A Study on Ainu Language Preservation
Report of Experience-Based Learning Program on Ainu Culture and Language
21 May 2024

1. Background1.1. Background as BXAI scholars
In AFLSP, we value diversity and connectivity across all of Asia (Bai Xian Asia Institute,n.d.). As scholars in this program, it is important for us to study not only our own majors, butalso learn about societal and regional problems of Asia and look into how we can contribute.
The Ainu, an ethnic minority group in Japan primarily residing in Hokkaido, are of particularattention to us in this regard. Their native language, which is on the verge of extinction,
resonates with us on the personal level for reasons explained below. Therefore we would
like to explore how we, as BXAI scholars, can contribute to addressing such cultural andlinguistic challenges, thereby enriching our educational journey and fostering a deeper
understanding of Asia's diverse cultural landscape.

1.2. Importance of Preserving Languages
According to Ethnologue (2014), there are currently about 6,000 living languages spoken
worldwide. However, at least half of them are expected to become extinct by the end of thiscentury. Some linguists estimate that up to 90% of all presently spoken languages may faceextinction within this century (Austin and Sallabank, 2011).
When we lose languages, we also lose a lot of old wisdom and knowledge. For example, theSeri language in Mexico, spoken by about 500 people, revealed that they use eelgrass as agrain source. This is a special kind of knowledge because eelgrass grows without needing
fresh water or fertilizer, making it a sustainable food source (Evans, 2010). The Seri
language is now considered 'vulnerable' to extinction, which means this valuable knowledge
could be lost. Many endangered languages also hold precious medicinal knowledge.
Cámara-Leret and Bascompte (2021) examine three regions with high biocultural diversityand demonstrate that over 75% of all of the medicinal plant services are unique to a single
language. Protecting such languages helps keep the diversity of human thoughts andcultures alive.
Language is a core element of culture, serving as the primary means for expressing andtransmitting cultural values, beliefs, and practices. Linguistic diversity enriches our global
heritage by fostering a multitude of perspectives and ways of understanding the world. Eachlanguage embodies unique cultural expressions, stories, and wisdom that contribute to therichness of human civilization. The loss of linguistic diversity undermines cultural diversity,
which is essential for fostering creativity, resilience, and adaptability within societies. Thus,
1preserving linguistic diversity is crucial for passing down rich human knowledge and cultural
heritage to future generations.

1.3. Why Ainu?
Our decision to focus on the Ainu language stems from its personal relevance to our team.
Two of our members, coming from regions where the Sichuan dialect of Chinese and the
Taiwanese language are undergoing varying degrees of language shift, have firsthandexperience with this phenomenon. Given that the Ainu language represents an extreme caseof language shift, it is relatable to us on a personal level.
Moreover, one of our team members is actively engaged in academic research on speech AI
technologies for the Ainu language. His focus is on enhancing automatic speech recognition(ASR) capabilities, in collaboration with Ainu people and other experts in Ainu language.
This work is particularly important given the strong interest among Ainu descendants inlearning their ancestral language, challenged by a scarcity of resources, especially natural
audio recordings from native speakers. A key objective of his research is to develop
advanced voice conversion (VC) and text-to-speech (TTS) technologies for Ainu, aiming toprovide learners with an efficient and immersive language learning experience.
Another important reason we focus on Ainu is its visibility. Residing and studying in Japan
grants us direct access to Ainu resources. As Japan was the first Asian nation to undergo
modernization, the Ainu language was among the earliest to face the challenges of thistransformation. For us, as BXAI scholars committed to promoting diversity across Asia, it isboth logical and important to explore how we can contribute to addressing the linguistic
challenges faced by the Ainu language.

1.4. Minor languages & cultures in our own countries
1.4.1. Indonesia
Indonesia is a country made up of many different ethnicities that speaks many different
languages. To unite them into one country, the nation adopted a sole national language
called Indonesian. This was a unique choice as Indonesian is a language based on Malay
that was spoken by only around 5% of the population when independence was declared in
1945. Usually, the language belonging to the major ethnic group is chosen as the national
language as was the case in neighboring Malaysia and the Philippines. At that time,
Javanese was the language with the largest number of speakers at around 47%. However,Malay was chosen as the basis of the new language because it has been used as the lingua
franca of the region even before the arrival of the Europeans. Malay was used as thelanguage for trade throughout the archipelago which helped facilitate its spread.
Furthermore, the Dutch that colonized modern-day Indonesia encouraged its use because
they wanted to limit the use of dutch among the natives, fearing that it would make thenatives equal to that of the dutch who lived in the colonies (Groeneboer, 1998; Zainu’ddin,
1970; Paauw, 2009).

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However, the adoption of Indonesian as the national language came at the expense of local
languages. To promote national unity, the Indonesian government enacted a massive
campaign to spread the use of Indonesian through the education and media. Radio andtelevision uses only Indonesian and in schools students are taught to speak only Indonesian.
As a result, people started to use local languages less in order to adapt to the new condition.
The effect of this campaign was stunning, more people speaking Indonesian as their first
language in the 1980s compared to in 1945 when independence was declared. Today, many
Indonesians identify Indonesian as their first language and the language has been acceptedby all elements of Indonesian society but many local languages have become threatened asa result.

