Scientia Agropecuaria

versión impresa ISSN 2077-9917
Scientia Agropecuaria vol.11 no.2 Trujillo abr./jun 2020
http://dx.doi.org/10.17268/sci.agropecu.2020.02.14
REVIEW ARTICLESInactivation of Coronaviruses in food industry: The use of inorganic and organic disinfectants, ozone, and UV
radiation
食品産業におけるコロナウイルスの不活化．無機・有機殺菌剤、オゾン、紫外線照射の使用

Roberto Quevedo1 *http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8132-838X
José Miguel Bastías2
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3387-6917
Teófilo Espinoza1
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1491-1051
Betty Ronceros1
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3135-0647
Iván Balic1
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5851-0340
Ociel Muñoz3
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2445-4336
1

Departamento de Acuicultura y Recursos Agroalimentarios, Programa Fitogen, Universidad de Los Lagos, Av.

Alberto Fuchslocher 1305, Región de los Lagos, Osorno, Chile.
2

Departamento de Ingeniería en Alimentos, Universidad del Bío-Bío, Av. Andres Bello 720, Chillán, Chile.

3

Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Alimentarias, Universidad

Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia, Región de los Ríos, Chile.
ABSTRACT
Currently there is a worldwide pandemic due to Covid-19, which has caused a great impact on humanity in social,economic, psychological aspects and unfortunately on health. Due to the risk that food can also be a medium tocause virus diseases, the procedures in the food industry safety programs must be revised; and, to be more specific,
to disinfect Covid-19. Some effective disinfectants that have been proved to inactivate the coronavirus are: chlorine
dioxide, sodium hypochlorite, quaternary compound, ozone and UV-C (shortwave ultraviolet light). In this review,
some treatments used to inactivate a virus, with an emphasis to the coronavirus family, and other influenza viruses,
are reported. It has been concluded that the coronavirus could be inactivated using free chlorine solutions at 30
mg/L, sodium hypochlorite 0.25 %, or Chlorine Dioxide (99% purity) diluted at 1/2.5 relation. Also, alcohol is aneffective disinfectant at concentrations of 62 to 71% of ethanol. With respect to the use of the quaternary compound,it can be used at concentrations of 0.10%. Ozone is another promising disinfectant to inactivate the coronavirus
and Covid-19. Doses of ozone between 10 to 20 ppm for 10 to 15 minutes are recommended to inactivate thecoronavirus with 3.5 log10 reductions. However, a warning should be reported to the use of high doses of exposure
because it can be a risk to human health. UV-C can inactivate the coronavirus at a value of 67 J/m2 by 1 to 30
minutes of exposure.
Keywords: Covid-19; SARS-CoV; Hypochlorite; Ozone; ultraviolet light; food safety; UV-C Radiation

