Overseas Fieldwork Report 2010:

Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia

Graduate School of International Development
Nagoya University

Introduction
The nineteenth Overseas Fieldwork (OFW 2010) of the Graduate School of International
Development (GSID), Nagoya University, was carried out in Yogyakarta, Indonesia from September
18 to October 2 in 2010.

This is the first OFW undertaken in Indonesia since 1998, and the GSID

conducted it in close cooperation with Gadjah Mada University.

The OFW 2010 was a very

important occasion for GSID to strengthen its relationship with this prestigious university inIndonesia.
Considering the relevance of topics to the Yogyakarta context and the expertise of GSID
professors, we divided 22 students into four working groups, i.e., (WG1) economy, (WG2)
education, (WG3) administration, and (WG4) tourism, for the purpose of studying rural and regional
developments of Yogyakarta in an integrated way.

They conducted their research, mainly, in

Bantul district, southern part of Yogyakarta special province. On October 1, one day before thedeparture from Yogyakarta, they shared their research findings with resource persons and local
authorities of Yogyakarta as well as Indonesian professors and students.
Reflecting comments and advice received at the presentation and on other occasions, participants
tried to elaborate their work in the final product. The present volume is a collection of the working
group reports.

Acknowledgements
The committee of OFW 2010 is indebted to many people and institutions both in Indonesia andJapan for the successful completion of this year’s program.
Our appreciation must be directed first to the people of Bantul, Yogyakarta.

We are especiallygrateful to local authorities including village heads for their generous assistance and cordial
hospitality.

We also would like to express our sincere gratitude to all of those who kindly provided

us precious information in the interviews.

We could not have accomplished the OFW successfully

without their kind support.
Next, our appreciation goes to the students and advisors of the faculty of Social and Political
Science of Gadjah Mada University. We would like to express our sincere appreciation to Dr.
Nanang Pamuji Mugasejati, Dr. Suharko. Prof. Riza Noer Arfani, Prof. Ririn Tri Nurhayati and Prof.
Hempri Suyama of Gadjah Mada University. Participants of the OFW 2010 received tremendous
support from eleven young staffs and graduate students of Gadjah Mada University during the fieldresearch. We are grateful for their dedicated cooperation not only as advisors and interpreters butialso as joint researchers.
Last but not least, we are very grateful to those who provided valuable lectures to ourparticipants in the preparatory seminar of OFW 2010: Prof. Aiko Kurasawa of Keio University, Prof.
Tagayasu Naito of Tokai University, Dr. Murni Ramli of the Graduate School of Education and
Human Development, Nagoya University, and Prof. Hiroshi Osada of GSID.

We also would liketo thank Ms. Erin Sakakibara for the English editing of this volume.

Committee on OFW 2010
Yuzuru Shimada, Associate Professor and Chair
Koichi Usami, Professor
Junko Yamashita, Professor
Collaborating professor
Kimiaki Takahashi, Professor
Office of OFW
Ngov Penghuy, Assistant Professorii

Table of Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................ i
Table of Contents .........................................................................................................................iii
List of Participants .......................................................................................................................... 1
Preparatory Seminar ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Interim Presentation of Research Findings in Yogyakarta .................................................................................. 3
Final Presentation of Research Findings in Yogyakarta...................................................................................... 3
Presentation of Research Findings in GSID ........................................................................................................ 3
Overall Schedule for Fieldwork in Indonesia ...................................................................................................... 4

The Basic Fact about Indonesia .............................................................................................................. 5
The Roles of CBOs in Local Development: Case Studies in Yogyakarta, Indonesia ............... 20

Working Group 1
Batik Industry Value Chain and Global Promotion of Yogyakarta Province:
Promotion of Yogyakarta
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 37
2. Research Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 41
3. Research Questions ....................................................................................................................................... 41
4. Literature Review .......................................................................................................................................... 42
5. Methodology ................................................................................................................................................. 51
6. Results: Objective 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 52
7.Results: Objective 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 66
8. Concluding Remarks and Recommendations ............................................................................................. 85
9. Acknowledgement......................................................................................................................................... 88
10. References ................................................................................................................................................. 89

Working Group 2
The Impact of Educational Finance on 9-year Education Regarding School Accessibility and
School Quality: The Case of Schools in Yogyakarta City and Bantul Regency, Indonesia
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 92iii

2. Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................................... 104
3. Methodology ............................................................................................................................................... 104
4. Scope and Limitations of the Study .......................................................................................................... 104
5. Educational Finance in Indonesia ............................................................................................................. 105
6. Analysis ..................................................................................................................................................... 111
7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 120
8. Reference ................................................................................................................................................... 121

Working Group 3
Disaster risk reduction in Bantul: Organizational measures and people’s awareness of thesemeasures1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 125
2. Findings ....................................................................................................................................................... 140
3. Arguments ................................................................................................................................................... 152
4. Limitations ................................................................................................................................................ 173
5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 174
6. Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 176
7. Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................................... 189
8. References ................................................................................................................................................. 190

Working Group 4
Desa Wisata in Local Community: SUSTAINABILITY OF KASONGAN DESA WISATA
1. Background ................................................................................................................................................ 193
2. General Information .................................................................................................................................. 195
3. Kasongan general information: local industry and tourism ...................................................................... 200
4. Administration of Kasongan Desa Wisata ................................................................................................ 203
5. Impact ........................................................................................................................................................ 209
6. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................... 226
7. Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... 227
8. Appendices ................................................................................................................................................ 229
9. References ................................................................................................................................................. 233

List of Individual and Company Donors to the Overseas Fieldwork Fund ........................................................ 234
海外実地研修基金に拠出いただいた個人・企業一覧 ................................................................................. 235

iv

List of Pa rticipants
Faculty Members (9)Advisors from
GSID, Nagoya University

Working Groups

Advisors from
Gadjah Mada University

WG1

Koichi Usami

Hempri Suyama

WG2

Junko Yamashita

Suharko

WG3

Yuzuru Shimada

Ririn Tri Nurhayati

WG4

Kimiaki Takahashi

Nanang P. Mugasejati

Logistics/Coordination

Penghuy Ngov

Muhammad Rum and Suharko

Lecturer and Student Interpreters from Gadjah Mada (16)
WG

WG1

WG2

Name

Sex

Dedy Permadi

M

Niken B. Pratiwi

F

Rizky Lia Pratiwi

WG

Name

Sex

Yuli Isnadi

M

Kurnia Effendi

FF

PratiwiF

Bahruddin

M

Muhammad Rum

M

Suci Lestari Yuana

F

Dian Fatmawati

F

Randy Nandyatama

M

Faris Alfadhat

M

WG3

WG4

1

GSID Students (22)
Name

Dept

Sex

Nationality

Phanida Roidung

DID

F

Thai

WG1

Otchia Christian Samen

DID

M

Congolese

EconomyMendez Guerra Carlos Alberto

DID

M

Bolivian

Kojima Chika

DICOS

F

Japanese

DID

M

Madagascar

DICOS

M

Japanese

DID

F

Cambodian

DICOS

F

Myanmarese

DID

M

Japanese

DICOS

F

Japanese

DID

M

Japanese**

Andriamiandrisoa Andoniaina Brice*

Naito Makoto
WG2

Leang Sokhom

Education

Khaing Su Latt
Hanai Ichitaro***

Otsuka Miki
WG3

Kataoka Ryosuke*

Administration

Asuque Brian Taboriada

DICOS

M

Filipino

Yamada Takahiro

DID

M

Japanese

Tsurubuchi Teppei

DID

M

Japanese

Kazutaka Yasui

DICOS

M

Japanese

Ando Kyuji

DICOS

M

Japanese

WG4

Nakai Yudai

DICOM

M

Japanese

Tourism andTsuchida Hiromi

DICOS

F

Japanese

CultureWada Momoka

DID

FJapanese

DID

M

Japanese

DID

F

Japanese

DID

F

Japanese***

Kondo Ryosuke
Yaegashi Ayumi**

Ikeda Keiko** Group leader, * Sub-leader, # DID: Department of International Development, DICOS: Department of International Cooperation,
DICOM: Department of International Communication2

Prog ram of OFW 2010
Preparatory Seminar at GSID
Date

Hours

Title of the Lecture

Lecturer

May 12

15:00-16:30

May 1915:00-16:30

May 26

15:00-16:30“Tourism Industry in Yogyakarta”

Prof. Nanang, Visiting Professor at GSID

Jun. 2

15:00-16:30“Village Survey in Yogyakarta”

Prof. Aiko Kurasawa, Visiting Professor at
GSID

Jun. 915:00-16:30“Educational System in

Ms. Murni Ramli, Ph.d Candidate at theIndonesia”

Graduate School of Education.

Jun. 16

15:00-16:30

Jun. 23

15:00-16:30

Jun. 30

15:00-16:30

Jul. 715:00-16:30

Jul. 14

15:00-15:30“Research Ethics”

Prof. Koichi Usami, GSID

Jul. 2115:00-17:00

Presentation of Research Plan

15 minutes for each Working Group“Introduction to the Year 2010
OFW and Yogyakarta”“Introduction to Indonesian
Economy”

Inter-Group Discussions andInformation Sharing

Prof. Shimada and Prof. Penghuy (GSID)
By Prof. Hiroshi Osada, GSID

OFW ParticipantsProf. Naito, Visiting Professor at GSID

“Indonesian Society”“Indonesian Administrative
System”“The role of Non-Governmental
Organization in Indonesia”

Prof. Nanang, Visiting Professor at GSID
Prof. Suharko, Visiting Professor at GSID

Presentation of Research Findings in Yogyakarta
The interim presentation of research findings was held in Yogyakarta at University Club of Gadjah
Mada University on Sep. 30th, 2010. Each WG presented for 20 minutes and followed by Q&A
session by the interviewees attending the presentation.

Presentation of Research Findings at GSID
The presentation of research findings was held at GSID by each working group to disseminate andto collect feedback from colleagues on Nov. 17, 2010.

3

Overall Schedule of Fieldwork in Indonesia
Date

Activities
8:00 Meeting at Chubu International Airport
11:15 Departure from Nagoya (GA889)

Sep. 18 (Sat.)

17:00 Arrival at Denpasar (transit)
18:50 Departure from Denpasar (GA255)
19:05 Arrival at Yogyakarta(Accommodation:Wisma MM UGM Hotel, Yogyakarta)

Sep. 19 (Sun.)

Get-to-know each other gathering and City Observation (all WGs)

Sep. 20 (Mon.)

Office of Provincial Government and Bantul District Office (WG1, WG2, WG3),
Office of National Education of the City of Yogyakarta (WG2).

Sep. 21 (Tue.)

Board of Batik and Craft Office (WG1), School Teachers in Kotagede Sub-district(WG2), Office of Education, Youth and Sports in DI, Housing Public Works andEnergy Resources Office (WG3), Bangunjiwo Village Head (WG4)Sep. 22 (Wed.)

Tourism Office of Bantul District (WG1, WG4), School Teachers in Kotagede
Sub-district (WG2), Wukirsari Village Head (WG3), Tourism office of Bantul District(WG4)

Sep. 23 (Thu.)

Batik Union (WG1), Officials from DINAS Pendidikan Dasar Kota Bantul (WG2),
Local people in Wukirsari Village (WG3), Visit to Kasongan and Kajen sub-village(WG4)

Sep. 24 (Fri.)

Wijirejo Village (WG1), School Teachers and school committee (SMP Negeri 3
Pleret, Bantul District) (WG2), Free Activities, Disaster Risk Reduction Forum(WG3), Kasongan local crafters/traders (WG4)Sep. 25 (Sat.)Group Work at Hotel

Sep. 26 (Sun.)Group Work at Hotel

Sep. 27 (Mon.)

Morita Batik & Street Vendors (WG1), School Teachers and school committee (SDNegeri Wonolelo) (WG2), Wukisari Elementary School (WG3), Kasongan local
crafters/traders (WG4)Sep. 28 (Tue.)

Batik firm (WG1), Wukirsari Village Office (WG3), Krebet Village (WG4)Sep. 29 (Wed.)

Preparation for Findings Presentation

Sep. 30 (Thu.)

Findings Presentation
19:55 Departure from Yogyakarta (GA254)

Oct. 1 (Fri.)

22:10 Arrival at Denpasar (transit)
01:05 Departure from Denpasar (GA888)

Oct. 2 (Sat.)

09:05 Arrival at Nagoya

4

The Basic Fact about Indonesia
By Prof. Nanang Pamuji Mugasejati
The word Indonesia is derived from Greek word Indos means India and nesos
means island. Indonesia is big power in Southeast Asia. It has the largest population
among its neighbour in the region. It is extremely rich in natural resources. It is
strategically located in the heart of Asia and Australia. And the last but not least, it is
the largest democratic Muslim country in the world.
This paper will discuss brief but comprehensive information about Indonesia:
How this country make progress from authoritarian regime into democratic one? How
decentralization and democratization posing serious challenges in Indonesia economic
development? And how the liberal economic policy has created a new political tension
in Indonesia?

Political History: From Turmoil to Democracy
Before gaining independence in 1945, Indonesia was occupied by several
foreign powers, started with Portuguese in the early of 15th century, and then Dutch in
the early 16th century and then finally Japan occupied Indonesia for almost 4 years.
Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender in the end of World War II,
but it was required four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring hostilities, and UN
mediation before the Dutch agreed to transfer sovereignty in 1949. 1
Most of the colonizers arrived in Indonesia from the 15th century as trader
looking for the sources of valuable commodities, such as nutmeg, cloves and pepper.
Among others, the Dutch is the longest colonizer in Indonesia, for almost 350 years.
The Dutch colonial power ended in 1942 when the Japanese conquered the Dutch East
Indies colonial government. Since then, the Japan colonial power was founded inIndonesia. When Japan surrendered in the World War II, Indonesia declared her
independence on August 17, 1945. Sukarno and Muhammad Hatta were elected as thefirst president and vice president of Indonesia.
1

Valuable sources for early independence Indonesia is from George McTurnan Kahin,

Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1951.

5

The political history of post independence Indonesia can be divided into 3(three) periods. 2 The first period was called Old Order (1945-1967) that was basicallyconsisted of two different political systems. In 1945 – 1959 was a parliamentary
system under the President Soekarno administration, and followed by Soekarno’s
authoritarian rule until 1967. Sukarno's basic political philosophy was mainly mixtureof three most powerful ideological power in Indonesia: Marxism, nationalism andIslam. His political choice was mainly reflecting his hard work in balancing these threecompeting forces in Indonesia.
However, the most important Sukarno's political idea is the national ideology(dasar negara), called Pancasila (the five principles). Pancasila is now the formal
national ideology of Indonesia. Pancasila is based on long time social cooperation
practice which is called “gotong royong”, which is the traditional principle which
uphold idea of cooperation and society harmony.
The five principles of Pancasila are:
1. Recognizing the single entity of God. (Ketuhanan yang Maha Esa)
2. Humanism which uphold the idea of fairness and civilization. (Kemanusianyang adil dan beradab)
3. Indonesian integrity. (Persatuan Indonesia)
4. Government will be the representative of all society and adopting the principleof accomodation of all society interest. (Kerakyatan yang dipimpin oleh hikmat
kebijaksanaan dalam permusyawaratan/perwakilan).
5. Equal justice for all Indonesia society. (Keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat
Indonesia)
The first and the most democratic national election was held in September 29,
1955. 3 Unfortunately, the newly democratic Indonesia was not stable due to major
political battles among the military, the communist faction and the Islamic groups. 4
2

Historical documents for this period are based on Sekretariat Negara Republik

Indonesia, 30 Tahun Indonesia Merdeka, (Jakarta: Sekretariat Negara Republik
Indonesia, 1975).
3

Herbert Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia, (Singapore:

Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2007)

6

The democratic political system was finally collapsed in 1959 followed by the
introduction of Demokrasi Terpimpin system, which literally means “Guided
Democracy”, by President Soekarno.
This very basic idea of Guided Democracy was to unify the cabinet byincluding members of all political parties, and to generate a new National Council
replacing unstable National Assembly during previous period. This idea was clear
consequences of Soekarno unsatisfied with the chaos that happened inside politicalparties, the attempted to balance the Communists against the army leaders. The Guided
Democracy was criticized because its’ authoritarian character, and was widely
perceived as a step towards Communist government because under this politicalinstitution, Soekarno enjoy almost absolute power as president.
Although Soekarno worked hard to manage the hostile relations between
military faction and communist party, finally he failed to do so, when the communist
party launched political rebellion in 1965. 5 The political situation during this period iscontroversial. Thousands of communist party members were killed in massive politicalmassacre in Indonesia during that time. After several months of military and politicalstruggle, General Soeharto was appointed as the third political power holder. In 1966
the army, under Soeharto command, tried to depose Soekarno, and he resigned as
President in 1967 and lived in house arrest until his death.
The second period of Indonesian political history began with the appointmentpresident of Soeharto. The period was commonly called “The New Order” period.
Under his presidential, Soeharto constructed a strong, centralised and militarydominated government. Suharto successfully built an authoritarian regime combining
centralized control and personal rule. His power was mainly backed by the military(Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia), particularly the military generals whichenjoy political privilege under Suharto regime. The armed forces played importantroles in imposing political control in order to maintaining social and political stability.

5

Rex Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics, 1959-1965(New York Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974)

7

Political collaboration between Suharto, military generals, and Chinese richbusinessmen finally created the strong political and economic power. 6
Christian Chua, Chinese Big Business in Indonesia: The State of the Capital(Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series), (Routledge, 2008)
Although various political opposition to Suharto existed, the regime waslargely stable, thanked to international financial support, oil prices hike, and violent
political control. Suharto also built a very strong and large bureaucracy loyal to him.
The bureaucracy became the main political mobilization vehicle for Suharto politicalambitions. Under his administration, the political parties were practically suppressedand he created his own political party, the Golkar, as the dominant political whichenjoy political privileges. Other than Golkar, only two parties were allowed to compete
in elections: a small group of Islamic parties, the PPP (Partai Persatuan
Pembangunan) and another tiny nationalist party PDI (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia).
Although the political system under Soeharto was basically the same as
undemocratic as what Soekarno did previously, but drastic changes took place inforeign and economic policies. Different with Soekarno, Soeharto was a supporter ofWestern capitalism. His anti-Communist stance won him economic and diplomatic
support of the West countries during the Cold War period. He revised the foreign
direct investment law, which allowed many multinational corporations to operate inIndonesia. The operation of MNCs was previously restricted by Soekarno.
Thanked to oil crisis, Indonesia gained significant economic growth andindustrialisation under Soeharto period. He also succeeded in improving health,education and social living standards. Most of Indonesian people welcomed Soeharto
as “Father of Development”. Industrialization was started and given priority as one ofmajor national development goals. In short, Soeharto enjoyed his political power
almost 32 years, almost unchallenged by any political opposition.
The situation changed gradually in 1990s, when corruption started to be aserious problem in Soeharto’s regime. The privilege enjoyed by military leaders andSoeharto’s family turned into massive political corruption, collusion and nepotism. The
6

Christian Chua, Chinese Big Business in Indonesia: The State of the Capital (Routledge