1.4.2. China
China is a diverse country with 56 ethnic groups using over 130 types of languages andmore than 30 types of writing systems. These languages are derived from five major
language families, namely Sino-Tibetan, Altaic, Austronesian, Indo-Aryan, andIndo-European, making China one of the most linguistically rich nations in the world today(Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2021). These languages, featuring
distinct pronunciations, vocabularies, and grammatical systems, have their specific usage
areas and populations, especially among minority groups.
However, under the impact of economic and social development, especially the spread of
Mandarin and modern media, many languages are gradually fading away and face thedanger of extinction. According to China’s Ministry of Education, by 2015, of the over 130
languages in China, 68 had populations of fewer than 10,000 speakers, 48 had populationsof fewer than 5,000 speakers, and 25 had populations of fewer than 1,000 speakers (China
Reading Weekly, 2022). As of today, there is a significant likelihood that this situation has
further deteriorated.
One example of extremely endangered languages in China is the Duoxu (多续) language,
which is the traditional language used by the Tibetan ethnic group residing in the southwest
part of Sichuan province. Since the end of Qing dynasty, and in alignment with theassimilation trend with the Han ethnic group, Duoxu people have gradually shifted to
Mandarin Chinese. Worse, the prohibition on speaking the Duoxu language during the 1960s
and 1970s caused Duoxu people to lose the habit of using it in their daily lives. Till now, it isreported that there are only six people who can speak fluent Duoxu language, and all ofthem are already over 70 years old (韩正康、袁晓文、齐卡佳, 2019).

1.4.3. Taiwan
Taiwan's official lingua franca is Mandarin, while the mother tongue is divided into Chinese,
Aboriginal, and Creole Japanese (洪惟仁、許世融, 2009). It is important to note that this is arough classification. Chinese can be further classified into three categories: Taiwanese,
Hakka, and Min-Dong. Aboriginal languages are complex and can be divided into 14

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categories based on their linguistic characteristics. These categories include Atayal, Seediq,
Saisiyat, Bunun, Northern Tsou, Southern Tsou, Rukai, Paiwan, Amis, Puyuma, Tao, Thao,
Kavalan, and Pazih.
As a speaker of the Quanzhou-oriented dialect in Taipei, the author is unable to fully
understand the development of other languages in the community. Therefore, the focus will
be on reviving Taiwanese, which is the most favored language of all the mother tongues.
Despite its popularity, Taiwanese is still experiencing a significant decline. The Ministry of
Culture conducted a survey which found that only 45% of families use Taiwanese as theirprimary language, and as low as 20% use it with their children. This results in a highintergenerational language loss rate of 57%.

1.5. The current situation of Ainu
1.5.1. Overview of current situation
The Ainu language is classified as critically endangered in the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s
Languages in Danger (Moseley et al., 2010), and there are very few native speakers left, if
any, among the approximately 17,000 people that identify themselves as Ainu (Kiriyama &Osakada, 2017). Ethnologue has listed the Ainu language as nearly extinct in 2016 (Lewis etal., 2014). Despite the Ainu people's desire to revive their identity by reclaiming fluency intheir language, they have already assimilated into Japanese society, speaking Japanese as
their native language and adopting Japanese cultural practices. Moreover, due to prejudiceand social discrimination within Japanese society, many are hesitant to speak the Ainu
language or even disclose their Ainu heritage. It is suspected that there may be 'hidden'
native Ainu speakers who have concealed their language proficiency their entire lives, but
this remains unconfirmed.
Nevertheless, within the Ainu community, particularly in Hokkaido, there are ongoing efforts
to revive the language. Schools and educational programs dedicated to the Ainu language
have been established, including initiatives to train future Ainu language educators. Some
universities now offer Ainu language courses, and there are even Ainu radio broadcasts andnewspapers (アイヌタイムズ). However, despite these efforts spanning decades, the Ainu
language is still far from being used in everyday contexts. One of our main research focuses
will be to explore how the Ainu language is perceived and practiced among the local Ainu
people.

