CONTENTS
Introduction
Promoting Autonomy in and out of the Classroom
Andrew D. Tweed

Educational Philosophies of Teachers
Nicholas Bradley

Collaborative Online International Learning in the Language Classroom
Kevin Ottoson

The Benefits of Self-reflection Tools for Foreign Language Learners
Jessica Zoni Upton, Mina Hirano

Using the News to Supplement Cultural Lecture Material: A Look at Learner
Beliefs
Christopher Adam Lear

Adapting Classroom Activities to Prepare Students for English Language
Tests
Henry Troy

A Look at the Role of Design in Education: Developments, Trends, andPractical Use
Anton Vegel

PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOMNUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS, Issue 2, June 2022

Introduction
It is our pleasure to introduce the second issue of the NUFS Teacher Development Symposium
Proceedings. This issue is comprised of seven articles based on presentations from the second
Teacher Development Symposium hosted by the Center for Language Education andDevelopment (CLED) at the Nagoya University of Foreign Studies (NUFS) held on Saturday,
January 22nd, 2022. The symposium provided an opportunity for teachers to share knowledge,
experience and activities related to teaching English as a foreign language in Japan.
The first article in this issue is from Andrew Tweed, who explains learner autonomy froma theoretical perspective before explaining its value to teachers and providing practical ideas tohelp teachers develop greater independence among students. This is followed by an article from
Nicholas Bradley who presents the results of his study into the educational philosophies ofteachers and how these ideas compare with students’ perspectives of the role of the teacher. In
the third article, Kevin Ottoson describes Collaborative Online International Learning andprovides examples of how this approach can be used in language classrooms; he also suggests
ways for language teachers to become involved in this virtual collaboration. Jessica Zoni Upton
and Mina Hirano provide the fourth article, exploring students’ perceptions of two self-reflection
tools and providing an insight into the benefits of these tools and whether students’ perceptions
were affected by their learning environment. In the fifth article, Christopher Lear examines
students’ beliefs about the use of regional news stories for self-study and discussion activities incontent classes, as well as their value in improving reading and summarizing skills. The sixth
article by Henry Troy explains the main features of the most widely used English tests forstudents in Japan, how teachers can help students prepare for these tests by adapting classroom
activities and how students can benefit from self- and- peer assessment by taking on the role ofexaminer. The final contribution comes from Anton Vegel whose article discusses thedevelopment of game design in education, reviews the current research in the field and provides
suggestions for applying these ideas in the language classroom.
The call for papers for the third NUFS Teacher Development Symposium, currently scheduled
for January 2023, will be announced on this website shortly. The Teacher Development
Symposium Committee would like to sincerely thank the contributors who submitted theirmanuscripts and worked through the double peer review process, and also the reviewers who
took the time and effort to provide constructive and insightful feedback.
Jane Hislop and Jason R. Walters
Editors
NUFS Teacher Development Symposium Proceedings
NUFS Teacher Development Symposium Committee
Nicholas Bradley
Jane Hislop
Jared J. Peo
Jason R. Walters

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM

Promoting Autonomy in and out of the Classroom
ANDREW D. TWEED
Soka University

Abstract
Providing learners with an increased amount of autonomy can lead to higher levels of motivation(Ryan & Deci, 2017). This reality, combined with the fact that learning a foreign language
requires many hours of study, suggests that teachers need to help learners take control of theirlearning. This paper first provides a theoretical background to explain what learner autonomy is.
Following that, the article discusses why it is important to promote learner autonomy to ourlearners. Finally, it introduces a number of practical ways for teachers to give more control tostudents over their learning. These methods range from giving students choices in the classroom,
introducing websites or apps, and promoting self-access and other learning beyond theclassroom. A list of relevant resources for teachers appears at the end of this article.

My first job teaching English began in 2000, as an eikaiwa teacher. Teaching at that school, I
noticed that some students made significantly more progress than others; and those students had
decided to do extra work outside of the classroom. For example, one student did a listening
transcription every week, and another wrote a daily diary in English. Throughout my TESOL
career, I would go on to notice that those students who took more responsibility for their learning
seemed to make more rapid developments in their learning.
As a learner of foreign languages, too, I have had similar experiences. During those times
when I was not simply following a teacher’s direction, but made important decisions about myown learning (e.g., choosing the materials; setting my own goals; and determining the methodsof learning), I noticed that I was able to learn more effectively, and I also felt more motivated.
Ultimately, these realizations, from both a teacher’s and a learner’s perspective, led me to focus
on autonomous learning as my primary professional interest.

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM
But what does learner autonomy actually mean? Why is it important? And how canteachers foster it? This paper will seek to provide answers to these questions.
What is Learner Autonomy?
Based on past communication with teachers working in a number of different educational
contexts, it seems many language teachers today are familiar with the notion of learnerautonomy. When asked to explain what it is, teachers have used a wide variety of terms, such as
self-study, self-regulated learning and self-access.
While all of these are indeed related to learner autonomy, they often refer to different
aspects of the learning process. For instance, self-study often indicates the type of materials used
(Benson, 2011); self-regulated learning, studied by educational psychologists, is concerned withcognition and motivation (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008); and self-access is most often discussed
in relation to collections of materials and the physical spaces where autonomous learning is
promoted (Cotterall & Reinders, 2001). In the field of TESOL, learner autonomy is perhaps themost commonly used term for those who are interested in these and other related practices. Beingthat it operates as a kind of umbrella term, however, learner autonomy is not easy to define.
One oft-quoted definition came from Henri Holec (1981, p. 3), who defined learnerautonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning.” Holec further explained that thismeans “to have and to hold, the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of thislearning, i.e.: determining the learning objectives; defining the contents and progressions oflearning; selecting methods and techniques to be used; monitoring the procedure of acquisition;and evaluating what has been acquired” (p. 3).
Benson (2013) pointed out that this early definition of learner autonomy described thedecision making process involved in autonomous learning in technical terms, and it neglected toinclude cognitive capacities. Benson himself proposed this definition: “The capacity to takecontrol of one’s own learning (p. 61).” He went on to explain that there are three dimensions
over which learners can have control: learning management, cognitive processes, and learning
content. Benson also argues that a definition of learner autonomy should include its politicalcharacter, as learners making decisions about the learning contents can, after all, pose achallenge to established classroom and institutional power relationships (p. 61).
Other scholars in the field have provided further clarifications of learner autonomy. Little(1990) explained that learner autonomy is not a teaching method; not a single easily described

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM
behavior; nor a synonym for self-instruction. Whereas early manifestations of learner autonomy
were represented by individual study carrels and audio headsets in the self-access centers of the
1970s and 1980s, more recent research and corresponding educational programs demonstrate its
social dimensions. A collection of papers under the title Social dimensions in learner Autonomy
and language learning (Murray, 2014) is a clear indication from the literature. Furthermore,
many self-access centers have spaces or programs designed to promote social interaction. They
also hold events and workshops, promote the formation of student groups, and self-accesscenters explicitly reach out to help learners through advising programs. In this way, autonomous
learning is no longer simply viewed as independent learning.
Why is Learner Autonomy Important?
For most EFL students, learning a language requires a significant investment of time, as well as
perseverance. Second language acquisition research shows us that a higher amount of time ontask is generally beneficial for language development (see, e.g., Turnbull et al., 1998). By
promoting autonomy, we can encourage more contact with the target language. Furthermore, as
autonomous learning can include a good amount of variety in terms of learning activities andresources, it can be more intrinsically motivating than rigid, comparatively traditional forms of
instruction. The more students enjoy the learning process, the more likely they are to study anduse the language.
While students can learn autonomously in or outside of the classroom, learner autonomy
is often associated with learning beyond the classroom. Anecdotally, students and teachers reportthat learning is more successful when it includes learning outside of the classroom (Nunan,
2014; Benson & Reinders, 2011). Richards (2015) lists a number of benefits associated withlearning beyond the classroom, including developments in communicative and pragmaticcompetence, improved fluency and accuracy, extended contact with English, and enjoyment inlearning (pp. 19-20). Language learning is a complex process. If students do more autonomous
learning beyond the classroom, then they will have an increased number of opportunities tounderstand these complexities and develop more confidence using the language.
Educational psychologists also stress the importance of supporting students’ autonomy.
According to self-determination theory, a theory of motivation that has been rigorously appliedin educational and other contexts, autonomy is an essential human need and it is a crucialcomponent of the learning process. Ryan and Deci (2017) explain that “There are three basic

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM
psychological needs, the satisfaction of which is essential to optimal development, integrity, andwell-being. These are the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness” (p. 242). In modern
classrooms, competence can be included through assessments, and relatedness can be addressedby social groupings. However, autonomy is sometimes neglected. At a recent conference inTokyo, Ryan (2018) emphasized the link between autonomy and motivation and strongly
advocated for autonomy supportive teaching. Fostering autonomy is vital for students’ learning,
motivation, and development.
How Can We Promote Learner Autonomy?
There are many ways that English language educators can promote learner autonomy to theirstudents. Teachers can promote autonomous learning in and out of the classroom, and the scopeof this support can range from using teacher language more carefully to offering courses whichenable students to carry out self-directed learning. Below, a variety of methods will be described.
For teachers who want to begin by making small changes to support autonomous
learning, one simple thing that they can do is to involve students in class decisions. For instance,
they can ask the class if they would like to work in groups or individually. Teachers can also ask
them how long they would like to complete an activity. Such involvement shows students thatteachers value their opinion and input, and gives students a more active role in making decisions
about their learning.
Another thing that teachers can do is to offer students choices. For instance, they can givethem different topic options for a paper or a presentation. Students who are given more control
over their assignments are more likely to be invested and motivated in them. Some activities like
extensive reading or using language learning apps and websites inherently involve student choiceas learners can select topics, genres, language skills and online platforms that appeal to them.
Finally, surveying students about their preferences by conducting a needs analysis is a great way
to find out more about what students would like to do in the class. By collecting your students’opinions, you could make simple decisions about the class that reflects their desires or makemore significant changes leading to a negotiated syllabus.
When teachers support students’ autonomous learning, they show their learners that they
respect them as individuals. One simple way that they can do this is to be more mindful of thelanguage that they use in the classroom. While it is important to carefully consider the level andcomplexity of the language that they use with our students, there are some small changes that

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM
they can make that demonstrate their support for students as individuals. For instance, teachers
might ask questions such as “What is your favorite sport?” The question assumes that thestudents do in fact enjoy sports. This can create cognitive dissonance for students who are notinterested in sports. These kinds of questions can be changed to “Do you like sports? If so, whichones?,” or “What do you think about sports?” These changes allow students with different
opinions to respond honestly to the question. Another example would be to use classroom
language that it is more polite and friendly. For instance, rather than using imperatives, such as“Stand up,” a teacher could use a softer approach by asking, “Could everybody please stand up?”This kind of language shows more respect for the students. Of course, body language and facial
expressions also play a role in communicating the tone of the discourse and delivering classroom
language with a smile may help to dissolve a sense of hierarchy in the classroom.
In a practical article, Thornton (2010) describes how classroom teachers can promote
self-directed learning. She advocates a four-stage process in which students make a Plan,
Implement their plan, Monitor their learning, and Evaluate their learning progress (P. I. M. E.)
Thornton includes a number of practical tips for teachers new to promoting self-directed learningand she includes example learning plan documents at the end of the article.
There are of course many ways that autonomous learning can be carried out beyond theclassroom. Self-access centers are a popular way of supporting students’ autonomous learning.
These can range from designated rooms where students go to read books or converse in the target
language, to purpose-built centers where administrative staff and advisors are hired on a full-timebasis. Cotterall and Reinders (2001) offer this definition of self-access centers:
A Self Access Centre consists of a number of resources (in the form of materials,
activities and support) usually located in one place, and is designed to accommodate
learners of different levels, styles, goals and interests. It aims to develop learnerautonomy among its users (p. 1).
There are a number of groups and publications based in Japan that are dedicated to researchingand sharing practices related to self-access centers, including the Japan Association for SelfAccess Learning, Research in Learner Autonomy Education and Studies in Self-Access Learning.
Links for these and other sites are listed in Appendix A.

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM
Sometimes included in self-access centers, advising has become an increasingly popularpedagogical approach. Carson and Mynard (2012) define it as follows: “Advising in language
learning involves the process and practice of helping students to direct their own paths so as tobecome more effective and more autonomous language learners” (p. 4). As Carson and Mynard
explain, advisors draw on the discourse practices of language teaching and humanistic
counseling. They go on to explain that advisors support learners and promote autonomy by“raising awareness of the language-learning process; helping learners identify goals and makelearning plans; motivating, supporting, and encouraging learners; helping learners to selfevaluate and reflect on their learning,” as well as other ways (p. 16).
Appendix B contains a list of ways to promote learner autonomy that was shared during
the symposium. Most of these are discussed above.
Discussion: Promoting Autonomy at Japanese Universities
For teachers who would like to include more choices for their students, it may be best to startsmall. From the author’s experience, most Japanese students are not accustomed to making key
decisions about their own language learning, and many of them seemingly want to be told what
to do and how to study. This may especially be true with first-year students, who have mostly
experienced a rather teacher-centered approach to learning.
In terms of promoting learner autonomy outside of the classroom, one simple thing
teachers can do is to encourage students to visit a self-access center or learning website (e.g., aYouTube channel). This gives them a focus on learning outside of the classroom. Extensive
reading and extensive listening projects are another a effective way to begin. Teachers can offer
advice in terms of what types of materials are suitable, but students can choose the books orlistening resources that appeal to them. With the author’s first year university students, we havean extensive listening project in spring semester, which is followed by an autonomous learning
project in fall semester, where students set a goal, create a plan, and carry out their learning in a
way that best suits their wants and needs. The autonomous learning project is broader in scope,and the spring semester helps prepare them for this by asking them to begin making decisions
about their learning. By gradually introducing ways to promote autonomy, students are likely tofeel more comfortable with these unfamiliar ways of learning.

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM
Conclusion
This paper examined learner autonomy by answering three questions: what is learner autonomy?;
why is learner autonomy important?; and how can we promote learner autonomy? Learnerautonomy is not a simple concept. There are a number of reasons for teachers to support
learners’ autonomy, and many pedagogical approaches have been developed. These range from
simple changes in teacher talk to the installation of sophisticated self-access centers. It is hopedthat this paper will encourage teachers to experiment with these approaches in an attempt topromote learner autonomy.

BIO DATA

Andrew is a coordinator of the WLC Self-Access Center at Soka University inTokyo. His research interests include autonomy and psychology in language learning.
He holds an MA TESOL from the University of Washington and an EdD in TESOL
from Anaheim University.

References
Benson, P. (2011). Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: An introduction to
the field. In. P. Benson, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Beyond the language classroom (pp. 716). Palgrave Macmillan.
Benson, P. (2013). Teaching and Researching Autonomy (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Benson, P., & Reinders, H. (2011). Beyond the Language Classroom. Palgrave Macmillan.
Cotterall, S., & Reinders, H. (2001) Fortress or bridge? Learners’ perceptions and practice inself access language learning. Tesolanz 8, 23-38.
Carson, L., & Mynard, J. (2012). Introduction. In J. Mynard & L. Carson (Eds.), Advising inlanguage learning: Dialogue, tools and context (pp. 3-25). Pearson.
Holec, H. (1981) Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. Pergamon. (First published 1979,
Strasbourg: Council of Europe.)

9PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOM
Little, D . (1990 ) Autonomy in language learning. In I. Gathercole (Ed.), Autonomy inlanguage learning (pp. 7-15). CILT.
Murray, G. (2014). Exploring the social dimensions of autonomy in language learning. In G.
Murray (Ed.), Social dimensions of autonomy in language learning (pp. 3-11).
Palgrave Macmillan.
Nunan, D. (2014). Beyond the classroom: A case for out-of-class language learning. Retrieved
online: https://nsjle.org.au/nsjle/media/2014-NSJLE-05-DAVID-NUNAN.pdf
Richards, J. C. (2015). The changing face of language learning: Learning beyond the classroom.
RELC Journal, 46(1), 5-22.
Ryan, R. M. (2018, June 8th). Motivation in Development, Second Language Learning, andTeaching: Research on Promoting Engagement Using Self-Determination Theory(Plenary). Psychology in Language Learning, Tokyo, Japan.
https://www.iapll.com/pll2018-tokyo
Ryan, R. M. et Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory. Basic psychological needs inmotivation, development and wellness. Guilford Press.
Thornton, K. (2010). Supporting self-directed learning: A framework for teachers. Language
Education in Asia, 2010, 1(1), 158-170.
Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., Hart, D., & Swain, M. (1998). Time on task and immersion graduates’
French proficiency. In S. Lapkin (Ed.), French second language education in Canada:
Empirical studies (pp. 31-55). University of Toronto Press.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2008). Motivation: An essential dimension ofself-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. K. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation andself-regulated learning: theory, research, and applications (pp. 1-30). Routledge.

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOMAPPENDIX A
Resources for Learning more about Learning Autonomy

Based in JapanSiSAL Journal
https://sisaljournal.org/
RILAE
https://kuis.kandagaigo.ac.jp/rilae/
Relay Journal
https://kuis.kandagaigo.ac.jp/relayjournal/
JASAL
https://jasalorg.com/
JALT Learner Development SIG
http://ld-sig.org/

Based outside of Japan
IATEFL Learner Autonomy SIG
https://lasig.iatefl.org/
International Association for the Psychology of Language Learning
https://www.iapll.com/
International Association of Language Learning and Teachinghttps://iallt.org/

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PROMOTING AUTONOMY IN AND OUT OF THE CLASSROOMAPPENDIX B
Ways to promote learner autonomy

1. Having students make learning plans and carry out their own individual autonomous learning

2. Asking for student input on classroom decisions (groupings, topics, etc.)

3. Conducting a needs analysis; a negotiated syllabus

4. Project learning
5. Vocabulary notebooks

6. Extensive reading

7. Introducing English language learning websites to your classes
8. Language learning spaces such as self-access centers, conversation lounges
9. Organizing (virtual) language exchanges/tandem learning projects

10. Study abroad programs
11. Advising (in self-access centers; in the classroom; during office hours)
12. Language learning diaries or language learner histories
13. Consciously using teacher language that promotes autonomy

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NUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS

Educational Philosophies of Teachers
NICHOLAS BRADLEY
Nagoya University of Foreign Studies

Abstract
Every year the research produced in education is vast and has the positive effect of advancing theprofession in ever more innovative, sophisticated, and humanitarian ways. However, although
there is this vast array of work showcasing new approaches, activities and providing academic
discussion, it can sometimes be beneficial to reflect on the more fundamental aspects of what wedo and why we do it.
This paper presents the results of a small-scale examination of the educational
philosophies of 18 teachers. The results reveal the elements of education that are seen as
paramount by teachers along with those which are less common. From these, a clear image of
how teachers view the profession, and their role can be seen. Additionally, the aspects identified
as important within teachers’ educational philosophies were presented to students. The elements
given importance by students are also presented and contrasted with the previous results.

Introduction
What type of teacher are you? What would your students describe you as? What would yourcolleagues describe you as? Is there consistency among these views? There is likely to be a great
deal of variance in the answers to these questions quite simply due to the ubiquitous nature oflabels describing teachers. A simple search reveals a whole host of labels used to describe
different types of teacher, such as activist teacher, modern teacher, buddy teacher, entertainer
teacher and traditional teacher (Helplineph, 2022; Unicheck, 2017). Although many of theselabels are fairly self-explanatory, the labels are often provided with explanations that attempt tooffer detail. The “modern teacher”, for example, is a teacher that is very open to the use of thelatest technology in education and operates under the belief that technological development runsin parallel with pedagogical advancement (Helplinph, 2022). Other examples can be that of the13

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS“activist teacher” who possesses a fervour for specific social issues and uses class time to presenta certain social agenda, or the “buddy teacher” who aims to occupy a role akin to that of a big
brother or big sister (Unicheck, 2017).
Such labelling may seem extremely reductionist and two dimensional, but it is consistent
with much discourse outside of education where complex social realities are neatly divided up
into easily digestible chunks. Yet, as a form of human interaction involving multiple people ofvarious backgrounds and within a variety of settings, the reality is infinitely greyer and more
complex. As such, it is likely that all these labels exist within each of us as teachers with certain
ones coming to the forefront at different times and as a result of different conditions.
English Language Teachers
If we look specifically at the English language teaching literature, different authors offerdifferent types of teacher (Harmer, 2015; Scrivener, 2011) and a great deal of overlap exists
between the categories of teacher put forward. Scrivener (2011), for example, puts forward thethree teacher labels of explainer, involver and enabler. The explainer teacher occupies the role ofa giver of information in a classroom that is highly teacher centred. Classes often involve theteacher explaining the subject or lecturing with students occupying a largely passive role.
Although students are not personally involved or challenged and practice is often throughindividual exercises, lessons can be entertaining when delivered with enthusiasm and energy by
the teacher. The explainer role described by Scrivener would seem to closely correspond withwhat might be a commonly held view in much of society of what a teacher does and how aclassroom is, perhaps as a result of people’s own experiences in education. In this sense, theexplainer teacher represents what might be considered the default or traditional view of teaching
and the teacher.
The involver loosens control in the classroom due to a belief in a greater need to focus on
students and to allow them more practice and experimentation. According to Scrivener, due tothe enabler teacher’s greater familiarity with teaching methodology, the teacher involves students
more by using a variety of engaging activities while still maintaining control of the classroom.
The final label offered by Scrivener, the enabler, represents a confident teacher equippedwith a variety of methodologies who is confident enough to share or even give full control of theclassroom with students. In an enabler’s class, decisions are often shared or negotiated, and theteacher takes direction from the students. It is under this label that we get educational metaphors

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EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
such as a teacher being a “guide”, “counsellor” or “resource” (Scrivener, 2011, p.18). In addition
to a strong knowledge of methodology, the enabler is also aware of the interpersonal dynamics ofa classroom as well as the feelings and thinking of individuals within.
Scrivener makes the point that all teachers are explainers, involvers and enablers at
different times and in different circumstances. However, my own observations of teachers overmany years suggests that the teachers do not occupy the roles of explainer, involver or enabler
for the same amount of time. Teachers have their own preferences, whether they are conscious ofthem or not. Some teachers, for example, will occupy the role of explainer almost exclusively,
while others may more frequently adopt the role of engager, despite the circumstances being
extremely similar. The difference in the likelihood of teachers occupying the different roles may
well be due to their familiarity with different methodologies, as Scrivener suggests, and whichsets his labels apart from the more personality-based labels presented at the start of this paper.
Yet, teachers who hold similar teaching qualifications, experience and teach the same classes
still do not occupy explainer, involver and enabler roles in the same amount nor teach in thesame way. Something more would seem to be at play.
Educational Philosophy
A teacher’s personality, familiarity with methodology, other education, age, experience, amongst
other variables, are likely to influence how they teach. So too are their fundamental beliefs
regarding education, what can be called their educational philosophy. It can be said that aperson’s educational philosophy represents a gestalt to which a teacher’s education, age,personality, experience and other variables contribute.
All teachers have an educational philosophy whether they are conscious of it or not. For
the purposes of this paper, focus will be on two areas of teachers’ educational philosophies. The
first are the epistemic aims of education; the question of what we are there to do and whatknowledge we are there to give. Of course, at its most basic level, an English teacher is there toteach English, but many would suggest that education has a socio-political function in helping tocultivate moral citizens who have characteristics and attributes that align with the needs andexpectations of the society in which the education takes place (Siegel, 2009). On the other hand,rather cultivating “acceptable” characteristics and belief sets, some highlight that rather thanbeing a provider of knowledge, the purpose of education should focus on the ability of theindividual to process information, this is, the development of their cognitive abilities. This view

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EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
is clearly evident in popular education quotes such as “Education is what remains once one has
forgotten what one has learned in school” and “The purpose of education is to replace an empty
mind with an open one” from Einstein and Malcolm Forbes respectively. For thesecommentators and many academics, education is much more than the provision of information as“educators have a responsibility to help individuals think for themselves” (Robertson, 2009,p.13).
Whatever someone holds as the epistemic aims of education, the second area or nextquestion will likely be concerned with how to go about achieving them. In an educational
philosophy, this is not yet a matter of methodology, but more fundamentally it is a question of
how one should be as a teacher, what one’s purpose and roles are in education. As means ofillustration, an example can be seen in the work of Rogers and Frelberg (1994) who suggest three
qualities as being of fundamental importance for teachers:•

Respect – Being positive and non-judgemental.