Contemporary Southeast Asia Series), (Routledge, 2008)8

Indonesian people began to express their strong criticism to the Soeharto
administration, especially came from new intellectual power led by Amien Rais, theyoung moslem scholar and chairman of the largest moslem organization,
Muhammadiyah. For the first time, people openly asked the Soeharto to resign.
This growing political opposition gained their momentum in 1997 Asian
economic crisis, In 1997-1998 Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian
economic crisis. When Soeharto decided to put Indonesia under IMF supervision to
overcome the financial crisis, the economic situation was worsened. The popular
protests widespread across nations and followed by Suharto's resignation on May 21,
1998.
After Soeharto, resignation, Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie was appointed as his
successor. His presidency only in short period from 1998 until 1999. Habibie was thevice president of Indonesia during last Soeharto administration. During his presidency,
Habibie took unpopular policy toward East Timor independence. On August 30, 1999
Habibie allowed the UN to conduct political referendum, which ask East Timoresechoosing between “special autonomy” within Indonesia or having their own
independence. The result was up 78.5% East Timorese voted for independence.
With the end of Habibie terms, Indonesia entered the third period of its political
history. This period was named as “Reform Period”, which is lasting until right now.
In this period, the fisrt democratically elected President was Abdurrahman Wahid.
Abdurrahman Wahid known as Gus Dur, also acknowledged as religious and politicalleader who ruled from 1999 until 2001.
Under the Gus Dur presidency led to support democratic process, e.g.,
implementation of regional autonomy program, made Chinese New Year become
optional holiday (it was forbidden during Soeharto era), withdrawing the ban of
displaying Chinese characters and imports of Chinese publications. Abdurrahman
Wahid was recognized as strong supporter of democracy and religious tolerance. With
his background from NGO leaders, he introduced some radical changes in Indonesianpolitical system.
Unfortunately, this was perceived as too dangerous by some of political powerin Indonesia, especially the military. After series of controversies and politicalcontentions, on July 23, 2001 President Gus Dur was impeached unanimously by the9people`s consultative assembly. His position was replaced by Megawati Sukarnoputri,
the daughter of Soekarno, who was the Vice President under Gus Dur.
Megawati Sukarnoputri is the first female president in Indonesia. Megawati ischairwoman of Indonesian Democratic Struggle Party or PDI-P (Partai DemokrasiIndonesia Perjuangan). It was the biggest opposition political party in Indonesia
during Soeharto period. Megawati administration started from July 23, 2001 until
October 24, 2004.
Her administration era was really a hard time. Indonesia economy not yet
recovered after the strike of financial crises in 1997-1998. At the same time, therebellion movement in Aceh and Irian Jaya province started to threaten Indonesia
social and political integration. In those years, Indonesia suffered from high scaleethnic conflicts in Ambon, Poso, Kalimantan and other regions as well as selfdetermination conflict in Aceh for more than 30 years. The total victims during that
period were estimated more than 30,000 people. The hard times accompanied by hersoft leadership created popular unsatisfaction. In 2004 election, she lost her power.
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, who replaced Megawati is the current presidentof Indonesia. Before becoming president, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono was a militarygeneral. He was supported by a newly born political party, the Democratic party.
Yudhoyono having vision for the indonesia`s future, and his written book with titled“Vision For Change”. The points are talking about properity, peace, justice anddemocracy.
He planned upgrading economic prosperity, increasing economic growth until
at least 7%, recovering the small and middle size industry. He also concerned about
eradicating corruption from top to down level, improving labor law, cut complicatedbureaucracy, etc. Under Yudhoyono`s presidency, Indonesia cabinet known as United
Indonesia cabinet (Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu). This cabinet consisting of 36 ministers,coming from almost all political parties, except Megawati’s PDIP political party andorther two minor political parties, the Gerindra and Hanura. These two minor parties
were led by other military generals, the rivals of President Yudhoyono.
The transition from authoritarian toward new big democracy is not an easy task.
As we will discuss in the next session, size is major impediment in implementing
democratic Indonesia. The diversity in terms of cultural, ethnicity, religions as well as

10

economic prosperity across Indonesian society have been making the installation of
democracy mostly problematic. 7

Indonesian Geography and Population: Managing the Big Size
Indonesia is a Southeast Asian country. Indonesia located between Indian
Ocean and Pacific Ocean, and it lies between Asia and Australia continents. Indonesia
is an archipelagic country of 17,508 islands stretching along the equator in Southeast
Asia, but only 6,000 are inhabited and 1,000 are permanently settled. The big fiveisland in Indonesia are Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya.
This position make Indonesia has strategic sea-lane position as fostering theinter-island and international trade. Total area 1,904,569 sq km and for total sea area,
7.9 million square kilometres, this is including an exclusive economic zone. In term of
the total area Indonesia is in the 16th position in the world. Indonesia boundaries arewith East Timor, Malaysia on Borneo, and Papua New Guinea on Irian Jaya. Totalland boundaries area is 1,758 kilometers, 1,107 kilometers with Malaysia, 820
kilometers with Papua New Guinea and 288 kilometers with East Timor. Other
neighbour countries are Singapore, Australia, and the Philippines.
Indonesia claims a 12 nautical mile territorial sea and a 200 nautical mile
exclusive economic zone (EEZ), measured from claimed archipelagic straightbaselines. Estimated 7.9 million square kilometres for the total area of the Indonesia’s
territorial sea and an exclusive economic zone.
Some areas of Indonesia dominated by mountains, with the peaks of mountainreaching 3,800 meters from the sea level and some mountains in Papua can reach 5,000
meters from sea level. The highest peak mountain is located in Papua, named Puncak
Jaya with 5,030 meters from sea level. Around 400 volcanoes in Indonesia are
tectonically unstable, of which 100 are active.
The total area for waterways in Indonesia is around 21,579 kilometers. The
prominent rivers in Indonesia are Musi, Batanghari, Indragiri, Kampar rivers located in
Sumatra. Kapuas, barito, Mahakam Rivers are located in Kalimantan. Memberamo and

7

Jacques Bertrand, Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia (Cambridge Asia-Pacific),(Cambridge University Press, 2004)11

Digul rivers are located in Papua. Bengawan, Solo, Citarum and Brantas rivers arelocated in Java. Most of the river in Indonesia function as irrigation for paddy fields.
Since January 1, 1988, Indonesia had three time zones: Western Indonesia
Standard Time (GMT + 7), covering all provinces on Sumatra and Java, and theprovinces of western and central Kalimantan; Central Indonesia Standard Time (GMT+8), covering the provinces of eastern and southern Kalimantan, all provinces on
Sulawesi, and the provinces of Bali, West Nusatenggara, and East Nusatenggara; andEastern Indonesia Standard Time (GMT + 9), covering the provinces of Maluku andPapua.
Indonesia is fourth rank most populated country after China, India, and UnitedStated. The population in Indonesia estimated around 222 million. In 2010, the amountof Indonesia population increasing reached 240,271,522. Indonesia has succeeded inlowering its annual population growth rate from 2.34% during 1970-1980, to 1,98%
during 1980-1990, to approximately 1.66% during the 1990s. It is also predicted thatthe growth rate will decrease to 0.68%. Indonesia succeeded in lowering the population
growth because the annual program of national family planning programmes. Javaisland is the most populated area in Indonesia around 130 million population, inhabitedby 59% of the Indonesia total population. Maluku and Papua have 25% of the total
area but are only inhabited by 2% of the total population. The average population
density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world. Sixty
nine of population live in rural areas.
Indonesia is not an Islamic state, but majority society of Indonesia is a Muslim,
since about 86,1% of Indonesians are Muslim. The other religion such as Christian isaround 8,7%, Hindu is around 3% and Buddhist around 1,8%. Most of the Hindus areliving in Bali, as the centre of Hindus people. In Indonesia also recognize animism,
still practiced in remote areas. But based on the constitution guarantees freedom of
religion only for five religions (Muslim, Christian, Catholic, Hindhu, Buddha)
recognized by the state.
Culturally, Indonesia is very diverse. There are estimated around 350
ethnolinguistic groups in Indonesia, 180 of them located in Papua. the majority ethics
groups in Indonesia are Javanese is around 45% of population, Sundanese 14% ,Madurese 7.5%, coastal Malays 7.5% and the others around 26%.

12

Demography condition in Indonesia, based on the age structure, 29.4% ofIndonesians are under 14 years, 65.6% are between 15 and 64 years, and 5.1% are 65
and older. In 2008, under-5 mortality rank was 66, under-5 mortality rate was 41,
annual number of under-5 deaths was 173 thousands, and life expectancy at birth was
71. 8

Governmental Sytem: Decentralization and Centralization
The legislative power is the hand of People's Consultative Assembly, or the
Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR). MPR divided into two bodies,representation of political parties (House of Representative/ Dewan Perwakilan rakyat
or DPR) and representation from provinces all over Indonesia or House of Regional
Representative (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or DPD).
Indonesian President is the highest position in national executive leader.
Indonesian president is elected every 5 years through direct general election. The
president has the priveleged political right to appoint the ministers as his assistants.
Indonesia also have an advisory board, the function is to give suggestion for president.
Indonesia is a republic country. Indonesia consist of 30 provinces, two special
regions (daerah istimewa), and one special capital city (daerah khusus ibukota). The
policy of decentralization started running on January 1, 2001. After thedecentralization policy, administrative concentrated on regencies and municipalities
for providing government services.
The capital city of Indonesia is Jakarta, its metropolitan city and the largest city
in Indonesia. Jakarta is located in northwest coast of Java. This city is the mostpopulated city in Indonesia, the population is around 9,580,000. the total area is
661 square kilometres (255 sq mi). Jakarta also becoming the centre of culture, politic,
and economic activities. Jakarta is devided into five municipalities, each of the themlead by a mayor, and also consist of regency lead by a regent.

8

http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/indonesia_statistics.html

13

The Government Structure of Indonesia

People Consultative
Assembly

Supreme Court

President

House ofState of Audit

Representative

Board

Coordina-

State

Ministerial

Other Special

Non-

ting

Ministry

Departments

State

Departmental

Agencies

Agencies

ministry

Regional Government (provincies, cities, districts)

Source: www.ri.go.id (Indoneisa official website)
Regional disparities in Indonesia have been severe compared with othercountries, after the financial crisis in 1997 and then worsened by the implementation
decentralization act 2004. The decentralization Act stipulating that municipal / regency
where the natural resources located, earn higher revenue share compared with theprovince government and other municipalities/regencies in the same province. Withhigher revenue share, the prosperous regions will experience faster economic growthand lead to larger inequality between regions. 9
With the focus to the natural resources revenue sharing, decentralization inIndonesia creating almost no impetus to the emergence of dynamic and vibrant local
industrialization. The local government has limited incentives to formulate andimplement long-term goals of local industrialization. With the deepening of democracy
in local politics, and the weak chain of coordination between central and local
9

Adiwan F. Aritenang, “A Study on Indonesia Regions Disparity: Post Decentralization”.

14government, Indonesia local development experiencing bureaucratic and politicalhindrances. 10
The research conducted by KPPOD, Committee for Decentralization Oversight(Komite Pemantauan Pelaksanaan Otonomi Daerah) show that only 2 percent of thelocal governments moving toward business-friendly regulation procedures. The
decentralization process in Indonesia at whole is still blocking the goal of creating
local development and local industrialization. At the local government side, thetendency to prioritize local budget rather than local GRDP (gross regionaldomestic product) will still discourage the potential investors that want to stayaway from illegal and excessive charges or levies. Local budget (APBD) isrelatively failed to function as local economic stimulator. 11
Even, democratic institution that was built on the ethnically divided society inIndonesia has failed to create the sense of Indonesia-ness, as a researcher concludes
that the rising power of districts has resulted in the establishment of barriers to theinter-district movement of goods, services, capital, and labor across some districts. In
some more frequent cases, inter-districts barriers were imposed in some districts, andthey may take the form of taxation, tariff and non-tariff barriers. These barriers areoften triggering political and policy conflicts among regions. This inward-looking
tendency is exacerbated by the idea of giving privileges to people based on theirethnicity or as called putra daerah (local people). 12

10

Maribeth Erb, Regionalism in Post-Suharto Indonesia (Routledgecurzon Contemporary

Southeast Asia Series), (RoutledgeCurzon, 2004)
11

Various surveys on the relations between local autonomy and economic competitivenessconducted by KPPOD could be accessed from http://www.kppod.org. See also, Bambang
Brodjonegoro, Three Years of Fiscal Desecentralization in Indonesia: Its Impact on Regional
Economic Development and Fiscal Sustainibility. Downloaded from: http://www.econ.hitu.ac.jp/~kokyo/APPPsympo04/Indonesia(Bambang).pdf
12

Riyanto, “Riding Along a Bumpy Road: Indonesian Economy in an Emerging DemocraticEra”, ASEAN Economic Bulletin, Vol. 23, no. 1, April 2006.

15

Economic Development: the Footprint of Neoliberal Hegemony
During Soekarno era, the economic policy was basically nationalist socialism.
Soekarno forbade the massive inflow of foreign direct investment. His economic
policy primarily based on political goal of creating economic independence along with
political indepencde, which is populraly knows as Berdikari Policy (stands for Berdiri
di Atas Kaki Sendiri) or Standing on Our Own Feet.
In the early 1960s, right after Soekarno introduced Guided Democracy,
Indonesia still dealing with political instability, a young and inexperienced government,
and the euphoria of economic nationalism. Those factors resulted in increasing policy
mismanagement causing severe poverty and hunger during that time.
After Soeharto took power, government tried to push industrialization.
Indonesia started to produce steel, aluminium, and cement. During Soehato era, theeconomic policy was amied at stablizing currency rate, decreasing of inflation rate,
rescheduling foreign debt, attracting more foreign aid and international investment. In
1970s, the oil price hike made Indonesia enjoyed the high economic growth. During
1980s, Indonesia received more foreign investment which the prime engine of rapid
development of export oriented of manufactor sector. Before the crisis of 1997 theaverage of economy growth was more than 7%.
Unfortunately, in 1997-1998, Indonesia was one of hard-hit countries by Asianfinancial crisis. The Rupiah value against the US dollar dropped from Rp. 2,600 to Rp.
14,000 and the economy tapered down by 13.7% and the inflation rate touched nearly
60% in 1998. Asked by Soeharto, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) started a $40
billion program to stabilize the currencies in Indonesia.
Indonesia economic recovery from crisis took longest time, compared to other
Southeast Asian countries. Problem with social and political stability as well as
corruption at government and business level hampered the economy recovery progress.
Under Soeharto era, the economy slumped by corruption, collusion and nepotism.
Even though the anti corruption is improving from time to time, in the Reform Period,
the slow progress on legal, banking, and corporate reforms as well as terrorism still the
major obstacles in full economic recovery. 13
13David Bevan , The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth : Nigeria andIndonesia (A World Bank Publication, 1999).

16

The average annual growth of both GDP and GDP per capita has slowed
substantially since the 1980s. The average annual growth of GDP in 1982–92 was 6.9
percent; in the 1992–2002 period, it was 2.5 percent. The average annual growth in
GDP per capita for 1982–92 was 5.0 percent, and in 1992–2002 it was 1.1 percent. In
2002 PPP was Rp 6,052.2 trillion (US$650 billion), and PPP per capita was Rp 28.6
million (US$3,070), which ranks as 141 out of 208 countries listed by the World Bank.
Estimated PPP was Rp7058.7 trillion (US$758.1 billion) in 2003. The estimatedaverage PPP per capita for 2003 was Rp29.8 million (US$3,200). 14

The newest

estimation for GDP is US$ 968.5 while the per capita GDP is around US$ 4000 in2009.
In 2004 and 2005 GDP increase reached more than 5%, and estimated will
increase further. The increase of GDP growth, unfortunatelty, was not sufficient toscale down the unemployment rate, or boost the labor wage. Estimated around 14.15%of the Indonesian was living under the poverty line (2010), categorising people withpurchasing power parity of US$ 1.55 per day (household income), and almost half of
population in Indonesia was living on less than US$2 per day.
In terms of international trade, Indonesia’s important partners for export
markets are Japan (22.3%), The United Stated (13.9%), China (9.1%), and Singapore(8.9%). In other hand the important suppliers for imports are Japan (18.0%), China(16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). Indonesia is rich with natural resources; thepetroleum and natural gas are the most major resources in Indonesia. Indonesia is theworld’s number one exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and the seventeenthlargest oil producer in the world, responsible for about 1.8 percent of world production
and 5.2 percent of total Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
production in 2004.
Mining and mineral production contribute 11.9% of gross domestic product(GDP). The significant product are Crude petroleum and natural gas, 1.2 million
barrels of petroleum are produced per day. The golden era of petroleum product was in1995, 1.6 million barrels per day. Indonesia one of the world’s largest exporter for theliquefied natural gas. Central Sumatra is the main area of petroleum production, has
about 60 percent of the reserves of coal, of which a total of 114 million tons were17

produced nationwide in 2003. Java also other central production of petroleum, andthere are substantial proven offshore reserves.
For the liquefied natural gas, an estimated 69 billion cubic meters were
produced in 2001, and Indonesia had an estimated proven reserve of 5.5 trillion cubic
meters in 2002. The other natural resources of Indonesia are coal, bauxite, gold, copper,
nickel, silver, sulphur, iron, and tin. The other significant non-mineral resource istimber. Most of the mining and mineral product take long process and consume a lot ofmoney in production process.
In 2004 agriculture represented a declining share (17.5 percent or lower; downfrom 20.6 percent in 1993) of gross domestic product (GDP) but employed a majorityof workers (an estimated 45 percent of the total labor force) in 2004. Only about 11.3
percent of the total land is arable. Farming is by smallholders and on large private andgovernment-owned commercial plantations. Rice dominates food production, butcassava, corn, fruits, sweet potatoes, and vegetables also are important subsistencecrops. Green Revolution technological advances and increased use of fertilizers,
pesticides, and irrigation improved rice production in the 1970s and 1980s. Cash crops
include cocoa, coffee, copra, palm oil, peanuts, rubber, soybeans, sugar, tea, andtobacco. Animal husbandry (dairy and beef cattle, poultry and eggs, and pigs) andfishing are small but valuable parts of the agricultural sector.
Attempts to ameliorate rural poverty by means of a transmigration program
moving families from highly populated agricultural regions such as Central Java to lesspopulated areas in, for example, Sumatra and Kalimantan, have failed. Greatly
expanding a program begun by the Dutch early in the twentieth century, at the
program’s height in the 1979–84 period, the Suharto government moved 500,000
people. Poor funding and preparation, local hostility, suspicions about ulterior motives,and (somewhat ironically) economic growth on Java, brought about a precipitous
decline; in 2000 the transmigration program was ended.
To sum up, the history of Indonesian economy was journey from several “trial
and error” approaches of economic policy. Started with socialism during Soekarno era
and than followed by capitalism in the Soeharto period, proving that both of economic
policy paradigm were failed in creating prosperity for most of Indonesian population.
The deepening of democracy and the growing influence of American economists

18

among decision makers put Indonesia economy in the footprint of global neoliberal
economic hegemony.

References:
George McTurnan Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 1951.
Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia, 30 Tahun Indonesia Merdeka, (Jakarta:
Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia, 1975).
Herbert Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia, (Singapore:
Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2007)
Rex Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics, 19591965 (New York Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974)
Christian Chua, Chinese Big Business in Indonesia: The State of the Capital(Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series), (Routledge, 2008)
Jacques Bertrand, Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia (Cambridge AsiaPacific), (Cambridge University Press, 2004)
Adiwan F. Aritenang, “A Study on Indonesia Regions Disparity: Post
Decentralization”. No year.
Maribeth Erb, Regionalism in Post-Suharto Indonesia (Routledgecurzon
Contemporary Southeast Asia Series), (RoutledgeCurzon, 2004)
Riyanto, “Riding Along a Bumpy Road: Indonesian Economy in an Emerging
Democratic Era”, ASEAN Economic Bulletin, Vol. 23, no. 1, April 2006.
David Bevan , The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth : Nigeria andIndonesia (A World Bank Publication, 1999).

19

The Roles of CBOs in Local Development :Case Studies in Yogyakarta, Indonesia
By Prof. Suharko
Introduction
Involvement of Indonesian Government in the provision of basic social
services have been less significant in the last decade. It happens due to liberalpractices of state where it performs in minimal roles. As seen in the states in whichsuch liberal practices are implemented, its function as basic social service provider isgradually handed over to community or society and market, though at the initial stage
it was under government responsibility (Ife &Tesoriero, 2006).
Local community is requested to establish their own institution functioning
for the provision of social services for the people. Meanwhile, market is allowed tohave authority of freedom to emerge in the areas of social services which was at
initial stage provided by the state. Embarking for that situation, people must be
responsible for the higher costs of some services. For instance, they always complain
about blooming cost of education (ranging from playgroup to the university) andmedical and healthcare in health centres (local health center, clinics, hospital, etc).
In this context, the existence and roles of Community Based Organisations(CBOs) are very important to function community-based services. Primarily in thelocal context, CBO performs its responsibilty and play alternative roles because
weakening role of government institutions (Ife &Tesoriero, 2006). In some extents,
CBO is not considered new for local community in Indonesia. They establish CBO as
way to resolve problems in regard to social services for the shake of themselves.
When government involvement downshifts, this CBO comes up as community agent
in grassroot level in order to keep it survive and guarantee that social services isgiven in well-managed manner.
This paper is in attempt to uncover the important roles and existence of CBO
through elaboration arised from several cases in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Presentation
about the general concept and roles will firstly highlighted and afterward it continues

20with its milestones in the context of community Indonesia. Three case studies of
CBOs will also be pointed out to view closely some of CBO’s activities. And the lastsection will be summarised with concluding remarks.

