Myoblast Behavior around Surface Electrodes in Flow Channel
Yusuke TAKAHASHI, Shigehiro HASHIMOTO, Ryosuke YAMAUCHI, Haruka HINO
Biomedical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Kogakuin University, Tokyo, 163-8677, Japan
http://www.mech.kogakuin.ac.jp/labs/bio/andToshitaka YASUDA
Bio-systems Engineering, Department of Electronic Engineering,Tokyo National College of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACTThe behavior of biological cells around the surface electrode in
the flow channel has been observed in vitro. The surface
electrodes of titanium (thickness of 200 nm) are made along theedges of the flow channel by the photolithography technique.
At the one of the edge, variations are made at the angle of the
tip of each surface electrode: 0.26, 0.52, 0.79, or 1.0 rad attriangle or rectangle. The other edge is the reference electrode.
One of three modes of cyclic electric stimulations (0.01 ms
period) was applied between the surface electrodes: sinusoidal,
pulse, or rectangular. Two kinds of cells were used in the test:
porcine red blood cells, and C2C12 (mouse myoblast cell line
originated with cross-striated muscle of C3H mouse). The
suspension of cells was introduced to the flow channel, and theflow rate was controlled by the syringe pump. The experimentshows the following results. The movement of myoblastschanges by the electric stimulation through the surface
electrodes during the flow along the channel. The movement
depends on the tip angle of the electrode.
Keywords: Biomedical Engineering,
Titanium, Surface Electrode and C2C12.

Dielectrophoresis,

1. INTRODUCTION
Several methods have been applied to control the movement of
biological cell suspended in the medium in vitro: micro slit [1,2], flow [3, 4], gravitational field [5], electric field [6-9],
magnetic field [10, 11], Van der Waals force, affinity of surface,and pressure. These methods might contribute to several
applications of manipulation of cells: arrangement of cells to
make a tissue [12-14], sorting of cells [1, 15, 16], andmeasurement of cells.
Movement of a charged particle depends on the electric field.
The effect is applied to the electrophoresis device [17]. Whena particle is subjected to a non-uniform electric field, a force isexerted even on a non-charged particle, because the polarization
generates in the particle.
The phenomenon is called
dielectrophoresis, which depends on the several parameters: theelectrical property of the particle, shape and size of the particle,
the electrical property of the medium, and frequency of theelectric field [18-25]. Electrophoresis is a phenomenon, in
which a particle is moved by the Coulomb force between the
charge of the particle and the electric field. Dielectrophoresis,on the other hand, is a phenomenon, in which a particle moves
due to the interaction between the charge induced in a neutral
particle placed in a non-uniform electric field and the electricfield. The force of dielectrophoresis is calculated by theequivalent dipole moment method.
F = π εm r3 Re [K (ω)] ▽ E2

(1)

In Eq. 1, r is the radius of the particle, εm is the dielectric
constant of the surrounding medium, and E is the maximum
value of the electric field. Re [K (ω)] represents the real partof the function expressed by the following equation.
K (ω) = (εp* －εm*) / (εp* + 2 εm*)

(2)

In Eq. 2, εp* is the complex dielectric constant of the particle,
εm* is the complex dielectric constant of the solution.
In the present study, the behavior of biological cells around thesurface electrode in the flow channel has been observed in vitro.

2. METHODS
Surface ElectrodeThe titanium film was used for the surface electrode. Titanium
was coated on the glass plate (76 mm × 26 mm × 1 mm,
Matsunami Glass Ind., Ltd., Japan). The thickness of coating
is 200 nm.
At the one of the edge, five tips of electrodes are placed: four
triangles and one rectangle (Fig. 1). These tips are arranged
with the interval of 1 mm.
To make variation on
non-uniformity of the electric field, variations are made at the
tip angle of the triangle shape of each surface electrode: 0.26,
0.52, 0.79, or 1.0 rad. The distance between electrodes (d) is
0.3 mm, or 1 mm.