•

Empathy – Seeing things through the eyes of the learner.

•

Authenticity – Being yourself and not being afraid to be vulnerable.

Rogers and Frelberg (1994) suggest that all of these are vital to establish rapport between teacher
and students. The importance of rapport in language education is suggestive of the belief that thedevelopment of knowledge is best achieved as a collective endeavour. Ultimately though, thework of Rogers and Frelberg (1994) shows that how a teacher should be focuses not on which
particular methodology they choose, but more fundamentally on how they put themselves
forward, interact with others and see their role in education.
Methods
What do teachers believe as being of fundamental importance in education and being a teacher?
To attempt to answer these questions and examine teachers’ educational philosophies in moredetail, 19 language teachers wrote a paragraph under the simple title of “My educational
philosophy”. There was no set word limit and paragraphs differed greatly in length with theaverage being 108 words. Emergent thematic coding was used to analyse the paragraphs with thefrequency of the emergent items also being recorded.
Following emergent thematic coding, emergent items were presented to students via asurvey in Japanese and English. Students were asked to identify the two most important items

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EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
when considering the role of an English teacher, the two least important items for a teacher, andto rank each item individually in terms of importance via a Likert scale. A total of 257 responses
were received.
Results
Although expressed in different terms across the paragraphs, common themes were emergent inteachers’ paragraphs. For ease of presentation Table 1 below shows the emergent items
expressed as things teachers should do or be.
Table 1
Emergent Items and Their Frequency
Frequency

A teacher should…

8…motivate learners.

8…act as a guide / mentor for students.

7…encourage collaboration.

6…create a comfortable atmosphere that allows students to bethemselves and open up.

5…be pedagogically flexible.

4…develop critical thinking.

4…develop intellectual curiosity.

3…create a comfortable atmosphere for ideas.

2…be a reflective practitioner and learner.

A total of nine items that constituted separate beliefs within an educational philosophy
were found in the paragraphs. None of these were only found in a single teacher though somewere much more common than others, as can be seen by the frequency column above. Here wecan see that the teacher’s role as an educational motivator and as a guide or mentor for students
were common aspects of teachers’ philosophies, whereas the importance of teachers reflecting
on and learning from their practice was not. Additionally, some items, while separate, do sharesimilar conceptual terrain. The need to develop critical thinking and the need to develop
intellectual curiosity, for example, though focusing on different elements can coexist within a

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EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
category of cognitive development. The same can be true of creating a comfortable environment
within in which different ideas can coexist, and a comfortable environment within which
students can be themselves and open up.
With some items sharing similar conceptual terrain, these items were merged, and areduced seven items were presented to students via a survey. Though presented in Japanese andEnglish, for the sake of space, only the English version is shown below in Table 2. The numbers
following each item represents the frequency with which the concept appeared in teachers’
philosophies. As can be seen, the first two on the list are an amalgamation of two different items.
Table 2
Survey Items Presented to Students

A teacher should create a comfortable atmosphere for students that allows them tobe themselves freely and share their true opinions. 9 (3+6)
A teacher should encourage students to think critically and develop theirintellectual curiosity. 8(4+4)
A teacher should motivate students by being supportive, friendly and using
interesting content in class. 8
A teacher should be a guide / mentor and help students to become better and moreautonomous learners. 8
A teacher should encourage collaboration and create an atmosphere where allmembers of the class (including the teacher) are teaching and learning from eachother. 7
A teacher should be able to switch to different teaching methods depending on
the context, subject or needs of the class. 5
A teacher should always be learning and reflecting on how he/she teaches andwhy he/she teaches in that way. 2








The results of the survey showed that creating a comfortable atmosphere and motivating
students were overwhelmingly identified as the two most important aspects for an English
teacher (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Most Important Aspects for an English Teacher

18

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS

Most Important for an English Teacher
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Create a
Enourage
Motivatecomfortable critical thinking students
atmosphere / intellectual
throught
curiosity
personality
and content

Be a guide /mentorEncourage
collaboration

Pedagogicalflexibility

Reflective
teacher

When looking at the least important aspects, we can see that the distribution is less clear
cut. However, being a reflective teacher, being pedagogically flexible and encouraging criticalthinking and intellectual curiosity were strongly identified as aspects that were of the least
importance for an English teacher.
Table 3Distribution of Responses for Different Items
Not important at all

Extremely important

1

2

3

4

5

Create a comfortable
atmosphere

0

3

18

84

150

Encourage criticalthinking

7

29

75

91

52

Motivate students

0

9

31

67

147

Be a guide / mentor

1

15

54

115

70

Encourage collaboration

0

9

45

91

110

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EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS

Pedagogical flexibility

2

27

68

105

53

Be reflective on his/herteaching

9

18

89

97

52

The individual items ranked on a Likert scale can be seen above in Table 3. The
distribution of scores is consistent with previous results and can be divided into two types. The
first is a distribution of scores similar to that shown in Figure 2 below. Here a large majority of
responses being found in the “extremely important” column and then cascading down throughthe other columns with no responses in the final column. This distribution was found for creating
a comfortable atmosphere in class, motivating students, and encouraging collaboration.
Figure 2
Student Endorsement of Teachers Creating a Comfortable Atmosphere

A teacher should create a comfortable atmosphere forstudents that allows them to be themselves freely andshare their true opinions
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 Not important at
all

2

3

4

5 Extremely
important

The distribution of other items is similar to that of developing critical thinking, shown in
Table 6. While students overall see it as important, it is to a much lesser degree than those above.
Additionally, the large number of students that selected the middle option suggest that many
students are quite ambivalent to them. This distribution was typical for developing criticalthinking, being a guide/mentor, being pedagogically flexible, and being a reflective teacher.

20

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
These items are also the only ones that registered a notable number of responses in the “notimportant” column, including some in the “not important at all” column.
Figure 3
Student Endorsement of Teachers Encouraging Critical Thinking Development

A teacher should encourage students to think critically anddevelop their intellectual curiosity
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 Not important at
all

2

3

4

5 Extremely
importantDiscussion
When examining the analysis of teachers’ educational philosophies, we can see that the emergent
items are overwhelmingly focused on their role as a teacher. Of the nine emergent items only
two featured what might be considered the epistemic aims of education: developing criticalthinking and encouraging intellectual curiosity. This suggests that teachers attach greater
importance to their role in the classroom than to the nature of the knowledge they are there todevelop. The educational philosophies of teachers would most closely align with the enabler
view of a teacher. Teachers highlighting the vital nature of motivating students, creating a
comfortable atmosphere, encouraging collaboration, being pedagogically flexible, reflecting on
their own practice, and being a “guide”, “mentor” or “facilitator”, shows a focus on teacher
performance rather than musings on the nature of the subject or the cognitive development of21

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
students. Despite this, however, it may be the case that consideration of the nature of the subject
is implied in the highlighting of these classroom-based performative items. Identifying with theenabler type of teacher is suggestive of a belief in the nature of the subject in that English is askill that requires practice, variety, making mistakes and so on, and that a teacher needs to adopt
a role that is conducive to creating an environment that allows these to occur so that learning andcognitive development can take place. Of course, whether teachers make these connections is notevident from a simple examination of their paragraphs, it can just be said that in their paragraphs
teachers are more cognizant of and place more importance on philosophical questions of them asa teacher, their role and how they should be in the classroom, rather than epistemic concerns andaims.
When looking at the results of the student survey, it is perhaps no surprise that they give
greatest endorsement to educational philosophy items that have a clear connection to them as
students, such as motivating them, creating a positive atmosphere, and encouraging
collaboration. The results of the individual scores of items reinforce this point and shows thatstudents expect to be active in the classroom and desire a teacher that helps them to be so. As
with the teachers’ ideal which is suggested through their paragraphs, so too do students see theenabler type of teacher as being most desirable. Ultimately, there is a great deal of agreement
between teachers and students as elements of teaching philosophies that involve greaterinteraction between classroom members and elements that focus on developing the conditions
that allow these are given greatest weight.
Not all is in agreement between teachers and students, though. The idea that education
involves some form of cognitive development beyond the simple acquisition of subject
knowledge was a recurrent theme in teachers’ educational philosophies, albeit one that was muchless frequent than themes relating to performative concerns. Although the development ofstudents’ critical thinking and intellectual curiosity have long been considered by many to be apart of what education is, it has only much more recently been seen by many in the profession to
be an important goal of language education. This is especially evident in the common use of theterm “critical thinking” on many EFL textbooks used today. Two examples of global textbooks
using the term, In Focus (Browne et al., 2021) and Pathways (Fetig & Najafi, 2018) are shownon the following page.

22

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS

Though the inclusion of critical thinking development would seem to be prudent,
especially given that such textbooks follow a largely content-based approach, the value of criticalthinking as part of the language teaching profession is a debate separate to that of this paper. It is
raised here simply because the results of the study point to a gulf between teachers’ and students’
thinking regarding it. The critical thinking labels that adorn many textbooks would seem to be
there to attract the teacher rather than the student; a reflection of the reality that teachers are theones overwhelmingly in charge of textbook selection for courses. Of course, one may argue thatstudents not giving a strong endorsement of critical thinking development is precisely a reason
for its inclusion and that, ultimately, the teacher knows best. However, as the results would seemto suggest that critical thinking development is not viewed by students as something of great
relevance to language education, mention of it in class, on the cover of textbooks or on course
syllabi is likely to have very little impact on students’ desire to take a course.
Directions for future researchThis small-scale study began as a means of satisfying my own curiosity about the fundamental
beliefs that teachers have about language education. The results proved to be illuminating andoffered future avenues for research to paint a much deeper and more complete picture of23

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
teachers’ educational philosophies. The following questions arose which may be best answered
through follow up interviews and other qualitative means:
How have these teachers arrived at these philosophies?
What influenced them? When? Where? How?
Is their educational philosophy consistent across their teaching of different subjects?
To what degree is their philosophy mitigated by contextual features?
Is it possible to ‘view’ their philosophy in their teaching?
Do national educational needs / preferences / differences influence the educational philosophiesthat are espoused?

BIO DATA

Nicholas Bradley is currently an associate professor within the Department of British
and American Studies at Nagoya University of Foreign Studies. He holds a PhD in
Applied Linguistics and MAs in TESOL and History. His research interests focus
around cultural issues in education.

References
Brown, C., Culligan, B. and Phillips, J. (2021). In focus: A vocabulary reading andcritical thinking skills course. Cambridge: CUP
Fetig, C., Najafi, K. (2018). Pathways: Listening, speaking and critical thinking. Heinle& Heinle: Boston.
Harmer, J. (2015). The practice of English language teaching. London: Pearson.
Helplineph (2021) Different types of teachers in public schools. Helpline PH.
https://helplineph.com/opinion/different-types-of-teachers/
Rogers, C., & Frelberg, H.J. (1994). Freedom to learn. Harlow: Prentice Hall.

24

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHERS
Robertson, E. (2009) The epistemic aims of education. In H. Siegel (Ed). Philosophy ofeducation. Oxford: OUP
Scrivener, J (2011) Learning teaching. London: Macmillan
Siegel, H (2009) Philosophy of education and philosophy. In H. Siegel (Ed)., Philosophyof education. Oxford: OUP
Unicheck (2017) 17 Types of teachers everyone knows. Unicheck.
https://unicheck.com/blog/type

25

NUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGSCollaborative Online International Learning in the Language Classroom
KEVIN OTTOSON
Nagoya Women’s University

Abstract
Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL) is an approach that connects teachers andstudents to collaborate and learn as part of their course. COIL is one type of virtual exchange that
promotes more inclusive international collaboration that has been gaining popularity in recent
years (O’Dowd, 2019; Rubin, 2017). In response to the COVID-19 global pandemic, foreign
language educators have seen COIL as a vehicle to promote international collaboration andlanguage learning. Furthermore, as participation in study abroad programs for university students
in Japan and worldwide has been lessened and is unlikely to return to pre-pandemic participationlevels in the near future, COIL offers opportunities for higher education institutions to work
towards their internationalization goals. For students in foreign language university courses inJapan, COIL can provide unique opportunities to interact and collaborate with L1 or L2 speakers
in another country. In addition to language development, COIL offers opportunities fordevelopment, including intercultural competence. For stakeholders interested in incorporating
virtual exchange in their language classrooms, this paper aims to provide an overview of COIL,
and some examples of language-learning-focused COIL. Finally, some suggestions about how to
get involved in COIL will be provided.
Introduction
The Japanese government’s push for fostering global jinzai (global human resources) andinternationalization in Japan’s institutions of higher education has caused universities to look formethods to work towards these objectives. Many private universities have seen study abroad as avehicle to foster global jinzai and internationalize the curriculum (Yonezawa, et al., 2009).
Unfortunately, not all students have the means or time to participate in international exchanges.
This realization is evident with the growing popularity of the concept of internationalization athome (IaH) among educational institutions. Beelen and Jones (2015) describe IaH as the“purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions into the formal curriculum

26

COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
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for all students within domestic learning environments” (p. 69). Beelen and Jones (2015) argue
that the term IaH suggests international mobility efforts have reached relatively few. Teekens’(2013) description of IaH puts emphasis on expanding opportunities to more students. For
Teekens (2013), IaH is concerned with what do with the vast majority of students who are not
involved or exposed to international or intercultural experiences.
The combination of the push for more equity in international or intercultural exchanges in
the midst of lockdowns and cancellations of mobility programs due to a global pandemic has
made virtual exchanges appear to be an attractive solution to a lack of access to mobility
programs like study abroad. Reiffenrath, et al. (2020) laud the possibilities of virtual exchanges
to help bridge more access and opportunities of cross-cultural collaboration, even acrossdisciplines. Virtual exchanges (or telecollaboration) are not entirely new. Over the past 20
years, virtual exchange has seen dramatic growth in popularity in foreign language education(Hauck & MacKinnon 2016; O’Dowd, 2013; O’Dowd & O’Rourke, 2019). Virtual exchange issimply a method that brings people together for learning and exchange through the use oftechnology (see Stevens Initiative [2021] for an overview of the various types of virtual
exchange). Among the different types of virtual exchange, Collaborative Online International
Learning (COIL) is a teaching methodology that enables both students and instructors in
different countries to collaborate on projects and discussions as a component of their coursework(SUNY COIL Center, n.d.) COIL is not simply students in different countries sharing an online
classroom, rather COIL creates equitable team-taught learning environments where faculty in
two different countries or cultures work together to create a shared syllabus that emphasizes
experiential and collaborative learning (COIL Consulting, n.d.) COIL is a type of virtual
exchange that is closely tied to a pre-existing course in a university where students collaborate
with classmates from a different university outside of their country.
COIL exchanges can take many different forms. Students in different cultures may workon a research project, media product, business plan, or action plan. COIL exchanges can becompletely online or in a blended format See (Ikeda, 2021a) for examples of a variety COIL
projects that Kansai University students have worked on with students around the world. A
COIL exchange typically follows three steps: an icebreaker, comparison and analysis, andcollaboration. In the beginning of a COIL exchange, the icebreaker provides a crucial function ofbuilding rapport, engaging the students, and team building. In the next step of comparison and27

COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM
analysis, learners become accustomed to the tools that they will use to communicate. Often, thesoftware might be something they are normally accustomed to using. Malinowski and Kramsch(2014) and Kern (2014) draw attention to the way the technological or online medium can
impact intercultural learning and influence how communication takes place. These impacts canbe positive as well as negative. If the platform for communication presents too many challenges
to use, students’ motivation to interact may be negatively affected. Students also get accustomed
to the style of communication among their group members. Group members might havepreferred times and ways to communicate with their classmates. When dealing with timedifferences, this might mean that some students have to engage earlier in the morning or later inthe evening. In this step, students discover new ways to interact with each other. For example,
their classmates might prefer communicating in real time over video. In contrast, someclassmates might upload a video and await a response. While others might prefer tocommunicate through chatting or phone calls rather than video chat. Kern (2014) stresses theimportance of drawing attention to how the online medium impacts their interactions. In thethird step, students engage project-based learning. The COIL projects can be incorporated into
fully online, face-to-face, or hybrid (partly online, partly face-to-face). The COIL projects can beincorporated into complementary content or similar content.
Ikeda (2021) describes how some COIL projects can be interdisciplinary,multidisciplinary, crossdisciplinary, or interdisciplinary. For example, in an intradisciplinary
course, Student A in an English literature course at University X works with Student B in an
English literature course at University Y, researching Shakespeare’s use of conflict. While in a
multidisciplinary COIL project, Student A in mass media communication works with Student B
in computer science, producing a short digital promotional video clip. In an interdisciplinary
course, Student A in marketing works with Student B in English education, researching how
educational product companies promote their products to educational organizations worldwide
and suggesting a better approach.
While many programs may fit under a general COIL design umbrella, a languagelearning focus may be more appropriate for foreign language instructors. Ikeda (2021b) points
out how language-learning COIL design differs from a general COIL design. First in terms ofstudent learning outcome, language-learning COIL aims to give students plenty of opportunities
to practice using the target language, while general COIL design is developed based on the goals

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
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for the matched courses. Next, in terms of task design, language learning COIL will likely havetasks that enhance fluency in the target language for both groups of students. While a general
COIL design will have a task that engages the students in collaborative learning. A project or
team-based task design is likely the goal. Then, in terms of the language used, the instruction
language might differ from the practiced language in language-learning COIL. For example,
students in a Japanese language class in America might be taught in English, but the practiced
language will be Japanese with the group of students they are working within a different country,
like China. In a general COIL design, the most common option is English for the lingua franca.
Finally, regarding the collaboration mode, it is strongly recommended that language learning
COIL designs have a good amount of synchronous communication. Direct synchronous
communication, in the form of live text or video chats can create stronger connections and bonds
between groups (Institute for Innovative Global Education, 2022). While general COIL designs
have synchronous or asynchronous collaboration for their mode of communication.
Examples of Language Learning COIL Designs
This section will provide two examples of designs the researcher at two different universities inJapan has used with a partner at a university in northeastern China. To begin, the researcher(Instructor A) was introduced to his partner (Instructor B) in China through a COIL program
coordinator at a university he was working at in 2020-2021. Table 1 provides a background ofthese two universities.
Table 1
Language Learning COIL Project 1 Background information
University A (Japan)

University B (China)

LocationCentral Japan

Northeastern China

Institution

PrivatePublic

Size

9,000

32,000

Major

Humanities/ British & American Studies

Education

Class(es)Communication Skills/ Oral Communication

English Communication Skills

Students

39

44

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM
Englishproficiency
level

Humanities majors-Intermediate
British & American Studies majors-Upper
intermediate and advanced

Upper intermediate andadvanced

Language Learning COIL Project 1
Initially, both instructors exchanged a series of emails explaining the nature of the courses theytaught, their teaching philosophies, and their initial goals and objectives for conducting a COIL
project. Gradually, the teachers developed a list of specific objectives for students at both
universities. Both instructors hoped that the university students in China and Japan would be able
to talk about various everyday topics (summer, food, holidays, careers, interpersonal
relationships) in English. The overall objectives for this COIL project were as follows:•

Give students opportunities to learn from each other•

Improve English language skills•

Improve intercultural skills•

Improve virtual learning skills

After developing shared objectives, both instructors decided on the activities and the final
project for their students to collaborate on. Table 2 provides an overview of the Basic COIL
Project 1. The topics for the weekly discussions (e.g., summer vacation, interpersonal
relationships, careers) were chosen as they were topics the students were assigned to read anddiscuss in the classes in their courses. Both Instructor A and Instructor B wanted to give thestudents a chance to discuss these topics with students from a different culture. Additionally, thefinal project was created as an opportunity for the students in China and Japan to develop a
deeper understanding of the topic through research, analysis, discussions, and a presentation. The
83 students were divided up into groups of four or five. Each group had at least two students
from Japan and two students from China. During Weeks 1-6, the students would chatsynchronously and asynchronously through WeChat about the assigned topics. Finally, in Week
7, each group gave their presentation to a live zoom meeting. Each week, the students filled out
a reflection on Google Forms. They answered the following questions in order: (1) What wasinteresting about your interactions this week? (2) What did you learn from your interactions? (3)What would you like to know more about?