INTRODUCTION
Viruses, unlike cellular bacteria, consist only of a single protein shell (called a capsid), which contains within its
RNA segments that are instructed to invade a host cell. They are generally much smaller than bacteria, about a few
nanometers in size (one nanometer (“nm”) is equivalent to 10-9 m) (Darnell and Taylor, 2006). Certain viruses are known
to cause health problems for humans; and since they are not strictly cellular organisms, most antibiotics do not
usually inactivate them. It is required in those cases to produce specific antibodies (vaccines) in order to beinactivated (Bodmer et al., 2018).
Viruses, when they do not have a host, can usually be present for a time on all kinds of surfaces; these include bothbiological and non-biological materials (plastics, metals, air, among others). This obviously also includes
unprocessed foods, which often carry the virus on their surfaces (Hirneisen et al., 2011; Mullis et al., 2012a). For example, it has
already been determined that viruses are often present in fruits and vegetables when they have been exposed tounsanitary environments. Presence of human viruses in treated sewage has been detected at concentrations of
104 to 105 virus particles/L (Hellmér et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2018; Wolf et al., 2019).
Many viruses inhabit animal species, which can be consumed and produce fatal diseases to the population. An
example is a recent specific case of SARS-CoV-2 virus, also called Covid-19 (a virus belonging to the coronavirus
family). There is reasonable evidence that it infected humans from the consumption of animal species such as bats
(Li et al., 2020; Menachery et al., 2020; Yuan et al., 2020). Consumption of these species may have caused a mutation of the virus,
possibly because they were consumed without proper treatment. This is not the only case where food consumption
may have caused the spread of a virus in humans, e.g. viruses are known to exist in pigs (Leopardi et al., 2020; Zhou et al.,;), dromedary (Gossner et al., 2016), alpacas (Crossley et al., 2010) and avian products (Chumpolbanchorn et al., 2006), among2019 Zhu et al., 2019others. In the case of the avian influenza virus (spherical virus with a size between 80 - 120 nm), it caused a zoonotic
disease in Southeast Asia and throughout the world. In Southeast Asia, more than 60 people have died from thedisease since the first case in Hong Kong was reported in 1997. In Thailand, there were 13 deaths in 21 cases
reported from December 2003 to November 2005 (Kim, 2018; McDevitt et al., 2012).
Currently, there is a worldwide pandemic due to the Covid-19 coronavirus, which has caused a great impact onhumanity in social, economic, and psychological aspects and unfortunately on health with an average mortality rateof 2.5% (Kitajima et al., 2020). The sources of contamination have generally been human-to-human contact (van Doremalen et); but, there are other possible sources of contamination. For example, contaminate surfaces with the virusal., 2018

including biological materials such as food. No studies have been reported to date to efficiently disinfect Covid-19.
Safe treatments to disinfect using inorganic or organic components should be investigated. The population iscurrently exposed to contamination from food that has been handled by virus-positive people, or from the use ofcontaminated water in cleaning (Mullis et al., 2012b). In fact, Covid-19 can be active for up to 9 days on surfaces thatmaintain its high infection rate and rapid spread (more rapid than SARS-CoV) (Kowalski et al., 2020).
In the disinfection of fruits and vegetables, inorganic chemical components such as hypochlorite and quaternaryammoniums are usually used; as well as organic stems such as, ethanol, propanol, among other components. Manyof them have demonstrated their effectiveness in the elimination of viruses in food. With regard to the inactivationof Covid-19, there are no studies on the recommended doses of these disinfectants to inactivate it; however,effective doses have been reported for viruses of the same family of the coronavirus (MERS, SARS-CoV, and Murine
Coronavirus). The similarity genomic structure of Covid-19 with respect to members of the same family is very
appreciable (Henwood, 2020; Schmidt et al., 2005; Woo et al., 2010). For that, the disinfection doses tested for other members of its
own family are expected to have a similar effect.
The indiscriminate use of chemical disinfectants can also have an impact on the environment and people. Waste is

produced that must be treated before being disposed and it also can be toxic to human health. The World HealthOrganization (WHO) has recommended caution in the use of disinfection methods because the population may
informally use indiscriminate concentrations of disinfectants that are not suitable for eliminating coronaviruses(including Covid-19); they may lead to an increase in cases of disinfectant poisoning.
This review presents a summary of the scientific evidence on the treatment of food with inorganic or organic
disinfectants, which have been used to specifically inactivate viruses of the coronavirus family (MERS, SAR-CoV,
Murino coronavirus); as well as other viruses, such as HnNn influenza, swine influenza or avian influenza. Although,there are no specific studies for the Covid-19 virus in the international scientific community, this review may be
useful to the industry in the search for disinfectants and their most recommended doses to treat viruses in theCovid-19 family - the coronaviruses (COVs). The present work aims to show the use of different types of
disinfectants and their dosages, in the food industry; as well as, to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of eachdisinfectant with respect to environmental sustainability.
Coronaviruses classification
The ability of viruses to infect the human host is an important reason that the WHO makes top list of emerging
diseases likely to cause major epidemics. The list includes severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARSCoV), and recently Covid-19 which caused the current pandemic (Gravemann et al., 2018; Mullis et al., 2012b). SARS-CoV viruses
belong to the Orthocoronavirinae species, Coronaviridae family, and Nidovirales order; they are characterized bybeing large, and enveloped single-stranded RNA. Based on genotypic and serologic characterization, CoVs can be
subdivided into the genera Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus (Crossley et). CoVs are defined as enveloped viruses of 120 -160 nm in diameter with a crown-like appearance. The nameal., 2010“coronavirus” is derived from the Greek “κορώνα”, meaning crown and containing the largest genomes (26.4
to 31.7 kb) among all known RNA viruses, with G + C contents varying from 32% to 43% (Henwood, 2020). The
differences between genera are by the genome organization, Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma and Delta prototypes (Decaro,;). In Table 1, common viruses for genera Alphacoronavirus, and their respective host, are listed.

