66.3

Niger

61.9

41.2

37.0

45.0

50.4

65.6

Swaziland

69.9

50.0

39.4

38.8

11.7

64.8

Ethiopia

62.4

47.5

27.3

34.6

55.3

64.5

Malawi

55.4

51.5

40.9

61.5

19.1

63.4

Angola

60.2

43.4

48.2

48.5

19.8

62.3

Mauritania

67.3

33.7

39.3

50.5

22.3

62.0

Madagascar

54.4

46.8

51.0

56.8

17.3

62.0

Rwanda

56.6

40.8

40.0

55.7

34.0

61.7

Equatorial Guinea

68.4

40.8

36.7

48.5

10.1

61.7

Togo

70.0

31.5

45.3

42.3

17.1

61.3

Djibouti

66.8

38.0

33.9

48.1

21.3

61.2

Uganda

52.8

48.3

38.2

50.3

35.3

60.8

Tanzania, United Republic of

55.5

47.3

34.9

52.7

29.1

60.5

Egypt

61.6

18.4

44.2

52.8

51.1

60.4

Liberia

55.0

44.0

44.1

54.9

18.2

59.3

Gambia

66.8

28.1

41.8

44.1

20.8

58.4

Lesotho

53.8

50.7

44.6

41.9

18.6

58.3

Côte d'Ivoire

59.5

30.1

41.7

37.5

40.9

57.2

Mozambique

48.6

48.3

40.5

48.1

30.0

57.0

Mali

55.3

24.4

35.5

35.9

66.3

55.9

Zambia

45.8

54.4

44.9

49.1

13.1

55.2

Sierra Leone

50.9

46.1

41.2

48.1

18.1

55.2

South Africa

46.7

38.3

61.0

36.9

26.9

53.8

Africa Region Report31

Inequality

Disenfranchised
groups

Effects ofconflict

31.6

40.3

35.2

26.2

53.1

29.1

42.0

53.7

21.6

52.2

17.9

27.8

37.0

43.6

52.0

27.1

36.6

47.5

12.4

49.1

18.8

38.1

35.7

22.0

48.3

44.6

38.4

55.9

38.8

10.4

48.1

43.9

34.8

35.6

41.0

30.9

46.2

Benin

51.1

28.8

39.9

35.3

15.8

45.0

Cape Verde

48.7

19.7

44.1

44.1

22.1

44.5

GovernanceissuesLack ofbasic needs

Burkina Faso

58.4

Ghana

52.6

Algeria

63.2

Gabon

56.5

Morocco60.7

Namibia
SenegalCountry

Overallweighted
average

Botswana

43.3

37.9

37.3

37.6

9.7

42.1

Tunisia

47.2

15.4

34.8

31.9

33.7

39.2

Mauritius

25.5

17.7

33.6

31.1

12.2

21.2

Nairobi, Kenya – May 22, 2013:
A young refugee boy sneaks a nap on his parent’s bed.
When night comes he will sleep on a mattress the same size
– but on the floor shared with five other children. This family
tries to live a low profile in one of Nairobi’s slums where
refugees must navigate the many dangers of urban life
plus many more dangers because they are not citizens.
Children are at risk for human trafficking and sexual assault.
Half of Africa’s 2.5 million refugees now live in cities –marking a major migration shift from camps to urban centers.
Living in the shadows of Africa’s slums are the newest facesof the world’s changing refugee crisis: urban and alone.
Photo credit: Amy Toensing/Corbis via Getty Images.

32

Global Slavery Index 2018

IMPORTING RISK:

G20 countries in the Africa region and import of products at-risk of modern slavery

As the analysis in the Global Slavery Index confirms, citizens in G20 countries
enjoy relatively low levels of vulnerability to the crime of modern slavery
within their borders and many aspects of their government responses
to preventing it are comparatively strong. Nonetheless, businesses andgovernments in G20 countries are importing products that are at risk ofmodern slavery with hardly any effort being applied by governments toregulate the labour conditions involved in their production. Accordingly, we
conducted research globally to identify and validate a short list of products at
risk of modern slavery and then map out the extent to which these products
are imported by G20 countries.164

South Africa is the only G20 country in the African region.
As South Africa does not report trade data individually but
only through the Southern African Customs Union, which
comprises five countries of Southern Africa (South Africa,
Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho, and Swaziland), we are unable
to present data for products at risk of modern slavery
imported by South Africa.165
While G20 countries have imported risk for some time, they
are in the early stages of responding to the connection
between modern slavery and supply chains of businesses
and public procurement. The Government Response Index

tracks the progress of governments towards achievementof five milestones, including “Government and businessstop sourcing goods and services produced by forced
labour,” and it is clear that existing efforts fall short of what
is required. G20 countries achieved an average score of
only 11 percent for their efforts to stop sourcing goods andservices produced by forced labour. South Africa is among
the G20 countries that scored zero on these indicators,
while the highest score was reported for the United States(65 percent). South Africa has yet to implement laws tominimise the risk of modern slavery in public supply chainsor to encourage business to practice due diligence.

Miners sift through the selected rich rock fragments
in search of a diamond gem near an Angolan
village not far from the Congolese border. Diamondextraction in Angola has over the past decades been
linked to torture, murder, and forced displacement,
and relies on both child labour and forced labour.
Photo credit: Olivier Polet/Corbis via Getty Images.

Africa Region Report

33

34

Global Slavery Index 2018

GOVERNMENT RESPONSESFIGURE 7
Government response rating to modern slavery by country
Tunisia
Cameroon
Central African
Republic

MoroccoSenegalAlgeria

Cape Verde

Mauritania

Libya

Egypt

Eritrea

Djibouti
Mali

Niger
Chad

Sudan
Somalia

GambiaGuinea-Bissau

Nigeria
South
Sudan

GuineaEthiopia

UgandaKenya
SierraLeone
Liberia

Togo

Côte
d'I voire

Ghana

Benin
Democratic
Republicof the Congo

Equatorial
GuineaRwandaSeychelles

BurundiTanzania

MalawiBurkina Faso

Gabon

AngolaZambiaRepublicof the Congo

Mauritius
Namibia
Madagascar

BotswanaA

BBB* BBBBB

B

CCC CC

C

D

Not
rated

Mozambique

South Africa

LesothoNational responses to modern slavery in Africa are mixed
with some strong responses by countries in the region
as well as evidence of inadequate victim protection andweak criminal justice systems. While 12 countries madeimprovements since the last Global Slavery Index, othercountries continued to face challenges. Libya, Eritrea, theCentral African Republic, and Equatorial Guinea took the
fewest steps to address modern slavery, all achieving a
D rating.

Zimbabwe

Swaziland

Among African countries, South Africa, Senegal, andSierra Leone have taken the most steps to respond tomodern slavery. Generally, compared to others in theregion, these countries are taking concrete actions toimprove certain aspects of victim support, strengthen theircriminal justice systems, and reduce vulnerability. In Sierra
Leone, there is evidence that an informal National Referral
Mechanism has been implemented and is being used by
the government and NGOs to refer victims.166

Africa Region Report

Therefore, it is one of only eleven countries in Africa
that currently have some form of referral mechanism. In
South Africa, the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking
in Persons Act (2013) has led to intensified ongoing andsystematic training for prosecutors and the judiciary to
improve the criminal justice response.167

35

Libya and Somalia were also rated in 2018, but due tosevere political instability and limited government control
in parts of those countries, government capacity to combat
modern slavery remained limited. There is evidence that in
Libya, victims of modern slavery were treated as criminals
and punished for immigration or prostitution violations as
a direct result of being subjected to human trafficking.174
In 2017, media reports confirmed the operation of a slavemarket in Libya auctioning men from Sub-Saharan Africa to
the highest bidder.175 Furthermore, there is evidence thatstate-imposed forced labour existed176 in the form of forced
labour in state-run migrant detention centres.177