Deposition of Titanium
Before the deposition of titanium, the surface of the glass plate
was hydrophilized by the oxygen (30 cm3/min, 0.1 Pa) plasma
ashing for five minutes at 100 W by the reactive ion etchingsystem (FA-1, Samco International, Kyoto, Japan). Titanium
was deposited on the surface of the glass plate in the electron
beam vapor deposition apparatus (3.1×10 － 4 Pa, 0.5 nm/s,
JBS-Z0501EVC JEOL Ltd., Tokyo, Japan).
Photomask A
The titanium coated glass plate was hydrophilized by theoxygen (30 cm3/min, 0.1 Pa) plasma ashing for five minutes at
100 W by the reactive ion etching system (FA-1). To improveaffinity between titanium and photoresist material, HMDS
(hexamethyldisilazane: Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.,Tokyo) was coated on the glass plate at 3000 rpm for 30 s witha spin coater (Fig. 2). The positive photoresist material of
OFPR-800LB (Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Co., Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) was
coated on the HMDS with the spin coater (at 500 rpm for 5 s, at
5000 rpm for 30 s, and at 7000 rpm for 0.2 s). The photoresist
was baked in the oven in two processes: at 338 K for one
minute, and at 368 K for three minutes. The pattern of theelectrode was drawn on the mask with a laser drawing system(DDB-201K-KH, Neoark Corporation, Hachioji, Japan). To
control the dimension of the pattern on the photomask with thelaser drawing system, the parameters were selected as follows:
the voltage of 3.35 V, the velocity of 0.151 mm/s, and theacceleration of 0.35 mm/s2. The photoresist was developedwith tetra-methyl-ammonium hydroxide (NMD-3, Tokyo Ohka
Kogyo Co., Ltd., Kawasaki, Japan) for three minutes, rinsed
with the distilled water, and dried by the spin-dryer (SF-250,
Japan Create Co., Ltd., Tokorozawa, Japan). The titanium
coating plate was etched with the plasma gas by the reactive ion
etching system (FA-1). For etching, the gas of CF4 (30cm3/min at 1013 hPa) was applied at 100 W at 0.1 Pa for ten
minutes. OFPR-800LB was removed by acetone.
Photomask B
The titanium coated glass plate was hydrophilized by theoxygen (30 cm3/min, 0.1 Pa) plasma ashing for five minutes at
100 W by the reactive ion etching system (FA-1). To improveaffinity between titanium and photoresist material, HMDS
(hexamethyldisilazane: Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.,Tokyo) was coated on the titanium at 3000 rpm for 30 s with aspin coater (Fig. 3). The negative photoresist material of low
viscosity (SU-8 2: Micro Chem Corp., MA, USA) was coatedon the HMDS with the spin coater (at 500 rpm for 5 s, at 5000
rpm for 30 s, and at 6000 rpm for 0.2 s). The photoresist was
baked in the oven at 368 K for five minutes. The “photomask
A” was mounted on the surface of SU-8 2, and the photoresist
was exposed to the UV light through the mask in the maskaligner (M-1S, Mikasa Co. Ltd., Japan) at 15 mW/cm2 for 20 s.
The photoresist was baked in the oven at 368 K for five minutes.
The photoresist was developed with SU-8 Developer (Micro
Chem Corp., MA, USA) for five minutes. The glass surface
with the micro pattern was rinsed with IPA (2-propanol, Wako
Pure Chemical Industries, Ltd.) for one minute, and pure waterfor one minute. The surface was dried by the spin-dryer: at
300 rpm for 30 s with the pure water, and at 1100 rpm for 30 swith N2 gas. The titanium coating plate was etched with theplasma gas by the reactive ion etching system (FA-1). For
etching, the gas of CF4 (30 cm3/min at 1013 hPa) was applied at
100 W at 0.1 Pa for ten minutes.