2011 Poletti and Mavilio, 2017

Table 1 Some Genera of Coronaviruses

Adapted from Decaro (2011) and Poletti and Mavilio (2017).
Due to the current pandemic 2020, the most important virus to be monitored by the food industry is the CoVs,
mainly the SARS-CoV and Covid-19. They are very contagious, and they are deadly to humans. SARS-CoV and
Covid-19 are classified in the genera Betacoronavirus, due to that they show a beta prototype in their genome
structure.
Risk of Coronavirus and influenza virus in foodPre-harvest contamination for foodborne viruses can occur through a variety of agents, including animal feces,manures, soil, irrigation water, animals, and human handling. Problems of contamination are magnified by potential
countrywide distribution. Postharvest processing of produce can involve spraying, washing, or immersion into

water with disinfectants; however, disinfectants, including chlorine, have varying effects on viruses and produce
harmful by-products pose a concern (Hirneisen et al., 2011).
Transmission of CoVs in humans is generally airborne or by person-to-person contact through droplets of saliva,
sneezes, coughs, and secretions that can contaminate hands and surfaces. However, currently the food industry isfacing numerous uncertainties about of the presence of Covid-19 in food production, distribution, marketing, home
preparation of meals (Oliveira et al., 2020) or in the generation of wastewater (Kitajima et al., 2020). Coronavirus infections havea significant economic impact on agriculture, human health, and social impact in the word. In the early 1980’s thebovine coronavirus (BCoV) began to heavily impact food agriculture, due to the apparition of viral gastroenteritis
in cattle (Clark et al., 1998). In fact, BCoV had a major impact on the cattle industry, with economic losses occurring due
to morbidity, mortality, treatment and prevention costs, loss of production, and reduced carcass value (Boileau and Kapil,;). Therefore, presence of BCoV in the bovine or calves can be a source of virus contamination in2010 Fulton et al., 2011humans when they are consuming beef as a food. As well as fruits (Brie et al., 2018) and vegetables (Mullis et al., 2012b) can bea food source of CoVs contamination. The need to adopt measures to reduce the risk of a breakdown in food supply
services is required. Recently WHO reported that the Hepatitis E virus, Highly Avian inﬂuenza, H5N1 influenza
virus, SARS-CoV and Nipah virus, as pathogenic having the potential for foodborne transmission. Initial foodborne
transmission is a route to enter the human population, which can then shift and spread through human-to-humantransmission.
The generation of studies for prevention of CoVs infections due to food contamination requires adherence to thecountries in the world and by programmers who consume. Because a vaccine to inactivate CoVs in humans is not
yet available, the food sanitization programs in the entire world should be reformulated to decrease the risk ofinfections by the presence of CoVs in food. Fast protocols to prevent the possibility of contamination of viruses (i.e.
by coronaviruses) from food are to be researched.
Inactivation of CoVs and influenza virus, using common disinfectants
Fruits and vegetables are heavily consumed and have good nutritional value. The perishable nature of theseproducts, which determines its fast consumption and also the number of associated outbreaks, identiﬁes theimportance of applying efﬁcient decontamination strategies (Mullis et al., 2012b).They can be treatments with heat todestroy the viruses. Another alternative has been the use of chemical disinfectants, in the case of fresh food.
Use of free chlorine and derivate
Free chlorine readily penetrates the lipid membrane of microorganism to react with proteins in the nucleocapsid
and polymerase complex (Ye and Wigginton, 2018). In the case of a virus, free chlorine damaged viral capsids, allowing freechlorine access to viral RNA to damage viral genomes and cause it to lose its ability to bind to its host receptors(Fuzawa et al., 2019). Chlorine can be used in a gas form (chlorine dioxide) or liquid form (hypochlorite). Chlorine dioxide
is regarded as a broad-spectrum disinfectant with strong inhibitory effects on microbes and parasites, and is anefficient agent and potently suppressed porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection in vitro(Kingsley et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2019). Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is commonly applied to food or irrigation water which has theadvantage of not forming organo-halogen by-products, and it is a more powerful oxidant than sodium hypochlorite(Lopez-Galvez et al., 2018).
Liquid Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is another chlorine compound used as a disinfectant. It has an effective
antimicrobial activity, a broad bacterial range, and creates a signiﬁcant reduction in endotoxins levels (Neelakantan et al.,). However, several studies have demonstrated that complete bacterial elimination cannot be achieved

