March 3, 2021

Japan-Russia Interregional Cooperation in
the Arctic and North – Theory and PracticeInternational cooperations in the ArcticFormation, development and challenges
Fujio Ohnishi
Associate Professor, Arctic Research Center, Hokkaido University
fujio.ohnishi@arc.hokudai.ac.jp(https://www.nipr.ac.jp/arcs2/e/)2Arctic Geography

Yamal Peninsula

Cola peninsula

Scandinavia peninsula

International Relations in the Arctic: theoreticalframework (the English School)
NationalInterests

International
Circumstances

3● Bull, Hedley, The AnarchicalSociety: A Study of Order in World
Politics, 3rd edn (New York:
Columbia University Press, 2002● Buzan, Barry, From
International to World
Society? (Cambridge
Primary Institutions University Press, 2004)(war, diplomacy,international law, humanrights, etc.)

Secondary Institutions(individual regimes,organizations, treaties)

CommonInterests,
SharedValues● Ohnishi, Fujio, “The Struggle
for Arctic Regional Order :Developments and Prospectsof Arctic Politics,” Eurasia
Border Review, Volume 5,
No.2, 2014, pp.81-97.

4

Summary of Today’s lectureInternational
Circumstances

NationalInterests

PrimaryInstitution

CommonSecondaryInterests;
Institutions
Shared Values

Zone ofPeace

End of Cold
War
Diversificationof Security
conceptU.S
U.S.S.R
Finland
Canada

Diplomacy

Science
Environment
Sustainable
Development

IASC
AEPS
AC

Geopolitical
Shift

Impacts of
The Arctic
Climate Change Eight,
Non-Arcticstates

Diplomacy,internationallaws

SovereignrightsMarine safety
ScienceBusiness
Fishery

Ilulissat Dec.
UNCLOS,
Polar Code,

N/A

N/A

GlobalCompetition

Competitiveworld(U.S., Chinaand Russia)

Military/Securi N/Aty
Security
dilemma

Arctic treaties,

AEC, ASM,
etc

Zone of Peace - international circumstances
The end of the Cold War
INF Treaty in 1987

5Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989

(Left) Regan and Gorbachev
https://www.dw.com/en/what-is-theinf-nuclear-tre
aty/a-45981536(Right) Range of intermediate-range missiles
https://twitter.com/lukastraki/status/10935713
36901984256

Malta Summit in 1989

http://historylearning.com/modern-world-history/coldwar/malta-summit-1989/

https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/the-fall-of-the-berlin-wall/

Dissolution of the U.S.S.R in1991

https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/fall-soviet-union-in-pictures-1991/

Zone of Peace - international circumstances
Diversiﬁcation of security concept

6Environment(1962)(1972)UN Conference on the Human Environment (1972)(1980)

Sustainable Development(upper left) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Spring(upper center left) http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/dunche/dunche.html(upper center right) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_to_Growth(upper right) https://portals.iucn.org/library/eﬁles/documents/wcs-004.pdf(lower right) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Common_Future(lower right) http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/dunche/dunche.html(1987)UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992)

7

Zone of Peace - national interests
United States
Oil discovery at North Slope, Alaska in 1968

National Security Decision Memorandum 144:
Untied States Arctic Policy and Arctic Policy Grouphttps://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-alaska-oil-ﬁeld-1968-naerial-vie
w-of-one-of-the-ﬁrst-oil-wells-overlooking-95873840.html

Nixon admin.(NSDM-144) in 1971
1) Economic development
2) Diplomacy
Northlands Compact3) Security
Interagency Arctic Policy Group (IAPG)Inter-agency Arctic Research
Coordinating Committee

Regan admin. (NSDD-90) in 1983
1) Security
2) Economic development
3) Science
1984 Arctic Research and Policy Act⇒Arctic Research Commission4) Diplomacy

