Overseas Fieldwork Report 2019:

Kampot Province, Cambodia

Graduate School of International Development
Nagoya University

Overseas Fieldwork Report 2019

Kampot Province, Cambodia

March 2020
Graduate School of International Development
Nagoya University
Nagoya, Japan

Overseas Fieldwork Report 2019
Kampot Province, Cambodia
Copyright © GSID 2020

Graduate School of International Development, Nagoya University
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Japan 464-8601
https://www.gsid.nagoya-u.ac.jp/index-en.html

Acknowledgments
GSID students who participated in OFW 2019 and the committee of OFW 2019 are indebted to many
people and institutions both in Cambodia and Japan for the successful completion of this year’s
program. Our appreciation must be directed first to the people of Kampot Province, Cambodia. We
are especially grateful to Kampot provincial government and local authorities for their generous
assistance and cordial hospitality. We also would like to express our sincere gratitude to all of those
who kindly provided us valuable information in the interviews. We could not have accomplished the
OFW without their kind support.
Our appreciation also goes to the advisors of the Faculty of Development Studies and the Facultyof Education of the Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP). We want to express our sincere
appreciation to Dr. Spoann Vin (Faculty of Development Studies), Dr. Ly Kimlong (Faculty ofDevelopment Studies), and Mr. Hor Youhan (Faculty of Education). Primarily, Dr. Spoann Vin
tirelessly supports us as our main counterpart. Furthermore, it must be noted that he stayed at Nagoya
University for three months to teach our students about Cambodia. Participants of OFW 2019
received tremendous support from four young staff and graduate students of RUPP, Mr. Phat
Chandara (Faculty of Development Studies), Mr. Eom Nakhem (Faculty of Development Studies),and Mr. No Khorry (Faculty of Education), during the field research. We are grateful for their
dedicated cooperation not only as advisors and interpreters but also as co-researchers.
Last but not least, we are very grateful to Prof. Kobayashi Satoru of Kyoto University and Prof.
Yotsumoto Kenji of Kobe University. Two professors came to GSID as visiting lecturers to provide
valuable lectures to our participants in the preparatory seminar of OFW 2019. We also would like tothank Prof. Adam Smith for the English editing of this volume.
Shimada Yuzuru
Professor
Chair of OFW 2019 Committee
Graduate School of International Development
Nagoya UniversityiIntroduction
The twenty-seventh Overseas Fieldwork (OFW 2019) of the Graduate School of International
Development (GSID), Nagoya University, was carried out in Kampot Province, Cambodia, from
September 14 until September 27, 2019. Each year, GSID carries out OFW in a developing country
in Asia in cooperation with a local partner university of GSID. This is the ninth OFW undertaken in
Cambodia since 2005, and the GSID conducted it in close collaboration with the Royal University ofPhnom Penh. OFW 2019 was a significant occasion for GSID to strengthen its relationship with thisprestigious university in Cambodia.
OFW is an integral part of GSID's curriculum, designed to provide students with exposure to the“real world” development issues of a developing country. This experience will help students seeking
future careers in international development obtain practical insights to complement their theoreticalorientation. OFW also enables students to understand the importance of an interdisciplinary/comprehensive approach when tackling practical development issues that often arise
among stakeholders with conflicting interests. Such an approach is particularly important to make thedevelopment process fully participatory and sustainable in practice, and its importance can only bewell learned in the field.
Considering the relevance of topics to the context of Kampot Province and the expertise of GSID
professors, we divided participating students into three working groups: economy (WG1), education(WG2) and environment (WG3), to provide an integrated survey on rural and regional developmentin Kampot. On September 25, a day before the departure from Kampot, students shared their researchfindings with resource persons and local authorities of Kampot. Reflecting comments and advice
received at the presentation and on other occasions, participants elaborate their work in the final
reports. The present volume is an outcome of all the efforts mentioned above.
Shimada Yuzuru
Professor
Chair of OFW 2019 Committee
Graduate School of International Development
Nagoya UniversityiiTable of Contents
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................ i
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................iii
List of Participants .......................................................................................................................... v
Program of OFW 2019................................................................................................................... vi
Kampot Province of Cambodia...................................................................................................... 1
Working Group 1
Improving Livelihoods through Mangrove Conservation: A Case Study of the Trapeang
Sangkae Community Fishery in Kampot Province...................................................................... 4
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 6
2. Literature Review ....................................................................................................................................... 7
3. Problem Statement...................................................................................................................................... 8
4. Research Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 9
5. Research Questions .................................................................................................................................... 9
6. Hypothesis .................................................................................................................................................. 9
7. Methodology............................................................................................................................................... 9
8. Findings .................................................................................................................................................... 11
9. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 19
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................ 19
References .................................................................................................................................................... 20
Appendix ...................................................................................................................................................... 21

Working Group 2
The Importance of Cooperatives to Small Farmers: Case of Kampot Pepper Farming........ 22
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................ 24
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 24
2. Contract Farming and Cooperatives ......................................................................................................... 25
3. Cambodian Context .................................................................................................................................. 26
4. Methodology and Data ............................................................................................................................. 27
5. Findings .................................................................................................................................................... 29
6. Discussion and Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 36
7. Recommendations .................................................................................................................................... 38
References .................................................................................................................................................... 40
Appendix ...................................................................................................................................................... 41iii

Working Group 3
Parents Perspective on School Dropouts at the Lower Secondary Education Level in Kampot
Province, Cambodia ...................................................................................................................... 42
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 44
2. Literature Review ..................................................................................................................................... 47
3. Methodology............................................................................................................................................. 52
4. Findings and Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 55
5. Conclusion and Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 65
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... 66
References .................................................................................................................................................... 67
List of Individual and Company Donors to the Overseas Fieldwork Fund .................................................. 69
海外実地研修基金に拠出いただいた個人・企業一覧................................................................................... 70iv

List of Participants
Faculty Members (7)Working Group

GSID, Nagoya University

Royal University of Phnom Penh

WG1: Environment

SHIMADA Yuzuru

SPOANN Vin

WG2: Economics

OTCHIA Christian

LY Kimlong

WG3: Education

PHIN Chankea

HOR Youhan

Logistics/Coordination

SHIMAZU Yuki

Assistants from RUPP (3)Working Group

Name

Sex

WG1: Environment

PHAT Chandara

M

WG2: Economics

EOM Nakhem

M

WG3: Education

NO Khorry

M

GSID Students (17)Working GroupWG1: Environment

WG2: Economics

WG3: Education

Name

Country

Sex

Andi Sahriani SafitriIndonesia

F

KASUKAWA Natsuko *

Japan

F

SANG YUM Maria Koreti

Samoa

F

HERNANDEZ GARAY Esteban Enrique

HondurasM

RAHOLISOA Ollyna

Madagascar

F

DJAHOUA Ayegbe Jean-Noel *Cote D`Ivoire

M

TAUMOEPEAU Daniel Fredrick

Tonga

M

CHIKHWAZA Alinafe

MalawiF

HIROKAWA Eri

Japan

F

LAVEMAAU Lavinia Langi Siaila

Tonga

F

NIANGUE Josephine Andrea

Cote D`Ivoire

F

ANDO Takuro

Japan

M

ISHIBA Naomi *

Japan

F

GUO Shihui

China

F

MUNKHBAYAR Enkhtsogt

Mongolia

M

WATANABE Shiori

Japan

F

TOHARI Diyah Rachmawati

IndonesiaF* Group leaderv

Program of OFW 2019
Preparatory Seminar at GSID
Date

Time

Apr. 24(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Introduction & Team building

OFW Committee

May. 8(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Overview of Cambodia and Kampot Province

Prof. SPOANN Vin,
Royal University of Phnom Penh

May. 15(Wed)

16:30-18:00

Governance and Law of Cambodia

Prof. YOTUSMOTO Kenji,
Kobe University

May. 22(Wed)

14:45-16:15

State of Environment in Kampot Province

Prof. SPOANN Vin,
Royal University of Phnom Penh

May. 29(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Characteristics of Khmer Villages

Prof. KOBAYASHI Satoru,
Kyoto University

14:45-16:15

Education in Cambodia

Prof. PHIN Chankea,
Mr. CHIN Sam Ath,
Nagoya University

16:30-18:00

Research Methods: Principles and Practical Tips
(Joint session with DFW seminar)

Prof. OTCHIA Christian,
Nagoya University

Jun. 12(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Community Development in Cambodia

Prof. IDO Ayako,
Nagoya University

Jun. 19(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Interim Presentation

OFW Committee

Jun. 26(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Consultation/Group Discussion

Prof. SPOANN Vin,
Royal University of Phnom Penh

Jul. 3(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Doing Fieldwork in an Unfamiliar Culture(Joint session with DFW seminar)

Prof. KUSAKA Wataru,
Nagoya University

Jul. 10(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Presentation on Research Proposal

OFW Committee

Jul. 17(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Risk Management

Prof. HOSHINO Akinari,Prof. SAKAI Takashi,
Nagoya University

Jul. 24(Wed)

14:45-16:15

Khmer Language

Prof. PHIN Chankea,
Mr. CHIN Sam Ath,
Nagoya University

Jun. 5(Wed)

Title of the Lecturevi

Lecturer(s)Schedule of Fieldwork in Cambodia
Date

Sept. 14 (Sat)

Sept. 15 (Sun)Sept. 16 (Mon)Time

Schedule

8:15

Meet at Chubu International Airport

11:00-15:00

Nagoya - Bangkok (TG645)

18:45-19:55

Bangkok - Phnom Penh (TG584)

10:00-

Leave for Kampot

9:00-11:30

Courtesy visit to the provincial governor’s office

13:00-

Groupwork

Sept. 17 (Tue)Groupwork (data collection)

Sept. 18 (Wed)Groupwork (data collection)

Sept. 19 (Thu)Groupwork (data collection)

Sept. 20 (Fri)Groupwork (data collection)

Sept. 21 (Sat)Free time

Sept. 22 (Sun)Free time

Sept. 23 (Mon)Groupwork (data collection)

Sept. 24 (Tue)Groupwork (presentation preparation)

Sept. 25 (Wed)Sept. 26 (Thu)
Sept. 27 (Fri)
Sept. 28 (Sat)

15:00-17:00

Interim presentation on research findings

18:00-20:00

Thank you party

10:00-

Leave for Phnom Penh

10:00-

City sightseeing

21:15-22:20

Phnom Penh – Bangkok (TG585)

00:05-8:00

Bangkok – Nagoya (TG644)

Interim Presentations of Research Findings
The interim presentation of research findings was held in Kampot Province on September 25th, 2019. Eachworking group presented for 20 minutes, followed by a Q&A session.

Presentation of Research Findings at GSID
The presentation of research findings was held at GSID by each working group to disseminate findings andcollect feedback from colleagues on October 30th, 2019.

vii

Kampot Province of Cambodia
SPOANN Vin
Faculty of Development Studies, Royal University of Phnom Penh
Geographical Area and Demographical Situation
Kampot Province is rich in low-lying land that has potential for agriculture, agro-industry, aquaculture
activities, and port development. In addition, Kampot Province is the second most attractive coastal tourist
area in Cambodia. The province is located in the south-western part of Cambodia at a distance of 148 km fromthe national capital of Phnom Penh. It has a total coastline of 73 kilometers which stretches from the bordersof the Hatieng District of Vietnam to Sihanoukville Province. The area of the province is 4, 873 km2, with a
total population of 592,845; the annual population growth rate was 0.1 in 2019.

Kampot Province
EconomyKampot is a good location for access to both domestic, regional, and export markets. Given its natural resources,
coastline that is ideal for ports, unique landscape, and growing international tourism, it has great development
potential. Marine fishery resources contribute to the local livelihood, where the fishery resources are mainly
distributed to domestic markets throughout Cambodia.
The labor force participation rate of Kampot was 81.5% (2008), higher than the national average of 76.9%.
About 85% of the labor force in the province is engaged in agriculture. Recently, the economy of Kampot isfueled by tourism and special economic zone development along the coastline, and the number of hotels andrestaurants has increased dramatically since 2015 while the growth of the labor force in urban areas is 5.4%
per annum. The labor force engaged in industrial activities in the province will grow by up to 9% in 2020, andin 2030 will represent 19.6% of the total labor force.
1Agriculture
Kampot Province is expected to be the core of “regional agriculture” where the share of agricultural land
represents 45% (2011) of the total province land area. However, the percentage of labor force engaged inagriculture is projected to reduce from 75.1% in 2008 to 49.5% in 2030, with sectors such as tourism andindustry absorbing the excess labor. The government of Cambodia has promoted the agro-industry through its
Agricultural Sector Strategic Plan 2014-2018, of which Kampot Pepper is one of the main industrial crops for
Kampot Province. The pepper production exported overseas was 102 tons in 2018.
Education
More than two decades since the end of civil war in Cambodia, the education situation of Kampot now
prioritizes increasing equitable access to education at all levels. From 2000-2015, the number of pre-schools,
primary, secondary, and high schools has significantly increased. As of 2019, there are 608 schools and 3699
classrooms. The total enrolment in 2019 was 129,794 for both sexes, of which 48.9% are female students.
Grade repeating pupils are decreasing at all levels, from primary to upper secondary schools, representing
4.2% (primary), 2.5% (lower secondary) and 1.2% in (upper secondary) of pupils. However, over-age
enrollment doubly increases from primary school (11.1%) to upper secondary school (22%). The governmentof Cambodia aims to increase the net enrollment rate in primary school in Kampot to 98.5% by 2023 with aprojected completion rate of 86.2%.
Kampot pepper

Schooling in Kampot

References
National Institute of Statistics (2019) General Population Census of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2019:
Provisional Population Totals. Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (2019), Education Strategic Plan: 2019-2023, Phnom Penh.
Department of Planning (2015), Education Statistics and Indicators: 2014-2015. Ministry of Education, Youthand Sport, Phnom Penh
Nippon Koei Co. Ltd., et al. (n.d.), The Study on National Integrated Strategy of Coastal Area and Master
Plan of Sihanoukville for Sustainable Development, Chapter4: Development Strategy for Kampot,
Final Report, Cambodia
23Working Group 1
Environment

Improving Livelihoods through Mangrove Conservation:
A Case Study of the Trapeang Sangkae Community Fishery in Kampot ProvinceGroup Members:Andi Sahriani Safitri
HERNANDEZ GARAY Esteban Enrique
KASUKAWA Natsuko *RAHOLISOA Ollyna
SANG YUM Maria Koreti

RUPP Research Assistant:
PHAT Chandara
Advisors:
Professor SHIMADA Yuzuru
Professor SPOANN Vin* Group Leader

4

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1 Mangrove Forests and People’s Livelihood
2.1.1 The Significance of Mangrove Forests
2.1.2 Mangrove Forests and Locals’ Livelihood in Kampot
2.2 The Effectiveness of Community-based Organization on Mangrove Conservation
3. Problem Statement
4. Research Objectives
5. Research Questions
6. Hypothesis
7. Methodology
7.1 Data Collection Method
7.2 Scope and Limitations
8. Findings
8.1 Perspective from Fishery Administration
8.2 Perspective from CWDCC Staff
8.3 Perspective from Trapeang Sangkae Commune Council Member
8.4 Perspective from Trapeang Sangkae CFi Leader
8.5 Perspective from Trapeang Sangkae CFi Members
8.5.1 Improvement of Livelihoods
8.5.2 Diversification of Economic Activities
8.5.3 Change of Migration Patterns
8.5.4 Awareness and Behavior Change Regarding Mangrove Conservation
8.5.5 Concerns
8.6 Summary of Findings
9. Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Appendix: Questionnaire for CFi Members