1.5.2. A small interview
The interviews took place on 23 November 2023 at the Yoshida Dormitory Cafeteria. Theinterviewees were Usatsuyo and an Ainu individual who preferred to remain anonymous.
The interviews lasted for 10 and 25 minutes, respectively. Due to methodological constraints
and the intention of the interviewees, the interviews were not recorded, only notes weretaken during and after the interviews. This is a methodological limitation and should not be4considered a professional academic interview. However, after discussion, we decided toinclude the interviews as an important foundation of knowledge about the Ainu people.
The challenges facing the Ainu language are complex and were gathered from an interview
with Usa-san and Ainu parents. The interviews revealed that Ainu cultural oppression fromthe pre-war period to the present day can be divided into two major parts: the misplacementof financial resources and the revival of the language.
According to Usa-san's personal experience in applying for Ainu grants, she noted that the
Ainu often have to rely on Yamato as intermediaries due to their limited access togovernment information when applying for grants related to Ainu cultural activities. The Ainu
not only lack the means to communicate with the government but also cannot directly accessgrants. They need to act as de facto contractors to receive grants. This situation raises
questions about the autonomy and genuine empowerment of the Ainu people in preserving
and revitalizing their language.
Ainu language learning can be divided into two periods: the first period was marked by theJapanese central government's assimilation policy, which oppressed the Ainu language, andthe later period, during which the Ainu felt cultural aggression and cooperated with the
Yamato people in an attempt to revitalize their language. Individuals under the age of 40
have had some exposure to the Ainu language, indicating a recent shift towards its revival.
However, those over 60 have faced significant repression due to past policies that prevented
them from learning their ancestral language.
The Ainu have recently attempted to use the Yamato's anthropological findings to preserve
their language and teach it to the next generation. However, this approach may affect theauthenticity and cultural integrity of the language learning process. Despite thesechallenges, the Ainu strongly believe that their ancestral language has been preserved. At
the same time, they believe that their language will once again become the primarylanguage of their community, which signals a resilient hope for the future.
It is worth noting that Usa-san did not directly discuss the issue of language revitalisation,
which may indicate underlying complexities or sensitivities surrounding the issue.

1.6. Assumptions for the reasons to the challenges
1.6.1. Economic
It is widely observed that economic development facilitates communications between
different groups and cultures, bringing about a growing demand for learning languages.
Similarly, economic development plays an important role in the decline of the Ainu language.
For one thing, since the 18th century, with the process of globalization and urbanization,
Ainu people, who were previously autonomous and economically independent, have become
more dependent on external markets through both imports and exports, fostering increased

5interaction between the Ainu community and other regions, as well as a necessity for themto acquire proficiency in the Japanese language (Hellyer, 2013).
For another, today’s uneven economic status between the Ainu community and moreadvanced cities has brought additional challenges. Variations in opportunities, such as
employment and salaries, prompt many young Ainu people to pursue development outside
their hometown. Under the influence of modern urban culture, these young people show
diminishing interest in Ainu traditional culture, leading to a lack of continuity for the Ainu
language.

1.6.2. Political
The political factor covers various distributional issues, such as budget allocation, cultural
unifications, and healthcare resource distribution (Segal et al., 2002). For further discussion
on cultural unity and economic incentives, please refer to the other sections.
Project-based grants are a common form of budget allocation, but they have several issues,
including being allocated only after the total amount has been set. 1. Project budgets only
provide for a limited range of grant programs for indigenous, rather than the full range.
Additionally, Indigenous policy programs do not offer sustainable funding for the delivery of
public services over the long term. (Coller, 2020) 2.The government provides a temporary
program budget, and its implementation each year is uncertain when compared to thegeneral budget (Sharkansky, 1968). Government agencies related to indigenous people areunable to provide long-term planning or services, such as software or medical services, due
to financial constraints. This can lead to projects being abandoned halfway, exacerbating thesituation. Sustainability in development for indigenous communities is thus becoming an
issue to the area. Additionally, the instability of public services makes financial investment
from the private sector less attractive, increasing the risk of investment projects. 3. Projectbudgets are typically competitive, which means that Aboriginal people in different locations
may not receive uniform assistance. In a competitive budget, each local government must
demonstrate the legitimacy and necessity of its projects each fiscal year. This can lead tobureaucratic inefficiencies and distractions, and limit the government's ability to conceive
innovative projects. (Narbón-Perpiñám et al., 2020) 4. Competitive budgets can become thefocus of political attacks. External factors may prevent those in need from receiving thenecessary financial support, leaving them vulnerable to political manipulation. (Larcinese etal., 2005; de Haan et al., 2013)

1.6.3. Historical reasons (Suppressed history of Ainu)
In order to understand how the situation came to be, it is necessary to look into the historicalbackground behind it. The relationship between the Ainu people and the Japanese did notstart after the Meiji Restoration. Rather, it was a centuries old relationship with the Ainu
depending on the Japanese for economic reasons and the Japanese reliant on the Ainu forpolitical reasons. During the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate maintained central control
over all of the daimyos in Japan after the end of the warring states period. During this timethey gave the Matsumae domain responsibility for dealing with the Ainu people.

6Jumping to the recent history that has profoundly affected the development of the Ainu
language, specifically the Meiji Period. The Meiji government introduced “Endemic
Protection Law” trying to promote the living standard and economic development in
Hokkaido. However, such political support is, clearly through the legislative reasoning,strongly based on the idea of cultural superiority.（[T]he harsh reality of survival of the fittest.
…[T]hese people are equally the children of our emperor, and it is heartrending to witness
them descend into such sorrowful states without extending aid. It is, therefore, an urgent
national duty to devise a rescue plan, to eliminate their calamity, to address their poverty,
and to enable them to sustain their lives and establish their homes through appropriate
industries.1）(百瀬, 1994) By stating the ideology, the agencies are fostering Yamato
cultures, while taking Ainu culture as “superannuated”, in Hokkaido. Not only the cultures
itself but also the languages were, practically speaking, strictly outlawed. (小川, 1993) Such
implications, continued even after WWII, remained until 1997, when the central government
abandoned the outdated legislation and converted it into Ainu Culture Promotion Act, a law
which finally supports the promotion of Ainu cultures.

