(updated 27 February 2015)

Table 2: Summary of WHO Position Papers - Recommended Routine Immunizations for Children
AntigenAge of 1st Dose

Doses inPrimary
SeriesInterval Between Doses
1st to 2nd

2

nd

to 3

rd

3

rd

to 4

Booster DosethConsiderations(see footnotes for details)

Recommendations for all children
As soon as possible after
birth

1

Option 1

As soon as possible after
birth (<24h)

3

4 weeks (min) with
DTP1

4 weeks (min) with
DTP3

Option 2

As soon as possible after
birth (<24h)

44 weeks (min) with
DTP1

4 weeks (min) withDTP2

OPV + IPV

6 weeks(see footnote for birth dose)

4 weeks (min) withDTP2

4 weeks (min) with
DTP3

IPV / OPV
Sequential

8 weeks (IPV 1st)

1-2 IPV
2 OPV

4-8 weeks

4-8 weeks

8 weeks

3

4-8 weeks

4-8 weeks(see footnote)

IPV booster needed for early schedule(i.e. first dose given <8 weeks)

6 weeks (min)3

4 weeks (min) - 8
weeks

4 weeks (min) - 8
weeks

1-6 years ofage(see footnote)

Delayed/ interrupted schedule
Combination vaccine

3

4 weeks (min) withDTP2

4 weeks (min) with
DTP3

(see footnote)

2-3

8 weeks (min) if only 2 doses
4 weeks (min) if 3 doses

4 weeks (min) if 3
doses

At least 6months (min)after last dose

4 weeks(see footnote)

BCG 1

Hepatitis B 2

Polio 3

IPV

DTP 4

Haemophilus
influenzae
type b 5

Option 1

Option 2

6 weeks (min)59 months (max)4(IPV dose to
be given with
OPV dose from
14 weeks)

Exceptions HIV

Option 1

6 weeks (min)3

4 weeks (min)Option 2

6 weeks (min)2

8 weeks (min)Rotarix

6 weeks (min) with DTP1

2

4 weeks (min) with
DTP2

Rota Teq

6 weeks (min) with DTP1

3

4 weeks (min) - 10
weeks with DTP2

Measles 8

9 or 12 months(6 months min, seefootnote)

2

4 weeks (min)(see footnote)

Rubella 99 or 12 months withmeasles containing vaccine1

HPV 10As soon as possible from 9
years of age(females only)

Pneumococcal(Conjugate) 6

Rotavirus 7

2Premature and low birth weight
Co-administration and combination
vaccineHigh risk groups

4 weeks (min),with
DTP3

OPV birth doseTransmission and importation risk
criteria
4-8 weeks9-15 months

Single dose if >12 months of age
Not recommended for children > 5 yrs
Delayed/ interrupted schedule
Co-administration and combination
vaccineVaccine options
Initiate before 6 months of age
Co-administration
HIV+ and preterm neonates booster
Vaccine options
Not recommended if > 24 months old

4 weeks (min) with
DTP3
Combination vaccine; HIV early
vaccination; Pregnancy
Achieve and sustain 80% coverage
Combination vaccine and Coadministration; Pregnancy

6 months (min 5
months)Target 9-13 year old girls
Pregnancy
Older age ≥ 15 years 3 doses
HIV and immunocompromised

Refer to http://www.who.int/immunization/documents/positionpapers/ for table & position paper updates.
This table summarizes the WHO vaccination recommendations for children.The ages/intervals cited are for the development of country specific schedules and are not for health workers.
National schedules should be based on local epidemiologic, programmatic, resource & policy considerations. While vaccines are universally recommended, some children may have contraindications to particular vaccines.

P.1 / 9(updated 27

Table 2: Summary of WHO Position Papers - Recommended Routine Immunizations for Children February 2015)
AntigenAge of 1st Dose

Doses inPrimary
SeriesInterval Between Doses
1st to 2nd

2

nd

to 3

rd

3

rd

to 4

Booster DosethConsiderations(see footnotes for details)

Recommendations for children residing in certain regions
Inactivated
Vero cellderived
vaccine6 month2
generallyLive
attentuated

8 months

1

Live
recombinantvaccine9 months

1

Yellow Fever 129-12 months with measles
containing vaccine

1

Tick-Borne Encephalitis 13≥ 1 yr FSME-Immun andEncepur≥ 3 yrs TBE_Moscow and
EnceVir

Japanese
Encephalitis 11

3

4 weeks (generally)
Vaccine options and manufacturer’s
recommendations; Pregnancy;
Immunocompromised

1-3 months FSME-Immun
and Encepur
1-7 months TBE-Moscow
and EnceVir

5-12 months FSME-Immun
and Encepur
12 months TBE-Moscow
and EnceVir

At least 1
Every 3 years(see notes)

Definition of high-risk
Vaccine options
Timing of booster

Every 3 years

Definition of high risk

Every 3-7 years

Definition of high risk

Recommendations for children in some high-risk populations
Typhoid 14

Cholera 15

Vi PS

2 years (min)

1

Ty21a

Capsules 5 years (min) (seefootnote)

3 or 4 (seefootnote)

Dukoral (WCrBS)

2 years (min)3 (2-5years)
2 (≥6years)

Shanchol and
mORCVAX

1 year (min)2

9-18 months (5µg)

12-11 months

2≥12 months

19-23 months

2≥2 years

1

1 yearAt least 1

As required

3

MenA
conjugate

Meningococcal 16

MenC
conjugate
Quadrivalent
conjugate

Hepatitis A 17
Rabies 18

1 day

1 day

≥ 7 days (min) < 6≥ 7 days (min) < 6

weeks (max)weeks (max)

14 days

1 day

Every 6 months
Every 2 years

Minimum age
Definition of high risk

After 2 years
Definition of high risk; Vaccine
options; 2 doses if < 9 months with 8
week interval

8 weeks

After 1 year

12 weeks

Definition of high risk; Vaccine
options
Definition of high risk; Vaccine
options
Level of endemicity; Vaccine options;Definition of high risk groups

7 days14-21 days

(see footnote)

Definition of high risk, booster

Recommendations for children receiving vaccinations from immunization programmes with certain characteristics
12-18 months with measles
containing vaccine

2

1 month (min) toschool entry

Seasonal influenza(inactivated tri- and qudrivalent) 20

6 months (min)2 ( <9years)
1(≥9
years)

4 weeks

Varicella21

12-18 months

1-2

4 weeks to 3 months
per manufacturer
recommendations

Mumps 19

Coverage criteria > 80%; Combo
vaccine
Revaccinate
annually: 1
dose only (seefootnotes)

Priority risk groups, especiallypregnant women
Lower dosage for children 6-35
monthsAchieve & sustain ≥ 80% coverage
Pregnancy
P.2 / 9Co-admin with other live vaccinesSummary Table 2 - Notes••

Refer to http://www.who.int/immunization/documents/positionpapers/ for the most recent
version of the tables and position papers.

