2011-E-2
Soft Power and Applicant Attraction to Prospective Employers
Fabian Jintae Froese
Yasuyuki Kishi

Fabian Jintae Froese*
Korea University
Anam-dong, Seongbuk-Gu,
Seoul 136-701, South Korea
E-mail: froese@korea.ac.kr
Tel/Fax: +82 2 3290 2802&

Yasuyuki Kishi
University of Tokyo
Manufacturing Management Research Center
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku,
Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
E-mail: kishi@mmrc.e.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Tel: +81 3 5841 0687

*Corresponding author

Soft Power and Applicant Attraction to Prospective Employers

Abstract
Attracting highly qualified talent is a crucial activity for the success of organizations. We
hypothesized that soft power of countries or regions, i.e. political influence and media exposure,are related with applicant attraction to prospective employers. Survey results of more than 2,200
respondents from Korea, China, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, and Singapore show thatapplicant attraction varies across countries and depending on the country-of-origin of theprospective employer. Regression results indicate that soft power predicts applicant attraction to
Japanese or Western organizations suggesting the importance of soft power in international
business.

Keywords: applicant attraction, Asia, image theory, Japan, recruiting, soft power1Introduction
Attracting high-quality applicants is a critical component of staffing (Chapman et al.,2005; Ehrhart & Ziegert, 2005; Rynes & Barber, 1990) and can be a competitive advantage(Turban & Greening, 1996). Recent changes in the nature of work, demographics, and increased
internationalization of business present many challenges for attracting talent (Ployhart, 2006). In
some countries, talent has already become scarce so that firms have to compete in a “war for
talent”. Recent studies indicated that competition for highly qualified talent is particular intense
in Asia (Han & Froese, 2010; Wattson Wyatt, 2003). For instance, in China, the demand for job
candidates with technical skills, relevant work experience and who speak English has rapidly
increased that firms pay salary premiums of up to 100% to poach such people from competitors(Han & Froese, 2010).
Despite the increased globalization of business, research has lagged behind ininvestigating the consequences of international business on recruitment and applicant attraction.
Major multinational enterprises (MNEs) such as the Japanese electronics company Sony and theAmerican consumer goods company Procter & Gamble employ more than 60% of theirworkforce outside their home countries. Anderson and Witvliet (2008) showed that personnel
selection practices and applicants’ perceptions thereof differ greatly across countries. MNEs mayneed to modify their recruitment practices if they do not want to lose out in the global war for
talent.
Foreign-based companies might be less preferred employers in overseas markets (e.g.,
Newburry, Gardberg, & Belkin, 2006; Robinson, 2003), because they usually suffer from theliability of foreignness, that is disadvantages due to their foreignness and lack of local market
knowledge (Zaheer, 1994). Newburry et al. (2006) found that demographic factors, such as race2

and gender, interacted with the attractiveness of foreign-based companies in the United States.
Turban, Lau, Ngo, Chow, and Sic2001) found that Chinese university students were more
attracted to foreign companies when the students were more risk and money oriented. Kopp
(1994) and Yoshihara (2005) argued that Japanese companies were less preferred employers inoverseas due to ethnocentric HR (Human Resource) policies. However, demographics,
personality traits, and HR policies could only explain little variance of why local candidates were(not) attracted to foreign-based employers.
Ployhart (2006) argued that demographics and job-organizational characteristics havebecome less important in today’s knowledge-based, globalized economy, while images havebecome more important. Several studies conducted in the US and Europe confirmed theimportance of corporate images (Highhouse et al., 1999; Highhouse, Thurnbury, Little, 2007;
Lievens & Highhouse, 2003). Froese, Garrett, and Vo (2010) extended the concept to country
images and an Asian context. Their findings showed that Vietnamese students were more
attracted to American companies than to domestic companies because of images of technologicaladvancements and open-mindedness associated with the US. While these studies have improved
our understanding of the role of images in applicant attraction, prior research has been
inconclusive (Highhouse, Brooks, Greguras, 2009) and paid little attention to international
aspects (Froese et al., 2010).
We extend the growing body of research on images and recruiting in international
context by investigating the role of soft power in applicant attraction to prospective
foreign-based employers in Asia. Soft power is a well-known construct in political sciencereferring to the ability to obtain what one wants through co-option and attraction (Nye, 1990).
Given the well-documented importance of co-option and attraction in international politics, the3