Many countries within the region witnessed an improvementin their rating. Tunisia, Côte d’Ivoire and Egypt improved
from CCC to B ratings while Morocco, Kenya, Algeria,
Botswana, Tanzania, Mali, and Madagascar improved
from CC to CCC ratings. Togo and Cape Verde also
improved from a C to CC rating. These countries improved
their responses to modern slavery across many areas. For
Identification of victims and provision of victim support
example, Kenya has demonstrated increasing efforts toservices remained limited in some countries across theeliminate modern slavery by launching a
region, with strongest responses reported
National Referral Mechanism in 2016168
in Nigeria, Mozambique, and South Africa.
Côte d’Ivoire also
(although not yet fully implemented) and
The Nigerian Trafficking Agency, NAPTIP,
passed a comprehensive has been working extensively with the UK’s
taking steps to protect vulnerable workers
abroad by assigning labour attachés to
National Crime Agency , Border Force, andanti-trafficking law
Kenyan missions in Qatar, the United
the Crown Prosecution Service to build its
in 2016 that outlines
Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia
capacity to respond to human trafficking,178
theprotectionof,andto protect citizens employed in thoseincluding conducting joint operations inassistance to, victims
countries.169 In 2016, Morocco adopted a2017 at Gatwick and Heathrow airports in
new anti-trafficking law that includes broad
and the establishment of London aimed at profiling and identifying
definitions of human trafficking as well asa national committee to victims of 179trafficking and suspected
measures to protect victims.170 Morocco
traffickers. Fewer countries than incombat trafficking.
and Algeria made advances in terms of2016 ran campaigns on how to reportdeveloping policies and legislation to deal
and identify victims of modern slavery.
with managing Sub-Saharan migration in the region and
Furthermore, there is no available evidence that any of
reducing the vulnerability of migrants, refugees, and asylum
these campaigns in African countries led to an increase
seekers. This included, in some cases, granting residency
in the number of members of the public reporting cases
permits to migrants, providing legal alternatives to theof modern slavery. In addition, while 30 countries haveremoval of foreign victims back to countries where theyreporting mechanisms, such as a hotline, only five of thesemight face hardship, and granting access to government
countries (South Africa, Sierra Leone, Mali, Zambia, andservices such as education, health, and employment
Togo) have a freely available reporting mechanism forassistance for irregular migrants and refugees.171 Côtemen, women, and children operating 24/7 and in multiple
d’Ivoire also passed a comprehensive anti-trafficking law
languages.
in 2016 that outlines the protection of, and assistance to,Provision of victim support services is improving, with mostvictims and the establishment of a national committee tocountries (46 out of 50 African countries included in the
combat trafficking.172
Government Responses Index) providing some form ofBecause this was the first year that the Global Slavery Index
assistance to victims of modern slavery. However, only
included the Seychelles in its assessment of government
nine of these countries provide services for long term
responses, and thus, we cannot suitably compare progress
reintegration. Despite existence of services, implementation
with that of other countries in the region, we have not
and quality of these services remains an issue. For instance,
publicly reported milestone and overall ratings. In thein Malawi, the only government-run rehabilitation centre
Seychelles, legislation exists criminalising slavery, humanin Lilongwe is underfunded and poor conditions have
trafficking, and child prostitution, but implementation
reportedly led some child sex trafficking victims to leaveof criminal justice responses remains an issue with nothe shelter and return to the establishments where theyspecialised law enforcement unit and no training provided
were exploited.180 Overall, services are more likely to be
to the judiciary or prosecutor. All data on the Seychelles arechild-focused and there is still a significant gap in victim
available in the government response database online.173
support services available for adults and men.

36

Global Slavery Index 2018

TABLE 3
Change in African government response rating 2016 to 2018

Country

2016
RatingChangein rating2018
RatingCountry

2016
RatingChangein rating2018
RatingSouth Africa

B

B

AngolaCC

CC

SenegalB

B

Swaziland

CCC

CC

Sierra Leone

B

B

Ghana

CC

CC

Nigeria

B

B

Malawi

CC

CC

Tunisia

CCC

B

Niger

CC

CC

Côte d’Ivoire

CCC

B

Cameroon

CCC

CC

Uganda

B

B

Gabon

CC

CC

Mozambique

B

B

Togo

C

CC

Egypt

CCC

B

Cape VerdeCCC

Lesotho

CCC

CCC

Guinea

C

C

Benin

B

CCC

Zimbabwe

CC

C

Morocco

CC

CCC

C

C

Kenya

CC

CCC

Congo, Democratic
Republic ofGuinea-Bissau

CC

C

Algeria

CC

CCC

Chad

CC

C

Ethiopia

CCC

CCC

Burkina Faso

CCC

CCC

Djibouti

CCC

CCC

Mauritius

CCC

CCC

GambiaCCC

CCC

RwandaCCC

CCC

Namibia

CCC

CCC

Botswana

CC

CCC

Tanzania, United
Republic of

CC

CCC

Madagascar

CC

CCC

ZambiaCCC

CCC

Liberia

CCC

CCC*Not rated in 2016 Global Slavery Index.

Mali

CC

CCC

**Included for the first time in 2018, therefore a rating is not provided.
All data are available via the Global Slavery Index website.

Somalia*C

Mauritania

CC

C

Sudan

CC

C

Congo

CC

C

BurundiCCC

Equatorial Guinea

D

D

Central African
RepublicC

D

Eritrea

D

D

Libya*

D

Seychelles**Note: Due to the ongoing conflict and extreme disruption to the government,
the rating of South Sudan government’s response was not included in the2018 Global Slavery Index.

Improvements in legislation have occurred across Africawith some notable examples. In recent years, countries
across Africa have enacted comprehensive trafficking
legislation, including Côte d’Ivoire, 181 Morocco,182 andTunisia183 in 2016, following similar legislation passing in
Ethiopia184 in 2015, and Madagascar185 and Sudan186 in 2014.
While nearly 70 percent of African countries (34 out of 50
assessed under the Government Responses Index) havecriminalised human trafficking, an increase from the last
GSI, only 58 percent (29 countries) recognise forced labour
as a criminal offence. Fewer countries have adequately
criminalised other forms of modern slavery; for instance,
only nine countries criminalised the use of children bystate and non-state armed groups. Even the existenceof legislation does not necessarily result in adequate
sentences in practice.

In most African countries (31 out of 50), penalties
outlined in at least one of their modern slavery laws are
disproportionate to the crime, which means they are either
overly lenient or inhumane in their treatment of offenders.
In 16 countries, judicial punishments are either too lenient or
too harsh for offenders. For instance, in Kenya, forced labour
offences are punishable with a fine or with imprisonment fora term not exceeding two years.187
Only seven countries in Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, DRC,
Ghana, Madagascar, Rwanda, and South Africa) havecriminalised forced marriage. Further, only 15 countries
have provided access to primary education for over 90
percent of the population.188 An effective approach toeliminating forced and child marriage must go beyond alegislative response to address underlying cultural andbelief systems that drive this form of modern slavery.

Africa Region Report

A victim of human trafficking in Libya sews clothes at Idia
Renaissance non-governmental organisation in Benin, Edo
State, midwest Nigeria, on October 21, 2016. In 2015,
153,000 migrants arrived in the European Union via the
Italian coast, according to the International Organization
for Migration. The largest number, about 22,000, were
Nigerians. In May 2015, Brussels opened talks with Abuja tomake ‘readmission agreements’ easier and oblige Nigeria totake back its nationals. Idia Renaissance NGO is focused tocombat human trafficking, prostitution, HIV/AIDS and otheranti-social vices through advocacy, information, counsellingand education.
Photo credit: Pius Utomi Ekpei/AFP/Getty Images.

37

38

Global Slavery Index 2018

For example, community empowerment programs, suchas the Tostan program, which operates in Guinea, GuineaBissau, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, and the Gambia, aims
to bring about social transformation based on respect forhuman rights. The program has been found to empower
women and girls and reduce rates of child marriage.189

For example, an agreement between Kenya and Qatar
was signed to reduce the cases of exploitative labour andtrafficking against Kenyans abroad.190 However, there islimited information available about the effectiveness andimplementation of these agreements.

