原著論文/Original Paper

グローバル・リーダーシップ・コンピテンシーの学習メカニズムに関する探索的研究
キャロライン・ベントン∗1 · 永井 裕久∗2 · 椿 広計∗3 · 木野 泰伸 ∗2

An Exploratory Study on the Learning Mechanism of
Global Leadership Competencies
Caroline BENTON∗1 , Hirohisa NAGAI∗2 ,Hiroe TSUBAKI∗3 , and Yasunobu KINO∗2
Abstract– Leading international business requires the learning of global leadership competencies thatallow managers to flexibly navigate across cultures. This explorative study investigates the mechanism by which global leadership competencies are acquired from a meta-cognitive approach. Indepth interviews and a web-survey were conducted in Asian and Europe. Results confirmed that 1)
all managers faced new and difficult challenges during international business assignments, 2) the necessary leadership competencies were both common and idiosyncratic across cultures, and 3) global
managers, regardless of their nationalities, experienced “double-loop learning” while acquiring new
global leadership competencies though “breakthrough experiences” during international business assignments.
Keywords– global leadership competencies, meta-cognitive learning, double-loop learning, criticalincidents

1. Introduction
Ever-increasing change and ubiquitous global businessand trade characterize the 21st century. To cope in suchan environment, organizations – both for profit and nonprofit – cannot limit their business strategies and management to the domestic field, but must optimize their businessmodel taking into consideration the needs of the global market. This requires the development of global leaders andmanagers who are capable of exercising various leadershipcompetencies to work and adapt across different cultures.
However, Japanese companies, which have been traditionally focused on the large domestic market, have been struggling to develop such human resources since the burst of
the economic bubble over two decades ago.
∗1 筑波大学 茨城県つくば市天王台 1-1-1∗2 筑波大学 東京都文京区大塚 3-29-1∗3 統計数理研究所 東京都立川市緑町 10-3
∗1 University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki

Moreover, most of the previous studies on leadershipcompetencies have focused on developing a list of competencies that explain high leadership performance, whichmerely clarifies the characteristics that a global businessleader needs, while not addressing the more difficult issueof how to nurture these competencies in the next generation of global leaders. By understanding the mechanism of
how leadership competencies can be nurtured or learned, it
becomes possible to develop training for the identified highperformance leadership competencies.
The research presented in this paper, conducted by
the Global Human Resource Development Research Unit
(GHRD)1 at the University of Tsukuba, is an exploratory
research on the learning mechanism of global leadershipcompetencies (GLCs). In the first stage of the research, indepth interviews of 12 managers in Asia and Europe wereconducted to determine how successful international business managers learn to cope and thrive in a cross-culturalenvironment. It was found that all global managers faced∗2 University of Tsukuba, 3-29-1 Otsuka, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo∗3 TheInstitute of Statistical Mathematics, 10-3 Midori-cho,Tachikawa-shi, Tokyo

Received: 20 January 2015, 26 February 2015

1. The GHRD Research Unit comprises a group of researchers at the University of Tsukuba (Hirohisa Nagai, Hiroe Tsubaki, Yasunobu Kino
and Caroline Benton, and international research partners from 11 countries).

Oukan Vol.9, No.1

5

Benton, C. et al.

challenges and problems, which they had never experienced
before, that provided them with the opportunity to learn
new GLCs.
The authors propose that such breakthrough experiences
can give insights into a new model for learning global leadership competencies. This paper, describes the in-depth interviews and a 12-country quantitative research conductedby GHRD that focus on the challenges that global business
managers face during their overseas assignments, the GLCs
needed to resolve these challenges, and the mechanism bywhich the necessary competencies were learned. Based on
the findings of the study, GHRD is now developing multicountry case studies of global managers, as well as a simulation tool which will allow users to measure their competency levels against successful global managers.