Clinton admin. (PSD-26) in 1994
1) Security
2) Environment protection andconservation
3) Sustainable development
4) Diplomacy
5) Indigenous
6) ScienceZone of Peace - national interests
USSR/Russia

8Gorbachev: Murmansk speech (1st Oct. 1987)“The Soviet Union is in favour of a radical lowering of the level ofmilitary confrontation in the region. Let the North of the globe, theArctic, become a zone of peace. Let the North Pole be a pole ofpeace. We suggest that all interested states start talks on thelimitation and scaling down of military activity in the North as awhole, in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.”1) a nuclear-free zone in Northern Europe;2)

restricting naval activity in the seas of Northern Europe;3)

peaceful cooperation in developing the resources of the North4)

scientiﬁc research cooperation such as setting up a joint Arctic

5)

6)

Research Council;
jointly an integrated comprehensive plan for protecting the naturalenvironment of the North;opening of the North Sea Route to foreign ships.

How about Russia during the 1990s?

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturega
lleries/worldnews/8192226/Notable-winners-of-the-Nobel-Peace-Prize.html?image=7

Zone of Peace - national interests
Finland and Canda
Canada (1988- 91)
Finland (1989-91)

9(Canadian Institute of International Affairs;
Arctic Council Panel)
1) Establishment of international organizational
body for Arctic cooperation;2) Expansion of interaction among residents in
the Circumpolar Arctic;3) Improvement of environmental protection in
the vulnerable Arctic ecosystem;
4) Reduction of armed force in the Arctic;5) Guarantee for recognition of economic,
political and social rights of indigenous peoples in
the Arctic.
Nordic & Russia:
trans- boundary air
pollution; U.S.: oilspill; Canada:
preservation of theﬂora and Fauna)

Kalevi Sorsa

Esko Rajakoski

PM Brian Mulroney said,‘Why don’t we start an Arctic
cooperation?’ at Arctic andAntarctic Research Institute,
St. Petersburg,in December 1989

Zone of Peace - primary institutions and common
interests Diplomacy and environment
IASC• James Zumberge initiatednegotiations with major polar
research countries (B, WG,US, F, USSR, NO, SW, FI, JP)• Arctic ﬁve contact group• Arctic eight vs quatre
Exclus (demarche by B, F, WG,Hol)• Governmental or not• Basic agreement in Moscow
June 1989 among the bigthree.
• Establishment ofInternational Arctic Science
Committee in 1990

James Zumberge

https://www.unl.edu/chancellor/james-zumberge

AEPS (Rovaniemi Process)・12th Jan. 1989, An invitation
letter from Finnish Foreignand Environment ministers tothe heads of the Arctic
governments.
・20-26th Sep. 1989, international
meeting at the Rovaniemi. (sixpollutants?)
・1989 ～1991, preparing meetings
at NY, Yellowknife, Kiruna,Helsinki.
・14th June 1991, At the Rovaniemi
meeting, ‘Declaration on theProtection of the Arctic
Environment’; ‘Arctic
Environmental Protection
Strategy’ were adopted.

10Arctic Council
1st Feb. 1992, Russia expressed
its assent.
1992-93, Nordic states gave its
informal consent.
May 1992, Inuit Circumpolar
Council gave tentative
consent.
1994-96 Strong opposition fromU.S.. 1995-96 Preparatory
works (terms of reference,agendas, organizationalstructure)
August 1996 Canada
accepted inclusion of themodiﬁcations by the U.S..
18th Sep. 1996, Establishmentof the Arctic Council.