concept of soft power is likely to also have an effect on applicant attraction to foreign employers.
We provide more rationale in the following section. This study is – to our knowledge – the first
to introduce soft power into the domain of human resource management and international
business.
This paper is structured as follows. The next section briefly reviews recruitment
literature, introduces soft power, and develops the study’s hypotheses. The third section
describes the methodology and the fourth section presents the empirical findings. In the final
section, we discuss the findings and provide practical implications and avenues for future
research, while acknowledging the limitations of this study.

Literature Review and Hypotheses
Recruitment encompasses the organization’s efforts to identify, attract, and influence the job
choices of qualified applicants (Ployhart, 2006). Recruitment can only be successful if theorganization can attract a sufficient pool of applicants. Thus, applicant attraction is not only asource for competitive advantage but also critical for organizational survival (Taylor & Collins,
2000). Reflecting the important role of applicant attraction, there are several excellent reviews on
applicant attraction (Chapman et al., 2005; Ehrhart & Ziegert, 2005; Ployhart, 2006).
Responding to the growing need to better understand job applicants, this study focuseson the perspective of potential job applicants (Chapman et al., 2005; Ehrhart & Ziegert, 2005).
Ehrhart and Ziegert (2005) identified three overarching metatheories that help explain applicant
attraction: environment processing metatheory, interactionist processing metatheory, and self
processing metatheory. Environment processing metatheory deals with how the actual andperceived environment shapes applicant attraction. Interactionist processing metatheory deals

4with fit between individuals and organizations. Self processing metatheory relates to how
individuals deal with information about themselves. As this study, intends to investigate how soft
power of different countries (external environments) affect applicant attraction, we adopt anenvironment processing theory.
Within environment processing metatheory, Ehrhart and Ziegert (2005) emphasize theimportant roles of signaling theory (Rynes, 1991; Spence, 1973) and image theory (Highhouse etal., 1999; Lindquist, 1974). According to signaling theory, applicants do not have complete
information and interpret available information as signals, e.g. advertisement brochuresemphasizing work-life balance. Image theory has gained wide popularity in recent years (for areview see Highhouse et al., 2009). According to image theory, applicants decide among
different job alternatives by considering how these alternatives fit their image of what is desired.
This area of research has an interdisciplinary character and was originally developed frommarketing literature (e.g. Collins & Stevens, 2002; Lievens & Highhouse, 2003; Highhouse et al.,2009; DelVecchio et al., 2007). While early research was limited to corporate reputation andbrand equity (Collings & Stevens, 2002; Gatewood, Growan, & Lautenschlager, 1993;
Highhouse et al., 1999), Lievens and Highhouse (2003) developed a more comprehensive model
distinguishing between instrumental and symbolic images. Instrumental images refer to objective
attributes directly related to the job or organization, e.g. pay, firm size, whereas symbolic images
refer to subjective feelings and perceptions towards the employer. While Lievens and Highhouse(2003) conceptualized symbolic images as corporate identities, Froese et al. (2010)
conceptualized symbolic images as country images of technological advancement andopen-minded people. Both studies show that symbolic images can predict applicant attraction
above and beyond instrumental images of job characteristics and demographics suggesting the5

important role of images. However, the components of symbolic images are not well understood(Highhouse et al., 2009). In addition to corporate identities and country images, Highhouse et al.
(2009) argue that corporate social responsibility, public relations and advertisements are key
components that shape symbolic images. We propose that soft power can be an importantcomponent of symbolic images that can help explain applicant attraction to foreign-based
employers.
The concept of “soft power” was proposed by Joseph Nye in 1990, and is defined as theability to obtain what one wants through co-option and attraction. Soft power can be contrasted
with ‘hard power’, which has historically been the predominant realist measure of national power,
through economic size, military forces, or a nation’s gross domestic product. Hard power can
execute its imperative through force and coercion. Soft power can be wielded not just by states,
but by all actors in international politics, such as NGOs or international institutions, and perhaps
also recruiting organizations. Hard power is tangible and can be easily measured in numbers, whereas
soft power is more a subtle measure or images as perceived by people. Nye (2005) argues that soft