2019

consistently with any of the current disinfection protocols (Silva et al., 2020; Siqueira et al., 2018). It is important to note thatchlorination of water that contains amino acids have been shown to produce toxic cyanogen chloride. Dissolved

organic nitrogen substances can also react with chlorine to give organo-chloramines. Peptides in water are of greater
concern than free amino acids because chlorinated products of peptides are relatively more stable than thechlorinated derivate of amino acids (Sharma and Graham, 2010).
Use of Alcohol
Most alcohols used in disinfection are ethanol and isopropyl alcohol, both usually at a concentration of 70%; forexample, the transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) was reduced 4.5 log10 by ethanol in the suspension test,
over 5 minutes. Similarly, using QCT-2 and organic load, ethanol was reduced by at least 3 log10 over the course of
5 minutes (Schmidt et al., 2005). Ethanol is widely used in hand rubs, gels, and foams for hand hygiene in healthcare
settings. In fact, The WHO has even listed ethanol at 80% (v/v) as an essential medicine in the category ‘alcoholbased hand rubs’ and since 1994, the US Food and Drug Administration considers ethanol between 60% and 95%
as generally safe and effective (Kampf, 2018). It has been noted that coronaviruses, such as 0.05% to 0.2% benzalkonium
chloride or 0.02% chlorhexidine di-gluconate were less effective. Coronaviruses, e.g. severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), can be inactivated by 70% ethanol and 0.1%
sodium hypochlorite; for that, it is believed that Covid-19 would be similarly affected (Kampf et al., 2020).
Use of quaternary ammonium
Quaternary ammonium cations are another type of disinfectant that have spermicidal and antimicrobial activity andinactivation of encapsulated viruses, especially those containing long alkyl chains (Mizzen et al., 1985). Examples arebenzalkonium

chloride,benzethonium

chloride,

methylbenzethonium

chloride,cetalconium

chloride,cetylpyridinium chloride, cetrimonium, cetrimide, tetraethylammonium bromide, didecyldimethylammonium
chloride and domiphene bromide. Alam et al. (2018) showed that the quaternary ammonium (diluted at 1:500(QACx500)) inactivated the avian influenza on steel and plastic carriers after 60 minutes of exposition. In Table 2,
the applications of common disinfectants to inactivate common coronaviruses and influenza viruses are shown.
Table 2 Common virus and its corresponding treatment with disinfectants