•

The attached table summarizes the recommendations for vaccine administration found in the
WHO position papers which are published in the Weekly Epidemiological Review. Its purpose is
to assist planners to develop an appropriate immunization schedule. Health care workers shouldrefer to their national immunization schedules. While vaccines are universally recommended,some children may have contraindications to particular vaccines.

•

Vaccines can generally be co-administered (i.e. more than one vaccine given at different
sites during the same visit). Recommendations that explicitly endorse co-administration are
indicated in the table, however, lack of an explicit co-administration recommendation does
not imply that the vaccine cannot be co-administered; further, there are no recommendations
against co-administration.

•

Doses administered by campaign may or may not contribute to a child’s routine immunization
schedule depending on type and purpose of campaign (e.g. supplemental versus routine/pulse
campaign for access reasons).

•

For some antigens, recommendations for the age of initiation of primary immunization series
and/or booster doses are not available. Instead, the criteria for age at first dose must be
determined from local epidemiologic data.

•

If a catch-up schedule for interrupted immunization is available, it is noted in the footnotes.

•

Other vaccines, such as varicella and pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines, may be ofindividual benefit but have not been generally recommended for routine immunization. See thespecific position papers for more details.

•

For further background on immunization schedules refer to “Immunological Basis for
Immunization” series which is available at http://www.who.int/immunization/documents/
immunological_basis_series/en/index.html

1

BCG

3

•

Additional target groups for vaccination include people with risk factors for acquiring HBV
infection, such as those who frequently require blood or blood products, dialysis patients,
recipients of solid organ transplantations, people interned in prisons, injecting drug users,
household and sexual contacts of people with chronic HBV infection, people with multiple sexual
partners, as well as health-care workers and others who may be exposed to blood and blood
products through their work.

Polio
Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2014, 89: 73-92) [pdf 836kb]

OPV plus IPV•

WHO no longer recommends an OPV-only vaccination schedule. For all countries currently using
OPV only, at least 1 dose of IPV should be added to the schedule.

•

In polio-endemic countries and in countries at high risk for importation and subsequent spread,
WHO recommends an OPV birth dose (a zero dose) followed by a primary series of 3 OPV andat least 1 IPV doses.

•

The birth dose of OPV should be administered at birth, or as soon as possible after birth, tomaximize the seroconversion rates with subsequent doses and to induce mucosal protection.

•

The primary series consisting of 3 OPV doses plus 1 IPV dose can be initiated from the ageof 6 weeks with a minimum interval of 4 weeks between the OPV doses. If 1 dose of IPV isused, it should be given from 14 weeks of age (when maternal antibodies have diminished andimmunogenicity is significantly higher) and can be co-administered with an OPV dose.

•

The primary series can administered according to the regular schedules of national immunization
programmes, for example at 6, 10, and 14 weeks (OPV1, OPV2, OPV3+IPV), or at 2, 4, and 6
months (OPV1, OPV2+IPV, OPV3 or OPV1, OPV2, OPV3+IPV). Both OPV and IPV may be coadministered with other infant vaccines.

•

For infants starting the routine immunization schedule late (age > 3 months) the IPV doseshould be administered at the first immunization contact.

•

As an alternative to the intramuscular injection of a full IPV dose, countries can consider using
a 1/5 fractional doses via the intradermal route, but the programmatic cost and logistical
implications of this option should be considered.

•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2004, 79: 27-38) [pdf 468kb]•

Recommended for children living in countries with a high-disease burden and for high-riskchildren living in countries with low-disease burden. See position paper for details.

•

There is no demonstrated benefit from booster doses of OPV after completion of the recommended
primary series of 3 OPV doses and at least 1 IPV dose.

•

While BCG vaccination is especially important in countries with significant HIV prevalence,children who are HIV positive or unknown HIV status with symptoms consistent with HIV should
not be vaccinated. Reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2007, 82: 193-196) [pdf 167kb]•

The implementation of the new schedule (3 OPV doses + 1 IPV dose) does not replace theneed for supplemental immunization activities (SIAs). Those countries with insufficient routine
immunization coverage that rely on SIAs to increase population immunity should continue to doso until routine immunization improves.

2

Hepatitis B

Sequential IPV–OPV schedule•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2009, 84: 405-420) [pdf 830kb]••

Since perinatal or early postnatal transmission is an important cause of chronic infections
globally, all infants should receive their first dose of hepatitis B vaccine as soon as possible(<24 hours) after birth even in low-endemicity countries.

In countries with high immunization coverage (e.g. 90%–95%) and low importation risk
(neighbouring countries and connections with similarly high immunization coverage) an IPV–OPV sequential schedule can be used when VAPP is a significant concern.

•

The initial administration of 1 or 2 doses of IPV should be followed by ≥2 doses of OPV to ensureboth sufficient levels of protection in the intestinal mucosa and a decrease in the burden of
VAPP.

•

For sequential IPV–OPV schedules, WHO recommends that IPV be given at 2 months of age (e.g.
a 3-dose IPV-OPV-OPV schedule) or at 2 months and 3–4 months of age (e.g. a 4-dose IPVIPV-OPV-OPV schedule) followed by at least 2 doses of OPV. Each of the doses in the primaryseries should be separated by 4–8 weeks depending on the risk of exposure to poliovirus inearly childhood.