The governments of Algeria, Botswana, Mauritius, Morocco,
Over one quarter of countries allow victims of modern
Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, andslavery to participate in the legal system regardless of
Uganda have conducted government-funded labour
their role as witness. However, this is weakened by the factinspections in the informal sector to identify cases ofthat only six countries (Gambia, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda,
modern slavery, despite the significance of exploitation
South Africa, and Tanzania) provide protection to victim
in the informal sector in this region. In the Seychelles,
and witnesses both inside and outside thelabour inspectors reportedly conduct
court. Moreover, despite the prevalence
unannounced inspections in sectors that
Provision of victim
of children exploited in the region, lessemploy large numbers of migrant workers,
than half of the countries within the region
such as the construction and fishing sectors,
support services isprovided special measures for children in
and distribute leaflets that explain in various
improving, with mostcriminal proceedings.
foreign languages relevant to migrantcountries providing
workers the official complaint procedures
Twenty-eight countries in Africa havesome form of assistance in the event of labour violations.191
a current National Action Plan (NAP)
to victims of modern
addressing modern slavery issues.
Little information is available on whether
slavery although
However, 25 of these plans are not fully
African countries are making efforts tofunded, limiting their implementation.
stop sourcing goods or services linked
implementation andCurrently, no government in Africa has
quality of these services to modern slavery. No evidence exists ofimplemented a monitoring mechanism,
African states adopting public procurement
remains an issue.
such as an independent rapporteur
policies to minimise the risk of governments
or commissioner, to ensure effective
purchasing products linked to forced labour.
implementation of the NAP and to monitor
It also appears that no African country has
the activities of the government regarding its efforts tolaws to prevent the import of goods and services madecombat modern slavery.
with forced labour. Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana have identified
sectors that are at high risk of exploitation and have taken
Every country within Africa is involved in regional bodies
action to respond. Both countries are part of the Harkinacting against modern slavery and most have signed
Engel Protocol192 and the associated International Cocoa
bilateral agreements to cooperate on modern slavery
Initiative,193 a voluntary initiative developed in 2001 thatissues. Over half the countries cooperated with otheraims to eradicate the worst forms of child labour in thegovernments to facilitate voluntary repatriation of foreign
production of cocoa. The effectiveness of the protocol has
nationals and 31 countries have broader agreements with
been questioned.194
countries of origin and/or destination to collaborate on
modern slavery issues.

A girl hides herself next to a makeshift tent in acamp in the village of Kidjendi near Diffa, Nigeria,
on June 19, 2016 as displaced families fled from
Boko Haram attacks in Bosso. More than two million
people have been displaced during the conflictwith Boko Haram.
Photo credit: Issouf Sanogo/AFP/Getty Images.

Africa Region Report

39

40

Global Slavery Index 2018

TABLE 4Government response by milestone percentage, overall score, and rating

RatingCountry

Supportsurvivors

Criminaljustice

Coordination

Addressrisk

SupplychainsTOTAL

BSouth Africa

53.7

61.7

43.8

57.1

0.0

47.4

B

Senegal

49.6

43.9

56.3

54.8

0.0

47.1

B

Sierra Leone

53.7

37.8

50.0

54.8

0.0

46.2

B

Nigeria

58.9

53.3

50.0

47.6

0.0

45.8

B

Tunisia

53.0

31.7

43.8

57.1

0.0

44.3

B

Côte d'Ivoire

34.4

36.7

43.8

66.7

8.3

42.4

B

Uganda

48.1

51.7

37.5

54.8

0.0

42.0

B

Mozambique

57.6

49.4

31.3

42.9

0.0

40.7

B

Egypt

37.6

30.6

62.5

64.3

0.0

40.1

CCC

Lesotho

35.9

37.2

56.3

42.9

0.0

38.3

CCC

Benin

30.6

31.7

56.3

52.4

0.0

37.7

CCC

Morocco

6.5

56.7

31.3

71.4

0.0

36.5

CCC

Kenya

35.7

38.9

37.5

59.5

0.0

36.5

CCC

Algeria

29.4

47.2

37.5

45.2

0.0

36.3

CCC

Ethiopia

27.8

51.1

56.3

47.6

0.0

36.3

CCC

Burkina Faso

38.1

30.0

43.8

42.9

0.0

35.7

CCC

Djibouti

30.4

42.8

31.3

47.6

0.0

35.3

CCC

Mauritius

43.7

38.9

0.0

50.0

0.0

34.9

CCC

Gambia

25.0

48.3

37.5

40.5

0.0

33.9

CCC

Rwanda

36.9

41.7

43.8

54.8

0.0

33.6

CCC

Namibia

34.1

27.8

18.8

54.8

0.0

33.3

CCC

Botswana

32.2

45.6

37.5

45.2

0.0

33.2

CCC

Tanzania, United Republic of

37.2

41.7

25.0

47.6

0.0

32.8

CCC

Madagascar

38.7

52.8

18.8

50.0

0.0

31.8

CCC

Zambia

33.3

34.4

25.0

40.5

0.0

31.8

CCC

Liberia

28.0

26.7

31.3

50.0

0.0

31.7

CCC

Mali

38.9

35.6

50.0

28.6

0.0

30.8

CC

Angola

31.5

13.9

43.8

54.8

0.0

29.5

CC

Swaziland

36.3

18.3

37.5

47.6

0.0

29.3

CC

Ghana

24.8

33.3

37.5

40.5

8.3

27.6

CC

Malawi

33.1

23.9

43.8

33.3

0.0

26.8

CC

Niger

29.1

35.6

25.0

35.7

0.0

25.9

CC

Cameroon

26.7

24.4

18.8

50.0

0.0

25.4

CC

Gabon

27.8

11.7

31.3

33.3

0.0

24.2

CC

Togo

28.7

21.1

31.3

21.4

0.0

23.6

Members of the Africa Diaspora Forum (ADF), civil society
organisations, churches, trade unions and other coalitions wear
chains and shout slogans during a demonstration against the slave
trade and human trafficking in Libya on December 12, 2017 at
the Union Buildings in Pretoria, South Africa. The UN Security
Council on December 7 said reports that migrants detained in
Libyan camps were being sold into slavery could amount to‘crimes against humanity’ in a joint statement of condemnation.
Photo credit: Gulshan Khan/AFP/Getty Images.

Africa Region Report

RatingCountry

41

Supportsurvivors

Criminaljustice

Coordination

Addressrisk

Supplychains

TOTAL

23.5

16.1

25.0

33.3

0.0

22.9

CC

Cape VerdeC

Guinea

8.7

10.6

37.5

50.0

0.0

19.3

C

Zimbabwe

11.7

17.2

43.8

35.7

0.0

19.0

C

Congo, Democratic Republicof the

25.9

24.4

37.5

14.3

0.0

18.9

C

Guinea-Bissau

7.4

31.1

31.3

21.4

0.0

18.9

C

Chad

16.7

13.9

12.5

40.5

0.0

16.7

C

Somalia

8.1

20.6

25.0

35.7

0.0

16.0

C

Mauritania

6.5

25.0

18.8

35.7

0.0

15.5

C

Sudan

2.8

26.7

25.0

33.3

0.0

14.9

C

Congo

8.3

6.7

25.0

42.9

0.0

14.8

C

Burundi

22.2

11.1

12.5

26.2

0.0

10.7

D

Equatorial Guinea

3.7

12.2

12.5

26.2

0.0

8.6

D

Central African Republic

-3.7

0.6

12.5

21.4

0.0

2.5

D

Eritrea

0.0

-1.1

0.0

21.4

0.0

-2.0

D

Libya

0.0

21.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

-2.5

Seychelles195
No
ratingSouth Sudan was excluded
from this edition’s
government response
assessment due to significant
ongoing conflict

42

Global Slavery Index 2018

REGIONAL RESPONSE
Overall, regional responses to modern slavery in Africa have largely
focused on strengthening criminal justice frameworks and building
the capacity of countries to better implement and enforce laws.