Silicone tubes

Titanium
Glass

PDMS
Tips of electrodes
Titanium
Glass
Fig. 1: Plan view: five kinds of tips at surface electrodes on
glass (left). Front view: flow channel (right).
OFPR-800
NMD-3
Etching

Laser

Fig. 2: Photolithography process for photomask A.
SU-8

SU-8 developer
Mask aligner

Etching
Mask A

Fig. 3: Photolithography process for photomask B.
NMD-3

OFPR800
Mask B

Etching
Mask aligner

AluminumFig. 4: Photolithography process for surface electrodes.
Surface ElectrodeTo improve affinity between titanium and photoresist material,
HMDS was coated on the titanium at 3000 rpm for 30 s with thespin coater (Fig. 4). OFPR-800LB was coated on the HMDS
with the spin coater (at 5000 rpm for 30 s). The photoresist
was baked in the oven in two processes: at 338 K for one
minute, and at 368 K for three minutes. The surrounding areaof the “photomask B” was covered with the film of aluminum
to protect from exposure to the UV light. The “photomask B”
was mounted on the surface of OFPR-800LB, and thephotoresist was exposed to the UV light through the“photomask B” in the mask aligner at 15 mW/cm2 for 20 s.
The photoresist was developed with tetra-methyl -ammoniumhydroxide for three minutes, rinsed with the pure water, anddried by the spin-dryer: at 300 rpm for 30 s with the pure water,
and at 1100 rpm for 30 s with N2 gas. The titanium coatingplate was etched with the plasma gas by the reactive ion etchingsystem (FA-1). For etching, the gas of CF4 (30 cm3/min at
1013 hPa) was applied at 100 W at 0.1 Pa for ten minutes.

Flow Channel
The wall of flow channel was made of Polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS). The polyimide tape (0.055 mm thickness, 1 mm
width) was pasted at the center of the glass plate to makegroove (0.055 mm depth) for the flow channel. After the slide
glass plate was enclosed with a peripheral wall of polyimide
tape, PDMS (Sylgard 184 Silicone Elastomer Base, Dow
Corning Corp., MI, USA) was poured with the curing agent(Sylgard 184 Silicone Elastomer Curing Agent, Dow Corning
Corp., MI, USA). The volume ratio of PDMS to curing agent
is ten to one. After degassing, PDMS was poured on the glass
plate enclosed with a peripheral wall of polyimide tape. After
degassing again, PDMS was baked at 333 K for one hour in anoven (DX401, Yamato Scientific Co., Ltd). The baked plate of
PDMS (3 mm thickness) was exfoliated from the slide glass
plate. Two holes with the interval of 20 mm were punched bya punching tool (trepan MK405, Kai Industries Co., Ltd., Gifu,
Japan) to make the inlet and the outlet. The silicone tube of 5mm outer diameter was inserted in to the hole. The upper
plate of PDMS was stuck on the lower plate of the glass withthe surface electrodes to make the flow channel. A rectangularparallelepiped channel of 25 mm length × 1 mm width × 0.05
mm height is formed between upper and lower plates. The
two plates were stuck together with extra past of PDMS andbaked at 333 K for one hour in the oven (Fig. 5).
Electric Stimulation
The electric stimulations (E) were generated with an electric
stimulator (WS8102, Toyo Corporation, Japan) or (1910
Function Synthesizer, NF Corporation, Japan) (Fig. 6). The
stimulator was connected to the titanium film electrode, and theelectric signal was introduced to the medium of cells (Z). An
electric resistance (R) of 1 kΩ (or 51 Ω) is serially inserted
between the electrode and the stimulator. The electric signal(V) is monitored by an oscilloscope during electric stimulation
application between the titanium surface electrodes. V is thevoltage between the terminals of the resistance (Fig. 6). Oneof three modes of cyclic (0.01 ms period) electric stimulations
was applied between the surface electrodes: sinusoidal (1 kΩ
resistance), pulse (0.0002 ms pulse width, 1 kΩ resistance),
and rectangular (±10 V, 51 Ω resistance).
Cell
Two kinds of cells were used in the test: porcine red blood cells,and C2C12 (mouse myoblast cell line originated withcross-striated muscle of C3H mouse). The porcine blood was
diluted by the saline solution. D-MEM (Dulbecco’s Modified
Eagle Medium) containing 10% FBS (Fetal Bovine Serum) and
1% penicillin/ streptomycin was used for the medium for
C2C12.