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
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Table 2
Basic COIL Project 1 Overview
Phase

Week

Activities

Prep

0

Preparation-Install and check required software/ assign students into groups on
WeChat (WeChat)1

1

Icebreaker-students get to know each other, learn about each other’s local
environment, students learn about Japan/ China (WeChat) Reflection (Google
Forms)

2

2

Discuss-Summer vacation (WeChat) Reflection (Google Forms)

3

Discuss-Food (WeChat) Reflection (Google Forms)

4

Discuss-Holidays and Traditions (WeChat) Reflection (Google Forms)

25Discuss-Interpersonal relationships/Careers (WeChat) Reflection (Google Forms)

3

6-7

Project report- Conduct a survey on one of the four topics/ Create Power Point
presentation Students give joint presentations on their research during a Zoom
meeting during class for the university students in China. (PowerPoint, WeChat &
Zoom)

4

8

Reflection (Google Forms)

Finally, a reflection and survey were administered to better understand the students’ learning andexperiences with the COIL project. The post-test survey, adapted from Ceo-DiFrancesco and
Bender-Slack (2016) was translated into Japanese and was administered in Week 8 through
Google Forms. Table 3 (on the following page) shows a list of the 12 five-time Likert-type scalestatements in the post-test survey. Additionally, the students answered three open-ended
questions (1) What did you learn from this project? (2) Why is that important? (3) How will that
help you in the future? The questionnaire was used to help both teachers gain a better
understanding of the students’ experiences and to assess the degree to which the objectives were
met.

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
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Table 3
Basic COIL Project 1 Post-test Survey
Statements
1. I have been more motivated to learn the language through participating in this course.
2. Due to this COIL experience, I am more motivated to further my English competency
for use in my future work or career.
3. I feel that my language skills have improved.
4. I feel that I can speak with more fluency now than prior to my participation in thisprogram.
5. My comprehension of spoken English has improved due to this program.
6. I feel confident speaking English after participating in this program.
7. I feel more comfortable speaking in class now that I did before I participated in thisprogram.
8. I feel more comfortable speaking with a native speaker now that I did before I
participated in this program.
9. I feel confident that I can conduct virtual meetings in English in a work environment.
10. This program has made me more aware of the needs, interests, and abilities of others
11. This program has changed the way that I interact with others of cultural backgrounddifferent from my own.
12. Due to this experience, I would like to study abroad.

Language Learning COIL Project 2
The following year both instructors collaborated on another language learning COIL project.
Table 4 provides an overview of another COIL project that both instructors collaborated on in
2021. This time, Instructor A used a class of students at a different university (University C) in
Central Japan. The students in University C were early childhood education majors in their thirdyear at university. While the students at University B in northeastern China were Japanesemajors in their first year. For students at University C, many were studying to become teachers innursery schools, kindergartens, or elementary schools. The students at University B in
northeastern China were studying Japanese, even though they were participating in an EFL class.
The 70 students were divided into 12 groups, with around three students from Japan and three
students from China in each group.

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
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Table 4
Language Learning COIL Project 2 Background information
University C (Japan)

University B (China)

LocationCentral Japan

Northeastern China

Institution

PrivatePublic

Size

1,900

32,000Major

Early Childhood Education

JapaneseClass(es)Foreign Language (English) Exercise

English Communication Skills

Students

36

44

English level

Lower intermediate

Upper intermediate and advanced

The objectives for this COIL project were the same as the previous year. However, the plan andtasks were different. Table 5 provides an overview of the Language Learning COIL Project 2. In
this project, students collaborated on weekly tasks to learn and discuss the culture of cities in
China and Japan. The students were assigned a city in China and Japan to research, discuss,compare and contrast. Each week the students were asked to find a time to discuss their findings
and create a short PowerPoint presentation. The students uploaded their group PowerPoint
presentations to Lark, a collaboration software that allows to students to chat by text, video, andshare files. Finally, the students created a final presentation that compared the life and culture ofboth cities. The students recorded the presentation through Lark and uploaded it for theirclassmates to watch.
Table 5
Language Learning COIL Project 2
Phase

Week

ActivityPrep

0

Download Lark and create an account, join their Lark group1

1

Icebreaker/ self-introduction-Upload a self-introduction video for 90
seconds; 2 truths, 1 lie

2

2Research and discuss general information about their assigned cities;
create PowerPoint slides

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM
3

Research and discuss the history and relics of the cities; create
PowerPoint slides

4

Research and discuss the culture around food of the cities; create
PowerPoint slides

5

Research and discuss Customs and lifestyles in the cities; create
PowerPoint slides

3

6Group study report; Put slides together; Record group presentation

4

7

Reflection; fill out survey and questionnaire.

To assess the students’ learning and gain a better understanding of the students’experience, a pretest and post-test survey was administered to the students in Japan through
Google Forms. The pretest and post-test survey, adapted from Ceo-DiFrancesco and BenderSlack (2016) was administered in Week 0 and Week 8 through Google Forms. See Appendix forthe sample of the adapted survey. Additionally, in Week 8, the students answered three openended questions 1) What did you learn from this project? 2) Why is that important? 3) How willthat help you in the future. As previously mentioned, the surveys and questionnaires were used tohelp both teachers to better understand the students’ experiences and to assess the degree towhich the objectives for this project were met.
Results
Analysis and discussion of the data collected from Language Learning COIL Project 1 areavailable in Ottoson (2022). Themes developed through the post-test questionnaires highlight thechange in attitudes toward other cultures and English communication. Reflections from theparticipants focused primarily on the increased openness, curiosity, and respect for othercultures, followed by the importance and enjoyment of using English to communicate acrosscultures. Furthermore, participants described development in virtual learning, research, andleadership skills. Results from Language Learning COIL Project 2 will be detailed in aforthcoming paper. Similar themes were noticed. However, students from University C focused agreat deal of attention on their initial fears and worries about collaborating with students in
China. These initial fears lessened as students participated in icebreaking activities and informal
video chats. While the more proficient English users from University A focused more on seeing
the usefulness of English as a tool for communication, the lower-proficient English users from34

COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
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University C largely mentioned a reduction in anxiety and fear in using English to communicate
with people who are not from Japan.
Discussion
Regardless of the students involved in collaboration, considerable attention and time arenecessary for setting up a COIL project. Establishing shared goals and objectives will help guidethe direction of a COIL project. Communicating the goals and objectives to the students can buy
into the project. Particularly, students with lower proficiency in the target language may needmore time and consideration in beginning a COIL project. Icebreaking activities should allow thestudents to use and get comfortable with the software and each other. Creating a friendly andpositive atmosphere at the beginning can help to ensure all students will collaborate more
actively and positively toward the final objective.
Finally, students need time to reflect on their development and learning. Prior to setting
up a COIL project, it is important to ask, “What are our goals? and “How we will know when we
have reached them?” Setting up these goals at the classroom level is important, but ultimately, it
is necessary to consider how these goals work toward an institution’s overall mission andobjectives. Relying on one method of assessment is not enough. Vande Berg (et al. (2012)encourage a healthy skepticism of self-reports from intercultural experiences. These glowing
self-reports can fall victim to social desirability bias because students may exaggerate theirlearning as they feel that is what the teachers or coordinators will want to hear. It is important toconsider how to confirm these self-reports of learning and development. The two projects
described in this paper rely on students’ self-reports of developments. While these positive selfreports are promising, more careful confirmation of these reports is necessary. Triangulation
through multiple data sources can confirm students’ self-reports and develop a morecomprehensive understanding of what’s happening in these COIL projects. Ultimately, theseresults need to be shared not only with the administration and our colleagues but the students
themselves. Data collected from internationalization efforts need to be analyzed, shared, andcommunicated to a variety of stakeholders, including the students. Providing feedback to thestudents provides a way for them to improve their learning (Deardorff, 2018).

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Conclusion
In conclusion, COIL is a type of virtual exchange that enables teachers and all their students toconnect, collaborate, and learn as a part of their course. Within COIL, language-learning COIL
projects aim to offer opportunities for students to develop their fluency in a foreign language
through numerous opportunities to interact and collaborate synchronously with students fromdifferent cultures and countries. While there are many challenges when setting up and carryingout a language-learning COIL project (e.g., finding a partner, learning a new collaboration
software, collaborating across cultures, navigating time zone differences), the opportunities forintercultural competence development in a time when study abroad programs and overseas
exchanges have been cancelled or postponed far outweigh the difficulties teachers and students
may incur. Finally, all COIL programs and their participants differ. Thus, more understanding of
the experiences and development is needed. Further investigations of a diverse array of COIL
programs can bolster this understanding. For those interested in participating in a COIL or
different type of virtual exchange, a growing number of universities have joined COIL networks(e.g., SUNY COIL Global Network, IIGE Global Network, JPN-COIL Association) that help
connect their instructors to possible collaborators abroad. If an educational institution is notaffiliated with a COIL network, a quick online search can provide more information about
joining a network or finding a collaborator for a COIL project.
BIO DATAKevin Ottoson is a lecturer at Nagoya Women’s University. He holds an EdD fromthe University of New England. His research interests include study abroad andassessment of intercultural competence.

References
Beelen, J., & Jones, E. (2015). Redefining Internationalization at Home. In A. Curai, L. Matei,
R. Pricopie, J. Salmi & P. Scott (Eds.), The European higher education area: Between
critical reflections and future policies (pp. 67-80). Springer.
Ceo-DiFrancesco, D. & Bender-Slack, D. (2016). Collaborative online international learning:Students and professors making global connections. In A. K. Moeller (Ed.) Fostering

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CLASSROOM
connections, empowering communities, celebrating the world (pp. 147-174). Central
States Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.
COIL Consulting, (n.d.). What is COIL? COIL Consulting. http://www.coilconsult.com/what-iscoil-.html
Deardorff, D.K. (2018). Outcomes assessment for senior international officers and international
student recruitment. In D.K. Deardorff & H. Charles (Eds.) Leading internationalization:
A handbook for international education leaders (pp. 73-80). Stylus.
Hauck, M. & MacKinnon, T. (2016). A new approach to assessing online intercultural exchange,
Online intercultural exchange: Policy, pedagogy, practice (pp. 209-234). Routledge.
Ikeda, K. (2021, March 1). Case Study 2. Kansai University COIL projects.
https://rihe.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/wp/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/20210301-Keiko-Ikeda.pdf
Ikeda, K. (2021, September 4). Language learning focused COIL (Collaborative Online
International Learning) as a new gateway for inclusive international education[Conference plenary]. 2021 Study Abroad SIG Conference, Online.
Institute for Innovative Global Education, (2022). Resources KU-COIL. Institute for Innovative
Global Education. https://www.kansai-u.ac.jp/Kokusai/IIGE/resources/KU-COIL.php
Kern, R. (2014). Technology as pharmakon: The promise and perils of the internet for foreign
language education. Modern Language Journal, 98(1), 340-357.
Malinowski, D., & Kramsch, C. (2014). The ambiguous world of heteroglossic computermediated language learning. In A. Blackledge & A. Creese (Eds.), Heteroglossia aspractice and pedagogy (pp. 155-178). Springer.
O’Dowd, R. (2013). Tellacollaborative networks in university higher education: Overcoming
barriers to integration. The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 47-53.
O’Dowd, R., & O’Rourke, B. (2019). New developments in virtual exchange for foreign
language education. Language Learning & Technology, 23(3), 1-7.
http://hdl.handle.net/10125/44690

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CLASSROOMO'Dowd, R. (2019). A transnational model of virtual exchange for global citizenship education.
Language Teaching, 53(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444819000077
Ottoson, K. (2022). Enhancing and expanding intercultural learning collaborative online
international learning. In T. Cooper & J. York (Eds.) Remote teaching & beyond:Selected papers from the JALTCALL 2021 Conference (pp. 91-106). JALTCALL SIG.
https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTSIG.CALL.PCP2021-07
Reiffenrath, T., de Louw, E. & Haug, E. (2020, October 8). Virtual exchange andinternationalization at home: The perfect pairing. [Blog post]. Retrieved fromhttps://www.eaie.org/blog/virtual-exchange-internationalisation-at-home.html
Rubin, J. (2017). Embedding collaborative online international learning (COIL) at higher
education institutions: An evolutionary overview with exemplars. Internationalisation ofHigher Education, 2, 27-44.
Stevens Initiative. (2021). Virtual exchange typology. The Aspen Institute.
https://www.stevensinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Stevens-Initiative-VirtualExchange-Typology_090121_singlepages.pdf
SUNY COIL Center, (n.d.). Welcome. SUNY COIL Center. https://coil.suny.edu
Teekens, H. (2013, June 15). Internationalisation at home-Crossing other borders. University
World News.
https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20130613084529186
Vande Berg, M., Paige, R. M., & Lou, K. H. (2012). Student learning abroad: Paradigms andassumptions. In M. Vande Berg, R. M. Paige, & K. H. Lou (Eds.), Student learning
abroad: What our students are learning, what they’re not, and what we can do about it(pp. 3-28). Stylus.
Yonezawa, A. Akiba, H., & Hirouchi, D. (2009). Japanese university leaders’ perceptions ofinternationalization: The role of government in review and support. Journal of Studies inInternational Education, 13(2), 125-142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315308330847

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOMAPPENDIX
Language Learning COIL Project 2 Questionnaire

Please rate your current understanding of each of the following aspect of Chinese
culture. (1 = lowest rating, 10 = highest rating)
Culturalknowledge

Religion
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Pop culture
1
Family1
History
1

Civilization
1
Politics
1
Poverty1

Education
1
Language
Proficiency

2

Please rate your current level of English proficiency in the following areas: (1 =lowest rating, 10 = highest rating)
Listening
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Speaking
1

2

Grammar1

2

Vocabulary

39

COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

8

9

10

Collaborative Online International Learning
1
Socioeconomic/
educational
responsibility

2

3

4

5

6

7

Please rate your current level of engagement in the following areas: (1 = lowest
rating, 10 = highest rating)

Evaluate your interest in social progress abroad (e.g., malnutrition, water sanitation,
literacy)
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Global competence. Evaluate your interesting in interest in international perspectives
and issues.
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Global Community Involvement. Please rate your current desire to volunteer orengage in international service.
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Evaluate your current understanding of the impact of the school philosophy toward
education (kindness).
1
Intercultural
Communication

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Please read the following statements and fill in the numbers that apply. (1 = lowest
rating, 5 = highest rating)

It is fun to interact with people from different cultures
1

2

3

4

5

I tend to think a little before I form an opinion about people who are culturally
different, rather than making up my mind right away.
1

2

3

4

5

I am not prejudiced against people from other cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

I am comfortable dealing with people who are culturally different.
1

2

3

4

5

I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures

40

COLLABORATIVE ONLINE INTERNATIONAL LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM
1

2

3

4

5

I am very careful when interacting with people from other cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

When I interact with people from other cultures, I try to get as much information as
possible.
1

2

3

4

5

I am sensitive to the subtle implications of interacting with people who are culturally
different.
1

2

3

4

5

I am fairly confident in my ability to interact with people from other cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

I always know what to say when I interact with people from other cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

I am interested in participating in a study abroad program.
1

2

3

4

5

I think people from other cultures are narrow-minded.
1

2

3

4

5

I don't like to be around people from other cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

I cannot tolerate the values of people from different cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

I cannot tolerate the behavior of people from different cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

I do not accept the opinions of people from other cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

I think that my culture is better than other cultures.
1

2

3

4

5

41

NUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGSThe Benefits of Self-reflection Tools for Foreign Language Learners
JESSICA ZONI UPTON
Nagoya University of Foreign Studies
MINA HIRANO
Nagoya University of Foreign Studies
Abstract
Self-reflection, defined as “a conscious mental process relying on thinking, reasoning, andexamining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and ideas” (Gläser-Zikuda, 2012), has over the years
been assimilated in education through tools such as diaries, logs, and journals (Bailey &Ochsner, 1983; Bailey, 1991; Gardner, 2000; Moon, 2003; Absalom & De Saint Léger, 2011;
Litzler, 2014a) as a way to record, reflect, or assess learning. This mixed-method study
conducted at university level from April 2020 to January 2022, explores the effects of two tools,
the Self-Learning Log and the Independent Study, on over 100 English majors. Results showthat participants perceived numerous benefits through self-reflection, such as improved
motivation and skills. Moreover, the findings reveal (online and HyFlex) did not impact
students’ perceptions as much as the tools’ designs did, suggesting that the self-reflection tools
can be adapted to various educational settings.

Introduction
With the sudden wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has brought a fundamental change in
how education is being delivered, more pressure has been placed on learners in higher education
to regulate their own learning. As educators, we believe that it is our responsibility to provide
tools to support learners who were suddenly set on a voyage as independent learners. Somethingthat helps them to be successful learners is self-reflection, a metacognitive process throughwhich learners are able to be “aware of their own learning processes, their weaknesses andstrengths” (Ertmer and Newby, 1996, as cited in Moon, 2004, p.7). This mixed-method study
focused on the learners’ perceived benefits of two self-reflection tools which were employed at

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
university level during two academic years, from 2020 to 2022, under different learning settingsfrom complete online classes to HyFlex due to the challenging situation of the pandemic.
Literature Review
Self-Reflection and Self-Regulated Learning
It has been considered that self-reflection, or simply reflection, plays a crucial role in learning in
general. Moon (2004) describes reflection not only as “part of learning” but as a mental processor “secondary learning” that brings learning as a result (p.3). Reflection is activated in a learner’s
trial of making (new) sense of one’s previous knowledge or new material which can often bringnew ideas and understandings. In addition, Rogers (1969) points out that learners can develop “asense of ownership of the material of learning” (as cited in Moon, 2004, p.9). There are various
possible outcomes of reflection, such as critical thinking, personal and professional development,
theory building, decision making, problem solving, empowerment, emotional development andother beneficial results (Based on Moon 1999, as cited in Moon, 2004).
Reflection is strongly involved in the theory of Self-Regulated Learning. Self-Regulated
Learning, or SRL, has its roots in research of metacognition and social cognition of individual
learners in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Zimmerman, 2002). Researchers found that individual
differences in learning were associated with a lack of metacognitive or self-awareness of one’s
own limitations and incapability of dealing with such weaknesses. Such findings encouraged
educators to promote learners’ self-awareness, goal setting, and self-monitoring. Zimmerman(2002) defines self-regulation as “self-generated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that areoriented to attaining goals” and describes self-regulated learners as “proactive in their efforts tolearn because they are aware of their strengths and limitations and because they are guided bypersonally set goals and task-related strategies” (pp.65-66).
There are three cyclical phases in SRL - Forethought Phase, Performance Phase, andSelf-Reflection Phase (See Figure 1, next page). The third cyclical phase, ‘self-reflection’, has
two major components: self-judgment or self-evaluation, and self-reaction. The first component
shows that learners evaluate their own process or performance in learning by using some kind of
standard or their own (or others’) previous performance. This evaluation is also possible by selfbelief of the causes of success or failure (for instance, by simply looking at the score) that iscalled causal attribution (Zimmerman, 2002). One type of self-reaction, the second component of

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
the self-reflection phase, is feelings of self-satisfaction about one's own performance and its
effects. The increase of self-satisfaction will enhance learners’ motivation while the decrease in
self-satisfaction will slow down the effort towards learning. The other types are ‘adaptive
reaction’, when learners try to protect themselves by withdrawing or avoiding learning, and‘defensive reactions’, which refers to learners trying to adjust ineffective learning styles for
improvement. Thus, the self-reflection process in learning is essential for learners and enables
them to step forward for further learning goals with increased motivation, leading them to abetter performance by effective self-control.
Figure 1
Phases and Subprocesses of Self-Regulation. From Zimmerman, 2002, p.67

Self-reflection in Second or Foreign Language Acquisition
In recent years, studies on reflections or reflective learning have been looked at with growinginterest among researchers in education. Glaser-Zikuda (2012), who defined self-reflection as“self-observation and report of one’s thoughts, desires, and feelings'', designates such attention as
due to “the paradigm shift from teaching to learning” and the role of educational institutions is

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
no longer for “knowledge transfer” but rather as “a well-prepared learning environment tosupport individual learning processes” (pp.100-101). In this sense, there has been an increased
demand for learners to develop SRL processes including self-reflection. Furthermore, a numberof studies (Halbach, 2000; Platt and Brooks, 2002; Lai, Zhu and Gong, 2015; Litzer and Bakieva,2017) have reported that self-reflection is effective in the field of Second or Foreign Language
Acquisition (SLA/FLA) from various benefits such as developing learner confidence andmotivation, effective performance, and enjoyment of learning. To summarize, self-reflection has
been a key element in learning, especially in terms of SRL and its effectiveness has been appliedin the area of SLA/FLA. Nevertheless, as Moon (2004) points out, we can never make a learnerreflect; rather, it is important to create situations or environments where reflection is able tooccur. Learning reflection tools such as learning journals, reflective diaries, and logs contributeto setting up such conditions for learners’ “meaningful and good-quality learning” (Moon, 2004,
p.9)
Self-reflection Tools
Over the years, self-reflection tools have been applied to the field of educational science and
SLA/FLA (Bailey & Ochsner, 1983; Bailey, 1991; Gardner, 2000; Moon, 2003; Absalom & De
Saint Léger, 2011; Litzler, 2014a) as a way to record, reflect, or assess learning. Moon (2003)
explains slightly different purposes for each of the major tools of self-reflection: learningjournals as “making explicit and recording the learning that occurs”, reflective diaries as“demonstrating reflection on an experience”, and logs as a “record of events that have happened”(p.2). Although the naming and the styles of tools that have been used for such studies aredifferent, it is included in the bigger frame of Diary Studies (Bailey & Ochsner, 1983; Bailey
1990; Curtis and Bailey 2009). The content of learning diaries can focus either or both onreflections of in-class learning (Ruso, 2007; Christensen, Lindom, Orten, Rigbolt & VeraBatista, 1990; Dam & Thomson, 1990) or outside of class learning (Halbach, 2000; Hyland,
2004; Lai, Zhu & Gong, 2015). The periods for such studies vary from whole semesters to a
week (i.e. Hyland, 2004) and often are part of the courses in higher education (Huang, 2005;
Absalom & De Saint Léger, 2011; Debreli, 2011). Studies using self-reflection tools in
SLA/FLA have been actively done in various areas and countries such as Spain (Halbach, 2000;
Litzler and Bakieva, 2017a and 2017b),), Hong Kong (Hyland, 2004), China (Huang 2005; Lai,