5

1. Introduction
Cambodia is a country in Southeast Asia that is bordered by Thailand in the Northwest, Laos in the Northeast,
Vietnam to the East and Southwest, and the Gulf of Thailand, where it has a 443 km long coastline. It covers
an area of 181,035 km2, and seasonal monsoons mark its tropical climate.
Its recent history is marked by gaining independence from France in 1953, suffering bombing campaigns
by the United States as part of the Vietnam War, and the Cambodian genocide, in which the ruling communist
Khmer Rouge party murdered up to 1.8 million people (around one-fourth of its population at the time) startingin 1975. The violence ended as neighboring Vietnam, which was receiving thousands of fleeing refugees,
invaded the country and ousted the Khmer Rouge in 1979.
Since then, the country has slowly, but significantly recovered from the destruction and managed toachieve a period of significant growth from 2001-2010, averaging a GDP growth rate of 7.7%, later becoming
a lower-middle-income country in 2016 and now boasting a per capita income by purchasing power parity of
USD 4,022. Traditionally relying on agriculture, Cambodia’s economy now is more balanced and depends
more on manufacturing, mostly textiles for export and services, mainly tourism, which has recently seen
substantial growth (Central Intelligence Agency, 2019). Besides textiles, its main products for export are rubber,cement, and wood products.
Despite possessing an impressive biodiversity in its terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, with hundreds ofmammal, bird, reptile and fish species both marine and freshwater, Cambodia, unfortunately, has a rather poor
record regarding environmental protection, as measured in the Environmental Performance Index, attaining
position 150 out of 180 countries indexed (Environmental Performance Index, 2019).
Deforestation is one of the most salient environmental problems in the country, and until recently,
Cambodia suffered from the highest deforestation rate in the world (Mongabay Environmental News, 2005).
It also faces significant challenges regarding the destruction of mangrove forests on its southern coast, which
besides providing a home to many diverse species, also contributes towards the livelihood of locals.
Our research shall take place in one of these coastal areas, Kampot Province, which lies to the Southwestof Cambodia and whose coastline along the Gulf of Thailand extends for 45 km. Its population is around
600,000 (Tourism Cambodia, 2019) across eight districts, which are further divided into 92 communes with a
total of 477 villages. Being a rural province, its main economic activities are agriculture, black pepper
cultivation being of particular importance (Kampot black pepper being a protected appellation of origin), salt,
limestone and phosphate mining, fishing, and to a lesser extent, tourism.
The issue of mangrove forest conservation has become one of particular importance in recent years, as
population pressure drives locals towards unsustainable fishing practices and outright destruction of the forest,
which is exacerbated further by increasing levels of pollution and the rise of industries such as sand mining
which adversely affect the ecosystem.
In response to these developments, the Cambodian government has fostered the creation of a specific typeof local organization called a Community Fishery (CFi), which focuses on improving fishing practices among
the locals by encouraging less destructive fishing methods as well as introducing sustainable natural resource
management practices such as the conservation and protection of flooded forest and mangrove areas, the6

establishment and protection of fish sanctuaries, and the creation of artificial reefs.
The Trapeang Sangke CFi will be the focus of this research. The Trapeang Sangke CFi has, in recent years,
encouraged eco-tourism as an alternative economic activity in Kampot in order to ease the strain fishing and
its related activities impose on the ecosystem. These efforts include helping locals build lodging and bridges
for tourists to explore the mangrove forest, mangrove planting initiatives that often include foreign volunteers
and tourists, conduct patrols to guard against illegal fishing activities, and teaching basic English for local
children, among other activities. We sought to establish how effective this CFI’s efforts have been by evaluating
the locals’ perceptions.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Mangrove Forests and People’S Livelihood
2.1.1 The Significance of Mangrove Forests
Cambodia is home to over 650,000 fishers, most of whom operate small-scale fisheries. According to the Foodand Agriculture Organization (FAO), the annual supply of fish per capita is 41.4 kg, more than the global
average value of 19.7kg. It means that fish accounts for more than half of the total animal protein supply forfamilies in Cambodia. Therefore, acknowledging the significance of the fisheries sector in Cambodia is vitalas it provides the livelihoods, food security, and nutrition of the Kampot community.
Mangrove forests are scarce environmental cites, which can be found in a relatively small area of initially
17 to 20 million hectares (Govindasamy, 2011). According to Govindasamy (2011), mangrove forests havevarious functions worth being protected, such as stabilizing the coastal ecosystem, playing as a shelterbelt, thebarrier of the sea level erosion, and a nutrient export zone to open ocean. Therefore, mangrove forests are vital
resources that play essential roles in the natural environment and income and nutrition resources of fisheries.
However, on the other hand, deforestation of the mangrove forests is one of the most pressing environmental
issues in the world. Mangrove forests are cut down for purposes of large-scale fishing, fishing with hightechnology instruments, or use for firewood. It will cause severe damages to marine diversity, loss of shelterbelt,
or erosion of the sea level. Therefore, it is vital to protect mangrove forests.
2.1.2 Mangrove Forests and Locals’ Livelihood in Kampot
A previous research report in 2017 conducted by Community Empowerment and Development Team (CEDT)
has shown that fisheries are one of the most crucial income resources for locals in the coastal areas of Kampot,
and therefore mangrove forests are a critical resource for local fisheries. The report found that marine
biodiversity species in these communities have been threatened and have noticeably decreased due to manyreasons such as illegal fishing, overfishing, a development project for port construction, mangrove
deforestation, and climate change. It also pointed out that most of the respondents did not understand what theecosystem is, as well as the importance of restoring the ecosystem and ensuring its sustainability.

7

2.2 The Effectiveness of Community-based Organizations on Mangrove Conservation
Fisheries reforms begun in 2000 have shown success in terms of improving livelihoods and access to resources.
Marine Community Fisheries benefit both from national fisheries policies and external development work in
the coastal areas. With support from the government and external agencies like FAO, marine community
fisheries engage in mangrove conservation efforts such as patrolling illegal fishing, planting mangroves, andmaintaining biodiversity, and as a result, they have access to marine resources for their livelihoods and cash
income, as well as having access to alternative livelihoods such as ecotourism (Davy, Paul, & Keothyda, 2017).
Another study showed that Community Fisheries practices have created a reduction in illegal anddestructive fishing practices, assisted in establishing fishing sanctuaries, and resulted in environmental
improvements such as an improvement of mangrove forests in Cambodia (Blomley, Tola, Dyna, & Dubois,2010).
According to Datta, Chattopadhyay, and Guha (2012), thriving Community-Based Mangrove
Management (CBMM) initiatives can become an appropriate example of intelligent adaptation strategies inmangrove conservation. This study suggests that there should be more socially equitable and communitycontrolled marine cultural practices in CBMM in South Asia.
Community Empowerment and Development Team (2017) conducted research with a sample of 456
households in Trapaing Sangke, Kampong Samaky and Boeung Touk Communities, Teuk Chhou District,Kampot Province, aiming to map usage of natural resources and loss of biodiversity resources as well as toprovide knowledge about biodiversity and to promote its value and participation in maintenance anddevelopment of coastal ecology. According to this research, although fishing is the primary source of income
for community people and 74% of people use biodiversity for their income, knowledge of the ecosystem inthe communities remains low. Biodiverse species have been threatened and have noticeably decreased formany reasons, including illegal fishing.

3. Problem Statement
Continuous, sustainable development of settlements located in vulnerable ecosystems, such as mangrove
forests in Cambodia, depends upon the involvement of locals in environmental conservation efforts. However,
locals may not possess the necessary knowledge or means to undertake such efforts, which can lead toenvironmental deterioration and become a detriment to their livelihoods in the long term. Local, communitybased organizations could provide a solution to this issue by enabling locals to collectively access knowledge
and resources that allow them to conduct sustainable conservation activities. We propose that researching theeffectiveness of Community Fisheries working in the Kampot province of Cambodia may constitute an
essential step towards sustainable development.

8

4. Research Objectives
Our primary research objective for our fieldwork was to assess the effectiveness of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi
in improving the locals’ livelihoods through mangrove conservation efforts. To this end, we evaluated locals’
perceptions regarding changes to their quality of life, income level, involvement in environmental conservation
activities, perceptions regarding the CFi, interactions with different Cambodian government authorities, andcommunity dynamics, among others.

5. Research Questions
Given our research objective and considering material constraints to our research, such as time and budget, therelevant research questions are as follows:
1) How has the involvement of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi affected locals’ perceptions of living conditions in
the coastal area in Kampot Province – namely:a) Has there been any impact on locals’ income-generating activities?
b) Has there been any impact on locals’ income?
c) Have there been any changes in community dynamics?
2) How has the involvement of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi affected locals’ perceptions regarding mangrove
conservation?
3) Has the Trapeang Sangkae CFi contributed towards the sustainable development of the local community?

6. Hypothesis
We established as our working hypothesis that: the involvement of the Trapeang Sangkae Community Fisheryin mangrove conservation activities had led to (i) an improvement in the livelihoods of locals and (ii) a greaterappreciation of the importance of mangrove conservation activities, representing a positive movement towards
sustainable development of the community.

7. Methodology
To answer these research questions and test our hypothesis, this research applied to the following
methodologies.

7.1 Data Collection Method
The primary data was collected by in-depth semi-structured interviews (see Appendix) and a focus group9discussion in Trapeang Sangkae community, from September 16 to 20, 2019. The interviews were designed toassess locals’ perceptions regarding the roles and activities of CFi, changes in the environment, and livelihood
before and after the CFi establishment through mangrove conservation efforts. The focus group discussion was
designed to elicit respondents’ perceptions on mangrove conservation and changes in their livelihood. Further
primary data was collected in the Trapeang Ropov community to serve as a contrast to the Trapeang Sangkae
community.
All interviews were conducted in a face-to-face setting using interpreters who belong to the Royal
University of Phnom Penh (RUPP). First, we visited the Fisheries Administration (FiA) in Kampot Province
and the Commune Council of the Trapeang Sangkae Commune. Then, we visited the Trapeang Sangkae
community and conducted interviews with several stakeholders. We also visited the Department ofEnvironment (DoE) in Kampot Province. A focus group discussion was conducted with ten CFi members,consisting of two males and eight females. Trapeang Ropov community was selected as a sample to contrast
the situation and outcomes of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi.
Respondents to interviews are categorized into the following three sectors: (1) Government, (2) Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), (3) Locals (both members and non-members of the Trapeang Sangkae
CFi).
Government: We held interviews with Deputy Director of FiA and Deputy Head of DoE in Kampot Province
to assess the background of CFi establishment, law and policies to support CFi activities, collaborative
relationships between these local government entities and CFi, the current situation, and challenges.
NGOs: We made appointments with two NGOs; one was Children and Women Development Center in
Cambodia (CWDCC), and another was Samarky Organization. We interviewed the Executive Director of
CWDCC and the Provincial Coordinator of Samarky Organization. The primary purpose of these interviews
was to understand the relationship between these NGOs and CFi.
Locals: We conducted an interview with the Head of Trapeang Sangkae CFi to assess the history of the CFi,
the vision and purposes of the CFi, the composition of members, management structure, activities, outcomes,
challenges, and future visions. We also interviewed CFi members focusing on their perceptions. Interviews
aimed to examine how their perceived livelihood had changed before and after the establishment of CFi andinvolvement in CFi members. We tried to assess their changes in knowledge and behavior towards mangrove
conservation, as well.

7.2 Scope and Limitations
Given the time constraints faced in Cambodia, our sample sizes were by necessity relatively small, which isalso one of the reasons why we favored a more qualitative approach over a quantitative one. Furthermore,
despite our desire to conduct in-depth interviews with all involved, we were unfortunately restricted bytranslation limitations, given how we relied entirely on our assigned interpreter to communicate with most10

interviewees (some government officials and NGO representatives spoke English, but all locals’ interviews
were conducted exclusively in Khmer language, which nobody in our team understood). Thus, some nuancesmight have been lost in translation. Given how our research focus is the impact of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi
in the living conditions of the locals, ideally, we would have analyzed hard before/after data, but since we hadno access to such information, this obstacle was dealt with through the analysis of locals’ own perceptions ofchange in living conditions, which is inherently subjective.

8. Findings
8.1 Perspective from Fishery Administration
The Fishery Administration provides capacity building training to CFi. The contents of training are various,
such as fishery law and how to conserve mangrove forests. These sorts of training helped local people tounderstand what are legal and illegal acts, how to deal with illegal activities, and what they can do to protect
the marine environment in their community. In particular, moreover, Trapeang Sangkae CFi also received alecture about the concept of ecotourism from the Fishery Administration. They also play an essential role interms of monitoring of CFi. CFi has to submit a monthly report to the Fishery Administration, which contains
information such as how many members attend meetings, how many times they do patrol, how many mangrove
trees they plant, or how many visitors come to the community.
Interviewer:
Since the establishment of the CFi, what changes in livelihoods and perceptions have perceived?
The Head of the Fishery Administration:
There are big changes before and after the Trapeang Sangkae Community Fisheries has been established.
Before, in the area, Trapeang Sangkae was very poor in terms of marine species. And also, there were only a
few villagers, we can say only villagers in Trapeang Sangkae come to fishing because there was a very limited
number of fishes. And also, a lot of illegal activities. But after the Trapeang Sangkae has been established,
everything changed. Biodiversity increased. People can have catch more marine species, especially fishes.
They can observe that there are more fishermen come. More and more fishermen come to do fishing because
there is more fish. People start changing their perceptions from using illegal activities to do some protection.
Because they see more benefits of protection of biodiversity in the community. And if they continue this kindof protection activities, marine species in the community will be sustained.
According to the interview, the head of the Fishery Administration perceived that the establishment of
Trapeang Sangkae CFi led to significant changes and improved both local people’s livelihood and naturalenvironment conditions. First, she pointed out the improvement in the number of fishes in the area. Before theestablishment of CFi, there were few fishes in the area, and therefore few fishermen, only villagers, came to11

fish. However, after the establishment of CFi and efforts of mangrove conservation, the number of fishobserved increased. Furthermore, more people now come to fish in this area, that is not only villagers but also
people from outside.
Second, due to the change of perception of villagers over environmental protection, the behaviors ofcommunity members have changed. Local people used to cut down mangrove forests for firewood, eventhough some of them understood this was not good for mangrove conservation. However, after they received
education about the importance of mangrove forests and restoration efforts, they experienced a significant
improvement in biodiversity in the area. Through this experience, they learned that mangrove protection ismore beneficial than cutting down trees. The interviewee explained that if the community keeps on protecting
the marine environment there, they will achieve sustainability in terms of marine resource management.

8.2 Perspective from CWDCC Staff
The Children and Women Development Center in Cambodia (CWDCC) is an NGO working mainly in Kampot
Province. This organization was established in 2005 to improve the lives of vulnerable people, particularly
women and children. They are working with CFis, Community Forestries, Agricultural Associations, andwomen groups, as well as the education sector. In coastal areas, they work with Cfis in terms of protection ofmangrove and seagrass, natural resource management, and climate change and natural disaster management.
In order to achieve these objectives, they firstly support the community to protect their boundary of fishingareas from illegal fishing. According to the interviewee, illegal fishing is a severe problem there because many
people coming from outside of the community use modern fishing gear, which destroys seagrass and enables
them to catch a lot of fish. It significantly affects poor local fishers. They mostly use their hands and traditional
fishing gear to catch fishes for family (earning 5 to 10 dollars per day). Also, they fish in shallow water because
they do not have the modern electoral engine in their boat. At shallow water, there are abundant seagrass andmangrove forests which raise many fish, crabs, or shrimps. Thus, seagrass and mangroves in shallow water arevery important for these poor fishermen. Illegal fishing is problematic because they not only catch many fish
but also destroy the marine environment.
In order to solve this issue, CWDCC supports patrol of illegal fishing to protect the community fishingarea. Another activity is that CWDCC helps the CFi to restore mangrove forests. They understand thatmangrove is essential to increase marine biodiversity, as well as it is beneficial for combatting climate change,
global warming, and natural disasters.
They held a campaign called “100,000 Mangrove Campaign” with all Community in Kampot Province.
This campaign is that each community grows mangrove at their place until it reaches 100000 mangroves.
Furthermore, CWDCC works to define a seagrass conservation area with the cooperation of the Fishery
Administration in the community. A conservation area means that any fishing activities which will destroy
seagrass are not allowed in the area. There is also an effort of mangrove conservation areas in this community.
As a result, this community succeeded in growing 400,000 mangrove trees.
CWDCC provides capacity building training to local people. For example, in order to improve their skills
in how to manage eco-tourism, they offer cooking skill training, hospitality class, support to construct12

infrastructure such as toilets and bridges. They also provide awareness-raising programs regarding humanrights, fishing law, and criminal courts.
Interviewer:
What kind of difficulties women in this community face?
CWDCC staff:
One problem is that women tend to stay at home and men are the main position to earn income for families.
Then sometimes, women do not have resistance power. They do not have resistance power for the family
because they do not earn income by themselves. In most activities we provide, less women participate thanmen. Only men participate in the meeting, mangrove plantation. But now we see that women can go fishing
like men. Women can go to plant mangroves. They can join activities like cooking groups, support men runningeco-tourism businesses here. Also, they understand their rights and they just participate in advocacy activity
to protect their land from grabbing from destroying. Here are many development projects from other countries’
companies. They want to build land on the sea, build new resorts, build a new island, build hotels, or residential
houses in the shallow water. That will destroy the fishing areas of the community. So, women in this campaign
advocate the land back from these companies. And men are happy that we provide supports for women because
they sometimes need women’s help. So, there was no resistance from men. But we still have some problems.
Some women still do not want to stand their rights, participate in activities, engage in community. They justwant to stay home. But overall, the participation of women has increased. We see that many women participate
in the meeting.
According to the CWDCC staff, there has been a significant improvement in terms of women empowerment.
Women used to stay at home, had no income resources, and had less power in the family. However, since
CWDCC involved in this CFi, their situation gradually changed. CWDCC provides financial support for CFi
itself, as well as providing a variety of training for women. They provide skill training, awareness-raising
activities. They also encourage women to participate in the CFi activities and meetings, start income generation
activities, or stand up for their rights and voice. It was welcomed by men members in the community. Therefore,
women can go fishing, involve in mangrove conservation, earn income through various jobs, such as fishingand eco-tourism related business. They also engage in the community and CFi through participating in themeetings, planting mangrove trees, patrolling the community fishing areas, or by receiving training. One
concern raised by the interviewee was about development projects around the area.