The African Union (AU) continues to make concerted
Sub-regional efforts to combat human trafficking also
efforts to address the issues of migration, displacement,
exist. The Economic Organisation of West African Statesand human trafficking. This includes its 2009 flagship AU(ECOWAS) and the Economic Community of Central African
Commission Initiative against Trafficking (AU.COMMIT)
States (ECCAS) combined efforts to adopt a joint ECOWAS/
and the 2006 adoption of the Ouagadougou Action
ECCAS Regional Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking inPlan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings, Especially
Persons, Especially Women and Children (2006-2009).
Women and Children, encouraging African states to adopt
It is unclear if these regional plans have been updated orlegislative, administrative, and institutional measures toevaluated recently. ECOWAS’s regional policy on protection
combat trafficking.196 In 2014, the AU launched the Horn ofand assistance to victims of trafficking seeks to maintain
Africa initiative to tackle human trafficking and smuggling.
a supportive environment for victims of trafficking and
The success of this initiative remains
commits to restoring the physical, social,unclear considering the ongoing large scaleand economic well-being of victims throughirregular migration from and within the Hornsustainable assistance programs. 201 It
As migration remains
197
of Africa. The AU has also established
is unclear whether this policy has beena critical issue for
the African Institute for Remittances (AIR),
implemented or recently evaluated.
Africa, ongoinga project supported by the World BankIn Southern Africa, the Southern Africanand European Commission to help reduce
regional dialogue andDevelopment Community (SADC) Regional
the transaction costs of remittances forcollaboration
Plan of Action on Trafficking in Persons
migrants. Payment of remittances remains(2009-2019) is a 10-year plan that focusesonmigration198
an issue for refugees and migrants.
on non-criminalisation of victims, victim
management is vital.
In 2015, the AU established a Common
support, and witness protection. SADC has
Position paper that presented six themes
also set up an anti-corruption committee
among which are labour migration, human trafficking, andin line with its Protocol against Corruption to strengthen
smuggling of migrants, with an emphasis on intra-African
measures against allegedly corrupt officials working at
facilitation of labour mobility and the protection of migrants
borders.202 Through its Regional Political Cooperation199
and refugees. The AU’s long-term vision plans, as adopted(RPC) Programme, the SADC secretariat has supported
in 2015 in its Agenda 2063 document, prioritises easing themember states in developing anti-trafficking legislation andfree movement of people within Africa, including waiving
implementing data management, research, and awarenessall visa requirements for intra-African travel by 2018 and araising activities on the issue.203 The East African Legislative
legal framework adopted by 2023 for the issuance of an
Assembly (EALA) enacted the East Africa Community
African Common Passport. However, there is only limited
Anti-Trafficking in Persons Bill (2016) that compels its
information available on the progress of this effort.200
member states to prevent human trafficking and prosecute
perpetrators of the crime.204

Africa Region Report

43

Other regional bodies include the International Conference
Dialogue for Central African States (MIDCAS), Migrationof the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), which has been proactive
Dialogue for Southern Africa (MIDSA), and Migrationin addressing trafficking since 2006 via collaboration
Dialogue for West Africa (MIDWA). These RCPs are regionalwith other regional organisations and providing training
platforms for states to engage in information sharing andfor member states. The Common Market for Eastern andpolicy dialogues focusing on specific migration issues.208
Southern Africa (COMESA) Protocol on the Free Movement
As migration remains a critical issue for Africa, ongoingof Persons, Services, Labour and the Rightregional dialogue and collaboration onof Establishment and Residence is aimed at
migration management is vital. A Draft
205
advancing the free movement agenda.
For states that are
Protocol to the Treaty Establishing theSome progress is being made withmembers of several
African Community on Free Movement
Zambia and Zimbabwe setting up Nationalof Persons, Right of Residence andregionalorganisations,Monitoring Committees in 2016 to monitor
Right of Establishment (Free Movement
206
a duplication of
the implementation of this protocol.
Protocol) is expected to be discussed andinitiatives and efforts
The Intergovernmental Authority for
adopted in early 2018 at the AU summit inwastes valuable
Development (IGAD) participates in the
Addis Ababa. Greater coordination and
AU.COMMIT campaign and has two
commitment to action is needed at theresources. As such,
conventions on regional security that include
regional level in addition to the alreadymovement towards
human trafficking as a security threat. IGAD
existing migration frameworks. Africa has
a single coordinatedofficially launched a study report on “Humanan abundance of regional organisations,process would be
Smuggling and Trafficking in the Horn ofwith African countries holding on average
Africa – Central Mediterranean Route inmemberships to six regional organisations
beneficial
forthe
region.
2016.”207and some countries joining up to 14.209 For
states that are members of several regional
Within Africa, there are also six Regionalorganisations, a duplication of initiatives and efforts wastes
Consultative Processes on Migration (RCPs) including thevaluable resources. As such, movement towards a single
Intergovernmental Authority on Development Regional
coordinated process would be beneficial for the region.210
Consultative Process on Migration (IGAD-RCP), Migration
Differences in political and legal systems may also hinder
Dialogue from the Common Market for Eastern andcooperation efforts between states.211
Southern Africa Member States (MIDCOM), Migration

44

Global Slavery Index 2018

REGIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Governments should:

Strengthen legislation

Improve victim support›› Ratify and implement the ILO P029 Protocol of 2014
to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 and theDomestic Workers Convention (No. 189, 2011) andtranslate these into national legislation to ensure
protections for migrant workers.
›› Ratify and implement the 2000 UN Optional Protocols
to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on
the involvement of children in armed conflict andon the sale of children, child prostitution and childpornography and translate these into national
legislation to ensure protections for vulnerable
children.

›› Ensure National Referral Mechanisms (NRMs) arein place to improve coordination and cooperation
between government agencies, and between
government and non-government actors, and ensure
responses are victim-centred. Eleven countries in theregion currently have an NRM. All other countries
should set up a similar system to ensure that all
victims, regardless of the organisation identifying
them, are able to access assistance.
›› Grant access to government services such as
education, health, and employment assistance forirregular migrants and refugees.

›› Strengthen existing national legislation to ensurethat all forms of modern slavery are criminalised andpenalties for these crimes are appropriate for theseverity of the crime. In 31 out of 50 African countries,
penalties outlined in at least one of their modern
slavery laws are disproportionate to the crime – thesecountries should reform those laws to include proportionate›› Ensure victim support services are available for victims
of modern slavery. Forty-six of 50 African countries
have at least some form of assistance to victims ofmodern slavery. Eritrea, Guinea, Libya, and Morocco
should implement similar services for victims.

penalties.

›› Enact or strengthen legislation criminalising forced
marriage and raise the age of marriage to 18 formen and women. Seven countries in Africa havecriminalised forced marriage – equivalent laws
should be enacted in the remaining 43 countries.
It is important that countries in Africa scale up theirefforts to respond to forced marriage, starting withcriminalising this form of modern slavery, all the way
through to investing in education and community
programs to empower women and girls.
›› Ensure that legal loopholes which facilitate state
imposed forced labour are closed and that state
imposed forced labour is abolished in practice.
The governments of Burundi, Egypt, Eritrea,
Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Rwanda, and Swaziland
should work closely with the International Labour
Organisation to eliminate forced labour among their
populations.

›› Close the gap in victim support services by extending
available support services to adults and men inparticular.
›› Ensure victim support services are specialised inaddressing gender-based violence, such as forced
sexual exploitation and forced marriage.
›› Ensure training is provided to identify and respondto victims for regulatory and non – regulatory first
responders, such as immigration officials, doctors
and teachers, as well as those in law enforcement
and officials involved in refugee intake and support
services.