Use of Ozone (03)Ozone is a powerful antimicrobial agent that is suitable for application in food in the gaseous and aqueous states.
It is one of the most effective sanitizers known, yet it leaves no hazardous residues on food or food-contact surfaces.
The precursors for industrial production of ozone (that is, O2 or HO) are abundant and inexhaustible. Ozone

treatment requires no heat and hence saves energy (Hirneisen et al., 2011; Khadre et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2018). Gaseous ozone has aresidual effect, for example its half-life based on temperature in Gaseous is at 8 days at -25 °C, 3 days at 20°C
and 1.5 hours at 120 °C. In aqueous ozone it is at 30 minutes at 15 °C, 20 minutes at 20 °C and 15 minutes at
25 °C (Miller et al., 2013). Aqueous ozone has been used to decontaminate poultry meat (Ianni et al., 2019), salmon (Crowe et al.,), apples (Camargo et al., 2019), strawberries (Nayak et al., 2020) , and others foods (Mahapatra et al., 2005). Hirneisen et al. (2011) tested

2012

ozone for the processing of lettuce and reported that bubbling ozone reduced counts of natural microﬂora in therange of 2 to 3 log10. Also, it has been used to prevent mold growth on cheese and inactivate airborne molds incheese ripening and storage facilities. Ozone treatment has also been found to be a promising method for reducing
the concentrations of pollutants in dairy wastewaters (Varga and Szigeti, 2016). In Table 3, treatments to inactivate
coronaviruses and influenza virus, by 03, is showed.
Ozone is a strong oxidative compound both in its gaseous form and when dissolved in water and, because of this,is known to be an efficient disinfectant for inactivating even the chemically resistant. Its oxidative potential is higher
than that of hydrogen peroxide and hypochlorite (Mahfoudh et al., 2010). However, concentration levels of 03 and residence
times must be controlled, because it is toxic in humans at high doses. One-hour exposure to ozone concentrationsof 2, 4, 15, and 95 ppm induces symptomatic, irritant, toxic, and irreversible lethal effects in humans, respectively.
In fact, the human lung is the primary target of ozone gas (Khadre et al., 2001). The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
requires a concentration limit exposure of 0.05 ppm during 8 hours, Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) requires a concentration limit exposure of 0.10 ppm during 8 hours, National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommends an upper limit of 0.10 ppm, not to be exceeded at any time,
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires a concentration limit exposure of 0.08 ppm during 8 hours (Miller et).

al., 2013

Use of ultraviolet light (“UV”) as virus disinfectant
Ultraviolet light can be an effective disinfectant for decontaminating virus surfaces, including the SARS-CoV virus.
It is possibly because UV inducing photo dimers in the genomes of microorganisms structure (Darnell et al., 2004).
Ultraviolet light has been demonstrated to be capable of destroying viruses, bacteria and fungi in hundreds oflaboratory studies (McDevitt et al., 2012). Although SARS-CoV-2 virus has not yet been specifically tested for its ultraviolet
susceptibility, other tests on related coronaviruses, including the SARS coronavirus, have concluded that they arehighly susceptible to ultraviolet inactivation (Kowalski et al., 2020). UV light is divided into three classifications: UV-A
(320 - 400 nm), UV-B (280 - 320 nm), and UV-C (200 - 280 nm). UV-A is weakly absorbed by DNA and RNA,and is much less effective than UV-C and UV-B. Duan et al. (2003) found that irradiation with ultraviolet light for 60
minutes on several coronaviruses in culture medium resulted in undetectable levels of viral infectivity.
UV is uniquely vulnerable to the virus at wavelengths near to 253.7 nm (UV-C range). This is because the maximum
absorption wavelength of a DNA molecule is around to 260 nm. UV-A and UV-B require more exposure time tobe effective against viruses. Also, airborne microorganisms are much more susceptible to UV damage than thosesuspended in a liquid suspension; additionally, the type of the microorganism, affected the efficacy of UV-C. For
example, the UV-C dose between fungal spores and bacterial cells is as high as 80 times (Tseng and Li, 2005).
Similarly, to the other disinfectants, human exposure to high levels of UV-C irradiation is dangerous to their health.
Overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the main modifiable risk factor for skin cancer (Lehmann et al., 2019).
Exposure to UV-C is not recommended for humans at levels of 2.5 J/m2 by 10 to 15 minutes can produce erythema(redness of the skin or mucous membranes) (McKenzie and Lucas, 2018). The UV-A dosage was set to levels calculated safefor human occupation at maximum of 10 W m2 for 8 hours, at eye level (Brons et al., 2020). In Table 4, some treatment
to inactivate coronaviruses and influenza virus by UV are showed.