Fig. 5 (left): Flow channel with surface electrodes.
Fig. 6 (right): Electric circuit: electric stimulation (E) applied
to suspension of cells (Z): V, voltage between terminals of
resistance R: I, current.

Flow channel

Oscilloscope

Syringe pump
Movie camera
Fig. 7: Experimental system.

Fig. 8: Coordinates for tracing of cell.

The cells were suspended in the medium and injected into thechannel with the surface electrodes. Behavior of cells wasobserved with an inverted phase-contrast microscope (IX71,
Olympus Co., Ltd., Tokyo), and recorded by the video camera(Fig.7), while the flow rate (1 mm3/hour < Q <10 mm3/hour) of
the suspension was controlled by the syringe pump. The
movement of each cell was analyzed by Kinovea at the
microscopic image. The dimension was calibrated by theinterval between the electrodes in the image (Fig. 8).

3. RESULTS
Fig. 9 exemplifies the red blood cell near the electrode of 0.52
rad. The cell moves with the flow of the media from right toleft at the velocity of 0.05 mm/s. During the sinusoidal
electric stimulation, the movement of each cell is parallel to thex axis: y coordinate is constant (Fig. 10). Fig. 11 shows the
tracings of the voltage between terminals of the resistance of 1
kΩ. The sinusoidal electric current (I) of ±5 mA is calculatedby the voltage of ±5 V between terminals of the resistance of 1
kΩ. Fig. 12 exemplifies C2C12 near the electrode of 1 rad.
The movement is parallel to the x axis: y coordinate is constant(Fig. 13). The cell moves forward with the flow of the media
from right to left at first, then stopped, and moves backward
against the flow of the media (see x coordinate of the tracings).
Fig. 14 shows the tracings of the voltage between terminals of
the resistance of 1 kΩ. The amplitude of the electric pulse
current of 0.01 A is calculated by the amplitude of the electricpulse voltage of 10 V between terminals of the resistance of 1
kΩ. Fig. 15 exemplifies C2C12 near the electrode of 0.26 rad.
The movement is parallel to the x axis: y coordinate is constant(Fig. 16). The cell moves forward with the flow of the media

from right to left at first, then stopped for several seconds (see x
coordinate of the tracings). Fig. 17 exemplifies C2C12 near
the electrode of 1 rad. The movement is parallel to the x axis:
y coordinate is constant (Fig. 18). The cell moves forwardwith the flow of the media from right to left at first, thenstopped for few seconds (see x coordinate of the tracings). Fig.
19 shows the tracings of the voltage between terminals of theresistance of 51 Ω. The amplitude of the electric rectangularcurrent of ±0.04 A is calculated by the amplitude of the electricrectangular voltage of ± 2 V between terminals of the resistanceof 51 Ω.

Fig. 9: Red blood cell (marked in circle) near electrode of 0.52
rad: flow from right to left: after 10 s (right): d = 1 mm.

Fig. 20 exemplifies C2C12 between electrodes of 0.26 rad and0.52 rad. The cell moves closer to the electrode of 0.26 rad.
Fig. 21 exemplifies C2C12 between electrodes of 1 rad and 1.6
rad. The cell moves closer to the electrode of 1 rad. A micro
bubble has been generated by electrolysis at the tip of theelectrode during the electric stimulation of rectangular currentof ±0.04 A (Fig. 21).

Fig. 13: Movement of C2C12: x coordinate (solid line) and ycoordinate (dotted line).

Fig. 10: Each movement of three red blood cells: x coordinate(solid line) and y coordinate (dotted line).
Fig. 14: Tracings of pulse V between terminals of 1 kΩresistance: 0.0002 ms pulse width.