Local Institutions and Development
In general context of developing countries as asserted by Uphoff (1986) andEsmand & Uphoff (1984), there are many organisations at the local level. It arises
because of two main reasons. First of all, people are more easily to formulate theircommon interests and proliferate their efforst in making it possible through collective
actions. Intense social interaction enables them to instantly formulate common
interests and perform it through collective actions. Second of all, people use local
level as a basic means to make decisions and mobilise resources because establishedidentity is located within smaller groups. In relatively micro social unit, people areeasily make a move forward to organise themselves for decision making processes
and to mobilise resource in realising common interests possible for them.
Local levels, as Uphoff (1986) emphasizes, can be defined as social space orunits under sub-district level that consists of relations among communities (locality),
community, and social groups. Locality levels composites many communities wherecoperative and commercial relations are fostered. Community level is a unit of social
economic settlement which is independently established. Meanwhile, group level isthat, people who are independently able to identify themself as the owner ofcollective interests such small settlement groups as sub-villages, neighbor clusters,group of jobs, or any others groupings that forms based on races, cast, ethnicity,
gender, and so forth. At these levels, people usually make a decision for designingand implementing collective action. The people initiate and develop various localorganisations. As in table below, there are three catagories of local organisations.

21

Table 1. Categories of Local Organizations/Institutions
No

Category/
sectorPublic sector

Name of
Definition
Organization
1
Local
Local agencies and staff of central
administration government ministries, accountable tobureaucratic superior
Local
Elected or appointed bodies such as village
goverment
councils or panchayats, having authority todeal with development and regulatory tasks
and accountable local residents, in contrast to
local administration2
Voluntary
Membership
Local self-help associations whose members
sectorOrganizations may seek to handle
1. multiple tasks : local development
associations, committee of village
development – in Indonesian context:neighborhood association and clusters,etc;
2. specific tasks: water users’ association
managing irrigation, health committees
overseeing village programs – inIndonesian context: integrated healthservice at subvillage (posyandu), etc;
3. needs of members who are someparticular characteristic or interest incommon, e.g. mothers’ clubs, caste
associations, tenant unions,
Cooperatives Kinds of local organizations that poolmembers’ economic resources for theirbenefits, e.g. marketing associations, credit
unions, consumer societies, or producer coops, also rotating credit and saving
association in Indonesia.
3
PrivateService
Local organizations formed primarily to help
sectororganizations persons other than members though members
may benefit from them. Example are religious
or charitable associations, service clubs, Red
Cross or Red Cressent societies, etc.
PrivateEither independent operations or branches ofBusinesses
extra-local enterprises engaged in
manufacturing, services and/or trade.
Source: Uphoff (1986: 4-5)

22

General Characteristics of CBOs in Indonesia
Based on categorization developed by Uphoff (1986) above, this paper posits all
local organizations or associations belonging to voluntary sector as community basedorgananizations (CBOs). CBOs are established by community based on their interests
and aspirations. Coverage of CBO activities is at the levels of community, subvillages, and some occasion having network outside village. Membership in the CBO
is voluntary based. Social relations developed in it are informal, familiar, andinterpersonal.
According to Widodo & Suradi (2004), Indonesian people have long been
establish social institution or local wisdom for fulfilling basic needs, reaching
resources and services as well as taking part in community activities. Thus
mechanism has been well institutionalized in a sphere which takes form oforganization either based on religion, ethnicity or tribes. In some Indonesian regions,institution or organization who run this activity have various terms such as“Mapalus” in North Sulawesi, “Banjar” in Bali, “Todung Natolu” in South Sumatra,and “Rereyungan Sarupi” in West Java.
In Indonesian context, CBO covers organisations that are formed by local
community in the local area such neighborhood association and cluster (RT/ RW),
Islam activities in the conduit of Koranic chanting (maj’lis ta’lim/pengajian andyasinan), community association, ethnical association, village youth association/club,neighborhood based woman association(kelompok dasawisma), mourningassociation, youth Hindhu/Buddha association, community financial membership,arts club, traditional community association, youth association for community
services (kelompok ‘sinoman’ in Jawa),

health benefit fund(dana sehat), etc(Widodo & Suradi, 2004). The CBO terminologies vary in different region. The termof “banjar dharma prawedhi” is used in West Nusa Tenggara as institution that grant
benefits and charity allowance to those in need. In West Sumatra, “tani saiyo
gerahan” as organisation that grants aids to those suffer from calamity or disasters.
In general there are two forms of CBO development. Firstly, CBOs are
independently established by local community as their needs and community
aspirations, such as Koranic chanting association, family descendants group (“trah”
in Javanesse society), and so forth. This establishment is usually in regard to23

endeavors in order to retain and preserve local values, traditions, customaries, andalso resources. Secondly, CBOs are established by the government as a mean toimplement development programs such as Family Welfare and Empowerment (PKK),
Integrated Healthcare Service (POSYANDU), Community Independent and SelfResilience Board (Badan Keswadayaan Masyarakat), Village Youth Club (Karang
Taruna) and so forth.
Activities of CBOs cover extended matters. Shortly, referring to Widodo &Suradi (2004), in general, CBO activities can be categorised as follows:a) ritual and cultural activities,b) sport and art activities,c) religious and social activities,d) basic social services, ande) community based economic activities.
CBO has various financing resources. In general CBO raises fund frommembership fee. Other financing resources may be obtained from donation of socialgroups, corporates, individuals, government aids and subsidy, benefits of activities,
etc.

Case Studies
Case study 1 : ‘Kampung Cyber’ i
Kampung Cyber (Cyber Kampong) is situated in RT 36, Kampung Taman,
Yogyakarta City (within Yogyakarta Palace). Its population consists of 43 housholds
including 132 individuals. Their main livelihood are earned from batik tradings andsome of them are as batik supplier, tourist guide, private employees, and government
officials.
The Cyber Kampong was initiated in 2008. The ideas were inspired by aprogram of “Yogyakarta Cyber Province” that was developed earlied by thegovernment of Yogyakarta Province. Fundamental situation was a backdrop for its
early development where local community overcome accessibility contraints in such24technology. All of people in this community were independently creating ways ofmaking possible this system as affordable means for community members(neighborhood association-RT). They augmented the function of security post as
learning spot and accessing internet. The security post is places in the most strategic
vicinity that enables people to reach it. An internet connection is available on acomputer put in this security post. Local people who has not been capable of using
internet may use it free of charge in turns.
Until 2010, 80 % of houses in this kampong have connected to internet
connection and networks. Local people purchased hardwares and also pay formonthly subscribtion which is worth Rp.50.000 with unlimited access. Internet
networks installations were undertaken independently by them with available
equipments at that time. Those who were not able to own computer at home may
access internet in the security post free of charge.
In its early stage, only small number of community members who werewilling to use internet. However, in line with their encouragement to learn further
internet, along times more people are capable of using and demonstrating their ability
for internet use. In the pursuit of better skills in internet use, internet and computer
training as well as writing skill enrichment were carried out locally. Afterward they
have skills in demonstrating blog development, creating Facebook accounts for
networkings, and also other internet based learnings.
Activities and updated news as well as information about kampong are
instantly uploaded to a blog or website which were set out by themselves. It can beaccessed on <<http://rt36taman.multiply.com>>. Some creativities, initiatives, andcraftmanships are now available on it for public exposure and it is also used to forge
relations with many parties who are interested in their activities. This website haveattracted some national TV programmes to broadcast their local activities in
Kampong Cyber. Metro TV and Indosiar as two national TV station covering all
Indonesia have ever broadcasted them.
With that affordable and easy internet access, several community members
continue their networkings through Facebook, and some of them are working on theirown blog. By using such programmes, they take benefit from it. A housewife who is25keen on cooking, use internet to download all of recipes for differing cuisines andafterward she sells it out. She also take advantage of being Facebook members topromote and market it. Some of local traders and other entrepreneurs furnish andcutomise their blogs to market their products and in the latter stage, they can figureout an increasing profit. Meanwhile, children obtain learning materials to support
their school assigments from this internet connection. When people met each other inthe security post, they cordially interact, exchange information, and of course learn
together. Community members become more congenial, friendly, and bounding-up
also finally able to create action plans together. These activities are then uploaded on
website, so that all people and even other parties can recognise and acknowledge
them. By this mean local people endeavor to sustain and tie up their social solidarity.
Also, through website they are recently expandings their social networks with otherparties.
Briefly, the Cyber Kampong provides many benefits for the members ofcommunity, as follows:
1. Developing knowledge and life skills by using internet as a learning source,
2. Informing & marketing a product through blog, email, facebook, etc,
3. Increasing product sales and income,4. Tightening social solidarity,
5. Enlarging social network of the community.

Case study 2 : Gambiran Green Kampong ii
Gambiran Geen Kampong is an initiative of local community residing in
Pandeyan RW 08 village, Umbulharjo subdistrict, Yogyakarta Province. It is locatedin the riverside of Gadjah Wong. Unlike common community in the riverside wherepoor people live in, many people ranging from high status to lower social status settle
in this area. Social composition of the people shows more variants as they are thelocals and some of them are newcomers, so it affect employment structure which
consists of trader, merchants, labour, government officials, lecturers, and also private
employees.

26Unlike other kampongs located in the riverside which are so much messy andunmanaged, environment within this kampong’s area is much cleaner and the housing
complex looks well-arranged. This better environments is resulted from the collective
actions performed by local people who live mostly in riverside. They are in excellent
attempts in shifting the images and real situation of kampong which was notably
worsened by the massive emergence of waste. Facilitated through several community
meetings, local people then agreed to set up a program on environmental arrangement.
It was demonstrated by community cleaning event, waste management, sanitation,
and also replantations. In the conduct of these activities, local people werecollectively establish a “Green Kampong” agents to implement those goals.
In creating green kampong, local people were organized into collective
activities and institutionalized in task groups. They finally arranged 8 task groups
who are responsible for different job description:
1. Sanitation Task Group. This group focuses on fixing up sanitation channels
within their areas. With aids from the city government and self-finance they
developed public toilets and bathrooms in RT 45 and also RT 30, sanitation
infrastructure in RT 45, and also water treatments in RT 32 and RT 30. Thistask group has successfully completed Waste Management Installation (IPAL)
which has been place in some venues in Kampong Gambiran. Recently local
community has been capable to construct pipelines from their own house.
These pipelines link up main dung containers to each of houses. By this IPAL
construction local people no longer release their domestic wastes and dungs to
the Gajah Wong river.
2. Waste management task group. This task group is entitled to fix up waste
management as main problem for community living in the riverside.
Collective waste management is centered in different 5 areas of RT, startingfrom household level. Each of household should provide plastic bags to loadwaste based on its categorization. The waste separation is performed byarranging commercially potential garbage, and also disposal garbage in
different packs. Every twice a week, each of cadre and also local beggars areinvited to take away those wastes. Environmental cadre is assigned to
distributed it according to the schedule agreed. To support their works, local

27

community conduct regular meeting and request the community members to
pay Rp.500.00-Rp.1.000. This money will be then collected as community
deposit for financing their environment cleaning-related activities.
Waste management especially the organic ones are done independently by
local community. All tools and equipments are created from materials which
are easily obtained, for instance putting a plumb on plastic buckets and claymade water container

for biodigesting machines. Beforehand, chemical

biostater of so-called as EM4 is mixed in it to ensure further chemical
processes. The residue resulted from this processed can be used for domestic
purpose, be commercialized and even for fertilizer for gardening at home.
3. River task group. This group’s focus is on tackling physical issues of river
such as erosion and dump-shifting problems. The projects are initiated byprevious landslides disaster which caused housing destruction, such as in artgallery and labor training centre. Their main activities are to wrap up withmetal web the riverside walls in order to avert upcoming erosion in Gajah
Wong river. This activity is assigned to RT 30 and RT 45 because they live inadjacent to the riverside.
4. Alternative energy task group. Biogas which is centered in RT 30 isalternative energy developed in this community. Biogas materials arebasically mixed from decomposting residu (as EM4) and also IPAL’s residue.
First trials on this alternative energy had ever been done for lighting when abadminton competition was rolled out. Government of Yogyakarta city madethis competition as a mean for trial and experimental activities. However, theuse of biogas has not been largely recognized by local community.
5. Local food task force. This group provides a sphere for local people who havehome based food industries especially traditional food (such as kipo, geplak,and yangko). They are encouraged and empowered to make traditional foodby optimizing natural and healthy ingredients. Not only that, environmental
friendly ingredients are also another extent that becomes their main concern.
6. Library task group. This group manages a community library which is so
named “Jendela Nusa Indah” and situated in reachable spot, so they place itnear compound and public toilets. Education Board of Yogyakarta City has
supported them with financial aids for its early development. A group of28

youth studying in Secondary School level is now assigned to be responsible
for this library. The main objectives of it are to promote environmental
education for children and also become a good centre for early childhood
education.
7. Public sphere task group. The main responsibility of this group is to facilitate
the provision of public space for community activities. It is realized becauseof limited public spaces available in the area. The augmentation of public
space is carried out by giving away private land areas with width of 380m2
and 512m2. This area is recently occupied for security post and children
amusement parks that belong to early childhood centre, as well as sporting
activities.
8. Replanting and gardening task force. For the shake of green environment andalso in the pursuit of the best green kampong, some women run gardening
project and replanting activities in RT 15. This activity gained financial
support from Che CHI foundation, Environmental Board of Yogyakarta City,and Forestry Department of Yogyakarta Province. They have developed“Program Pagar Hidup” (Living Fence Environment Programmes) and
optimized a plant which is so-called Acalypha siamensis for this programme.
The ones who have brick fences are highly suggested to grow specific plants
for decoration, herbs, and others on the fences.
Instead of it, this task group also manages community cleaning programme toclean up all surroundings located in each households twice a day. Meanwhile
to keep all public infrastructures cleaned, they also arrange such activity 2-7times a week. Every neighborhood cluster is demanded to run weekly cleaning
day.
These collective actions are organized mostly by local women and theirefforts have contribute to the success of community and won many competitions suchas 2nd place in the Cleanest Area in Yogyakarta 2007, 1st place for Free Crime Areas,
the big 10th of Green Kampong trials (accredited by WALHI national level, 2007), 1stplace in Cleanest Group for Gajah Wong category in 2008, and nominee for national
winner for cleanest kampong on 2008.

29

Case study 3. Forum for Disaster Risk Reduction (Forum Pengurangan Resiko
Bencana-FPRB) in Wukirsari iii
FPRB was established by youths in Wukirsari village, Imogiri subdistrict,Bantul regency. This forum is fully supported by village chief and community leaders.
Its establishment is part of efforts in leveraging information accessibility about
disaster (specifically for earthquake) and disaster risk reduction.
FPRB has strong spirit and vision to reach its goals as trustful organisation in
Wukirsari local community empowerment and its vicinity. This organisation ispartially based on the cultural habituation for Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate
Change Adaptation (CCA). These visions can be reached through following means:
1.

Encouraging local awareness in Wukirsari village and its vicinity about potential
threat and vulnerability of disasters.

2.

Empower women participation, entrepreneur, and children for disaster risk
reduction

3.

Strengthening civil society, specifically from family to regency level along theway of disaster risk reduction.
With financial assistances from local people, NGOs, international donors,

private sectors (through CSR programmes) and government agencies, FPRB in
Wukirsari develops and runs several programmes as well as activities to reach thatvisions and missions:
1. Drinking Water Management in village level
Drought has make people more suffer in some areas in Wukirsari, especially
Pucung sub-village and Nogosari sub-village. In 2007 awarenese of managing
drinking water among local people boosted up and with suppplementary
participative analysis under threat, potential, and vulnerability assesment, various
programmes and activities arise as means to reduce disaster risk management andminimise risk caused by drought in Wukirsari. This progamme is also replicatedin other villages such Srimulyo, Muntuk, Jatimulyo, and Selopamioro.
2. Training and socialisation about disaster risk for community facilitator

30

This activities ranging from training to socialisation about disaster risk
management organised by FPRB Wukirsari. FPRB has conducted many trainings
for facilitators who will assist disaster risk activities in this village and its
neighbouring areas. On May 2010 FPRB facilitated disaster risk socialisation forfacilitatorsinWijirejo

villageandGilangharjo-Pandak

County,also

Sumbermulyo and Mulyodadi in Bambanglipuro county, Bantul.
3. Training and socialisation about disaster preparedness and simulation.
Disaster simulation especially earthquake has been done in sub-village level andin 5 primary schools located in Wukirsari village. This activity is form ofpartnership between FPRB and village authority of Wukirsari as well as NGO
who has working areas around this region.
4. Early warning system development
This early warning system is set up with additional mobile communication which
does not too much use electricity, such as handy talky. This equipment wasprefered as relying on earthquake in year of 2006, many mobile phones was
disabled due to lack of electricity supply from National Electricity Company(PLN). Instead of it, this forum has extended coordination system such as disastermanagement and disseminating information ranging from neighbourhood
subcluster (RT) to village level.
5. Potential Threat Analysis, Vulnerability, and Community Capacity in Disaster
Risk Reduction
Technically this potential risk analysis involves community in Wukirsari and all
stakeholders. This analysis employed Participative Rural Appraisal where allcommunity members were actively engaged in making a change for disastermitigation. This work has resulted in many important documents such as Village
Potential Map, Disaster Vulnerablity Assesment, Calendar of Season, Matrix
Transect Walk, and Venn Diagram for Institution.
6. Network expansion and partnership with similar organisation
The efforts in network expansion and partner organisastion are necessary because
disaster is out of administration boundary, so that disaster risk reduction should
be carried out surpassing administrative borders. Concerning to this extent, this31

forum is actively involved in creating sphere for regular discussion about disasterin village level as well as Bantul entirely (FPRB Patalan and FPRB Sriharjo
village). This media is as for place to transfer knowledge and exchange
experience.
7. Public Policy Advocacy
In regard to public policy on disaster risk management, this forum has carried out
numerous important activities which involved village authorities and otherstakeholders. It was also to formulate village regulation No. 6 year of 2009 on
Disaster Risk Management. A collective forum involved by Bantul authority,
Wukirsari village authority, Java Reconstruction Fund, and World Bank has been
impetus for local relocation of people living in landslide vulnerable areas anddrought (catagorised into multi hazard). Aside of it, this forum also ensure thatdisaster risk-based development in Wukirsari and its nighbouring villages iswell-involved in the number of discussions for local development planning,
especially village development planning meeting (musrenbangdes).
FPRB Wukirsari is a youth-membered organisation in the field of disatser thatcounts as the most active in Yogyakarta Province. Recently, this organisation takes alead 3 FPRB in other villages in Bantul regency. In light with its work, thisorganisation also forge partnership with some disaster mitigation-led institution, suchas FPRB in provincial level, Regional Board of Disaster Mitigation (BPBD) at
Yogyakarta Province, Red Cross Bantul, Department of Social Affairs-Bantul andYogyakarta

Province,

Board

of

UnifiedNationandSocialProtection(KESBANGLINMAS) at provincial level.
Other stakeholders whom FPRB forged to support its work such as: relevantorganisations, and board, Imogiri County authority, University and disaster centres
such as Center for Disaster Gadjah Mada University and Akprind Yogyakarta,
Financing institution in village level (LKD) of Wukirsari, NGO (Institute for
Research and Empowerment and Java Reconstruction Funds), and internationalNGOs (CordAid and CWS).

32

Concluding Remarks
According to three differing cases above, referring to Uphoff (1986), CBO
produces three main outputs as follows:
1. producing public goods: subvillage road, bridge, neighborhood security post
(gardu ronda), learning centre (sanggar belajar), other community facilities,
2. producing goods and services for individual & community needs, and3. providing non-materials benefits (spiritual, social, cultural benefits) for themembers of association and community
Those cases also confirm that CBO is part of local means in meeting basic
needs and addressing social problems. CBO activities are varied depend on theinterests and needs of local poeple. CBO plays several significant roles forcommunity livelihood, as follows: :9 Maintaining cultural identity,
9 Delivering information & sharing knowledge,
9 Providing basic social services,
9 Providing social space for meeting social & cultural needs,
9 Mediating social dispute and conflict,
9 Advocating the interests of community,
9 Strengthening local economic.

Those roles above embed higher susainability rate because of two main reason.
First of all, community member have really experienced output and benefits from
CBOs. Second of all, as viewed in those three cases, CBOs have capability of
expanding networks with various stakeholders such as NGO’s, the governments,
funding agencies, and corporations.
It is not overwhelming to argue that in the level of Indonesian community, aconcept of “welfare society” is actually set up whereas scheme and mechanism in theprovision and fulfilment of various basic needs for community are created and selffunded by community itself by organising CBO without any dependence togovernment programmes. Welfare society practices are reflected from community
creativity in setting up various local institutions, self-financing, and self-reliance toexpand and implement service systems and social security. In local level different

33range of CBOs and other social institutions which provide scheme and mechanism
for education, healthcare, economic uplitment, and other social services.