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Zhu & Gong, 2015), Australia (Absalom & De Saint Léger, 2011), Indonesia (Maharsi, 2018),
Sweden (Ringmar, 2021), and Japan (Hirano and Zoni Upton, 2022).
Research Questions
Two different types of self-learning logs, which will be further described in the method section,
were created and used for this research. In this study, two research questions were explored:
RQ1. How did participants perceive the two self-reflection tools used in this study?
RQ2. Did the learning environment affect students’ perceptions of the self-reflection tools?
MethodParticipantsParticipants were 117 second-year university students majoring in British and American Studies
and English Communication at a private foreign language university in central Japan. All
participants were taking an EFL communicative and content-based English class called “CORE
English 3-4” twice a week from seven EFL lecturers from the Department of British andAmerican Studies. Participant’s biographical data was not collected because it is not relevant tothis research.
Tools
In this study, the following two self-reflection tools were used:
Self-Learning Log (SLL). The first self-reflection log called Self-Learning Log (SLL) was
created as a Google document, during the academic year between April 2020 and January 2021
which was online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. There were three main purposes to this tool:
to give students a chance to reflect on learning both inside and outside of the classroom, to give
students a chance to be self-regulated or autonomous, and to encourage students to stay
motivated during the online academic year. In the log, there were three categories to fill in(Appendix A): week number, reflection of in-class learning of the target class previously
mentioned, and reflection of out-of-class learning or how they practiced English outside of class.
In order to encourage participants’ reflective process, samples were created and explained at the
beginning of the semester (Appendix A). Participants updated the log every week and submitted

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
through Google Classroom once a month at the end of every unit of the textbook. Participants
did not receive any credit or letter grade for writing this log since this was an ungradedassignment. An example of participants’ use of the tool is shown in Appendix B.
Independent Study (IS). The second self-reflection tool called Independent Study (IS) was
created in a Google document format, during the HyFlex academic year from April 2021 till
January 2022. After the online academic year of 2020, the university introduced a studentalternation system where, in turns, only half of the students of each class would join the face-toface class while the other half did self-study at home. There were three main purposes for thesecond tool: to assign students some learning activity for self-study weeks, to see how selfreflection tools could be adapted to an online environment versus a HyFlex one or studentalternation environment, and to compare the perceived impacts of two different styles ofreflection tools. There are three sections in the IS: the home study week number, a reflection on
how they used English during home study weeks (except homework), and a learning goal for thefollowing home study week (Appendix C). The second and third categories were followed by thequestions How did you use English during your home study week except homework? and do you
want to do or learn during your next home study week? Each of us authors created both goodand bad samples to help participants have a clearer understanding of how to fill in their reflection(Appendix C). Unlike the first self-reflection tool, the second tool was a graded assignment withpoints out of 100 during the first semester. Then, from the second semester of academic year
2021, it was changed to an ungraded, optional assignment due to the change from studentalternation system to face-to-face with the exception of a few students who chose HyFlex
participation. During the first semester, participants wrote reflections every other week during
their home studying week. Then, reflections were submitted through Google Classroom once amonth at the end of every unit of the textbook. An example of participants’ use of the tool isshown in Appendix D.
Since the IS was a graded assignment during the first semester, a rubric was created andcarefully explained at the beginning of the semester (Appendix E). There were four evaluation
items in the rubric, each with a weighting of 25 points. Each evaluation item was described by asimple question: (1) Are all sections complete? (2) Does the reflection answer the question? (3)Does it answer the question in detail? (4) Is the goal for the following home study week updated
and realistic? As Moon (2004b) points out, it is crucial to decide whether focus of the criteria is

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS“the content of the reflection learning” or “the reflective process itself” (p.13). Although both areimportant parts of the reflection, the rubric used in this study weighs slightly more toward thelatter. By making sure to answer the two questions with details on the IS (“How did you use
English during your home study week except homework?” and “What do you want to do or learn
during your next home study week?”) participants are able to go through a reflection process. The
third question on the rubric connects the Forethought Phase of the SRL mentioned in the
Literature Review section. By setting a realistic and updated goal for the following home study
week, participants are encouraged to better perform in self-study.
It was an important part of learning that in both cases the reflection was written in
English as Little (2007) claims that when reflections are kept in the target language, thereflections, journals, diaries, or logs will “move to the very centre of the learning process” andthose will become “the story of the individual’s language learning…illustrating the gradualexpansion of identity that comes with developing proficiency in a second or foreign language”(p. 26). In addition, every time participants submitted the reflection, most teachers returned withcomments and suggestions by using the Commenting function of Google document. Litzler andBakieva (2017a) indicate the importance of teacher guidance for learners in starting to keep
reflective tasks especially if learners are from “an education system that encourages dependence
on the instructor” (p. 68) which clearly applies in the case of traditional education systems injunior or high schools in Japan. Therefore, careful explanations with samples and feedback were
given throughout this study to support the participants.
Research Design
As the purpose of this study was to uncover students’ perceptions of the two self-reflection tools
as well as checking whether any perceived similarities or differences were influenced by theirrespective learning environments, we decided to adopt a Mixed Methods Research (MMR)
approach with a sequential explanatory design and nested sampling (Collins, et al., 2007). MMR
is commonly defined as “collecting, analyzing, and mixing quantitative and qualitative data at
some stage of the research process within a single study” (Creswell, 2008, as cited in Ivankova &Creswell, 2009, p.137) or “in a series of studies that investigate the same underlying
phenomenon” (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2008). While multi-methods research also allows for thecollection and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data, the main difference lies inwhether the different data sets are being mixed or integrated together. According to Sandelowski

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS(2003), one of the goals of MMR is, in fact, to combine two or more data sets of quantitative andqualitative nature in order to gain a thorough understanding of what is being analyzed. The
mixing of the two different types of data can enrich the interpretive validity of the overall data
set. Moreover, as Dӧrnyei (2007) points out, MMR has the potential to reach a multitude ofaudiences, quantitative and qualitative researchers, hence our choice to use MMR for this study.
Data Collection
Data were collected entirely through questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires for the SLL
and for the IS respectively (Appendices F & G) were administered online as Google Forms andshared with students on the Google Classroom platform. Both questionnaires were first piloted
with a small group of EFL teachers, then adjusted based on their feedback. Moreover, the ISquestionnaire was further revised after analyzing the shortcomings of the SLL questionnaire. For
the part of the study that took place during the online academic year, the questionnaire wasadministered to four classes, two classes for each of us authors. On the other hand, thequestionnaire for the IS was administered to 14 classes, two for each of the seven teachers,
including us, who used the tool during the HyFlex academic year. Both questionnaires were
written in English and Japanese because the target audience were Japanese learners of English,
and contained an explanation of the research, a consent form (those who did not wish to proceed
could close the page without submitting), closed questions on a Likert Scale, and open-ended
questions for clarification (Dӧrnyei, 2007, pp.105-107). The questions aimed to measure
students’ experience and opinions on the self-reflection tool being used at the time of eachsurvey. For each questionnaire, a question was included to ask for volunteers for follow-up
interviews and draw a smaller sample for the following data collection. Whilst conducting
interviews during the online year was not possible due to time constraints, interviews during the
HyFlex academic year were arranged shortly following the second questionnaire data collection.
One-on-one interviews were conducted with students who had volunteered. In order to avoid
overlap between survey and interview answers but still allow for a follow-up on interesting ideas
and suggestions, we decided to choose the format of semi-structured interviews (Dӧrnyei, 2007;
Saunders, et al., 2009). Each volunteer was emailed the interview questions (Appendix H) and an
explanation of the interview format ahead of the interview day. Volunteers could then choose
whether to have the interview on Zoom or in person, and whether to use English or Japanese.
Furthermore, we chose interview participants who had never used a self-reflection tool before

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
and had been taught by different teachers, in order to minimize selection bias.

Data Analysis
As mentioned above, the different data from questionnaires and interviews were administeredand analyzed at different times before being mixed in the final stage of the data analysis. The
sequential timing of the data collection and the integrating nature of the mixing of the data sets,
defines this study as mixed methods research with explanatory design (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2007). The ordinal data from the Likert-Scale questions in the two questionnaires were analyzed
first and organized in graphical summaries (bar charts) that would help provide descriptive
validity to the qualitative data. Qualitative data from questionnaires were then analyzed using
inductive coding (Given, 2008; Saldana, 2009). In other words, all codes derived from finding
common keywords and patterns from students’ written comments. Once the first phase of data
analysis was concluded, the student sample for semi-structured interviews was chosen from thelist of volunteers. Once all interviews had taken place, the interview recordings were manuallytranscribed. As the purpose of the transcriptions was exclusively to analyze the interviewees’
discourse for additional codes, we did not deem it necessary to conduct a phonetic transcription.
All codes and qualitative data were then shown to a fellow researcher in-person to confirm thevalidity of the codes we had discovered.
Finally, questionnaire and interview data were integrated and analyzed together in orderto answer the research questions.
Results and Discussion
In order to better answer the research questions, results have been organized according to three
focal points: 1) Were the self-reflection tools perceived as beneficial by the participants toimprove as learners? 2) If so, in what ways were the two tools perceived as beneficial by theparticipants? 3) Would participants voluntarily continue using these tools independently in the
future? Why/why not?
Were the self-reflection tools perceived as beneficial by the participants to improve as
learners?

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
The simple answer to the first question is: yes. As shown in Figure 2 below, both the SLL andthe IS were considered useful by the majority of participants.

Figure 2
Reported usefulness of self-reflection tools

Although to various degrees, an overwhelming majority of participants, 86.7% (SLL) and 93.6%(IS) respectively, agreed that the self-reflection tool which they had used had proved to bebeneficial to them.
In what ways were the two tools perceived as beneficial by the participants?
In order to answer the question above, one must first consider the initial purpose of each selfreflection tool. As previously explained, the SLL focused on students’ conscious reflection onlearning both inside and outside of the classroom, while the IS focused on learning after school
hours and on setting goals. As a consequence, it is not surprising to see that participants had
considerably different impressions on how the two tools helped their review and in-class learningreflection process (Figure 3, next page) compared to how they helped their outside-of-classlearning reflection process (Figure 4, next page).
Whilst 100% of participants agreed that the SLL was beneficial for reviewing orinternalizing in-class learning, the IS was instead deemed as non-beneficial by a vast majority ofparticipants (78%). Said result appears to suggest that there is a connection between the tool51

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
design and the consequences for users. This rationale is confirmed by the results depicted in
Figure 4 below.

Figure 3
Helpfulness of each self-reflection tool for reviewing/internalizing in-class learning

Figure 4
Helpfulness of each self-reflection tool for aiding autonomous learning outside of class

As shown above, both self-reflection tools were positively perceived by the majority ofparticipants in terms of their usefulness for aiding autonomous learning outside of the classroom.

52

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Since both tools included a focus on outside-of-class learning, one can interpret the comparisonof the results of Figures 3 and 4 and conclude that the design of each tool might be a potential
determinant of the perceived outcomes.
For a more exhaustive inspection of the usefulness of the two tools, one must look atparticipants’ qualitative data. Tables 1 and 2 below list the codes found for each tool, and thefrequency (f) with which each code appeared in students’ questionnaire comments. It is
important to note that not all students who participated in the surveys replied to open questions,
therefore the numbers shown below are lower than the number of participants.
Table 1
Self-Learning Log codes and frequency

Table 2
Independent Study Codes and frequency

53

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
As shown in the two tables 1 and 2, both tools were considered beneficial for ‘increasing/maintaining motivation’ and ‘improving or gaining new skills’.
Below are student comments on how each of the tools aided their motivation:“It gave me the motivation to do something outside of class.” (SLL User)“自分に足りないものは何か、伸ばしたい点は何かを考えることで自分の英語に対する意欲を再確認することができました” (I could confirm my motivation towards
English by thinking what I lack and what I want to improve) (IS User)
The use of the tools helped many participants maintain motivation to continue learning outside of
the regular class time. The second comment illustrates how the process of reflection inherent to
the tools and be useful to reaffirm and maintain learner motivation. Another common reason for
the tools’ aiding motivation was discovered to be teachers’ comments and feedback, as shown in
the example comments below:“I was motivated to study because I was given feedback on my independent study”(Anonymous)“If my teacher’s comments are good, they will make me happy, and I can keep trying.”(Anonymous)
The following comment, on the other hand, focuses on how the independent aspect of a selfreflection tool (choosing how to practice outside of class) can not only enhance learnermotivation but could also possibly lead to skills development:“I had chances to study english I am interested in, and that study enhances mymotivation. So, I think I could improve.” (IS User)
Below are some of the reported comments related specifically to students’ perceived skills
development:

54

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS“When I did not know how to express, I used an electric dictionary and check the words.
I think this process is useful for English learners.” (SLL User)“I learned a lot of new words because I made tests for spelling and pronunciation.
Moreover, I made it a habit of watching dramas and movies in English with Japanesesubtitles. My English skills improved thanks to the Independent Study” (IS User)

Once again, the comments confirm that the freedom of learning style given by the tools can aid
skills development. Indeed, Absalom and De Saint Leger (2011) declare that “learners need totake ownership of their own learning in order for learning to take place” (p.190). For future
research, this theory could be tested by comparing perceived improvements to students’
TOEIC/TOEFL scores or to their grades in EFL classes.
It is, however, curious to see that although there are two common codes, the other codes
are not only different, but have a different focus. In fact, users of the SLL mainly reported on theimportance of reviewing and reflecting:“When I looked back, I was able to look back on the study methods I did, and I was
writing down what I had learned there, so it was also a review.” (Anonymous)“We were able to review our class, what we learn, how was my attitude in class, etc..So,it can help well.” (Anonymous)“When I looked back, I was able to look back on the study methods I did, and I was
writing down what I had learned there, so it was also a review.” (Anonymous)
On the other hand, users of the IS commented on the importance of being active and independent
learners, trying different learning styles and reflecting on their intrinsic or extrinsic motivations.
“Independent Study があったおかげで、自主的に英語を勉強する機会が増えた。

また、新聞を読んでみたり You Tube を見てみるなど、学習方法の幅が広がった
ため” (Thanks to Independent Study, there were more opportunities to study English on
my own. Also, my ways of learning has expanded by trying things like reading
newspapers and watching YouTube) (Anonymous)55

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS“It makes me realize that even my interests can be learning material. So I would like tokeep learning English from my interests.” (Anonymous)“I was able to create some new ways to learn English in addition to my own routine”(Anonymous)“自分から積極的に英語に触れようと行動するきっかけとなったから”(It has
become an opportunity to take an action to use English actively from my own initiative)(Anonymous)Once again, we can deduce from the results above that the design of the tools affected the ways
in which the users were impacted. Nonetheless, many of the perceived benefits of these twotools, such as increase in motivation and gaining new skills, correspond to commonly reported
benefits of using self-reflection tools (Halbach, 2000; Platt and Brooks, 2002; Lai, Zhu andGong, 2015; Litzler and Bakieva, 2017).
Would participants voluntarily continue using these tools independently in the future?
Why/why not?
Surprisingly, a majority of about 60% of users of each tool agreed that they would continue to
use the tool in the future (Figure 5).
Figure 5
Choice of independent continuation of the use of each self-reflection tool56

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
In order to acquire a more extensive understanding of participants’ reasons, we analyzed
students’ answers from the surveys and interviews for both ‘yes’ and ‘no’ responses. Below aresome reported comments on why students would not continue using the self-reflection tool:“I think I would not do that spontaneously” (SLL User)“I’m too lazy to continue” (SLL User)“It is very hard and troublesome” (SLL User)“I think it is a good way to remember what I learned, but I think I cannot continue when
it is not an assignment” (SLL User)“ 書くことが目的になりそうだし、自主的に勉強習慣がついたならシートに書く必要はないと思うため”(I'm afraid that writing the sheet itself would become thepurpose. Also, I think I don't need to write if I've come to develop a study habit
independently.) (IS User)“It's lazy for me to do it” (IS User)“Writing takes up a lot of time” (IS User)
Clearly, a variety of reasons can be found in participants’ comments, such as not needing theactivity if one has developed autonomous learning skills, or the time-consuming aspect of theactivity. However, the most commonly reported reasons for not continuing either tool werelaziness, and not feeling motivated to continue if it is no longer an assignment. The last reason isparticularly interesting to find since the activity was given as an assignment for three out of foursemesters, yet was only graded for one semester out of four. By taking that and students’comments about teacher feedback into consideration, we could therefore consider that it is not
the weighting of the activity on their overall grade which drove most students to continue, butrather the encouragement which they received from teachers which helped maintain motivationand helped find value in continuing. A study by Hoge, Smith, and Hanson (1990, as cited byPark & Lee, 1996) explained that feedback from teachers is one important factor to improvestudent’s self-efficacy. In the context of self-reflection, a study by Absalom and De-Saint Léger

57

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS(2011) considers that through the use of logs and journals, “the teacher–learner relationship isreconfigured so that the task becomes a modified dialogue between the student and the teacher ina way that other tasks are not” (p.191). The perceived value of teachers’ feedback in selfreflection tools is something that necessitates further investigation, especially when suchinteraction is taking place in the context of remote learning. This will be further explored bydiscussion of interviewees’ comments.
On the other hand, commonly reported reasons for continuing to use the self-reflection
tool were as follows:“I feel log with English is very useful way to improve my English, so I try continue to thiscustom” (SLL User)“自分が学んだことが目に見えて自信になると思うので時間が作れれば続けたいです” (Because what I learned becomes apparent, I believe I become more confident.
Therefore, I’d like to continue if I can make time) (SLL User)“Because I could remember what I did last week when I look backed my reflection. And
writing will also be remembered” (SLL User)“It makes me to continue studying English”(SLL User)“It's good to keep a record, and I think I can grow by seeing it” (IS User)“I want to get into the habit of learning outside of the classroom” (IS User)“日々の日記というか成長記みたいに使えるのでいいと思う” (I think it's a goodidea because it could be used as diary or the log of self-improvement) (IS User)
Interestingly, there is little difference in comments by users of each of the two tools. Both SLL
users and IS users commented that it would be beneficial to continue using it as a record forreview and self-growth. Likewise, users from both groups commented on continuing using thetools as a way to keep motivation to learn English.
Finally, it is important to hear from users who actually continued to use reflection tools when
they ceased to be an assignment. When asking interview participants the reasons why they chose

58

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
to continue using the tool, these varied from using it as a way to stay active during remoteclasses, a study method, a way to practice another foreign language for the first time, a way torecover/maintain motivation, and an opportunity. One interview participant discussed theconnection between the teacher feedback on self-reflection tools and the experience of remotelearning:
P: sometimes I feel happy
I: When did you feel happy?
P: Ah~ because the first semester was remote so..I.. sometimes I feel “it is OK…?.. can I
submit correctly?” but if the teacher have the comments or suggestions, I can feel happy or..
“My job is OK”
I: Relieved?
P: Relieved? Yes.
I: Especially because some of the classes were remote.
From the interview excerpt we can see that the participant felt uncertainty in their experience of
remote learning. As a result, the self-reflection tool was an opportunity for them to have a
student-teacher dialogue and find confirmation or reassurance in their learning. Indeed, teacher
feedback and student-teacher interaction have been positively connected with students’ perceived
improvements in self-reflection (Hoge, Smith, and Hanson (1990, as cited by Park & Lee, 1996)
and online education (Bordelon, 2011; Eom & Ashill, 2016). Finally, another interview
participant concluded that “With assignments, I feel like I’ve been forced to study but it [the IS]
gives me an opportunity to study English. So, that’s why I’d like to continue” (Interview
Participant), highlighting the role of self-reflection tools as an opportunity, not a task.
Conclusion and Future Study
The self-reflection tools proved to be a valuable way for participants to self-reflect. The majorityof participants reported improvements through self-reflection in terms of motivation, reflection
on learning styles, content review, second language skills improvement, and autonomous
learning skills. Unexpectedly, more than half of participants reported wanting to continue using
the tools independently. The study is of relevance to educators in all environments as it shows59THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
that the learning environment, such as online or HyFlex, was not a determinant factor of whether
or how learners benefit from using self-reflection tools.
This study also has some limitations as it used a sample of participants from the samedepartment and therefore included a certain degree of selection bias. However, since the two
self-reflection tools were designed to suit different learning environments, the results are intheory applicable to other contexts. Limitations in time to follow-up also narrowed the amount of
data, which could have provided information on whether and how participants used the tools
after the end of the course.
Future research may explore the use of these self-reflection tools in different contexts,
such as university students not majoring in foreign languages, to confirm whether the outcomes
would not differ if the design of the tools remains unchanged. Further research should also be
conducted to explore the impact of teacher feedback on the benefits of self-reflection. It would
be effective to have control and comparison groups to compare their perceptions on
improvements related to teacher-student interaction in self-reflections. Finally, this study will be
replicated with a longer research term to confirm the independent use of the tools.
BIO DATA
Jessica Zoni Upton has been teaching at universities in Japan for seven years, holds a MA
TESOL degree from Nagoya University of Foreign Studies and a BA in Japanese Studies. Her
main research interests include Intercultural Communication and Gender Studies.
Mina Hirano has been a lecturer for five years and currently teaches at Nagoya University ofForeign Studies. She holds an MA in Linguistic Science (English Education) from Nanzan
University. Her research interests are scaffolding, learner autonomy, and Interculturalcommunication.

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64THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX ASLL Sample
Name:_______________________ Student#________________
🌱🌱Please keep a record of your learning inside and outside of class time.