1111

Zone of Peace – secondary institutions
AEPS, Arctic Council

AEPS

AMAP: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program

ArcticEnvironmental
Protection
Strategy

The Six pollutants
・persistentorganiccontaminants･oil･heavy metals･noise･radioactivity･acidiﬁcation

AEPS
・Arctic Eight countries
・Forums among ministers
・Non-legal binding
・IP invited as observers

EPPR: Emergency Prevention, Preparedness
Response
PAME: Protection of the Arctic Maine Environment

CAFF: Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna

SD task force

Arctic Council

Ministerial
meeting

Permanent Participants
Inuit Circumpolar Council
Saami Council

Each two years

Russian Association of Indigenous Peoplesof the North

Aleut International Association

Arctic Athabaskan Council
Gwich’in Council International

AMAPArctic Monitoringand Assessment
Programme

Observer states (thirteen)

PAMEProtection of Arctic
MarineEnvironment

Senior Arctic
Ofﬁcer (SAO)

EPPR
Emergency
Prevention,
Preparedness
and Response

Germany, U.K., Netherland, Poland,France, Spain, Japan, China, South Korea,
Singapore, India, Italy, Switzerland

CAFF

Conservation of
Arctic Flora andFauna

SDWG

Sustainable
Development Task
Force (1998)

ACAP

ArcticContaminants
Action Programme(2000)

Geopolitical Shift – international circumstances
Decreasing sea ice extent

12Summer extent of sea ice of the Arctic Ocean
Black linemedian extent(1979 to 2000)
6.70 million km²
Yellow line
4.170 million km²（September 2007）
White area
3.387 million km²(September 2012)

Geopolitical Shift – international circumstances
Oil and gas potential

13

World undiscovered fossil resources
Oil ---- 13% (90 billion barrels)
Gas ---- 30% (1,669 trillion cubicfeet)*61 large scale oil & gas ﬁelds( Most remain before the start ofproduction)- Rich in mineral resources
ex. iron ore, nickel, copper, gold

Geopolitical Shift – international circumstances
Shipping potential

14

Increased transits
Northern Sea Route4 ships in 2010,34 ships in 2011,46 ships in 2012,71 ships in 2013
Cargos:oil-related products(diesel fuel, gas condensate,jet fuel, LNG)

and iron ore.

Geopolitical Shift - national Interests
Arctic States

Heininen, Lassi, Arctic Strategies and Policies Inventory and Comparative Study (Northern Research
Forum & The University of Lapland, 2012), p.94.
https://www.rha.is/static/ﬁles/NRF/Publications/arctic_strategies_7th_draft_new_20120428.pdf

15

Geopolitical Shift - national interests
Non-Arctic states

China

16

Security

Science &Technology

EnvironmentBusiness(resource &shipping)International
cooperation/GovernanceYear of theissue

×××××

2018

Japan×××

2015

ROK×××2013
2018

Slide presented by Dr. Seo, Hyunkyo, KOPRI, at ASSW 2019

Geopolitical Shift – primary institutions and commoninterests
Sovereign rightContinental
shelf over
North Pole→UNCLOS→RussianFlag in 2007
Aftenposten,(14 August2007)

Kappløpet om
Nordpolen;
ﬁktivt kappløpet
Asahi Shinbun(22 August2007)「北極争奪戦」

17

Unsettledboundaries-DenmarkCanada overHans Islands-NorwayRussia over
Barents Sea-U.S.-Canada in
Beaufort Sea

Geopolitical Shift – secondary institutions
Sovereign right
Arctic Coastal States
Ilulissat
No Arctic treaty
Declaration 2008

✔ No Arctic
Treaty needed✔ Reconﬁrmed
commitment
to UNCLOS✔ Acknowledge-ment to importanceof Arctic Council
http://www.cryopolitics.com/2010/04/01/arctic-ocean-foreign-ministers-meeting-the-fallout/

18

Barents Sea Boundary
Treaty in 2010

Geopolitical Shift – primary institutions, common
interests and secondary institutions – Marine safety
Soft security issues bothsearch and rescue, oilspill were negotiated andreached in an agreementin the Ilulissat Declaration

https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/cruise-ship-clipper-adventurer-nunavut-judgement-1.3973937

https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2016/06/10/arctic-coast-guar-forum-nationshttps://www.highnorthnews.com/en/denmarks-minis deepen-cooperation/
ter-foreign-affairs-ilulissat-declaration-exempliﬁes-cons
tructive-arctic-dialogue

tankers carrying diesel-fuelcollided in 2010https://barentsobserver.com/en/sections/articles/arctic-oil-tankerscollided