power is more than influence, since influence can also rest on the hard power of threats or
payments. And soft power is more than just persuasion or the ability to move people byargument, though that is an important part of it. It is also the ability to attract, and attraction often
leads to acquiescence. According to Nye (2005), the primary currencies of soft power are an actor'svalues, culture, policies and institutions. Moreover, these “primary currencies”, as Nye (2005)
calls them, are able to attract or repel other actors to "want what you want". Therefore, soft
power represents an additional behavioral way of getting desirable outcomes.
This paper strives to connect recruiting with the concept of soft power. The effect of soft
power in international politics has been well documented in recent years (Nye 2005; Melissenm

6

& Lee 2011; Heng 2010; Miller 2009). Whereas hard power can be likened with instrumental
images, soft power seems closely related with symbolic images because soft power is more of
subjective and general nature. Soft power as a part of symbolic images may also executeinfluence on international business and applicant attraction to foreign-based employers
specifically. We propose hypotheses related to two central components of soft power: politicalinfluence and media exposure.
Japan, the US and Europe have enjoyed tremendous economic and political influence inAsia. European countries have long traditions of trade with and economic investments in Asia.
For instance, the Dutch East India Company sent almost a million Europeans to work in Asia andshipped more than 2.5 million tons of merchandise between Europe and Asia in the 17th and 18th
centuries. The US concluded influential military and economic development agreements withmany Asian countries after the end of the Second World War. Even though Japan’s politicalpower decreased after the Second World War, Japan emerged as the first industrialized country
in Asia holding the Tokyo Olympics in 1960s and the Osaka Expo in 1970. This drastic
economic growth has appealed to other Asian developing countries. Mahathir bin Mohamad, theprime minister of Malaysia, proposed the “Look East policy” in 1981 to follow the Japanese
economic growth model. These political and economic influences may as well brought about
Japanese and Western influence to other Asian countries, given that politics, economics cannot
be isolated from social influences. Not only economic success but also Japanese values ofmotivation and determination may have appealed to people in other Asian countries. Politicallysuppressed people in developing countries in Asia may also cherish Western values of“democracy” or “freedom”. Through these various means, Japan and the West have had strong
influence in Asia. Exposed to such influences people may create positive images towards those7

countries. Froese et al. (2010) showed that country images had positive spillover effects toorganizational attractiveness towards companies from those countries. Likewise, positive image
related to political influence may also attract people to work for companies from those countries.
Countries do not only disseminate soft power through political influence but also
through other means. Media is commonly identified as an important pillar in today’s politicalarena that executes strong influence on public opinion (e.g. Mc Combs & Maxwell, 1972; Page,
Shapiro & Dempsey, 1987). Further, Nye (2005) pointed out that media influence of a certain
country is significant to get global acceptance for the country. Western media is widespread
across Asia. For example, BBC and Hollywood movies are available almost anywhere in Asia.
Willnat et al. (2002) found that US media exposure had a strong influence on values of Asianstudents. Japanese cartoons (anime) are widespread across Asia like Walt Disney cartoons inmost Western countries. Thus, many Asians are exposed to Japanese culture from a young age.
Prior studies showed that Japanese media influence such as popular culture has been globally
accepted and attracted many people in Asia in particularly (Otmazgin 2008; Iwabuchi 2002,
2010). Movies could even increase tourism to a specific country (Beeton, 2006; Connell, 2005).
According to contact hypothesis (Allport, 1958; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006), the more exposure
people have to a certain object the more they are attracted to it. This implies that the more Asians
are exposed to Japanese and Western media, the more they are attracted to that country or region.
If they are more attracted to those countries they might also be more attracted to work forcompanies from that country. In a related study, Moon (2008) found that media exposure andcultural values predict attitudes towards certain business model. In conclusion, we assume thatpolitical influence and media exposure assert influence on applicant attraction to companies fromcertain countries. We propose the following more specific hypotheses:8Hypothesis 1a: Political influence from Japan is positively related with applicant attraction to
Japanese organizations.
Hypothesis 1b: Political influence from Western countries is positively related with applicant
attraction to Western organizations.
Hypothesis 2a: Japanese media exposure is positively related with applicant attraction to
Japanese organizations.
Hypothesis 2b: Western media exposure is positively related with applicant attraction toWestern organizations.

