ECONOMIC RESEARCH CENTERDISCUSSION PAPER
E-Series

No.E14-8

Chinese Business Ethics and Regional Differences:
Evidence from Micro-data in Six Major Cities
byYoshihiko Kadoya
Philip Bryer

June 2014

ECONOMIC RESEARCH CENTERGRADUATE SCHOOL OF ECONOMICSNAGOYA UNIVERSITY

Chinese Business Ethics and Regional Differences:
Evidence from Micro-data in Six Major Cities*

Yoshihiko Kadoya †Philip Bryer ‡Abstract
Foreigners who wish to invest in China require a wide range of information about the businessclimate, including the nature of Chinese business ethics. This research examines regional
differences in business ethics in terms of four traits: manner, commitment, punctuality, andreciprocity. A total of 644 subjects were interviewed in six widely dispersed major cities: Beijing,
Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang, and Wuhan. The results show that there are regional
differences in business ethics in China.
Key words: foreign direct investment, one-child policy, emerging market, labor quality, chinese
economyThis research used micro data from the Preference Parameters Study of Osaka University’s 21stCentury COE Program “Behavioral Macrodynamics Based on Surveys and Experiments” and its
Global COE project “Human Behavior and Socioeconomic Dynamics.” We acknowledge theprogram/project’s contributors: Yoshiro Tsutsui, Fumio Ohtake, and Shinsuke Ikeda. Bryer thanks
the Lundquist College of Business at the University of Oregon for providing a Courtesy Research
Associate appointment during the summer of 2013.
† Graduate School of Economics, Nagoya University, address: Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku Nagoya
464-8601 JAPAN, email: yoshi.kadoya@soec.nagoya-u.ac.jp‡ Graduate School of Economics, Nagoya University, address: Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku Nagoya
464-8601 JAPAN, email: bryer@soec.nagoya-u.ac.jp1*Introduction
Because of the rapid increase in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in China, investors areconcerned about frequent reports of unethical business practices, including bribery, mistreatment of
employees, accounting fraud, unsafe products, and misconduct by government officials. These
problems have generated many studies of the cultural and social forces that shape business ethics in
China, such as Confucianism, guanxi, and communism. However, few of these studies haveexamined how China’s significant regional differences impact business ethics. Given that China’s
56 ethnic groups co-exist in a nation of great income disparity (a 0.61 Gini Coefficient), there is aneed for better understanding of how such diversity influences business ethics. Moreover, incontrast to the focus of recent studies on business ethics among managers in China, this study
focuses on the ethics of workers, an important factor in the decision-making process of foreign
investors.

Literature Review
In recent decades, business ethics has become a major concern in academic, business,government, and public discourse. With globalization and the enormous growth of information havecome greater opportunities both for doing business transnationally and for ethical abuses. In the
1990s, for example, scandals around the world involving financial mismanagement, sexual
harassment, discrimination, and excessive executive pay resulted in demands from governments andcitizens for improved ethical standards (Ferrell & Ferrell, 2009, pp. 14-15). Clearly, the rapid
growth of business both geographically and electronically requires change and adaptation if
business ethics is to remain relevant (DeGeorge, 2005).
International business ethics is complicated by an array of difficult challenges, such as thediversity of customs and traditions underlying ethical values and the absence of an international
consensus about what constitutes ethical behavior. What might be called “ethical ethnocentrism”
also works against the development of an international consensus. Khera (2001), for example, hasnoted that too often the West creates stereotypes about corrupt government and business practices inthe developing world while ignoring the corruption at home. In particular, China has become thefocus of a great number of business ethics studies. This focus is due in part to its rapid economic
growth and huge increase in Foreign Direct Investment, or FDI. Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development figures for 2012 show that China received the largest share of total
2

