第3章 IGC Beijing Session on A Reexamination of Militarization and “the Spaceof Occupation”: A Comparative Perspective
1. 北京国際地理学会議
4 年ごとに開かれる国際地理学連合（IGU）の本会議（International Geographical Congress）
は 2016 年 8 月 21 日から 25 日まで中華人民共和国の北京（北京国家会議センター）で開催された。本研究の代表者である山﨑は IGU 政治地理委員会共同委員長（当時）として委員会関係の口頭発表セッションの編成を手掛けた。セッション募集の結果、政治地理委員会だ
けで 13 の応募（会議時の編成数は 8）があり、その一つとして山﨑がイスラエルのハイファ大学地理学・環境研究学部で教鞭をとるラーセム・ハマイシー（Rassem Khamaisi）教授と共同で”A Reexamination of Militarization and “the Space of Occupation”: A Comparative
Perspective”と題するセッションを立てた。このセッションは本研究のパレスチナ班と沖縄班との研究内容を接合するものとして企画された。募集の際に用いられたコールは以下の通りである。
“Occupation” generally means “to place a country or countries under one’s own
control with force” and indicates a form of territorial control by means of military force.
“Occupation” also implies a transitional form of control before it turns into a form ofgovernance based on the international law, whether it is complete transfer ofstate/territorial sovereignty (e.g. independence or annexation) or partial transfer (e.g.
mandate). In other word, “occupation” emerges as a result of an exercise of force,
represents an unestablished state of sovereignty in the occupied land, and occupies apolitical space such as (part of) a territory.
Previous studies have shown that the concept of “absolute sovereignty” or “territorialsovereignty” as a supreme sovereign right based on territory was established in theseventeen-century Westphalian system. However, from historical and geographical pointsof view, the exercise of sovereignty has not necessarily coincided with the span ofterritory. As Agamben 1 argues on “the state of exception” and “concentration camps”,
there are cases in which the incomplete state or space of absolute sovereignty allows
political control to maximize its effect. Agnew 2 calls this type of sovereignty “effectivesovereignty.”
While such “space of occupation” causes the occupied to struggle forself-determination, international human rights, and legal justice, it gives rise to various
political and cultural practices at the level of daily lives of the occupied that attempt to go
through porous walls of effective sovereignty exercised by the occupying. Conversely,
the heterogeneity of “the space of occupation” provides the occupied with thesocio-geographical conditions in which they can create such active resistance.
1Agamben, G. (2005) State of Exception (trans. by Kevin Attell). University of Chicago Press.
Agnew, J. (2005) Sovereignty regimes: territoriality and state authority in contemporary world politics. Annals ofthe Association of American Geographers, Vol. 95, No. 2, pp. 437-461.
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Hence, drawing on the concept of “militarization” by Enloe, 3 this session pays
attention to various political and cultural practices in “the space of occupation” produced
through multi-faceted militarization across the world. 4 By doing so, this session will
explore the structural mechanism that perpetuates the “occupation” and open up theprospect for a way to its dissolution through bottom-up processes. This session would
like to compare case studies across the world, investigate the legal and structural aspectsof the mechanism of the “occupation” in each case, and explore various political andcultural practices of the occupied in each “space of occupation” to find possible ways tothe end of occupation.
募集の結果、7 件の応募があり、6 件を採択したが、実際に当日発表されたのは以下の 4件であった。いずれもセッションの目的に沿った興味深い発表であり、討議も活発になされた。
ここに題目、発表者名、アブストラクトを掲載しておく。
Evaluating the Occupation of Xinjiang by the People’s Republic of China in theEarly 1950sGuo, Qian (San Francisco State University, San Francisco, USA)This paper examines the effects of occupation of Xinjiang by the People’s Republic ofChina (PRC) before Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region was established (fall 1949-fall1955). In the absence of a civilian provincial government, the People’s Liberation Army(PLA) exerted military governance in Xinjiang, supressing ethnic resistance, initiating
development projects and setting up Han Chinese settlements. Most importantly, the PLA
created an institutional legacy, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC,1954), a quasi-military state enterprise that inherited much of the military
economy-settlement complex. The legacy of XPCC is indeed multifaceted. While
having helped solidifying the PRC’s control over Xinjiang, XPCC may have also
prolonged the perception of occupation among the local Muslim groups with its
low-grade militarization and may have hindered the transition from “effectivesovereignty” to “absolute sovereignty.” The analyses of the PRC’s “occupation” ofXinjiang may, on the one hand, benefit from theoretical conceptualizations in political
geography, and, on the other hand, inform academic discourses and borderland policies,
as Xinjiang remains a restive frontier for China.
Key words: occupation, militarization, Xinjiang, Xinjiang Production and Construction
Corps
3