Methodology
This study was part of a large research project. Data are derived from the Global
Comparative Survey on Attitudes among Asian Students. The survey was administered by
Global Institute of Asian Regional Integration of Waseda University in Japan in 2008. The
purpose of this survey was to clarify the scope and content of lifestyles, political attitudes, values
and consumption patterns in Asia. Data were collected from approximately 2,400 university
students from six Asian countries: South Korea, China, Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore, andPhilippines. Professional research agencies were recruited to collect 400 questionnaires in eachcountry. We only analyzed respondents who selected domestic, Japanese, or Westernorganizations as their first choice employer resulting in a final sample of 2,208 (usable response
rate = 92%). To avoid any misunderstandings and prevent fatigue of respondents, questionnaires
were filled out during face-to-face interviews. International students and graduate students were
excluded from the sample. We set quota to have an equal distribution of gender (50% female),9academic year (25% freshmen, sophomore, junior, senior each), and major (sciences versus
humanities/social science, 50% each) in each country. The average age of respondents was 20.59(SD = 1.59).

MeasuresMain variables. The dependent variable applicant attraction was measured through thefollowing question: “Which company or organization would you like to work for most?”
Respondents could choose between domestic company or organization, Western, Japanese, other
Asian, or other and were asked to tell the name of the country or region. We used the samequestions as in Asia Barometer to measure political influence and media exposure (Inoguchi2009). We assessed political influence by the general question “Do you think the following
countries have a good or bad influence on your country?”. Respondents answered the samequestion for different countries and regions, including Japan and Western countries, and answers
were coded on a Likert-scale from 1 (bad influence) to 5 (good influence). To measure media
exposure, we asked “How often are you exposed to TV programs, movies and animation
produced in the following countries?” Again, respondents answered the same question fordifferent countries / regions and their frequency of consumption was coded from 1 (almost everyday) to 6 (never).
Control variables. Given that prior research found that demographics and job
characteristics may affect organizational attractiveness (for a review see Chapman et al., 2005),
we controlled for age, gender, academic year, major, and job characteristics. Age and academic
year were measured in years. Gender (0 = male, 1 = female) and major (0 = science, 1 = other)were dummy coded. Job characteristics were measured by three items reflecting preference for10extrinsic job characteristics by applicants taken from Froese et al. (2010). Cronbach’s alpha forthis scale was 0.67, indicating acceptable reliability.

Results
Table 1 provides an overview of respondents’ employer choice. Preferences for domestic,
Japanese, and Western employers varied significantly across country (Pearson chi-square =189.06, df = 10, p < 0.001). In China and South Korea, domestic companies were the preferredchoices (60.7% and 62.5% respectively), while Western companies came in second (36.9%,
35.6%), and Japanese employers were avoided (2.4%, 1.9%). In the other countries, foreign
employers, in particular Western companies enjoyed popularity among university students.
Japanese companies were popular in Thailand.