Acknowledgement
This report has made possible with assistance of Pratiwi and Niken Budi Pratiwi for
their efforts in collecting data during fieldwork. My highest appreciation goes to theirendeavors. I am also indebted to Meredian Alam at the University of Oslo, Norway
for the language editing and proofreading.

References
Esman, Milton J. & Uphoff, Norman. 1984. Local Organizations, Intermediaries in
Rural Development. Ithaca & London: Cornell Univ. Press.
Fuji Riang Prastowo. 2010. “Kampung Hijau Gambiran (gambiran green village):
Analisis gerakan lingkungan ‘pokja’ perbasis komunitas masyarakat RW 08
Kampung Gambiran, Kelurahan Pandeyan, Kecamatan Umbulharjo, Kota
Yogyakarta”. Unpublished report.
Ife, Jim & Tesoriero, Frank. 2006. Community Development: Community-based
Alternative in an Age of Globalization. New South Wales: Pearson Education
Australia.
Michael Aji Pradipta. 2010. “Kampung Cyber: Membangun Ekonomi secara
Kerakyatan berbasiskan Teknologi”. Unpublished report.
Nurdin Widodo & Suradi. 2004. Penelitian Profil dan Peranan Organisasi Lokal
dalam Pembangunan Masyarakat. Download at 4 November 2010:
http://www.depsos.go.id/Balatbang/Puslitbang%20UKS/PDF/NurdinSuradi.pdf
Uphoff, Norman., 1986. Local Institutional Development: An Analytical Sourcebook
with Cases, West Hardford Connecticut: Kumarian Press.

34

i. According to the report from Michael Adi Pradipta, 2010 and also informasi available on the“Kampung Cyber”’s Website
ii.This section is based on report from Fuji Riang Prastowo, 2010iii

. Data for this section gathered by Pratiwi during Overseas Fieldwork (OFW) GSID-

Nagoya University in Wukirsari, Bantul, September 2010.

35

Working Group 1
Economic Development

Batik Industry Value Chain and Global
Promotion of Yogyakarta Province:-Constraints and Opportunities-

1. Introduction
2. Research Objective
3. Research Questions
4. Literature Review
5. Methodology
6. Results: Objective 1
7. Results: Objective 2
8. Concluding Remarks and Recommendations
9. Acknowledgement
10. References

Group Advisor
Professor Koichi Usami

Written by
Chika

Kojima**Andoniaina

Andriamiandrisoa*

Phanida Roidoung
Makoto

Naito

CarlosMendezChristian Otchia** Group Leader
36* Group Sub-leader

1. Introduction

1.1 Economic Situation of Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta Province is one of the most populated areas in Central Java, Indonesia.
According to Koing et al (2010) the province is threatened by two main factors: high populationpressure and frequent natural hazards. High migration rates and economic growth have resulted
in fast growing urban-rural expansion, mainly by land use conversions from farming intodeveloped areas. The main economic activities in terms of regional gross domestic product(GDP) are concentrated in the service sector (40%), agriculture (15%), and manufacturing(40%).
There are five districts in Yogyakarta: Bantul in the south (506.86 km²), Sleman in the north(574.82 km²), Kulon Progo in the west (586.27 km²), Gunung Kidul in the east (1,485.36 km²),
and Yogyakarta City in the center (32.5 km²). The northern part of Yogyakarta is situated near
the foothills of the Merapi volcano, which is considered one of the most active volcanoes in theworld. The last big eruption occurred in 2006, which resulted in dramatic devastation of the
Sleman and Bantul Districts, along with the suburbs of Yogyakarta City.
meters above sea level.

Yogyakarta is 2,968

The climate is tropical, with average temperatures around 26.5 °C anda high mean annual rainfall of approximately 1,855 mm.
Yogyakarta is characterized by industries in the city and small scale subsistence agriculturein the suburban and rural areas. From 1993 to 2006, urban developments and new rural
settlements doubled, while the area of farmland decreased by 25%. Rural areas, including
home- or forest gardens, account for 16%, and urban areas for 4%. The remaining area belongs
to forests and coastal protection zones.

1.2 Handicraft Industry
The handicraft industry is a traditional industry, which has been contributing the economic
growth of Yogyakarta’s manufacturing sector (Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi D.I. Yogyakarta,
2009, p.520). The main handicraft products are textiles, wood products, furniture, leather
products and ceramics These products are sold not only to domestic people, but also to tourists
who visit Yogyakarta. In addition, many handicraft products are now exported all over theworld.
As for textile production, Yogyakarta produces a Javanese traditional fabric called “Batik”.
Batik is a cloth that uses a manual wax-resist dyeing technique, which was invented in Java37

around the mid-18th century. The wax-resist dyeing methods of Batik have three categories:
hand-written, hand stamped, and a combination of the two. Batik products are mainly produced
by a domestic cottage industry, which is home-based rather than factory-based with a wide
variety of products in small quantities. Although Batik production has been mechanized byintroducing chemical dye and printing machines, and 90% of the current Batik production isprinted Batik (printed like real Batik by machines), original handmade Batik is still produced in
the traditional way in several places such as Solo City in Bantul District and Pekalongan City inCentral Java Province. Unique and distinctive motifs and the high quality of Yogyakarta’s Batik
hand-made with experienced craftsmanship are popular for not only domestic people, but also
foreign tourists (村井, 佐伯 2004, p.202-p.203). Therefore, the handicraft industry, especially
Batik production, can have a great potential to contribute to global promotion and economic
growth of Yogyakarta. However, in order for the Batik industry to grow, it is important tounderstand its production process and value chain and identify how the Batik industry in
Yogyakarta can enhance efficiency.

1.3 Tourism Industry
Due to the existence of several important tourism attractions, such as the Borobudur andPrambanan ancient temple complexes, as well as its local handicraft products and the living
cultural traditions, Yogyakarta is considered as a cultural tourism destination, attracting large
numbers of tourists in Indonesia. Furthermore, according to Timothy (1999), although
Yogyakarta was served by international flights only from early 2004, it is the transportation andaccommodation center for most visitors to this part of Central Java. Despite the fact that mostinternational travelers perceive Yogyakarta as a supporting, rather than a main destination, thecity functions as the base for sightseeing at the above mentioned temples and provides many
additional cultural and historical attractions, including crafts of many kinds such as Batik,
leather work, woodcarving etc. Indeed, both local and international tourists are the main
potential buyers of the local handicraft products in Yogyakarta and vice versa, the handicraft
sector may constitute an attraction for tourists in Yogyakarta, all of which contribute to the local
and national economy. Moreover, more than 30% of handicrafts produced in Bali and in
Kasongan, Yogyakarta are bought directly by both domestic and international tourists, while
70% are exported or are sold through wholesalers. The National Statistics Bureau reported thatIndonesian total exports in handicrafts in 2004 were valued at US$ 447 million, increasing
4.06% in 2005 to US$ 466 million. This excludes handicrafts bought directly by consumers or38

transported by tourists. Hence, the economic linkages between tourism and handicraft
production are interdependent of each other.
According to Timothy (1999), taking into account the fact that 963,995 tourists stayed in
Yogyakarta in 1994, it became one of the most important destinations in the country, and thenational government recognized the province’s potential for tourism. Thus, many of its planning
efforts have included Yogyakarta. This situation has had an important impact on the behavior
and the daily activities of the local population, who started, for example, to convert their
original dwellings into tourism facilities such as guesthouses and souvenir shops (Dermawati,1994). Moreover, Timothy in his work related to the “Participatory Planning of Tourism inIndonesia,” described that in order to target this increasing number of tourists and to gain more
profits, a number of small and informal cooperative ventures, based on similar products had
been formed. One such example is that of a cooperative of Batik sellers who came together toreduce the costs of supplies through high-volume purchasing. He suggested also that a numberof “street vendors” aiming to sell products directly to tourists in an informal way in Yogyakarta
started also to be recognized by the local authority, because street vending in Yogyakarta wasseen to be quite profitable for local crafters and contributed to significantly increase theirincome. This linkage between the tourism industry and handicrafts in Yogyakarta is also
supported by Dharoko (1994), who found that local residents are the largest market for
Yogyakarta’s vendors, followed by domestic tourists and then foreign tourists. For other typesof vendors of handicrafts, foreign tourists comprise approximately a quarter of all customers.
This demonstrates the existing strong linkage between the tourism industry and handicrafts in
the region, Therefore, the concept of “Participatory Tourism Planning” started to be adopted by
the local authority including all stakeholders, such as tourism operators as well as handicraft
producers, in order to create the global promotion of Yogyakarta (Timothy, 1999).
The Special Province of Yogyakarta (DIY) in central Java comprises the city of Yogyakarta
and four regencies. 1 Yogyakarta is the only province in Indonesia that is still governed theSultan, who serves as the hereditary governor of the province. Known as the second tourism
destination in Indonesia after Bali and the Indonesia's most renowned centers of higher
education, Yogyakarta’s potential attractions include a combination of ancient temples, history,
traditions, culture, and natural resources. The key attractions of Yogyakarta are “Kraton,” theSultan's Palace and Malioboro Street. Moreover, Yogyakarta acts as an accommodation base for1

Bantul, Gunung Kidul, Kulon Progo and Sleman39

visitors to the nearby temple complexes of Borobudur and Prambanan (both UNESCO World
Heritage sites) and is increasingly marketed as the cultural heart of Java (Dahles, 2002). Yogya
is also known for its cultural attractions such as Ramayana ballet (a drama in typical Javanese
dance) and Wayang Kuilt shadow puppets accompanied by gamelan orchestras, and produces
handicrafts such as Batik, stones, wood, leather and ceramic.
Yogyakarta has a good transportation network, which includes a main railway station withexpress services to Jakarta, Surabaya, Solo and the Adisucipto International Airport, which
serves both domestic and international flights. There are also relatively good roads forconnecting Yogyakarta to others destinations throughout the island, including Jakarta, Surabaya
and Badung, as well as within Yogyakarta district.

Yogyakarta has created accommodations atinternational standards as depicted by the Table 1.

Table 1: Number of Accommodations by Province, Indonesia 2009.
Establishment
Province

Room

Bed

Classified

Non classified

Classified

Non classified

Classified

Jakarta (DKI)

153

197

26,1796,338

37,046

8,682

Yogyakarta (DIY)

34

1,091

3,434

12,077

5,466

17,714

Bali

149

1,515

18,684

21,77529,34632,702

1,240

12,692

118,716

216,101

183,744

335,461

Indonesia

Non classified

Source: compiled by authors from Badan Pusat Statistik (http://dds.bps.go.id/eng/index.php), 2010

Yogyakarta attracts both local and international tourists. During 2003 to 2009, almost one
quarter of all tourists was composed of foreign tourists. Timothy and Wall (1995) observed that
almost twice as many domestic visitors as foreign visitors stay in Yogya. Therefore, despite thegrowing importance of Yogya as a foreign tourist destination, the number of domestic tourists isstill increasing in large proportions. The average length of stay of domestic tourists in
Yogyakarta was 1.5 nights, which is half of the average length of stay of the domestic tourists in
Bali. Foreign tourists stay longer in Yogyakarta and Bali in comparison, averaging 2 and 3.4nights in Yogyakarta and Bali, respectively. (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2009) (Table 2).

40

Table 2: Visitors in Yogyakarta 2003 - 2009Year

Foreign visitors

Domestic visitors

Total visitors

2003

622,962

1,612,416

2,235,378

2004

611,876

1,715,839

2,327,715

2005

647,380

1,362,719

2,010,099

2006

536,174

1,550,366

2,086,540

2007

619,997

1,850,465

2,470,462

2008

618,1112,471,655

3,089,766

2009

676,5122,601,755

3,278,267

Source: compiled by authors from Badan Pusat Statistik (http://dds.bps.go.id/eng/index.php), 2010

The tourism industry and handicraft production in Yogyakarta are suffering from the lack ofinfrastructure, which inhibits a rapid global promotion of those sectors. Indeed, importantfactors, such as online business promotion and suitable roads may be missing to secure therelated business. According to the Department of Culture and Tourism, the handicraft centers,such as those in Bali and Yogyakarta, have important links to tourist itineraries in Indonesia, but
unfortunately, they do not yet receive the attention they need, especially from local governments.
Furthermore, clusters or cooperatives need more support from the local government in order topromote their products worldwide via such vehicles as websites and the internet.

2. Research Objectives•

Identify the binding constraints and opportunities for enhancing efficiency in the Batik
production.

•

Analyze the linkages among stakeholders for encouraging global promotion of Yogyakarta
through Batik and the tourism industry.

3. Research Questions•

What are the value chain constraints in the production process of Batik handicrafts?

•

What are the perceived opportunities for enhancing efficiency in the production of Batik
handicrafts?

41

•

What are the existing linkages between Batik and tourism?

•

How do stakeholders collaborate to promote Yogyakarta through Batik and the tourism
industry on the global market?

4. Literature Review
4.1. Value Chain Framework
Every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, market, deliverand support its product. All these activities can be represented using a Value Chain Framework. 2 .
This approach was first described and popularized by Michael Porter in 1985. As an analyticalframework, it describes how products pass through all activities of the chain in order and at eachstage the product gains some value. The chain of activities gives the products more added value
than the sum of the added values of all activities. In this context, it is important not to confuse theconcept of the value chain with the costs occurring throughout the activities. The final of thisanalysis it to identify specific areas in which the firm can increase efficiency and offer thecustomer a higher level of value that exceeds the cost of the activities, therefore resulting in a
profit margin.
In Figure 1, the value chain has been adjusted to the Batik handicraft case. The maindifference with Porter’s original model is that in the case of Batik, there are not additional
services (such as maintenance) after the product is sold. The “primary activities” include:
inbound logistics, operations (production), outbound logistics, marketing and sales (demand).
The “support activities” include: administrative infrastructure management, human resource
management, information technology, and procurement.

2

Note that for this research, the “firm value chain” approach, which is focused on individual productive

units. This concept is more limited when compared to more aggregate systems such as “industrial value”
and/or “global value chain”.

42Figure 1: The Value Chain of Batik Production

Source: Based on Michael Porter (2008)<Primary Activities>z Inbound Logistics
Inbound Logistics, which is the first category in primary activities, are “activities associatedwith receiving, storing, and disseminating inputs to the product, such as material handling,
warehousing, inventory control, vehicle scheduling, and returns to suppliers” (Porter, 1985,p.39).
z Operations
Operations, which is the second category in primary activities, are “activities associatedwith transforming inputs into the final product form, such as machining, packaging, assembly,
equipment maintenance, testing, printing, and facility operations” (Porter, 1985, p.40).
z Outbound Logistics
Outbound logistics, which is the third category in primary activities, is a very important partof the supply chain process. After operations, a firm has to deliver their products to the market.
Michael Porter defines Outbound Logistics as “activities associated with collecting, storing, andphysically distributing the product to buyers, such as finished goods warehousing, material
handling, delivery vehicle operation, order processing, and scheduling.”z Marketing and Sales
Marketing and Sales is the fourth category in primary activities. Michael Porter defines
Marketing and Sales as “activities associated with providing a means by which buyers canpurchase the product and inducing them to do so, such as advertising, promotion, sales force,43

quoting, channel selection, channel relations, and pricing.”<Support Activities>z Productive Infrastructure
In the context of the value chain, the infrastructure represents supportive activities such as:
general management, planning, finance, accounting, legal procedures, government affairs andquality of management.

As the other supportive activities, infrastructure supports the entire

chain and not only individual stages of the chain.

In the case of Batik handicrafts,

infrastructure can be a power source of performance, for example, proper management
information systems can contribute significantly to marketing and sales. In addition, goodquality management can drastically affect inbound, production and outbound logistics, in termsof reducing wasted time, preventing problems, and evaluating new and more efficient methodsof provision, production and distribution.
z Human Resource Management
Human resource management consists of “activities involved in the recruiting, hiring,training, development, and compensation of all types of personnel” (Porter, 1985, p.42). In
Batik production, there are not only crafters but also people in charge of material handling,transportation, marketing and sales. There should be different skills required in each line ofwork. In order to keep the quality and compete with different Batik firms, it is very important
for them to enhance human resources through strategically recruiting, hiring, training, andproviding proper working conditions to workers.
z Technology development
In the value generation process, every activity embodies technology, typically in terms of“know how,”,procedures or technology embodied in equipments. The variety of technologies
employed in most firms is very broad, ranging from those technologies used in preparing
documents and transporting goods to those technologies embodied in the product itself. In
addition, most value activities combine different sub technologies involving different disciplines
such as metallurgy, electronics, mechanics and others. In the context of Batik handicraft firms,
technology development mainly represents those activities that aim to improve and actualize theproduct and the processes. It is important to mention that technology is not solely linked to the
production process, but also takes many forms, from basic research and product design, tomedia research, equipment design and sales procedures.
z Procurement
Procurement means “the function of purchasing inputs used in the firm’s value chain.”44

Procurement does not mean only purchased inputs for inbound logistics, but includes all thepurchases throughout the Primary activities. For example, in the case of Batik production,
procurement includes all the costs of materials, tools, machines, electricity, water, transportation,marketing, wages, etc. Although it is obvious that materials and wages are the most costly
expenditures, it is important for managers to take other costs into account in order to efficiently
save costs of their business.

4.2. A Framework of Linkages for Global Promotion
Tourism industry is perceived by many developing countries as an impetus for economic
growth for the simple reason that it has important direct and indirect impacts on many othereconomic sectors. Due to the nature of its linkages, the tourism industry has become a catalyst
for national and regional development in terms of bringing employment and reducing inequality,
exchange earnings, balance of payments advantages and important infrastructure developments.
Tourism linkages with other economic sectors refer to the situation where goods and services
used by the tourism industry are produced domestically. There are two types of linkages:
forward and backward linkages. Backward linkages measure the (demand) stimuli given to
supplying sectors as a result of increased demand by sector j. Forward linkages measure the(supply) stimuli given to user sectors as a result of an increase in the output of the supplying
sector.
Linkages can be defined as the network of inter-sectoral supply relationships between the
tourism economy and the rest of the productive sectors of the domestic economy. Whenlinkages exist between the tourism economy and the rest of the economic activities of theeconomy, it is easier for local entrepreneurs to collect the signals from tourism demand and toachieve higher cost savings. The more linkages exist between tourism and the general economy,
the more innovative the tourism cluster will be (Oreyalan 2001; Mytelka and Farinelli, 2000;
Porter 2008).
The available literature on measuring tourism linkages has been dominated by the usage of
information from national, regional, or local level to compute tourism linkage multipliers. The
widely used indicators are backward linkages and forward linkages but several techniques havebeen applied so far. Using the Hawaii 1987 input-output table, Junning Cai, PingSun Leung, andJames Mak computed as Leontief supply-driven multiplier as a backward linkage measure and
the Ghosh supply-driven multiplier as the corresponding forward linkage measure. Their results
suggested that tourism in Hawaii has about average backward linkages and below average
45

forward linkages. On the same line, Josaphat Kweka, Oliver Morrissey and Adam Blake carriedout linkage analysis to examine the interdependence between tourism and other sectors in
Tanzania. Their main finding has shown that tourism has a significant impact on output and thisimportance lies mainly in its inter-sector linkages. They also conclude that in case of Tanzania,
the most important sectors for tourism output impacts are food and beverages, fishing andhunting, staple food and the wholesale and retail trade.
Although these models can generate multipliers for linkages analysis, they have someweakness and practical limitations. Some of the most criticisms made to these models were that
their assumptions are very restrictive. This developed an interest in the usage of the Social
Matrix Account (SAM) and later on the Computable General Equilibrium Models (CGE) for the
linkages analysis. In his paper on linkages between tourism and the agricultural sector in
Bali-Indonesia, a social accounting matrix approach, Made Antara (1999) concludes that the
tourism sector, in terms of tourists’ expenditures, has a strong linkage with local economic
sectors, mainly the agricultural sector.
Conversely to the previous studies, this research will use a holistic approach to analyze thelevel of linkage between tourism and the handicraft industry and to assess the constraints andopportunities to strengthen linkages between the two for the global promotion of Yogyakarta.
Indeed, the level of linkages between tourism and the handicraft industry depends on manyfactors, as depicted in the Figure 2. Those factors are natural endowments, level ofsocio-economic development, institutions, business environment, and policies (e.g., trade).
These domains, in turn, can be conceptualized hierarchically in terms of their relative
amenability to public policy over the long, medium, or short terms.