1.7. Existing Preservation Efforts
1.7.1. What is being done in Japan
Ainu has seen a variety of preservation efforts aimed at reviving and maintaining its use,
starting from the establishment of the Ainu Culture Promotion Act (1997). Shigeru Kayano, a
famous Ainu political figure, played a key role in asserting the value of the Ainu language
and culture and managed to establish the law. On a more local scale, the Ainu Association of
Hokkaido started organizing Ainu language classes in Hokkaido, starting from the 1980s(Hasegawa, 2009). Creative methods, such as YouTube channels run by Ainu teachers andlanguage camps, have made the language accessible to a broader audience. Additionally,
academic contributions are crucial; efforts include the creation of Ainu language archives
and research groups dedicated to studying and preserving the language. These combined
efforts mark a committed approach to ensuring that the Ainu language continues to be aliving, evolving form of communication.

1.7.2. What Indonesia is doing
In an effort to preserve local languages, The Indonesian government has also passed alegislation in 2009 placing the responsibility of preserving local languages on the central
government. Through the support of UNESCO, Indonesia has enacted policies andprograms to maintain the use of local language in order to preserve them. Furthermore, theIndonesian government has mandated the teaching of local language in schools. The
languages taught differ based on each province which means that each province will teach
only one local language. However, this effort does not help languages spoken by smallergroups. To preserve this language, local communities have taken a bigger role in introducing
1

As in Japanese, it is: "優勝劣敗ノ理勢ニシテ…我皇ノ赤子ナリ而シテ今ヤ斯ノ如キノ悲境ニ沈淪セルヲ目撃
シテ之ヲ顧サルハ亦忍フ可キニ非サルナリ則チ之カ救済ノ方法ヲ設ケ其災厄ヲ除キ其窮乏ヲ恤ミ以テ之ヲシテ適当ノ産業ニ依リ其生ヲ保チ。"

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local language to the younger generations in their communities. Almost all of the younger
generations speak Indonesian as a first language which has increased the risk of extinction
for many languages with a small number of speakers. Efforts include the compiling of adictionary for the language such as the one done by the Mentawai community who lives in
the islands on the coast of Sumatra.

1.7.3. What China is doing
The Chinese government has taken active efforts to preserve endangered languages. In
2015, “Chinese Language Resources Protection Project” was launched by China’s Ministryof Education and the National Language Committee, aiming at protecting endangered
languages as well as Chinese dialects nationwide. This project has gathered experts in thisfield to investigate endangered languages in a great deal of locations and record them in
multiple media such as text and audio (Center for the Protection and Research of Language
Resources of China, n.d.).
Till now, this project has obtained several achievements. During its first 5-year phrase(2015-2019), a total of 1,131 survey sites for Chinese dialects, 307 for minority languages,
189 for endangered language dialects (123 for minority languages, 66 for Chinese dialects),
and 102 for language and dialect cultural survey sites (25 for minority languages, 77 for
Chinese dialects) were successfully completed. Its second phrase (2021-) is currently
underway. Detailed information of these spots are open to the public and made visible on
their website (https://zhongguoyuyan.cn/index/) (Center for the Protection and Research of
Language Resources of China, n.d.).
To better protect endangered languages and dialects, a book series called “China
Endangered Language Chronicles” has also been published, and its first publication involves
20 volumes on minority languages and 10 volumes on Chinese dialects (Center for theProtection and Research of Language Resources of China, n.d.).

1.7.4. What Taiwan is doing
To address the issue of mother-tongue transmission, the government has taken steps suchas granting official status to the language, launching mother-tongue TV channels, andintroducing mother-tongue teaching programmes. The Development of National Languages
Act mandates the state to promote language revitalisation measures and ensure
non-discriminatory and unrestricted use of the national language. The Taiwan Public
Television Service has created a Taiwanese-language television station that broadcasts
dubbed animations (such as Spy Family), Taiwanese dramas, and news broadcasts. Mothertongue teaching programmes are implemented at least once a week in high school, juniorhigh school, and elementary school. (中華民國（台灣）文化部, 2023)

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2. What we did
2-1. Time schedule
Below was the schedule of the trip.
Date

Location

Activities

Remarks

Feb
16th

Sapporo

KIX - CTS
Estimated Landing: 13:00

Lunch will be
Flight: 37,000
finished before the Train: 2,000flight.
Hotel: 6,000

14:30 X
[Plan changed due to heavy
snow]
Feb
17th

Biratori

Sapporo - Biratori (trainsbuses)
Travel time: 07:29 - 11:30& 1.Taking multiple
buses, whichtakes a long time.