••

The primary hepatitis B immunization series conventionally consists of 3 doses of vaccine (1monovalent birth dose followed by 2 monovalent or combined vaccine doses at the time of DTP1
and DTP3 vaccine doses). However, 4 doses may be given for programmatic reasons (e.g. 1
monovalent birth-dose followed by 3 monovalent or combined vaccine doses with DTP vaccine
doses), according to the schedules of national routine immunization programmes.
Premature low birth weight (<2000g) may not respond well to vaccination at birth. However, by
1 month of chronological age, premature infants, regardless of their initial weight or gestational
age at birth, are likely to respond adequately. Therefore, doses given to infants <2000g should
not be counted towards the primary series.

Table 2: Recommended Routine Immunization for Children (updated 27 February 2015)

P.3 / 9

IPV-only schedule•

An IPV-only schedule may be considered in countries with both sustained high immunization
coverage and the lowest risk of both WPV importation and transmission.

•

A primary series of 3 doses of IPV should be administered beginning at 2 months of age.

•

If the primary series begins earlier (e.g. with a 6, 10 and 14-week schedule) then a booster
dose should be given after an interval of ≥6 months (for a 4-dose schedule).

4

DTP (Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis)•

Position paper reference: Diphtheria - Weekly Epid. Record (2006, 81: 24-32) [pdf 214kb];
Tetanus - Weekly Epid. Record (2006, 81: 198-208) [pdf 229kb]; Pertussis - Weekly Epid.
Record (2010, 85: 385-400) [pdf 320kb]•

Recommended for three doses during the first year of life. In areas where pertussis is ofparticular risk to young infants, DTP should be started at 6 weeks with 2 subsequent doses atintervals of 4-8 weeks each. The last dose of the primary series should be completed by theage of 6 months.

•

The use of Hib vaccines should be part of a comprehensive strategy to control pneumonia
including exclusive breastfeeding for six months, hand washing with soap, improved watersupply and sanitation, reduction of household air pollution, and improved case management at
community and health facility levels.

•

WHO recommends that any one of the following Hib immunization schedules may be followed:
3 primary doses without a booster (3p); 2 primary doses plus a booster (2p+1); and 3 primary
doses with a booster (3p+1).

•

Because serious Hib disease occurs most commonly in children aged between 4 months and
18 months, immunization should start from 6 weeks of age, or as early as possible thereafter.

•

The number of primary doses should be set after consideration of the local epidemiology, vaccine
presentation (Hib conjugate monovalent vaccine versus Hib conjugate vaccine in combination
with other antigens) and how this fits into the overall routine immunization schedule.

•

In countries where the peak burden of severe Hib disease occurs in young infants, providing 3
doses of vaccine early in life may confer a greater benefit.

•

In some settings (e.g. where the greatest disease morbidity and mortality occur later, or whererate reductions of disease are not fully sustained after the routine use of Hib vaccine), it might
be advantageous to give a booster dose by following either a 2p+1 or 3p+1 schedule.

•

The duration of immunological protection will be extended in many instances if an additional
booster is given later.

••

Diphtheria booster - to compensate for the loss of natural diphtheria boosting in some areas,childhood boosters should be given. The optimal timing of and number of diphtheria-containing
booster doses should be based on epidemiological surveillance as well as on immunological andprogrammatic considerations.

The interval between doses should be at least 4 weeks if 3 primary doses are given, and at least
8 weeks if 2 primary doses are given. Booster doses should be administered at least six months
after completion of the primary series.

•

Tetanus toxoid containing booster - A childhood tetanus immunization schedule of 5 doses isrecommended. Boosters are ideally administered in early childhood and during adolescencee.g. 12-15 years. Tetanus booster doses may use either DTP or Td vaccines depending on
the child’s age. Td should be used for tetanus and diphtheria booster doses after the age of 7
years.

If the vaccination course has been interrupted, the schedule should be resumed without
repeating the previous dose. Children who start vaccination late, but are aged under 12months, should complete the vaccination schedule (e.g. have 3 primary doses or 2 primary
doses plus a booster).

•

When a first dose is given to a child older than 12 months of age, only one dose is recommended.

•

Hib vaccine is not required for healthy children after 5 years of age.

•

The Hib conjugate vaccine is contraindicated in people with known allergies to any componentof the vaccine. There are no other known contraindications or precautions.

••

Pertussis vaccine: Neo-natal immunization, and vaccination of pregnant women and household
contacts (“cocooning”) against pertussis is not recommended by WHO.

•

Both acellular (aP) and whole cell pertussis (wP) containing vaccines have excellent safety
records, and protection against severe pertussis in infancy and early childhood can be obtainedwith wP or aP vaccine. Changing among or within the wP and aP vaccine groups is unlikely tointerfere with the safety or immunogenicity of these vaccines.

•

Only aP-containing vaccines should be used for vaccination of those >6 years.

•

Pertussis containing booster - A booster dose is recommended for children age 1-6 years,
preferably during the second year of life. The booster should be given > 6 months after the last
primary dose. Completion of this schedule (primary series plus booster) is expected to ensure
protection against pertussis for > 6 years.

•

5

•

Delayed or interrupted DTP series - Children 1-7 years or older who have not previously
been immunized should receive three doses of wP or aP vaccine, with an interval of 2 months
between the first and second dose and an interval of 6-12 months between the second andthird. Children whose vaccination series has been interrupted should have their series resumed,
without repeating previous doses. For unvaccinated individuals 7 years of age and older, Td
combination vaccine can be administered, 2 doses 1-2 months apart and a third dose after 6-12
months can be used with subsequent boosters at least 1 year apart for a total of 5 appropriately
spaced doses to obtain same long term protection. See position paper for details of interrupted
immunization schedules.

Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)
Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2013, 88: 413-428) [pdf 209kb]

6

Pneumococcal (Conjugate)•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2012, 87: 129-143) [pdf 1.04 Mb]•

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) are considered safe in all target groups for vaccination,
also in immunocompromised individuals. The vaccines are not currently licensed for use in age
groups that include women of childbearing age. Although theoretically highly unlikely to beharmful, there is no information on the safety of PCV10 and PCV13 during pregnancy.