Fig. 11: Tracings of sinusoidal V between terminals of 1 kΩresistance.

Fig. 12: C2C12 (marked in circle) near electrode of 1 rad: flowfrom right to left: every five seconds: upper left, upper right,
lower left, lower right, in sequence: d = 0.3 mm.

Fig. 15: C2C12 (marked in circle) near electrode of 0.26 rad:flow from right to left: every five seconds: upper left, upper
right, lower left, in sequence: d = 0.3 mm.

Fig. 16: Each movement of two cells of C2C12: x coordinate(solid line) and y coordinate (dotted line).

Fig. 17: C2C12 (marked in circles) between electrodes of 1 radand rectangle: flow from right to left: every five seconds: upper
left, upper right, lower left, lower right, in sequence: d = 0.3
mm.

Fig. 21: C2C12 between electrodes of 1 rad and rectangle: flowfrom right to left: every five seconds: upper left, upper right,
lower left, lower right, in sequence: d = 1 mm.

4. DISCUSSION
In the previous studies, myoblasts were cultured anddifferentiated into myotubes on the micro coil spring oftitanium [14]. To generate the stronger contractive force at the
myotube, the electric pulse field might have a potential toaccelerate the selective adhesion of myoblast on the micro coilspring. The cells move together to the same direction as theflow of the medium without electric stimulation. The cells, on
the other hand, change the direction to move, during applicationof electric stimulation in the present study.
Fig. 18: Each movement of three cells of C2C12: x coordinate(solid line) and y coordinate (dotted line).

Fig. 19: Tracings of V (2ch. purple) between terminals of 51 Ω
resistance: rectangular, E = ±10 V (1ch. yellow).

The higher voltage or current may cause electrolysis at the tipof the electrode. The amplitude of the electric stimulation has
been limited within the threshold value to prevent electrolysis in
the present study. Figs. 9-21 show the movement in the x-yplane. The movement of the direction perpendicular to theflow (z) is very small, because the height of the channel is 0.055
mm. The movement of cells between surface electrodes
depends on the morphology of surface electrodes (the angle ofthe tip), which relates to non-uniformity of electric field.
Dielectrophoresis of cell depends on asymmetric figure ofelectrodes.
The higher slope of electric field with
non-uniformity might be necessary to move cells around theelectrode. The smaller angle of the tip of the electrode mightmake non-uniform electric fields, which accelerate
dielectrophoresis. The irregular movement of cells occurs
close to the electrode of the smaller tip angle in the present
study. The behavior of the cell depends on the micro
morphology of the surface of the scaffold [26]. The cell canbe cultured on the surface of the electrode [6]. The electric
resistance of the titanium electrode is estimated to 2 Ω by theresistivity of 55×10-8 Ω m.
In the previous study,
dielectrophoresis has been tried to apply on the biological cellmanipulation technology [18-25]. The micro grooves wereused for trapping of flowing cells in the previous study [16].

5. CONCLUSION

Fig. 20: C2C12 between electrodes of 0.26 rad and 0.52 rad:flow from right to left: every five seconds: upper left, upper
right, lower left, lower right, in sequence: d = 1 mm.

The behavior of biological cells around the surface electrode in
the flow channel has been observed in vitro. The surface
electrodes (the tip of electrode: 0.26, 0.52, 0.79, or 1.0 rad attriangle or rectangle.) of titanium are made along the edges ofthe flow channel by the photolithography technique.
Sinusoidal, pulse, or rectangular cyclic electric stimulations(0.01 ms period) was applied between the surface electrodes.
Porcine red blood cells, or C2C12 (mouse myoblast cell line)were used. The experiment shows that the movement ofmyoblasts changes by the electric stimulation through thesurface electrodes during the flow along the channel, and thatthe movement depends on the tip angle of the electrode.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Strategic
Research Foundation at Private Universities from the Japanese
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology.

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