Please take a look at the example reflection below.
Week

e.g.
Week
1

Week
2

In-class learning

Out-of-class learning

Reflect on what you learned during today/thisweek’s class.

Reflect on what you did outsideof class to practice English.

Today we learned about nurture VS nature. I
On Monday, I had a zoom chatdidn’t know that in Japan people connect blood in English with my classmate.
types to personality.
Then, on Thursday, I watched a
I couldn’t participate well in group
Hollywood movie in English
conversation, but I enjoyed pair conversation.
with Japanese subtitles. Next
Next time I want to participate more actively in time, I want to try watching ita group, maybe ask more questions.
again without subtitles.
Today we discussed how to cope with workstress through reading. I could relate myself toit because I used to have so much stress at aworkplace where I worked part time. I could
share my experience with my classmate so I
felt happy. However, I couldn’t concentrate on
the class so much. I felt tired. I should haveenough sleep everyday.

On Monday, I watched YouTube
about how to exercise at home. I
really enjoyed learning
something new in English but
sometimes it was so difficult forme to understand what the
speaker was saying.
New Expressions:-stay fit and active-burn calories
Next time I want to learn how tocook in English.

65THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX BSLL Student Sample

66

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX CIS Sample

67

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX D
IS Student Sample

68

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX E
IS Rubric69

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX FSLL Questionnaire
Throughout the academic year, you have kept writing “Self-Learning Log”. I’d like to know how
it has been helpful for your learning and how it can be improved for future use. Your answers
will NOT affect your grades so please let me know your honest feelings and ideas about the log.
The results of this questionnaire might be introduced in a journal or a presentation for
educational purposes; however, it is only limited to the anonymous answers of this questionnaire.
Your actual self-learning logs will NOT be used in any type of research unless you give me
permissions.
After you read the explanation above and consent to answer the questions, please go to the next
page. If after you read the explanation above, you feel uncomfortable with answering thequestions, you do NOT have to answer the questions at all.
Thank you in advance for your time and sharing your ideas and experiences with me.
Part 1: Please tell me about how you see yourself as a learner.
1. Do you think you are an autonomous learner? (NOTE: Autonomous learner means a learner
who takes control of one's own learning both inside and outside of the classroom)(Strongly agree/Agree/Somewhat Agree/Disagree/Strongly Disagree)
Why do you think so?

2. Compared to yourself in April, do you think you have improved as a learner? (Yes/No)
Why？

3. Do you think writing a Self-Learning Log helped you be a good learner?
(Strongly agree/Agree/Somewhat Agree/Disagree/Strongly Disagree)
Why?

4. In the future, what kind of learner would you like to be? Please describe your ideal learner.

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
5. To be the learner you described above, what is one thing you can do from today?

Part 2: Please tell me how you kept writing the Self-Learning Log and how you felt aboutit.
1.

How often did you write your log?
(Every after the class/Once a week/Once in two weeks/Just before the submission deadline)2.

How long did it take you to write your log (for one week)?
(Within 15 minutes/Within 30 minutes/Within an hour/More than an hour)3.

Do you think writing the log helped you remember what you learned in the class?
(Yes/No)

4.

Do you think writing the log helped you use/practice English outside of the classroom?
(Yes/No)

5.

Would you keep writing this kind of log in the future?
(Yes/No)
Why/Why not?

Part 3: Please let me know your ideas for improvements of the Self-Learning Log in the
future.
1.

Which type of the log do you prefer?
(Google Document/Word/Paper)2.

How often would you like to submit?
(Every week/Every after the Unit/Twice in a semester/Three times in a semester/I do notwish to submit. I want to keep it personal)

3.

Do you prefer to receive some comments from the teacher? (Yes/No)

4.

If you have any suggestions or comments about the log, please feel free to write below.

71THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
5.

Is it OK with you to use some part of your log as an anonymous example in my research
paper/presentation in the future? If it's OK with you, can you write down your student
number below?

6. If you are willing to answer a short online interview about your self-learning experiences,
can you write down your email address below?

72

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX G
IS Questionnaire
Throughout the semester, you have been using the Independent Study sheet as part of your CE3
assignments. The purpose of this survey is to find out how helpful it has been for your learningand how it can be improved for future use. The results of this survey might be used for academic
research purposes, but your answer will be anonymous so please write your honest feelings andideas. IF you feel uncomfortable with completing the questionnaire after reading this
explanation, you can close this page anytime. Thank you in advance for your time and forsharing your ideas and experiences with us.
Core English 3 の課題の一部として、今学期中 Independent Study sheet を使用してきました。この調査の目的は、この Independent Study sheet があなたの学びにどのように助けとなったか、また、将来的にどのように改善することができるかを調べることです。本
調査の結果は学術的研究の目的で使用される可能性がありますが、匿名の回答となるので、正直な気持ちや考えを書いてください。もしも、この説明を読んだ後、本調査に回答するのを不快に感じた場合、回答する必要はありません。また、いつでも回答をやめてページを閉じても構いません。あなたの貴重な時間と、考え、経験を私たちと分かち合ってくれることに、感謝します。
1 Do you think you are an autonomous learner? （あなたは自分が autonomous learner だと思いますか？）(Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree)
2. Why do you think so? (なぜそう思いますか？）____________________________________________________________________________

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
3. Do you think doing the Independent Study sheet helped you improve as a learner compared toApril? （４月と比べて、Independent Study Sheet をやることで自分が learner として成長したと思いますか？）(Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree)
4. Why? (なぜですか？）______________________________________________________________________________
5. What kind of learner would you like to be?（あなたはどのような learner になりたいですか？）______________________________________________________________________________
6. To be the learner you described above, what is something you can do from today? （上記の質問に答えた learner になるために、あなたが今日からできることは何だと思いますか？）______________________________________________________________________________
7. How long did it take you to write your Independent Study sheet each time?

(Independent

Study sheet を書くのに毎回どのくらい時間がかかりましたか？）(Within 15 minutes, within 30 minutes, within an hour, more than an hour)
8. How often would you like to write it? (どのくらいの頻度で書きたいですか？）(Once a week, once every other week, once per unit, once a semester, I do not wish to submit. I
want to keep it to myself)

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
9. Do you think writing the Independent Study sheet helped you internalize what you learned in
the class? （Independent Study sheet を書くことは授業内容を身に着けることに役立ちましたか？）(Yes/No)
10. If you answered "yes" to the previous question, please explain. （９の質問に Yes と答えた
場合、なぜそう思ったか教えてください）______________________________________________________________________________
11. Do you think writing the Independent Study sheet helped you use/practice English outside of
the classroom more than usual? (あなたは Independent Study sheet を書くことが、通常よりも、教室外で英語を使用したり練習したりすることにつながったと思いますか？）(Yes/No)
12. Why do you think so? (なぜそう思いますか？）______________________________________________________________________________
13. Do you prefer to receive some comments from the teacher? (あなたは教員からIndependent Study sheet にコメントがほしいですか？）(Yes/No)
14. Why? （なぜですか？）______________________________________________________________________________
15. Would you keep writing this kind of Independent Study sheet in the future? (あなたはこのようなタイプの Independent Study sheet を書くことを将来も続けたいですか？）75

THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS(Yes/No)
16. Why/Why not? （なぜ続けたい／続けたくないですか？）______________________________________________________________________________
18. If you have any suggestions or comments on how to improve the Independent Study sheet,please feel free to write below. ( Independent Study sheet の改善方法について助言やコメン
トがあれば教えてください）______________________________________________________________________________
19. Some Independent Study sheet student samples might be used anonymously (name andstudent number will be removed) for research. If you DON'T WANT your Independent Study
sheet being used as a sample, please write your student number here. ( Independent Study sheetの一部をサンプルとして、匿名（個人の名前及び学生番号等を削除する）にした上で研究に使用する場合があります。もしも、それを望まない場合、ここに、あなたの学生番
号を書いてください。）______________________________________________________________________________
20. If you are willing to join a short online interview about your experience with the Independent
Study sheet in the future, please write your student number here. Thank you! (将来的に、このIndependent Study sheet におけるあなたの経験について、短いオンラインインタビューに協力してもよい場合、あなたの学生番号をここに書いてください。ご協力に感謝します。）______________________________________________________________________________

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THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERSAPPENDIX HInterview Questions

77THE BENEFITS OF SELF-REFLECTION TOOLS FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS

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NUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS

Using the News to Supplement Cultural Lecture Material: A Look at Learner
Beliefs
CHRISTOPHER ADAM LEAR
Nanzan University

Abstract
Engaging students in a lecture course taught in their L2 can be a daunting task. Issues such as
selecting materials, pacing, including relevant and thought-provoking content, providing
discussion topics and time, and using appropriate means of assessment all plague teachers whenplanning content-based lecture courses. News articles help alleviate some of these challenges.
Students can spend their own time researching the topic in the news and then come to class toshare it in small groups. However, using news articles written for native readers can be a strict
barrier for implementation. This paper introduces the use of region-specific news sources as a selfstudy and warm-up discussion activity and explores university student beliefs about the ease of theactivity, their enjoyment, and their perceived value. Data was collected by use of a 6-point, 15item Likert scale and three open questions. Students overall held positive beliefs about the activity
and reported that it aided in improving their reading and summarizing skills.
Introduction
The challenge of integrating real-world, authentic English in the language classroom has always
been a challenge for EFL teachers. Finding ways to accomplish this without oversaturating and, in
doing so, demotivating language learners is one goal many language teachers have. Additionally,learner ability-appropriate content which also piques learner interest and increases engagement
while building motivation is the cornerstone of successful material selection.
Linguistically speaking, to achieve authentic language input, L2 learners are exposed toauthentic materials including radio, songs, films, dramas, comedies, streaming media from Internet
sites like YouTube, and news from the target culture in the target language. While even a decadeago some of these materials would have had a more limited selection, with the spread of online
streaming sites like Netflix and Disney+ for TV-related media, Apple, Spotify, and YouTube
Music for songs, and many news media companies and newspapers making their content available

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LEARNER BELIEFS
online, accessing a variety of materials is no longer a barrier for the average person. This ease ofaccess to materials opens up new avenues educators have to approach authentic material generation.
Literature Review
News articles create an opportunity to bridge this gap and at the same time expose EFL students
to new ideas and different cultures. To be understood by a wider audience, news articles are often
written in the most precise and direct way possible to prevent misinterpretation and increase
accessibility (Blatchford, 1973; Brinton & Gaskill, 1978). Additionally, although often plagued by
low-frequency vocabulary, news agenda and topics similar in theme will use specific vocabulary
items and structures, thus making it beneficial as a repeated activity due to the increased
opportunity for vocabulary recycling. This makes a strong case that if one was to incorporate
unedited news articles in their class, repetition of the activity would be a more effective means of
implementation.
Regardless of this, while literature on authentic material usage is plentiful (Yadav & Jha,
2019), literature specifically focusing on news articles in the EFL/ESL classroom is quite limited(Molgen, 2014). Topics of existing literature range from using news media such as recorded
television or radio broadcasts (Brinton & Gaskill, 1978; Bahrani & Tam, 2011), material selection(Bell, 2003), and using a news-based curriculum (Molgen, 2014). Although requiring significant
preparation, Brighton and Gaskill (1978) suggested using news media for listening activities toincrease learner motivation and enthusiasm. Bahrani and Tam (2011) showed an improvement oflearner listening performance of students exposed to news recordings over those who weren’t.
Content is equally important when choosing suitable materials based on the learners’ level.
Identifying which articles require background knowledge (exogenous) and which can beunderstood without any specific prior knowledge (endogenous) help instructors plan and prepare
additional scaffolding when appropriate (Bell, 2003). Finally, news articles have shown to be asafe medium for introducing controversial or sensitive topics in which students have shown to holdan interest (Molgen, 2014).
Therefore, to get a more well-rounded idea of the potential of using news with EFL students
has, it is key to also look closer at students being asked to engage with the materials. This study
aims to explore learner beliefs about a warm-up news article activity for a content-based lecture80USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
course where students were tasked with finding an article from a pre-selected list of news sources,
reading and summarizing them, and then sharing them in small groups at the beginning of class.
MethodParticipants
The participants for this study came from one, second-year and two, third-year, year-long lecture
courses, focusing on Oceania culture for the second-year students, and European culture for thethird-year students. The courses were taught at a private university in central Japan. Courses lasted
15 weeks, meeting once every week for a duration of 90 minutes, and were conducted in English.
The total number of participants was 70 students, both male and female, however, the ratio of maleto female was not investigated. Participants belonged to the British and American Studies
department and could generally be described as holding positive beliefs toward the usage ofEnglish in the classroom. In terms of ability, students generally had a CEFR level of B1 and B2,
allowing them to understand the lecture content, assigned reading materials, and media shown inclass, with a few outliers in the A2 and C2 levels. Students were not streamed for these courses.
Implementation of News Exposure
The main theme of the three courses was to introduce physical and geopolitical geography, history,
economy, traditions, cultural events, and the way of life for each respective region. To achieve this,the courses set out goals for students to achieve by the conclusion of the semester. The goals wereas follows:
1. Listen to and understand lectures about the main themes
2. Conduct independent research on two topics and give two 5-minute presentations about
each
3. Read news articles or watch news media from the country and summarize them
4. Discuss the news in small groups for 10 minutes
5. Create a note diary, including notes from each lecture and summaries of each news
media
For the goals related to news media, students were tasked with finding a news article or othermedia related to the region being studied and summarizing it in preparation for class each week.
Students were given a list of possible sources to select from. These sources were chosen to either

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LEARNER BELIEFS
represent different areas of the respective region, or to provide students with various perspectivesof the respective region (Table 1). Students were encouraged to investigate sources and topics
which interested them most in the hope that it would help maintain motivation and keep students
engaged. Additionally, students had to use a note diary handout to record their article summary(Appendix A) that was used to help students prepare for the in-class discussion and was collected
at the end of the semester as a way for the teacher to check their work.
Table 1
News Sources Provided to Students to Use for the Activity
Oceania culture course

European culture course

Sydney Morning Herald: http://smh.com.au/

The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com

New Zealand Herald: https://www.nzherald.co.nz/

BBC News: https://www.bbc.com/news/world/europe

Hawaii News Now: http://hawaiinewsnow.com/

CNN: https://edition.cnn.com/EUROPE/The Guam Daily Post: http://www.postguam.com/

Iceland News: https://www.icenews.is

Fiji Sun: http://www.fijisun.com.fj/

Ansamed: https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/

Samoa Observer: http://samoaobserver.ws/

Eurasianet: https://eurasianet.org
Al Jazeera: https://aljazeera.com/topics/regios/europe.html

For the first 10 minutes of each class, students were divided into random groups of two to three
and asked to share the articles which they had summarized and discuss the content with their groupmembers. This activity was chosen for several reasons: (1) students were able to begin class byengaging with their classmates in their L2, essentially putting them into “English mode”, (2) byhaving the knowledge that students would be expected to share the article with their classmates,
there was added pressure to complete the task each week, (3) it was the expectation of the lecturer
that by having students engage with each other first, they would be more receptive to the daily
lecture, (4) by having student-centered discussions, they could have more opportunities to engage
with topic-specific language, which was expected to give them increased confidence during otherdiscussions and their presentations, and finally (5) by summarizing and sharing the news, students
could be exposed to a wider range of information about each region not covered in the lectures.
During these 10 minutes, the teacher would then walk around the room, listening to the various
discussions and intermittently joining the conversation by asking one or two questions. After 10
minutes, the class would continue with that day’s lecture.

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Data Collection
Students were given a single 15-item Likert scale questionnaire near the end of the second semester(Appendix B). The 6-point Likert scale ranged from 1 representing “Strongly Disagree” to 6
representing “Strongly Agree”. Questions were based around three primary categories of interest:
enjoyment of the activity (six items), ease of the activity (six items), and value of the activity (three
items). Seven of the questions were designed to have a negative counterpart. For example, thequestion “I look forward to hearing about my group members articles” had the counterpart “hearing
about the news from my group members is boring.” Additionally, the questionnaire contained threeopen questions. Both the Likert-scale and open questions were written in English only, but for the
open questions, students were instructed that they could use either English or Japanese whenanswering. The open-question responses were coded organized based on the content. Reponses arelisted in order of dominance.
Findings & Discussion
Likert Scores. When prompted with statements reflecting the ease of various parts of the activity,
student’s beliefs were shown to be neither strongly in agreement nor disagreement. When given
the statement “finding a news article is easy” (Figure 1, next page), students gave it an average of
4.33. Of the three aspects of ease investigated, finding the article was the highest ranked by
students. One possible reason for this could be the skills required to accomplish the task. Students
only needed to assess the obvious qualities of each article, such as content based on the title, length,
and complexity of vocabulary, when deciding which one to read.
Students were also given prompts about the ease of reading a news article (Figure 2, nextpage). With an average value of 3.67, students remained only slightly in agreement with thestatement. This could be attributed to the difficulty of the material, as it was not specificallydesigned for language learners but rather native speakers, thus challenging the lower-level students
more.

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USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
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Figure 1
Ease of Finding News Articles

30

19 (27%)18 (26%)20
15

11 (16%)9 (13%)

8 (11%)

105

25 (36%)23 (33%)25

8 (11%)

10 (14%)4 (6%)

3 (4%)

2 (3%)

0
Strongly Disagree(n=70)DisagreeSlightly Disagree

Finding a news article is easy.

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

It is difficult looking for a news article.

Figure 2
Ease of Reading News Articles

30
24 (34%)21 (30%)25

27 (39%)24 (34%)20
15
7 (10%) 8 (11%)

105

12 (17%)9 (13%)

3 (4%)
0 (0%)

3 (4%) 2 (3%)

0Strongly Disagree(n=70)DisagreeSlightly Disagree

Reading another culture’s news is easy.

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

It is difficult to read another culture’s news.

Finally, students were prompted on the ease of summarizing the articles (Figure 3, next page). This
received the lowest rank of the three, averaging 3.25. Students slightly disagreed with the statement,
which was anticipated as summarizing was the most intensive task of the three, requiring

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USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
comprehension, advanced lexical and grammar knowledge, and the ability to simplify complex
issues.
Figure 3
Ease of Summarizing News Articles

30
26 (37%)25
19 (27%)17 (24%)2020 (29%)17 (24%)15 (21%)15
10

8 (11%)

8 (11%)

5 (7%)5

2 (3%)

3 (4%)
0 (0%)

0
Strongly Disagree(n=70)DisagreeSlightly Disagree

I can finish summarizing the article quickly.

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

I have problems summarizing the article.

The next category students were prompted about was the enjoyment of various aspects of theactivity. One aspect investigated was the enjoyment of reading news from foreign sources (Figure
4, next page). On average, students valued this at 4.13 and, in conjunction with the ease of reading
the article results, revealed that although students might find something challenging, they could
still get enjoyment out of the task.
Students were also given statements about their enjoyment of sharing their articles with
their group members (Figure 5, next page). The average score was just slightly under the averagescore for reading the articles, 4.10. This was quite surprising as it was believed by the teacher thatstudents preferred the more social activities in class. Yet, the questionnaire results showed thatstudents had near equal enjoyment of both aspects of the activity.

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USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
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Figure 4
Enjoyment of Reading News Articles

30

28 (40%)27 (39%)25
20

18 (26%)17 (24%)14 (20%)15

13 (19%)8 (11%)10
5 (7%)

6 (9%)
3 (4%)

50 (0%)

0 (0%)

0
Strongly Disagree(n=70)DisagreeSlightly Disagree

I like reading the news from other cultures.

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Reading another culture’s news is boring.

Figure 5
Enjoyment of Sharing News Articles(n=70)
30

28 (40%)27 (39%)25
20

17 (24%)16 (23%) 16 (23%)

14 (20%)1510

8 (11%)

6 (9%)
3 (4%)5

2 (3%)

0 (0%)

1 (1%)

0
Strongly Disagree

DisagreeSlightly Disagree

I enjoy telling my group members about my articles.

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

I dislike sharing my news with my group members.

For the last aspect of enjoyment students were questioned about was their enjoyment of hearing
their group members talk about the news (Figure 6, next page). This received the highest average,
4.46. This could be attributed to the fact that students did not have any specific task to perform
while listening to their group members and could focus more on the social aspect of the activity.

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USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
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Figure 6
Enjoyment of Listening to Group Members

28 (40%)30

27 (39%)24 (34%)25

20 (29%)20
13 (19%)15
5

9 (13%)

7 (10%)10

4 (6%)

4 (6%)

3 (4%)
1 (1%)

0 (0%)

0
Strongly Disagree

DisagreeSlightly Disagree

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

I look forward to hearing about my group members articles.

(n=70)Hearing about the news from my group members is boring.

Figure 7
Perceived Value of the Activity30
22 (31%)2 (3%)
1 (1%)

27 (39%)22 (31%)20
10

28 (40%)26 (37%)

1 (1%)
4 (6%)

14 (20%)10 (14%)5 (7%)

17 (24%)5 (7%)

12 (17%)11 (16%)2 (3%)

1 (1%)

0

Strongly Disagree

DisagreeSlightly Disagree

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly AgreeThis activity helps me better understand other cultures(n=70)

I have learned a lot about other cultures’ news from this activity.
The in class sharing activity is a waste of time.