8.3 Perspective from Trapeang Sangkae Commune Council Member
According to the Commune Council member, the primary purposes of the Commune Council are threefold.
First is to provide proper knowledge and education for local people. Second is to create cooperation with local
NGOs. Third is to help local natural resource management. Regarding education, NGOs come to this commune,
and they provide training to improve local people’s knowledge, such as income generation activities or13

environmental protection. The Commune Council then inform about these support activities and encourage
local villagers to join training sessions.
Interviewer:
Are there any current mangrove conservation efforts taking place in your Commune?
Commune Council member:
The Commune Council provides legal support if it is needed by community. The initiative of support is toprovide legal support to community trying to protect mangrove forests. Previously, without community
involvement, there was a lot of cased of mangrove cut for firewood. But since CFi has established, they had
own management plan, and the area of mangrove had been restored and had been protected.
Currently, the Commune Council is working on providing legal support to protect mangrove forests. The
Commune Council tries to build a good relationship between the commune and the government. Furthermore,
for people from outside coming to community areas for fishing, the patrol system plays a significant role. A
patrol group comes from community members. Every time the community does a patrol, the chief of patrolgroup needs to request cooperation from the Commune Office. Then the Commune Office provides legal
support: that is, they send one or two police to the patrol group. When they find any illegal fishing activities,
if that is the first case, the patrol team teaches the outsiders that there is a community area where illegal fishingis not allowed and make them sign a contract stating that they will never commit illegal fishing anymore. If
the person committed illegal fishing several times, the patrol team reports it to the Fishery Administration, andthen the Fishery Administration will take action.

8.4 Perspective from the Trapeang Sangkae CFi Leader
The Trapeang Sangkae CFi is a community-based organization that sets a vision to ensure the sustainability ofnatural resources and protection of existing marine biodiversity, as well as to promote the capacity andawareness of local people about conservation of marine biodiversity in this community. The main activities ofthis CFi are restoring mangrove forests, patrolling around boundary areas to prevent illegal fishing, andeducation for local people. Trapeang Sangkae CFi was established in 2005. There were 18 fishermen as
founders. At that time, this group was just a group of people sharing a common interest, that is, environmental
conservation in the area, with no legal status and no governmental and financial support. In 2008, an NGO,CWDCC, came to the community and started providing financial support. Nevertheless, they did not havelegal status as well. In 2009, they started to prepare for a formal election to be approved by the government.
Then after the election, the government approved them as a CFi in 2011. CWDCC had financially supported
the Trapeang Sangkae CFi, but in 2015, the funding ended. Therefore, the CFi needed to fund themselves. In
order to solve this arising issue, the Trapeang Sangkae CFi decided to start eco-tourism activities in 2014. The
reasons why they chose eco-tourism are, first, they thought eco-tourism would give benefits to all members,
and second, because eco-tourism was thought to open doors for new job opportunities including tuktuk driving
14and working at or owning souvenir shops or small restaurants. Increasing available job opportunities in thecommunity is beneficial in terms of improving and sustaining local livelihoods. According to the interviewee,
there are about 3,000 tourists per month on average. According to the most current information, there are 507
households in the Trapeang Sangkae community, and 734 members live there.
Interviewer:
What kind of changes do you perceive since the establishment of and the involvement in the CFi?
The leader of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi:
There are many changes. One important change is the behavior of Commune officials. Before, they did notsupport the community. But now, they saw strong collaboration with the community because they saw benefits
from the community. Also, they saw the powers of the community. Second, mangrove areas. In 2005, there
were only 31 hectares of mangroves. But now, 56 hectares. So the area of mangrove has been increased becauseof plantation. And also, biodiversity observed has increased. And also, before people migrate to other countries
or other provinces, but now they stop migrating. They stay here and do some fishing because a lot of fishes are
here. Within supports of the community, the dropout rate scores low and more children go to school. Because
people find more opportunities that people come to this area. One example, in the beginning, people looked
strange seeing foreigners. But now, it is very common because tourists increases, and many researchers cometo learn from this community.
According to the leader of the CFi, the establishment of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi brought several positivechanges to the community. First, he mentioned the relationship between the community and the commune
officials. Both the commune and community find it beneficial to build a good relationship in mangrove
conservation efforts in the area of Trapeang Sangkae. He also mentioned that the CFi is now invited to join themonthly commune meeting. In the past, there was no invitation from the Commune, and the commune and thecommunity had their specific directions. However, the leader feels that now the commune and the community
are well combined, collaborated, and working together for the sustainable development of the community.
Second, he explained that the coverage areas of mangrove forests in the community significantly
increased. This also means the biodiversity in the area has enriched as well. The increase in the number of fish,a variety of fish species, and fish catch has been observed.
Third, regarding the migration pattern in this community, he found it has changed. There used to have
population outflow to other countries or other provinces due to low job opportunities and low incomes. A
fisherman was the foremost job opportunity, while there were fewer fish and inadequate marine resources
existed. Therefore, many villagers had to migrate to cities to earn income. However, after the mangrove
conservation efforts, enrichment of marine biodiversity appeared, and it brought a change in people’s choices.
More people stop migrating and found job opportunities in the community.
Forth, he raised that there was an improvement in terms of education as well. More family can send theirchildren to school, and therefore, the dropout rate in primary school improved. As eco-tourism became one of15

the community’s job opportunities and income resources, some families started to let their children garner
further education, such as English class. The acceptance and growth of eco-tourism in the community also
bring changes in local peoples’ attitudes for foreigners, from seeing it as strange to feeling it to be ordinary.

8.5 Perspective from the Trapeang Sangkae CFi Members
8.5.1 Improvement of Livelihoods
Member A: Female, housewife
Income before mangrove conservation activities was 10 dollars per fishing trip, whereas after it is 15 dollars
per fishing trip. Income from renting boat service around 20 dollars per day. Before, my husband would travel
far for the fishing catchment, but now fishing is closer to the shoreline.
Many respondents mentioned the positive impacts of the establishment and involvement of the CFi on theirlivelihoods. They reported an income increase. Since the CFi engaged in mangrove conservation efforts, thecoverage of mangrove forests increased. Following this outcome, the number and variety of marine life species
increased because mangrove forests are the living bed of these marine creatures. Therefore, fishermen’s fish
catches increased. It can be said that mangrove conservation efforts brought improvement in terms of both thefinancial aspect and the environmental aspect.
8.5.2 Diversification of Economic Activities
Member B: Male, shareholder
I was a fisherman before, but since the CFi established eco-tourism, I built four bungalows for rent. I also haveone boat that is used by tourists. During the low season, I could get 150 dollars but 200 to 250 dollars in highseason per month.
Member C: Female, store owner
I own a small shop while my husband drives a taxi. I run both wholesale and retail shop, and from this, earn
70 dollars per day, and my husband earns 70 dollars per two days, so, in total, our income combined is morethan 100 dollars per day.
Not only was there improvement in the fish catches of fishers, there have also been significant effects of CFi
activities. As described above, several respondents answered that thanks to the introduction of eco-tourism
within the community, they started new businesses relating to eco-tourism. It means that researchers observed
diversification of economic activities among the community. Local people then acknowledged the positive
outcome of mangrove conservation as a new income resource of eco-tourism. It motivates members to engage
in mangrove conservation more proactively. Furthermore, due to great availability and the possibility ofvarious job opportunities in the area, the total number of fishermen is slightly decreasing. This will be helpful
to sustain marine biodiversity.
16

8.5.3 Change of Migration Patterns
Member X: Male, a boat driver
Many people return from migration and prefer to work near the community as they have seen how fish catches
have improved.
The change of conditions in the community also resulted in making an impact on migration patterns. In thepast, because they had inadequate marine resources in the community fishing area, people had to migrate
outside of the community to find jobs and earn income. However, as their efforts for mangrove conservation
changed the economic and the environmental situation of the community, some people came back to thecommunity and restarted to work there.
8.5.4 Awareness and Behavior Changes Regarding Mangrove Conservation
In terms of the awareness of the importance of mangrove conservation, all respondents understand it. Somepeople referred that they used to cut mangroves for firewood, though, after they received education about therole and importance of mangrove forests on their lives, they stopped cutting down the trees and became
involved in mangrove restoring activities.
8.5.5 Concerns
Regarding concerns and challenges the community face, many respondents referred to illegal fishingcommitted by people from outside of the community. They complained about illegal fishing because it destroys
mangrove forests and marine biodiversity of the fishing area in the community. They know that the CFi
conducts patrols to protect the environment from illegal fishing, while some of them said that they need more
support from officials because local villagers do not have the power to punish those who committed illegal
fishing.
Another concern is future development projects around the community. They knew there had beendevelopment projects which would harm their sources of livelihood: that is mangrove forests and marine
biodiversity. They mentioned that in order to protect their community, cooperation, and support fromgovernment administrations are necessary.

8.6 Summary of Findings
First of all, we saw that the CFi maintains close ties with other involved stakeholders. Most importantly, thisincludes government agencies, such as the Fisheries Administration (FiA) and the Department of Environment(DoE). Close work is conducted with the Trapeang Sankae Commune (not to be confused with the CFi, adifferent community-level organization). We also found that NGOs such as the CWDCC (Children and Women
Development Center in Cambodia) play a supporting role in developing the community with activities such as
child fostering and support for education. To give one example, the Fishery Administration helps the CFi
conduct patrols to combat illegal fishing activities, like fishing from non-members of the community or withprohibited methods, by providing logistic support and training. Afterward, the CFi refers the cases of illegal
17

fishing to the FiA for sanction.
We also found that there has been an improvement in living conditions for the locals since the creation of
the CFi. Said improvement had come about through different means. CFi conservation efforts, which include
mangrove planting campaigns which typically involve not only locals but also foreign volunteers and tourists(part of the eco-tourism attraction for many foreigners is contributing to local conservation efforts) and theeducation of locals regarding the importance of mangroves, as well as policing deforestation, have all resulted
in a steadily increasing mangrove coverage for the region.
A higher mangrove coverage means there is a more abundant habitat for aquatic life to flourish in, andthus crustacean and fish populations increase and thus catch rates for fishers increase in parallel, which leads
to higher incomes. All forms of life benefit from this enlarged ecosystem, but crustaceans and fish are the mosteconomically important for locals. A particular interviewee reported a doubling of his income from $5 to $10
a day.
Likewise, the promotion of ecotourism activities like mangrove planting and ecological tours has
provided an alternative source of income to locals, who become less dependent on daily fishing and can now
afford to send their children to school or take specialized courses such as English classes held by volunteers
who stay at the CFi, opening new opportunities for social and economic development. The growing numberof tourists also means that local businesses have seen an increase in activity and thus income. A decreased
dependency on fishing yields a double bonus, since not only does it lend resilience to the community fromdiversified economic activity, but it also eases pressure on the mangrove ecosystem, which makes ecotourism
more attractive and fishing more lucrative (more fish for fewer fishers).
Community social dynamics have likewise been affected, as respondents reported changes to migration
patterns. Before establishing the CFi, many emigrated to Thailand or Vietnam in search of jobs, but recently,
as new opportunities arise in Trapeang Sangkae, some people are returning and settling down in the community.
Another of our findings pertains to awareness of the issue of mangrove conservation. Even though manyof the locals expressed their awareness regarding the importance of mangrove conservation, they did not takeany action towards this end until the CFi was established and gave them an organized structure to work withand cooperate towards conservation efforts.
While our research revealed the Trapeang Sangkae produces many benefits for all the community,
particularly with regards to mangrove conservation and its attendant positive externalities such as increasedfish populations, growing tourism activities and natural disaster mitigation, some community members
expressed reservations about the distribution of benefits, believing the CFi leadership receives a
disproportionate amount. This perceived gap seems to have limited the growth of the CFi membership as somepeople have not joined under the belief that the community will not be of benefit to them.
Finally, we learned that the most pressing concern for the community members is future development
projects from large companies that may encroach on the borders of the CFi and affect the livelihoods of locals.
Most if not all of the respondents mentioned this, which at least means the community is united in their concern
and may more effectively deal with it.

18

9. Conclusion
After conducting our research, we concluded the following:1) In line with the stated hypothesis, the involvement of the Trapeang Sangkae CFi has (i) produced a positive
impact on the livelihoods of locals as per their own perception of their situation, which includes for manya diversification in their income-generating activities as well as an increase in their regular income. Given
how this diversification rests directly upon mangrove conservation activities, (ii) we can also say that itconstitutes a significant step towards ensuring sustainable development of the community.
2) Furthermore, community dynamics have been affected by the Trapeang Sangkae CFi:a) Migration patterns have changed as more see the local community with hopeful eyes and return fromabroad in search of opportunity.
b) There is lingering skepticism regarding the CFi’s work, as its benefits are perceived by some to be unduly
monopolized by a few. This may limit the membership growth of the CFi.
3) Finally, regarding community sustainability, there is still work to be done and which can be addressed by
the CFi:a) Many locals expressed interest in further diversifying the community’s economic activities. Somesuggested developing food processing activities, home gardening, aquaculture, animal husbandry, andsouvenir shops.
Given the above, we can say that while there are still challenges to be surpassed, the CFi has been an overall
force of positive change for the members of the community, and it constitutes a good practice that can be
replicated with regards to mangrove conservation and local, sustainable development.

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere appreciation to those who supported our fieldwork. This research was
supported by both the Graduate School of International Development at Nagoya University and the Royal
University of Phnom Pehn. Our group advisor Professor Yuzuru Shimada and Dr. Vin Spoann, always gave us
great insights and expertise that helped our research. We thank Mr. Chandara Phat for translating between
English and Khmer and helping with everything while we stayed in Cambodia. We would also like to show
our gratitude to the local officials in Kampot Province and the local people in Trapeang Sangkae community.
They warmly welcomed us and kindly spent time with us to share their experiences and pearls of wisdom
during the fieldwork. We are also grateful to the drivers, who kindly took care of us. Finally, we thank Professor
Yuki Shimazu for her efforts in managing everything that allowed us to conduct this OFW 2019 in Cambodia.

19References
Blomley, Tom., Tola, Prom., Kosal, Mam., Dyna, Eam., & Dubois, Mark. (2010). Review of community
forestry and community fisheries in Cambodia.
Central Intelligence Agency. (n.d.). East Asia/Southeast Asia: Cambodia: The World Factbook. Retrieved
from <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cb.html>. (accessed August
1, 2019)
Community Empowerment and Development Team. (2017). Research study report on understanding of
ecology in community fisheries: Cases study in Trapaing Sangke, Kampong Samaky and Boeung Touk
Communities, Teuk Chhou District, Kampot Province. Community Empowerment and Development
Team.
Datta, Debajit., Chattopadhyay, R.N., & Guha, P. (2012). Community based mangrove management: A
review on status and sustainability. Journal of Environmental Management, 107: 84-95.
Davy, Top., Paul, Chhan., & Keothyda, Kem. (2017). Situation of marine fisheries and the establishment offishing communities. Parliamentary Institute of Cambodia.
Environmental Performance Index. (n.d.). Retrieved from <https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/epi-indicatorreport/EPI?&order=field_epi_score_new&sort=desc>. (accessed August 3, 2019).
Govindasamy, C. (2011). What is the Significance of Mangrove Forests: A Note. Current Botany, 2(2), pp.
50-55.
Mongabay Environmental News. Nigeria has worst deforestation rate, FAO revises figures. (2005, November
17). Retrieved from <https://news.mongabay.com/2005/11/nigeria-has-worst-deforestation-rate-faorevises-figures/>. (accessed August 3, 2019).
Toko, A., n.d. Community-Based ecotourism as a tool for conservation: A case from Cambodia. Journal ofEnvironmental Information Science, 44(5), pp. 149-156.
Tourism Cambodia. (n.d.). Population—Kampot Travel Guides. Retrieved from<https://www.tourismcambodia.com/travelguides/provinces/kampot/population.htm>. (August 3,2019).