Estimated
Budget (perperson)Bus: 4,000
Museum: 400
Yanto: 3,850

13:20 - 15:10
Visit Ainu Cultural Museum

2. Considering
people working in
Ainu-related
15:20 - 17:00
facilities are thoseInterview local people
highly interested
in Ainu culture,
17:30
interviews with
Guest House check-in & Dinner local people, whotimemight holddifferent
19:30 - 20:30
perspectives, may
Talking to people in Ainu guest
also be essential.
house (Yanto)
Feb
18th

Shiraoi

Biratri - Shiraoi (buses & trains)
Travel time: 08:16 - 12:11
12:15 - 13:00
Lunch time
13:15 - 17:00
Visit the National Ainu Museum(Upopoy)[With multiple cultural experiential
activities, including Ainu fairy
tales telling, traditional crafting,music
playingetc.
We
participated in both exhibitions
and activities. ]FebSapporoMeeting

with

Ainu

experts,

The National Ainu
Museum (Upopoy)is the biggest andthe most
representative
Ainu museum inJapan.

Train: 3,000
Museum:
1,200
Hotel: 6,000

Train: 2,000

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19th

Feb
20th

Leaving
Hokkaido

including professor Osami Okuda(expert in Ainu language andliterature).

Hotel: 6,000

CTS - KIX
Estimated Departure: 14:35

Train: 2,000

2-2. Biratori Museum & Yanto
As one of the most critical Ainu culture museums, after Upopoy National Ainu Museum,
Biratori Municipal Nibutani Ainu Culture Museum focuses on exhibiting the original tools andcrafts employed by Ainu ancestors. The Museum is divided into two main sections, outdoors
and indoors. The outdoors section features traditional Ainu real estates, including
traditional-style warehouses and residences. The architecture, constructed by the Ainu
youngsters, not only serves a display function but also preserves traditional Ainu crafting
techniques and passes on Ainu wisdom to future generations. The exhibition method is bothcohesive and consistent with the interior design, promoting a contemplative observation of
Ainu culture and fostering understanding without offering superfluous explanations.
The indoor section is separated with two themes, lifestyle-related craftworks andreligion-related instruments. Lifestyle-related craftworks collections are, seemingly,
previously utilized. Those comprise hunting and fishing supplies, canoes, pottery, tableware,traditional clothing, looms, and other items. The display-centered exhibition approach, aspreviously mentioned, transports visitors away from the hustle and bustle of modern society,thereby broadening their opportunities to further explore and develop an interest in Ainu
culture. The knowledge another BXAI scholar acquired during the Ainu culture camp
deepened our understanding of the traditional Ainu lifestyle, enabling a reproduction of Ainu
life through myths, traditions, and instruments. To be clear, at the end of the main collection
room, on a bookshelf, there is a massive, detailed academic dictionary of Ainu handicrafts.
The museum's decision not to categorize the bookmarks on display allows visitors to explore
the rich culture and history of the Ainu in an engaging and immersive manner. This approachfacilitates a deeper understanding of Ainu culture, particularly its myths.
Located in the back of the main exhibition room, occupying a quarter of the gallery, thecanoe is a perfect example of philosophy of the exhibition. Spatially speaking, no tourist will
be able to ignore the presence of the canoes once they have entered, even if they areplaced at the back of the exhibition space. Thus the canoes, by positioning at the center,
prompt visitors to reflect on the interrelationship between life in Hokkaido and the sea.
Additionally, the museum provides an opportunity to engage with Ainu maritime history on
board the canoe, thereby facilitating an understanding of the distinctions between Ainu andYamato (Wa) cultures. The Ainu handicraft dictionary behind you offers a gateway to explore
the unique water culture and its connections with other items in the museum.
Iomante, a ceremony centered in the Ainu traditional belief, replicated its spatial
arrangement in a glass box before us. The space is not complicatedly designed, only very10

few rules for the relatively small square. A number of pots are stored, with a bear placed in
the center, and the windows must be oriented in a specific direction. The participation of
pious souls is the most important aspect. Probably due to the central position of Ainu culture,
Iomante is the single chapter with an annotation. The respected souls praying for Kamuy(the god) are all conveyed through the footage, including the history of the rites, their taboos,
and their execution.
In the absence of active descriptions, we agree with consensus that Biratori Municipal
Nibutani Ainu Culture Museum reserves innumerable treasures inherited from Ainu
ancestors, creating enough spaces for the tourists slowing down their steps to search for the
distinctions. A distinctive feature of this museum is its minimalist approach, which profoundly
impacts visitors by using gaps to remind the current situation of the Ainu and to reserve theopportunities for future generations. Furthermore, the Museum deserves credit for offering abird's eye view of Ainu daily life and culture, a foundation for the later part of the journey.