The final category included in the questionnaire focused on the amount of value students placedon the activity (Figure 7, above). For this category, there were two, specific positive questions andone, general negative question. Students showed a strong disagreement of the negative question“the in-class sharing activity is a waste of time”, giving it an average of 2.14. Additionally, students
responded positively to the questions “this activity helps me better understand other cultures” and“I have learned a lot about other cultures’ news from this activity”, giving them averages of 4.47

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USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
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and 4.32, respectively. Although having minimal teacher input by design, students were able tosee the value in the activity and benefit from it in relation to course content.
Short Answers. Students were asked to respond to three open questions in either English or
Japanese, however, a majority of responses were given in English. They were not required toanswer these questions and some respondents chose not to give a response or did not answer all
three questions. The three questions were as listed below:
1. What do you like about the news article activity?
2. What would you change about the news article activity?
3. Do you have any other feedback about the news article activity?
Responses to these questions were coded into five categories based on common themes among
them: knowledge about other cultures, activity enjoyment, criticisms, skill improvements, andwants and desires. The responses are presented verbatim.
Knowledge about Other Cultures. Overwhelmingly, students often commented on being able toknow more about the world outside of Japan while also mentioning that the activity helped expose
them to reading materials they otherwise normally would not read.
“I could know what the world is happening. Also it became custom to search world’s news
story.” -Participant A
Additionally, some students identified the added benefit of the activity being continuous, as
opposed to being infrequent, for example, as how the bi-semester presentations might be viewed.
“I can get latest information as I'm searching the news. I can know what is happeningaround the world, especially in Europe.” -Participant B
This response reinforces the goal of supplementing lecture material by using the news to explore
avenues not covered by the lecturer. In this case, the respondent was able to learn more about
current affairs happening in the region they were learning about in class.
“I can deepen my knowledge by knowing about other countries’ culture. I think it’s a good
opportunity since normally I couldn’t know about other cultures without taking a course
like this.” [translated from L1] -Participant C

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Some students recognized that this was a unique feature that only this type of course could provide.
This type of activity was likely not used in the students’ general English courses, so it provided
the opportunity of giving the students something different, unique, and possibly memorable.
Activity Enjoyment. Several students gave responses expressing their enjoyment of the activity.
One common belief held by students was the enjoyment of the social aspect of the activity.
“I like learning new things with my classmates. My classmates choose interesting articles
every time, so I enjoy sharing news with them.” -Participant D“I enjoy it as a kind of warm-up activity. I enjoy talking with my classmates.” -Participant
E
Often, the students took advantage of this activity to speak English with their group members.
They would use this time to greet their classmates and share summaries of their articles. Some
respondents even commented on how they liked this activity as a warm-up activity.
Criticisms. Students did have several, similar criticisms when it came to the activity: including anactive listening/dictation aspect, stricter time for better efficiency, and stricter time for better focus.
First, some students wanted an area in their journal to also include notes taken of their groupmembers’ shared summaries.
“I want some spaces to write some memo about other's articles.” -Participant F
Since there was no dictation component during the summary share, it could not be verified whether
students were paying attention to and comprehending their group members’ summaries. One of
the most common criticisms students held was in relation to the time of the activity. Some studentssuggested each group member have a limited amount of time to share their article, forcing them toidentify and share only the most important parts of their article and to avoid “make [sic] others
bored.”“I think its better to have a limitation like 1 minute so that I have to summarize that simply.
I also have to pick important parts of the news. A long summarize may make others bored.”-Participant G

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Similarly, several students also commented that the sharing time should be shorter to keep groups
who finish early on task.
“I guess that spending time for this activity is a little bit long, so students tend to starttalking with friends or doing other things… We can lessen time to do this, I think.” Participant H
Classes have a limited amount of time, and time management is a key aspect to being an effective
educator. In this quote, it becomes apparent that students were also aware of this and preferred
their time not to be wasted. One final criticism that students shared was the need for more guidance
when searching for news articles.
“If there is one theme ever week, I would be motivated to find them.” -Participant I
Several students noted that they wanted the teacher to specify a topic for them to focus on whensearching for an article. This could indicate that either the teacher could give more structured
instructions at the beginning of the semester and gradually give students more agency, or
periodically give them a topic that corresponds with the lecture of that day.
Skill Improvements. With any class activity, the goal is always to help students improve in someway. Students recognized this and gave the most responses about how the activity helped improvetheir skills.
“I could get a lot of perspective and information about culture. And we can improve oursummarising, reading, or speaking activity through this activity.” -Participant J“It's sometimes difficult to summarize some news about other countries but can improve
the skill to summarize the thing and think simply.” -Participant K“I can read the news article faster than before.” -Participant L
By having students read authentic news articles, they were exposed to a writing style they likely
were not accustomed to. Through this exposure, they were able to become more accustomed tosearching for foreign news sources and reading the material. Additionally, since students were
tasked with making weekly summaries of their news articles, they were able to practice thischallenging skill. Through this practice, students could increase their confidence when completing90

USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
this portion of the activity. If students had more experience with reading foreign news sources,
they may have attempted to incorporate those sources into their own reading habits in the future.
Wants & Desires. Finally, students gave feedback on what they wished the activity would help
them improve. It may have been unclear to students whether, or by how much, their summarizing
and sharing skills improved. Therefore, some students responded with the following quotes:“I would like to summarize the news more clearly.” -Participant M“I want to explain more easily to listeners.” -Participant N
Although students were completing these tasks on a weekly basis, in some cases, students could
not notice their ability improving. Therefore, they desired some measurement by which they could
clearly see improvement in their skills. It could be reasoned that this is related to their criticism
about time management and their concept of what is and is not a valuable use of class time.
The final desire expressed by one student relates to a reluctance to challenge themself. In
it, they explained that, although they wanted to attempt more challenging articles, they insteadchose articles or content that may have appeared easier, more familiar, or more relatable. Thus,
students may desire to challenge themselves, but need that extra push by an external force (i.e., ateacher’s command, peer pressure during a group activity, or a change in self-motivation) to makethe attempt. This suggests that a slightly more structured approach from the teacher could help
give the motivation a student like this required.
Conclusion
Authentic materials do play an important role in the language classroom. With such a plethora ofmaterials available, news articles can provide a near limitless supply of real-world content withwhich higher level language learners can challenge themselves. The use of articles for this course
was multifaceted: learning about culture from authentic sources, using authentic materials,
diversifying news habits, increasing confidence when reading an English news source, andproviding students with a warm-up to discuss their homework. Based on this, there is evidence
that this activity not only provided students with these opportunities, but that students held positive
beliefs toward the activity. Almost all students agreed to some degree that the activity aided inunderstanding cultures from which the newspaper originated. Several students commented about
the activity expanding their habits when accessing news. Many students explicitly stated that the91

USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
activity helped improve their skill of reading foreign news. Lastly, students found the article shareto be the most enjoyable aspect of the activity.
Students do value their time and, even though they may not always directly vocalize it to
the teacher, are constantly assessing what they do in the classroom and how it benefits them. Whilethe use of news as a medium for ESL instruction does have its challenges (Moglen, 2014), it still
can be used effectively as a discussion tool. Based on student feedback, providing periodic themes
or topics for students to search for when choosing an article could help those who rely too muchon the familiar. In addition, limiting share time would encourage students to be more concise in
their summaries, forcing them to identify only the most important points in an article. However,by shortening the share time, the overall in-class activity time decreases. Therefore, one possible
way to mitigate the reduction in time could be by adding a question-and-answer component tokeep group members engaged and on task for the full warm-up time and which could then beincorporated into the weekly diary entries. Finally, for students who need extra support, it might
be worthwhile to have a more scaffolded approach in whereby they are provided a selection ofeasier articles at the beginning of the year that gradually get more challenging (or are given
complete agency) by the end of the semester to give a greater sense of progression.
The use of news articles is not a universal tool for language teachers. This can be seen in
the lack of literature on the subject. Despite this, for motivated English majors, it has shown to
be a well-received means to help bridge the gap between classroom and real-world English.

BIO DATA
Chris Lear has been in English education since 2007. After completing 5 years as an ALT in the
JET Programme, he went on to get his master’s in linguistic science from Nanzan university. He
has been a lecturer at universities in Nagoya, Japan since 2015. He is currently a language
instructor at Nanzan University. Peer feedback and virtual reality implementation are his areas ofresearch.

References
Bahrani, T., & Tam, S. S. (2011). Technology and language learning: Exposure to TV and radio
news and speaking proficiency. Kritika Kultura, 17, 144-160.

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USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
Bell, D. M. (2003). TV news in the EFL/ESL classroom: Criteria for selection. TESL-EJ, 7(3).
Retrieved from http://www.tesl-ej.org/ej27/a2.html
Blatchford, C. (1973). Newspapers: Vehicles for Teaching ESOL with Cultural Focus. TESOL
Quarterly, 7, 145-153.
Brinton, D., & Gaskill, W. (1978). Using news broadcasts in the ESL/EFL classroom. TESOL
Quarterly, 12(4), 403-413.
Moglen, D. (2014). Tuning In: Using the News for Content-Based ESL Class. The CATESOLJournal, 26(1).
Yadav, L. K., & Jha, S. K. (2019). A Brief Overview of Authentic Materials in ESL/EFL
Classrooms. International Journal of Innovations in TESOL and Applied Linguistics, 4(4).

93USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
APPENDIX A
Weekly Notes
Name__________________________
Newspaper:

Class 2 Notes

Article Date:

Summary

Newspaper:

Class 3 Notes

Article Date:

Summary

Newspaper:

Class 4 Notes

Article Date:

94

USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
Summary95

USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS
APPENDIX B
This survey is to better understand your opinions of the news article activity in your cultureclass. Read the statements below about the news article activity and check the answer that best
describes your opinion.
In this part we would like you to tell us how much you agree or disagree with the following
statements by simply circling a number from 1 to 6. Please do not skip any of the items.
Strongly
disagreeDisagreeSlightly
disagreeSlightly agree

Agree

Strongly agree

1

2

3

4

5

6

(Ex.) If you strongly agree with the following statement, write this:Waking up early is annoying.

1

2

3

4

5

6

1.

Finding a news article is easy.

1

2

3

4

5

6

2.

I look forward to hearing about my group members articles.

1

2

3

4

5

6

3.

Reading another culture’s news is easy.

1

2

3

4

5

6

4.

I dislike sharing my news with my group members.

1

2

3

4

5

6

5.

I can finish summarizing the article quickly.

1

2

3

4

5

6

6.

Reading another culture’s news is boring.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7.

This activity helps me better understand other cultures.

1

2

3

4

5

6

8.

It is difficult looking for a news article.

1

2

3

4

5

6

9.

The in class news sharing activity is a waste of time.

1

2

3

4

5

6

10. Hearing about the news from my group members is boring.

1

2

3

4

5

6

11. I like reading the news from other cultures.

1

2

3

4

5

6

12. It is difficult to read another culture’s news.

1

2

3

4

5

6

13. I enjoy telling my group members about my articles.

1

2

3

4

5

6

14. I have problems summarizing the article.

1

2

3

4

5

6

15. I have learned a lot about other cultures’ news from this activity.

1

2

3

4

5

6

For the questions below, you may answer in English or Japanese.
What do you like about the news article activity?

96

USING THE NEWS TO SUPPLEMENT CULTURAL LECTURE MATERIAL: A LOOK AT
LEARNER BELIEFS

What would you change about the news article activity?

Any other feedback about the news article activity?

97

NUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS

Adapting Classroom Activities to Prepare Students for English Language
Tests
HENRY TROY
Nagoya University of Foreign Studies
Abstract
For many EFL students, standardized English language tests are extremely important. They may
need them to study, work or live abroad, while a particular score may result in more educational
opportunities, or increase the chances of being hired or given a raise. The most significant tests
for EFL students in Japan are IELTS, TOEFL, TOEIC and Eiken (Baughn, 2021). It is therefore
important that language teachers are aware of these tests, are able to advise students on theircontent and can use activities in the classroom which assist students in preparing for such exams.
This paper introduces the key aspects of each of these four tests and looks at how, based on myown experience, certain classroom activities can be adapted to assist students in preparing forsuch assessments. Specifically, the usefulness of self- and peer-assessment is emphasized,
allowing the students themselves to become examiners.

Introduction
All students who choose to study English beyond mandatory education have a reason for doing
so. They may wish to make friends from other countries, be able to help foreign visitors or
perhaps they simply enjoy using the language. However, for many learners their goals will
involve either the desire to spend time abroad, or because a certain level of English language
ability will benefit their career. For almost all of these learners, achieving a particular score on an
English proficiency test is essential, and thus English language tests “play a dominant role in theworld today” (Shohamy, 2007, p. 521).
Given the importance of these tests to so many students, teachers of EFL have a responsibility to
be informed of their content. It is true that in higher education the focus internationally has
shifted more to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) rather than exclusively preparing
students for assessment (Spada, 2007; Brandl, 2021), but these two areas do not need to be
mutually exclusive. It is possible to both develop communicative competence while also helping98ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTS
students to be more “test-ready”. It is argued by some (Miller, 2003; Barnes, 2016) that simply
focusing on assisting students with improving their speaking, reading, writing and listening in a
general course will naturally result in higher test scores, and it may even have negative effects tofocus on test preparation rather than acquiring general language skills. While this may be true tosome extent, there are two issues with this argument. First, overall language proficiency does notalways mean that a learner will get the score they expect on a test. This is because test-taking isitself a skill, and there is evidence that students gain confidence and can benefit generally byengaging in test preparation (Green, 2007; Pan, 2010). Moreover, tests can vary considerably.
For example, students who score highly on the TOEIC listening and reading test, which is thefocused more on adults aiming to improve employment opportunities (IIBC, n.d.a), sometimes
receive a much lower equivalent score on tests like TOEFL and IELTS, which require all four
language skills. Thus, the particularities of each test need to be considered. Second, students
often ask their teachers for advice about the tests they wish to take, even if this is not a primary
focus of their EFL class. It is the duty of EFL instructors to be able to advise their students
appropriately, and this in turn requires knowledge of the most taken English language tests.
This paper first outlines the key features of IELTS, TOEFL, TOEIC and Eiken, which are four ofthe most important and taken tests by students in Japan. Following this the main features of EFL
classrooms that I have encountered in higher education in Japan are identified, as well as what
aspects are lacking which may be relevant in helping students with English language tests. I haveworked full-time at three institutions in Japan and have worked part-time at several universities
across the Aichi area, so the experiences mentioned will be based on those encounters. After that,
relevant activities which may be integrated into current EFL classrooms in higher education areproposed, with a particular focus on self- and peer-assessment. The proposed activities are basedon those I have tested myself in the classroom, but their effectiveness is measured only by
personal observations, with no empirical research yet conducted on them. Finally, the paper
concludes with the drawbacks of the recommended activities and gives an overall assessment of
the role such activities could play in the EFL classroom.
Four Key Tests
Although there are many English language tests, the four chosen for analysis in this paper wereselected due to their prevalence in Japan. IELTS and TOEFL are the two most popular99

ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTSinternational standardized English language tests in the country, while TOEIC and Eiken,
although less taken internationally, are the two most popular English tests in the country overall,with over six million taking the tests in 2019 (Eiken, 2019; IIBC, 2020).
IELTS
The International English Testing System (IELTS) may be the most taken English language testin the world, with over 3.5 million test takers worldwide in 2019 (IELTS, 2019), although it isless popular in Japan than the other tests mentioned. IELTS scores are valid for up to two years,
and the test is a recognized means of proving one’s English proficiency level in over 11,000
academic and training institutions (IELTS, n.d.). The test has both academic and generalversions. The former is far more commonly taken, as it is required for higher education and jobs,
while the general test is usually just for those who wish to live abroad. The test itself consists offour sections covering the four main language skills, and lasts approximately three hours. The
speaking test is done face-to-face in an interview and discussion style. Scores on the test range
from one (the lowest) to nine (the highest). The test is still usually taken on paper, althoughcomputer and online versions are becoming more common. It is an expensive test to take, costingover 25,000 yen for Japanese test takers (British Council, n.d.).
TOEFL
The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is, along with IELTS, the foremost English
language test worldwide. It has slightly fewer annual test takers than IELTS at over 2.3 million,
but it is similarly recognized and accepted by 11,500 institutions and over 160 countries aroundthe world for academic and visa purposes (ETS, n.d.a). The most popular version of TOEFL is
iBT, which is the internet-based form of the test. Like IELTS, it tests all four language skills, butthey differ in the delivery of the speaking test, which for TOEFL is done via a computer, where
the test-taker is given spoken tasks to do. Scores range from 0 to 120 for TOEFL iBT, and it isslightly more expensive than IELTS at around 28,000 yen (ETS, n.d.b).
TOEIC
Unlike IELTS and TOEFL, the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) is lessutilized internationally, and is instead a test predominantly taken in Japan and South Korea.
There are two versions of the test, one of which includes listening and reading while the other isfor writing and speaking, but the former is chosen by the vast majority of test takers. All

100

ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTS
questions on the TOEIC test are multiple choice, and the highest possible score is 990.
Vocabulary knowledge is an especially important part of the TOEIC test, and as such it iscommonly required in Japanese companies where an ability to comprehend business English
expressions is especially sought after (IIBC, n.d.b). Another reason for the popularity of the test
in Japan is its relative affordability in comparison to other English language tests, with thecurrent cost of taking the test at 7,810 yen (IIBC, n.d.c).
STEP Eiken
While TOEIC has an international presence despite the fact it is only widely used in the East
Asia, Eiken (meaning “Test in Practical English Proficiency”) is a purely Japanese test, although
it can be used as proof of one’s English level at some institutions internationally (EIKEN, n.d.a).
The lower-level tests are commonly taken by Japanese children from elementary school, and thetest has seven “steps” (grades) from 5 (the easiest) up to 1 (the most difficult). The higher-levelversions of the test – pre-2, 2, pre-1 and 1, are generally taken by those in high school or above.
The questions on each grade of Eiken vary, but it is only from Grade Pre-2 that all four skills ofwriting, speaking, listening and reading are included. Unlike the aforementioned three tests,
Eiken has a pass or fail format. The cost of taking the test varies depending on the age and levelof the test taker, ranging from 900 yen to as much as 12,600 yen (Eiken, n.d.b)
CEFR
As English language tests measure their results in different ways, it is difficult to accurately
assess the equivalent scores across the four tests mentioned. However, using the Common
European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR), a guided estimate can be made. The
CEFR is widely used internationally as a measure of language proficiency, and has six levels
ranging from A1 (basic user) to C2 (proficient user) (Council of Europe, n.d.). Table 1 (nextpage) illustrates how IELTS, TOEFL, TOEIC and Eiken scores compare across the CEFR levels.

101

ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTSTable 1
Standardized EFL Test Scoring on the CEFR Scale
CEFR
A1 (Basic user)

IELTS

TOEFL (iBT)

2

TOEIC

Eiken

120 - 2155-3

220 - 540

Pre-2

0-31
A2 (Basic user)

3

B1 (Independent user)

3.5 - 5.5

32 – 59545 - 7752B2 (Independent User)

5.5 - 760 - 101

780 - 945

Pre-1

C1 (Proficient User)

7-8
102 - 120

950 - 990

1

C2 (Proficient User)

8-9

What We Do and Do Not Cover in EFL Classrooms
This section is focused primarily on EFL teaching at the university level. This is because it is
only when students move into their late teens that all of the four tests mentioned above become
relevant for students. This is also a section which is taken mostly from my own personal
experience of teaching at the university level, and so the observations may not be applicable toall those working in other academic institutions. However, since CLT is now accepted as the
predominant method of EFL instruction in most higher education settings (Spada, 2007), there
are suggestions here which may be more widely applicable.
What We Do CoverMy own experiences with English language teaching have mostly seen CLT as the dominantteaching methodology. As CLT focuses heavily on discussion as a means of developing
proficiency, talking in pairs and groups is extremely common in the university EFL classrooms I
have encountered. Presentations and recorded conversations are, in my experience, two of themost common forms of evaluation when it comes to speaking. The other skills of reading,102

ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTS
listening and writing are covered to some extent in general English classes in higher education,
but English majors are likely to have separate classes which focus on each skill individually as
well. For listening, this will often involve hearing a conversation several times, withcomprehension questions and discussion questions following. With reading, intensive reading isprevalent at universities, with each text comprehensively covered. Students are often expected to
do the reading at home, with class time reserved for comprehension and discussion. Finally, withwriting classes students tend to write essays over several drafts. These drafts may include one
which receives peer feedback from a classmate, and another which receives teacher feedback.
The focus is on producing an accurate and complete final product.
What We Do Not Cover
All of the teaching methods discussed above are valid for assisting students with their English
learning, but they do miss out some aspects of English use which are vital when taking English
language tests. With speaking practice, I have observed that an interview or task-style of
speaking, where students are simply asked questions one after the other or given specificspeaking tasks within a set time limit, are relatively rare in university classrooms. Because thediscussion-based speaking activities prevalent in CLT emphasize a freer and less structured styleof speaking, they differ from what is expected in the speaking sections of tests like IELTS,
TOEFL and Eiken. As for listening, test takers are frequently only allowed one or two
opportunities to hear the recording, but in university classes students will often have multiple
chances to listen. Moreover, the listening sections of tests like IELTS and TOEFL get
progressively more difficult as the test continues, something which is rarely replicated in theuniversity EFL classrooms I have come across. With reading, as students usually do their readingtasks at home, they do not have a strict time limit. However, time limits are a key part of English
language tests, and it is common for test takers to run out of time in the reading section. The
same is true of writing practice, where students at university are given weeks or months to
produce finished essay drafts, while they are given minutes or hours to do so during language
tests. Lastly, references and citations are commonly required in written essays for university
work, but they are not necessary in English language tests.

103

ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTSClassroom Activities
Integrating classroom activities that can assist students with English language tests can beachieved by covering some of the gaps noted above. A key concept that may be beneficial is theidea of making the student the examiner. This is a form of peer- or self-assessment, which has
been shown to have great benefits to both student learning and understanding of their own
proficiency level (Adachi et al., 2018). There is even some evidence that peer- and selfassessment may result in greater improvements for students than teacher feedback (Bowman,2017). The following two activities use the concept of making the student into an examiner inorder to improve their preparedness for English language tests.
Activity 1: Speaking Self/Peer Examining. With this activity, the student takes on the role ofexaminer to assess the performance of either themselves, their peer or a third party via a video
recording. Although peer assessment in speaking activities is common at university level,
standardizing the conditions and scoring is not. The student-examiners would be given criteria bywhich to assess the test taker, and this could follow the conditions of a relevant test such as the
IELTS, TOEFL or Eiken speaking tests, all of which have public versions of their evaluation
criteria. The students would then give themselves, their classmate or the third party a score alongwith an explanation as to why their score matches the relevant criteria for that level. Repeating
this process over several iterations with the teacher monitoring and giving feedback would resultin greater standardization, and this would in turn give students a better idea of their own
proficiency level.
There are limitations to this approach. As Joo (2016) explains, student-examiners face
more challenges than professional examiners as they have “limited proficiency in the language”
and “lack of anonymity”. However, there is significant evidence that self- and peer-assessmentof one’s speaking can enhance one’s speaking ability (Joo, 2016). Moreover, Huang (2016)
found that self- and peer-assessment has “great potential for learning and instruction” (p. 803). It
is clear that for the conditions for standardized learner self- and peer-assessment must be
thoroughly prepared. According to Joo (2016), these include “the clear provision of task-related
criteria, sufficient training, considerations of the learners’ traits and their perception, as well as
the strong integration with the curriculum” (p. 80). With these conditions met, it is possible forself- or peer-assessment in a standardized format to be successfully integrated into the language
classroom.