•

Except for very rare anaphylactic reactions that may follow the administration of any medicine,
there are no contraindications to the use of these vaccines. However, it is advisable to defer
vaccination until after an acute infection with temperature >39 °C.

•

When injected at different sites, PCVs can be administered concurrently with any other vaccines
in infant immunization programmes.

•

When primary immunization is initiated with one of these vaccines, it is recommended thatremaining doses are administered with the same product. Interchangeability between PCV10
and PCV13 has not yet been documented. However, if it is not possible to complete the series
with the same type of vaccine, the other PCV product should be used.

•

For infants, 3 primary doses (the 3p+0 schedule) or, as an alternative, 2 primary doses plus abooster (the 2p+1 schedule).

•

In choosing between the 3p+0 and 2p+1 schedules, countries should consider locally relevant
factors including the epidemiology of pneumococcal disease, the likely coverage, and theTable 2: Recommended Routine Immunization for Children (updated 27 February 2015)

P.4 / 9timeliness of the vaccine doses.

••

If disease incidence peaks in young infants (<32 weeks of age), a 2p+1 schedule might notoffer optimal individual protection for certain serotypes (e.g. 6B, 23F) compared to a 3p+0
schedule, particularly in the absence of herd protection.

Rotarix is administered orally in a 2-dose schedule at the time of DTP1/penta and DTP2/pentawith an interval of at least 4 weeks between doses.

•

RotaTeq vaccine is administered orally in a 3-dose schedule at the time of DTP1/penta, DTP2,
and DTP3 contacts, with an interval of at least 4 weeks between doses.

•

In contrast, higher antibody levels are induced by the third (booster) dose in a 2p+1 schedulecompared to the third dose in a 3p+0 schedule. This may be important for duration of protection
or effectiveness against some serotypes.

•

Rotavirus vaccinations can be administered simultaneously with other vaccines in the infant
immunization programme.

•

If the 3p+0 schedule is used, vaccination can be initiated as early as 6 weeks of age with aninterval between doses of 4–8 weeks, depending on programmatic convenience.

•

Apart from a low risk of intussusception (about 1-2 per 100 000 infants vaccinated) the current
rotavirus vaccines are considered safe and well tolerated.

•

If the 2p+1 schedule is selected, the 2 primary doses should ideally be completed by six monthsof age, starting as early as 6 weeks of age with a minimum interval of 8 weeks or more between
the two doses (for infants aged ≥7 months a minimum interval of 4 weeks between doses ispossible). One booster dose should be given between 9–15 months of age.

•

Severe allergic reaction (e.g. anaphylaxis) after a previous dose, and severe immunodeficiency
including severe combined immunodeficiency, are contraindications for rotavirus vaccination.

•

Precautions are necessary if there is a history of intussusception or intestinal malformations,chronic gastrointestinal disease, and severe acute illness. Vaccination should be postponed incase of ongoing acute gastroenteritis or fever with moderate to severe illness.

•

The use of rotavirus vaccines should be part of a comprehensive strategy to control diarrhoeal
diseases with the scaling up of both prevention (exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months, vitamin
A supplementation, safe drinking water, hygiene/handwashing with soap, and sanitation) andtreatment (low-osmolarity ORS, zinc and continued feeding).

•

Previously unvaccinated or incompletely vaccinated children (including those who had laboratory
confirmed invasive pneumococcal disease) should be vaccinated using the recommended ageappropriate regimens. Interrupted schedules should be resumed without repeating the previous
dose.

•

HIV-positive infants and pre-term neonates who have received their 3 primary vaccine doses
before reaching 12 months of age may benefit from a booster dose in the second year of life.

•

Catch-up vaccination as part of introduction will accelerate herd protection and therefore thePCV impact on disease and carriage. Maximized protection at the time of introduction of PCV10
or PCV13 can be achieved by providing 2 catch-up dose(s) at an interval of at least 8 weeks tounvaccinated children aged 12–24 months and to children aged 2–5 years who are at high riskof pneumococcal infection.

•

Further data are needed from different epidemiological settings on the impact of large-scale
PCV vaccination of individuals >50 years of age in order to establish the relative priority of
immunization programmes in that age group. However, given the documented effects of herd
protection in adult age groups following routine infant immunization with PCV7, higher priority
should normally be given to introducing and maintaining high coverage of infants with PCVs.

•

The use of pneumococcal vaccine should be seen as complementary to the use of otherpneumonia control measures, such as appropriate case management, promotion of exclusive
breastfeeding for first 6 months of life, and the reduction of known risk factors, such as indoor
pollutants and tobacco smoke.

•

For polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine see position paper: Weekly Epid. Record (2008, 83:
373-384) [pdf 308kb]•

In resource-limited settings where there are many competing health priorities, evidence does
not support routine immunization of the elderly and high-risk populations with PPV23. Also,
because of the low level of evidence for benefit, routine PPV23 vaccination of HIV-infected
adults is not recommended in such settings. In countries that do not routinely administer PPV23
to high-risk populations, data are insufficient to recommend introducing this vaccine to reducethe morbidity and mortality associated with influenza.

7

8

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2009, 84: 349-360) [pdf 724kb]•

Reaching all children with two doses of measles containing vaccine (MCV) should be the standard
for all national immunization programmes.

•

Delivery of the second dose (MCV2) may occur either at a scheduled age through routine
services or periodically through mass campaigns, depending on which strategy achieves thehigher coverage. A MCV2 dose may be added to the routine immunization schedule in countries
that have achieved > 80% coverage of measles first dose (MCV1) at the national level for 3
consecutive years as determined by the most accurate means available (e.g. survey or WHO/
UNICEF estimates). In general, countries that do not meet this criterion should prioritize
improving MCV1 coverage and conducting high-quality follow-up SIAs, rather than adding MCV2
to their routine schedule.

•

In countries with ongoing transmission in which the risk of measles mortality remains high,
MCV1 should be given at age 9 months. MCV2 should be given between 15-18 months, as
providing MCV2 in the 2nd year of life reduces the rate of accumulation of susceptible children
and the risk of an outbreak.