Africa Region Report

Strengthen coordination andtransparency›› Establish a single coordinated regional response
process to combat modern slavery and trafficking
across the region, such as through the African Union .
›› Develop National Action Plans or strategies, incoordination with relevant stakeholders, that are
based on research and data on the nature andtrends of human trafficking, forced labour, and child
exploitation. Currently, only 28 of the 50 countries
currently have a National Action Plan (NAP) – theremaining 12 should establish these immediately.
›› Countries that already have a National Action Planshould ensure that it is fully funded. Currently, 25of the 28 countries that have a NAP do not haveadequate budget for it.
›› Establish monitoring mechanisms, such as anindependent rapporteur or commissioner, toensure effective implementation of the NAPs andthe incorporation of lessons learned. Currently
no government in Africa has implemented such amonitoring mechanism.

45›› Support the empowerment of women and girls by
ensuring access to education for all.
›› Share lessons learned from community empowerment
programming in addressing social issues related tomodern slavery such as forced and child marriage atregional fora.
›› Support and extend existing community
empowerment programs to increase understanding
and respect of human rights and tackle related social
issues, such as child marriage.
›› Expand protection for victims exploited in othercountries by establishing labour migration agreements
between African countries and destination countries
that include protection for migrant workers.
›› Urge destination countries to protect the rights of
migrants regardless of whether their entry was legal.
›› Governments in Sub-Saharan Africa, East Africa, andNorth Africa (particularly Libya) should launch targeted
information campaigns to ensure that prospective
migrants are informed of the risks they may face on thejourney, as well as their employment and residencyrights, the risks they may face living and working in
the host country, and current information on how toaccess help and seek redress for exploitation.
›› Reduce “pull factors” of migration by providing
economic opportunities in home countries, especiallyfor African youth in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Address risk factors›› Scale up funding and resources, by seeking
funding from donor governments and working withinternational organisations if required, to improveliving conditions for migrants in refugee camps anddetention centres, particularly in the Horn of Africa
and North Africa›› Establish alternatives to migrant detention, in North
Africa and Libya in particular, including safe spaces,
for women, children and other vulnerable migrants.
›› Protect women and girls from gender-based
violence, including forced sexual exploitation andforced marriage, during conflict. Scale up support for
displaced persons, particularly women and girls inconflict zones, to prevent trafficking and exploitation.
›› Recognise the importance of gender to any modern
slavery response by mainstreaming understanding of
women’s rights into national strategies.

Eradicate modern slavery from theeconomy›› Identify sectors at high risk of modern slavery, asCôte d’Ivoire and Ghana have done, and work withbusiness and civil society in those sectors to eradicate
modern slavery.
›› Support training and capacity building for labour
inspectors so they can better identify cases of modern
slavery in both the formal and informal sectors.
›› Ensure labour inspections are conducted in sectors
known to be at high risk of modern slavery to identify
victims. Currently only seven governments in Africa
fund labour inspections in the informal sector to
identify cases of modern slavery. The remaining 43
governments should follow suit and introduce suchmonitoring schemes.

46

Global Slavery Index 2018

APPENDIX:
Endnotes

1

2

3

International Labour Organization 2016, Loi n° 2016-1111 du 8 décembre
2016 relative à la lutte contre la traite des personnes, NATLEX.
Available from: http://ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_
isn=104190&p_country=CIV&p_count=395&p_classification=03&p_classcount=3. [19 April 2018].

12

Quackenbush, C 2017, ‘The Libyan Slave Trade Has Shocked the World:
Here’s What You Should Know,’ Time, 1 December. Available from: http://
time.com/5042560/libya-slave-trade/. [29 January 2018].

13

Amnesty International 2015, ‘Our job is to shoot, slaughter and kill’ BokoHaram’s Reign of Terror in North-East Nigeria, Amnesty International.
Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/
AFR4430602015ENGLISH.PDF. [19 April 2018].

14

United Nations Secretary General 2017, Report of the Secretary-Generalon children and armed conflict in Nigeria, United Nations Security
Council. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/
resources/N1709682.pdf. [1 March 2018].

15

Anti-Slavery International 2012, Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania
for the UN Human Rights Committee, 107th session, 11–28 March
2013. Adoption of the List of Issues on the initial report of Mauritania,
27 December. Available from: http://bit.ly/Za4MyV. [26 March 2018].
United Nations Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery,
including its causes and consequences, Urmila Bhoola, 2015, Report of
the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its
causes and consequences: Mission to the Niger, United Nations Human
Rights Council, Thirtieth session. Available from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/
HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session30/Documents/A_HRC_30_35_
Add_1_ENG.docx. [7 February 2018].

16

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs(UNOCHA) 2018, Democratic Republic of the Congo, UNOCHA. Available
from: http://www.unocha.org/drc. [28 February 2018].

17

USAID 2017, South Sudan Complex Emergency Fact Sheet #9, USAID.
Available from: https://www.usaid.gov/crisis/south-sudan/fy17/fs09.
[28 February 2018].

18

Pew Research Center 2018, International migration from sub-SaharanAfrica has grown dramatically since 2010, 28 February. Available
from: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/02/28/internationalmigration-from-sub-saharan-africa-has-grown-dramatically-since-2010/.
[18 April 2018].

19

As above.

20

UNICEF 2015, A profile of Child Marriage in Africa, UNICEF. Available
from: https://www.unicef.org/media/files/UNICEF-Child-MarriageBrochure-low-Single(1).pdf. [1 March 2018].

21

Chocolate Manufacturers Association 2001, Protocol for the growing andprocessing of cocoa beans and their derivative products in a mannerthat complies with ILO Convention 182 concerning the prohibition
and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of childlabour. Available from: http://www.cocoainitiative.org/wp-content/
uploads/2016/10/Harkin_Engel_Protocol.pdf. [19 April 2018].

International Labour Organization (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced
Marriage, ILO. Available from: https://www.alliance87.org/global_
estimates_of_modern_slavery-forced_labour_and_forced_marriage.pdf.
[18 January 2017].

22

United Nations Secretary-General 2017, Children and armed conflict:
Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations, General Assembly
Security Council, 24 August, pp. 4-31. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/
sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/N1726811.pdf. [3 April 2018].

For more information, please see: International Cocoa Initiative. Available
from: http://www.cocoainitiative.org/. [19 April 2018].

23

International Labour Organization (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology: Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour andForced Marriage, ILO, p. 78. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/
groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_586127.
pdf. [31 January 2018].

International Labour Organization 2016, La Loi n° 27-14 du 25 août 2016
relative à la lutte contre la traite des êtres humains, Natlex. Available
from: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=fr&p_
isn=103357&p_count=3&p_classification=03. [19 April 2018].
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2016, Loi organique
n° 2016-61 du 3 août 2016, relative à la prévention et à la lutte contre
la traite des personnes, Sherloq Database. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/cld/legislation/tun/loi_organique_n_2016-61_du_3_
aout_2016_relative_a_la_prevention_et_a_la_lutte_contre_la_traite_des_personnes/chapitre_ii/art._21_-_art._22/art._21_-_art._22.
html?lng=en. [19 April 2018].

4

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2016, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Kenya Country Narrative, United States Departmentof State, p.233. Available from: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271343.pdf. [21 January 2018].

5

Mang’era, A 2018, ‘Fears of fresh abuse of migrants in Middle East as
Kenya set to lift ban, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 10 January. Available
from: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-labour-trafficking/fears-of-fresh-abuse-of-migrants-in-middle-east-as-kenya-set-to-lift-banidUSKBN1EZ0HS. [9 May 2018].

6

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Sierra Leone Country Narrative, United States
Department of State, p. 353 Available from: https://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/271344.pdf. [21 January 2018].

7

UK Home Office 2017, 2017 UK Annual Report on Modern Slavery,
Government of the UK. Available from: https://assets.publishing.
service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/652366/2017_uk_annual_report_on_modern_slavery.pdf.
[9 May 2018].