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ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTS
Activity 2: Writing Self/Peer Assessment
Like the speaking self- and peer-examining just described, this activity would involveassessment of one’s writing not by the teacher, but by the student themselves or a classmate. In
contrast to the kind of peer review that is common in universities when students write drafts of
their essays, the writing activity would follow the format of the writing section of an English
language test. Perhaps the most straightforward to utilize would be that of the Eiken test, as it
involves the writing of 120-150 words answering an essay question in 20 minutes. An example atask question is given in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Example Eiken Writing Test: Pre-1 Level
Write 120-150 words on this topic. You have 20 minutes to write your answer.
••••

Write an essay on the given topic.
Use TWO of the points below to support your answer.
Structure: introduction, main body, and conclusion
Suggested length: 120-150 words
TOPIC: Agree or Disagree / University education should be free
POINTS••••

Education
Getting a job
Student debt
University funding

Giving a time limit, as well as no time beforehand to research the topic question, would matchthe conditions one encounters when writing in an English language test. Once the students havefinished writing, they would assess their own and each other’s work based on the criteria givenby the teacher, which once more could follow one of the publicly available band descriptors fromthe English language tests already mentioned. The students would thus become moreexperienced at writing under the pressures of test-like conditions, as well as gaining a greater
understanding of their writing proficiency. As with the speaking activity, there have been studies
which have suggested standardized self- and peer-assessment of one’s writing can improve theproficiency of learners, such as the one by Mazloomi and Khabri (2018).

105

ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTS
Conclusion
This paper has examined the different English language tests that Japanese students often take,identified gaps in higher education in terms of preparation for language tests and suggested
relevant activities which can aid test preparation. It is not an exaggeration to say that the scoreslearners achieve on these tests can often determine their futures, so it is vital that language
teachers are able to help them to achieve their goals.
Nevertheless, there are drawbacks to focusing students too much on proficiency level via
the activities outlined in this paper. First, the students may become demotivated by comparing
their own proficiency level to others. Moreover, not all students will require a certain score on
English language tests, and may not see the relevance in engaging in activities which focus on
preparing them for such exams. Lastly, there is the issue that concentrating too much on one’sscore may have a negative impact on the more important goal of acquiring language throughpractice, and that teachers should instead focus on engaging students in the process of acquiring
general language skills (Barnes, 2016). However, these problems are not insurmountable. If theactivities are made enjoyable and not given the pressure that a real test entails, this may assist
with student motivation when they are undertaken. In terms of students comparing themselves toothers, this often happens in classes anyway, and can be avoided somewhat in the activities
suggested by using videos of third parties and assessing their work rather than using self- or
peer-assessment. As for the assertion that the focus should be on acquisition via practice rather
than preparing for tests, it is recommended that these activities be incorporated into courses as
supplementary tasks, rather than primary aspects of a course. As Wang et al. (2014) put it,“teachers…assimilate more communicative language content into the teaching because of thepositive washback from test preparation”. Thus, CLT and test preparation can coexist.
The activities outlined in this paper are merely suggestive and although the writer of thispaper has used them successfully in class, there is no specific empirical evidence to support theiruse. Nevertheless, given the importance of English language tests to so many of our students, it
is our duty as educators to at the very least be aware of such tests, and if possible, to assist themin achieving whatever score they require to meet their aspirations.
BIO DATAHenry Troy is currently a Language Instructor at Nanzan University, having been an EFL

106

ADAPTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR ENGLISHLANGUAGE TESTS
Lecturer at Nagoya University of Foreign Studies at the time this symposium took place. He has
eleven years of experience in language teaching, and his areas of research interest include corpus
linguistics, English language tests and media literacy.

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Teaching (pp. 271-288). Springer.
Wang, C., Yan, J., & Liu, B. (2014). An Empirical Study on Washback Effects of theInternet-Based College English Test Band 4 in China. English Language Teaching,
7(6), 26-53. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n6p26

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NUFS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGSA Look at the Role of Design in Education: Developments, Trends, andPractical Use
ANTON VEGEL
Nagoya University of Foreign Studies

Abstract
Research in game design has analyzed the role of design in games such as the design of conflict,engagement, and systems. Additionally, research in education has identified learning principles
inherent in good games such as actionable feedback, low cost of failure, and integrated learningand assessment. However, one of the conclusions of this research questions why these principles
are not more widely utilized beyond games. Design has been relevant in the field of educationfor over a century, but there seems to be a gap in the historical and practical context. This study
investigates the development of design in the field of education (from instruction design tolearning design), highlights current research (cybernetics, games and education), and offers
practical ways to apply design ideas in education.

BackgroundI became interested in the connection between games and language learning during my master’s
degree. I was interested in how tasks could be inherently self-assessed by design. I found it
fascinating that if a task was well designed, assessment could be built in. It occurred to me thatgames are similar. You never have to check whether you finished a game or not. As Gee (2013)
put it, “No one needs a Halo test after finishing Halo…” (p. 12). To help me pursue this idea
further, I was referred to James Paul Gee (quoted above). I wrote about the learning principles hedefined in good games and their relation to Second Language Acquisition and Task-Based
Language Teaching (TBLT) (Vegel, 2019). Having now engaged more in the literature of gamedesign, I started to wonder why design ideas seem to feedforward into education rather thanfeedback. After all, teachers have lots of practice designing and revising lessons (among many110

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other considerations like designing materials and textbooks). I began to wonder what role design
has taken in the education field if at all.
DesignDesign, in common language, is not only referred to in terms of design fields like graphic design,
product design, or fashion design but also in terms of its negative associations like pretentious,
high-minded, or overpriced products like controversial architecture, ambiguous visual design
movements, or designer goods. That design seems to lend more to excessiveness than practicality
can be seen as a result of these popular conceptions. These negative associations are wellillustrated in design that lacks a focus on function – “design for design’s sake.” Take the 431 m,
18º slope of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. The designof an art gallery, functionally a place to view art, became a place that functionally changed theway art is viewed – Frank Lloyd Wright’s intention. Negative associations may also come fromconflating the nature of aesthetics and design. While aesthetics according to Hegel (2004) isconcerned with the philosophical questions of art and fine art, design is concerned with concrete
problems: the desired outcome vs. the actual outcome.
SystemSalen and Zimmerman (2004), in their book Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals,
consider “games as designed systems” (p. 2). In a robust approach to game design analysis, they
set out to establish precise discourse on the subject. Emphasizing the nature of application
beyond game design, they define a designer as someone “involved in the creation of systems ofinteraction” and design as “the process by which a designer creates a context to be encounteredby a participant from which meaning emerges” (p. 41). Thinking in design terms means
considering how the system created will be interacted with and what will emerge from thatinteraction. Considering system within the definition of design extends our usual conception ofdesign to include interaction among the questions of design problems.
Systems can be found in design even if the visual aesthetics first elude us. Design books
such as Good Design 1993-1994 review standout product design and highlight the striking visual
aesthetics of each entry. Take the QR-10 Digital Sequencer released by Yamaha in 1993 (Japan
Institute of Design Promotion, 1994, p. 49). Its shape (a top-down silhouette of a grand piano),colors (purple, grey, orange, yellow, and red), and button layout (a small octave keyboard, a111

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diamond of 12 chord types, and performance sections) make it clear visually that it is a musicmachine. However, the button layout and quick-access features outline a proposed system: The
left-hand plays chords, and the right-hand solos. Quick functions are also accessible forsequencing and accompaniment (record, start/stop). The QR-10 is a unique music making
machine not because it looks like a grand piano or even because it can emulate acoustic
instruments. It is unique because of the design as a whole (the visual elements as well as thedesigned system). The possible outcomes from interacting within the system are far greater than
the sum of its parts. Chomsky (1957)’s famous sentence “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”
illustrates this idea in terms of language. From limited rules, unpredictable outcomes emerge.
We can explore the role of systems in language education as well. Learning language
requires acquiring both declarative and procedural knowledge. Building language skills requires
interaction linked to a communicative purpose. Teachers can attempt to organize interaction andfeedback by carefully designing a lesson, but the outcome depends on a range of unpredictablefactors. As many teachers have experienced, when repeating the same lesson more than once,
rarely do the same teachable moments emerge or are the same outcomes reached. Textbooks(and learning materials in general) offer unique examples of these design considerations as well.
A complex system like an information gap might lead to a greater range of emergence due to its
open nature and reliance on interaction. A fixed system like a gap-fill offers less opportunity for
emergence due to its closed nature but still holds some potential for unpredictability i.e., when
vocabulary choices are ambiguous. How this unpredictability is handled in the design process isessentially considering second-order design problems.
Salen and Zimmerman (2004) consider these design questions in terms of games, but
practical considerations extend beyond. Design, whether it be a commercial music product likethe QR-10 or learning materials like a textbook, needs to consider not only the parts of thesystem but also the potential outcome of interacting with those parts. We can design the system
directly but experience only indirectly. Outcomes emerge greater than the sum of the parts of thesystem. With the range of our conception of design clarified, we can reflect on how design has
been considered in the field of education.

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Design and Education
Instructional Design
Although design has been used in the field of language education, there is a more general use of
the word in the field of education. This history is covered by the historical reviews of Reiser(2001a, 2001b), An (2021), and Kang (2004). The history of instructional media and design (ID)spans over a century. Although the timeline is marked with developments in educational
psychology, it is also marked by edu-tech trends and commercial investments (An, 2021; Kang,
2004). While the history of instructional media focuses on the use of technology for educational
purposes, instructional design focuses on the problems of learning and performance related to
instructional principles. However, Reiser (2001b) observed that “there is an obvious overlap
between these two areas” (p. 64) as both have developed in parallel and in reaction to each other.
Therefore, although the term media is used to refer to actual technology, design implications are
inherent.
According to Reiser (2001a), ID began in the 1900s with school museums – functionallycenters of visual instruction that utilized slide projectors. From 1908-1910 the Keystone View
Company published Visual Education, a guide to visual media use in the classroom, andRochester, NY adopted films for instructional use as a first in the U.S. In 1913 Thomas Edison
declared textbooks would be obsolete due to the emergence of motion picture technology. From
1920-1930 radiobroadcasting and sound ushered in the audio-visual instruction movement.
However, both visual instruction and audio-visual instruction movements failed to facilitate
substantial changes in education, and commercial interests lost over $50 million. In the 1940s
during World War II, military services and industry made use of audio-visual instruction. The
U.S. Air Force produced 400 training films and 600 filmstrips from 1943-1945 withapproximately 4 million showings. However, again, educational practices in schools were notgreatly affected. In the 1950s, television channels with instructional programming started. This
technological trend was accompanied by the programmed instruction movement. In the 1960s
the Ford Foundation invested $170 million in educational closed-circuit television. Case studies
among all grade levels in Washington, Maryland, a junior college in Chicago, Illinois, and aseries of college courses at Pennsylvania State University utilized closed-circuit television as a
medium of instruction. By 1963 the Ford Foundation had divested from educational closed-

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circuit television to focus on public television exclusively. In the 1970s terms educational
technology and instructional technology took hold along with over 40 different models fordesigning instruction. By the 1980s instruction design had still had little impact in public schoolsor higher education. Instructional improvement centers that were made from 1970-1980 werelargely disbanded and on a downward trend. By 1983 computers were used for educational
purposes in nearly 50% of elementary schools and over 75% of secondary schools in the U.S. In
the 1990s computers were mostly used as an extension of traditional methods like drill andpractice or teaching computer related skills like typing. From 1995 to 1998 higher education
institutions utilizing asynchronous distance learning classes rose from 22% to 60%, and internet
access in schools rose from 50% to 90% within the same period. However, yet again, theseincreased affordances garnered little uptake resulting in little actual use. Reiser (2001a)
concluded thatyou are likely to note a recurrent pattern of expectations and out-comes. As new medium
enters the educational scene, there is a great deal of initial interest … However,enthusiasm and interest eventually fade, and an examination reveals that the medium has
had a minimal impact… (p. 61).
An (2001) similarly concluded that the history of ID “shows a recurrent pattern of enthusiasm
and little effects on actual practice” (p. 13).
What is apparent in the history of ID is the overall whiplash pace of new trends, large
investments, and quick divestments. This may be what Dewey warned about in 1915, with theclaim that new movements in education can be seen as “at the worst transitory fads, and at thebest merely improvements in certain details” (p. 4). Dewey further questioned waste in education
blaming “the lack of unity in the aims of education, [and] the lack of coherence in its studies andmethods” (p. 60). Dewey’s century old reflections still reign true today.
Notably, however, despite the ebbs and flows of ID, some design ideas seem to haveproliferated quietly throughout the last century especially in regard to systems. Although runningparallel to emerging technology and commercial investments of the time, the idea of systems in
education progressed with concepts like general systems theory and instructional systems design(Kang, 2004). Starting from the 1960s programmed instruction ran parallel to the investments
and experimental take up of closed-circuit instruction, and a range of ideas were introduced114

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along with the concepts educational technology and instructional technology: systemdevelopment, systematic instruction, and instructional system (Reiser, 2001b).
Cybernetics
Among these systems ideas, research in the education field has looked to cybernetics to help
explain control systems and reflection in the learning process such as formative assessment,
positive feedback, and procedural knowledge. Cybernetics was first introduced in Cybernetics orthe science of control and communication in the animal and the machine – first published in1948 (Wiener, 1961). Cybernetics is concerned with problems of complexity and control insystems and “deviation from a stable state” in which negative feedback promotes stability andpositive feedback undermines stability (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004, p. 350). A simple example
of a cybernetic system (and feedback loops) is a temperature control system such as an air
conditioner or heater (Wiener, 1961). This system includes an environment, a sensor, acomparator, and an activator. The sensor, in this case a thermometer, samples the environment
and informs the comparator, the set temperature, which then decides how the activator, the coldor hot air system, should act. In the case of temperature control, a negative feedback loop works
best because it is designed to return environment to the target temperature while a positive
feedback loop is designed to move away from the target.
Admittedly, these ideas applied to education seem off-putting. For example, theautomaticity of education comes to mind – a point Wiener (1961) ardently warned against.
Ashby (1957) although similarly specifying cybernetics as focused on questions of co-ordination,
regulation, and control, also proposed that these questions provide a “common language” withwhich to approach problems related to systems. The potential of cybernetics lies beyond
machines and automaticity and among this common language.
Studies in the field of language education have emerged utilizing cybernetic concepts interms of understanding formative assessment as a means of controlling a loss of meaning (Roos& Hamilton, 2005), the role of circularity in teaching and learning (Murray, 2006), positive
feedback loops as a cognitive mechanism (Reigel, 2005), feedback in complex learning
environments (Westera, 2013), second-order implications of skill acquisition (Scott & Bansal,
2014), and frameworks for e-learning management (Hilgarth, 2011). From this small sample,
specific themes emerge:

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1. A focus on feedback loops and stability
2. Second-order cybernetics: the ability of a sensor (or observer) to monitor itself
The first point borrows simple ideas like feedback loops in a temperature control system anduses this “common language” expand on language learning concepts. The second point explains
the problem of self-monitoring in the skill acquisition process. Although we can easily reflect onknowledge stored as declarative knowledge (expressed explicitly), we have far more difficultyreflecting on the knowledge of skills and procedures (expressed procedurally). Althoughcybernetics may initially seem ridged and antithetical to the questions of education, its concepts
offer unique perspectives on issues related to language learning.
Learning Design
ID grew out of the movements of behaviorist psychology and systems engineering based on
developmental models used by the U.S. military in WWII. However, the term learning design(LD) has also entered the lexicon. “Reclaiming Instructional Design” (Merrill et al., 1966)
gleams some light into the internal struggle within the ID field and a move towards a new
approach. The authors claim that the field of ID has been too easily swayed by the whims ofsilver bullet ideas, and that “[education] and its related disciplines continue to flutter this way
and that by every philosophical wind that blows" (p. 1). The authors lament the (then current)
state of ID, and proposed signpost like directives that include understanding the learning
experience, environments that support it, and utilizing verified learning strategies. They called
for a more science-based paradigm by offering an anecdote from aviation. The discovery of
principles such as lift, drag, and flight (the science) preceded the invention of an airplane capableof sustaining powered flight (the technology). Although instructional design is informed byprinciples of behaviorism (and then refined by cognitivism), lots of what has steered the fieldappears to come from emerging commercial technology not fundamental principles agreed upon
within the field. This is well illustrated in the historical record of ID (An, 2021; Kang, 2004;
Reiser, 2001a, 2001b).
Another article titled “Beyond Instructional Design: Making Learning Design a Reality”(Sims, 2006) seems to further summarize the movement away from ID simply enough, but
reality appears more nuanced. Although LD, according to Donald et al. (2009), “documents anddescribes a learning activity in such a way that other teachers can understand it and use it in theirown context” (p. 180), the overall theme of LD has been focused on e-learning and online

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learning. Koper and Tattersall (2005) further frame this movement as a reaction to current elearning tools’ lack of pedagogical quality. Even the epistemological underpinnings of ID andLD (the conceptual understanding of knowledge) have been questioned as whether education is a“transfer of knowledge” (ID) or a “complex process between teachers, learners, and the context
domain” (LD) (Sims, 2006, p. 1). Beyond this fuzzy discourse, the main focus of LD has been
the Learning Design Frameworks that have grown out of a simple, concrete design problem: how
to describe pedagogical styles within a pedagogical meta-model (Koper & Tattersall, 2005).
This meta-model in its current form describes the roles, activities, learning environment,
and methods like the notation of a stage play. These descriptive elements have also been referred
to as “educational notation” and compared to musical notation (Dalziel et al., 2016). Throughthis notation-like approach, a “toolkit” around the concept of learning activity has emerged todefine task (type, technique, interaction, roles, resources, tools, assessment, sequence), context(aims, learning outcomes, pre-requisites, skills, subject, environment, time, difficulty), andlearning and teaching approaches (associative, cognitive, situative) (Conole & Fill, 2005).
In practice utilizing LD requires coding in a learning specification language like the now
Instructional Management System (IMS) adopted Educational Modelling Language (EML) andthen running the encoded file in a player (Westera et al., 2005). These innovative ideas bothconceptually and practically seem key to summarize, record, and distribute lessons in a robust
and accurate way. As Dalziel et al. (2016) summarize “[LD’s] ultimate goal … is not justrepresentation for representation’s sake, it is to help educators to describe, share and adapt
effective teaching and learning activities – that is, designing for learning” (p. 22). However, thegoals of making design explicit and easily reflected upon by designers and others while also
allowing for refinement and sharing, Koper and Tattersall (2005) admitted, is “still a future
perspective” (p. 3). Cameron (2017) helps cement this fact by showing that recent policy has
already started to reference LD, yet little of what LD offers seems to be readily applied in praxis– in this case, a sample of 6 Australian universities.
There should be a further note of caution in regard to LD and the role of IMS Global
Learning Consortium in LD development especially in light of the tumultuous timeline of ID.
IMS is a non-profit organization (IMS Global, 2003). This, however, is not always a good
indicator of incentives or intentions as Au and Ferrare (2014) illustrated in their case study ofcharter school reform in Washington state. IMS maintains non-profit status, but of the 18 board

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of directors, 7 hold positions at for-profit institutions. Additionally, some Contributing Members,
members who have voting privileges, are not only for-profit institutions but private for-profit
universities or holdings companies for such universities. Private for-profit universities frequently
make headlines for federal investigations, scams, false promises, and pay outs to students
ordered by federal agencies. American Military University (AMU), an online-learning university
system of private for-profit universities under the American Public University System (APUS),
was ordered to pay $270,000 by the Attorney General who found AMU in violation of
Massachusetts law (Office of Attorney General Maura Healey, 2018). University of Phoenix(UoPX), a private for-profit university, was ordered by the FTC to pay $50 million in refund
checks and $141 million in canceled balances (Federal Trade Commission, 2021a). Additionally,
UoPX and APUS, are both named in an FTC Notice of Penalty Offenses list, which although notdirectly incriminating, does include possible offenders put “on notice.” This list also named IMS
Global Affiliate Members, non-voting members, Full Sail University and Walden University(Federal Trade Commission, 2021b).
LD, despite its innovative and unique approach to education’s problems, does not seem tostray far from ID in terms of trajectory. LD even drags edu-tech to the precipice of new trends
like data collection and digital rights management in a market fraught with profit driven motives.
ID and LD both have a trove of innovative ideas, but both have failed to apply substantively
design ideas in the classroom.
Methods
Despite the use of the word design in the education field for over a century, fundamental design
questions seem to have been overlooked. This point is reiterated as James Paul Gee has longshown: Design in good games utilize learning principles not often found in classrooms. Gee(2013) made these ideas more concise by suggesting that good learning is “situated embodied
problem-focused well-designed and well-mentored learning” (p. 12). Some approaches tolanguage education have developed along similar lines – TBLT notably (Vegel, 2019). However,many methods seem to have developed largely by reactionary turns. Like the long historicalsignificance of ID, methods have played an integral role in the language education field and are
well situated in teacher training. It is thus important to understand where design starts, method
ends, and how these ideas function together if at all.