Figure 2: Determinant of tourism linkages

Source: Izaskun Lejarraja & Peter Walkenhorst, 2007.

46

As far as Yogyakarta is concerned, it is useful to centre our analysis on institutions, given
the role of institutions as a fundamental cause of economic development. Douglass North(1990) defines institutions as, “the rules of the game in a society or, more formally, are thehumanly devised constraints that shapehumaninteraction.” Following this definition and ina broader way, institutions incorporate many aspects of economics and the political and socialorganization of society. In Yogyakarta, the Yogyakarta Declaration on Cultural Tourism, Local
Communities and Poverty Alleviation identified four institutions capable to promote it as a cityof culture in Indonesia: the government, the private sector, the local communities and otherstakeholders. Thus, the linkage between tourism and the handicraft industry and the way theactors can cooperate to enhance this linkage and induce the global promotion of Yogyakarta,
can be visualized within this conceptual framework (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Conceptual framework of Global promotion of Yogyakarta through Batik andtourism industry

Source: Authors
The starting point of this framework is in identifying the intersection between Batik and thetourism industry. Obviously, it’s the handicraft by itself. Handicrafts, as a final product of thehandicraft industry are supplied to the tourism industry. The tourism industry serves here as amarket for handicrafts because sale of handicrafts to tourists can foster the continuity of local
traditions and contribute significantly to poverty alleviation, through its ability to create jobs,
socio-economic opportunities, and an enhanced quality of life in local communities. Here, theglobal promotion framework completes the value chain of the handicraft industry to the extent
47

that the latter deals with the production technologies and design aspects, along with thefinancial and management aspects of production, whereas the first focus is on policies
coordination, marketing channels and methods for optimizing the sale of handcrafts to tourists
and promoting Yogyakarta.
① Government: The government’s important role in promoting tourism is to set policy andlegislative frameworks in terms of regulating the tourism industry (legislation, regulation, rules
and licensing; land-use planning and development control), inducing its expansion (pricing,charges and taxation; property rights and trading; financial incentives), and sustaining its
development (infrastructure provision and management, capacity-building, and marketing andinformation services). This involves the participation of tourism ministries and tourism planners,
not only for administrative purposes, but for coordinating, networking and getting support fromother ministries in terms of inter-ministry administration. The functions of tourism ministries
should therefore go beyond regulating the tourism businesses, marketing and promotion, andinclude wider consultation and coordination.
In Yogyakarta, the government roles are defined as follows:z

Encourage the participation of all relevant stakeholders, including local communities, civilsociety, nongovernmental organizations and the private sector, in all stages of cultural
tourism developmentfrom planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation, anddistribution of benefitszAllocate sufficient financial and human resources for the protection, conservation andinterpretation of local cultural heritage, intangible and tangible, both by allocating to thema significant proportion of tourism-related taxes and by charging reasonable but fairentrance fees to sites and performancesz

Provide education and training opportunities for policy makers, planners, researchers,interpreters, conservators, tourism operators and local communities to enhance their skills
and capacity in cultural tourism management, as well as their awareness regarding thepotential of cultural tourism to contribute to poverty alleviationz

Develop a clear strategy for cultural tourism development in any area designated as a
tourist destination in consultation with all relevant stakeholdersz

Provide the necessary resources to monitor and evaluate the results of cultural tourism
development, especially those with a poverty reduction emphasis
48

zProvide the necessary technical, financial, market information and promotional support tothe less favored segments of local communities at cultural tourism destinations to allow
them to set up sustainable tourism related businesses and generally benefit from the inflow
of touristszHelp local tourism suppliers and incoming tour operators in the selection of marketing
channels for their products and services in order to ensure a fair distribution of benefits
between local providers and foreign operators② Private sector: The private sector, as an agent, has an important role to play in tourism
promotion because of the expertise in different market segments and customer handling services.
As for the definition of private sector, it is considered to be tour agencies, hotels, restaurant andshops. For Batik, hotels and restaurants are the first places that tourists visit. Most of them aredecorated with local products, which generate tourist attractions. Tourists can see thehandicrafts and desire to know more about them. Thus, a relationship between the two products
develops because handicrafts may attract tourism and tourism supplies the potential clients forhandicrafts.
In the context of promoting Yogyakarta, the private sector has to:z

Foster partnerships with the local communities in the development of tourism and culture
to maximize the local economy derived from cultural tourismz

Give first priority to local communities in the recruitment of human resources, with anemphasis on providing training in order to allow local people to become a part of the
tourism economyz

Promote the significance of the local cultures, while protecting their characteristics andrespecting the carrying capacity of both intangible and tangible heritagez

Give priority to local suppliers of goods and services in order to create jobs and nurture thesustainability of traditional arts and crafts③ Local communities: This category includes agents such as individual crafters andcooperatives. Their key roles are to:z

Take an active and organized role in the tourism planning and monitoring process49

z

Through the creation of community based capacity building initiatives, enhance theknowledge and skill levels in order to ensure their active participation in the tourism
industryz

Maintain cultural values and living traditions through education programs, research andconservation activitiesz

In order to ensure the equitable distribution of the benefits of cultural tourism, use
innovative community-based initiatives such as cooperatives and development corporationsz

Use festivals and other events to position the cultural tourism potential of theircommunitieszWork actively with the private sector in order to ensure responsible development that
benefits local people and companies④ Other shareholders: The other shareholders are NGOs, development agencies, academic
institutions and the media. Their role is respectively:z

The NGOs should work with the local communities by helping them to achieve theireconomic and cultural goals and objectives, through the use of technical advice andfinancial supportz

Development agencies must recognize the potential of cultural tourism as a major tool forpoverty alleviation and design their assistance programs to support this important area ofdevelopment activitiesz

Academic institutions should include research and education activities related to cultural
tourism and poverty alleviationz

The national and international media should promote a comprehensive and truthful pictureof cultural tourism

50

5. Methodology
GENERALOBJECTIVEOBJECTOF

RESEARCH ITEMSSTUDYRESEARCH

INTERVIEWEESITE

INSTRUMENT
Firm Infrastructure

Batik Firms:

Human Resources
Efficientproduction of
Batik
Handicrafts• Batik Topo
Local

Technology and Design

Producer

Procurement

Semi-structured
Questionnaire

Value Chain Inbound Logistics• Batik Topo’s daughter• Batik Nining• Batik Dirjo

Operations• Batik SriOutbound Logistics• Batik Sekar Arum

Wijirejo
Village
Wukisari
Village

Marketing and Sales
Provincial government:• DIY Province Office
Local government:

Pro Handicraft Tourism• Bantul Regency Officepolicies• Tourism office of Bantul
District

Yogyakarta city andBantulDistrict• Board of Batik and Craft• Batik shop: Margaria• Batik Club (Paguyuan Sekar Yogyakart
Enhance

Partnerships

linkage

Institutions

between Batik

andHandicrafts

coordination

In-depth
interview

Jagad)

a city and• Batik Union (PPBW)

Wijirejo• Tourism Agency ( Sweety)

Village• Hotel (Santika Hotel)

and tourism• Restaurant (Gadri Resto)

Marketing and• Journalist (Kedau Rakyat)

Yogyakart

Street vendors in Malioboro

a cityStreetpromotion• Development Agency GTZ

Source: The authors based on the information provided by Gadjah Mada University

51

Wijirejo
Village5.1 Selection of Interviewees
The interviewees are all engaged in or connected with Batik and the tourism industry in
Yogyakarta. Among several Batik production areas in Yogyakarta, Bantul District was selected
as the research site because Bantul District is famous for hand-made Batik, such as handwritten
and stamped Batik. These products are sold in Yogyakarta City, other places in Indonesia andalso foreign countries through traders. Since it was difficult to visit all Batik firms in Bantul due
to time constrain, six major firms in Wijirejo Village and Wukisari Village were selected forsemi-structured questionnaires to investigate Objective 1.
As for Objectives 2 and 3, governmental institutions such as the DIY Province Office,Bantul Regency Office and the Tourism Office of Bantul District were selected to understandpolicies and coordination at both provincial and district levels. Board of Batik and Craft is alsoa central government institution within the Ministry of Industry, which takes an important role
in research and development of Batik production technology and also skill training of Batik
producers. The Batik Union, PPBW (Paguyban Pengrajin Batik Wijirejo), is organized by the
Batik producers in Wijirejo Village for sharing information and techniques. This union was
useful for understanding how Batik producers support each other at the village level forachieving better production and promotion. A Batik club called Paguyuan Sekar Jagad was also
useful to know how to organize self-promotion activities of Batik. Among several internationalorganizations which work for handicraft production or promotion, GTZ was selected because
they had assistance projects focusing on Batik firms which were damaged by the earthquake in
Wijirejo Village in Bantul. Other interviewees, such as the Batik shop Margaria, tourism agency
Sweety, Santika Hotel, street vendors and the restaurant Gadri Resto are all engaged in businessactivities that are strongly related to Batik.

6. Results: Objective 1
6.1 Why efficiency is important for Indonesia and Yogyakarta
Generally “efficiency” is defined as the capacity to produce the most output with the least
input. This implies that scarce resources are allocated in the best way possible in order to obtain
more output, which in turn, generates higher income for the producer. In addition, it is also
known that higher efficiency implies higher productivity. Within this context, the current
theoretical and empirical literature highlights that productivity is the main determinant of52

economic growth and development. Furthermore, if an economy operates more efficiently, its
level of local and global competitiveness is higher. As a result, it can be stated that efficiency
and competitiveness are closely related elements in determining the level of economic
performance and development of a firm, an industry and a nation.
Every year the World Economic Forum publishes its famous Global Competitiveness Reportin which the nature of competitiveness is defined as, “the set of institutions, policies, and factorsthat determine the level of efficiency and productivity of a country.” Following this definition
the this international organization elaborates an index which may be used to understand thecurrent development stage of 139 countries and the areas in which there is space for
improvement and policy action.

Figure 4: Global Competitiveness Index: Indonesia

Source: Global Competitiveness Report 2010

Figure 4 presents the situation of Indonesia in terms of its global competitiveness. It can beobserved that Indonesia is in the transition stage from being a “factor driven” economy towards
an “efficiency driven” economy. This transition point is very important because when an
economic unit upgrades its level of competitiveness, the productive inputs (labor and capital)
receive a higher compensation for their contribution to the final product. This means that more
and better jobs can be created and also that salaries can be increased due to efficiency
53

improvements. The final goal of this transition period indicates that Indonesia is becoming an
economy that will need to apply efficiency-based strategies for enhancing its current level ofdevelopment. In order to do so, there are six areas in which efforts should be focused: (1) higher
education and training; (2) goods market efficiency; (3) labor market efficiency; (4) access tofinance;(5) technological readiness; and (6) market size. These so called “Efficiency

Enhancers” are also central elements of the Value Chain Framework, utilized in this study. Theirapplication, following a micro view of case studies, will be explained in the following sections.
So far, based on the Global Competitiveness Report, it can be justified or at least arguablethat efficiency is very important for Indonesia’s economic performance and development. In
addition, from a micro point of view, the efficiency of some Batik producers in Yogyakarta canbe analyzed through a simple exercise of calculating the output-input (labor) ratios of threecomparable 3 Batik producers.

Table 3: Measuring Efficiency in Yogjakarta: The Output-Input Ratio approximation

Source: Based on the authors’ fieldwork interviews

Table 3 shows different levels of efficiency calculated based on the information provided byproducers. The annual output is measured in meters of cloth (mainly stamped Batik) and the
input in number of workers. Given the comparable scale of the three producers, 4 it can be said
that the Firm A is the most efficient of this sample because one unit of labor produces anaverage of 881 units of output in one year. On the other hand, Firm C produces only 634 unitsof output. This also implies that the most efficient firm produces 1.4 times more when comparedwith least efficient one. Although this is a simple approximation to measure efficiency, it is still
informative for indentifying that in Yogyakarta there exists different levels of efficiency in the
production of Batik. The next step is to analyze the sources of these differences through the3

The producers are comparable in terms of the variety of Batik types (handmade, stamped and printed),

complexity of the designs (motives), number of colors, and size of the final product.
4

During the interviews, these three producers reported the same total production. This coincidence isvery helpful for comparing efficiency more easily.

54

value chain framework. However, as in intermediate step it is necessary to understand moredeeply the activities, decisions, organizational practices and other elements that constitute the
Batik production process, this is the central topic of the next section.

6.2 Batik Production Process
6.2.1 General Graph-7 Steps:
Basically the Batik production process has seven steps. First, Batik producers draw sketches
on white cambric or silk by pencil. Second, they draw with wax (chanting) or copper stamping.
Chanting itself is a kind of pencil used to draw with wax. In this report, the term of “chanting”
is used to refer to the waxing process. The term of copper stamping means waxing process using
a copper stamp. The third step is coloring, in which producers dip the cambric (or silk) into thedye bath. There are two types of dye baths, naturaland chemical. Forth, if producers want to

add another color, they carefully scrape the wax where they want to add another color and dip
the cambric (silk) into the dye bath using the same process. During the fifth step, producers
remove the wax using hot water. Sixth, the producers dry the cambric (or silk) and then iron it
using a pressing roll for those that will be sold in salons. Finally, the producers package it.
The Batik production process can be different depending on whether producers use chanting,copper stamping, or a combination of the two. This combination type is called (kombinasi). The
three different styles have different values. Chanting Batik is the most expensive among three
due to the long process and high level of skill required. The thickness of the wax line is alsoslightly different with a variety of size and shapes of the wax line. This uniqueness adds a valueon the chanting Batik. Copper stamp Batik is the cheapest. Copper stamping leads to different
levels of thickness, size and shape of the wax line. Additionally, the process is much fastercompared to chanting production. Finally, combination Batik reflects a middle price. Firstly, thewaxing is drawn using copper stamping, then the Batik producers add detailed design bychanting.

6.2.2 Specific examples
Even though each Batik producer has a different style when producing Batik, introducing
and comparing their processes is important for understanding common elements in whichefficiency can be enhanced through standardization of best practices. In addition, thiscomparison can be useful for understanding the uniqueness and value proposition of each Batik
producer. More details on the source of the value proposition, and constraints and opportunities55

for enhancing efficiency are described in the next section. This paragraph’s aim is to understandmore deeply the Batik production process through the construction of a flowchart.

Generally,a flowchart is a useful diagram, which shows the visual productive process. The process isshown through different boxes, shapes and arrows and is helpful to understand the standardized
and non- standardized activities, organizational procedures, documentation, decisions to betaken and external processes.

Figure 5: Batik production and sales
BATIK PRODUCTION AND SALES: Hand Writen and Stamped
Inbound Logistics

OutboundLogistics

Production

Marketing and
Sales

Start

Wax Removing(Washing)
Acquisition ofMaterials

Hand writing?
Yes

Need
Tailoring?

No
Selling

Yes
No

Additional
colors?

Registering andControl

Tailoring
Storage andorganization

Yes
No

Pencil Drawing

DryingStorage andorganization“Chanting”(Waxing)

Stamping(Waxing)

End
Ironing(Pressing)

Registering andControl

Packaging
Delivering

Coloring
Registering andControl

Non- standardized activity

Organizational process

Decision Making

External process

Documentation

Relatively standardized activity

Source: The authors based on observation and interviews

Activities (Non-Standardized): Acquisition of Materials, Pencil Drawing, Chanting,Coloring, Wax Removing, Drying, Delivering, Selling
56

The notion of a non-standardized activity in this study highlights the fact that duringobservation of the whole Batik production process, there were some activities, which showed arelatively lower level of standardization (automation) than others. Specifically, they are:acquisition of materials, pencil drawing, chanting, coloring, wax removing, drying, deliveringand selling. The following explanation is about activities of acquisition of materials, deliveringand selling, which were not explained in the above paragraph on the seven steps. 5
Acquisition of materials is the activity of buying raw materials like cambric or silk. In
addition, Batik producers may have to buy wax and chemical or natural dyes. Batik producers
buy these materials and tools from different suppliers and store them in warehouses at theirwork place. However, producers tend to use recycled wax and so may not have to buy it so often.
Moreover, in terms of natural dyes, producers may not have to purchase them if they growspecific plants that are ingredients for the homemade creation of natural dye. Delivering is theactivity of transporting Batik to the market. Transportation by bicycle or public transportation,such as the bus, are the main modes. Usually, producers have small-scale Batik factories
adjacent to the shop in which they sell their products. The Batik can be sold as a plain cloth in
this adjacent store (salon sales) and/or can be tailored and sold as a dress. In addition, the storesalso sell Batik produced by other firms and through this, merchants can increase the variety ofmodels, designs and styles to be sold in the store.
Predefined (standardized) Activity: Stamping, Ironing, Packaging
The notion of a predefined activity in this study highlights the fact that during observationof the whole Batik production process, there were some activities, which showed a relatively
higher level of standardization (automation) than others. Specifically, those activities arestamping, ironing and packaging. Stamping is an activity to draw wax with a copper stamp.
Ironing is an activity to press Batik using a pressing machine. The ironing process is very
important for the salon sales. Packaging is an activity to cover salon or Batik shirts with plastic
or paper.
Organizational Process: torage and organization (Inbound Logistics), Storage andorganization (Outbound Logistics)
The notion of an organizational process in this study highlights the fact that during the5

These activities, specifically AAcquisition of MMaterials, are suffered by the economic cristhat

occured in late 1997. The price of exported chemical dyes and silk has been rising since the crisis, and theprice of domestic cotton is also rising because of production decrease (小池, 1998, p98-p.99).

57

observation of the whole Batik production process, there were some activities in which it wasnecessary to systematically organize the inputs from the outputs. Specifically, there are input
storage and organization, and output storage and organization. Storage and organization(Inbound Logistics) is the process of storing raw materials and tools. Storage and organization(Outbound Logistic) is the process of storing Batik as plain cloth or tailored dresses.
Document: Registering and Control
The notion of a documenting activity in this study highlights the fact that during observationof the whole Batik production process, there were documents used to register specific tasks andalso those that served as information sources for decision making, specifically registering andcontrol of the final output.
In the process, the first documentation refers to the counting of units of plain cloth that havebeen produced and what color they are. The second documentation refers to counting how many
units of tailored dresses have been produced, while the third documentation refers to keeping
track of the price and value of every item that has been sold.
Decision activities: Handmade decision, Additional colors decision, Need Tailoring
decision
The notion of a decision activity in this study highlights the fact that during observation of
the whole Batik production process, the producers had to make concrete decisions that affect theeffectiveness and efficiency of the process. Specially, these activities are the decisions ofhandmade production, additional colors and tailoring. Handmade decision refers to whether the
producer selects chanting wax or copper stamping for drawing the wax. The additional colors
decision refers to whether or not producers add another color. Finally, the tailoring decisionrefers to whether producers sell their Batik as a plain cloth or tailored clothing.
External Process/activities: Tailoring
The notion of an external process/activity in this study highlights the fact that during theobservation of the whole Batik production process, there were some activities that were notbeing accomplished within the boundaries of the firm, specifically the process of tailoring,which was usually handled at a location near the Batik firm. Generally, the producer and thetailor know each other well and the service is reliable because of confidence and trust
established among the villagers that act as a mechanism for enforcing verbal contracts.
Moreover, this confidence and trust may bring information about trends in the city andpreferences of tourists for the ability to update and promote products. Market places for sellingthe handicraft products are located in the city of Yogyakarta, especially in hotels, souvenir shops,
58

street shops, restaurants and also in sightseeing places such as the Borobudur Temple
Compounds. Therefore, handicraft firms need to have connections with sellers in those market
places, which utilize confidence and trust.

6.3 Value Chain Framework
Every firm has its own value proposition in its business activities and is expected to offer
value that is attractive for potential customers in order to gain profit and get ahead of thecompetition. This value proposition can be applied to hand-made Batik production in
Yogyakarta. Although most of the Batik firms in Yogyakarta are traditional cottage industries,
the Batik market has been bigger and more competitive in meeting the increasing demand frominside and outside Indonesia. In identifying and analyzing the value proposition of each Batik
firm, the Value Chain Framework can be a useful tool to find unique qualities and determine
constraints and opportunities in the value proposition among the interconnected activities(Figure 1).

6.3.1 Value Proposition in the process of Batik production (in Bantul)
Bantul District is one of the major regions in Yogyakarta that produces Batik, withapproximately 440 registered Batik firms. Value propositions were examined by conducting
observation and interviews with five major Batik firms (Batik Topo, Batik Topo’s daughter,
Batik Nining, Batik Dirjo, Batik Sri) in Wijirejo Village and 1 firm (Batik Sekar Arum) in
Wukisari Village.