Table 1: Overview of employer choice across countries
CountrySouth Korea

Choice of employerCount% within country

Total

Domestic

Japanese

Western

230

7

131

368

62.5%

1.9%

35.6%

100.0%

232

9

141

382

China

Count

Vietnam% within country
Count

60.7%
153

2.4%
52

36.9%
152

100.0%
357% within country

42.9%

14.6%

42.6%

100.0%

109

89

172

370

ThailandCount

Philippines% within country
Count

29.5%
152

24.1%
55

46.5%
165

100.0%
372% within country

40.9%

14.8%

44.4%

100.0%

150

43

166

359

Singapore

Count

Total

% within country
Count

41.8%
1026

12.0%
255

46.2%
927

100.0%
2208% within country

46.5%

11.5%

42.0%

100.0%

11

The means, standard deviations, and correlation of variables are depicted in Table 2.
The highest correlation was between age and academic year (r = 0.59, p < 0.001), reflecting thefact that senior students are usually older than freshmen. There were several more significant
correlations, though all were at lower levels, e.g. significant correlation between Japanese
influence and Japanese media exposure (r = 0.13, p < 0.001).

12

13

2.43
0.49
3.41
3.71
3.44
3.83
3.83
0.10

3 Academic year

4 Major

5 Extrinsic job characteristics

6 Japanese influence

7 Western influence

8 Japanese media

9 Western media

10 Japan company dummy
0.48

0.30

1.41

1.41

1.14

1.09

0.47

0.50

1.10

0.50

1.97

SD

-0.03

-0.03

-0.09

-0.09

0.10

0.00

-0.08

-0.02

0.59

-0.14

1

1

0.06

-0.03

-0.10

-0.10

-0.02

0.00

0.07

0.18

0.00

1

2

-0.02

0.02

-0.05

-0.05

-0.03

-0.03

0.00

0.01

1

3

0.00

-0.05

-0.03

-0.03

-0.05

-0.01

0.18

1

4

0.10

-0.02

0.12

0.03

0.05

0.06

1

5

0.04

0.17

0.13

0.13

0.31

1

6

0.08

0.03

0.02

0.02

1

7

-0.03

0.15

0.03

1

8

0.16

0.03

1

9

-0.26

1

10

Note: 0.05 < r correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed), 0.06 < r < 0.08 correlation is significant at 0.01 level, 0.09 < rcorrelation is significant at 0.001 level (2-tailed)

0.38

0.50

2 Gender11 Western company dummy

20.59

1 Age

Mean

Table 2: Means, standard deviations, and inter-correlations of variables

To test the hypotheses, we conducted multinomial regression analysis because the dependent
variable is of categorical nature. As we are interested in the effects of soft power on applicant
attraction to companies from different countries we used respondents who selected domestic
companies as the reference group. Overall, the model is able to explain application attraction
well: Cox & Snell Pseudo R Square = 0.17, Nagelkerke = 0.20, -2 Log Likelihood = 3821.8,
Chi-Square = 403.3, df = 28, p < 0.001. Japanese influence (beta = 0.44, p < 0.001) and Japanese
media exposure (beta = 0.34, p < 0.001) are positively related to attraction to Japanesecompanies, providing support for hypothesis 1a and 2a. Furthermore, these two variables havethe highest Wald-values among all relevant variables indicating strong predictive power.
Western influence (beta = 0.14, p < 0.01) and Western media exposure (beta = 0.34, p < 0.001)
are positively related to attraction to Western companies, providing support for hypothesis 1band 2b. Western media was particular strongly related to attraction to Western companies (Wald= 52.47).
In addition, several control variables were significantly related to applicant attraction.
Corroborating descriptive findings, Japanese companies were less preferred employers in Korea
and China, and Western companies were also less preferred in Korea, whereas Western andJapanese companies enjoyed higher applicant attraction in Thailand. Extrinsic job characteristics
was only related to Western companies (beta = 0.52, p < 0.001) suggesting that job applicants
expect and emphasize higher pay and advancement opportunities in Western companies. Major
was negatively related to Japanese employers (beta = -0.33, p < 0.05) implying that science
majors liked Japanese companies. Female students liked Western companies better (beta = 0.35,
p < 0.001).

14

Table 3: Results of multinomial regression analysis
Japanese companies

Western companies

B

S.E.