Table 3 Common virus and its corresponding treatment with ozone
Ozone

Viruses(ppm

or TimeMedium

Log10 reduction Reference10

Air (90 %)>3

5green onion 1.61

(Hirneisen et al., 2011)

Coronavirus (Covid-19) 15 - 20

10 - 15air

3(Wang et al., 2020)

Murine norovirus

6.25

5

lettuce

2.91(Hirneisen et al., 2011)

Murine norovirus

6.25

5

water

4.69

(Hirneisen et al., 2011)

0.5

60

air

HSV

10

15

plastic

4(Hudson et al., 2009)

HSV

10

15

glass

4

(Hudson et al., 2009)

HSV

10

15

4

(Hudson et al., 2009)

Influenza virus

10

15

plastic

4(Hudson et al., 2009)

Influenza virus

10

10

glass

4

(Hudson et al., 2009)

Influenza virus

10

20

4

(Hudson et al., 2009)

Rotavirus

10

10plastic

4(Hudson et al., 2009)

Rotavirus

10

15

glass

4

(Hudson et al., 2009)

Rotavirus

10

20

4

(Hudson et al., 2009)

Bacteriophage MS2

0.6

0.3

water

2.96

Hepatitis A virus

0.3 to 0.4

0.08

water

3.9

Poliovirus type 3

0.3

0.3

water

1.63

Bacteriophage MS2

1.2

60

air (85% h) 3

(Mamane et al., 2007)

Bacteriophage PHIX174 1.230

air (85% h) 3

(Mamane et al., 2007)

Bacteriophage PHI6

1.2

30

air (85% h) 3

(Mamane et al., 2007)

Bacteriophage T7

1.2

120

air (85% h) 3

(Mamane et al., 2007)

Murine norovirus

3

1

Raspberries > 3.3(Brie et al., 2018)

hepatitis A (HAV)

5

3

Raspberries 0.6(Brie et al., 2018)

Adenovirus,

630

wastewater

5(Wang et al., 2018)

Norovirus,

715

wastewater

5(Wang et al., 2018)

Parechovirus

615

wastewater

5(Wang et al., 2018)

Sapovirus

615

wastewater

5(Wang et al., 2018)

Murine Coronavirus
Murine norovirus MNV1

Respiratorysyncytial

virus

mg/L)

(min)

10
6.25

stainlesssteel

stainlesssteel

stainlesssteel

Table 4 Common virus and it corresponding treatment with UV(Hudson et al., 2009)(Becker et al., 1998)(FinchandFairbairn,

1991)(Hall and Sobsey, 1993)(FinchandFairbairn,

1991)

Viruses

UV doseTime (min) Medium

Log10 reduction Reference

SARS CoV Urbanus

241 J/m2

1

air

3

(Kowalski et al., 2020)

Coronavirus

7 J/m2

1air

3(Walker and Ko, 2007)

SARS CoV

40.16 J/m2

6

air

3

(Darnell et al., 2004)

Canine coronavirus

29 J/m2

1

air

3(Kowalski et al., 2020)

SARS CoV

1.7 J/s m2

20

plasma> 3.4(Eickmann et al., 2020)

Murine Coronavirus

29 J/m2

1

air

3(Kowalski et al., 2020)

SARS CoV Hanoi

134 J/ m2

1

air

3

(Kowalski et al., 2020)