20

Appendix: Questionnaire for CFi Members
1. GENERAL INFORMATION
1-1. What is your name?
1-2. How old are you?
1-3. How long have you lived here?
1-4. What is your marital status?
1-5. How many and who are the members of your household?
1-6. What is your occupation? (Specify different sources of income if any)
1-7. What is your average daily/weekly/monthly income?
1-8. What is the occupation of the other members of your household?
1-9. What is the total average daily/weekly/monthly income of your household?
1-10. What are the daily/weekly/monthly expenses of your household?
2. CF PERCEPTION
2-1. Since when have you been a part of the CF?
2-2. What was your occupation before you became a member of CF?
2-3. How has your life and livelihood changed since you became a part of the CF? (Specify changes if any)
2-4. What kind of activities provided by CF are you involved in?
2-5 Do you receive any training from the CF? If so, what are they?
2-6. Do you find the training effective?
2-7. How often do you participate in training?
2-8. What kind of training would you like to receive to improve your living conditions?
2-9. What concerns/issues/challenges have you encountered since joining CF?
2-10. Has the CF given solutions in solving these issues/concerns/challenges?
2-11. What do you think about the development projects ongoing around your area?
2-12. How supportive is the CF in addressing your aspirations to the government about development projects?
2-13. Do you know if the funds are being used responsibly by CF?
3. AWARENESS & ENGAGEMENT IN MANGROVE CONSERVATION
3-1. From your own understanding, what are the benefits of MC?
3-2. Were you aware of the benefits of MC before you joined with CF?
3-3. What are you doing to ensure sustainability for MC?
3-4. Has your involvement in CF changed your perception of MC?
4. CHALLENGES AND ISSUES
4-1. Are you aware of any conflicts in the area?
4-2. If yes, what type of conflict (conflict of interest, conflict of position, conflict of information, others)?
4-3. What is your response when a conflict occurs?
4-4. What solutions have been established by CF in order to solve the conflicts mentioned?
5. Comments and recommendation for CF Trapeang Sangkae
5-1. What is your suggestion for the improvement of the CF (recommendations)?
21

Working Group 2
Economics

The Importance of Cooperatives to Small Farmers:
Case of Kampot Pepper FarmingGroup Members:
CHIKHWAZA Alinafe
DJAHOUA Ayegbe Jean-Noel *HIROKAWA Eri
LAVEMAAU Lavinia Langi Siaila
NIANGUE Josephine Andrea
TAUMOEPEAU Daniel Fredrick

RUPP Research Assistant:
EOM Nakhem
Advisors:
Professor OTCHIA ChristianProfessor LY Kimlong* Group Leader

22

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
1. Introduction
2. Contract Farming and Cooperatives
3. Cambodian Context
4. Methodology and Data
4.1 Data Collection Method
4.2 Analytical Methodology
5. Findings
5.1 Kampot Pepper Value Chain
5.2 Kampot Pepper Price Value Chain
5.3 Farmers’ Characteristics
5.4 Case Study
5.5 Quantitative Analysis
6. Discussion and Conclusion
7. Recommendations
7.1 Strengthening KAMPACO
7.2 Further Government Support is Needed
7.3 Market Diversification
7.4 Supporting Farmers
7.5 Defining Small Farmers
References
Appendix23

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our profound gratitude to several organizations and personages whose support
determined the successful completion of this work. First, we are highly indebted to the governorship and top
officials of Kampot Province, whose personal involvement helped facilitate our interactions with the different
government organizations. We also express our sincere thanks to the Kampot provincial offices of the following
ministries: the Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction, the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries, and the Ministry of Commerce for their insightful comments and contributions about
the institutional structure of the Kampot pepper sector. We deeply thank the Kampot Pepper Promotion
Association (KPPA) and Kampot Pepper Agricultural Cooperative (KAMPACO) for their invaluable support
throughout the fieldwork, which helped us gain insights into the workings of the Kampot pepper industry andcollect data from local farmers. We also thank the contracting firms, the farmers, and sellers for theiravailability and their spontaneous participation in this research. Lastly, we would like to express special
gratitude to the Royal University of Phnom Penh and its staff for their guidance, planning, and translation
support, and whose continuous dedication led to the completion of the present work.

1. Introduction
Cooperatives are said to be some of the most effective tools for economic development and are implemented
amongst various industries. Their advantages range from higher attainments of income (Sokchea & Culas;
2015; Ton, Vellemam Desiere, Weituschat & D’Haese, 2018), increased bargaining power (Sivramakrishna &Jyotishi, 2008), and improved savings, to reduction in input costs (Getnet & Anullo, 2012). Although theliterature has pointed to the overall improvement of farmers’ livelihoods from contract farming, the beneficial
impact of cooperatives has yet to be fully established. This is especially true for small farmers, considering thebalance of bargaining power between contracting parties.
Thus, this study aims to further investigate this phenomenon and focus especially on the effects ofcooperatives on the welfare of small farmers engaged in contract farming. Furthermore, understanding thechannels through which cooperatives impact the small farmers and their effectiveness is of much interest.
Lastly, from the literature, the implied “non-rational” economic behavior of small farmers benefiting fromsecured high prices for their produce suggests the need for a further inquiry into the propensity of small farmers
to expand production while the high price for the product is guaranteed, along with the underlying reasons.
In this report, we intend to show that cooperatives are beneficial for small farmers in the context of pepper
farming in Kampot Province, Cambodia and should, therefore, be supported. This will be done through a
discussion of results from interviews as well as a quantitative analysis of secondary data received during thecourse of the study.
This research document is therefore structured as follows: First, we will provide a review of the literature
on contract farming and cooperatives. Then some contextual background information on Cambodia to establish
the motivation of this study will be presented. Methodologies used and data collection methods will then be24described before the findings are discussed. Lessons learned during our study are thenceforth set forward andsome recommendations are provided for decision-makers’ consideration.

2. Contract Farming and Cooperatives
Contract farming has been recognized as a major agrarian institution that provides several benefits to farmers,
and especially to small farmers. It is viewed as a key mechanism for the improvement of small farms,
predominantly contracted to produce for large trading and processing firms (World Bank, 2007). Ton et al.
(2018) showed based on their meta-analysis of 26 previous studies, that contract farming generally had positiveeffects on farmers’ welfare. They found that contract farming increased income by 63% on average. Out of the
26 studies they included in their analysis, only two reported negative effects on income but these effects were
not statistically significant.
However, the effectiveness of contract farming has not been proven systematically, mainly due to several
market failures (Ton et al., 2018). Ferrier and Porter (1991) found that in milk processing cooperatives in theUS, both cooperatives and non-cooperatives were relatively inefficient but non-cooperatives were somewhat
more efficient in every dimension (cost, technical and allocative efficiency) than cooperatives. Sivramkrishna
and Jyotishi (2008) attributed the negative impacts of contract farming on the presence of monopsony powerof contracting firms, which prevents small farmers from securing better prices for their produce. Therefore, itsuggested the organization of farmers in the Association of Farmers (cooperatives) control or eliminate thismarket distortion.
Sokchea and Culas (2015), in their study on contract farming in the rice production sector in Cambodia,
showed that contract farmers within farmers’ organizations (cooperatives) earned 87% more income thancontract farmers outside farmers’ organizations and non-contract farmers. The study argued that the difference
was due to the increase of bargaining power to secure a better price and input cost benefits gained from joining
the cooperatives. However, Bernard, Taffesse, and Gabre-Madhin (2008) found in their study in Ethiopia thatparticipating in cooperatives did not necessarily lead to an improvement in livelihoods for small farmers. Thiswas because smaller farmers tended to reduce their production due to the higher prices they received, whereas
the opposite was true for larger farmers, implying a “non-rational” economic behavior of small farmers.
Hernandez-Espallardo, Arcas-Lario, and Marcos-Matas (2012) also argued that reduction of transaction costs
plays a more important role than higher prices in explaining members’ satisfaction with cooperatives and their
desire to continue.
Getnet and Anullo (2012) found in their study of agricultural cooperatives in Ethiopia that cooperatives
improved the livelihoods of service user farmers through increasing income and savings while reducing input
costs. Thorng and Chao (2015) also stated in their descriptive study of contract farming in Cambodia in the
pepper industry that contract farming in the presence of cooperatives benefited small farmers by improving
their livelihoods, securing access to new markets, and facilitating access to credit, other inputs, and production
services.
However, other authors have also suggested other factors that need to be taken into account when25

evaluating the impacts of cooperatives on farmers’ welfare. Sebahtu (2012) found that gender and year ofcooperative membership are also important variables that affect the saving pattern and welfare of cooperative
members. Ruben and Heras (2012) also found that differences in performance were related to the structure ofsocial networks which tends to favor remotely located cooperatives.
As such, the impact of cooperatives on small farmers’ welfare is still debatable. There is also a dearth ofstudies done on pepper cooperatives in the literature. As far as we know, this is only the second study done on
pepper farming in Cambodia. Therefore, this study seeks to contribute to the literature by studying andempirically proving the positive impacts of cooperatives on small farmers specifically in the context of pepper
farming in Cambodia.

3. Cambodian Context
After spending much of the last century and a half under foreign power or in civil unrest, modern Cambodia
was finally established in 1993. Since then, the Kingdom of Cambodia’s economy has grown at a very rapid
pace. The World Bank 2018 estimates that Cambodia’s GDP grew by 7.5% and has grown, on average, 8% in
the last two decades. GDP estimate for 2018 stands at US$24.6 billion with per capita GDP at US$1,502, whichmakes Cambodia a lower-middle-income country. According to preliminary results from the 2019 census,
Cambodia’s population is 15,288,489. With much of its population in the rural area, agriculture plays animportant role in the Cambodian economy. Cambodia’s 2013 Agriculture Census found that about 85% ofhouseholds are engaged in agricultural activities. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that
agriculture employed approximately 64 percent of the workforce in 2012 (FAO, 2014). As such, thegovernment has highlighted the need to promote the agricultural sector and to strengthen Cambodia’s capacity
to integrate into the regional and global economy in its Rectangular Strategy Phase IV (2019-2023).
One of the agricultural products to come out of Cambodia that has gained worldwide fame for its taste
and quality is Kampot pepper. The pepper is grown under the World Trade Organization’s Geographical
Indication (GI) status, which it gained in 2010. It is grown primarily in the Kampot Province, which has a total
population of 592,845 or 138,374 households (Census, 2019), because of its unique richness in soil and climate.
Plantations are inspected by the Kampot Pepper Producers Association (KPPA) and an independentcertification body Ecocert.
KPPA, established in September of 2008, has two objectives. They are to protect and conserve the nameand geographical location of Kampot Pepper through comprehensive quality controls and to promote Kampot
Pepper and make it known to the world. Anyone who wishes to sell high-quality pepper under the Kampot
Pepper brand with its geographical indicator (GI) certificate needs to be registered and monitored by KPPA.
The KPPA also promotes and encourages the engagement of farmers in contract farming, which is in line withgovernment objectives and the sub-decree on contract farming 2011.
The importance of cooperatives was duly recognized by the Royal Government of Cambodia by passinga Law of Agricultural Cooperative. Its purpose is to promote the establishment and development of agricultural
cooperatives to augment their members’ socioeconomic status. The Law on Agricultural Cooperative was26

clearly seen as a tool to enhance the agricultural sector and foster rural development, which aligns with pillar#4 of Cambodia’s Rectangular Strategy Phase IV (2019-2023). One of such cooperatives, established in 2009,
was the Kampot Pepper Agricultural Cooperative (KAMPACO) under the KPPA to help achieve these goals
within the pepper industry.
This report will, therefore, strive to answer the following questions:•

Does joining the pepper cooperative (KAMPACO) benefit small farmers?

•

Are services KAMPACO provided and used efficiently?

•

What are the impediments for small farmers in KAMPACO to expand their pepper?

4. Methodology and Data
Our study combines both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The qualitative approach allowed us to
conduct a value chain analysis of pepper farming in Cambodia. It also helped us gather some key information
to be tested empirically.

4.1 Data Collection Method
We conducted in-depth interviews of key informants in the Kampot Pepper value chain in order to understandits structure and how it works. Interviewees were picked through convenience sampling. Representatives fromthree provincial government departments were interviewed to ascertain the government’s involvement andpolicies with regards to the pepper value chain. They were from the Ministry of Land, Ministry of Agriculture,
and Ministry of Commerce. We also interviewed the president of the Kampot Pepper Promotion Association(KPPA) and Kampot Pepper Agricultural Cooperative (KAMPACO) to find out what these organizations doand the services they offer their members. Furthermore, 14 farmers, two companies, three local market sellers,and one middleman were also interviewed to examine the process of pepper production through marketing andselling of the final product. The farmers were also asked about the benefits and services they received fromthe other stakeholders.
We also took advantage of published documents such as the Government’s Master Plan and the Book ofSpecification to understand the pepper situation in Kampot. In addition, we were fortunate enough to receive
data collected by Mekong Institute in 2014 through the New Zealand Aid Program in Kampot Province on
pepper farming. The data were collected in three villages located in Kampot Province which covered 134
pepper farmers.

4.2 Analytical Methodology
Through the in-depth interviews of key informants and the study of published documents received during thestudy, we were able to conduct a value chain analysis of pepper farming in Cambodia which will be presented
hereafter. Information received during this analysis was also used to establish a threshold for what it means to27

be a small pepper farmer. We then use this definition in our empirical analysis using the secondary datacollected by the Mekong Institute.
We test the hypothesis of the beneficial impact of KAMPACO on smallholder farmers by estimating the
Average Treatment Effect (ATE) on the population of smallholder farmers. The treatment group consists ofsmall farmers who are members of KAMPACO, while the control group is made up of small farmers who are
not part of KAMPACO. The small farmers joining the cooperative and those not joining the cooperative
generally differ in years of farming experience, age, and farm productivity. These factors are also related tothe ability of the small farmers to meet the requirements of joining the cooperative and obligations of quality
and quantity of pepper to produce, therefore influencing the decision of small farmers to join the cooperative.
To avoid the self-selection bias of small farmers into KAMPACO, we use propensity score matching (PSM)
estimator to find a “comparable” control group to the treatment group.
Several other matching estimators (regression adjustment, inverse probability weighting, and nearest
neighbor matching estimator) were also applied to test the robustness of our PSM estimate. We use farmers’
income as the indicator of farmers’ welfare and our dependent variable. Our model can thus be represented asfollows:
LogIncome = α + βCoop + µiZi + e where Z represents a list of control variables. Table 1 gives a summaryof the variables used in our models.
Table 1: Description of variables used in the analysis
Variables usedin the analysis

Description

Type of variable in the models

LogIncome

Logarithm of net income

Dependent (main)

Yrsfarmi

Farming experience

Independent (main & treatment models)

YieldPep

Pepper farm productivity

Independent (main & treatment models)PepLandPepper farm size

Independent (main & treatment models)Age

Farmers’ Age

Independent (treatment models)

Coop

Dummy variable. Whether a small farmer
is a KAMPACO member or not

Treatment variable

Source: Authors’ compilation28

5. Findings
This section outlines the key findings of our study. Compiled from our qualitative interviews, we will firstendeavor to describe the processes and the interactions between the various key stakeholders in the pepper
value chain. We will then detail the price value chain before providing a case study of the current situation in
the pepper industry. From our study, we found that KAMPACO has been inactive since 2017. Therefore, thesecond part of this section, or the quantitative analysis part, attempts to uncover the impact contract farming—
through the cooperative—had on small farmers’ welfare when KAMPACO was still fully active using datacollected by the Mekong Institute in 2014. It will do so by applying a definition of small farmers acquired
through our qualitative analysis to the empirical model.