FDI inflows (18%) at USD$253 billion (OECD, 2013). Investors are therefore understandably
concerned about reports in the international press of scandals and unethical actions in China, suchas bribery, the infiltration of the Communist party by gangsters, and mistreatment of employees, allof these evils exacerbated by fear among Party leaders that any effective effort to reduce corruption
might endanger the regime itself (MacFarquhar, 2013; Runnels and Burton, 2012; Krueger, 2009;
Barboza, 2009; Moore, 2009; Santoro, 2009; Fox, Donohue, & Wu, 2005). Some commentators(e.g., Chen & Chen, 2005; Barboza, 2005) have found the source of unethical behavior in weaklegal, accounting, and risk management systems or in mistrust between owners and non-family
managers. Moreover, despite hundreds of regulations and rules prohibiting corruption, thegovernment seems unable or unwilling to enforce them even as some government officials devise
ever more creative methods to cheat and steal (Barboza, 2009). Ip (2009a) describes a massive andsystematic failure of business in China that has adversely impacted the environment, labor rights,
and product safety in a free-for-all culture of profit where private gain trumps service to the nation.
In the years 2004 to 2007, for example, there were a number of notorious product, food, and drug
safety scandals in China, including the recall of millions of toxic toys, exports of contaminatedtoothpaste and pet food, and the sale of sub-standard antibiotics that killed 11 people (p. 213).
The response to unethical business practices in China has been an outpouring of studies byboth Chinese and foreign researchers. Some researchers call for a more nuanced view of businessethics in China (and in the East generally), one that does not generalize from incidents of corruption(serious and widespread as they may be) to the entire nation (Chan, Ip, & Lam, 2009; Khera, 2001).
Many recent studies (e.g., Lu & Enderle, 2006) focus on the impact -- for good or ill -- of thecultural characteristics and ethical resources available to China, such as Confucianism, Buddhism,socialist ethics, and foreign businesses and cultures. Feldman (2013), has argued that the emphasis
on guanzi (reciprocal relationships, mutual dependence) leads the Chinese to “focus on the social
whole” and therefore to “feel fewer moral obligations outside their primary groups” (pp. 14, 15).
This Chinese focus on the welfare of the collective is often misinterpreted by Westerners, with their3philosophical grounding in individual rights, as unethical. Feldman also noted that the inseparabilityof politics and culture in China creates huge problems and costs for foreign business people, whoface not only daunting cultural differences but also “a political situation in which it is unclear who
is in charge, the line between business and politics is murky at best, and the reasons behind actions
and changes are often not the reasons given” (p. 5). This “labyrinth of political intrigue,” asFeldman put it, requires foreign businesses to rely on middlemen, familiar figures in Chinese history,
who perform a wide variety of routine tasks, such as translation, interpretation, and negotiating withother businesses and officials. But the essential function of middlemen has been paying bribes (pp.
8, 20).
Like Feldman, Enderle (2006), found that guanzi in government-business dealings
undermines transparency and increases public distrust of government, but Enderle has also claimed
that Confucian ethics advocating virtue and socialist ethics supporting social stability should beseen as assets rather than liabilities. Provis (2004 and 2008) likewise argued that tensions exist
between Western emphasis on competition and the marketplace on one hand and the reciprocal,
trust-based relationships of guanzi on the other, but he argues further that these tensions require arecognition that both traditions have moral weight. Irwin (2012, p.19) recognized that such culturalcharacteristics as guanzi and mianzi (face, pride, or self-respect) are often seen by foreigners assources of unethical behavior, but he points out that these traditional values can contribute in apositive way to business through appropriate guidance and training programs. Likewise, according
to Irwin, the reluctance of Chinese to report unethical behavior, a legacy of the Cultural Revolution
with its public self-criticism regimen, can be refashioned for employees to be understood in a waythat complements Confucian values of care for one’s family or fellow employees (p. 16). Ralston,Yu, Wang, Terpstra, and He (1996) have pointed out that Western managers’ ideas about ethicalbehavior may conflict with such Chinese cultural preferences as loyalty to family or group. The
belief that one should put the welfare of such groups first can lead to hiring decisions based ongroup loyalty rather than ability. Rarick (2009) found a solid grounding for modern Chinese4