2. Literature Review
Learning Theory
From the field of educational psychology, meta-cognitive
theory has been attracting attention as a means for analyzing the mechanisms used for learning appropriate action ina changing environment. As the theory incorporates selfreflection and action foresight, it can be used to provide
practical insights in how one can actively participate in
one’s own learning process. Meta-cognitive theory involves
taking conscious control of one’s own learning, that is, theplanning/monitoring of progress, the correction of errors,
the evaluation of the effectiveness of learning strategies andthe adjustment of learning behaviors and strategies [1].
Meta-cognitive theory is closely related to learning
mechanisms in a practical manner. Three basic processesof meta-cognitive theory that can be readily applied in thereal world have been defined [2, 3]. These are 1) developing a plan of action, 2) monitoring progress of the action
and behavior, and 3) making changes when necessary andevaluating results for future reference.
The first process refers to devising a plan of action to
implement or resolve a situation (e.g., to create new work
processes to foster exchange of knowledge between headquarters and its foreign subsidiaries); the second, to observeand track progress of the action (e.g., to check and analyze
how effectively the new work processes have led to knowledge exchange); lastly, to devise a new plan of action if
the results are not satisfactory (e.g., to implement modifications and adjustments, such as a system for providing
incentives, exchanging values and creating mutual understanding, if necessary).

6

The authors suggest that meta-cognitive theory can beused to analyze global managers’ learning processes as theystruggle through novel situations in an unknown environment to gain an understanding of how they can monitor
the progress of their normal cognitive schemata, and learn
competencies to make changes accordingly. If new insights
are learned through such reflection and contingent behavior is successful, these can now become part of a manager’s
repertoire of competencies. Such meta-level learning is particularly important in this age of globalization as the differing cultural, societal and business contexts require constantevaluation of new ways of thinking and behavior. For instance, it cannot be guaranteed that a high performer from
North America will perform equally well when transferred
to a new region such as Asia, Europe or the Middle East.
The difference in job content, and organizational, socialand cultural norms will require the high performer to adjust her worldview as well as her behavior by monitoring
actions and performance within the context of the new environment.
Accordingly, in such situations, the author proposes thatcross-cultural incidents can be a “breakthrough opportunity” for global managers to monitor their own progress andto adopt new strategies and values in order to respond to the
new environment.
The double-loop and single-loop theory of learning proposed by Argyris and Schön [4, 5] is a practical model that
proposes the concept of monitoring and making changes at
a higher cognitive level, rather than at the level of normal
routines. Single-loop learning is concerned primarily witheffectiveness; it is associated with how best to achieve existing goals and objectives. Borkowski, et al. [2] state thatsingle-loop learning is operating within an existing solution
plan, and rules are conducted in a routine manner throughmonitoring one’s own behavior. It can be defined as the“routine loop” of accomplishing regular duties and experiencing routine. This state involves monitoring and feedback that enables the detection and correction of existingerrors to improve and change routine behavior.
On the other hand, double-loop learning explains actionthat adapts new ideas and behavior that differ from the routine and status quo [4, 5], which is necessary in the uncertain, novel and rapidly changing context of global business.
This is accomplished by embracing change through learning achieved at the level of rules, insights and principles,or learning that results in changes at the level of values andvariables that govern behavior and routine [6]. Fig. 1 is a
representation of the double-loop and single-loop learning

横幹 第 9 巻 第 1 号

An Exploratory Study on the Learning Mechanism of
Global Leadership Competencies

Fig. 1: Double-loop, single-loop learning adapted from
Argyris and Schön on [4, 5]

their own national as well as organizational culture, no matter what their educational or ethnical background is, what
functional area their job description represents, or what organization they come from.” This paper, which focuses onleaders and managers of global business, adopts this definition.
Nagai [10] investigated the usage and effectiveness ofglobal leadership competencies across seven Asian countries, and found both commonalities and differences. We
build on these to investigate if and how such competencies
differ across countries and culture, and how these competencies can be nurtured.