5.1 Kampot Pepper Value Chain
A snapshot of how the key informants that were interviewed work together within the pepper value chain canbe seen in Figure 1. A description of how each of these players works within the value chain will be discussed
hereafter. According to the interviews with government officials, the government provides technical training
in the form of record-keeping to the KPPA but leaves the management, promotion, monitoring and all otheractivities regarding high-quality pepper to the discretion of KPPA. The officials indicated that the government
does promote pepper on its website and at occasional international fairs, but could not identify any othergovernment activities or policies that would promote the production and exportation of Kampot pepper.
KPPA had 450 households, 37 companies, and one cooperative registered under the association. Members
contribute US$0.50 per kg to use the Kampot Pepper brand and export its products. In addition to ensuring
quality control and promotion of pepper, KPPA also provides bookkeeping training to its members.
Figure 1: Kampot pepper value chain

Source: Authors’ compilation based on interviews with key informants

29

KAMPACO, the farmer’s cooperative was established in February of 2009 with four objectives. They were tobuy and sell its members’ pepper production, provide training on farming techniques, supply agriculturalequipment, and provide cash advances to its members. The cooperative had 239 members which also included
the 37 companies. To join the cooperative, one simply had to pay a US$25 one-off payment for a lifetime
membership. However, since its inception, the cooperative has only been able to fulfill the first two of its
objectives. This was because the cooperative lacked the capital to invest in agricultural equipment or provide
cash advance to its members.
KAMPACO is responsible for the provision of training and sharing of farming techniques with its
members. However, there is a detailed description of what farmers need to do and what techniques are to be
used in order to meet the GI status readily available in the Book of Specification provided by KPPA to every
farmer. Checking and monitoring that farmers follow these specifications is also done by KPPA. Furthermore,
the President of KPPA is also the President of KAMPACO. They have the same office and share the same staff.
Therefore, a distinction between who is actually providing the training is often hard to make even for farmers.
Thus, KAMPACO can be seen as being reduced to playing a middleman role in which they would buy its
members’ production and on-sell it to companies with a margin. Unfortunately, they have also ceased doing so
and have been inactive since 2017. Several reasons were identified as causes for this cessation. Firstly, thecompanies that KAMPACO were selling to withdrew from KAMPACO and became direct competitors to
KAMPACO. Companies bypassed KAMPACO and bought the pepper straight from the farmers at the market
price. Because KAMPACO was on-selling with a margin, it was cheaper for companies to buy straight fromthe farmers. Additionally, companies also started producing Kampot pepper themselves which reduced thequantity they demanded from the other producers to fulfill the demand from their respective markets. Thus,
the number one problem given by all farmers is that they do not have market access for their products. They
were producing more than what is being demanded by the companies and therefore had a lot of leftovers instorage for several years.
The inactivity of KAMPACO is also affecting its members’ (the farmers’) livelihood. This is especiallytrue for new entrants to pepper farming. In the industry, there are essentially two markets. One market is forhigh-quality pepper or pepper that satisfies the GI specification and the other is for the leftovers that don’t
meet the specification and are therefore classified as low-quality pepper. As can be seen in Figure 1, farmers
usually have only either the companies or KAMPACO to which they sell their high-quality pepper. Pepper
farmers who did not have a standing relationship with companies before and were reliant on the cooperative
to buy their products were left stranded with nowhere to turn once KAMPACO became inactive. As such, someof them were forced to sell their high-quality pepper in the low-quality pepper market. Thus, farmers have tosettle for selling to a middleman at a much lower price. Some were also forced to sell their livestock in orderto sustain themselves as much of their money was invested in the pepper farms.
In the value chain, the farmers grow and produce green pepper. They are then processed into three typesof pepper under the GI status. These are black, red and white pepper. Farmers also do a preliminary quality
sorting before the products are sold to either the companies or KAMPACO. The companies would again sortthe pepper to ensure only high-quality pepper is packed, branded and sold in the market. However, as
mentioned above, the companies have also started producing pepper themselves leading to an oversupply of30

pepper. Since it is mainly companies that market the high-quality pepper, farmers are usually left with anexcess supply of products in storage while they wait for companies and others to find more markets for Kampot
pepper.
The middleman deals in the low-quality pepper market with pepper that is sorted by the farmers for not
meeting GI specifications. This is usually sold to local restaurants and local markets at a very low price. The
middleman would buy all pepper that other farmers are willing to sell at the same low price because low valued
pepper can be easily sold. Surprisingly, the middleman has a strong network within Cambodia and also withneighboring countries for the sale of low-value pepper. However, the middleman is discouraged from exporting
Kampot pepper because adding the KPPA fee on the price would disadvantage the product. Due to this, themiddleman sells to other provincial middlemen and often to foreign middlemen within Cambodia and lets thembear the KPPA fee if they are to export the product back to their own countries.

5.2 Kampot Pepper Price Value Chain
Figure 2 shows the cost and price of pepper at each point in the value chain. Producing Kampot pepper requires
a lot of capital in the beginning. On average, it would cost a farmer US$7 dollars to produce a kilogram ofgreen pepper. Also, it takes three years after planting for pepper to start yielding any produce. This is why it iscommon to find pepper farmers who started out with just a small production base despite its profitability. The
most expensive thing when starting pepper farming is the poles required to grow pepper. They are on average
US$6 dollars per pole. Pepper must also be processed manually or by hand to meet the GI requirements andso labor cost is also important. Black pepper is the cheapest to process and on average costs only US$0.25 toprocess a kilogram. Red and white pepper take a bit more time and effort to process and so are more expensive.
So, on average, to process black, red, and white pepper, production costs are US$7.25, US$15, and US$17
respectively. Farmers then sell the pepper to either KAMPACO or the companies at US$14, US$24, and US$26.
KAMPACO, when it was active, would on-sell the products to companies with a US$1 margin. Additionally,
depending on the contracts, the farmers and companies would either share the KPPA fee or the companies
would bear it all.

31

Figure 2: Kampot pepper price value chain.

Source: Authors’ compilation based on interviews of key informants.
After processing the peppers, farmers would perform a quality sort and sell the high-quality pepper to thecompanies and the low-quality pepper to the middleman. The prevailing price for low-quality pepper is US$2.5
for black pepper and US$5 for red and white. However, as aforementioned, farmers who were reliant on
KAMPACO to buy their products were also forced to sell their high-quality pepper at a low-quality price inorder to survive.

5.3 Farmers’ Characteristics
During our study, we found that smallholders were the ones most affected by the inactivity of KAMPACO. A
smallholder pepper farmer according to definition amongst decision-makers is a farmer with 300 poles or less.
However, during our study, we found that even up to 600 poles, these farmers were vulnerable. All were forced
to sell to the middleman as they could not form a relationship with companies, as can be seen in Table 2. The
year they joined the cooperative also played an important role as those who joined after 2012 were not able tosell to KAMPACO as well. As mentioned before, it takes three years for pepper to start producing, but by
2015-2016, KAMPACO had already run into difficulties securing contracts with companies. There was only
one large farmer who sold to the middleman, but it was not out of necessity. Rather, he had a fair amount of
low-quality pepper from his sorting that he wanted to sell as well.

32

Table 2: Interviewed farmers’ characteristics
ID

Beg.
Year

Beg. #
of
Poles

# of
Poles
Now

Production(kg)

Sold to
KAMPACO

Sell toCompanies

Sell toMiddleman

1

1962

300

200

100 KGs

NO

YES

YES

2

2012

100

269

250 KGs

NO

NO

YES

3

2016

-

300

NA

NO

NO

YES

4

2012

100

350

260 KGs

NO

YES

YES

5

2002

50

380

250 KGs

YES

NO

YES

6

2014

100

400

200 KGs

NO

NO

YES

7

2013

200

460

250 KGs

NO

NO

YES

8

2011

50

550

600 KGs

YES

NO

YES

9

1987

20

600

200 KGs

YES (ONCE)

YES

YES

10

1996

30

650

300 KGs

YES

YES

NO

11

1998

300

1115

1 Ton

NO

YES

NO

12

1999

-

1400

1 Ton

YES

YES

YES

13

2000

200

2000

2 Ton

YES

NO

NO

14

1997

-

4000

4 Ton

NO

YES

NO

Source: Authors’ compilation

5.4 Case Study
Taking farmer ID number 5 in Table 2 as an example, we will now show some numerical figures based on ourinterviews to illustrate the monetary effect the inactivity of KAMPACO has on the livelihood of smallholders.
This specific farmer was chosen as he is one of the few farmers interviewed that has been farming pepper forquite some time (over a decade) but had only sold his products to KAMPACO. Table 3 below shows how muchthe farmer used to gain from selling his produce to KAMPACO and shows how much he had foregone once
he was forced to start selling to the middleman when KAMPACO ceased to function.

33

Table 3: A case study of a smallholder pepper farming (farmer ID: 5)
Farm Size: 380 poles

Black Pepper

Red Pepper

White Pepper

Production Cost

7.00

7.00

7.00

Cost (US$)

Processing Cost

0.25

8.00

10.00

per KgKPPA fee

0.25

0.25

0.25

Total Cost per Kg

7.50

15.25

17.25

Quantities sold

150

50

50

14.00

24.00

26.00

2,100.00

1,200.00

1,300.00-1,125.00-762.50-862.50975.00437.50437.50Land Cultivated: 0.15 ha

Price
Selling to
KAMPACOTotal Revenue
Less Cost of Goods sold
TOTAL PROFIT
Quantities sold

50

Price
Selling to
Middleman

2.50

Total Revenue

125.00Less Cost of Goods sold-362.50TOTAL PROFIT/LOSS-237.50

Source: Authors’ compilation based on interviews with farmer
When the farmer was selling to KAMPACO, he was making a total profit of about US$1,850 from his products.
In terms of land production, it is equivalent to US$1.22 of profit per square meter of cultivated land. However,since KAMPACO became inactive in 2017, he has not been able to sell his products to any company and wasforced to sell 50 kg of black pepper to the middleman for a loss of US$237.50. He is storing the rest of his
products in the hope that demand will pick up again, and he would be able to secure a contract for his products.
To see the impact that joining the cooperative may have had on his livelihood while it was running well, we
will now turn to the next analytical section.

5.5 Quantitative Analysis
So far, we found that the number of years in pepper farming and farm size are important factors to consider
when evaluating the impact of cooperatives on farmers’ welfare. We found that farmers who hold less than orequal to 600 poles were the most affected when KAMPACO became inactive. Therefore, for the purpose ofthis study, we will define small farmers as farmers with less than 600 poles. With each pole being located about
2 meters apart as per requirement under GI specification, this is equivalent to about 0.24 hectares of cultivatedland. We will use this definition to test the impact of contracting through the cooperative during the period
34when KAMPACO was still active in the market. Thus for this section, we exploit the data collected in 2014
from the Kampot pepper industry by the Mekong Institute to test the welfare effect of being part of thecooperative, especially for smallholder farmers.
Firstly, Figure 3 shows that on average, farmers who were members of the cooperative (KAMPACO)
earned more income and were more productive than farmers who were non-members of KAMPACO. The
prices that members of KAMPACO were paid for their produce (black, red, and white peppers) were higher
than what the non-members were paid. It is also noticeable that the standard deviations of the income and theprices for the members of KAMPACO are smaller than those of non-members of KAMPACO, suggesting morestability in terms of revenue and prices, and to some extent less vulnerability for the former group. Based onthese descriptive statistics, one can hypothesize that KAMPACO has a beneficial effect on farmers, especiallysmall farmers, by securing higher and stable prices for their produce. The differences in productivity between
members of KAMPACO and non- members of KAMPACO could be related to services provided by
KAMPACO increasing productivity of its members, or due to the self-selection for joining the cooperative, i.e.
more productive farmers and had more farming experience decided to join the cooperative.
Figure 3: Net income and prices of pepper

Source: Authors’ calculation based on Mekong Institute data
Controlling for other variables, we estimated the impacts of contracting through cooperatives on farmers’
welfare through ATE estimations. The results of the estimations are compiled in the following table. Model 1
is our main PSM model, and the other models are for robustness check and verification.

35

Table 4: Regression results
Dependent variable: Income (log)Average Treatment Effect (ATE)
Number of observations: 98
CoefficientStandard error

z

P>|z|

[95% Conf.int]

Model 10.471***

0.162

2.96

0.004

0.153

0.789

Model 2

0.466***

0.104

4.46

0.000

0.261

0.671

Model 30.482***

0.132

3.66

0.000

0.223

0.740

Model 40.475***

0.131

3.62

0.000

0.218

0.733

Notes: Abadie–Imbens standard errors provided, *p<0.1 **p<0.05 ***p<0.01.
Source: Authors’ compilation
As can be seen in Table 4, the Average Treatment Effect estimates from the different models are very similarand statistically significant at the 1% significance level. The results confirm the beneficial impact of being amember of KAMPACO for a small farmer, earning on average 47% more than the small farmers outside thecooperative.

6. Discussion and Conclusion
The present research was carried out to answer the following research questions in the case of pepper farmingin Kampot Province, Cambodia. Is joining the Cooperative good for small farmers? Is there efficient provisionand utilization of cooperative services? And, what were the main factors hindering farmers from expanding if
they had wished to do so? We were able to answer these questions by analyzing a combination of in-depth
interviews of key stakeholders in the pepper value chain and secondary data kindly made available by the
Mekong Institute.
Regarding the impacts of cooperative membership on small farmers, we found that smallholder membersof the cooperative earned 47% more income on average compared to smallholder non-members when thecooperative was running pre-2017. These results were produced through the application of Propensity Score
Matching and the Average Treatment Effect. Several other matching estimators were applied, so the results
have a high degree of robustness.
Results from our interviews also supported this assertion. Members of KAMPACO said that thecooperative used to buy all their products at the prevailing high market price, which encouraged them toproduce more. On the other hand, contracts with companies included negotiations for a desirable price, which
at most times was the same but sometimes was lower. Additionally, contracts with companies usually would
have a pre-determined quantity and several farmers would be left with excess production in storage when
demand from companies was low.
36

As for post-2017, we also saw the effects of the inactivity of KAMPACO on the livelihood of small
farmers. Our study found that farmers with pepper holdings of up to 600 poles found it difficult to establish acontract with contracting firms and so were forced to sell their products at a loss or sell their livestock in orderto get some income to survive. Larger farmers were still able to establish contacts with firms. Though somewere not able to sell all their products to the contracting firms, nevertheless, they were able to sell enough tosatisfy their daily needs and have more to spend on their farms. That KAMPACO’s inactivity in the market has
strong negative implications for small farmers also points to the beneficial impacts and importance of reviving
the cooperative.
We also found that although KAMPACO still provides farming technique training to its members, it has
been inactive in the market for the past two years. This was due to companies no longer forming contracts with
KAMPACO. Companies directly linking up with farmers and bypassing KAMPACO due to price differences
was a driving factor. However, companies have also started farming pepper themselves, which has led to an
oversupply of pepper in the market, which is also leading to a decline in the farm-gate price of pepper.
However, even before 2017, the cooperative was not able to deliver on all four of its objectives. Due to a lackof finance and capital, the cooperative could not provide cash advances to its members or invest in agriculturalequipment that could then be lent to its members. These are important objectives. A review of the literature
reveals them as two of the main benefits of creating and participating in a cooperative (Hernández-Espallardo,
Arcas-Lario, & Marcos-Matás, 2012; Ruben and Heras, 2012). Access to finance and a reduction of input costs
could further benefit the members of the cooperative.
Before 2017, demand for pepper from farmers was booming and farmers were optimistic about the market
and the future of pepper farming. The number one factor given by farmers that stalled the rapid expansion of
their pepper holdings was the cost of the poles required for growing pepper. In order to join the cooperative,
one needed to have a minimum of 100 poles. With each pole costing about US$6, a lot of capital is required in
the beginning in order to start and then maintain the pepper farm. Considering as well that it will take three
years before one sees any return form this investment, one has to have enough finance to survive until then.
Secondly, the cost of labor was also a consideration. Given that pepper production and processing are all doneby hand, an increase in holdings would also mean a need to spend on labor costs. Farmers indicated that apepper holding of 100 poles can be done by themselves with no need to hire extra workers. However, when
you have more than 200 poles, extra finance would be necessary to pay for laborers.
However, the number one factor that all farmers say they need right now is market access. All farmers
had called for support of the market expansion. Production is not an issue as almost all farmers have excess
stock in storage due to low demand from companies and the inactivity of KAMPACO in the market. When
asked about future plans for expansion, all farmers indicated that they will not expand given the current
situation with some saying that they are planning on quitting pepper farming. When asked if they would
recommend pepper farming to any new entrant, the answer was a unanimous and resounding ‘No’.

37

7. Recommendations
7.1 Strengthening KAMPACO
Though KPPA and KAMPACO have defined roles and responsibilities, it is sometimes difficult to determine
who is carrying out those responsibilities due to their overlapping structures. It is recommended thatmanagement and staff be separated whereby each office could carry out their tasks diligently and in the bestinterest of their members. Operating as separate entities would enable higher degrees of transparency andaccountability, and would be useful for determining the true position of each entity. On the one hand, KPPA
would be managing the Kampot Pepper geographical indication, and on the other, KAMPACO would focus
on providing financial, capital, and technical support for its members.
KAMPACO needs to be revived and strengthened. The government can support KAMPACO in its efforts
to secure more capital to fulfill its objectives. This can be done either through donor-funded projects or byproviding government-guaranteed finance. It is, however, important that both parties agree on the solution andwork together to establish KAMPACO in the market.
Both parties can also work together to find returning migrants from overseas that may have connections
to the outside market. KAMPACO can and should develop itself to become a marketer instead of dependingon the local companies to buy its products. However, capacity training is needed in both the processing andmarketing of its products. Again, this can be achieved through a donor-funded project. One way that
KAMPACO can start developing these capacities is by establishing domestic stores itself where it would sell
Kampot brand pepper to tourists and foreigners who visit the country. It could then slowly develop into
internationalizing its businesses. However, this would mean that KAMPACO needs to do more value-added
activities and acquire the capabilities required by different stages in the value chain. This would include highquality sorting, processing, packaging, and marketing of products.