•

In countries with low rates of measles transmission (that is, those that are near elimination) andwhere there is a low risk of measles infection among infants, the first dose may be administeredat age 12 months to take advantage of the higher seroconversion rates achieved at this age(>90% seroconversion). In these countries the optimal age for delivering a routine 2nd dose ofmeasles is based on programmatic considerations that achieve the highest coverage and hence
the highest population immunity. Administration of the second dose at age 15-18 months
ensures early protection of the individual, slows accumulation of susceptible young children
and may correspond with other routine immunizations (for example, DTP booster). If firstdose coverage is high (>90%) and school enrolment is high (>95%), giving the second dose atschool entry may be an effective strategy for achieving high coverage and preventing outbreaks
in schools.

•

Combined vaccines (Measles and Rubella or Measles, Mumps and Rubella) may not be optimalfor use in countries where vaccine coverage for measles vaccine of at least 80% cannot be
achieved or maintained.

•

Measles vaccination should be routinely administered to potentially susceptible, asymptomatic
HIV-positive children and adults. In areas where there is a high incidence of both HIV infection
and measles, MCV1 may be offered as early as age 6 months. Two additional doses of measles

Rotavirus•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2013, 88: 49-64) [pdf 950kb]•

Recommended to be included in all national immunization programmes.

•

Early immunization is favoured with the first dose of rotavirus vaccine to be administered from
6 weeks of age, however, in order to benefit those who may come late infants can receive doses
without age restriction. Because of the typical age distribution of rotavirus gastroenteritis(RVGE), rotavirus vaccination of children >24 months of age is not recommended.

Measles•

Table 2: Recommended Routine Immunization for Children (updated 27 February 2015)

P.5 / 9

vaccine should be administered to these children according to the national immunization
schedule.
•

9

Mild, concurrent infections are not considered a contraindication to vaccination, but it should be
avoided if the patient has a high fever or other signs of serious disease. Theoretically, measles
vaccine - alone or in combination with other vaccines - should also be avoided by pregnant
women. Furthermore, measles vaccination is contraindicated in people who are severely
immunocompromised due to congenital disease; severe HIV infection; advanced leukaemia or
lymphoma, etc.

also adequately protected by 2 doses.
•

There is no maximum recommended interval between doses. However, an interval no greaterthan 12-15 months is suggested in order to complete the schedule promptly and before
becoming sexually active.

•

If the interval between doses is shorter than 5 months, then a third dose should be given atleast 6 months after the first dose.

•

A 3-dose schedule (0, 1–2, 6 months) is recommended for females aged 15 years and older, andfor those know to be immunocompromised and/or HIV-infected (regardless of whether they arereceiving antiretroviral therapy). It is not necessary to screen for HPV infection or HIV infection
prior to HPV vaccination.

•

These schedule recommendations apply to both the bivalent and quadrivalent vaccines.

•

Both HPV vaccines can be co-administered with other live and non-live vaccines using separate
syringes and different injection sites.

•

Data on the safety of HPV vaccination in pregnancy are limited, and HPV vaccination of pregnant
women should be avoided.

•

HPV vaccines should be introduced as part of a coordinated strategy to prevent cervical cancer.

•

HPV vaccination of males is not recommended as a priority, especially in resource-constrained
settings, as the available evidence indicates that the first priority should be for cervical cancer
reduction by timely vaccination of young females and high coverage with each dose.

Rubella•Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2011, 86: 301-316) [pdf 413kb]•

All countries that have not yet introduced rubella vaccine, and are providing 2 doses of measles
vaccine using routine immunization, or SIAs, or both, should consider including rubella containing
vaccines (RCVs) in their immunization programme. Countries planning to introduce RCVs should
review the epidemiology of rubella, including the susceptibility profile of the population; assess
the burden of CRS; and establish rubella and CRS prevention as a public health priority.

•

•

•

•
•

•

•

10

Because rubella is not as highly infectious as measles and because the effectiveness of 1 doseof an RCV is > 95% even at 9 months of age, only 1 dose of rubella vaccine is required toachieve rubella elimination if high coverage is achieved. However, when combined with measles
vaccination, it may be easier to implement a second dose of RCV’s using the same combined MR
vaccine or MMR vaccine for both doses.
There are two general approaches to the use of rubella vaccine: (i) exclusive focus on reducing
CRS by immunizing adolescent girls or women of childbearing age, or both groups, to provide
individual protection; (ii) focus on interrupting transmission of rubella virus and eliminating
rubella and CRS, by introducing rubella vaccination into the routine childhood immunization
schedule combined with the vaccination of older age groups who are susceptible to rubella.
To avoid the potential of an increased risk of CRS, countries should achieve and maintain
immunization coverage of 80% or greater with at least 1 dose of an RCV delivered throughroutine services or regular campaigns, or both.
The first dose of RCV can be delivered at 9 or 12 months depending on the measles vaccination
schedule.

11•

Position paper reference : Weekly Epid. Record (2015, 90: 69-88) [pdf 950 kb].

•

JE vaccination should be integrated into national immunization schedules in all areas where JE
is recognized as a public health priority.

•

The most effective immunization strategy in JE endemic settings is a one-time campaign in the
primary target population, as defined by local epidemiology (typically children aged <15 years),followed by incorporation of JE vaccine into the routine childhood immunization programme.

•

The following vaccine dosing schedules and age of administration are recommended. The needfor a booster dose in endemic settings has not been clearly established for any of the vaccineslisted below:

RCV’s can be administered concurrently with inactivated vaccines. As a general rule, live vaccines
should be given either simultaneously with RCV’s, or at least 4 weeks apart. An exception to thisis oral polio vaccine, which can be given at any time before or after RCV’s without interfering in
the response to either vaccine. Interference may occur between MMR and yellow fever vaccines
if they are simultaneously administered to children < 2 years of age.
Because of a theoretical, but never demonstrated, teratogenic risk rubella vaccination inpregnant women should be avoided in principle, and those planning a pregnancy are advised to
avoid pregnancy for 1 month following vaccination.
Administration of blood or blood products before or shortly after vaccination may interfere withvaccine efficacy. If using only rubella vaccines persons who received blood products should wait
at least 3 months before vaccination and, if possible, blood products should be avoided for up
to 2 weeks postvaccination. Vaccinated persons are not eligible to donate blood for 1 monthafter vaccination

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)•

Position paper reference : Weekly Epid. Record (2014, 89:465-492) [pdf 939kb]•

Recommended target population for the prevention of cervical cancer: females aged 9–13
years, prior to becoming sexually active.