Wald

B

S. E.

Wald

Control variables
Age
Gender

0.00
0.18

0.08
0.16

0.00
1.25

0.03
0.35

0.05
0.10

0.40
12.22 ***

Academic year

0.05

0.11

0.19

-0.10

0.07

2.22

Major

-0.33

0.16

4.37 *

-0.11

0.10

1.41

Job characteristics
Korea dummy

0.02
-1.87

0.17
0.44

0.01
18.39 ***

0.52
-0.35

0.11
0.17

20.83 ***
4.12 *

China dummy

-1.28

0.44

8.48 ***

-0.20

0.21

0.93

Vietnam dummy

0.23

0.27

0.76

-0.23

0.18

1.66

Thai dummy
Philippines dummy

1.01
0.14

0.29
0.38

12.45 ***
0.13

0.42
-0.14

0.20
0.24

4.61 *
0.37

Soft power
Japanese influence

0.44

0.10

19.63 ***

0.05

0.06

0.97

Western influence
Japanese media

0.04
0.34

0.07
0.06

0.27
29.22 ***

0.14
-0.07

0.05
0.04

9.63 **
3.20

Western media
-0.09
0.07
1.50
0.34
0.05 52.47 ***Notes: Reference group = domestic companies, Cox & Snell Pseudo R Square = 0.17,
Nagelkerke = 0.20, -2 Log Likelihood = 3821.8, Chi-Square = 403.3, df = 28, p < 0.001

Discussion
This study is – to our knowledge – the first that applied the soft power concept to international
business and human resource management. We argued that soft power can be considered as acomponent of symbolic images (Highhouse et al., 2009; Lievens & Highhouse, 2003). Prior
research indicated that symbolic images can predict applicant attraction above and beyond
demographics and job-organization characteristics (Froese et al., 2010; Lievens & Highhouse,2003). The empirical findings indicate that soft power, as measured by political influence andmedia exposure, has significant impact on applicant attraction. Respondents who perceived a15

positive political influence from Japan and had more Japanese media exposure were more
attracted to Japanese prospective employers. The same relationships held true for Western
influence, Western media exposure, and Western employers. Thus, the findings contribute to abetter understanding of symbolic images and applicant attraction in an international context.
Furthermore, the findings suggest the important role of soft power in the recruiting context andpotentially in other international business domains, e.g. tourism, sales of merchandise products.
The findings also provide several additional contributions to a better understanding ofrecruiting in Asia and recruiting of foreign-based companies. This large-scale, multi-country
survey revealed that preferences for companies from certain countries vary considerably acrosscountries. Whereas Western and Japanese companies were preferred employers in Thailand,
Japanese companies were disliked in China and Korea. The soft power concept could only
partially account for these results. Historical animosities (Klein, 1998), ethnocentrism (Kopp,
1994), liabilities of foreignness (Zaheer, 1994), differences in job-organization characteristics(Pudelko & Harzing, 2007), and emerging successful domestic MNEs (Han & Froese, 2010)
might explain why such differences exist. For instance, the findings suggest that Westerncompanies are preferred by some applicants because they are considered to offer higher pay andbetter promotion opportunities (Han & Froese, 2010; Ono, 2007). In contrast, Japanesecompanies have been argued to limit career opportunities of host-country employees (Kopp,
1994). Asian female applicants may also value Western companies because they expect moregender egalitarianism, in contrast to the general trend of traditional roles in most Asian countries(Hofstede, 2001). Science students seem to prefer Japanese companies, given the fact thatJapanese companies are well-known for their engineering excellence.