3. Methodology
model.
As shown in Fig. 1 above, governing variables, which
are the values, knowledge, mindset and status quo that influence behavior, affect an individual’s action, which leads
to a result. In the case of single-loop learning, an individual
then reviews the achieved result and adjusts any further action accordingly. However, these adjustments and actions
are in-line with the current scheme of the governing variables, and thus cannot achieve any significant breakthroughdiffering from the norm.
In the case of double-loop learning, an individual reviews
the result and realizes that current schemes and values are
not appropriate for the situation. Conscious change at thelevel of governing variables can then lead to actions thatbreak from the current state of affairs, and consequently
result in achievements – including profit levels, products or
new ideas – beyond those of the past.
Leadership Competencies
Managerial competence first received wide attention after appearing in “Planning and the Executive Development
Program” [7]. Competencies have since been defined as
the ability or set of behaviors and skills necessary to successfully perform a job. Although with a certain degree ofvariation, countless number of previous studies have identified dozens of competencies including strategic thinking,commitment to success, passion, vision and communication skills.
In this age of global markets, research has recognizedthat new types of competencies are needed for managing
the diversity and complexity of operations and businesses
that span across national borders [8]. Jokinen [9] defines
global leadership competencies as “those universal qualities that enable individuals to perform their job outside

The research presented in this paper is positioned as
an exploratory investigation that studies the effect of theunique challenges of global business on the learning of
GLCs (Global Leadership Competencies). The authors focus on what they refer to as critical incidents, which aredefined as non-routine events that are beyond the normal
course of business and that have the potential to greatly affect the outcome of the business in question: for example,
a misunderstanding with a vital customer caused by differences in culture and business practices that undermine
the business relationship, or differences in the perception of
acceptable labor practices that threaten company-employee
relations and hence business continuity.
The first phase of the survey comprised in-depth interviews of 12 global managers in Asia and Japan that investigated the effect critical instances had on the learningof GLCs, and was conducted between December 2009 andMarch 2010. The survey adopted critical incident researchmethodology to focus on a specific event that interviewees
faced during international business assignments. Criticalincident technique is an exploratory qualitative approach toresearch that generates a comprehensive and detailed description of a content domain. It consists of asking eyewitness observers for factual accounts of behaviors (incidents)that significantly contribute to a specified outcome [11].
A semi-structured survey was prepared comprising thefollowing four questions: 1) critical incidents faced by respondents and the associated competencies used for resolution; 2) the learning process used (single or doubleloop learning) for problem solving; 3) the monitoring of
the problem-solving process; and 4) the reviewing of the
problem-solving process and associated competencies.
In order to identify competencies associated with each

Oukan Vol.9, No.1

7

Benton, C. et al.

4. Results

Table 1: Categorization of GLCs
Search

Plan

Do

Learn

S1. Cultural
Sensitivity
S2. Problem
Identification
S3. Flexibility

P1. Vision
P2. Adaptability
P3. Identification of
Talent
P4. Communication
P5. Decision making

D1. Managing
Diversity
D2. Managing
ChangeD3. RiskManagement
D4. Tactfulness

L1: Encourage
Learning
L2: Result
Orientation

Note: Modified from Nagai [10]step of the single-double loop learning process, a total of
14 global leadership competencies were adapted from Nagai [10] and categorized into the four steps that constitutea monitoring cycle: Search (3 items), Plan (5 items), Do(4 items) and Learn (2 items) (refer to Table 1).
In the second stage of the research, a quantitative web
survey was conducted in 12 countries in Japan, Asia andEurope (China, France, Germany, Japan, Korea, Indonesia,
Norway, Russia, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, U.K.) between
2011 and 2012. Target respondents were middle managers
or above working in the manufacturing industry with significant international business experience over the last three
years. A total of 907 valid responses were received.
Based on further literature review and building on the
in-depth interviews, 55 global leadership competencies
were identified and categorized into Search (9 items), Plan
(12 items), Do (12 items), Learn (9 items), and Leadership
Qualities (13 items).
The major items investigated in the quantitative (questionnaire) survey were as follows:• Previous training undertaken