Table 4: General Information of 6 Batik firms
Establishment

Types of Batik products

Production

No. of(Units/Month)

Employees

Batik Topo1981

Hand-written/Stamped/Printed

15850

35

Batik Topo’s

2007

Stamped

38040

17

Batik Nining

2000

Hand-written/Stamped/Printed

15850

20

Batik Dirjo

1968

Hand-written/Stamped/Printed

15850

18

Batik Sri

1996

Hand-written/Stamped

NA10daughter

59

Batik Sekar

2007

Hand-written

420

35

Arum
Source: Based on the interviews conducted by authors in 2010

As a result of the field research, which examined these 6 Batik firms, value propositions
were found in the quality of materials and tools, design, color, price and service.
z

Materials and tools: The materials for producing Batik are cotton, wax and color dyes.
What makes Batik unique is the use of wax in making motifs. Wax is applied on cotton byusing special tools called chanting and metal stamps, leaving the part of the cloth where
wax is placed white after dyeing. In order to completely prevent the color from runningduring the dyeing process, the manager of “Batik Dirjo” uses expensive beeswax instead ofparaffin wax.

z

Design: Motifs of Batik are different for each Batik firm and uniqueness and complexity of
motifs are points of attraction for customers. Customers can also request their favorite
motifs and buy customized Batik cloth. “Batik Sekar Arum” in Wukisari Village produces
only handwritten Batik and the motifs are creative and complex. On the other hand, “Batik
Dirjo” and “Batik Topo’s Daughter” have an advantage in offering many varieties ofstamped Batik, which is suitable for school and company uniforms.

zColor: A wide variety of color can be made in Batik by mixing different chemical colordyes. There are also natural dyes, which have softer color tones than chemical dyes.
Customers can customize their colors if they pay additional money for customization.

z

Price: Price is set based on the cost of materials and amount of time for production. The
price of products with complex motifs, different colors or natural colors is higher than
one-colored products with simple motifs because it takes a considerable about of time andskill to produce. However, the average price of products sold inside the firm shops ischeaper than those that are sold in the city of Yogyakarta. Local customers who werebuying at “Batik Topo” said that they came to buy direct because the quality is good but theprice is cheaper.

zService: All the six Batik firms, except for Topo’s Daughter have their own shops and sell
their own products. They sell not only pieces of Batik cloth, but also shirts and dresses thatare made by tailors in the neighborhood. “Batik Dirjo” provides a discount service whencustomers make a bulk purchase. “Batik Sekar Arum” has a direct connection with thetourism sector by providing Batik making workshops for tourists.
60

6.3.2 Constrains and opportunities in the Batik production process
Throughout interviews with the six Batik firms in Bantul District, constraints andopportunities for enhancing efficiency are found in each activity of the Value Chain Framework.
<Primary Activities>① Inbound Logistics
Constraint:z

Price fluctuations in cotton
The price of materials such as cotton and wax is not stable but fluctuating according toeconomic conditions and demand. Since the demand for materials is increasing, Batik firms
have difficulty in acquiring materials, especially white cotton in the markets of Yogyakarta City
(KOMPAS, 2010).
Opportunity:z

Recycling wax
Wax was once disposed after being used, however it is now recycled in all Batik firms. The

cost for purchasing wax was reduced and recycling wax is good for environment.
z

Solidarity of association
Although the Batik firms in Wijirejo Village buy materials individually at traditional

markets in Yogyakarta City, “Batik Sekar Arum” buys some materials from Batik associations inWukisari village. Purchasing through the association can save time and cost. There is also a big
storage warehouse shared by the association members enabling “Batik Sekar Arum” to use it
when their own storage space runs out.
② Operations
Constraint:zStandardization of color
In the production of custom-made Batik, color mismatch is a common problem for every

Batik firm. Even though they standardize the time of dyeing and composition of chemical dye
powder, subtle differences of color can happen because of differences in temperature andhumidity. Customers sometimes decline to buy the products because of color mismatch, leaving
owners with only the down payment, which is approximately 10%-30% of the entire price.
Since custom-made products usually have original motifs or marks, it is rather difficult forowners to resell returned ones to other customers.
z

Trade-off: Natural or Chemical dye
61

Waste management is becoming a serious environmental issue in Batik production because
many of Batik firms in the rural areas dispose of the chemical dye residue directly into the local
rivers. The local government and Board of Batik and Craft have been encouraging Batik firms
to use natural dyes, however, making natural colored Batik takes 3 or 4 times longer thanchemically colored Batik. The manager of “Batik Topo” says, that although foreign customers
tend to prefer natural color, a majority of local customers like to wear chemical dyed Batik
because these colors are more vivid and less expensive. Considering the amount of time andneeds of the customers, it will not be easy for Batik firms to entirely switch from chemical tonatural dye.
③ Outbound Logistics
Constraint:z

Variety in the delivery system
There are several ways to deliver finished products to customers and exhibitions, including

mailing service, car, public bus and motorbike. Batik firms decide delivery methods according
to the distance and delivery date. Inefficiency results from a lack of standardized logistic
systems, which requires firms to arrange a method and vehicle for delivery every time.
Opportunity:z

Associations
Since many Batik firms belong to Batik associations, it is more efficient to collect members’

products and deliver through associations rather than sending individually. It might take time toestablish logistic systems and rules for the association, but beneficial in the long run because thefirms can reduce the cost and time of delivery.
④ Marketing and Sales
Constraint:z

Customization
A common marketing constrain for the Batik firms that produce stamped Batik is thecustomization of designs requiring a variety of stamps in order to make attractive motifs. Lackof capital for investment, frequently prevents the purchase of expensive stamps.
Opportunity:z

Government policies
From the time Batik was recognized by UNESCO as an Indonesian cultural heritage in 2008,

the government set policies for promoting Batik. One of the policies encourages all civil
servants to wear Batik uniforms on Thursday and Friday. Schools and private companies such as
62

hotels, also follow the policy (Bantul Regency Office, 2010). The domestic demand for Batik
has therefore been increasing.
z

Exhibitions
Main customers of the Batik firms in Wijirejo Village are people who live in or near thevillage. Those firms depend on local reputation and are likely to be passive in promotional
activities because products are mostly sold at their shops. However, “Batik Sekar Arum” sends
their products to Batik exhibitions held in hotels and big shops in Yogyakarta City. The manager
was able to meet potential customers in past exhibitions. Since most Batik firm managers are
not familiar with advertising via technologic media such as websites, participating in
exhibitions is an effective way for promoting their products outside villages.

<Support Activities>⑤ Financial, Managerial and Physical Infrastructure
Constraint:z

Planning and control management
Most Batik firms run their businesses in traditional ways and don't use financial statement

such as balance sheets. For example, the manager of “Batik Dirjo” keeps the record of only theamount of sales. However, the manager of “Batik Sekar Arum” has basic financial management
knowledge and keeps a record of payment, sales, profits and also inventories. Although it is notnecessary for Batik firms to make professional financial documents, it is still useful to acquirebasic financial management knowledge in order to be more aware of costs and benefits.
Constraint:z

Investment capital
Many of the Batik firms perceive lack of capital as their problem. They have been

recovering from damage from the earthquake that occurred in 2006 by receiving financial
support from the local government and GTZ. However, their investment capital is not enough to
buy new stamps and other equipment.
zVariability of health conditions
Most of the Batik firms are cottages inside or next to the managers’ houses and workers wholive in the neighborhood come to work there everyday. The working environment of thecottages is poor because inside is hot and filled with the smell of heated wax and petroleum
liquid. Workers in charge of stamping stand for many hours in limited space. When considering
the health conditions of the workers, it is necessary to improve working conditions by providing
63

ventilation and repairing buildings.
⑥ Human Resources
Constraint:zTechnical training
Many of the Batik firm managers perceive technical training as one of the big challenges

due to the skill gap between young and experienced workers. Batik Topo’s daughter is afraid ofexcessive customized Batik orders because there is not enough experienced workers who cancreate complex motifs. She also said that customers want original motifs but it is sometimes
hard to perfectly meet their needs. Managers and skillful workers teach their skills to young
workers, however, it still takes several years to equip them with strong skills.
zExport training
Batik has become globally known since UNESCO registered it as an Indonesian cultural

heritage, and many of the Batik managers have a desire to sell their products outside Indonesia.
However, they do not know how to promote and export their products because they do not haveopportunities to receive export training from the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Opportunity:z

Experience

Managers of Batik firms are usually also the owners and the businesses have been in thefamilies for generations. Workers also have parents who are engaged in Batik production.
Through the accumulation of experience, those firms have a stock of skills and knowledge for
producing attractive and good quality Batik.
⑦ Design and Technology
Constraint:z

Innovation in stamped Batik
Stamped Batik became common in Wijirejo Village in the early 1980s and it greatly

contributed to reducing production time. However, motifs of stamps are standardized and haveless creativity than handwritten Batik. In order to provide customers with a variety of design,
Batik firms need to buy many stamps.
z

Adaptation and technological upgrade
Most of the Batik firms stick to traditional ways in the use of energy as well. They do notuse gas or electric stoves for melting wax but rather petroleum oil and firewood. Although theCenter of Craft and Batik encourages the utilization of more advanced technology, firms are notwilling to adapt because if they change their energy resource and equipment, they also need to64change their work flow and style. They are also concerned about the cost and shortage of gas
and electricity.
Opportunity:z

Originality of hand-written Batik
As people often call Batik “art,” handwritten Batik is very creative and incorporates aphilosophy. Although its production requires more manpower and higher skills, producers canbe innovative with design to suite their customers’ needs.
⑧ Procurement
Constraint:z

Salaries and stamps
If material costs are excluded, the other most costly expenses are salary for workers andstamps. In the case of “Batik Sekar Arum,” the amount of workers’ salary is 40-50% of theirproduct prices. As already mentioned in constraints in activities of Marketing and Sales, andDesign and Technology, purchasing of stamps is necessary for widening the variety of design.
However, these are expensive and it is difficult to buy many at once.
z

Price fluctuations in electricity
Electricity costs have been increasing in Indonesia and it has had harmful effects on every

industry, including the Batik industry. According to the national newspaper, KOMPAS, Batik
prices have gone up by 10% because of the increase in electricity (KOMPAS, 2010).
Opportunity:z

Village trust agreement“Batik Topo,” “Batik Ninin” and “Batik Sri” belong to a village level Batik union and they

have a trustful financial agreement among union members in which they lend money to eachother when they lack capital or in case of emergency. Such networks between producers arevery useful in order to run business smoothly.
⑨ MarginAmong the six firms, the average amount of profit gained is 10%-30%. Stamped and printed
Batik, which are dyed by chemical dyes, have a smaller profit margin because they require lesstime and manpower. On the contrary, more value is put on naturally colored, handwritten Batik
resulting in a profit margin of

approximately 30% of the sale price.

65

7. Results: Objective 2
7.1 Stakeholders involved in Batik:
Four main categories of stakeholders were identified throughout this research as mentioned
in the Figure 6 below. The government plays a role in promotion and conservation of Batik as aculture, while at the same time, working to enhance economic activities based on Batik.
Similarly, the private sector plays an important role in promoting Batik from a cultural
perspective, as well as economic one, to enhance business. Local communities are also key
actors at the micro level, producing and delivering Batik to both local and global markets.
Finally there are other stakeholders who are involved with the promotion of Batik, even on asmall scale.

Figure 6: Stakeholders involved in Batik

Note:- Pertamina (National Petroleum Company of Indonesia)- ASEPHI (Association of Exporters and Producers of Indonesian Handicraft)- GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit) – (Gernman Oragnization)

Source: The authors based on interviews

Therefore, each stakeholder contributes either directly or indirectly in the promotion of Batik
66

through their respective activities. Their roles and interventions will be described in thefollowing section.

7.1.1 Government
As shown in the Figure 6, the Indonesian government is characterized by a system ofcomplex administrative divisions. Below the central government, there is also the local
government, which is represented at the upper level by provinces (provinsi), each with its own
political legislature and governor. At the lower level, provinces are subdivided into regencies(kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan) and theninto village (desa). Both the central and local governments are concerned with the Batik
industry in the Province of Yogyakarta, and undertake, respectively, programs and activities
related to the promotion of the sector. As a common policy, central and local governments bothtake the initiative to encourage their civil employees and public school children to wear Batik
clothes at least once a week. However, interventions are located at different levels as explained
below.

7.1.1.1 Central Government
The central government of Indonesia contributes to the promotion of the Batik industry
through two main channels from a technical aspect, which includes the recent project of
livelihood recovery and the technical center (Balai Besar Kerajinan dan Batik) of the Ministryof Industry.
a) Project of Livelihood Recovery for DI Yogyakarta and JavaFor the purpose of supporting the victims of the big earthquake in 2006, the government ofIndonesia has been implementing the project for “Livelihood Recovery for DI Yogyakarta andJava” since 2009. Working in collaboration with the Java Reconstruction Fund (JRF 6 ) and theWorld Bank, this project aims to assist affected micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs),
as well as low-income communities. Because Batik is one of the major sources of income forthe population in Yogyakarta, the project is concentrating on the Batik industry and how torevitalize the community’s business, by providing them access to finance and technicalassistance, strategy to work out default loans, restoring full capacity and creating opportunities
for improving competitiveness. GTZ, the German organization in charge of the project,

6

JRF: a kind of basket fund created by several bilateral donors after the earthquake)67

collaborates with different actors related to Batik production, such as the local government(province, district, and village) and the Bank of Indonesia, among others, for the
implementation of their activities. The project is also trying to connect Batik producers toseveral channels, local as well as global, for marketing in order to promote their activity.
However, because the project was just started in 2009, there is no available data regarding the
progress.

This is one the central government’s initiatives to assist the Batik sector in

Yogyakarta, especially after the earthquake of 2006.
b) Ministry of Industry: Board of Batik and Craft (Balai Besar Kerajinan dan Batik):
One of the most important stakeholders related to Batik in Yogyakarta, the Center for
Handicraft and Batik, is a central government institution that was newly re-organized in 2002
under the Agency for Research and Development of Industry, which is within the Ministry ofIndustry. This center aims to give support to crafters for competency and competitiveness. Its
principal mission is to carry out services for training, testing, standardization, consultancy,
research, engineering and technical services in the field of handicraft and the Batik industry. It
also aims to create professional human resources and to make handicraft and Batik related
SMEs as the main partners. Therefore, it has a vision of becoming the trustworthy andprofessional leader, as well as the autonomic center of industrial development and services in
the field of handicraft and Batik (Pamphlet, 2010). The Center is equipped with the following
facilities just for Batik industry:-

Laboratories for Batik process: natural dyes, Batik design and testing-Experts consisting of Batik designers: colorists, fashion designers, weavers, inspectors andextension workers to be dispatched to the villages for socialization and dissemination of
information-

A complete library of Batik collections in Indonesia

Given the emphasis on R&D (Research and Development), as a government institution, it
receives considerable support and assistance from several international organizations, such as
JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency), the German Organization GTZ and others, in
performing its principal activities, which are summarized in the Table 3 below:

Table 5: Task and Function related to Batik of the Center for Handicraft and Batik
TopicsActivities

Purposes68

In Center-

Coloring of Batik- To developed skills fortraining-

Technology process for painting Batik

Batik producers-

Technology process to create crushed
Batik with silk material-

Technology process for silk Batik-

Batik cloth rag handicraft making
process

Workshop at-

Coloring of Batik- To developed skills forthe village-

Technology process for painting Batik

Batik producers

level

-

Technology process for in silk Batik- To disseminate new
and improved tools- To establish networks
among villages

Engineering-

Electric wave production (operation and- To improve efficiency

maintenance)
Certification-

Trademark for Batik made in Indonesia- To improve costumer’s(writing Batik, stamped Batik,

trust

combination Batik)
Testing-

Defects in the Batik process- To ensure quality

Source: The authors based on information from Center for Handicraft and Batik, 2010

Apart from the above, the Center is also publishing scientific a journal related to Batik twicea year, in order to share and deliver information about the results of the R&D activities.
Nowadays, its activities are expanding and up to 100 SMEs are now receiving support from theCenter, through 3 to 4 training sessions per month, which includes 5 to 10 trainees per session.
In order to get support and attend training, the government provides free training sessions for
Batik producing SMEs in the form of a subsidy of 1,700,000 Rp (USD 190) for one roundtraining. Some foreign trainees, such as trainees from India, are also benefiting from the center’s
services, through a bilateral agreement. Regarding the technical services, the center usuallyapplies a participatory approach, consisting of consultation with the Batik producers while
defining the materials to be developed, such as the electric wave, which is sold for 150.000
Rupiah (USD 16) per unit, in order to ensure the sustainability and facilitate the Operation and
Maintenance (O&M).
69

Due to its emphasis on R&D, no training for marketing is provided rather focus is given to
the technical aspects of the Batik process. The main problem encountered is the stickiness of the
Batik producers to the traditional techniques, so that it is difficult to change their habits. The
Center is therefore facing problems in disseminating the new materials, such as the electric
wave, to the Batik producers, even though they were consulted during the development process.
Another challenge identified would be the problem related to the waste management systemfrom the coloring of Batik, which causes damage to the environment due to the chemical color
used by many producers. To tackle the above-mentioned issues, the Center proposes thestrengthening of human resource development among its agents, through further collaboration
with universities and other related stakeholders, such as tour agencies.
7.1.1.2 Local Government
As for the local government, interventions take place at different level such as regencies,
districts and villages. Involvement of the different branches of local government is described
below:
a) Cultural and Tourism Office of Bantul Regency (Kabupaten):This organization belongs to the local government of Yogyakarta, and aims to promote anddevelop “tourism villages” in the province, especially in Bantul Regency. The principal role of
the Cultural and Tourism Office of Bantul Regency is to provide those tourism villages with thenecessary skills to manage

their business efficiently through trainings held every three months

at each village, related mainly to management and marketing promotion. For this purpose,
programs such as homestay management, promotion materials, marketing strategy andexhibition activities are proposed by the Office, which is also collaborating with other branchesof the local government, such as the Office of Commerce and Trade, as well as the Office ofCulture. As for Batik, the Office encourages Tourism Villages to participate in the Batik
Festival, which is organized every year in order to promote Batik. As a part of handicraft
products, the Batik industry is then also benefiting from the services provided by the Regency
Office, which encourages linkage between tourism and Batik. This also contributes to the global
promotion of Batik, as mentioned in the Annual Plan of 2010, which is to “promote widely
regional tourism products to both national and international markets.”b) Javapromo at the district level (kecamatan):
Javapromo is a brand name of a promotion board, which is a cooperation of 15 districts andcities in Central Java and Yogyakarta created in 2002. The board aims to promote these parts ofIndonesia as an attractive tourism destination, and take advantage of the existence of historic70

temples such as Borobudur and Prambanan. The District of Bantul is also an active member ofthe board, and shares the same objective of “maintaining, developing, promoting and marketing
tourism in all areas.” Among the tourism products being promoted through Javapromo,
handcrafts are also benefiting from the partnership between districts and cities to achieve what
is called “Java Tourism”. Therefore, Batik industry is also concerned with the promotion
activities of Javapromo. For this purpose, the main actor at the local government level of
Yogyakarta is the Cultural and Tourism Office of Bantul Regency, through the Batik festival
and exhibitions they organize together in order to promote Batik and other products via the
tourism villages. This organization could be also an important stakeholder identified at the local
government level in order to promote Batik to both local and global markets through tourism
development.
c) Village Chiefs (Desa):
At the micro level, village chiefs also play important roles in promoting Batik, as they areclose to the villagers and Batik producers within the village. They often serve as acommunication bridge between the Batik producers, unions, Batik firms or SMEs in the village
and the central/local government. Indeed, most of the important information related to Batik,such as technical announcements or promotion activities like exhibitions, is often first delivered
to the village chief before being announced officially to other stakeholders. With this regard, theDesa Offices, through the village chiefs, are also considered as an important stakeholder for
promoting Batik at the local government level.