Arctic Coast Guard Forum (2015)

Polar Code (2015)19Geopolitical Shift – primary institutions, commoninterests and secondary institutions – BusinessSep 30, 2016

Responsible development

20

Geopolitical Shift – primary institutions and common 21
interests secondary institutions – Science
IPY-1
1882-83

IPY-2
1932-33

IGY(IPY-3)

IPY-4

1957-58

2007-08

http://matthewburtner.com/music-for-president-obam
as-us-state-department-glacier-conference/First presidential
trip to Alaska
Climate change
policy as Legacy
Arctic is on thehigher priorities
in his agenda

https://www.arcus.org/witness-the-arctic/2017/2/article/27780"Agreement on
EnhancingInternational
Arctic Scientiﬁc
Cooperation"
was signed on
11 May 2017
Legacy led by ACchairmanship(Nor, Den, Swed,Ca, US)

Arctic Science Ministerial Washington D.C.
in 2016

https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/white-house-arctic-science-ministerial/

2nd Arctic Science Ministerial
Berlin in 2018https://www.arctictoday.com/second-arctic-science-mi
nisterial-moves-cooperation-forward-work-remains-done/

3rd Arctic Science Ministerial will be heldat Tokyo, in 2020

Geopolitical Shift – primary institutions and common22
interests secondary institutions – Science
Networking: CNARC

雪龍（Xuelong, SnowDragon）
Arctic expedition from2004

The slide below is retrieved from the presentation by Egill Thor
Nielsson, 4th PCRC International Symposium,17-18 December 2018,
Kobe, Japan

https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/china-launch
es-domestically-built-xue-long-2-icebreakerGeopolitical Shift – primary institutions, common
interests and secondary institutions – Fisheries
2008
U.S. Senate calls for prevention of IUU fishingin the CAO
2010
U.S. adopts its Arctic Fisheries Management
Plan, with no fishing in its Arctic EEZ2014
Canada adopts the Beaufort Sea Management
Framework, similar to the U.S. plan
Five Arctic coastal states sign the Nuuk Statement,
agreeing on a need for action in the CAO
2015
Five Arctic coastal states sign the Oslo Declaration:
no IUU fishing, more science
2017
Five Arctic coastal states plus China, Iceland,
Japan, Korea, and the European Union reachagreement: no IUU fishing, more science

23

Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Sea
Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean(CAOFA)

Nine countries and EU signed the agreement to prevent
unregulated commercial ﬁshing on the high seas of the cen
Arctic Ocean (October, 2018)

24

Conclusion

Zone ofPeace

International
Circumstances

NationalInterests

Primary
Institution

CommonSecondaryInterests;
Institutions
Shared Values

End of Cold
War
Diversificationof Security
conceptU.S
U.S.S.R
Finland
Canada

Diplomacy
Led by US,
Finland,
CanadaScience
Environment
Sustainable
Development

IASC
AEPS
AC

Diplomacy,internationallaws

SovereignrightsMarine safety
ScienceBusiness
Fishery

Ilulissat Dec.
UNCLOS,
Polar Code,Foundations for Cooperative relationship
Impacts ofThe Arctic
Climate Change Eight,
Non-Arcticstates

Geopolitical
Shift

Arctic treaties,

CAOFA, AEC,
ASM, etc

The foundations were challenged, but these were further
developed. The Arctic cooperative system is maintained
GlobalCompetitive
Military/Securi N/AN/AN/A
Competition worldty(U.S., ChinaSecurity
What will happen to the foundations (causingand Russia)
dilemmachange in national interests in the region) ?