Based on the findings of the interviews, the competencies identified were qualitatively confirmed into the Search,Plan, Do and Learn stages. The comments given by the respondents with regards to their experience in handling thecritical instance are described below.
a. Search step
All of the interviewed global managers had faced various critical incidents during international business assignments. Many of these incidents involved differing styles ofconducting business between the global managers and theirlocal staff, as well as between corporate headquarters andits local subsidiary. In such situations, managers tried to
identify the problem by being culturally sensitive (Cultural
Sensitivity, S1).
A Japanese respondent acknowledged that the differences in business and cultural context was the base of the
problem, rather than criticize the host country from an ethnocentric point of view.
“As for the incident, the things which worked in thecontext of the Japanese business model didn’t work
the same way overseas (S1).”A Turk respondent also perceived that entering the Middle East market required a paradigm shift and a new marketing strategy that was centered on the host country’s culture.
“Trial and error for market expansion in the Middle
East was a totally new challenge (S1) in business globalization.”
A French respondent identified the problem (S2) of conflict between the Japanese expatriate manager and local
staff by sensing the difference in cultural values (S1).

• Type of critical incident• Background of critical incident resolution• Behavior, method and monitoring of critical incident
during the resolution process“Conflict between Japanese and local engineers (interms of their approach to solving technological problems) was very significant (S2).”In all three cases, the managers faced critical incidents
due to cultural differences in working styles between homeand host countries, where the single-loop learning was noteffective for problem resolution. However, sensitivity to thecultural background appears to have enabled them to search
new methods for solution planning.

• GLCs used for critical incident resolution• Degree of critical incident resolution• Effect of critical incident in terms of emotional, cognitive and behavioral changes

8

4.1 Phase 1: Qualitative In-Depth Interview
Surveyb. Plan step

横幹 第 9 巻 第 1 号

An Exploratory Study on the Learning Mechanism of
Global Leadership Competencies

In the Plan step, global managers experienced breakthroughs events that led to double-loop learning opportunities for finding new solutions to problems. These experiences were not always pleasant, and were mostly stressful
because of their novelty; however, a small change became
an opportunity for discovery of new ideas for solution.
A Japanese respondent clearly stated that his breakthrough experience was caused by pressure. However, herealized that setting his sights on solving a bigger target(Vision, P1) gave him new ideas for problem solving.
“It (breakthrough) was pulled by the pressure for solving a bigger target (P1).”
On the other hand, another Japanese respondent suggested that just a word in daily conversation with a family
member led to a breakthrough for developing a new solution plan, showing that Communication (P4) with various
people can be a key competency at the Plan stage.
“I realized that developing reliable human relations is
far more important than anything else for continued
business success by hearing such a suggestion frommy wife (P4).”
Adaptability (P2) to a new environment through the consideration of local values and new ways of thinking that cancatalyze breakthrough promoted deviation from single-loop
solution planning.
“It seemed like the incident was an opportunity fora breakthrough when I realized that what is common
sense in Japan was impossible to use (P2) in the context of the local business.”
As we can see, demonstrating Vision (P1), Adaptability(P2) and Communication (P4) were important for realizing breakthrough at the Plan stage. These three competencies helped global managers understand the different cultural contexts and were closely related to breakthrough.
c. Do step
Based on the breakthrough experience in the Plan stage,
respondents tried new problem-solving behavior. In thisstep, many proactively implemented new actions while
monitoring their success.
A Turk respondent, who was a local manager reporting toa German expatriate, experienced cross-cultural conflict in
the beginning. He patiently tried to gain autonomy from his
German headquarters by incrementally showing evidence
that achievements can be made through local staff’s continuous efforts. After a series of successes, the local manager’s