2-3. Upopoy Museum
2-3-1. General impression
In general, Upopoy Museum showcases Ainu culture in more detail with explanations
regarding each of the items exhibited. The museum also provides a more detailed
explanation of Ainu religion and history compared to the museum in Biratori. The best
example of this is the video that explains the concept of “Kamui” or gods in Ainu culture. The
video helps explain the beliefs of the Ainu people and how that influences their life.
Furthermore, the museum has a lot of interesting exhibitions and activities that would help
broaden the appeal of the museum especially to children.

2-3-2. Performance
Different from Biratori Museum, Upopoy Museum offers a broader range of formats todisplay and promote Ainu culture. For example, Besides conventional exhibitions and videos
in the main museum building, Upopoy Museum also offers various facilities for visitors toexperience Ainu history and culture, which include the Cultural Exchange Hall, where visitors
can watch real-time performance of Ainu traditional songs and dances; the workshop andcraft studios, where visitors can have a trial of Ainu food, music instruments, and crafts
firsthand by themselves; the Kotan (Traditional Ainu Village), where visitors can not only
have a direct impression of Ainu people’s living place but also experience Ainu language anddaily activities. From window exhibition, stage performance, to experience-based activities
which cover various aspects of Ainu culture and history, Upopoy museum provides animpressive and embedded experience for visitors.
Besides visiting the main museum building, we also watched two stage performances andvisited the traditional Ainu village. It was a pity that we didn’t experience all these activities
due to the time limit.

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The Cultural Exchange Hall offered stage performances by Ainu performers. One stage
performance lasted for about 30 minutes, composed by a variety of formats like traditional
Ainu songs, dances, oral literature in Ainu language, and music instruments. Performers allwore Ainu traditional clothes. Some scenes mimic the ritual ceremonies and daily life inreality, for example the “熊送り(sending bears’ soul to the sky)”, vividly expressing Ainu
people’s cultural and religious practices to us.
The traditional Ainu village includes a group of reconstructed Ainu houses, which wereusually single-storey houses made of wood and thatch, all in brown. A display of foodconsumed the most by Ainu people, like potatoes, was also available. Besides houses forpeople, we also saw the small houses built for growing bears, which resonated with what welearned from their culture and religion in the exhibition. We also got the opportunities toexperience archery, which was the traditional game of Ainu people.

2-4. Informal interviews
We conducted informal interviews several relevant personnels that are either Ainu
themselves or are studying Ainu language and culture, including two important experts inthis field - one famous Ainu language instructor in Biratori, and a professor who is an expert
in Ainu folklore and language at Sapporo Gakuin University. Other interviewees include staff
members of 平取町アイヌ文化振興公社 (Biratori Town Ainu Culture Promotion Center),researchers at Upopoy National Ainu Museum that are working on transcription andtranslation of Ainu folklore and the Ainu language archive, and trainees of アイヌ文化の伝承者育成事業 (Ainu Culture Successor Development Project). We focused on the use andperception of Ainu language, and also that of Ainu culture, and explored future prospects
related to one of the authors’ research field, AI. As these interviews were kept informal andunofficial, we do not disclose here who stated what, as requested by the interviewees.
In terms of the use of the language, our interviews revealed that while there are many
people, especially those with Ainu heritage, that are highly motivated to learn and speak thelanguage, the use of language is quite limited due to the lack of proficiency and theprevalence of Japanese as the lingua franca within the community. There were only a few
fluent Ainu speakers in the Biratori community for example, who were non-native andlearned the language as adults, however they were reluctant to use the language muchbecause they knew they would not be understood by others. Furthermore, since even the
fluent Ainu speakers were non-native, they often had to rely on the online Ainu database anddictionary, though in the past they relied on still-living native speakers of Ainu. The use of thelanguage was limited to common everyday phrases such as irankarapte (meaning Hello) andspecial occasions they set up, such as Ainu speaking practice sessions.
The Ainu language was perceived as an important part of Ainu identity by many people inthe community. Many people of Ainu descendants were actively trying to learn the language,at least dozens in the Biratori community, still with the hope that it will be the common
language of everyday Ainu people once again. However, it was also mentioned that many
Ainu parents residing in Biratori are not highly motivated to educate their children in Ainu

12language; it seems that there exists mixed perception towards the use of Ainu even among
Ainu people, necessitating further research.
A young Ainu interviewee described his struggles with identity. Born and raised in modern
Japan, he found it challenging to connect with traditional Ainu culture, feeling more like anoutsider than a participant. For example, it is difficult for someone living in the modern era to
grasp the concept of kamuy, which in Ainu culture refers to supernatural beings that can
inhabit various forms, including animals and even modern vehicles like cars and airplanes.
The disconnection from his heritage made it hard for him to understand such cultural beliefs.