7.2 Further Government Support is Needed
There is much push from the national government for KPPA and KAMPACO to play an active role in assisting
pepper farmers. However, maybe because of a government market-oriented strategy, there seems to be limited
government support on the ground provided to these institutions. However, this study shows that being amember of KAMPACO benefits small farmers, and its inactivity has a real negative monetary impact on small
farmers’ welfare, which should validate the need for the government to provide the necessary support for thereactivation of KAMPACO.
Line Ministries such as the Kampot Department of Cooperative Promotion and Kampot Department ofCommerce need to work more collaboratively with KPPA and KAMPACO. The role of actively looking formarkets should be shared amongst line departments and KAMPACO. Moreover, pepper farmers should be
included in pepper promotion activities. The president or board members of KAMPACO and KPPA should
also participate in the international fairs that the government participates in. This would enable better
engagement with their end customers and increase the prospects of expanding their market share.
Furthermore, foreign pepper farming companies should be monitored. It is good that these companies arebringing in investments and providing job opportunities for local people. However, they are doing so to the38detriment of some of the local producers. Though they engage some local farmers in contracts, the demand
from the farmers is usually very low as they are also increasing production. Because of limited market access,there are farmers who are not able to sell their products and are affected by the increasing number of companies
also producing.

7.3 Market Diversification
As market access was the number one problem given by all producers, it is recommended that Cambodia
diversifies its export markets. Based on export data, the main export countries for Cambodian pepper are
Vietnam, Germany, France, Chinese Taipei, and Poland. As for Vietnam, Poland, and Chinese Taipei, themarket for pepper has been saturated. However, Germany still has a vast untapped potential market for pepper,
which Cambodia can focus their attention on.
Apart from the major current export destinations, other countries with high untapped potential export
markets for pepper from Cambodia are the United States of America, Singapore, and Thailand. Singapore has
the largest potential market in Asia. However, Thailand is a growing economy with a growing middle class, so
the potential for high-quality pepper export into Thailand in the future is there. Therefore, the responsible
Ministries in collaboration with KPPA and KAMPACO are encouraged to explore untapped markets in
Singapore, Germany, and the United States of America now while keeping an eye out for Thailand as a potential
market in the near future.

7.4 Supporting Farmers
Besides market access problems, several farmers stated that the pepper poles were costly. Farmers could be
assisted in this aspect with financial support from donor countries, grants, or NGOs. Finding a way to reducethe input costs for farmers will be beneficial to them.
Farmers can also expand their value-added activities along the value chain. Providing training for farmers
to improve their quality sorting can be done. The provision of capital or infrastructure that would allow farmers
to also pack their products would see farmers gain more of the profits from pepper farming. Again, this can bedone through a collaboration of all stakeholders in the pepper value chain.

7.5 Defining Small Farmers
The main argument for cooperatives is that it is beneficial to small farmers who need the supporting
infrastructure that larger farmers generally enjoy. Through our qualitative interviews, we found that saying
farmers with pepper holdings of 300 poles or less are the small farmers who need cooperatives is anunderestimation. Our study found that even farmers with up to 600 poles were vulnerable after KAMPACO
went inactive. The quantitative analysis also shows that under this definition, contracting through thecooperatives impacts farmers’ income significantly. Therefore, the definition of what is a small farmer needs
to be re-evaluated and established by decision-makers when considering the impacts of cooperative
memberships on farmers’ income.
39

References
Bernard, T., Taffesse, A. S., & Gabre‐Madhin, E. (2008). Impact of cooperatives on smallholders'commercialization behavior: evidence from Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 39(2), 147-161.
Ferrier, G. D., & Porter, P. K. (1991). The productive efficiency of US milk processing co‐operatives. Journalof Agricultural Economics, 42(2), 161-173.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2014). Country Fact Sheet on Food and Agriculture Policy Trends:
Cambodia.
Getnet, K., & Anullo, T. (2012). Agricultural cooperatives and rural livelihoods: Evidence from Ethiopia.
Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 83(2), 181-198.
Hernández-Espallardo, M., Arcas-Lario, N., & Marcos-Matás, G. (2012). Farmers' satisfaction and intention
to continue membership in agricultural marketing co-operatives: neoclassical versus transaction costconsiderations. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 40(2), 239-260.
Kingdom of Cambodia (2018) Kingdom of Cambodia Law Agricultural Cooperative, Available at:
http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/cam172382.pdf (Accessed: 4th December 2019).
Ruben, R., & Heras, J. (2012). Social capital, governance and performance of Ethiopian coffee
cooperatives. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 83(4), 463-484.
Sebhatu, K. T. S. (2013). Determinants of saving Behaviour of cooperative members survey evidence from
Tigrai region, Ethiopia. Journal of Research in Economics and International Finance, 1(5).
Sivramkrishna, S., & Jyotishi, A. (2008). Monopsonistic exploitation in contract farming: articulating astrategy for grower cooperation. Journal of International Development: The Journal of theDevelopment Studies Association, 20(3), 280-296.
Sokchea, A., & Culas, R. J. (2015). Impact of contract farming with farmer organizations on farmers’ income:a case study of Reasmey Stung Sen agricultural development cooperative in Cambodia. Australasian
Agribusiness Review, 23(1673-2017-1584).
Thorng, R., & Chao, S. (2016). Contract Farming Arrangements in Cambodia: The Case of Kampot Pepper(Piper nigrum). Journal of Mekong Societies, 12(2), 45-69.
Ton, G., Vellema, W., Desiere, S., Weituschat, S., & D'Haese, M. (2018). Contract farming for improving
smallholder incomes: What can we learn from effectiveness studies?. World Development, 104, 4664.
World Bank. (2007). World development report 2008: Agriculture for development. World Bank.

40

Appendix
Table 1: Characteristics of pepper farmers
Farmers members of
KAMPACO
Variables# of obs

Mean

Net income

55

12764

8894

Farm size

55

0.27

Farm
productivity

55

Years offarming

Farmers non-members of
KAMPACO

Std. Dev. # of obs

All Farmers

Mean

Std. Dev. # of obs

Mean

Std. Dev.

79

11155

12738

134

11815

11309

0.35

79

0.26

0.18

134

0.26

0.31

1.03

0.63

79

0.79

0.96

134

0.89

0.85

55

10.38

5.84

79

6.38

5.72

134

8.02

6.08

Years ofeducation

55

4.56

2.34

79

5

3

134

4.80

2.80

Age

55

47.75

11.27

79

45.02

11.71

134

46.14

11.57

Price of black
pepper

55

11.55

1.63

79

7.59

6.33

134

9.22

5.33

Price of red
pepper

55

19.76

2.57

79

12.54

10.49

134

15.50

8.94

Price of white
pepper

55

20.51

2.54

79

13.46

11.24

134

16.35

9.43

Source: Authors’ calculation based on Mekong Institute data
Table 2: Description of models used
Type of estimation

Estimator

Outcome model

Treatment model

Model 1Treatment effect

Propensity score matching

Matching

Logit

Model 2Treatment effectRegression adjustment

Linearnone

Model 3Treatment effectInverse probability
weighting

Matching

logit

Model 4Treatment effect

Nearest neighbor matching

Matching

logit

Source: Authors’ compilation
41

Working Group 3
Education

Parents Perspective on School Dropoutsat the Lower Secondary Education Level in Kampot Province, Cambodia

Group Members:
ANDO Takuro
GUO Shihui
ISHIBA Naomi *MUNKHBAYAR Enkhtsogt
TOHARI Diyah Rachmawati
WATANABE Shiori

RUPP Research Assistant:
NO Khorry
Advisors:
Professor PHIN Chankea
Professor HOR Youhan* Group Leader

42

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Research Objectives
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Significance of the Study
2. Literature Review
2.1 Definition of School Dropout
2.2 Factors Leading to School Dropout
2.3 Effect of School Dropout
2.4 Interventions of School Dropout
2.5 Parents Perspective on Education
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Method
3.2 Instruments for Data Gathering
3.3 Site, Sample Size, and Sampling Method
3.4 Data Collecting Process
3.5 Data Analysis
4. Findings and Discussion
4.1 Findings
4.1.1 Parents Perspective on Dropout Student
4.1.2 Parents Perspective on Factors Leading to School Dropout
4.1.3 Parent's Perspective on “School Dropout Prevention by the Government and School.”
4.2 Discussion
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations
Acknowledgements
References431. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
The Cambodian government has the goal to upgrade human resources that have not only basic knowledge but
also creativity, competence, skills, innovation, entrepreneurship, moral and spiritual responsibility, andpatriotic and professional consciousness. One of the actions to reach that goal is to decrease the number outof-school children in Cambodia. According to the data from UNESCO (2019), the number of dropout students
is still significant.
Table 1: Out-of-School Children in Cambodia
Out ofschoolchildren

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Total

117,13140,92440,982...

84,83082,584

134,186

180,125

186,109

Female66,232

...

...

...

51,48428,71465,97590,07991,265Male

50,899

...

...

...

33,34653,87068,211

90,046

94,844

Source: UNESCO, 2019
As shown in Table 1, the number out-of-school children in Cambodia has increased compared to 2010, eventhough there have been decreases some years. Based on the data from the Ministry of Education, Youth andSport’s Education Sector Plan 2014-2018, in the lower secondary area, the dropout percentage is still quite
high, and at the lower secondary level, there has been no improvement in several years.
The importance of parental contribution in education has been researched and proven in many cases.
Wendy (1994) conceptualized three components of parental association hypothesis dependent on how parentchild collaborations influence students' motivation and studying.
1) Social inclusion incorporates parents' open activities like going to class gatherings, actively participate inschool activities, and so forth.
2) Individual inclusion incorporates parent-child cooperation that conveys inspirational perspectives aboutschool and the significance of education to the child.
3) Parental association influences student motivation, their feeling of capability

1.2 Problem Statement
The Government of Cambodia sets the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) every four years. To
achieve the goals, The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) has set priority programs which are:44

1) School establishment and development program,
2) School quality system and quality assurance program,3) National and international student assessment systems strengthening the program,
4) Scholarship program,
5) Teacher performance management and appraisal program for quality teaching,6) The higher education development program,
7) Result based management system development program,
8) Education financial management reform and financing program,
9) Literacy and lifelong learning program,
10) Cross-sector and sector coordination program.
Despite the fact that numerous projects have been actualized, based on the audit of the education policy thathas been executed from the education sector plan 2014-2018, in the lower secondary area, the set objective has
not been accomplished. Net enrolment rate (NER) at the lower secondary level has stayed stable at a (small)level of around 55 percent in recent years. In 2016 to 2017, enrolment in secondary education was low at 57.6
percent (UNICEF and MoEYS, 2018). All through the time of 2007/08 – 2015/16, dropout at lower secondary
school (grades 7-9) stayed high, at around 20 percent, and has not demonstrated any critical improvement overthe previous decade. Given this circumstance, progress in regards to the fulfillment of lower secondary
education has been trudging (UNICEF and MoEYS, 2018).
Kampot is one of the regions in Cambodia that has a high out-of-school number in lower secondary school.
As shown in Figure 1 below, dropout of students has been increasing every year.
Figure 1: School Drop-Out Rate in Kampot Province

Source: MoEYS, 2015-201745

According to the Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey 2017 and 2018, there are several reasons that students
decide not to attend school, as shown in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Reasons for not attending School

Source: (Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey 2017, 2018)
The two primary purposes behind students to not go to schools are identified with family issues. In recent
decades, investigate parental contributions in schooling has expanded impressively. As the quantity of studies
dedicated to this theme has developed, so has the gathered assemblage of proof exhibiting the connection
between parental contribution and a broad scope of education results. Given the education circumstance in
Kampot Province, which has a high number out-of-school students and the past examinations about parent
contribution, this research will concentrate on the parents' perspectives on school dropout at the lower
secondary education level in Kampot Province.

1.3 Research Objectives
Based on the background study and the research problems, the research purposes are the following:1) To understand parents' perspective on the education of their children and school dropout at the lower
secondary education level;2) To find out what factors are leading to school dropout in Kampot Province, Cambodia, from the parents'
perspective; and,3) To explore what the local government and schools can do to prevent students from dropping out of schoolfrom the parents' perspectives.

46

1.4 Research Questions
1) How do parents perceive their children's education and school dropout at lower secondary school?
2) What are the factors leading to school dropout from the parents' perspective?
3) What can the government and schools do to prevent students from dropping out from the parents'
perspective?

1.5 Significance of the Study
The results of this research can be used for education stakeholders, and future studies as outlined below.
1. The school (school principal and the teachers): to provide the information on what kind of problems
cause their students to decide to dropout from school―from a parent perspective―and determine how
well the communication is between parents, students, and the schools. Moreover, it can provide asolution for the school to prevent further dropout cases in the future.
2. Local government: to provide information―from a parent’s perspective―on children’s dropout. The
government of Cambodia is implementing many programs and policies to decrease the number ofdropouts, but if the parent awareness is low, it will have low efficiency. By doing this research, it can
provide information about how modern-day parents perceive the education of their children, theirthoughts on the dropout, and how it affects their children. It also provides solutions to strengthen the
program that has been implemented.
3. Future studies (academic background): Theoretically, it is expected to be able to contribute to further
studies, especially regarding the dropout case in Cambodia. Also, it is expected to enrich the study area
because there are still limited sources of literature regarding the perspectives of parents on educationin Cambodia.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Definition of School Dropout
School dropout is withdrawal from the study or training program before its finish. Furthermore, school dropout
may refer to (a) both the procedure (early school leaving) and the people (early school leavers) who neglect tofinish a course; (b) besides early school leavers, dropouts may also include learners who have completed
education or training but failed their examinations (CEDEFOP, 2008).
Out-of-school children are divided into “children who used to attend school” and “children who havenever attended school.” The latter also can be divided “children who will attend in the future” and “children
who will never attend.” It is also essential to prevent the risk of dropout among current school attending
children. This research will focus on parents who have “children who used to attend school but dropped out”
to investigate the perspective on dropout (see Figure 2).

47

Figure 2: Out-of-School Children Definition

Source: UNESCO (2014)

2.2 Factors Leading to School Dropout
UNESCO (2012) profiled children who leave school early as “dropouts,” and found that one of the factors
affecting dropout is “long distance from home to school.” This is often caused by living in a remote or ruralarea. Household poverty is also an important determinant when it comes to dropout. Students needing to work
while going to school, low education level of parents, and living in a conflict-affected region increases thelikelihood of early school leaving.
Researchers have also investigated the causes of dropout. Ban and Kim (2015) considered thedeterminants of dropout in Cambodia. They highlighted the factors into three-level, Level 0 (Regional,
Community and Country Factors), Level 1 (Family and Individual factors), and Level 2 (School and Teacher
factors), as can be seen in Figure 3. From the Figure 3, Level 1 and Level 2 seem to have more influence tolead student dropout or not. According to Ban and Kim (2015), in Level 1, which are Individual Factors andFamily factors, Individual Factors include ethnic, racial, peer context characteristics while Family Factors,
such as family size, poverty, and parental education. In Level 2, which are Teachers Factors and School Factors.
Teacher Factors are concerned about teacher quality. The shortage of teachers and a high workload for teachers
are also what can affect the quality of the teacher. Meanwhile, School Factors include school quality,
curriculum, school regulations. Other points that other researchers consider are applicable for School Factors
include the distance from school to student’s house, local infrastructure, political stability, economic crisis,
recession government supports.

48

Figure 3: Factors to Dropout from School

As shown in Figure 3, that Family Factor is in Level 1, which means it is a primary influence to become thereason for children to dropout of school. This study will strengthen research on this factor.