Tactfulness (D4) led to his promotion to general manager of
the Turkish subsidiary.
“I succeeded in acquiring European certification
through the efforts of only Turkish employees. This
was achieved by gradually gaining the trust of themain office (D4) in Germany, and promoting autonomy through the growth of sales performance.”
A French respondent also had problems in resolving thecross-cultural communication conflict between Japaneseand French engineers. However, she tried to find a resolution by changing behavior patterns (Managing Change,
D2).
“I attempted to find new working relationships (D2)with the Japanese headquarters to empower local engineers.”
A Japanese respondent had tried to impose his own
perspectives on the local staff, but modified his behavior
through reflecting on his own cultural biases and adopting
a more culturally diverse point of view (Managing Diversity, D1).
“Understanding one’s own cultural biases and the cultural context of the local market through fieldwork, research and hypotheses testing is very important (D1).”
The above three interviews depict the importance of reflection to modify managerial behavior tactfully and in atransformational manner when faced with difficulty in implementing original plans.
d. Learn stepThrough the above three steps, double-loop learning led
to the resolution of the critical incidents. The Learn stage
is the final step in this process in which newly acquired
knowledge and skills will be then embedded into the next
cycle of single or double-loop learning.
A Japanese respondent reflected on past learning during
a troubling experience in the Learn Stage. He encouraged
learning from experience (L1) to manage critical incidents.
“In fact, I was able to adapt to the environment in New
York through reflection on a past troublesome experience (Encourage Learning, L1).”
A Japanese respondent, who had intensive experience
working overseas, stated that learning through experience
was a routine strategy for developing new ideas and competencies to solve challenges (L1).

Oukan Vol.9, No.1

9

Benton, C. et al.

Table 2: Critical incidents experienced multiple answers (%)“I learn new ideas every time (L1) I experience a challenging issues.”
A Japanese respondent suggested that the synergistic
effects of integrating two or more competencies promote
double-loop learning (L1).
“Competencies seem to be more effective when usedin combination. It is useful to be aware of the importance of customizing competency learning (L1) fromseveral experiences.”
Lastly, the importance of introspection for double-loop
learning was mentioned by a Japanese respondent.
“I learned that it is essential to check more than twice
before taking actions (L2), and to confirm plans withlocal staff to ensure the validity of the plans.”
The above statements show that successful global managers introspectively evaluated their strategies and behaviors to deal with critical incidents by viewing these as anopportunity to learn new competencies.

4.2 Phase 2: Quantitative Web-Survey
This section describes the findings of the web-survey
conducted in 12 countries in Asia and Europe.
Critical Incidents Experienced
As shown in Table 2, all respondents from each of thecountries experienced multiple critical incidents. The mostexperienced types of critical incidents were “Unfamiliarity with culture and new business environment (63.3%),”“Conflict or misunderstanding with local staff/team member (49.6%),” and “Development of new business or market(48.5%).”

10

Fig. 2: Critical incident resolution

Both the first and second most experienced types of incidents involve dealing with new cultures and new situations,which confirms the difficulty of working in international
business situations.
Japanese business managers appeared to have greater difficulty dealing with a multi-cultural and unfamiliar environment, with 75% and 63.3% reporting experiencing thesefirst and second most experienced types of critical incidents, respectively. These figures are greater than the average for respondents from all countries surveyed by 10%.
Critical Incident Resolution
Fig. 2 shows the degree to which the critical incident experience by respondents were resolved based on a 5-point
scale, with 5 being “complete resolution” and 1 being “noresolution at all.” As shown, the average resolution score
was 3.7, which represents a state between “somewhat re-