3. What we think
3.1. Linguistic aspect
The Ainu language's decline is a typical example of language shift, where urbanization,
modernization, and strong external pressures push indigenous languages to the brink ofextinction. The transition to the national language, Japanese, in daily life has practicallyerased Ainu as a primary mode of communication, after over 100 years of colonization andassimilation policy (Hasegawa, 2009). Currently, remnants of Ainu persist within theJapanese language in the form of place names and some loanwords. Although the situation
appears grim with virtually no native speakers remaining, there's a silver lining: national
support for Ainu culture and language has been robust. This is evidenced by theestablishment of Ainu language archives and an extensive online dictionary that provide richresources for anyone interested in learning the language. Moreover, the presence of ethnic
Ainu people who identify with their heritage and are keen to learn the language underscoresa vital, ongoing connection to their cultural roots.
Considering the possibility of revitalizing the Ainu language, several strategies could be
employed. Creating an immersive environment where the language can be actively used is
crucial. This could involve introducing Ainu language programs in schools and encouraging
its use at home, where parents can speak Ainu with their children. A strong sense of identityand pride might inspire more individuals to teach and use the language. Additionally,
increasing the language's presence on the internet and other public spaces can enhance its
visibility and usage. A symbolic but impactful step could be recognizing Ainu as an official
language in Hokkaido alongside Japanese. Although this might not have immediate practicalbenefits, it would significantly elevate the language's prestige and potentially encourage
broader adoption.

3.2. Cultural aspect
Both museums we visited showcase Ainu culture through everyday objects used by the Ainu
people. In Biratori, the museum focused more on the objects used such as the boats, tools,
weapons, and clothes that the Ainu people use. Unfortunately, there was not a lot of
explanation regarding the items even in Japanese which reduces the appeal of the museum.

13

The way the exhibition is presented makes it seem like the Ainu culture is a culture longgone even though there are more to show within Ainu culture beyond the objects such as
traditional music, dance, and religious ceremonies.
On the other hand, the Upopoy Museum tries to negate this by showcasing the ainu culture
through videos, performances, and activities. A good example of this was the performancethat we attended showcasing ainu music and dances as well as the videos in the exhibition
explaining ainu beliefs. This was the appeal of the museum that allows the visitor to see Ainu
culture directly.
Although museums play an important role in explaining Ainu cultures, it seems that thecurrent method used does not do justice to Ainu culture. The museum makes it feel like ainu
culture is more of a show that can be used to attract visitors. It makes the culture feel likesomething from the past, something that is distant. However, understanding a culture
requires interaction with the people who are living with said culture. Cultures came to be as
the result of human interactions.
That being said, a possible method to further introduce Ainu culture into society can be seenfrom the Masai tribe of Tanzania. As a method to introduce their culture, they invite people tocome into their residence and experience Masai culture. This has boomed into a businessthat appeals to foreign tourists. As a result, they have an additional income on top of the onethat they have already received. This method can serve as a reference for promoting AInu
culture in Japan and help stimulate the preservation of Ainu culture beyond promotional
purposes and to recreate Ainu society that once existed in Hokkaido.

3.3. Management (Current preservation efforts)
Museums play a significant role in the preservation and promotion of Ainu traditional culture.
We visited both Biratori Ainu Culture Museum and Upopoy Museum, the two largest
museums about Ainu in Hokkaido.
According to our experiences, these two museums share some common features infunctions. Firstly, they both have exhibitions of objects related to Ainu people’s basic
necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, and transportation, as well as theirculture, such as religious rituals and language; secondly, they both offer cultural experience
activities, like craft workshops where visitors can make Ainu traditional crafts in person;
thirdly, they all have an outdoor area displaying Ainu houses to mimic the traditional Ainu
village.
But they also have many differences. For example, they have a very different exhibition
atmosphere. In the Biratori Museum, the display of objects is more intense and compact,with less textual explanation; while in the Upopoy Museum, the objects are better organizedand displayed in wider space with richer description and vivid video illustration. Also, in the
Biratori Museum, with dim yellow light and a unified brown color tone, the spatial style is inaccord with exhibits, which could help visitors immerse in Ainu culture deeply; while in the14

Upopoy Museum, the decoration of exhibition hall is more modern and artist with colorful
light shining, leading to a sense of gap between exhibits and the space.
Generally speaking, Upopoy Museum is more well-facilitated and operated. It is obvious that
Upopoy Museum has more visitors than Biratori, according to our observation. It is possibly
due to a wider land space, a better location, and more richful services. Besides the common
cultural activities, Upopoy also provides stage performances by Ainu people as well as abunch of restaurants where Ainu food is available, and the number of activity types andsupporting staff is also larger. Upopoy also makes efforts to attract international visitors withmultilingual marketing and services.
Therefore, we think Upopoy has received a higher amount of government funding. According
to the museum, its operational fund mainly comes from the national government and the
Hokkaido government. Besides, Upopoy can make some profits through tenant management(e.g. restaurants and souvenir shops), parking space, and other businesses like coin lockers.
However, this profit is apparently insufficient, and Upopoy seems still facing financial burden,
for it is still calling for financial support from external individuals and organizations as
membership. Financial information of Biratori is not available but we assume they have
similar situations.
Government funding is the most common way for museum operation. However, it has bothpros and cons. On the one hand, government funding is indeed essential to preserve ethnic
culture like Ainu; on the other hand, the dependence on government funding may reduce
museum’s self-driven motivation to pursue better operation but instead be content with theircurrent status, which may lead to problems like formalism or failure to keep pace with thetimes. This concern also resonates with another BXAI scholar’s feeling about theirexperience in a 5-day Ainu Cultural Programme, where college students around Japan are
recruited to experience and discuss the preservation of Ainu culture. We think it is notenough for preservation organizations like museums to only rely on external fundings.To
pursue long-term development, they should also make efforts to explore more dynamic ways
with innovation to enhance their self-sufficiency ability.