8

National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Person (NAPTIP) 2017,
NAPTIP Operatives To Work At Heathrow, Gatwick Airports, Governmentof Nigeria, 8 August. Available from: https://www.naptip.gov.ng/?p=1263.
[11 May 2018]., National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in
Person (NAPTIP) 2017, British Government Pledges More Support To
NAPTIP, Government of Nigeria. Available from: https://www.naptip.gov.
ng/?p=1275. [11 May 2018].

9

10

11

Hawksley, H 2011, ‘Ivory Coast cocoa farms child labour: Little change,’
BBC News, 10 November. Available from: http://www.bbc.com/news/
world-africa-15681986. [23 March 2018].

Africa Region Report

24

Mwakideu, C 2017, ‘Mixed picture for Africa in 2017 Armed Conflict
Survey,’ Deutsche Welle, 9 May. Available from: http://www.dw.com/en/
mixed-picture-for-africa-in-2017-armed-conflict-survey/a-38765465[26 March].

25

International Labour Organization (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced
Marriage, ILO. Available from: https://www.alliance87.org/global_
estimates_of_modern_slavery-forced_labour_and_forced_marriage.pdf.
[18 January 2017].

47

40International Labour Organization (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology of the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labourand Forced Marriage, ILO, p. 10. Available from: http://www.ilo.org/global/
topics/forced-labour/publications/WCMS_586127/lang--en/index.htm. [14March 2017].

41

Analyses were conducted by Gallup, Inc. and WFF and are describedin full in a forthcoming paper: Diego-Rosell, P & Joudo Larsen, J(forthcoming), Modelling the risk of modern slavery.

42

The latest data year in the 2017 IIAG is 2016. In the 2017 IIAG the last
decade is 2007-2016, the last five years 2012-2016.

43

For the purposes of these estimates the measurement of forced marriage
is limited to what was captured by the surveys. That is, forced marriage
in these estimates includes all marriages of both adults and childrenthat were reported by the survey respondent to have been forced andwithout consent, regardless of the age of the respondent. Accordingly,
the estimates do not include every instance of child marriage, as childmarriage is not currently measured adequately at the scale or specificity
required for a global estimate. As such, the Global Estimates for forced
marriage should be considered conservative. For further information, see,pages 17 and 46, Global Estimates of Modern Slavery.

44

Free the Slaves 2013, Wives in Slavery: Forced Marriage in theCongo. Available from: https://www.freetheslaves.net/wp-content/
uploads/2015/03/FTS-ForcedMarriage-201306-V1-web.pdf.
[26 March 2018].

International Labour Organization (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced
Marriage, ILO. Available from: https://www.alliance87.org/global_
estimates_of_modern_slavery-forced_labour_and_forced_marriage.pdf.
[18 January 2017].

45

31International Labour Organization (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced
Marriage,ILO, p.43. Available from: https://www.alliance87.org/global_
estimates_of_modern_slavery-forced_labour_and_forced_marriage.pdf.
[18 January 2017].

International Labour Organization (ILO) & Walk Free Foundation 2017,
Methodology of the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labourand Forced Marriage, ILO. Available from: https://www.alliance87.org/
methodology_of_the_global_estimates_of_modern_slavery-forced_
labour_and_forced_marriage.pdf. [1 May 2018].

46

32

Mwakideu, C 2017, ‘Mixed picture for Africa in 2017 Armed Conflict
Survey,’ Deutsche Welle, 9 May. Available from: http://www.dw.com/en/
mixed-picture-for-africa-in-2017-armed-conflict-survey/a-38765465.
[26 March 2018].

33

Girls not Brides n.d., Ending child marriage in Africa: a brief by Girls not
Brides, p. 2. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/02/Child-marriage-in-Africa-A-brief-by-Girls-Not-Brides.pdf.
[01 May 2018].

Child, early, and forced marriage are inter-related concepts and the lines
between them are often blurred. Conceptually, child marriage is forced
marriage, given that one and/or both parties has not expressed full, free,
and informed consent. See further Joint General Recommendation No.
31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/
General Comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on
Harmful Practices, 14 November 2014 (CEDAW/C/ GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18).
However, exceptions do exist with many countries allowing 16 and 17-year
olds to marry following a judicial ruling or parental consent. See further,pages 17 and 46, Global Estimates of Modern Slavery.

34

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 2014, Ending Child Marriage:
Progress and prospects. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/media/
files/Child_Marriage_Report_7_17_LR..pdf. [01 May 2018].

47

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 2017, The State of the World’sChildren: Children in a Digital World, p. 185. Available from: https://www.
unicef.org/publications/files/SOWC_2017_ENG_WEB.pdf. [1 May 2018].

35

According to the 2018 Government Responses Index, the seven countries
that have criminalised forced marriage in the Africa region are Benin,
Burkina Faso, DRC, Ghana, Madagascar, Rwanda, andSouth Africa.

48

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 2014, Ending Child Marriage:
Progress and prospects. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/media/
files/Child_Marriage_Report_7_17_LR..pdf. [1 May 2018].

49

36

Identified using UNICEF data on out of school rates for children of primaryschool age. Available from: https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/
primary-education/. [10 May 2018].

African Union 2015, The Effects of Traditional and Religious Practices ofChild Marriage on Africa’s Socio-Economic Development, Campaign to
End Child Marriage in Africa. Available from: https://au.int/sites/default/
files/documents/31018-doc-5465_ccmc_africa_report.pdf. [1 May 2018].

37

Tostan 2018, Empowering women and girls. Available from: https://www.tostan.org/areas-of-impact/cross-cutting-gender-social-norms/
empowerment-women-girls/. [18 February 2018]., See also: https://www.tostan.org/resources/evaluations-research/ for details of
evaluations conducted of the Tostan program.; More details on eachof these programs can be found in: Bryant, K, Joudo, B 2017, Promising
Practices: What Works? A review of interventions to combat modern
day slavery, Walk Free Foundation. Available from: https://s3-apsoutheast-2.amazonaws.com/walkfreefoundation.org-assets/content/
uploads/2017/05/13154356/Promising-Practices-180213-B.pdf.
[30 May 2018].

50

Department of Justice and Constitutional Developmen n.d., Ukuthwala,
Government of South Africa. Available from: http://www.justice.gov.za/
brochure/ukuthwala/ukuthwala.html. [1 May 2018].

51

African Union 2015, The Effects of Traditional and Religious Practices ofChild Marriage on Africa’s Socio-Economic Development, Campaign to
End Child Marriage in Africa. Available from: https://au.int/sites/default/
files/documents/31018-doc-5465_ccmc_africa_report.pdf. [1 May 2018].

52

Girls not Brides n.d., Ending child marriage in Africa: a brief by Girls not
Brides, p. 2. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/02/Child-marriage-in-Africa-A-brief-by-Girls-Not-Brides.pdf.
[1 May 2018].

53‘Big money for Niger’s child brides’ 2014, BBC News, 29 May. Available
from: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27619295. [1 May 2018].

54

African Union 2015, The Effects of Traditional and Religious Practices ofChild Marriage on Africa’s Socio-Economic Development, Campaign to
End Child Marriage in Africa. Available from: https://au.int/sites/default/
files/documents/31018-doc-5465_ccmc_africa_report.pdf. [1 May 2018].

55

Atim, G 2017; Girls not Brides: Ending Child Marriage in Nigeria, Journal of
Gender, Information and Development in Africa, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 73-94.

26

As above.

27

Survey countries in Africa include Botswana, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Ghana, Malawi, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Tunisia, andUganda.

28

Girls Not Brides n.d., Child Marriage around the world, Girls Not Brides.
Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/where-does-it-happen/.
[28 February 2018].

29

Ochab, EU 2017, ‘Sexual Violence As A Weapon Of War: The Story Of
Daesh And Boko Haram,’ Forbes, 2 March. Available from: https://www.
forbes.com/sites/ewelinaochab/2017/03/02/sexual-violence-as-aweapon-of-war-the-story-of-daesh-and-boko-haram/#3a32e59f6a17.
[26 March 2018].