•

A 2-dose schedule with an interval of 6 months between doses is recommended for females
younger than 15 years. Those females who are ≥15 years at the time of the second dose are

Japanese Encephalitis (JE)◦

Inactivated Vero cell-derived vaccine: Primary series according to manufacturer’s
recommendations (these vary by product), generally 2 doses at 4-week intervals starting
the primary series at ≥6 months of age in endemic settings◦

Live attenuated vaccine: Single dose administered at ≥8 months of age◦

Live recombinant vaccine: Single dose administered at ≥9 months of age•

Preferably, inactivated mouse brain-derived vaccines should be replaced by the newer generation
JE vaccines discussed in this position paper. Inactivated mouse brain-derived vaccines may
continue to play a role in combatting JE in some countries, but overall these products havea less favourable safety profile due to their increased reactogenicity compared to newer JE
vaccines. Other disadvantages include the variability of manufacturing, the cost, the higher
number of doses required and the need for boosters.

•

Despite a lack of comprehensive immunogenicity/effectiveness and safety data for all possiblecombinations of JE and other routine vaccines, co-administration for programmatic reasons
seems acceptable, even in the context of mass campaigns.

•

Inactivated JE vaccine can be used in immunocompromised persons including HIV-infectedindividuals, but the immune response may be lower than in fully immunocompetent persons.
Inactivated Vero cell-derived vaccines should be used preferentially over live attenuated or live
recombinant vaccines in immunocompromised persons. HIV testing is not a prerequisite for

Table 2: Recommended Routine Immunization for Children (updated 27 February 2015)

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vaccination.
•

12

If the JE risk is sufficient to warrant vaccination of pregnant women, inactivated Vero cellderived vaccines should be used preferentially over live attenuated or live recombinant vaccines
based on the general precautionary principle against using live vaccines in pregnant women
especially if alternative types of vaccines are available. Pregnancy testing is not a prerequisite
for JE vaccination. Inadvertent administration of live attenuated or live recombinant JE vaccine
to a pregnant woman is not an indication for termination of the pregnancy.

•

Vaccination against the disease requires a primary series of 3 doses; those who will continue tobe at risk should probably have ≥1 booster doses.

•

Within the considerable range of acceptable dose intervals, the relevant national authorities
should select the most rational primary schedule for their national, regional or district
immunization programmes.

•

Although there is a strong indication that the spacing of boosters could be expanded
considerably from the intervals currently recommended by the manufacturers (every 3-5
years), the evidence is still insufficient for a definitive recommendation on the optimal frequency
and number of booster doses. Countries should therefore continue to recommend the useof vaccines in accordance with local disease epidemiology and current schedules until moredefinitive information becomes available.

•

For the vaccines manufactured in Austria and Germany (FSME-Immun and Encepur;) that canbe given starting from > 1year of age an interval of 1–3 months is recommended between thefirst 2 doses, and 5–12 months between the second and third doses. When rapid protection isrequired, for example for people who will be travelling to endemic areas, the interval between
the first 2 doses may be reduced to 1–2 weeks.

Yellow Fever•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2013, 88: 269-284) [pdf 1.24mb]•

WHO recommends that all endemic countries should introduce YF vaccine into their routine
immunization programmes.

•

A single dose of YF vaccine is sufficient to confer sustained life-long protective immunity against
YF disease; a booster dose is not necessary.

•

It is recommended that YF vaccine be given to children at age 9-12 months at the same timeas the measles vaccine.

••

The vaccine is contraindicated in children aged <6 months and is not recommended for those
aged 6-8 months, except during epidemics when the risk of infection with the YF virus is veryhigh. Other contraindications for YF vaccination are severe hyper-sensitivity to egg antigens
and severe immunodeficiency.

With the vaccines manufactured in the Russian Federation (TBE-Moscow and EnceVir) therecommended intervals are 1–7 months between the first 2 doses, and 12 months between thesecond and third doses. Booster doses are recommended every 3 years for those at continued
risk of exposure.

•

The currently recommended booster interval should be maintained until more data have beenobtained on the duration of protection induced by the Russian vaccines.

•

Regardless of the duration of the delay, interrupted schedules should be resumed without
repeating previous doses.

•

Preventive mass vaccination campaigns are recommended for inhabitants of areas at risk of
YF where there is low vaccination coverage. Vaccination should be provided to everyone aged
≥ 9 months, in any area with reported cases. Noting that YF is a live vaccine, a risk-benefit
assessment should be undertaken for all pregnant and lactating women.

•

Vaccine should be offered to all unvaccinated travelers aged ≥ 9 months, travelling to andfrom at-risk areas, unless they belong to the group of individuals for whom YF vaccination iscontraindicated.

•
13

YF vaccine may be administered simultaneously with other vaccines.

Tick-Borne Encephalitis (TBE)•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2011, 86: 241-256) [pdf 318kb]•

Since the incidence of tick-borne encephalitis may vary considerably between and even within
geographical regions, public immunization strategies should be based on risk assessments
conducted at country, regional or district level, and they should be appropriate to the local
endemic situation. Therefore, establishing case reporting of the disease is essential before
deciding on the most appropriate preventive measures to be taken.

•

In areas where the disease is highly endemic (that is, where the average prevaccination
incidence of clinical disease is ≥5 cases/100 000 population per year), implying that there is ahigh individual risk of infection, WHO recommends that vaccination be offered to all age groups,
including children.

•

Because the disease tends to be more serious in individuals aged >50–60 years this age groupconstitutes an important target for immunization.

•

Where the prevaccination incidence of the disease is moderate or low (that is, the annual
average during a 5-year period is <5/100 000) or is limited to particular geographical locations
or certain outdoor activities, immunization should target individuals in the most severely
affected cohorts.