16

Practical Implications
The findings of this study point to several managerial recommendations and policy implications.
First, some countries might pose easier or more difficult environments for companies fromcertain countries to recruit talent. If the acquisition of talent is one of the main priorities forcompanies, e.g. setting up R&D (Research & Development) facilities, companies might carefully
choose the ‘right’ country. Surveys can reveal where companies may enjoy a country-of-origin
advantage or disadvantage and make corresponding location choices. For instance, results of thisstudy showed that job candidates in China and Korea might be less interested in working forJapanese companies. Thus, ceteris paribus, Japanese companies are advised to source talent inother countries, e.g. Thailand. If companies suffer from a country-of-origin disadvantage, theyshould hide their national origin or try to disassociate themselves from their country-of-origin.
Second, as political influence has substantial influence on organizational attractivenessand potentially to a host of other important outcomes, e.g. tourism, governments are advised to
manage political influence wisely. For instance, the Japanese prime minister should consider
carefully whether visiting Yasukuni-shrine, a shrine to worship Japanese war heroes and upsets
Koreans and Chinese, is that important and outweigh potential detrimental business-related
outcomes.
Third, given the influence of media exposure on organizational attractiveness, companies
and governments should sponsor home-country originated media in overseas to promote theircountry. Furthermore, companies could use and promote such expenditures as corporate social
responsibility in their home countries and abroad. By doing so, companies could enjoy the
double positive effects from more media exposure and corporate social responsibility activities.

17Fourth, Western companies were preferred in anticipation of better pay and promotion
opportunities. Japanese companies may consider doing likewise to reduce the attractivenessadvantage of Western firms in overseas. The same logic would hold for gender egalitarianism in
the workplace. If such changes are implemented, Japanese companies should also promote theirimproved job characteristics and gender equality on the job.

Limitations and Avenues for Future Research
While this study has explored new grounds, several improvements could be made to further
increase our understanding of the role of social power in applicant attraction and other domains.
First, this study has demonstrated the importance of soft power on applicant attraction. We
believe that soft power could also have impacts on other outcomes, such as tourism and sales ofmerchandise products. Future studies may determine how and to what degree soft power
influences various business-related outcomes.
Second, we collected data from more than 2,200 respondents across six countries. Suchlarge-scale surveys are expensive and difficult to coordinate. However, all studied countries werelocated in Asia. Soft power might have stronger effects in Asia given the collective andharmony-oriented culture (Hofstede, 2001) and the political dependence on other countries.
Future studies may analyze the role of soft power in other regions and countries.
Third, we combined US and Western Europe into one category as Western influence.
Although Americans and Europeans might want to protest against this clustering together, suchclustering is common among Asians. For instance, Japanese call this cluster ‘ou-bei’ and Chinese
use the term ‘ou-mei’. The other way around, it is common for Americans and Europeans to18

speak about ‘Asians’ and ‘Asia-Pacific’, despite pronounced differences within these regions.
Nevertheless, future studies might want to further distinguish between different countries.
Fourth, political influence and media exposure were measured only by single items.
Single items can have the same predictive validity as multiple-item scales (e.g., Berkvist &Rossiter, 2007; Wanous, Reichers, and Hudy, 1997). Nevertheless, future studies may develop
multiple-item and multi-dimensional scales to better understand the content of political influenceand media exposure. This may show which type of media exposure has stronger impact or isonly of periphery importance.
Fifth, the cross-sectional design of this study might have biased the results. Images andsoft power might have stronger impacts on applicant attraction in the early stage but the strengthof the relation might weaken at later stages of the recruiting process. Longitudinal studies could
further substantiate our findings and increase our understanding. Moreover, soft power is subject
to sudden changes, e.g. sudden political conflicts, scandals. Future studies may want to explore
the effects of such events on soft power and its outcomes.
Sixth, all respondents were university students from prestigious universities. Such asample might not be representative for initial job seekers as companies do not only recruit people
from elite universities. However, major foreign firms prefer to recruit from such top universities.
Future studies may also investigate applicant attraction of more mature applicants and those whoare currently holding jobs and compare the results (Lievens & Highhouse, 2003; Lievens, 2007).
Finally, given that all responses were collected from the same persons, findings might
be affected by common-method bias. Different question types, i.e. Likert-scale and categorical,
have reduced counter common-method bias. Furthermore, questions concerning the dependentand independent variables were separated in the questionnaire by more than 40 other and19

completely unrelated questions. Thus, it is unlikely that respondents could anticipate any
connection between these items. Future studies may try to collect data from other sources, e.g.
soft power assessed by nation-wide polls. We hope that this article inspires other researchers tofurther investigate the role of soft power in business.

20

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GIARI Working Paper Vol. 2011-E-2,
May 2011
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