30

38

39

International Labour Organization 2016, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2015, published 105th ILC session (2016). Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3256806,103282,Eritrea,2015. [28 April 2017].
International Labour Organization 2016, Direct Request (CEACR) –adopted 2015, published 105th ILC session (2016). Available from: http://
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_
COMMENT_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_
COMMENT_YEAR:3251099,103466,Burundi,2015. [28 April 2017].

48

Global Slavery Index 201856

Girls not Brides n.d., Ending child marriage in Africa: a brief by Girls not
Brides, p. 4. Available from: https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/02/Child-marriage-in-Africa-A-brief-by-Girls-Not-Brides.pdf.
[1 May 2018].

57

Tostan 2018. Empowering women and girls. Available from: https://www.tostan.org/areas-of-impact/cross-cutting-gender-social-norms/
empowerment-women-girls/. [18 February 2018]. See also: https://www.tostan.org/resources/evaluations-research/ for details of
evaluations conducted of the Tostan program.; More details on eachof these programs can be found in: Bryant, K, Joudo, B 2017, Promising
Practices: What Works? A review of interventions to combat modern
day slavery. Walk Free Foundation. Available from: https://s3-apsoutheast-2.amazonaws.com/walkfreefoundation.org-assets/content/
uploads/2017/05/13154356/Promising-Practices-180213-B.pdf.
[30 May 2018].

58

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs(UNOCHA) 2018, Democratic Republic of the Congo, UNOCHA. Available
from: http://www.unocha.org/drc. [28 February 2018].

59

USAID 2017, South Sudan Complex Emergency Fact Sheet #9, USAID.
Available from: https://www.usaid.gov/crisis/south-sudan/fy17/fs09.
[28 February 2018].

60

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 2013,
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61

United Nations General Assembly 2016, Trafficking in persons, especiallywomen and children: Note by the Secretary-General, United Nations.
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62

Abdel Ati, HA 2017, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Eastern Sudan:
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63

Human Rights Council 2017, Report of the Independent Expert on thesituation of human rights in the Central African Republic, United Nations
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[28 February 2018].

64

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 2015, Missing Childhoods: The
Impact of armed conflict on children in Nigeria and beyond. Available
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65

Amnesty International 2015, ‘Our job is to shoot, slaughter andkill’ Boko Haram’s Reign of Terror in North-East Nigeria’, Amnesty
International. Available from: file:///C:/Users/rrego/Downloads/
AFR4413602015ENGLISH.PDF. [28 February 2018].

66

United Nations Security Council 2017, Report of the Secretary-General on
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67

John, T 2018, ‘Boko Haram has kidnapped dozens of schoolgirls, again.
Here’s what to know,’ Time, 26 February. Available from: http://time.
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68

Maclean, R & Abrak, I 2018, ‘Boko Haram returns more than 100
schoolgirls kidnapped last month,’ The Guardian, 21 March. Available
from: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/21/boko-haramreturns-some-of-the-girls-it-kidnapped-last-month. [23 March 2018].

69

International Labour Organization & Walk Free Foundation 2017, Global
Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage.
Available from: https://www.alliance87.org/global_estimates_of_modern_slavery-forced_labour_and_forced_marriage.pdf. [18 January 2017].

70

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2016, Global Reporton Trafficking in Persons, UNODC, p.113. Available from: https://www.
unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2016_Global_Report_
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71

United Nations Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery,
including its causes and consequences, Urmila Bhoola, 2015, Report of
the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its
causes and consequences: Mission to the Niger, United Nations Human
Rights Council, Thirtieth session. Available from: http://www.ohchr.
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HRC_30_35_Add_1_ENG.docx. [7 February 2018].

72

As above.

73

Human Rights Watch 2018, A Bitter Harvest: Child Labor and Human
Rights Asbuses on Tobacco Farms in Zimbabwe. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/zimbabwe0418_web_2.pdf.
[11 May 2018].

74

International Justice Mission 2016, Child Trafficking into Forced Labor on
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[14 February 2018].

75

Free the Slaves 2013, Congo’s Mining Slaves: Enslavement at South Kivu
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[13 February 2018].

76

Robson, P 2010, Ending Child Trafficking in West Africa, Anti-Slavery
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A 2016, Children at the heart: Assessment of child labour and childslavery in Ghana’s cocoa sector and recommendations to Mondelēz
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Embode_ChildrenattheHeart.pdf. [14 February 2018].

77

International Cocoa Organization 2017. Production of cocoa beans.
ICCO Quarterly Bulletin of Cocoa Statistics, Vol. XLIII, No. 3, Cocoa year
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78

Fountain, A C & Hütz-Adams, F 2015, Cocoa Barometer 2015. Available
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79

International Labor Rights Forum 2014, The Fairness Gap: Farmer
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80

Kapoor, A 2016, Children at the heart: Assessment of child labour andchild slavery in Côte d’Ivoire’s cocoa sector and recommendations to
Mondelēz International, Embode. Available from: https://www.cocoalife.
org/~/media/CocoaLife/Files/pdf/Library/FULL_REPORT_Cote_Ivoire_
Mondelez_Embode_ChildrenattheHeart.pdf. [4 September 2018].

81

Outside the exceptions established by the ILO supervisory bodies.

82

International Labour Organization 2017, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2016, published 106th ILC session (2017). Available from: http://www.
ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:13100:0::NO::P13100_
COMMENT_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_
COMMENT_YEAR:3297022,103336,Swaziland,2016. [30 November 2017].

83

International Labour Organization 2016, Direct Request (CEACR) –adopted 2015, published 105th ILC session (2016). Available from: http://
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_
COMMENT_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_
COMMENT_YEAR:3251099,103466,Burundi,2015. [28 April 2017].

84

International Labour Organization 2017, Direct Request (CEACR) –adopted 2016, published 106th ILC session (2017). Available from: http://
www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_
COMMENT_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_
COMMENT_YEAR:3296137,103460,Rwanda,2016. [6 November 2017].

85

International Labour Organization 2015, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2014, published 104th ILC session (2015). Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3186057,102915,Egypt,2014. [28 April 2017].

Africa Region Report

86

87

88

International Labour Organization 2017, Observation (CEACR) – adopted
2016, published 106th ILC session (2017). Available from: http://www.ilo.
org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3300490,102955,Madagascar,2016. [30 November 2017].
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org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:13100:0::NO:13100:P13100_COMMENT_
ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3256806,103282,Eritrea,2015. [28 April 2017].

89

As above.

90

United Nations Support Mission in Libya 2016, “Detained And
Dehumanised” Report On Human Rights Abuses Against Migrants
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91

United Nations Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery,
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causes and consequences: Mission to the Niger, United Nations Human
Rights Council, Thirtieth session. Available from: http://www.ohchr.
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92

Anti-Slavery International n.d., Mauritania: descent-based slavery.
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[4 May 2018].

93

Anti-Slavery International 2012, Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania
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94

United States Department of Labor 2016, Findings on the Worst Formsof Child Labour: Swaziland, United States Department of Labor.
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95

SwedWatch 2016, Childhood lost: Diamond mining in the Democratic
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[14 February 2018].

96

97

United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic
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98

United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner 2013,
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[4 May 2018].

99

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2016, Global Reporton Trafficking in Persons, UNODC, p.113. Available from: https://www.
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100

Human Rights Watch 2017, “I Still See the Talibés Begging”: Government
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101

As above.

49

102

Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat: East Africa and Yemen 2017,‘Yemen,’ RMMS. Available from: http://www.regionalmms.org/index.php/
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103‘The predicament of Ethiopian immigrants in Saudi Arabia’ 2018, Middle
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[04 May 2018].

104

Niarchos, N 2016, ‘The dangerous route of Ethiopian migrants’, The New
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105

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106

Human Rights Watch 2018, ‘Yemen: Detained African Migrants
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107

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108

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109

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110

As above.

111

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112

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113

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114

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116

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50

117

Global Slavery Index 2018

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118

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119

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120

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121

122

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123

As above.