business ethics not only in the Confucian emphasis on relationships and social propriety but also insuch significant historical antecedents as Mencius, who linked virtue and power, and Laozi, who
identified harmony and balance as the source of good relationships among people. Ip (2009b), on
the other hand, has argued that recent emphasis on the “Confucian firm” glosses over thedisharmonies between the norm of human rights and the paternalism, collectivism, and hierarchismof Confucianism.
The rich and varied outpouring of research in recent years on business ethics in China has
mostly focused on major scandals, large transnational corporations, and the tensions or parallels
between Western and Chinese ideas about business ethics. Few studies have taken into account theenormous diversity of China, where more than fifty ethnic minorities inhabit a nation dominated by
the Han majority, a majority that itself includes eight different languages. Moreover, multi-regional
studies of business ethics in China have typically focused mainly on managers, whereas thisresearch deals with workers generally. For example, using Individualism, Openness-to-Change,
Self-Enhancement, and Confucianism as dependent variables, Ralston et al. (1996) surveyed 704
managers from state-run enterprises in the six regions of China to assess how compatible managers’
work values were with Western values. Perhaps unsurprisingly the researchers found that“cosmopolitan” Chinese managers (defined as managers from large, coastal cities) tended to be
more individualistic, more tolerant of ambiguity, more globally oriented, and open to Western ways
than their inland peers. The study arrives at no conclusions about the state of business ethics in
China. Similarly, Wright, Szeto, and Lee (2003) provided a business ethics survey to Chinese
professionals (n = 403) enrolled in a management development program in mainland China. The
researchers concluded that the best hope for improved business ethics in China lies with smaller
companies, which have more to lose from corruption. Overall, however, their results showed a highlevel of moral confusion and “a lack of core values” (pp. 185, 186). Again, however, the subjects
are managers and represent a very narrow segment of the business community in China
More broadly, Redfern and Crawford (2010) also chose as subjects native managers
5(n = 211) in China from 21 different provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities. A 13-item
questionnaire measured subjects’ “general level of exposure to, and adoption of, aspects of a more‘Westernised’ lifestyle,” such as English-language skills and the level of subjects’ interest inWestern movies, television, fashion, food, and travel outside China. Subjects were also asked about
the number of their Western acquaintances (p. 223). In addition, subjects read a set of “vignettes”
and evaluated each in terms right and wrong. Vignettes included issues such as bribery, nepotism,
environmental pollution, and whistleblowing in businesses. Outcomes showed that modernizationand Western lifestyle among Chinese managers resulted in values and behaviors that “converge
toward those consistent with the more modernised and advanced Western economies” (231). One
could argue, however, that involvement in material aspects of a Westernized lifestyle can be quite
superficial while the number of Chinese who have any significant contact with Westerners isextremely low, even at the managerial level. In contrast, this study focuses on the business ethics ofa more diverse group in China -- workers -- and does not require any extraneous measure ofWestern influence. Instead, and in order to better understand attitudes among workers aboutbusiness ethics in different regions of China, this paper analyzes responses to questions about ethics
from a face-to-face survey in six major cities across China.

Methods
To investigate business-ethics differences among major Chinese cities, the study utilized
data from Osaka University’s Preference and Parameter Study for 2011/2012. The study conducted
face-to-face interviews with individuals and households in six major cities - Beijing, Shanghai,
Guangzhou, Chengdu, Wuhan, and Shenyang - from December 23, 2011 to January 21, 2012. The
target respondents were adults aged 19 to 70 years old. Employing a multistage sampling andallocation method, the study set the predicted numbers of responses based on the target populationin each district as defined in the Statistical Yearbook. Then, the study randomly selected an area ineach district. Finally, using the Kish Grid method, the study chose the interviewees from the6

families. From the data set, this study selected the 644 subjects who had jobs and no missing
answers.
The key statements (i.e., dependent variables) about basic business requirements used tomeasure business ethics are indicated in Table 1: manner (cut-in), commitment, punctuality, andreciprocity. The respondents were asked to pick one response on a scale from one to five. The
original questionnaire set the answers from 1, “particularly true for me,” to 5, “doesn’t hold true at
all for me.” However, the current research reversed the scale, making it easier to comprehend ethics
levels.
Table 1: Variable Definitions
Variable(Dependent)(1) manner(2) commitment(3) punctuality(4) reciprocity

Description
I never cut into a line of people (1 =Doesn’t hold true at all for me, 2, 3, 4, 5 = Particularly
true for me)
I always keep my promise (1 =Doesn’t hold true at all for me, 2, 3, 4, 5 = Particularly true forme)
I am never late for appointments/deadlines (1 =Doesn’t hold true at all for me, 2, 3, 4, 5 =Particularly true for me)
If someone does me a favor, I am prepared to return it (1 =Doesn’t hold true at all for me, 2, 3,
4, 5 = Particularly true for me)(Independent)male

1= male, 0 = female

age
spouseAge
1=married, 0=otherwise

educYears of Educationcompany
selffamilyofficial (base)pubcompany

Employee of private company
Self-employed
Employed by family business
Public official
Employee of public company

farmfishmining

1= Primary sector of the economy, 0=otherwise

manufac

1 = Secondary sector of the economy, 0=otherwise

service (base)