•

People travelling from non-endemic areas to endemic areas should be offered vaccination if
their visits will include extensive outdoor activities.

14

Typhoid•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2008, 83: 49-59) [pdf 297kb]•

Recommended for school-age and/or preschool-age children in areas where typhoid feverin these age groups is shown to be a significant public health problem, particularly where
antibiotic-resistant S. Typhi is prevalent.

•

Vaccine options - Vi polysaccharide typhoid vaccine requires one parenterally administered dose
which may be given after the age of 2 years; the liquid form of Ty21a live oral vaccine (for use
in individuals from the age of 2 years) is no longer available; the capsule form of Ty21a (for use
in individuals from the age of 5 years) requires 3 or 4 orally administered doses. See position
paper for further details.

•

Booster - In most endemic settings, a booster dose of the concerned vaccine 3 to 7 years after
the primary immunization seems appropriate.

15

Cholera•Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2010, 85, 117-128) [pdf 283kb]•

In cholera-endemic countries, vaccinating the entire population is not warranted. Rather,
vaccination should be targeted at high-risk areas and population groups. The primary targets
for cholera vaccination in many endemic areas are preschool-aged and school aged children.
Other groups that are especially vulnerable to severe disease and for which the vaccines are notcontraindicated may also be targeted, such as pregnant women and HIV-infected individuals.
Consider vaccinating older age groups if funding is available.

•

Two types of oral cholera vaccines are available: (i) Dukoral (WC-rBS) and (ii) Sanchol and
mORCVAX. The live attenuated single-dose vaccine (CVD 103-HgR) is no longer produced. The
injectable vaccine is still manufactured in a few countries but its use is not recommended mainly

Table 2: Recommended Routine Immunization for Children (updated 27 February 2015)

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•

•

•

16

17

Dukoral is not licensed for children < 2 years. Children aged 2-5 years should receive 3 doses≥7 days apart (but not more than 6 weeks). Intake of food and drink should be avoided for 1
hour before and after vaccination. If the interval between doses is delayed >6 weeks, primary
vaccination should be restarted. One booster dose is recommended every 6 months, and if theinterval between primary immunization, and the booster is >6 months, primary immunizationmust be restarted.

•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2012, 87: 261-276) [pdf 1.24 Mb]•

Hepatitis A vaccination is recommended for inclusion in the national immunization schedule
for children ≥ 1 year if indicated on the basis of incidence of acute hepatitis A, change in theendemicity from high to intermediate, and consideration of cost-effectiveness.

•

In highly endemic countries almost all persons are asymptomatically infected with HAV inchildhood, which effectively prevents clinical hepatitis A in adolescents and adults. In thesecountries, large-scale vaccination programmes are not recommended.

•

Countries with improving socioeconomic status may rapidly move from high to intermediate
endemicity. In these countries, a relatively large proportion of the adult population is susceptible
to HAV and large-scale hepatitis A vaccination is likely to be cost-effective and therefore isencouraged.

•

For individual health benefit targeted vaccination of high-risk groups should be considered in
low and very low endemicity settings. Those at increased risk of hepatitis A include travelers
to areas of intermediate or high endemicity, those requiring life-long treatment with blood
products, men who have sex with men, workers in contact with non-human primates, andinjection drug users. In addition, patients with chronic liver disease are at increased risk forfulminant hepatitis A and should be vaccinated.

•

Inactivated HAV vaccine is licensed for intramuscular administration in a 2-dose schedule withthe first dose given at the age of 1 year or older. The interval between the first and second
dose is flexible (from 6 months up to 4-5 years) but is usually 6-18 months. Countries may
consider a 1-dose schedule as this option seems comparable in terms of effectiveness, and isless expensive and easier to implement. However, in individuals at substantial risk of contracting
hepatitis A and in immunocompromised individuals, a 2-dose schedule is preferred. Inactivated
HAV vaccines produced by different manufacturers, including combined hepatitis A vaccines,
are interchangeable. Apart from severe allergic reaction to the previous dose, there is nocontraindication to their use. These vaccines can be co-administered simultaneously with otherroutine childhood vaccines, and should be considered for use in pregnant women at definite risk
of HAV infection.

•

Live attenuated HAV vaccine is administered as a single subcutaneous dose to those ≥ 1 yearof age. Severe allergy to components included in the live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine is acontraindication to their use. As a rule, live vaccines should not be used in pregnancy or inseverely immunocompromised patients. There is no information available on co-administrationof live attenuated hepatitis A vaccines with other routinely used vaccines.

•

Vaccination against hepatitis A should be part of a comprehensive plan for the prevention andcontrol of viral hepatitis, including measures to improve hygiene and sanitation and measuresfor outbreak control.

Adults and children ≥6 years should receive 2 doses of Dukoral ≥7 days apart (but not more than
6 weeks). Intake of food and drink should be avoided for 1 hour before and after vaccination.
If the interval between doses is delayed >6 weeks, primary vaccination should be restarted. A
booster dose every 2 years is recommended. If the interval between the primary series andbooster immunization is > 2 years, primary immunization must be repeated.
Shanchol and mORCVAX: two liquid doses orally 14 days apart for individuals ≥1 year.
booster dose is recommended after 2 years.

A

Meningococcal•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2011, 86: 521-540) [pdf 1.1Mb] and Update for
MenA conjugate Weekly Epid Record (2015, 90: 57-68) [pdf 852KB]•

Conjugate vaccines are preferred over polysaccharide vaccines due to their potential for herd
protection and their increased immunogenicity, particularly in children <2 years of age.

•

Both conjugate and polysaccharide vaccines are efficacious and safe when used in pregnant
women.

•MenA conjugate vaccine (5µg) a 1-dose schedule is recommended at 9-18 months of age basedon local programmatic and epidemiologic considerations. The vaccine should be administeredby deep intramuscular injection, preferably in the anterolateral aspect of the thigh. There is no
reason to expect interference when co-administered with other vaccines. The need for a booster
dose has not been established.

•

If in a specific context there is a compelling reason to vaccinate infants younger than 9 months,
a 2-dose schedule should be used starting at 3 months of age, with an interval of at least 8
weeks between doses.