Enloe, C. (2000) Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives. University of California
Press.
4Yamazaki, T. (2011) The US militarization of a ‘host’ civilian society: the case of post-war Okinawa, Japan. In S.
Kirsch and C. Flint eds. Reconstructing Conflict: Integrating War and Post-War Geographies. Ashgate, pp.
253-27245

Unbounded territoriality: Territorial control in the occupied West Bank
Hughes, Sara (University of California at Los Angeles, USA)
The “temporary” Israeli military occupation of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East
Jerusalem began in 1967. In the nearly five decades since, the settler population in theoccupied territories has reached an estimated half million Israeli Jews. Excepting EastJerusalem, Israel has made no move to formally annex the territories. Neither are theywithdrawing, which is made clear by continuous settlement growth. So by what territorial
logic does the occupation function, such that is can continue indefinitely but still callitself a temporary military occupation? In his book Human Territoriality: Its Theory andHistory, Robert David Sack defines territoriality as “the attempt by an individual or groupto affect, influence, or control people, phenomena, and relationships, by delimiting andasserting control over a geographic area”. 5 One of the three requirements of territoriality
is delimiting the area under control (Delaney, 2005; Sack, 1986). 6 In stark contrast to this,I suggest that the territorial logic of the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza
Strip represents what I term unbounded territoriality, a form of territorial control best
exercised by not delimiting boundaries. This form of territoriality complicates theconnection between sovereignty and territoriality in the nation-state system. This is not
because Israel is incapable of exercising territorial control as traditionally conceived, but
is rather proof of Israel’s overwhelming power to control territory in a fuzzy, piecemeal
fashion. This project expands on efforts by scholars such as Israeli philosopher Adi Ophirto rethink familiar facts and the existing discourse about the Israel-Palestine conflict. 7
Occupation using a Sophisticated Matrix of Control; Israeli occupation ofPalestinian territory
Khamaisi, Raseem (University of Haifa, Israel)
Since 1967, Israel has occupied Palestinian territory. This is one of the longest
occupations of the last century. During this occupation, Israel developed and used asophisticated matrix of control which has hard and soft components. Parallel to managing
the daily life of the indigenous urban and rural Palestinians, the Israeli occupation has
created an Israeli system of urban and rural settlements. Despite the rhetoric of looking toend the occupation, including singing an Interim peace agreement between the Israeli
government and Palestinian National Authority in 1994, the conflict is still hot. Theseinterim agreements create at least three statuses of Palestinian people living in occupied

5Sack, R. D. (1986) Human Territoriality: Its Theory and History. Cambridge University Press. p. 19.
Delaney, D. (2005) Territory: A Short Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. Sack (1986), note 5.
7Azoulay, A., & Ophir, A. (2012) The One-State Condition: Occupation and Democracy in Israel/Palestine.
Stanford University Press.
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territory, which is divided into four subareas, governed and managed by at least threesystems of national and municipal governors. This division of the territory and thePalestinian people into different statutes enables implementation of the matrix of control
by the occupiers. This paper will display and discuss the roots of the deep geopoliticalconflict, and present the hard and soft components of the sophisticated matrix of control
used by the Israelis to secure domination, a creeping system of apartheid and territorial
fragmentation and annexation to Israel. The paper will concentrate on the dual land andrestrictive spatial planning domination of the matrix of control.
Key words: Matrix of Control; occupation, Israeli; Palestinians; spatial planning
Cultural Practices against Militarization: The Resilience of Okinawan Culture
Yamazaki, Takashi. (Osaka City University, Japan)
War and occupation destroy and transform the lives and cultures of the occupied.
However, the substratum of the destroyed and transformed culture leaves its trail in thememories and landscapes of the occupied. Culture is not unchangeable in time and space
but can have the power of resistance and recovery or “resilience.” It is not the power ofculture itself but the power of human agency that attempts to engrave lost cultures intoand extract them from the memories and landscapes of the occupied. This paper focuseson “Okinawan culture.” Okinawa is a group of islands in Japan which became the stageof a fierce ground battle near the end of WWII and remained under the US militaryadministration until 1972. 20% of the main island is still occupied by vast military bases
and installations. Confiscated villages, sacred places, and cultural landscapes have been
destroyed, buried, or left unpreserved within military bases. The ground battle andsubsequent oppressive military administration have left deep scars in the memories andlandscapes of the islanders. Based on this geo-historical context, this paper illuminates
the significance of “regional history” studies that emerged after the 1972 reversion as
activities of municipal historians and archivists and the value of cultural landscapes thatare to be restored in the site of a military base planned to be closed.
Key words: cultural practice, militarization, Okinawa
このうちハマイシー教授の発表内容に関する英語論文を特別寄稿として次頁以下に掲載する。

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