1 = Tertiary sector of the economy, 0=otherwise

e300abovemsalarybeijing (base)shanghaiguangzhou
chengduwuhan
shenyang

1= more than 300 employees, 0=otherwise
Monthly salary
1=Beijing, 0=otherwise
1=Shanghai, 0=otherwise
1=Guangzhou, 0=otherwise
1=Chengdu, 0=otherwise
1=Wuhan, 0=otherwise
1=Shenyang, 0=otherwise

Results
The subjects’ responses provide answers to two important questions in this study. First, is7the level of business ethics among Chinese workers high, compared with other countries? The
above-mentioned Preference and Parameter Study for 2011/2012 asked the same business ethics
questions in the United States and Japan. Figure 1 presents the results of the current study, alongwith the 2011/2012 study results. Chinese business ethics appear to be low in each of the four
categories compared to the United States and Japan; the score for reciprocity in China wasparticularly low.

Figure 1: The average scores of business ethics questions by country
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1

China
Japan
USA

Second, are there regional differences in business ethics? Figure 2 shows the results by city. Thereappear to be considerable regional differences in that each city has different strengths andweaknesses. Workers in Shanghai, for example, consistently score at or near the top of the scale inall categories while in Wuhan and Shenyang workers have similar ethical profiles in all categories
except reciprocity.

8Figure 2: Business Ethics by City
5
4.5
4

Beijing

3.5

Shanghai

3

Guangzhou
Chengdu

2.5

Wuhan

2

Shenyang

1.5
1mannercommitment punctuality reciprocity

To investigate what matters in business ethics in China, the study needed to control various factors,
including basics such as age, gender, and education, as well as individual work style and the industry in which the
respondents worked. Table 1 presents the dependent variables of manner, commitment, punctuality, andreciprocity (including a description of each) and the independent variables.
The descriptive statistics are indicated in Table 2. The average age of the observed subjects, about halfof whom were male, was 37.61, and the average education (educ) was 11.84, which is almost equivalent to being ahigh-school graduate. Nearly 80 percent of the subjects were married. The average monthly salary (msalary) was
3,609 CNY, whereas the national average is about 2,000 CNY (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2012). The
fact that the study collected the data only from major cities may explain the difference.

9

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics
Variable(Dependent)(1) manner(2) commitment(3) punctuality(4) reciprocity(Independent)
male
age
spouseeduccompany
selffamilyofficial (base)pubcompany
farmfishming
manufacservice (base)e300abovemsalarybeijing (base)shanghaiguangzhou
chengduwuhan
shenyang

Mean

Sd.

Min

Max

3.69
3.71
3.64
2.21

0.857
0.81
0.82
1.59

1
1
1
1

5
5
5
5

0.55
37.61
0.78
11.84
0.27
0.13
0.14
0.28
0.17
0.03
0.24
0.73
0.86
3,609.32
0.16
0.19
0.14
0.19
0.16
0.16

0.50
11.27
0.42
2.83
0.45
0.34
0.35
0.45
0.38
0.17
0.43
0.44
0.35
2,528.24
0.37
0.39
0.35
0.39
0.37
0.37

0
19
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
800
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
68
1
16
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
30,0001
1
1
1
1
1The estimation results are shown in Table 3. In model 1 (manner), age appears to influence manner
negatively, whereas the spouse variable appears to affect it very positively. In terms of the city comparison, theworkers in Shanghai seem to have a better manner, compared to the workers in the capital, Beijing. In model 2(commitment), male, spouse, educ, and msalary serve as positive factors. As for the city comparison in the model,
Shanghai, Chengdu, and Shenyang provide more positive results than the capital Beijing. In model 3 (punctuality),
the factors of age, company, pubcompany, and e300above appear to be negative; the subjects in Shanghai,
Chengdu, Wuhan, and Shenyang perceive punctuality as an important ethical value more often than those in thecapital Beijing. In model 4 (reciprocity), no significant factors are found, but the subjects in Chengdu are
generally less likely to value it than those in the capital Beijing.

10

Table 3: Estimation Results
Model (1)manner(ordered probit)

Model (2)commitment(ordered probit)

Model (3)punctuality(ordered probit)

Model (4)reciprocity(ordered probit)

male

0.117
(1.32)

0.190**(2.12)

0.103(1.15)

0.000856(0.01)

age-0.0124***(-2.58)-0.0000177(-0.00)-0.0108**(-2.24)0.000844(0.16)

spouse0.456***(3.90)

0.236**(2.02)

0.178(1.52)

0.0649(0.51)

educ0.0243(1.44)