•

For monovalent MenC conjugate vaccine one single intramuscular dose is recommended forchildren aged >12 months, teenagers and adults. Children 2-11 months require 2 doses
administered at an interval of a least 2 months and a booster about 1 year after. If the primaryseries is interrupted, vaccination should be resumed without repeating the previous dose.

•

Hepatitis A

because of its limited efficacy and short duration of protection.

Quadrivalent conjugate vaccines (A,C,W135,Y-D and A,C,W135,Y-CRM) should be administered
as one single intramuscular dose to individuals > 2 years. A,C,W135,Y-D is also licensed forchildren 9-23 months of age, and given as a 2-dose series, 3 months apart beginning at age 9months. If the primary series is interrupted, vaccination should be resumed without repeating
the previous dose.

•

Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines are less, or not, immunogenic in children under 2 yearsof age.

•Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccines can be used for those > 2 years of age to control
outbreaks in countries where limited economic resources or insufficient supply restrict theuse of meningococcal conjugate vaccines. Polysaccharide vaccines should be administered toindividuals > 2 years old as one single dose. One booster 3-5 years after the primary dose may
be given to persons considered to be a continued high risk of exposure, including some healthworkers. See position paper for details.

18

Rabies•Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2010, 85: 309-320) [pdf 370]•

Production and use of nerve-tissue rabies vaccines should be discontinued and replaced withcell-culture-based vaccines (CCVs).

•

Recommended for anyone who will be at continual, frequent or increased risk of exposure to
the rabies virus, either as a result of their residence or occupation. Travellers with extensive
outdoor exposure in rural high-risk areas where immediate access to appropriate medical care
may be limited should also be vaccinated regardless of the duration of stay. Where canine
rabies is a public health problem, WHO encourages studies on the feasibility, cost-effectiveness,and long-term impact of incorporating rabies vaccination into the immunization programme for
infants and children.

•

The series is given by intramuscular or intradermal injection at 0, 7 and 21 or 28 days.

•

Intramuscular administration: For adults and children aged ≥2 years, the vaccine should always

Table 2: Recommended Routine Immunization for Children (updated 27 February 2015)

P.8 / 9be administered in the deltoid area of the arm; for children aged < 2 years, the anterolateralarea of the thigh is recommended. Rabies vaccine should not be administered in the glutealarea, as the induction of an adequate immune response may be less reliable.
•

Booster doses of rabies vaccines are not required for individuals living in or travelling to highrisk areas who have received a complete primary series of pre-exposure or post-exposure
prophylaxis with a cell-culture-based rabies vaccine (CCV).

•

Periodic booster injections are recommended only for people whose occupation puts them atcontinual or frequent risk of exposure. If available, antibody monitoring is preferred to theadministration of routine boosters.

•

Because vaccine-induced immunity persists in most cases for years, a booster is recommended
only if rabies-virus neutralizing antibody titres fall to <0.5 IU/ml.

•

Antibody testing should be done every 6 months for people at risk of laboratory exposure tohigh concentrations of live rabies virus, and every 2 years for professionals who are not at
continual risk of exposure through their activities, such as certain categories of veterinarians
and animal health officers.

19

Mumps

•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2007, 82: 49-60) [pdf 311kb]•

Recommended for use in high performing immunization programs with the capacity to maintaincoverage over 80% and where mumps reduction is a public health priority.

•

If implemented, a combination vaccine of measles, mumps and rubella is recommended.

20•

Depending on the goal of the vaccination programme, 1-2 doses should be given with the firstdose administered at 12-18 months of age. The minimum interval between doses should be as
recommended by the manufacturer, ranging from 4 weeks to 3 months.

•

Countries with a high average age (≥ 15 years) of acquisition of infection could consider
alternative vaccination strategies such as vaccination of adolescents and adults without evidenceof varicella immunity. This strategy requires a 2-dose schedule.

•

Varicella vaccination is contraindicated during pregnancy and pregnancy should be delayed for
4 weeks after vaccination. Termination of pregnancy is not indicated if vaccination was carriedout inadvertently during pregnancy.

•

Varicella vaccine can be administered concomitantly with other vaccines. Unless given together
with other live viral vaccines (measles, MR, MMR), it should be administered at a minimum
interval of 28 days.

•

Countries should consider vaccination of potentially susceptible health-care workers (i.e.
unvaccinated and with no history of varicella) with 2 doses of varicella vaccine.

Seasonal Influenza (Inactivated Vaccine)•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2012, 87: 461-476) [pdf 1.9 Mb]•

For countries considering the initiation or expansion of programmes for seasonal influenza
vaccination, WHO recommends that pregnant women should have the highest priority. Children
aged < 6 months are not eligible to receive currently licensed influenza vaccines and should beprotected against influenza through vaccination of their mothers during pregnancy and throughensuring vaccination of close contacts.

•

Additional risk groups to be considered are children aged 6-59 months, elderly persons ≥ 65
years of age, individuals with specific chronic medical conditions, and health-care workers.
Countries with existing influenza vaccination programmes targeting any of these additionalgroups should continue to do so and should incorporate immunization of pregnant women intosuch programmes.

•

A single dose is appropriate for those ≥ 9 years of age, including pregnant women. Inactivatedinfluenza vaccine is safe to give throughout pregnancy.

•Children aged 6-59 months should receive 2 doses at least 4 weeks apart. Children aged 6-35
months should receive a pediatric dosage.

•

Annual vaccination (or re-vaccination, if the vaccine strains are identical) is recommended.
Previously vaccinated children 6-59 months require only one-dose.

21

making on childhood varicella vaccination should also include consideration of the possible
impact on herpes zoster.

Varicella•

Position paper reference: Weekly Epid. Record (2014, 89: 265-288) [pdf 889kb]•

Countries where varicella is an important public health burden could consider introducing
varicella vaccination in the routine childhood immunization programme. However, resources
should be sufficient to ensure reaching and sustaining vaccine coverage ≥ 80%. Decision-

Table 2: Recommended Routine Immunization for Children (updated 27 February 2015)

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