3.4. What could be done in the future
A culture is never and should never be regarded as stopping at its appearance, such as
language, ritual, craftsmanship, etc.; rather, it is about how they perceive the world, such as
vocabulary definitions, relationships between heaven and earth or man and God, and thenarrative behind the arts. The demise of cultures is not and should not be seen simply as theloss of intangible and uncompetitive broken behaviors, but more the erosion of the ability toconnect with the creations. As the Ainu Culture Promotion Act states:”[T]o realize… the Ainu
people can live with pride… a society… which… all citizens respect each other's personality
and individuality.” Efforts to revitalize Ainu culture should be preserved at any cost to anyone
who desires diversity and welcomes different ideas.
The majority culture of Japan, Wa culture (和の文化), is not only dominant but also
expanding, swallowing up domestic minority cultures - Ainu and Ryukyu. While suppressing
15

the prevailing culture is unrealistic, the only option left is to promote the minorities throughproviding adequate incentives and facilities. However, given both the critical realities and ourlimited knowledge toward the Ainu culture, only specific aspects will be proposed. We advisethat two approaches should be particularly focused on. The first is to facilitate theadoption and revitalization of their language, and the second is to enhance thefundamental economic capacity of the Ainu community.
Though there are plenty of Ainu language classes all around Japan, most of the Ainu people
are still developing the ability to communicate with each other purely in Ainu language. The
situation is further complicated by the fact that the Ainu language is not being preserved by
Ainu scholars or studied in Hokkaido. The Japanese ethnicity, Wajin(和人) called by Ainu as
ethnics, have invested significant resources in studying the Ainu language in Tokyo as well.
Nevertheless, it is irrefutable that a considerable amount of resources are allocated tolanguage revitalization in Tokyo, which is currently in the process of relocating to its
ancestral homeland, Hokkaido, driven by the strong determination of the Ainu people. Local
authorities can play a pivotal role in facilitating the relocation of the Ainu.
Given the imminent extinction of the Ainu language, it is clear that governmental support,
namely in the governmental paperwork and educational sphere, is essential to its revival.
The Ainu language has been confirmed by the Upopoy as one of the official languages
within the facility. However, this is not sufficient. In addition to Upopoy, the Hokkaido
government should confirm the Ainu language as an official language throughout theprefecture. The inclusion of Ainu languages in governmental documents will result in asignificant increase in the demand for reading and writing in the language, which will in turncontribute to the revival of the Ainu language. Conversely, primary language education
represents an indispensable approach to integrating the Ainu language into everyday life.
Providing Ainu language classes outside the school setting in kindergarten or elementary
school is undoubtedly inadequate. It is only through fostering basic communication skills in aliving environment and integrating the use of the Ainu language into daily life that the Ainu
language can be gradually revitalized.
To overcome the language development dilemma and provide a robust rationale for its use,enhancing the economic strength of the Ainu people is a viable strategy for improving theirlong-term standard of living. The achievement of cultural self-reliance and self-sufficiency is
contingent upon the existence of a stable economic life. Hence, it is challenging to achieve acultural renaissance through the promotion of cultural activities alone. The Ainu Culture
Enhancement Plan proposed by the Hokkaido government, conversely, neglected theimportance of economic growth but concentrated on the culture itself. The plan outlines a
strategy for the allocation of various tourism resources, with the objective of promoting Ainu
culture and simultaneously enhancing the standard of living. It is noteworthy that the plan
does not explicitly address the development of the other industries besides tourism.
It is evident that with such limited time, it is not feasible to present a comprehensive andviable economic development plan, nor to identify specific strategies. Nevertheless, it isequally important to recognise that the Hokkaido government should not solely prioritize thetourism industry, given that the Ainu people are not limited to working in the tourism sector.
16This paragraph, in conjunction with the preceding one, serves no more than a cautionary
note for the governor.

4. Conclusion
The Ainu language and culture serves as an example of the dynamic struggle between
decline and revitalization. As an important representative of ethnic and linguistic minorities,
Ainu challenges the commonly held perception of Japan as a homogeneous nation andilluminates the broader lessons about cultural preservation. Despite facing significant
challenges, Ainu people are actively integrating their heritage into modern lifestyles. With
individuals embracing their Ainu identity—whether they are chefs at Ainu-themed restaurants
or furniture designers inspired by traditional Ainu patterns—the community is trying to find
new ways to keep their culture vibrant and relevant. As the world becomes moreinterconnected, the Ainu community tells us the value of maintaining cultural diversity,
enriching the global human experience.

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