0.0289*(1.71)-0.000330(-0.02)0.00553(0.30)

company-0.170(-1.41)-0.135(-1.11)-0.216*(-1.78)-0.0574(-0.44)

self

0.0427(0.29)-0.0202(-0.14)-0.0422(-0.29)-0.109(-0.68)family0.0787(0.55)-0.00865(-0.06)-0.180(-1.25)0.159(1.04)

pubcompany

0.164(1.05)-0.177(-1.13)-0.365**(-2.32)-0.253(-1.49)fishfirm-0.378(-1.48)-0.183(-0.71)-0.133(-0.52)0.00620(0.02)

manufac0.0341(0.29)

0.0528(0.45)

0.0937(0.80)-0.126(-0.99)e300above

0.0781(0.60)

0.0438(0.34)-0.278**(-2.12)-0.0319(-0.23)msalary

0.0000292(1.58)

0.0000338*(1.78)-0.0000156(-0.85)-0.0000235(-1.13)shanghai

0.391**(2.57)

0.258*(1.70)

0.543***(3.57)-0.265(-1.62)

guangzhou-0.218(-1.37)-0.120(-0.75)0.0905(0.57)-0.0293(-0.17)chengdu0.120(0.81)

0.292**(1.97)

0.344**(2.32)-0.381**(-2.39)wuhan-0.155(-1.01)0.138(0.89)

0.542***(3.49)

0.0936(0.57)

shenyang

0.0557(0.37)

0.274*(1.80)

0.615***(4.02)

0.0582(0.37)-2.188***(-5.56)-1.944***(-4.63)-2.864***(-7.23)-0.0960(-0.26)-0.980***(-2.77)-0.638*(-1.80)-1.735***(-4.84)0.448(1.19)

0.141(0.40)

0.523(1.48)-0.555(-1.57)

0.632*(1.68)

1.492***(4.20)
644
0.03

1.937***(5.40)
644
0.02

0.910**(2.57)
644
0.03

0.654*(1.74)
644
0.02

cut1
_cons
cut2
_cons
cut3
_cons
cut4
_cons

N
Pseudo R2
t statistics in parentheses*
p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01

11

Conclusion
With the rapid increase in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in China, investors need current
information about business ethics in China in order to make informed decisions. Accordingly, thisstudy investigated business ethics in China using data collected from face-to-face interviews with Chinese
workers aged 19 to 70 years old in six major cities -- Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Chengdu, Wuhan,
and Shenyang.
There are considerable regional differences in the six cities where interviews wereconducted, and, as might have been expected given the history and diversity of China, each city has
different strengths and weaknesses. Subjects in Shanghai and Guangzhou scored highest and lowest
respectively in manner. The highest scores in the commitment model were nearly the same inShanghai, Chengdu, Wuhan, and Shenyang while Beijing and Guangzhou had similar, lower results.
Punctuality was lowest in Beijing while Shanghai, Wuhan, and Shenyang provided nearly identicalhigher scores. Reciprocity in all cases provided generally lower scores than the other dependent
variables with Shenyang at the top and Wuhan at the bottom of the range.
In terms of differences among the subjects by factor, manner was negatively impacted byage but spouse was significantly positive. The impact of factors in the commitment model was
noticeably positive in male, spouse, educ, and msalary. Punctuality was negatively impacted by age,company, pubcompany, and e300above. Finally, no factor significantly impacted reciprocity either
positively or negatively.
As foreign investments seems likely to continue to expand for the foreseeable future,
further research is required to expand the scope of our understanding of business ethics in China tomore cities and regions.