Nipah virus

1.7 J/s m2

20

plasma> 4.3(Eickmann et al., 2020)

Haemorrhagic fever virus

1.7 J/s /m2

20

plasma> 2.2(Eickmann et al., 2020)

Berne Virus

7 J/m2

1

air

3(Kowalski et al., 2020)

T7 virus

20 J/s m2

0.017

air 55% RH 3

(Tseng and Li, 2005)

Phi6 virus

17.7 J/s m2

0.017

air 55% RH 3

(Tseng and Li, 2005)

SARS CoVP9

1 J /s m2

30

MS2 virus

9 J /s m2

0.0107air 55% RH 3

(Tseng and Li, 2005)

PhiX174 virus

10.3 J/s m2

0.017

air 55% RH 3

(Tseng and Li, 2005)

15

air

2

(McDevitt et al., 2012)

Avian influenza virus aiv H7N1 0.9 J/m2 UVB 158

air

1(Sutton et al., 2013)

Avian influenza virus aiv H5N1 0.9 J/m2 UVB 167

air1(Sutton et al., 2013)

Influenza viruses

air3(Sutton et al., 2013)

Avian influenza virus aiv H1N1 15 J/m2

23 J/m2

20(Duan et al., 2003)

From the Tables 2 to 4, we can observe that doses to inactive CoVs can vary depending on the sample conditions
and the raw materials used in the experiments. According to Table 2, CoVs could be inactivated using free chlorine
solutions at 30 mg/L, sodium hypochlorite 0.25 %, or Chlorine Dioxide (99% purity) diluted at 1/2.5 relation(Wang et al., 2020). Also, alcohol is an effective disinfectant of CoVs, it can inactivate at concentrations of 62 to 71 % ofethanol (Kampf, 2018; Kampf et al., 2020). With respect to the use of the Quaternary compound, it can be used atconcentrations of 0.10% (Dellanno et al., 2009). In addition, the use of the Sambucus Formosana ethanol extracts, at 50µg/mL, can be used to inactivated CoVs (Weng et al., 2019).
The use of Ozone is another promising disinfectant to inactivate CoVs and Covid-19. Doses of 03 between 10 to 20
ppm for times of 10 to 15 minutes are recommended to inactivate CoVs at 3.5 log10 reductions. However, a warning
should be reported for use of high doses and exposure because it can be a risk to human health (limited exposure
to humans is 0.05 ppm for 8 hours).
From Table 4, ranges of UV-C dose, for inactive CoVs; is around 7-241 J/m2, with a mean of 67 J/m2. These values
can be taken as an adequate representation of the ultraviolet susceptibility of the SARS-CoV- 2 (Covid-19) virus(Kowalski et al., 2020). With respect to the time exposure, UV-C shows ranges between 1 to 30 minutes of exposure. In
early April, the SSLEEC member company Seoul Semiconductor, reported that a 99.9% of the Covid-19
sterilization can be reached at 30 seconds, using UV LED products.
CONCLUSIONS
Currently, there is a worldwide pandemic due to the Covid-19 coronavirus, which has caused a great impact onhumanity in social, economic, psychological aspects and unfortunately on health. Due to the risk that food can also
be a medium to cause a virus disease, the procedures in the food industry safety programs must be revised; and be
more specific on how to disinfect for Covid-19. Some effective disinfectants that have been proved to inactivate

CoVs are chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite, quaternary compound, ozone, and UV-C. Further research is stillneeded to explore new applications for these disinfectants and to best utilize the unique features of these sanitizers.
For example, using the disinfectants in binary and/or ternary mixtures, to evaluate their synergies. Similarly, theefficiency of these mixtures in the inactivation of Covid-19 should be explored.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank to the group: Área de Investigación Prioritaria (API-3), Sistema Agroalimentario Sostenible, Cambio
Climático y Biodiversidad (Ulagos), for the financial support.
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* Corresponding author E-mail: rquevedo@ulagos.cl (R. Quevedo-León).
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