横幹 第 9 巻 第 1 号

An Exploratory Study on the Learning Mechanism of
Global Leadership Competencies

Table 3: Change caused by the critical incident

Table 4: GLCs that impacted critical incident resolution

solved” and “mainly resolved,” but falling below “complete
resolution.” Japanese managers had a slightly less resolution average of 3.6. This implies that as most critical incidents are not completely resolved, global business managers must flexibility make adjustments to achieve the best
possible outcome.
Effects of the Critical Incidents
With regards to the effect the critical incidents had on
global business managers, respondents were asked to rate
the degree to which the experience caused any emotional,
cognitive or behavioral change. Emotional change refers to
the change the stimulus of the critical incident had on emotions, attitude or values; cognitive change to any change
in understanding of the new environment; and behavior
change to any change in actions or reactions to the new situation.
As shown in Table 3, the average rating of change was
3.4 for both emotional and cognitive change, and 3.7 for behavioral change (5-point scale with 1 reflecting no change
at all, and 5 being a significant degree of change), showingthat critical incidents have impact on global managers.
Respondents of most countries, excluding Japan and Korea, experienced greater change in behavior than in emotion
or cognition. We can infer that managers readily changed
their behavior and actions to more quickly adapt to the newenvironment and culture they faced.
In contrast, Japanese respondents experienced the greatest degree of change in emotions and the lowest degree ofchange in behavior. It appears that even though the criticalincidents caused changes in emotions and cognition, thesewere not translated into behavioral change. Possibly, therelatively strong centralized control and the emphasis onconsensus building of Japanese companies make it difficult
for Japanese managers to autonomously take new actions.

GLCs used for Critical Incident Resolution
Using data mining of all questions in the web-survey, thestructure of a decision tree that best measured critical incident resolution was developed. Variables included were as
follows.
• Dependent variable: Critical incident resolution level(5-point scale)• Independent variables:- Usage of global leadership competencies- Type and characteristics of critical incident, countryof occurrence- Profile of respondents (age, education, position,
length of employment, nationality)- Leadership, language, and cross-cultural training
received- Changes brought upon by the critical incidents(changes in work processes, organization, strategy,
decision-making, communication, emotions, cognition, and behavior)
Table 4 shows the GLCs that had the most impact on critical incident resolution in the decision tree for all respondents. In the Search stage, a long-term focus, as well as thetackling of current issues, is shown to be necessary whentrying to search or understand the problem. In the Plan

Oukan Vol.9, No.1

11

Benton, C. et al.

Table 5: Japanese respondents’ GLC scoresstage, communication with team members and partners,
and the consideration of business strength and the futurewere important. In the Do stage, building teams and partnerships, and facilitating action were vital competencies. In
the Learn stage, acquiring knowledge and skills while setting goals and monitoring progress were key competencies.
In terms of overall leadership quality, having unwaveringcommitment to the cause and promises made while keeping
one’s strength and being self-aware were characteristics of
successful managers.
Table 5 shows the average score for Japanese managers
for the above GLCs that impacted critical incident resolution (5-point scale, with 5 being very important and 1 being not important at all). As shown, Japanese respondents
tended to have low scores for most GLCs, with the highest ranking being 4th out of respondents from all the 12
countries for “Tackling currents issues while predicting future market situation.” On the other hand, they ranked 10thor 11th for “Inspiring others to pursue corporate vision,”“Building effective teams,” “Dealing effectively with resistance to change,” and “Setting clear organizational goals
and objectives,” clearly slowly they had difficulty dealing
with local team members.

12

5. Conclusion
This study investigated the effect critical incidents hadon the learning of global leadership competencies thoughin-depth interviews and a multi-national web-survey.
We found that all global managers faced critical incidents in their international assignments that had the potential to significantly affect their business. Although managers faced various types of incidents, the most common
type were related to difficulties caused by differences in culture and dealing with new situations in a new environment.
This confirms that need for global managers and leaders
to acquire the unique skills and competencies necessary to
succeed in global business. The results of the interview
survey suggested that through double-loop learning, globalmangers could learn new GLCs while managing the criticalincidents they faced.
Japanese managers in particular had difficulty in handling new cultures and environments and in developing relationships with the local staff. The fact that Japanese managers had the least amount of leadership training overall,and the second to the least amount of language training(second to U.K. managers who are mainly native speakers of English, the language most used in international
business) can be inferred to be contributing factors to theinability to work across cultures. Furthermore, Japanese

横幹 第 9 巻 第 1 号

An Exploratory Study on the Learning Mechanism of
Global Leadership Competencies

managers were the least likely to make behavioral changes
based on their experiences and learnings. Accordingly,
Japanese companies, who are recognizing the need for
global leadership, need to make a full commitment to thetraining and development of these leaders of international
business, and to foster flexibility and adaptability within
their organizational culture.
In the next phase of the research, GHRD is developing
case studies of global managers who have successful managed critical situations, and a business simulation tool –which uses the data collected –, that allows users to measure their own global leadership competency levels.