124

International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2017, Fatal Journeys, vol.
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125

126

127

128

129

130

131

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132

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133

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134

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135

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136

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137

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138

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139

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140

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141

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142

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143

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144

Save the Children UK 2017, Child marriage in Niger, p. 2. Available
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145

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146

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 2014, Ending Child Marriage:
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147

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148

As above.

149

As above.

150

United Nations Secretary-General 2017, Children and armed conflict:
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Africa Region Report

151

152

153

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154

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155

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156

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157

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158

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51

168

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169

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2016, Trafficking
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170

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171

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172

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173

Available from: www.globalslaveryindex.org [30 May 2018].

174

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in
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175

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176

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159

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160

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177

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178

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179

National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Person (NAPTIP) 2017,
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180

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons 2017, Trafficking in
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181

International Labour Organization 2016, Loi n° 2016-1111 du 8 décembre
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182

International Labour Organization 2016, La Loi n° 27-14 du 25 août 2016
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183

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2016, Loi organique
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161

162

Council on Foreign Relations 2018, Violence in the Central African
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163

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164

For detailed methodology of how these products were identified andwhich data sources were used, please see Appendix 3 in the 2018 Global
Slavery Index report.

165

166

167

The import data used for this project were taken from the BACI 2015
dataset (Available from: http://www.cepii.fr/cepii/en/bdd_modele/presentation.asp?id=1). BACI is the world trade database developedby the French research centre CEPII (Centre d’ Études Prospectives etd’Informations Internationales) at a high level of product disaggregation.
Original trade data were provided by the United Nations Statistical
Division (COMTRADE database). BACI is constructed using a procedurethat reconciles the declarations of the exporter and the importer.
For more information, please refer to Appendix 3 in the 2018 Global
Slavery Index.
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NO::P13100_COMMENT_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_ID,P11110_COUNTRY_
NAME,P11110_COMMENT_YEAR:3295074,102888,South%20Africa,2016.
[22 February 2018].

52

184

185

186

Global Slavery Index 2018Federal Negarit Gazette of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
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contre la traite des êtres humains, Government of Madagascar. Available
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187

Kenyan Penal Code, Section 36. Available from: www.kenyalaw.org/lex//actiview.xql?actid=CAP.%2063. [20 January 2018].

188

Identified using UNICEF data on out of school rates for children of primaryschool age. Available from: https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/
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189

Tostan 2018. Empowering women and girls. Available from: https://www.tostan.org/areas-of-impact/cross-cutting-gender-social-norms/
empowerment-women-girls/. [18 February 2018]. See also: https://www.tostan.org/resources/evaluations-research/ for details of
evaluations conducted of the Tostan program.; More details on eachof these programs can be found in: Bryant, K, Joudo, B 2017, Promising
Practices: What Works? A review of interventions to combat modern
day slavery. Walk Free Foundation. Available from: https://s3-apsoutheast-2.amazonaws.com/walkfreefoundation.org-assets/content/
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[30 May 2018].

190

Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in
Persons Report: Kenya Country Narrative, United States Departmentof State, p.233. Available from: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/271343.pdf. [30 January 2018].

191

United Nations Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especiallywomen and children, Joy Ngozi Ezeilo 2017, Report of the Special
Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children –Mission to Seychelles, United Nations Human Rights Council, Twentysixth session. Available from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/
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192

Chocolate Manufacturers Association 2001, Protocol for the growing andprocessing of cocoa beans and their derivative products in a mannerthat complies with ILO Convention 182 concerning the prohibition
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uploads/2016/10/Harkin_Engel_Protocol.pdf. [19 April 2018].

193

For more information, please see: International Cocoa Initiative. Available
from: http://www.cocoainitiative.org/. [19 April 2018].

194

Hawksley, H 2011, ‘Ivory Coast cocoa farms child labour: Little change,’
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195

The Seychelles was included in our assessment of government
responses in 2018, however as this was the first year we collected data
for this country we did not include its rating in the GSI. Data collected canbe found in the database at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

196

European Commission 2006, Ouagadougou Action Plan to Combat
Trafficking in Human Beings, Especially Women and Children As
adopted by the Ministerial Conference on Migration and Development.
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197

Peace and Security Council Report 2016, The AU should do more forforced migrants, Peace and Security Council. Available from: https://issafrica.org/pscreport/on-the-agenda/the-au-should-do-more-for-forcedmigrants. [19 April 2018].

198

As above.

199

European Centre for Development Policy (ECDPM) 2016, The African
Union: What role in tackling Africa’s challenges?, ECDPM. Available from:https://social.shorthand.com/ECDPM/jCYKaQahRsf/the-african-union.
[12 February 2018].

200

As above.

201

Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa 2015, The Civil Society Guide
to Regional Economic Communities in Africa, Open Society Foundations,p.87. Available from: http://www.africanminds.co.za/wp-content/
uploads/2016/01/OS-REC-GUIDE-web1.pdf. [12 February 2018].

202

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2016, Southern
Africa: a regional response to migrant smuggling, UNODC. Available
from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2016/June/southernafrica_-a-regional-response-to-migrant-smuggling.html.
[5 February 2018].

203

Southern African Development Community 2017, SADC makescommendable progress in fighting human trafficking. Available from:http://www.sadc.int/news-events/news/sadc-makes-commendableprogress-fighting-human-trafficking/. [5 February 2018].

204

Chepkoech, A 2016, ‘East African Parliament passes bill to fight humantrafficking,’ 2016, The East African, 22 October. Available from: http://
www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/ea/East-African-parliament-passes-Billto-fight-human-trafficking/4552908-3426234-r4lddpz/index.html.
[5 February 2018].

205

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) 2016,
Zambia, Zimbabwe takes lead in moving the COMESA Free Movement
Agenda forward, COMESA. Available from: http://www.comesa.int/
zambia-zimbabwe-takes-lead-in-moving-the-comesa-free-movementagenda-forward/. [14 February 2018]., ‘East African Parliament passes
bill to fight human trafficking,’ The East African, 22 October. Available
from: http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/East-African-parliamentpasses-Bill-to-fight-human-trafficking/2558-3426234-v0i8rh/index.html.
[5 February 2018]. Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa(COMESA) 2016, Zambia, Zimbabwe takes lead in moving the COMESAFree Movement Agenda forward, COMESA. Available from: http://www.
comesa.int/zambia-zimbabwe-takes-lead-in-moving-the-comesa-freemovement-agenda-forward/. [30 May 2018].

206

As above.

207

Intergovernmental Authority for Development (IGAD) 2016, The Human
Smuggling and Trafficking on the Horn of Africa-Central Mediterranean
Route Report Launched, IGAD. Available from: https://www.igad.int/index.
php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1284:the-human-smugglingand-trafficking-on-the-horn-of-africa-central-mediterranean-route-re-portlaunched&catid=45:peace-and-security&Itemid=128. [14 February 2018].

208

International Organization for Migration (IOM) n.d., Regional Consultative
Processes on Migration, IOM. Available from: https://www.iom.int/
regional-consultative-processes-migration. [20 February 2018].

209

European Centre for Development Policy (ECDPM) 2016, Political
Economy Dynamics of Regional Organisations in Africa, ECDPM.
Available from: https://social.shorthand.com/ECDPM/3gf2qyf1Oj/regionalorganisations. [12 February 2018].

210

Maunganidze, O 2018, AU summit 30: Will Africa allow the free movementof people?, Institute for Security Studies. Available from: https://issafrica.
org/iss-today/au-summit-30-will-africa-allow-the-free-movement-ofpeople?utm_source=BenchmarkEmail&utm_campaign=ISS_Today&utm_
medium=email. [05 February 2018].

211

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2017, West Africa:
UNODC promotes regional cooperation in human trafficking and m
smuggling cases, UNODC. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/
en/human-trafficking/glo-act/west-africa_-unodc-promotes-regionalcooperation-in-human-trafficking-and-migrant-smuggling-cases.html.
[05 February 2018].

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