7.1.2 Private Sector:
The private sector in Yogyakarta also contributes actively in promoting Batik from both
cultural and economic aspects. Hotels, restaurants, tour agencies, and private companies as wellas business associations, are concerned either directly or indirectly with Batik promotion
through their own businesses. It could be a part of their main activities or just for marketing
purposes. Following the government policy and their awareness of the importance of Batik
within the Indonesian society, their involvement in the promotion of Batik is summarized as
below:
7.1.2.1 Hotels
Mainly as a part of a marketing strategy, Batik is often used by a majority of the prestigious
hotels in Yogyakarta. Taking advantage of its cultural attractiveness, hotels use Batik as ameans to attract more tourists and to promote their activities related to tourism. Such is the case71

for Santika Hotel, a four stars hotel in the heart of the province, which uses Batik for the staff’s
uniforms, table clothes, curtains in the rooms, pajamas for customers, etc. This is related to thehotel’s commitment, which is to “promote culture and hospitality,” with the emphasis on culture
given especially to Batik. The reason for such a strategy is simply that Santika Hotel recognizes
the importance and value of Batik within the Indonesian society, as well as its potential for the
global market and for attracting tourists. Moreover, a Batik painting exhibition is held every day
at the “welcome salon” of the hotel in order to satisfy guests, which are composed of
65-70%local tourists and 30-35% foreign tourists (mainly from the Netherlands, Germany,
Singapore, Malaysia and Japan), who want to know about the painting process of Batik. These
exhibitions are held daily except during the Ramadan period. From such activities, customers
may have the opportunity to produce Batik in for themselves, which the hotel will send to themlater as a souvenir. Furthermore, three private shops are renting the hotel’s facility for theirbusinesses, where customers can buy both handwritten and stamped Batik. Such kinds ofactivities related to Batik are observed in several hotels, and may constitute an important factor
for global promotion. However, the issue of global promotion of Batik remains the main
problem for the private sector, because Yogyakarta is only considered as a transit destination for
tourists, mainly foreign tourists. For this purpose, promotion activities through websites areimportant.
7.1.2.2 Restaurants:
Similar to hotels, most restaurants in Yogyakarta, especially large and famous restaurants,
are using Batik for simple decoration motifs, or for a secondary activity. Such promotion
activities of Batik are related, in some case, to its cultural aspect, as well as for a marketingstrategy. One of the famous restaurants in Yogyakarta using Batik as a secondary activity is“Gadri Resto,” which belongs to the younger brother of the 10th Sultan of the Province. As aroyal belonging, besides its main activity as a restaurant, Gadri Resto has the duty of promoting
local culture, especially Batik, since its opening in 1975. It features a Batik showroom andworkshop within its facilities. As a secondary activity, the main revenue from Batik comes fromhandwritten Batik, made by contracted and fixed producers in Bantul. However, Gadri Resto isselling also stamped Batik, which is supplied by local producers based in Solo with whom acontract is made in order to satisfy the local demand and to increase job opportunities for local
people. Stamped Batik constitutes one of the “well sold products” of the restaurant in terms ofnumber, which averages 5 to 10 pieces a week, compared to only one piece per week for
handwritten Batik. In this restaurant, customers for handwritten Batik are mainly composed of72

local tourists who are searching for an authentic Batik design and color, and who usually need it
for special occasion such as wedding. It also includes foreign tourists who seek “real Batik.”
Government institutions and schools are the main customers of stamped Batik and often placeorders directly to the shop to create their uniforms. The approximate price for one piece ofhandwritten Batik is 2.6 - 3 million Rp. (291-335 USD). The price for “stamped Batik” isaround 250,000 - 300,000 Rp. (28-33 USD), from which approximately 10% is profit for the
shop. In order to promote sales, Gadri Resto often participates in several Batik exhibitions andworkshops in Yogyakarta and distributes pamphlets to certain tour agencies, as well as use of its
homepage, which presents a brief description of Batik. Media such as newspapers occasionallycover events related to Batik in the restaurant and such situations contribute to promote thissecondary activity. However, the Batik business is mainly limited to the local market, as Gadri
Resto is not exporting Batik to any foreign country. Such initiatives to promote local culture andcombine Batik as a secondary activity is important to stimulate the global promotion of Batik in
Yogyakarta.
7.1.2.3 Tour agencies:
Tour agencies are the main actors to bring both local and foreign tourists to Yogyakarta.
They offer different tour packages, based mainly on the Borobudur and Prambanan temples.
Tourism villages are also proposed in their menu, which includes visits to Batik firms whichhighlight the Batik production process for tourists. On example, proposed by “Sweety” tour
agency, allows a round trip visit to Wukisari Tourism Village. This is the way tour agencies arepromoting Batik interconnected with tourism in Yogyakarta. They collaborate with several
stakeholders, such as tourism officers, Batik related organizations and Batik producers. Though
the majority of customers visiting Yogyakarta are local tourists, this could be a way forconnecting Batik to the global market as well.
7.1.2.4 Private / National Companies:
Some private companies contribute also to promote and develop the Batik industry in
Yogyakarta as a cultural heritage of Indonesia. This could be seen as a part of the social
assistance provided by companies, who sponsor Batik producers to participate in events and to
get technical assistance from supporting centers. Pertamina, a national petroleum company, is
one of the biggest companies doing these kinds of activities. This shows the involvement ofsome private or national companies in the promotion of Batik in Indonesia. That makes them animportant stakeholder for the global promotion of Batik.

73

7.1.3 Local Communities:
Because Batik is often the main source of income, local communities are by far the main
actors at the micro level for Batik promotion. Consisting of Batik producers regrouped in a
family firm or SMEs, Batik shops as well as street vendors, Batik unions and clubs, tourism
villages and local communities are all those who receive direct benefit from the promotion of
Batik. Therefore, they were defined as main stakeholders for this research
7.1.3.1 Batik Producers:
Batik producers consist of Batik firms who have Batik as the main source of income basedin the villages. Most of them are family firms, such as “Batik Topo” or “Batik Nining.” Themajor part of their production is stamped Batik, mainly for commercial purposes. However,they are also producing handwritten Batik and sometimes combination Batik. Batik producers
are those who receive support and assistance from the different stakeholders mentioned above,and they collaborate with different organizations in order to sell and promote their products.
They might be a members of tourism villages or not, but their main concern remains Batik.
Their products are the items to be promoted globally, the main subject of this research.
7.1.3.2 Union
The union consists of an association of Batik producers, especially new firms, who havecommon interests and a willingness to grow better and together within the Batik industry. It is
located in Wijirejo village under the name of “Paguyuban Pengrajin Batik Wijirejo” (PPBW) in
Bantul, and is comprised of 14 members. The main purpose of the union is to share information
related to markets, events, and techniques among its members, as well as for mutual support.
They receive assistance from the supporting agencies and organizations, such as the Center ofHandicraft and Batik.
7.1.3.3 Tourism Villages
A Tourism Village is an association of handcrafters having the same objective andcollaborating together in order to develop their activities by attracting tourists in their villages
through handcrafts products. These have been created especially after the earthquake of 2006.
Batik producers are also members of the association, as is the case for Wukisari Tourism
Village. Their products are also promoted through the activities of the association, receiving
assistance from the supporting agencies. These are also important stakeholders in the global
promotion and for Batik development.
7.1.3.4 Batik clubThis club consists of a group of “Batik lovers” under the leadership of Mrs. Suriandro and74created in 1997 by seven original members to promote and preserve the “real Batik” culture,
which is attributed mainly to handwritten Batik. Nowadays, it counts 500 members who meetonce a month. As mentioned above, its main objective is to valorize handwritten Batik, and thus,
its members are only handwritten Batik producers. In order to promote their activity, the club
often participates in exhibitions to show their products. Up to now, the club has not beenregistered as an official institution and its main purpose is only to bring producers together andshare information related to the Batik sector. Therefore, there is no promotion of activities onbehalf the club via pamphlets or media, though each member may promote activities throughwebsites for their own showroom, though these do not engage the club.
7.1.3.5 Batik shops:
Batik shops, as defined for the present research, are generally those located in Malioboro,
but there are also some Batik shops within the Batik producer’s house in a village or in othertourism sites or hotels. Most of the Batik shops located in Malioboro, such as Margaria Shop,collaborate with the Batik producers from Bantul to provide them with Batik products. However,they might also have their own production network. The main costumers are local tourists, butsometimes there are also foreign tourists that travel agencies, such as Sweetie, bring to theirshop. Some shops such as Margaria are exporting Batik abroad and are deeply involved inevents related to Batik promotion. They are important actors for the local and global promotionof Batik.

7.1.3.6 ASEPHI:ASEPHI stands for the Association of Exporters and Producers of Indonesian Handicraft,created in 1975.

It is supported by the central government through the Ministry of Trade, theMinistry of Industry, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the Ministry of Cooperative and
SME and the Ministry of State Owned Enterprise. Its main objective is to support handicraft
exporters to connect to the global market. Batik shops such as Margaria are also members of theassociation. It provides handicraft exporters with necessary information, such as international
exhibitions or festivals related to their product, and constitutes an important factor for the global
promotion of Batik.
7.1.3.7 Street Vendors:
The stakeholder ‘street vendors’ refers to those located on Malioboro Street, which is a kindof common market for handicraft and souvenirs for both local and foreign tourists. Street
vendors sell many Batik products, especially stamped Batik, which is relatively cheaper than75

handwritten. The main purpose for street vendors is then strictly commercial and their targeted
costumers are mostly the majority of people who cannot afford to buy expensive handwritten
Batik. To run their business, they collaborate with stamped Batik producers coming mainly
from Solo rather than Bantul, because Bantul is known mainly for handwritten and more
expensive Batik. In other words, most of the costumers of street vendors in Malioboro are local
people who want to wear Batik at a cheap price, as well as some foreign tourists who buy
handicrafts as souvenirs.

7.1.4 Other Stakeholders:
Other important stakeholders were also analyzed for this research, as they may play animportant role for the promotion of Batik in Yogyakarta. These stakeholders include the media,
international organizations and Universities. Their activities related to the Batik sector are
summarized in the following section.
7.1.4.1 MediaThe role of the media, such as the newspaper in the promotion of Batik, is at the moment,
limited mainly to writing a simple article about Batik, depending on the interests of thejournalist. For example, a journalist working for Kedau Latan Rakyat (newspaper) said to havea personal interest on Batik, writes occasion articles. The contents of the article are often related
to its cultural aspect, in order to share the importance of Batik as a culture within Indonesiansociety. Moreover, the media often covers such events as Batik exhibition and festivals.

Batik

producers also use the media to advertise their products. Newspapers are the most popular due
to their attractive prices for services. However, articles and commercial advertisement posted in
the media in Yogyakarta are often in Bahasa language. Therefore, the promotion of Batik
through the media is limited to local markets for the time being, and do not contribute much to
the global promotion of Batik.

7.1.4.2 International Organizations
Especially since 2006, several international organizations have been implementing different
projects in order to support the victims of the earthquake, concentrating on enhancing economic
activities of the local population in the provinces of Yogyakarta. Aware of the importance of
Batik within Indonesian socio-economic life, international organizations consider the Batik
industry in their respective programs as a key factor to revitalize the businesses of the local
community. For this purpose, technical, as well as marketing and organizational aspects of the76

sector are often covered by the implementation of various programs and projects. Some of theseorganizations include: GTZ, with the abovementioned project of “Livelihood Recovery of DI
Yogyakarta; JICA through sending experts and volunteers related to Batik to work withtechnical centers and local communities; and also ADB, the World Bank, European Union, etc.
International organizations are important stakeholders in promoting Batik both locally andglobally in Yogyakarta.
7.1.4.3 Universities
There are university scholars who study and spread knowledge about Batik through theirresearch activities. Therefore, their intervention in the promotion of Batik is also important in
Yogyakarta. The University of Gadjah Mada for example, is collaborating with the Wukisari
Tourism Village in promoting and developing the Batik industry. The university provides thecommunity with technical support, such as the creation of pamphlet to advertize their activities,
and by building networks among the Batik producers and other stakeholders interested in Batik.
Such interventions make universities important stakeholders for the local and global promotionof Batik in Yogyakarta.

7.1 Existing linkages between Batik and Tourism
7.2.1 Description of International tourists visiting Yogyakarta
Most international tourists are coming from Europe (70.4%), mainly from the Netherlands,
France and Germany. Asia constitutes the second largest population (25.9%) and Australia thethird (3.7%), regardless to gender. They are predominantly young (63% in the range of 29 to 39
years old) and almost all of them (92.6%) visit Yogyakarta during their time. Reasons forvisiting Yogyakarta are for vacation (88.9%) or for visiting friends and relatives (7.4%).
However, among the foreign tourists visiting Yogyakarta for less than a week (88.9%), 95.8%
stay for vacation, whereas all the foreign tourists visiting Yogyakarta for one to two weeks(3.7%) are visiting friends and relatives. Finally, half of those staying over two weeks haveother purposes.

77

Table 6: Length of stay
Length of stayLess than a

Vacation

More thanweek

1- 2 weeks

3 weeks

Total

Count

23

0

1

24

% of

85.2%

0.0%

3.7%

88.9%

1

1

0

2

3.7%

3.7%

0.0%

7.4%

0

0

1

1

% of Total

0.0%

0.0%

3.7%

3.7%

Count

24

1

2

27

88.9%

3.7%

7.4%

100.0%

Total
PurposeVisitingCountof thefriends/relatives % of
trip
Total
Count
Other

Total
% of Total

Source: Authors based on interviews

The length of stay in Yogyakarta depends on the purpose of visiting the tourism
destination. 7 In Yogyakarta, the standard tour package is provided for one or two days. It
consists of trips to see the ruins at Borobudur and Prambanan and to visit the cultural centers of
Yogyakarta, including the Kraton and Malioboro Streets. However, an additional package isprovided by a few tour agencies. This package consists of a visit and stay in a Tourism Village,
which is a village area that has some special characteristics where traditions and culture of thelocal community are still pure. Facilities such as transportation, telecommunication, medical,
7

Fisher’s exact statistic (0.025) was used instead of the traditional Pearson chi-square for the simple

reason that chi-square test assumes that each cell has an expected frequency of five or more, whereas the
Fisher's exact test has no such assumption and can be used regardless of how small the expected
frequency.

78

and accommodations are also provided so that the Tourism Village can become a viable tourism
destination. Another attraction of Tourism Villages is that tourists can participate in traditional
ceremonies, experience local life and learn traditional art.

7-2-2 Linkages between Tourism and Batik
The UN cultural organization, UNESCO, recently added Indonesia’s method of making the
Batik cloth - through a laborious process of wax-dipping and dying - to its list of the World’s
Intangible Cultural Heritage. This recognition led the Indonesia government to make thisculture asset as an attraction for socio-economic development by means of education, tourism
and trade. The government’s primary policy was that all public servants should wear Batik
clothes on both Thursdays and Fridays. As a matter of fact, this regulation gained acceptanceand had an impact, which led to the preservation of Batik as a national identity. Therefore,
strengthening linkages between tourism and Batik is one of the most effective ways to promote
Yogyakarta globally, because it directly connects Batik to the global market.
The linkage between tourism and Batik can be strengthened by:z

Upgrading the production capacity of Batik producers for more added valuezFacilitating Batik producers to enter the tourism value chainz

Expanding education and information for Batik in the global level

This section will study the linkages between tourism and Batik by understanding how
Batik producers can enter the tourism value chain and how to expand Batik education andinformation at a global level.
7-2-3 Market
The most obvious link between the tourism and Batik is through the supply of Batik to thetourism industry. Tourism in this paper is understood as an all-embracing concept, which
includes all relationships and phenomenon associated with the travel to and the stay of people atplaces around the world. It involves complex activities such as travel, accommodation andcatering, sightseeing, shopping, leisure and entertainment.
As for travel, our analysis suggests a strong linkage with Batik. On our domestic flight from
Denpasar airport (Bali) to Adisucipto (Yogyakarta), the flight attendants were dressed in Batik.
In that way, they served as tourism ambassadors, as their uniforms reflected the richness andcharacter of Indonesian culture. Another linkage was found in Adisucipto airport, where it waseasy to encounter Batik advertisement and shops. However, we found weak linkages between
tour operators and Batik. A review of Yogyakarta tours revealed that Batik tours are not often
79emphasized.
The second tourism component observed was accommodation and catering. Using the Batik
image as a marketing tool for private business seemed to be a commercial strategy for some
hotel managers. Many hotels, resorts, guesthouses and restaurants have strong linkages with
Batik. First of all, most of the ranked hotels and high standard restaurants have Batik shops or
galleries. Secondly, business regulations are in place for staff to wear Batik clothes on theweekends. Some hotels, like Santika Hotel, goes further in decorating the walls with Batik andusing Batik clothes as pajamas for visitors. They also organize Batik workshops to entertain
kids coming from all around Yogyakarta.
Since tourism relies on attractions and sightseeing, after visiting all the important tourism
destinations in Yogyakarta (Kraton, Borobudur and Prambanan), we find strong linkages with
Batik. In the three destinations, there are handicraft markets where Batik is exposed in markets
located right at the exit of the destinations, making it difficult to avoid. Kraton is also located nearto the major shopping street, Jalan Malioboro, a souvenir paradise in Yogyakarta. This area
contains both street vendors and modern shops that sell a variety of Javanese handicrafts,
including Batik clothes. Malioboro possess the advantage that tourists can walk on foot along thestreet, which is crowded with Batik products.

7.2.3 Information
Figure 7: Awareness of batik

Source : The authors based on interviews

80Another way to link tourism to Batik is by raising tourists’ awareness about Batik as a
tradition, as well as a commodity.

In terms of tradition, we find linkage in the Tourism Village

concept. Indeed, Tourism Villages offer tourists the opportunity to learn and practice how tomake Batik and to understand the “spirit” of Batik design. However, the linkage is still weak
and underexploited.
When considering Yogyakarta, the image of Borobudur or Prambanan is what first comes tomind.

Recognized as the largest Buddhist temple of the ninth century and the most beautiful

Hindu temple in the world, Borobudur and Prambanan have been offered as a part of tourism
packages to Yogyakarta for a long time. Since the two destinations were declared World
Heritage sites in year 1991, 17% of tourists identify Yogyakarta with their cultural heritage.
Moreover, these images are strong in the minds of tourists coming from Asia and Australia. On
the other hand, tourists from Europe have images of Yogyakarta, such as friendly people, nature
and as an amazing city.

Figure 8 Source of Batik AwarenessSource: The authors based on interviews

Batik awareness is very low among tourists. This is the direct consequence of
miscommunication and lack of promotion of Yogyakarta as a tourism destination. Our survey
concludes that Batik has only a 5% of awareness factor. Moreover, only one fourth of the
tourists from Asia and Australia, and half of the European tourists recall hearing anything about
Batik before they visited Yogyakarta. In 22% of cases, they heard from their friends or family,
while 11% heard from magazines or tourism guides. Furthermore, 7% heard about Batik in the81

classroom. It’s important to point out that tourists did not mention the internet as a source of
Batik awareness. In fact, Batik from Yogyakarta is mainly promoted using traditional channels(magazines, television, etc.) instead of moving toward social media as tools for promotion.
The lack of Batik information impacts the willingness to buy Batik. Our analysis concludes
that 56% of tourists are not interested in buying Batik, with 60% having no knowledge of Batik
before traveling to Yogyakarta. Reasons mentioned for not buying Batik range from lack ofinterest or usefulness to the price. This despite that Batik can be used for clothes, table settingsand souvenirs and the price in Yogyakarta is cheaper because of the currency and the cost ofliving.

Figure 9 Reasons for not buying Batik

Source: The authors based on interviews

7.3 Cooperation among stakeholders in promoting Batik

Cooperation between different stakeholders has been acknowledged to procure many benefits,
such as participation. However, this is not a simple process for the reason that stakeholders are
more often coming from different sectors, have different interests or perceptions and are
independents. In Yogyakarta, there exists institutional cooperation among stakeholders involvedin Batik promotion, as depicted in Figure 10. Figure 10 also represents how the stakeholders
collaborate when it comes to organize the “Malioboro Festival.” The festival is dominated by
the images of Batik as a symbol of high Indonesian culture, especially belonging to the peopleof Yogyakarta, and aims to treat Batik, not only as tourism attraction, but also as an economic
82

commodity to be sold to tourists.

Figure 10: Institutiogramme of cooperation for stakeholders

Source: The authors based on interviews and observation

This institutiogramme shows that relationships should be established with the Department ofCulture. At the same time, cooperation with media and tour agencies should be strengthened.
This graph shows also that collaboration among government institutions should be strengthened.
This implies a need for more coordination among stakeholders. For example, universities are
not involved in an efficient way while Javapromo is not receiving benefits of media promotion.
In addition, institutional cooperation is limited in policy, funding and information.
7.3.1 Policy
Policy related to the promotion of Batik is set mostly by both local and central governments,
through their respective departments work in different domains. The policy might be to promote
83

Batik as a culture, such as the rules for wearing Batik at least once a week for civil servants inorder to conserve its value, but it could be also a marketing policy through different programs
implemented by the Government such as the support to tourism villages, livelihood recovery
project etc. For this purpose, the Department of Commerce, Trade and Cooperative at the
Regency and District Level, as well as the Village Chiefs in Desa, are playing important role insetting the policy for promoting Batik, and the Department of Tourism contributes also either
directly or indirectly through its tourism policy. However, no strong cooperation among
stakeholders related to Batik were observed in setting the policy, and that shows the power that
the Government is having for both local and global promotion of Batik.