2.3 Effects of School Dropout
First of all dropouts’ negative influence is in the aspect of the economy. Education has been considered apivotal factor in economic growth. According to the Solow Model, besides the increase of labor and capital
input, the increase in productivity level is regarded as a crucial component of economic growth. Education is
directly linked with productivity growth by accumulating human capital.
As said by Catteral (1985), from an individual point of view the person who dropped out of school
probably going to battle with poverty, violence, or disregard in their homes. Generally speaking, in the shortterm, dropouts have a high income than their classmates because their classmates spend more time in school,
which cost more, however, in the long run, the additional value of high education degree gradually emerges.
The graduates usually earn more money, and the increasing speed of salary is faster than dropouts. Or worseof all, dropouts face higher unemployment rates than the graduates. Thus, for dropouts, they are likely to
struggle with poverty.
Dropouts also bring a burden to society. Dropouts have less chance to get a full-time job; usually, they
do a part-time job, which means they have less income compared with their graduating classmates. The parttime jobs are characterized as physical work and high fungibility, which imply it is hard for dropouts toaccumulate job experience for brainwork, which is considered as a high-income job. Therefore dropout earns
less money over their lifetime than their graduating classmates. The less income they receive, the highpossibility they will ask for help from the government or welfare institution. Furthermore, dropouts are at highrisk of being involved in criminal and violent activities.

49

2.4 Intervention of School Dropout
We interpret the expression "dropout prevention program" to mean a particular intercession intended to expand
the school graduation rate. A dropout prevention program can have various program components or
measurements and can be portrayed from multiple points of view. As indicated by Harmon (2017), there are
fifteen applicable dropout prevention methodologies represented by the programs shown in Table 3 below.
Table 3: The Fifteen Applicable Methodologies for Dropout Prevention
Category: School and Community Perspective
Strategy
Definition
Systemic renewal

School-Community
Collaboration

Safe Learning Environments

Category: Early Interventions
Strategy
Family Engagement

Early Childhood Education

Early Literacy Development

Consistent methods for accomplishing objectives and focuses on school
policies, assessment, and structure of the school progressive system since
they influence various groups of learners.
At the purpose of gathering all groups in a network that offers general help
to schools, a solid establishment brings issues to a mindful, steadycondition where youth can prosper and exceed expectations.
A comprehensive violence anticipation plan, including compromise, mustarrangement with potential viciousness just as an emergency theadministration. A protected learning condition gives daily experiences, at
all evaluation levels, which upgrade constructive social perspectives andpragmatic relational aptitudes in all students.
An inclusive abusive prevention designs that are made, including
compromise, must be managed with potential viciousness just as
government crises. Bolstered learning conditions give day by day
encounters, at all degrees of assessment, which improve valuable social
points of view and pragmatic relational aptitudes in all learners.

Definition
Dependable research found that family engagement has immediate anduseful outcomes on kids' accomplishments and is the most right marker ofstudent accomplishment in school.
Birth-to-five intercession shows that giving extra kids advancement can
improve psychological wellness. The best strategy for decreasing thequantity of kids who will, in the end, dropout of school is to give idealclassroom direction from the earliest starting point of their school
experience through the primary school level.
Initial mediation to help low-achieving learners improve their reading andwriting skills build up the fundamental establishment for dynamic
learning in every other subject.

50

Category: Basic Core Strategies
Strategy
Definition
Tutoring is an organized and mindful connection among instructors andunderstudies who rely upon trust. Mentoring, just as a joint activity, centers
Mentoring/Tutoringaround academics and is a significant practice while watching out for
specific needs, for instance, writing, reading, or math capabilities.

Service Learning

Alternative Schooling

After-School Opportunities

Service-learning joins relevant community services that apply to scholarly
learning. This instructing/learning procedure progresses individual andsocial advancement, proficient improvement, and network work and can be
an inventive vehicle for viable school change at all levels.
Elective schooling gives learners at risk, different choices that canempower graduation, with programs that give uncommon consideration to
the social needs of the community, for example, academic requirements forsecondary school acknowledgment.
Numerous schools give after school and summer improvement programs
that bring about data costs and invigorate eagerness for different fields.
Such encounters are significant for learners at risk since they possess "timebreaks" with productive and involving activities.

Category: Making the Most of Instruction
Strategy
Definition
Teachers who work with youngsters who are at risk for academic
frustration need to feel maintained and have a route by which they can keep
Professional Developmenton making abilities, strategies, and get some answers concerning leap
forward procedures.
Active learning catches the teaching and learning methodology that is
associated with and includes learners for the learning strategy. Learners
Active Learning
find new and inventive ways to deal with issues, make progress, andbecome lifetime learners when teachers give them that there are different
ways to deal with learning.
Technology offers the perfect chance to pass on a manual for drawing in
Educational Technology
learners in genuine learning, watching out for different bits of knowledge,
and changing under learners' learning styles.

Individualized Instruction

Career and Technical
Education

Each learner has a decent interest and learning involvement with the past.
An individualized instructional project for every learner thinks about thecapacity to adjust in demonstrating persuasive strategies and systems tothink regarding these individual contrasts.
Career and Technical Education programs and related direction programs
are primary for all learners. The school-to-work program sees thatyoungsters need extraordinary capacities to orchestrate them to fit the moreelevated level of requests of the present workplace.

Source: Harmon (2017)51

2.5 Parents Perspectives on Education
According to Gorman (2017), he mentioned that "the impact parents have on their children's educational
aspirations and occupational success has long occupied center stage in the sociological literature" (p.104).
Research by sociologists and financial analysts indicate that parents' contribution with education
significantly affects their kids' educational goals and effectively raises student's accomplishment and limits thedropout level. Wendy (1994) conceptualized three components of parental association hypothesis dependent
on how parent-child collaborations influence students' motivation and studying.
1) Social inclusion incorporates parents' open activities like going to class gatherings, actively participate inschool activities, and so forth.
2) Individual inclusion incorporates parent-child cooperation that conveys inspirational perspectives aboutschool and the significance of education to the child.
3) Parental association influences student motivation, their feeling of capability.
As indicated by Akyeampong (2009), financial help and enthusiasm from the parents' point of view impact
kids' investment and level of progress accomplished in education, particularly female students. The worth
appended to learning from the parents' point of view was a huge factor that affected kids' enlistment,
maintenance, and graduation; it has close connections with the issue of dropouts in schools. Expounding on
the Maasai Kilian (1996, referred to in Anastasia et al. 2011) noted parental obliviousness doesn't permit
pastoralist communities to comprehend why a kid ought to go to class as opposed to taking care ofdomesticated animals. It is because of the misperception of the importance and estimation of education fromthe parents' viewpoint.

3. Methodology
3.1 Research Method
This research uses a qualitative approach as a method to conduct the research. Qualitative data used toinvestigate in-depth information, which helps understand the complexities of the social phenomena. This will
help to interpret some points which are not be clearly explained in statistical data that have been provided by
the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (MoEYS) of Cambodia in their annual reports.

3.2 Instruments for Data Gathering
As a part of the qualitative approach, a semi-structured interview is used as instruments for data gathering. The
open-ended question is made to find more information on the objectives of this research. It divides into fivedifferent types of open-ended questions based on the respondents, which are open-ended questions for parents,
students, teachers, school principals, and local government.
521) For parents, it contains 19 questions that aim for: investigating the out of school factors; parents’ perceptionof their children’s schooling, the condition of the family.
2) For students, it contains 16 questions that aim for: the identification of characteristics related to school andfamily; the children’s perception of their parents’ and school’s interference in their schooling; theirmotivation to schooling.
3) For a teacher, it contains 13 questions that aim for: investigating the in-school factor of dropout, examining
the relationship between teacher, students, and parents; the prevention of dropout as a school institute.
4) For the school principal, it contains ten questions that aim for: clarifying the perception of the dropout issue,
the identification of the relationship between the school, government, and parents.
5) For the local government, it contains seven questions that aim to understand how they try to implement
plans to prevent students from dropping out, investigating their perception on the issue of dropout.

3.3 Site, Sample Size, and Sampling Method
This research is conducted in Kampot Province, Cambodia. Kampot is a city in southern Cambodia and thecapital of Kampot Province. The number population of Kampot is number 10th in Cambodia. According to the
MoEYS (2017), dropout the school of lower secondary school case is still a concern for the local government
in the education field as the number of outs school children are increased by year (See Figure 1).
Based on the data from the local government, the number of dropout students in Hun Sen Trosek Korng
Public High School in Tuek Chhou District, Kampot Province Cambodia, is higher in the district. The school
has the following characteristics: the school is far from town, approximately 10 km; there are six classes and40-50 students, 34 students of whom dropped out of the school. According to that reason, this school became
this research site.
The interviews were conducted to 23 participants in total by purposive sampling method and snowball
sampling method: 10 parents, eight students, two school teachers, school principal, and two government
officials from 17 to 21 of September 2019. Other than parents are chosen for participants to have a full viewof the objectives of this research. All of these students who participate the interview has dropped out at grade
7 in the last academic year (from November 2017 to July 2018), it has been over a half year since they stopped
going to school, or they are recognized as dropout students by school because they did not take a final exam
to continue to higher grade. The area of research is shown in the figure below.

53

Figure 4: Map of Fieldwork

3.4 Data Collection Process
The process of the data collection is explained in Figure 5 below.
Figure 5: The Data Collection Process
Got the data from Local Government about the School which have high number of student drop out

Divide into rural and urban area

Select the school based on criteria : number of drop out student, distance, and the availability of
government program

Contact the Principle and make appointment for the interview

Interview the teacher and principle and got contact of parents who their childern is drop out

Go for interview parents and their childern

543.5 Data Analysis
This research uses thematic analysis to analyze the findings to answer the research questions. Thematic
analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data. This kind of type is used to carefully examine the data toidentify common themes – topics, ideas, and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly. In this research,
there are six types of process conducted while analyzing the findings, which are the six-step process in Figure
6.
Figure 6: The Six-Step Process Data Analysis

4. Findings and Discussion
4.1 Findings
In this chapter, findings from the interviews that have been conducted from 17 to 21 September 2019 will be
explained and discussed. The total number of interviewees was 23 people, ten parents, eight students, twoteachers, one school principal, and two local governments. This variety of interviewee to elaborate more theresearch object.
4.1.1 Parents Perspectives on Dropout Student
This section shows more how parents perceive the importance of education for their children, their involvementin their children's school life, their expectations, and the program from government and will be focused on theparent. Thematic analysis is used to identify the parent's perspective, and we have divided the findings into
seven themes, which are explained in the table below.

55

Table 4: Parents perspective in their children education
No
1
2
3

Theme

Description

Education is essential to their

because education can enhance their children's knowledge

childrenbecause studying is essential for their future (e.g., job)

Parents motivate their children to

by inducement to buy something (e.g., motorbike)go to school

By good words

The one who has responsibility for

Parents

the education of their children

School Principle
Teacher4
5

A high expectation to their children until 12 grade
to complete junior education

until 9 grade

Parents involvement in a school

Never: because they do not know the information

activity (campaign)

Yes, I have joined
Never: because school is far from their house
Never: because they have to work on the day or were busy

6
7

Information about government to

No, I don't know

decrease school

Yes, I know a little

Parents did not apply for the

because they were afraid of refusing

scholarshipbecause they did not know the information of scholarship

Each theme tells its characteristics:
1) Education is essential to their children
Most of the parents think that education is essential for their children. However, the background and reasonsare different; there are two reasons to be explained. First is that parents think education can enhance theirchildren's knowledge and for a better future. Some parents concerned for the children’s future based on theirexperience since they also dropped out in the lower secondary grade, and now they must bear with thedifficulties of their life because of lack of education. One parent said, “Because he dropped out, my son will
get the job which cannot acquire a high salary, and probably can work only at the place where the academic
background is unnecessary, like construction. He can get only like the job in the future.” Most parents weinterviewed are worried about their children’s future.
2) Parents motivate their children to go to school
Based on the answer from previous questions, parents know that education will help children’s futures, so they
tried to motivate them to go back to school in various ways. Some parents motivated their children with theright words, and the others motivated them with inducement to buying goods. For example, one parent said,“If you go to school again, we will give you motorbike!”. However, according to the parents’ answer, theyprioritized children’s decisions by themselves about drop-out and did not interfere even though they understandthe importance of education.
563) The one who has responsibility for the education of their children
Most parents have a perspective that the one who has responsibility for education is a parent themselves. Someof the parents said: “classroom teacher and the school principal have responsibility for their children's
education because they know the children’s academic performance,” However, this parent has never asked
their children school life. Most parents pointed out that teachers and school principle have never come to theirhomes to check their children.
4) A high expectation to their children to complete junior education
The answer to this question is divided into two groups, which half of the parents said that they expect theirchildren to complete their study until grade 12, and the other halves think it is good to complete the study only
until grade 9.
5) Parents involvement in a school activity (campaign)
The nine parents except one parent have never joined any school event or campaign. There are four reasons asmentioned above chart, and they tend not to know information about them. The one who joined the campaign
about school dropout because he has transportation and the distance from school still can be reached.
6) Information about government to decrease school
8 out of 10 parents did not know about the government program, and the rest of the two know just a few
information about the scholarship program. The parents who got information about the scholarship got the
information from their neighbors. Most of the parents did not know the information because their children,
even some of them know it, did not tell the parents.
7) Parents did not apply for the scholarship
One of the reasons is due to a lack of information about the scholarship, as explained in the explanation above.
However, some parents did not apply it even though they knew because they were afraid that they would be
unaccepted.
4.1.2 Parents Perspective on Factors Leading to School Dropout
In this point, this research is explained by comparing to the answer from parents, students, teachers, school
principals, and local government staff. This is used to find the board perspectives from various stakeholders to
support the explanation of factors leading to school dropout from parent perspectives. It is divided into fivethemes to make it understand, which are explained below.
1) Geographical Factor is the factor related to the geographical condition where student lives and the school.
2) The student factor is the factor involved in the student’s decision and student’s life.
3) The family factor is the factor related to the student’s family condition.
4) The school factor is the factor that contains teacher and principal school behavior toward school dropout
student and family, school facilitation in, and school environment.
5) The social factor is the factor that involved the society around the school and where the student lives.
57

Table 5: Factors that are leading to the school dropout
No

1

Factors

Geographical

Parents

Student

Lack ofTransportation

Lack ofTransportation
Too far from
home
House
Environment(Flooded)

Dust and Smog
Bumpy Road

2

Student

Teacher andSchool Principal
Lack ofTransportation

Government

Overage

Overage

Overage

Overage

Poor Academic
Performance

Poor Academic
Performance

Poor Academic
Performance

Poor Academic
Performance

Low Motivation

Low Motivation

Low Motivation

Student
Characteristics

Student
Characteristics
A lot of Absence
Female3

Financial Problem

Financial Problem

Financial Problem

Financial Problem

House Chores

House Chores

House Chores

Low parents
involvement

Low parents
involvement

Low parents
involvement

Migration

FamilyMigration

4

School5SocialProgram for Slow
Learner is
Expensive
Lack of contact
with the school
Gambling aroundthe school in thecommunity
Lack of Job
Opportunity

1) Geographical factor
In the parent perspectives, geographical factors become one of the background reasons that their children
dropout of school. The road condition, which is bumpy, dusty, and has much smog, becomes the parent's
concern with their children's safety. Most of the students had to go to school by bike, and according to them,
it is hazardous since there are many cars and trucks pass the same road. This statement support by the otherperspective form school, and student that the geographical condition and the distance that far from their house
become factors leading to dropout. This becomes worse when there is an insufficient number of public
transportations.

582) Student Factor
In the parent perspectives, the background reason that their children dropped out because their children's age
compares to the other children who have the same grades are over age. It affects their children to be unconfident
with other classmates, and their poor academic performance also made it more unconfident to go to school.
Most of the parents stated that their children have low motivation and tend to be shy, careless, and lazy — thisperspective in a way with other perspectives from school and government.
3) Family Factor
In student, teacher, and government perspectives, the financial problem becomes the main issue to leading
student dropout from school. This statement is emphasized in the parent’s perspective. They realize that theirpoor finances become a factor for dropping out. Some parents let their children go to work to help this problem.
Also, to keep their family living well, while the parents go to work, their children need to do house chores suchas take care of another family member (siblings, grandparents), take care of their cows, and other house chores.
4) School Factor
Parents think that the amount of money that they should pay for an extra class for the slow learner is too
expensive. It becomes the issue that their children cannot follow the study in the class and affect the decision
to dropouts from school. Also, the parents think that schools should be more proactive in giving information
about the school activity and their children's academic performance by visiting them in the home. Even though
it is the same problem mentioned form the school perspective that there is a lack of communication between
school and teacher, but in the school perspectives, the parents tend to not care about their children's school
activities; they have never involved in the school activities.
5) Social Factor
Parents think that the environment around the school, which is gambling, can be had a negative impact on theirchildren so that they decide to let their children stop school. However, only a few parents concerned about thissituation. The others are more concerned about the possibility of job opportunities for their children.
4.1.3 Parents Perspective on ‘School Dropout Prevention’ by Government and School
At this point, the school dropout prevention that has been run by government and school is explained below
first to make it connected to the following findings, which is the school dropout prevention from parent’s
perspective.
1) Action from the Government
Three programs implemented by the government to decrease the number of school dropout students at thelower secondary level. The three programs are explained below.