[9] T. Jokinen: “Global leadership competencies: a review anddiscussion,” J. of European Industrial Training, Vol.29, Issue 3, pp. 199-216, 2005.
[10] H. Nagai: “Development of Future Asian Global Leaders: Vision, Framework, and Implications for APO Member
Countries,” Asian Productivity Organization, 2008.
[11] L. K. Woolsey: “The Critical Incident Technique: An Innovative Qualitative Method of Research,” Canadian J. ofCounseling, Vol.20, No.4, pp. 242-254, 1986.

キャロライン・ベントン
1994 年筑波大学大学院経営・政策科学研究科修士課
程経営システム科学専攻修了．1997 年東京工業大学
大学院理工学研究科博士後期課程修了．博士（学術）．
筑波大学ビジネスサイエンス系教授を経て，2013 年
4 月同大学副学長．

参考文献[1] D. S. Ridley, P. A. Schultz, R. S. Glanz, and C. E. Weinstein: “Self-regulated learning: the interactive influences ofmetacognitive awareness and goals setting,” J. of Experimental Education, Vol.60, pp. 293-306, 1992.
[2] J. G. Borkowski, L. K. S. Chan, and N. Muthukrishna: “A
Process-oriented Model of Metacognition: Links between
Motivation and Executive Functioning,” G. Schraw and J.
Impara, (Ed.), Issues in the Measurement of Metacognition,
pp. 1-41, Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 2000.
[3] W. Winn and D. Snyder: “Cognitive perspectives in psychology,” D. H. Jonassen, (Ed.), Handbook of research foreducational communications and technology, pp. 112-142,
New York: Simon & Schuster MacMillan, 1996.
[4] C. Argyris and D. A. Schön: “Organizational Learning:
A Theory of Action Perspective,” Reading, MA: AddisonWesley, 1978.
[5] C. Argyris and D. A. Schön: “Organizational Learning II:
Theory, Method, and Practice,” Reading, MA: AddisonWesley, 1996.
[6] C. Argyris: “Overcoming Organizational Defenses,” Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.
[7] C. C. Lundberg: “Planning the Executive Development Program,” California Management Review, Vol.15, No.1, pp. 115, Fall 1972.
[8] R. E. Boyatzis: “Competencies in the 21st century,” J. of
Management Development, Vol.27，Issue 1, pp. 5-12, 2008.

永井 裕久
1994 年慶應義塾大学商学研究科博士課程単位取得
退学，1995 年 慶應義塾大学 博士 (商学)，1994 年〜
1998 年専修大学経営学部専任講師・助教授を経て，1998 年より筑波大学大学院（経営システム科学専攻
助教授・教授，2015 年より国際経営プロフェッショ
ナル専攻教授）．専門は組織行動論，グローバルリー
ダーシップ・人材開発論．

椿 広計
1982 年東京大学工学系研究科修士課程修了．同年，
同計数工学科助手．87 年慶應義塾大学数理科学科講師，88 年工学博士，97 年筑波大学社会工学系助教授，
00 年教授，ビジネス科学研究科教授を経て 07 年統
計数理研究所教授，応用統計研究に従事．

木野 泰伸

Oukan Vol.9, No.1

1990 年日本アイ・ビー・エム株式会社入社．金融，
報道，製造業等のシステム開発プロジェクトに参画．
2005 年筑波大学大学院ビジネス科学研究科助教授，
現在准教授，博士（システムズ・マネジメント），日
本品質管理学会，プロジェクトマネジメント学会，情報処理学会会員．

13