12References
Barboza, D. (2005, March 22). Wave of Corruption Tarnishes China's Extraordinary . The New YorkTimes. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/22/business/worldbusiness/22
corrupt.html?_r=0
Barboza, D. (2009, September 4). Politics permeates anti-corruption drive in China. The New YorkTimes. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/04/business/global/04corrupt.html
Chan, A., Ip, P.-K., & Lam, L. (2009). Business ethics in greater China: An introduction. Journal ofBusiness Ethics88(1), 1–9. doi:10.1007/s10551-008-9834-9
Chen, R., & Chen, C. (2005). Chinese professional managers and the issue of ethical behaviour.
Ivey Business Journal (May/June). Retrieved from http://iveybusinessjournal.com/
topics/global-business/chinese-professional-managers-and-the-issue-of-ethical-behaviour#.U
wHXjM55wVA
DeGeorge, R. (2005). A history of business ethics. Paper presented at the Accountable Corporation:
3rd biennial global business ethics conference sponsored by the Markkula Center for Applied
Ethics at Santa Clara University. Retrieved from http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/ business/conference/presentations/business-ethics-history.html
Enderle, G. (2006). China, business ethics in. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management. In C. L.
Cooper (Ed.), Blackwell Reference Online. Retrieved from http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode.html?id=g9780631233176_chunk_g97814051001376_ss1-8
Feldman, S. P. (2013). Trouble in the middle: American-Chinese business relations, culture, conflict,and ethics. New York: Routledge.
Ferrell, O.C. & Ferrell, L. (2009) Historical developments of business ethics: Then to now. In G.
Svensson & G. Wood (Eds.) Business ethics through time and across contexts. Lund, Sweden:
Studentlitteratur Publishing.
Fox J. B., Donohue, J. M., & Wu, J. (2005, February). Beyond the image of foreign direct
investment in China: Where ethics meets public relations. Journal of Business Ethics, 56(4),317-324. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25123438
Ip, P.-K. (2009a). The challenge of developing a business ethics in China. Journal of Business
Ethics, 88(1), 211-224. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-9820-2
13Ip, P.-K. (2009b). Is Confucianism good for business ethics in China? Journal of Business Ethics,
88(3), 463-476. doi: 10.1007/s10551-009-0120-2
Irwin, J. (2012, July). Doing business in China: An overview of ethical aspects. Institute of Business
Ethics. Occasional Paper 6: Institute of Business Ethics, London. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ibe.org.uk/userfiles/chinaop.pdf
Khera, I. P. (2001, March). Business ethics East vs. West: Myths and realities. Journal of Business
Ethics, 30(1), 29-39. Special Issue on International Management. Available from http://www.
jstor.org/stable/25074478
Krueger, D. A. (2009). Ethical reflections on the opportunities and challenges for international
business in China. Journal of Business Ethics, 89, 145-156. doi: 10.1007/s10551-010-0372-x
Lu , X., & Enderle, G. (Eds.). (2006). Developing business ethics in china. New York, NY: Palgrave
Macmillan.
MacFarquhar, R. (2013, April 11). Tackling graft should be China’s priority. Financial Times.
Retrieved from http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/4086d9ee-a13b-11e2-990c-00144
feabdc0.html#axzz2UZ9x3Efq
Moore, M. (2009, October 17). China corruption trial exposes capital of graft. The Telegraph.
Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/6357024/Chinacorruption-trial-exposes-capital-of-graft.html
National Bureau of Statistics of China. 2012. China Populations & Employment Statistics Yearbook
2012. China Statistics Press, Beijing.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2013 April). FDI in figures. Retrieved
from www.oecd.org/daf/inv/FDI%20in%20figures.pdf
Provis, C. (2004, June). Guanxi, relationships and ethícs. Australian Journal of Professional andApplied Ethics, 6(1), 47-57. Retrieved from http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/Staff/Chris
Provis/Guanxi-AJPAE.pdf
Provis, C. (2008, April-May). Guanxi and conflicts of interest. Journal of Business Ethics, 79(1-2),
57-68. doi: 10.1007/s10551-007-9394-4
14

Ralston, D. A., Yu, K-C., Wang, X., Terpstra, R. H., & He, W. (1996). The cosmopolitan Chinese
manager: Findings of a study on managerial values across the six regions of China. Journal ofInternational Management, 2(2): 79–109. Retrieved from http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/R/David.
A.Ralston-1/13.pdf
Rarick, C. A. (2009). Historical antecedents of Chinese business ethics. Journal of Management
Research, 1(1), 1-9. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jmr.v1i1.34
Redfern, K. & Crawford, J. (2010, June). Regional differences in business ethics in the People’s
Republic of China: A multi-dimensional approach to the effects of modernisation. Asia
Pacific Journal of Management, 27(2), 215-235. doi: 10.1007/s10490-008-9097-0
Runnels, M. B. & Burton, A. M. (2012). The foreign corrupt practices act and new governance:
Incentivizing ethical foreign direct investment in China and other emerging economies,
Cardozo Law Review, 34(1), 295-327. Retrieved from http://cardozolawreview.com/content/
34-1/Runnels.Burton.34.1.pdf
Santoro, M. A. (2009). China 2020: How western business can -- and should -- influence social andpolitical change in the coming decade. Ithaca and London: Cornell.
Wright, P. C., Szeto, W. F., & Lee, S. K. (2003). Ethical perceptions in China: the reality of businessethics in an international context. Management Decision, 41(2), 180-189. doi:10.1108/
00251740310457623

15