59A) For the student, the government provides a scholarship program. This scholarship is for the student withpoor background family. They will get 60 dollars per year, which divided into three steps. These three steps
mean trimester (every four months). Students who got scholarships will get 20 dollars in the early firsttrimester, at the end second trimester, and in the early third trimester. The selection process of thescholarship program is explained below.

School will give
Application form to thepoor student

The Poor student fill in
Application and giveback to the school

School collect theapplication form thencontact and submit to
department of economic

School will contact theparents about thescholarshipthe department oftreassure will manage themoney and transfer it to
the school bank and give
announcement everytime
they has sent the money

the department of
economic will bescreening it and give thename of scholarshipgrantee to department oftreassure

Parents come to theschool to receive themoney

There is a requirement for a scholarship grantee.
a) The school is responsible for recording the scholarship grantee's academic performance while in theschool, including their attendance and report it to the government every four months or trimester.
b) Based on those reports, if the scholarship grantee's performance is excellent, they will receive the moneyin the next trimester, but if the government thinks that the scholarship grantee's performance is not match
up with their requirement, the scholarship will be cut off.
c) For the scholarship grantee who doesn't get the money because they stop going to school before themoney transferred into the school bank account, the money will be transferred back to the government.
B) For School. The government builds some infrastructure like a toilet or lavatory according to the number ofclasses in the school. For example, if the school only has two classes, they will build only one toilet. The
government also provides furniture and textbook to the school. But according to this year's budget, the60textbook is not enough to be provided. The local government has to provide 200 textbooks, but because of
the budget from the central government, they only van provide 150 textbooks. The government also
provides money to the school to manage its necessity. The amount of money that will be provided is basedon the total number of students that school recorded. For the school located in a rural area, one student iscounted for 8.5 dollars, while for the school located in the town, one student is counted for 7.5 dollars.
Some schools are still underfunded will ask rich people or community to help them support what they areneeded for managing the school like repair broken furniture, etc.
C) There is an education campaign or socialization for parents to increase their awareness of education
importance. The school collects students and parents to go to school in the new academic year from
November. The principle must encourage parents to motivate their children to go to school and explain how
the school runs for an academic year.
2) Action from School
School has given the effort to prevent school dropouts in various ways, which are explained below.
A) Schools actively contribute to the Government program, especially in the scholarship program. Below is
the process of selecting scholarship students in the school.

The school list the poor
students

The School go to theStudents Primary School tohave information more
about the students

the school submits to thecommittee for review

The School list the poor
students who accepted bycomittee to apply the
Scholarship

The School distribute the
Scholarship Application to
student

The School Submitted thestudent document to theGovernment

The scholarship program from the government requires:a) For Grade 7, student performance and attendance while in the primary school to apply for this scholarshipb) After they got a scholarship, they will be evaluated by their performance in the class and their attendance.
c) If the scholarship grantee does not come to school for three consecutive days, the school will report it to
the government, and the scholarship will be revoked.

61B) The school sends the teacher to the teacher training program held by the Institute National of Education.
This program is a two-year program that equals the bachelor program. Moreover, this Institute National of
Education also conducts a program for principle.
C) The school cooperates with the community where the students live to encourage the students to always go
to school and give free private class to students.
D) For poor male students, with cooperation with the community in Pagoda, male students can stay in Pagoda,
and they will provide them food and transportation to school. While for female students, there is a female
dorm with help from Marico (Japanese organization mentioned above), so female students can stay in thedorm inside the school.
E) The school also created a community whose members consisted of school principals, teachers, parents, headof a commune, head of the village, and head of the district. This program serves to make communication
between schools and the community. The Principle sometimes will invite the head of commune or village
to come and see how is the learning and teaching process and other activities in the school as well as parents.
F) The school coordinate and cooperate with other organization such as the French Organization to provide
scholarship for poor student. The Process for Scholarship Program by The French Organization.

The school list the poor
students

The School go to theStudents Primary School tohave information more
about the students

the school submits to thecommittee for review

The School list the poor
students who accepted bycomittee to apply the
Scholarship

The School distribute the
Scholarship Application to
student

The School Submitted thestudent document to the theFrench Organization

This scholarship requiresa) For Grade 7 student performance and attendance while in the primary school to apply for this scholarshipb) After they got a scholarship, they will be evaluated by their performance in the class and their attendance.
c) If the scholarship grantee does not come to school for three consecutive days, the school will report it to
the government, and the scholarship will be revoked.
d) This scholarship provides until students graduate from grade 12e) If the scholarship grantee has an excellent performance, the organization will give them the opportunity
to continue their studies at university. If they want to continue to study for a bachelor's degree but want
to work, the organization will support as well.

623) School Dropout Prevention from Parents Perspective
Although there are various good programs provide and implemented either by government or school, in theparents of school dropout student's perspectives, the programs do not reach them or not well implemented
because of some factors.
A) They do not get enough information, especially about the scholarship program.
B) They are too busy to attend parent's socialization, and transportation is insufficient for them to go to school.
C) They are afraid of becoming failed if they apply for the scholarship, so they decided not to apply it.
D) Both the Government and the school side do not know precisely what the student need, which istransportation.
According to the parents, there are some ways that might prevent school dropout from their perspectives, andthey emphasize the role of school, which should➢ Provide students and parents with more support. Give them more information; if it is possible, the teacher
should do home visiting.
➢ Increase scholarships to needy students. The number of scholarships that provides either from governmentor NGO is not enough to cover all poor students in the area near the school.
➢ Contact the students’ parents who are absent a lot in class. There is no communication between teachersand parents. Most parents do not know that their children are dropped out.
➢ Create more programs for the students. Schools should provide an additional class for students who
difficult to understand particular subjects.
➢ Improve teachers teaching the way. By improving teacher teaching ways, it will become more innovativeand can motivate students to learn more.
➢ Monitor teachers’ attendance carefully. Some teachers are often absent and cannot teach. So, if school
monitor teacher attendance, the teaching and learning process will become active.
➢ Monitor students’ attendance regularly. It is the school responsible for school to monitor their students
and report to the parents about student's performance and attendance in the school.
➢ Transportation to go to school. Most of the students were dropped out because of a lack of transportation.
Not only because of distance but also the concern of safety.

4.2 Discussion
Based on the findings, most of the parents recognize that education is important for their children. They
concerned about their children’s future because the lack of education will affect the job opportunity ahead. As
Catteral (1985) mentioned, education could increase employment opportunities, and dropout students will findit challenging to compete to have higher-paying occupations. Most of the parents understand this condition
and try to motivate their children in various ways, like give good words to motivate them and promise theirchildren to buy something that their children want. However, their children's situation is affected by factorsthat can be divided into five groups: geographical factor, student factor, family factor, school factor, and social
factor.
63

Geographical factors and school factors, according to Ban and Kim (2015), are in one group, which isschool factors. But in this research, it is divided into two groups to make it easy to understand. Among fivegroups of factors, geographical factors, and family factors become the main issue to lead these children to stop
form going to school. The parents are afraid about the safety of their children because of the road condition,and there is no public transportation. This statement support by the student perspective and school perspective,
which lacks transportation along with difficulty in reaching the school because the minimum of infrastructure
becomes the main issue.
Moreover, family factors also play a crucial part in led children to dropout. All the families said that
financial problems made them have no choice to make their children help the house chores like take care of
the family member (siblings or grandparents), take care of the cows, and work in the Chinese industry. Basedon figure 3 explained by Ban and Kim (2015), family factors in level 1, which have a strong influence on
making children dropout of school. Otherwise, the geographical factor which is included in school factors islevel 2.
As shown in the findings part, to decrease the number out of school children, the government, along withthe school, is implementing some programs. According to Harmon (2017), there are 15 most effective dropout
prevention strategies represented in programs divided into four groups: School and Community Perspective,
Early Interventions, Basic Core Strategies, and Making the Most of Instruction. But in Cambodia, especiallyin Kampot province, the government does not implement all 15 effective strategies in 4 categories but only incategories which are school and community perspective and early interventions have been implemented. In
the school and community perspective category, the government, especially with initiative from the school
principal, made a program School-Community Collaboration which all groups in a community provide mutual
support to the school. Also, made Safe Learning Environments, a safe learning environment provides dailyexperiences at all grade levels, which enhances positive social attitudes and practical interpersonal skills in all
students. In the early intervention category, either government or school invited parents to engage more inschool activities with the parent's campaign program. This program is expected to increase the awareness ofparents to the importance of education. Also, the government makes scholarship program to ease the burdenof the low-income family to give them education access for their children, in a way with that; the school also
try to find more cooperation with others NGO to provide the scholarship for their student. However, thisgovernment and school prevention program did not achieve success because of certain situations.
1) Low education from parents made them not aware of their children school life2) The minimum information that parents got about the programs3) There is limited communication between school and parents.
In the parent’s perspectives, they emphasize the role of school to have more concern about their student
performance. Most of the parents agreed that the best way to do to prevent dropout cases if the school canmake a bridge between parents and the school itself. They want the school to communicate and give theinformation more about education and make more attention to their student performance as well as theirproblem. However, to be highlighted to these findings, the parent engagement in school activities seem to havea role to become factors of dropout case. Akyeampong (2009) mentioned that Socio-economic support and64interest from the parents’ perspective have a great deal of influence on children's participation and level ofsuccess attained in education, especially female students.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
From the parent’s perspective, Education still becomes an essential thing for their children. They do not thinkthat dropout of school is a good thing, and they tend to be afraid of their children's future since they dropped
out. However, there are not so many things to do because of certain factors that lead their children to decide todrop out and stay to not continue their studies.
The geographical factors which are the long-distance between their home and the school with insufficienttransportation make it the main reason for most of the students to dropout of school. In addition, there is not
so much support from the family, especially parents, even though they think education is needed for theirchildren. Most parents make difficult choices by prioritizing the work of their children over education becauseof the financial problem. Some of their children even have to work to support their families.
The government, together with the school, has tried to implement some prevention to decrease the numberof schools. But the programs, for example, scholarship, did not reach these families who have school dropout
children. Lack of concern to their children’s activity and communication with the school, made the parents did
not know about the program and afraid to apply for the scholarship. To be highlighted, in the parent's
perspectives, the school must be proactive in making a bridge between parents and school to have better
communication and to prevent further dropout cases.

5.2 Recommendations
Based on the findings, there are some recommendations that can be concluded for parents, schools, andgovernment.
1) Recommendation to parents
To prevent school dropout, parents should pay more attention to their children's school life by:
1) Make sure that their children attend class regularly.
2) Contact the class teachers regularly to talk about their children’s studies and performance at school.
3) Check their children’s homework, books, and help them with their studies.
4) Discuss with their children about their problems facing in school.
5) Discuss with their children about their future.

652) Recommendation to School
There are some actions has done by the school to decrease the number of dropout students at their school, tomake it more successful, here are some recommendations that schools can apply.
1) Provide a more comfortable environment to learn and more books to read2) Hold extra classes more often and make it free of charge, if possible, to help with slow learners catch-up3) Contact students' parents often to let them know about their children’s academic performance, attendanceand school life4) Hold more school events to keep the students engaged in school life, for example, extracurricular
activities
5) Keep holding more community involving events
3) Recommendation to the Cambodian government
The government has so many efforts in a whole country to make the number of school dropout students smaller,
and to support the government action, here are some recommendations explained below that can be
implemented.
1) The government should explore and investigate the core problem. Most of the problems are because of
the infrastructure, especially road conditions to the school. The parents are afraid of the safety of theirchildren. The government should provide transportation or build good roads.
2) The government should provide enough budget for teacher and school3) The government should provide sufficient scholarship because there are still many students who havepoor background cannot get the scholarship.
4) The government should hold more campaigns about education for parents. This kind of campaign can
improve parents’ awareness and motivate them to order their child to go to school.

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to those who helped us during our fieldwork. First, we are truly
thankful to the Graduate School of International Development of Nagoya University professors, Prof. Yuzuru
Shimada, Prof. Yuki Shimazu, and Prof. Chankea Phin. Second, we are highly indebted to the Royal Universityof Phnom Pehn professor, Prof. Youhan Hor and his assistant Mr. Khorry No. Third, we are really grateful tohave support from Kampot Government chief and officers, Hun Sen Trosek Korng Public High School
principal, teachers, students and parents of student, and local community as well. We cannot conduct and wrote
the report without their support.

66

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List of Individual and Company Donors to the Overseas Fieldwork Fund
(In order of receipt)

Year 1991

Taguchi Fukujukai Foundation

Otake Corporation

The Aichi Bank, Ltd.

Tsushima Kogyo Co., Ltd.

The Bank of Nagoya, Ltd.

Tomita Co., Ltd.

The Chukyo Bank, Ltd.

Showa Seiyaku Co., Ltd.

Aichi Steel Corporation

Hotta Setsubi Kogyo Co., Ltd.

The Daisan Bank, Ltd.

Sankichi Kondo, CPA

Toyoda Machinery Corporation

Nakamo Sun Route Co., Ltd.

Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc.

Hayashi Yaokichi Co., Ltd.

Okaya & Co., Ltd.

Kazuo Oguri

The Tokai Bank, Ltd.

Matsukazeya Co., Ltd.

Central Japan Railway Company

Toyota Motor Corporation

Nagoya Railroad Co., Ltd.

The Kitankai

Toyota Industries Corporation

Hoyu Co., Ltd.

Japan Transcity Corporation

Daito Sanshin Co., Ltd.

Takisada Co., Ltd.

Yamasei Sangyo Co., Ltd.

The Hyakugo Bank, Ltd.

Tachibana Shouten Co., Ltd.

Shikishima Baking Co., Ltd.

Asahi Kako Co., Ltd.

Chuo Seisakusho, Ltd.
Toyoshima & Co., Ltd. Nagoya headquarter

Year 1992

Toho Gas Co., Ltd.

Sintokogio, Ltd.

Matsuzakaya Co., Ltd.

Dai Nippon Construction

Maruei Department Store Co., Ltd.

TOENEC Corporation

Muto Shoukai Co., Ltd.

Aichi Toyota Motor Co., Ltd.

Yoshiyuki Hattori, CPA

The Tono Shinkin Bank

Nagoya Mitsukoshi, Inc.

The Juroku Bank, Ltd.

CPA Mitsuoka Akira Office

UNY Co., Ltd.

Howa Setsubi Kogyo Co., Ltd.

The Ogaki Kyoritsu Bank, Ltd.

Kowa Company, Ltd.

Pacific Industrial Co., Ltd.

Daido Steel Co., Ltd.

Toyoda Gosei Co., Ltd.

Sankyo Kasei Sangyo Co., Ltd.

Nippondenso Co., Ltd.

NGK Spark Plug Co., Ltd.

Aisin Seiki Co., Ltd.

NGK Insulators, Ltd

Toyota Tsusho Corporation

69

海外実地研修基金に拠出いただいた個人・企業一覧（受け入れ順）

平成 3 年度

財団法人田口福寿会

株式会社大竹製作所

株式会社愛知銀行

津島興業株式会社

株式会社名古屋銀行

富田株式会社

株式会社中京銀行

昭和製薬株式会社

愛知製鋼株式会社

ホッタ設備工業株式会社

株式会社第三銀行

公認会計士

豊田工機株式会社

近藤三吉

株式会社ナカモ・サンルート

中部電力株式会社

株式会社林八百吉商店

岡谷鋼機株式会社

小栗和夫

株式会社東海銀行

株式会社松風屋

東海旅客鉄道株式会社

トヨタ自動車株式会社

名古屋鉄道株式会社

社団法人キタン会

株式会社豊田自動織機製作所

ホーユー株式会社

日本トランスシティ株式会社

大東三進株式会社

瀧定株式会社

山清産業株式会社

株式会社百五銀行

株式会社立花商店

敷島製パン株式会社

朝日化工株式会社

株式会社中央製作所
豊島株式会社名古屋本社

平成 4 年度

東邦ガス株式会社

新東工業株式会社

株式会社松坂屋

大日本土木株式会社株式会社丸栄株式会社トーエネック

株式会社武藤商会

愛知トヨタ自動車株式会社

公認会計士

東濃信用金庫株式会社名古屋三越

株式会社十六銀行

公認会計士

ユニー株式会社

朋和設備工業株式会社

株式会社大垣共立銀行

興和株式会社

太平洋工業株式会社

大同特殊鋼株式会社

豊田合成株式会社

三協化成産業株式会社

日本電装株式会社

日本特殊陶業株式会社

アイシン精機株式会社

日本ガイシ株式会社

豊田通商株式会社70

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