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To approach an understanding of method, it first needs to be situated among the milieu ofsimilar terminology. Anthony (1963) offered hierarchal categories to differentiate approach,method, and technique. Approach refers to the underlying principles guiding teaching andlearning (behavioral science, cognitive science, psycholinguistics, sociocultural theory). Methodrefers to the plan to carry out language teaching and learning (the set of procedures or processes).
Technique refers to the actual elements of implementation (the activities or exercises).
Design, however, is more elusive. Although the term is used in education (instructional
design, learning design, material design), a clear, narrow definition is lacking and even usage inlanguage education reference books lends more its general meaning in terms of ID or LD.
Richards and Rodgers (1986) offered some insight into the use of design in language education
as they explored the gap between approach (values) and method (plan/procedure) suggesting theneed to develop an “instructional system.” For them, considering design meant considering
objectives, syllabus, learning tasks, learners, teachers, and instructional materials. Great lengths
were taken to explain these six elements, but little attention was given to the concept of system.
Even their critique of Anthony (1963)’s description of approach, method, and technique with
their own take, “method as approach, design, and procedure” (Richards & Rodgers, 1986, p. 28),
did little to help the ambiguity. Design, defined by Richards and Rodgers (1986), was notconsidered a value (approach) in and of itself; it was primarily considered a tool of analysis tobridge the gap between approach and method, and further left an ill-defined “instructional
system.” Even though design should be concerned with the problems of interaction andemergence, it appears again that little attention has been given to defining it in those terms.
However, other clues about the role of design in language education can be found bylooking further into the past. For centuries even though design was not likely a serious concern
in education, it seemed to be on the tip of the tongue of educators and theorists. Celce-Murcia(2013) surveyed language teaching methods from pre-20th to the 21st century. One notable casecomes from the 19th Century, when von Humboldt, a German philosopher-scientist, argued that
“A language cannot be taught. One can only create conditions for learning to take place” (p. 2).
von Humboldt’s use of “create” and “conditions” suggests an understanding of designed learning
opportunities – a nod to second-order design problems.
Celce-Murcia (2013) further examined methods by observing that methodological trends
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clear historical perspective. Three reasons are proposed to explain the state of methods inlanguage education:
1. Methods are easily sellable and thus profitable.
2. Methods do hold a place in education but only in ideal conditions.
3. Much of the field has been bouncing between a use-analysis dichotomy.
Celce-Murcia (2013)’s first point is a call to skepticism. A movement to post-methods explains
this well. Dale’s Cone or Dale’s Cone of Experience also well illustrates similarly how damaging
inflated silver bullet ideas can be. Disambiguating the complex web of misinformation related toDale’s Cone has unfortunately become an important area of study. Dale’s Cone is a pyramid
shaped chart introduced by Dale (1946). It presented 11 learning experiences afforded to learnersof the time (e.g., motion pictures, educational television, exhibits). Dale (1970) clarified the coneas “only a model,” “a visual analogy,” and one that “does not bear an exact and detailed
relationship to the complex elements it represents” (p. 98). Despite this clarification, the cone
was misread and erroneously conflated with ideas of retention and learning efficacy – ideas thatwere ostensibly generalized support of popular ID trends (Subramony et al., 2014a).
Unsubstantiated percentages were applied to each learning experience (Letrud & Hernes, 2018).
The cone was then corrupted with the creation and publication of different versions andadaptations of the conflated cone, again unsubstantiated (Dwyer, 2010; Subramony, et al.,2014a). Since the 1970s investigative and analytical work has focused on illuminating thedubious and falsified nature of the conflated and corrupted cones. However, these cones continue
to disseminate at large (Subramony et al., 2014b). These cones can be found referenced
uncritically on public university websites and in recent peer-reviewed academic publications
referencing Edgar Dale despite the now well-established historical record. This is an alarming
fact that echoes a need for skepticism and illuminates a surprising lack of due diligence in thefield of education.
Celce-Murica (2013)’s second and third points consider the ideal conditions necessary to
implement methods and the use-analysis dichotomy that seems to have guided reactionary
trends. Kumaravadivelu (2006) touched on these two issues by looking at past methods andtowards post-methods. Most prominent in the timeline of methods to post-methods is the turn toa Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in reaction to the Audiolingual method. Despite

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CLT’s promise to be a “principled response” to traditional approaches, Kumaravadivelu (2006)
summarized a range of critiques that questioned its authenticity, acceptability, and adaptability as
a viable method. These critiques emphasized CLT’s inability to guarantee authentic
communication, its lack of divergence from past methods, and its inability to be widely adapted
across teaching contexts respectively.
Kumaravadivelu (2006) summarized the post-method movement as “not an alternative
method but an alternative to method” (p. 67). Post-methods grew from a perceived need tounderstand the lack of neutrality of methods (Pennycook, 1989) as well as reject the infatuation
with finding the best method (Prabhu, 1990). Work towards a post-methods approach has thus
led to alternative frameworks. One convincing contribution is the production of three operating
principles of pedagogy: particularity, practicality, and possibility (Kumaravadivelu, 2001).
Particularity considers the context and location. Practicality considers the theory to practiceloop. Possibility considers the role of identity formation. Unsurprisingly, these ideas bode wellwith Gee (2013)’s refined principles of good learning: “situated embodied problem-focusedwell-designed and well-mentored learning” (p. 12):•

Meeting the needs of particularity requires education that is well-mentored.

•

Meeting the needs of practicality requires education that is well-designed.

•

Meeting the needs of possibility requires education that is situated and embodied andproblem-focused.

Although this is a simple and generalizable synthesis, it is important to note the divergence in
how these ideas were attained, consider why there is cohesion, and frame practicalconsiderations. Kumaravadivelu (2001) approached these ideas “in the search of an alternative
organizing principle” (p. 557) while Gee (2013) approached these ideas by identifying learning
principles inherent in good games. In other words, despite one approach developing through theconsiderations of a problematic framework in language learning and the other through theanalysis of how good games are designed, both come to similar conclusions about goodeducation.
This convergence of ideas highlights the popularity of TBLT in post-methods literature.
TBLT is a method blurring approach that embraces situated and problem-focused learning.
Although the lack of clear definition of task has been noted (Willis & Willis, 2007), a basic if not

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robust concept of task has been accomplished (Ellis, 2009; Nunan, 2004), one that falls well inline with learning principles utilized in good games (Vegel, 2019). The general concept of TBLT
embraces the idea of situated learning as a value (approach). Even a basic definition of taskemphasizes co-construction, negotiation of form and function relationships, and accomplishing
locally determined goals (Ellis, 2009). However, designing this kind of learning opportunity
requires an understanding of emergence more so than a traditional classroom lesson would.
Kumaravadivelu (2001)’s words reign true here: “Admirable intentions need to betranslated into attainable goals, which, in turn, need to be supported by actionable plans” (p. 76).
TBLT remains flexible because it does not manifest a single method, but this is a double edge
sword that keeps TBLT somewhat esoteric. Looking at a way forward, following past trends of
reductionism and more minutely defined definitions and relying on edu-tech trends to create
substantive change in education seems unreasonable; moving forward with ideas that synthesize
well from post-methods and learning principles found in good games, especially those withattainable goals and actionable plans, does seem reasonable.
Beyond the Winds of Change: Emerging from Under the Carpet
Strategic Interaction
The work done with Strategic Interaction (SI) seems to provide potential in terms of attainable
goals and actional plans as well as practical design ideas. SI was introduced by Di Pietro (1987)
through a rejection of language as a “script-based, disembodied, information-transfer process”(Danesi, 1993, p. 481). The basis for this approach is situated in the 18th century philosophy of
Giambattista Vico. This philosophy established the importance of rhetoric and rejected the “oldspectator epistemology that resulted in ‘receptor’ classrooms” (Perkinson, 1976, p. 756).
Dialogue is established as a significant part of Vico’s philosophy because of the concept ofmodification, only through which one can refine, change, and continually improve. SI thus grewout of the idea that learning needs to involve doing and reflecting. Danesi (1993) described an SI
approach as:
The use of the student’s innate tendency literally ‘to imagine’ what to do in a given
situation implies allowing learners to come up with the crucial concepts involved intypical social scenarios so that they can be reformulated – or reconceptualized – in termsof the target language. (p. 484)

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Danesi (1993) noted the importance of situations and scenarios for discursive engagement.
Building a scenario requires asking question like “who says what to whom; where and when it issaid; and how and why it is said” (p. 483). Answering these questions helps create setting,message content, participant roles, and goals. Scenarios in SI are supported by role cards usedthroughout 4 stages. Role cards include a title, roles, topics, and notions/functions (speech acts)
as well as robust role descriptions that clarify each interlocutors’ goals for the scenario.
SI puts scenarios and roles to use in stages:•

Pre-class Preparation: The teacher selects or creates appropriate scenarios and preparesrole cards to describe them.

•Phase 1 (Rehearsal): The students form groups and prepare agendas to fulfill the roles
assigned to them. The teacher acts as advisor and guide to student groups as needed.

•

Phase 2 (Performance): The students perform their roles with the support of theirrespective groups while the teacher and the remainder of the class look on.

•

Phase 3 (Debriefing): The teacher leads the entire class in a discussion of the student’s
performance. (p. 487)

The rehearsal stage is for learners to imagine and work through how the scenario can be
performed. After preparation and deliberation, the performance phase stresses fluency and theuse of already acquired knowledge and skills. After the performance phase, learners reanalyze
the scenario and performance as a form of debriefing (Danesi, 1993). This phase considers
Vico’s concept of modification; learners reflect on and modify their performance.
Weber State University published 150 scenarios with an SI approach following the same
scenario/role style mentioned above. One example is adapted:•

Roles: parent/child•

Topics: travel, weather, clothing•

Notations/Functions (speech acts): expressing needs, convincing•

Role A: You need to pack for a trip to France. You want your parents’ help, but you also
know they usually packs too much, which you want to avoid to leave room forsouvenirs.

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Role B: You just got information about the weather report in France. It will be an
unreasonably cold season you want to convince your child to bring enough warm
clothes. (Weber State University, n.d.)

Limitations are an important part of what makes role cards work. First, there is the limitation ofrole. Without clear descriptions, roles would be non-functional. The descriptions introduce
conflict that needs to be resolved while also limiting the scope of the scenario. Another importantpart of scenario is the focused speech acts that, although limiting how the conflict is approachedand handled, creates a way to simulate a real-world situation. Limitations can be seen in otheradapted examples as well (notice the conflict inherent in each):•

Scenario: Students on the wrong bus vs. A bus driver who needs to stick to his schedule
Speech acts: Explaining, apologizing, asking, refusing, submitting•

Scenario: Friends planning a visit to the zoo vs. One friend wants to see a movie
Speech acts: Convincing, describing (Weber State University, n.d.)

SI provides not only potential for practical in-class use in the form of actional plans(scenario/role) but also attainable goals (via reasonable means) in terms of the rehearsal,
performance, and debriefing phases. Danesi (1993) appropriately appraised SI as allowing “thecontents to emerge from the learner” (p. 489). By playing within the parts of the system different
kinds of solutions can emerge.
Extending the Definition of System
So far, we have framed design in terms of system and second-order design problems: what
emerges when we interact with the parts of a system. However, we have not yet expanded theconcept of system to include the role of limitations clearly. In terms of language education,
learners are tasked with not just learning the forms of language but also the functions and more
specifically how both are situated in real-world scenarios. Practicing real-world scenarios withina system of limitations is thus a simulation.
According to Salen and Zimmerman (2004), “a simulation arises from the operation of asystem in which every element contributes in an integrated way to the larger representation” (p.
439). This definition establishes simulations as a complex system – one that is representational.
Representational proceduralism requires limitations for two reasons:124A LOOK AT THE ROLE OF DESIGN IN EDUCATION: DEVELOPMENTS, TRENDS, AND
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1. Simulations are abstractions in that “a simulation does not attempt to simulate every
aspect of its referent, but instead only focuses on those elements necessary” (p. 439)
2. Simulations are purposefully limited as “even a supposedly ‘realistic’ simulation only
depicts a tiny slice of any real world or imagined phenomenon” (p. 440)
Again, this discussion is in terms of game design, but the analysis is salient in terms ofunderstanding education as a “purposeful learning process” (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2004, p. 17). SI
is a convincing approach because it involves simulations of real-life scenarios. There aremeaningful choices to be made because of (not in spite of) the limitations. The alternative, nolimitations, would result in learners struggling with available options and stumbling to proceed.
In terms of design, simulations are designed systems of interaction and abstraction that are
inherently aligned with the goals of language education.
Games and Education
Games, as Salen and Zimmerman (2004) define them, are “system[s] in which players engage inan artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” (p. 80) whichsituates them in the considerations of design. The use of games for educational purposes is not aparticularly new phenomenon starting with military strategy games like Chaturanga, an ancestorof chess, and Kriegsspiel, a map-based board game – both popularized in the 18th and 19th
centuries respectively (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005). The use of electronic, commercial games in
education began in the 1970s with the Learning Company producing games like Oregon Trailand Lemonade Stand. However, the development of these kinds of games peaked in the 1990s(Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005). If you were in primary school in the 1990s like me, you may recall
playing the Learning Company developed Super Solvers games like Treasure Mountain andTreasure Cove. However, the fate of commercial education games unfortunately parallels thehistory of ID – initial investment followed by near abandonment. The decade between 19902000 saw education game related revenue drop nearly 50% (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005). Despite
this dramatic divestment, the research field of games and education saw a marked increase from2001-2010 (Hwang & Wu, 2012) and a relatively stable increase between 2014-2019 (Benini &Thomas, 2021).

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Egenfeldt-Nielsen (2005) completed a detailed review of the field of games and education. Thisis a broad field distributed across disciplines. This multidisciplinary nature has resulted in the
proliferation of many unique ideas. The challenge now is achieving consensus. The terms digital
game-based learning (DGBL), game-based learning (GBL), game-based language teaching(GBLT), and edutainment are all used to describe the various facets of the field. Furthermore, alarge focus of game-based research is bifurcated between:
1. The use of games for education purposes (both electronic and analog games).
2. Exploring the design elements and learning principles inherent in good games aspedagogical inspiration.
The use side of the field has focused on games’ learning potential whether they be digital or
analog and applying that potential in praxis. Here games are considered valuable because of the
motivational affect and the situated, active learning opportunities they offer learners. In terms oflanguage education specifically, games offer a way for learners to encounter novel language,
cooperate towards shared goals, and use context specific language. This is seen in the use of
massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) to promote interaction (Peterson,
2012; Bytheway, 2015), games that include repetitive game elements and particular vocabulary
like a baseball game (deHann, 2005) or music game (deHann, Reed, & Kuwada, 2010), the useof role-playing board games to promote interaction and reflection (York, 2020), or the use ofvarious games to promote language and literacy both with and around games (deHann, 2019;
York, Poole, & deHann, 2021). Although Benini and Thomas (2021) identified a number of
empirical studies in the field of game-based learning research, they find the research still limited
and lacking rigorous methodology. deHann (2021) critiqued the current state of the field in
similar terms highlighting the lack of practical implementation and praxis focus calling for a“pedagogy-first approach with games” (p. 270).
The inspiration side has looked at the design elements and learning principles inherent ingood games. This has been the focus of Gee (2003, 2004, 2013). Gee (2013) explains that “goodvideo games have design features that are particularly relevant to language learning” (p. 19). By
playing “good” games like Sim City, Civilization, Deus Ex, Half-Life, and Metal Gear Solid, Gee(2003) identified 36 learning principles found in games (a small sample of which follows):•

Psychosocial Moratorium Principle: a low-risk practice space126

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Concentrated Sample Principle: tasks concentrated in early stages•

Bottom-up Basic Skills Principle: basic skills learned in context•

Practice Principle: lots of practice•

Active, Critical Learning Principle: active, critical•

Committed Learning Principle: time, engagement, commitment•

Incremental Principle: builds towards more complexity•

Probing Principle: form a hypothesis and test it

The first level of “Super Mario Bros.” (released by Nintendo in 1983) is a good case study to
explore how these principles support the acquisition of skills and skill utilities in-game andfurther why such an analysis has been seen as worthwhile in general.
In 1-1, the introductory quasi-tutorial first level of “Super Mario Bros.,” the player ispresented with a low-risk practice space. If the player fails, they lose very little progress. Thisinitial area acts as a small sample of skills and skill utilities needed to progress (Skill: jump;
Jump utility: avoid enemy, eliminate enemy, pass barriers, traverse gap, direct shell). These skills
are acquired bottom-up. Although this first level is ostensibly a tutorial, nothing is explained
explicitly in-game; instead, players are afforded lots of practice. The player must actively learn
and critically test skills and skill utilities if to progress past even the first 10% of the level.
Progressing through the level, skills become more challenging to utilize as the level builds inincremental complexity (gaps: wider, barriers: higher, enemies: more concentrated and complex).
The player is given plenty of time to commit and engage in the environment (400 s/6.6 min)through which they can form and test hypotheses (e.g., If I can jump, can the “question block” be
hit and utilized? If I can jump and move up (an early skill), can I crouch and move down a tube
(a later skill)?). A rough analysis identifies at least eight learning principles (17 instances), threeskills, and six skill utilities. This deconstruction does not propose that Super Mario Bros. is a
replacement for good teaching or even that utilizing the game in a classroom would be
pedagogically sound. This deconstruction simply shows why the inspiration side of the field has
found game design so convincing. Game design takes active and situated learning seriously.
Similar to deHann (2021)’s critiques, Egenfeldt-Nielsen (2005) sums up both sides of the
field and suggests a way forward:127

A LOOK AT THE ROLE OF DESIGN IN EDUCATION: DEVELOPMENTS, TRENDS, AND
PRACTICAL USE… games should challenge educational practices while seeking the realization of realistic
educational scenarios. This balance is delicate, but also critical if computer games are tohave a real impact and justification in educational efforts. Without the challenge ofcurrent practice … games risk becoming of little interest to anyone; trapped in the
caricature of edutainment, pointing educators back in time instead of forward (p. 11)
Egenfeldt-Nielsen (2005) is particularly concerned with the balance between the two broad areasof focus (use and inspiration). Although work has been done to identify the learning potential ingames and the reasons some games are well designed learning systems, the actual use of games
in education aside from experimental studies remains anemic. A need for more wide scale
acceptance and interest is apparent in this still emerging field.
Games, Play, and Fun
Above we looked at the field of games in education. Games were defined as systems, and like SI,
simulations that rely on limitations. Regardless of whether your interest in games (in terms ofeducation) resides in the use or inspiration side of the field (or naturally somewhere in between),
an understanding of how play and fun are related to systems, simulations, and games is required.
In simple terms, why bother interacting with the parts of a system or simulation?
Although Salen and Zimmerman (2004) do not define games in terms of, fun isfundamental to games, and in fact, fun and play are inextricably connected. When we decide toplay a game (or interact with a system or within a simulation), we enter a magic circle where we
accept the rules and limitations taking on what is called a lusory attitude. We can then playwithin the limitations as the game was designed. Bogost (2016) in the book Play Anything offersa unique understanding of these concepts:
We experience games by ‘playing’ them, and play is an activity we tend to associate withfreedom, with being able to do whatever we want. This view of play stems fromconditioning ourselves to see play as the opposite of work … [However,] … games andplay offer the opposite: an invitation to do only what the system allows, for no reason
other than the fact that it was designed that way. Games are built out of constraints, andplay arises from limitations (p. 138).
For Bogost (2016) play is not freedom but rather acting within playgrounds of limitations, andfun is not an escape from reality but rather “manipulating a familiar situation in a new way” (p.

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79). In short, utilizing games in education is not a shortcut or a cheat; it is a deliberative design
choice that involves organizing learning opportunities through designed conflict and interaction,
by setting limitations, and approaching problems in novel ways.
Practical Considerations
Although design in education has been, in simple terms, imprecise, I hope it is now clear thatdesign is concerned with concrete problems and practical solutions: the design of systems,
simulations, and emergence. These ideas fall well in-line with the goals of education. Among theideas covered throughout this review, here are some practical considerations:•

Design learning (in design terms): Even though textbooks may be considered oldtechnology, they still require careful design considerations. Avoid techniques that havequestionable second-order design. For example, instead of directing students to “Pretend
you don’t understand and ask for clarification” (or similar instructions with vague
limitations), design the task right. Create roles and scenarios. Describe situations. Designtasks that require clarification by design. A coin flip can be used to randomly designate“clarification roles.” Minimal pairs or nonsense words can be used to practiceclarification authentically and genuinely.

•

Design learning opportunities around a simple mantra: “situated embodied problemfocused well-designed and well-mentored learning” (Gee, 2013, p. 12). TBLT and SI areboth good places to start as both generally offer clear approach and technique. Teachingwith games also offers active and situated learning opportunities that are already welldesigned.

•

Design playgrounds of limitations. Simulations rely on limitations and abstractions. If
education is a “purposeful learning process” (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2004, p. 17), theprocedural representation afforded by simulation is key. Set limitations and allow
learners to test the limits and explore solutions freely. Give learners lots of feedback andpractice in stages. SI offers techniques in stages or phases and TBLT in task repetition.

•

Use games in your classes. The Ludic Language Pedagogy project (LLP) is a great
resource on this topic and offers detailed techniques and case studies. Role-playing games
are well-designed simulations that utilize roles and abstractions to create playgrounds oflimitations. Playing both with and around games (researching, playing, reflecting, and

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comparing) also introduces learners to a wider knowledge base that includes purposeful
and authentic engagement in a language community.
Conclusion
Design is not an easy topic to review. It is, in common language, simplified, bound with negative
associations, and conflated with the philosophy of aesthetics obfuscating its concrete practicality.
While the fundamentals of design are not esoteric (in fact very accessible), design ideas ineducation have long been trapped in the whirlwind of edu-tech trends and disregarded by the
microscope of reductionist research (despite falling well in-line with the goals of education).
However, design concepts like systems, simulations, and emergence have proliferated incybernetics, new and old ideas in language education like SI and TBLT, and in the emerging
fields of games and education. Furthermore, limitations and especially the concept of
playgrounds of limitations help us reframe our common conceptions of play and fun (beyond
simply the opposite of work). The potential of design literacy seems essential for educators
whose jobs are predicated on their ability to design learning opportunities. This look at the roleof design in education hopefully illuminates how accessible and practical design ideas are,inspires creativity and innovation among educators, and promotes criticality and skepticism
towards future edu-tech trends.

BIO DATA
Anton Vegel holds two degrees in TESL and has nearly a decade of university ESL/EFL
experience. He has published on a variety of topics from language and national identity to TBLT.
Currently his interests are how design-based perspectives can inform pedagogy.

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