7.3.2 Funding:
The promotion of Batik in Yogyakarta requires capital to implement the activities. Central
and local government, international organizations, as well as the private sector are contributing,either independently through their respective programs, or jointly through a common project.
Such is the case of the Department of Commerce, Trade and Cooperative which offers subsidies
to Batik producers and SMEs in order to allow them to attend training in the Center for
Handicraft and Batik, as well as international organizations who provide funding throughdifferent project and programs such as GTZ, JICA, ADB, the World Bank, etc. Private sector
companies, such as the petrolium company Pertamina, are also contributing to support Batik bysponsoring producers and events such as exhibitions and Batik festivals. In terms of funding, asmall form of cooperation is observed among the stakeholders, as in the project for livelihood
recovery in collaboration with the central and local governments, international organizations,and community based organizations.
7.3.3 Information:
Information related to the promotion of Batik comprises technical and marketing aspects
and communication among the stakeholders. Several types of cooperation about information
sharing were observed throughout the research, taking into account the purposes of eachstakeholder. Local and central governments play, once again, important roles in distributing
information related to Batik among stakeholders through the organization of events such as
exhibitions and Batik festivals and technical support through the Center of Handicraft and Batik,etc. The private sector acts to bridge producers and customers by diffusing information about
Batik through direct or indirect activities, which is important for the local and global promotion84

of Yogyakarta.

Other stakeholders, such as international organizations, offer marketing

training to Batik producers.

8. Concluding Remarks and Recommendations

8.1 Enhancing Efficiency in Batik Production
Based on several interviews with different Batik producers and stakeholders, along with theobservation of the production process, the value proposition and the efficiency of the processitself, it was determined that there are constraints due to three specific needs: skill needs,
marketing needs and capital needs.

Figure 11: Constraints and Opportunities of the Batik Production Process

Source: Based on the interviews conducted by the authors in 2010

In Figure 11 it is possible to more specifically identify the nature of these three binding
constraints. Initially, the earthquake affected the financial position of the producers, so that any
85

planned expansions had to be delayed due to the default of previous credit. This credit
constraint mainly affects long-term investments, such as modernization of infrastructure,machinery and stamps. In spite of the efforts of GTZ’s microcredit programs, many small
producers still cannot access formal credit, relying instead on informal loans mainly obtained
through village neighbors and friends. In terms of skill needs, it is true that the TechnologicalCenter of Bantul continually tries to disseminate technical upgrades, mainly in the form ofmachinery upgrades, however the geographical scope of this practice seems to be still limited.
Furthermore, besides technological upgrades, the value chain framework highlights that in order
to increase efficiency and increase the value proposition of the product, management skills mustalso be upgraded. Specifically, based on the interviews, managerial skills could be improved for
new product development, eco-friendly management, financial planning and control techniques.
Finally, there are also marketing needs that burden the current value proposition. The literature
in marketing practices suggests that producers should constantly be analyzing market conditions
and trends in order to set a price, which has to be appropriate for the segment that is being
targeted. In the case of Bantul, producers can rarely identify market segments. Instead, they tend
to be more reactive to consumer orders. Simply, producers expect that the market will come tothem instead of offering products in specific market segments by themselves. This passive
behavior of producers can be understandable due to the lack of information and can be very
particularly problematic for small producers because they often do not have enough bargaining
power against big and informed consumers. In the interviews, the majority of the producers
mentioned that they do not share information about the types of clients they are selling to.
Although there are formal associations, the agenda seems to be focalized on capital problems
rather than market problems.
Within the context of identified constraints, the notion of global promotion of Batik is not
only challenging, but also can be identified as a very important incentive for overcoming thementioned constraints. Looking forward to international markets, a suitable strategy might be
the conformation of joint ventures. Global partners not only could contribute to increase
investment capital, but could also contribute to managerial techniques, which are required toincrease local efficiency and compete globally. Having access to international markets can bevery difficult and costly for small producers; therefore, the conformation or reorganization of
Batik associations is needed to reduce the costs of global marking through economies of scaleand scope. The re-conformation of Batik associations implies the dissemination of the bestproductive practices. For example, the problems of some of the non-standardized activities such86

as coloring can be reduced, or at least ameliorated, if producers create and follow specificprocedures step by step. The documentation and dissemination of the best practices throughproduction manuals can be a tool for standardizing high quality output, or at least having acommon base for discussing problems. In these new networks, the agenda should be led by thecultural brand of the art of producing Batik and the meaning of the motives. The conformationof such productive networks requires not only the institutional organization of producers, butalso the organization, collaboration and coordination of other stake holders such us local
governments, associated industries, international agencies and local communities. Specially, thelink between the Batik industry and the tourism industry can be explored as the first step toreach global markets.

8.2 Global promotion of Yogyakarta through the linkage between tourism and Batik
This research also confirmed the place Batik occupies within the Indonesian society.
Consisting of an important cultural value, it contributes to the national economy and stands as
one of the major sources of income for many people. Therefore, it involves individuals, groups
and firms, as well as state and international organizations in the process. This situation can beshown through the actions taken by the above-mentioned stakeholders as described in Section
7.1. All of them contribute either directly or indirectly to the promotion of Batik, both locallyand globally, but as stated, Batik is mostly promoted in local markets. In other words, the main
costumers of Batik products in Yogyakarta are local tourists, rather than foreign tourists, due
certainly to its cultural value. Moreover, most of the foreign tourists visiting Yogyakarta do notknow about Batik (60%) before they come to the region. This situation shows the existing
failure in the system for the global promotion of Batik, and its potential linkage with the tourism
sector. This is due to the lack of the coordination among the stakeholders. Indeed, it seems thatmost of the stakeholders are working separately, without consultation and strong collaboration
with others. As presented in Figure 10, many actions are undertaken by several stakeholders inorder to promote Batik, but these actions could be considered as individual contributions of therelated organizations, most likely depending on their own vision, interests and objectives. Suchis the case, for example, of the private sector consisting of hotels and restaurants, which
undertake actions to promote Batik through their activities to boost their own business, but mostof the time without specific collaboration with other principal actors such as the state. Suchinitiatives are certainly a good way to promote Batik and tourism, but it would be more effectivewith coordination and collaboration with other entities.
87

The Tourism Village concept is one of the most important cases showing efficiency andcoordination. In addition, the existing linkage between tourism and handicraft in generalcontribute to the global promotion of Yogyakarta. In fact, the central and local governments, as
the main institutions to set policies related to each sector, play the key role to promote tourism
via handicrafts such in Wukisari Tourism Village. For this purpose, collaboration among these
institutions with the private sector, local communities and other stakeholders, can be seen
through the implementation of the programs at different stages. However, despite the apparent
success of the Tourism Village concept, Batik is still unknown among foreign tourists. Indeed,handicraft described for the Tourism Villages covers a large number of products, but the mainconcern of this research is only Batik products. It therefore assumes that the Tourism Village
concept enhanced the existing linkage between tourism and Batik and would also contribute to
the global promotion of Batik, which has not yet been seen. Hence, one would argue thatcollaboration at a large scale, involving different channels to allow this global promotion of
Batik via tourism, and tourism via Batik, should be promoted under the leadership of both thecentral and local government. Diffusion of the information at the national and international levelis very important to increase the awareness of potential customers by the means of IT and media,
requiring collaboration and partnership among organizations such as travel agencies, hotels,
restaurants, universities, and so on, under the supervision of governmental entities.
Finally, the findings of this field work suggest that linkages between tourism and Batik can
be strengthened by facilitating Batik producers to enter the tourism value chain and expanding
education and information about Batik on the global level. Promising linkages are foundbetween Batik and tourism destinations; however there are still leakages in terms of information.
Batik awareness is very low among tourists. This is mainly due to the fact that Batik is mostly
promoted via word of mouth or media through television and magazines. Nevertheless, in order
to be present in the global market, the use of new informational technologies and social media
such as Facebook, YouTube or Twitter offer new opportunities to increase the awareness of
Batik in an efficient way. It also serves as a path to promote Yogyakarta since the lack of Batik
information impacts the willingness to buy Batik.

9. Acknowledgement

Working Group 1 of OFW 2010 was supported by many people and institutions in Japanand Indonesia. We would like to thank the people who we met during OFW. We greatly88appreciate Professor Usami for his comprehensive guidance and constructive comments.
Professors from GAJAMADA University provided us with the great opportunity to meet andtalk with many interesting and kind-hearted people. Our translators and coordinators, Professor
Dedy Permadi, Ms. Niken B. Pratiwi and Ms. Rizky Lia Pratiwi from GAJAMADA University
helped us to communicate and provided us with additional background information. We greatly
appreciate their effort and knowledge. We are deeply thankful to the many interviewees. We
were able to share their considerable experience and knowledge and this helped us to deepen
our understanding. Without their kind support and cooperation, we could not have completed
our research. We hope they understand our sincere gratitude.

10. References•“Amanat Hati Nurani Rakyat”. KOMPAS. October 1, 2010.

•

Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi D.I. Yogyakarta. “D.I. Yogyakarta in Figures 2008”.
2009. http://yogyakarta.bps.go.id/remository?func=fileinfo&id=14•

Bantul Regency Office. 2010. “Perkembangan Economi Dan Usaha Kecil Di Kab.
Bantul”.

•

Batik Winotosastro

http://www.winotosastro.com/Batik/whatisBatik.html

9th,November, 2010•

Discover Indonesia Batik, Retrieved on 20th of June, 2010.
http://discover-indo.tierranet.com/Batikpag.htm•

Hampton, M.P. (2003): Entry points for local tourism in developing countries: evidence
from Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Geogr. Ann., 85 B (2): 85–101.

•

Koing, Hanness et al.(2010), Assessing the Impact of Land Use Policy on Urban-Rural
Sustainability Using the FoPIA Approach in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, Sustainability,
Vol(2)•

Porter, Michael, 1985. Competitive Advantage Creating and Sustaining Superior
Performance. THE FREE PRESS-A Division of Simon & Schuster Inc.

•

Porter, Michael 2008. On Competition, Harvard Business Press.

•

World Economic Forum (2010), The Global Competitiveness Report 2010.

•

小池誠, 1998. 『インドネシア:島々に織りこまれた歴史と文化』 三修社
89•

村井吉敬、佐伯奈津子, 2004.『インドネシアを知るための 50 章』 明石書店•

Lejarraja, I., Walkenhorst P. (2007). Diversification by Deepening Linkages with
Tourism, International Trade Department, The World Bank•

Junning Cai, J., Leung, P., Ma, J. (1997).Tourism’s Forward and Backward Linkages,
Retrieved on 25th of June,
2010. http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/workingpapers/WP_05-16.pdf•

Kweka, J. (2004). Tourism and the economy of Tanzania: a CGE analysis, Retrieved on
25th of June,
2010. http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/conferences/2004-GPRAHDIA/papers/1f-Kweka-CSA
E2004.pdf•

Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Indonesia: http://www.budpar.go.id/•

The #1 Travel Portal of Yogyakarta: http://www.yogyes.com/en/•

Indonesia Tourism: http://www.indonesia-tourism.com/yogyakarta/•

Badan Pusat Statistik (http://dds.bps.go.id/eng/index.php)

90

Working Group 2
Education

The Impact of Educational Finance on
9-year Education Regarding School
Accessibility and School Quality:
The Case of Schools in Yogyakarta City and Bantul
Regency, Indonesia.
1.

Introduction

2.

Purpose of the study

3.

Methodology

4.

Scope and limitation of study

5.

Educational finance in Indonesia

6.

Analysis7.

Conclusion

8.

References

Group Advisor
Professor Junko YAMASHITA
Written by
Ichitaro HANAI**

Sokhom LEANG*

Su Latt KHAING** Group Leader * Group Sub-leader
91

1.

Introduction
Indonesia is a developing archipelagic nation with a rapid growing population. Its education

system reflects its diverse religious heritage. Although a draft constitution stated in 1950, that a key
government goal was to provide every Indonesian with at least six years of primary schooling, theaim of universal education had not been reached by the late 1980s, particularly among females,
despite the great improvements that had been made. Obstacles to meeting the government's goal
included a high birth rate, a decline in infant mortality and a shortage of schools and qualified
teachers. In 1973, Suharto, the second President of Indonesia, issued an order to set aside portionsof oil revenues for the construction of new primary schools. This act resulted in the construction or
repair of nearly 40,000 primary school facilities by the late 1980s, a move that greatly facilitated thegoal of universal primary education. 1

1.1

Overview of education system in Indonesia
Education in Indonesia is the responsibility of the Ministry of National Education (MONE),

formerly the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) and Ministry of Religious Affairs(MORA). Indonesia has a 6-3-3-4 (primary, junior high school, senior high school, tertiary
education) system. At the school level, education is divided into two major parts: formal and nonformal.
Formal education refers to a school education that encompasses teaching and learning
activities that are gradual, hierarchical, and continuous, and covers education from pre-school to1

http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/56.htm
92

tertiary education 2 . Both public and private schools are under formal education, which can befurther divided into non-religious and religious (Islamic) schools. Both public and private nonreligious schools are under MONE, while religious schools are under MORA. Based on Law
20/2003, formal education in Indonesia begins with kindergarten comprised of two years followedby primary school, which is made up of the first six grades. Graduates from primary school
continue with secondary education, which is divided into junior and senior secondary levels,
comprised of three grades each. Basic education level consists of primary (six years) and juniorhigh school (three years). There are two types of schools at senior high school level: generalacademic and vocational training schools. Graduates from senior secondary schools can continue todiploma or undergraduate programs or to other types of higher education (with a different numberof completion years that vary according to the program). This is then followed by the graduate level.
There are religious (Islamic) schools at all levels of education.

2

Indonesian Constitution
93

Table 1: Education system in Indonesia

Age Grade

Level

24

Institution
Graduate school

University

Islamic
University

23

HigherInstitute

22

Education

College

21

Polytechnic

Undergraduate

Islamic
College

20
19

17

11

Middle16

10

Education

15

9

14

8

13

7

Primary

12

6

Education

11

5

10

4

9

3

8

2

7

1

Senior High School (SMA)

Junior High School (SMP)

Elementary School (SD)
Islamic Elementary School (MI)Kindergarten (TK)

6
5

Senior Vocational School (SMK)

Compulsory Education

12

C.E

18

Pre-early

Islamic Kindergarten (RaudhatulAthfal = RA; BustanulAthfal = BA)

4
Source: National education law 2003.

94

Figure 1: School structure diagram
Non-formal

FormalPublicPrivateNon-religious

Religious

Non-religious

Religious

SMA

MA

SMA

MA

Packet C

SMP

MTS

SMP

MTS

Packet B

SD

MI

SD

MI

Packet A

Source: Author
Note: SD: Sekolah Dasar (Primary school), SMP: Sekolah Manengah Pertama (Junior high school),
SMA: Sekolah Atas (Senior high school) MI: Madrasah Ibtidaiyah (Islamic primary school), MTS:
Madrasah Tsanawiyah (Islamic junior high school), MA: Madrasah Aliyah (Islamic senior highschool)1.2

Compulsory education
Since 1950, the Indonesian government drafted a provision in the constitution to provide

every Indonesian with at least a six-year primary education, but the goal to achieve universal
primary education (UPE) was missed. By 1984, the government of Indonesia had fully implemented95the six-year compulsory education requirement. As the result of this policy, the participation rate inprimary school reached 92% in 1993 compared to 79% in 1984.Ten years later, in 1994, the nineyear compulsory education system, covering the six years of primary schooling and three years ofjunior high school was launched, resulting in increase of enrollment rate at both primary and juniorhigh school (See graphs 1 and 2).
Recent news in “The Jakarta Post” 3 announced the intention of the Indonesian government
torequire12-year compulsory education in 2014. However, there is no clear plan from the central
government to implement 12-year compulsory education yet. The idea was the initiative of several
local governments at the provincial level who want to expand their education quality. Those local
governments are: Yogyakarta, Maluku, East Kalimantan, Riau and East Java.

Graph 1: Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of elementary and junior high school from 1994 to 2009.
120.00100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
(GER)
Elementary School

0.00( G E R ) JuniorHigh School

3

The Jakarta Post, 04 March 201096

Source: Statistics Indonesia
Graph 2: Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) of elementary and junior high school from 1994 to 2009.
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00

(NER)
Elementary
School

10.00
0.00

(NER)
Junior HighSchoolSource: Statistics Indonesia
According to UNESCO (2007), the transition rate from elementary to junior high school is
90%.Despite an impressive increase in enrollment at the national level, regional differences remain
significant. Although the enrollment at junior high school continues on a rising trend, it is still low
compared to that of elementary school. There are four main causes for low enrollment at the juniorhigh school level. First, household welfare level is a significant determinant. Second, children from
Muslim families have a significantly lower probability of continuing to the secondary level. Third,
children in areas with relatively abundant employment opportunities have a higher probability ofgiving up schooling. Fourth, girls have a significantly lower chance of continuing (Suryadarma D.,

97

Suryahadi A., Sumarto S, 2006, working paper).This shows that universal, nine-year basic
education has not been achieved by the Indonesian government, even though it has been
compulsory since 1994.
1.3

Educational decentralization in Indonesia
In the year 2000, Indonesia experienced a decentralized system, which provided somemunicipalities/ districts with rights to establish their own authorities under specific requirements.
Although Indonesia’s economy keeps growing, there exists an imbalance in economic

development across the regions, which is assumed to be the result of the decentralized system.
It is believed that the system has the potential to increase the social gap between the rich andpoor across provinces/districts and this problem cannot be fixed unless the central government
continues to provide adequate financial resources to the poor (Subroto, 2007).
According to the Education Law 20/2003, the principal responsibilities, authority andresources for the delivery of education are transferred to lower levels of government, whilesome decision-making power is transferred to schools (World Bank, 2004). The decentralized
system in the education sector did provide the local authorities, which are closer to the schools,
the ability to precisely and quickly determine what the schools need. Thus, efficiency andeffectiveness became the main argument for decentralizing the education sector. In the past,
due to the heterogeneity of cultures and ethnic groups and the large geographical scale ofIndonesia, the central government most likely did not have sufficient knowledge of all local
conditions. Lack of laboratory equipment and poor teacher distributions, for example, were theresults of inefficiency and ineffectiveness inherent in the previous system (Subroto, 2007).
98

At the same time, however, not all the local governments were ready to develop theeducation sector using their own resources, while all of them have to follow the national goal of
the nine-year compulsory basic education program. Thus, low student enrollment rates anduntrained teachers, insufficient school facilities, etc., as well as weak financial resources,
became critical factors for transferring responsibility for the education sector to the local
authorities (Subroto, 2007). The same study of Subroto cited the argument of John and Morphet(1960), that the increase in quantity and quality of education generally should be followed byfinancial support; disparities in quality of education across districts were thus likely to becomea new problem in Indonesia.
1.4

General information of Yogyakarta city
Yogyakarta City, also known as Jogja, Yogya, or Jogjakarta, is a city in

the Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia. Comprised of 32.5 square kilometers, it is one of theIndonesian capitals from 1945 to 1949 (Indonesian National Revolution). Kratonor the Sultan’spalace is the center of Yogyakarta City, surrounded by a densely populated residential
neighborhood that occupies land that was formerly the Sultan’s sole domain. The city is known as acenter of classical Javanese fine art and culture, such as batik, ballet, drama, music, poetry andpuppet shows. Because of its strong Javanese culture and tradition, Yogya is the second mostimportant tourist place in Indonesia after Bali. In addition, it is also famous as a center forIndonesian higher education and very well-known as home of Gadjah Mada University, one ofIndonesian’s most prominent state universities. It is one of the most heterogeneous cities in terms of99

ethnicities in Indonesia, with the largest Javanese population. Thus, the Javanese language is widelyused as the daily spoken language, despite the Indonesian language being the official language. 4
There are 192 primary schools and 65 junior high schools (both public and private andreligious and non-religious). In this study, SDN Karangmulyo (primary school) and SMPN 9 (juniorhigh school) were selected as research sites, representing urban schools.
1.5

General information of Bantul Regency
Bantul Regency is in the province of Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia. Like many

regions on the island of Java, it is densely populated with roughly 1,600 people per square kilometer.
It is bordered by the city of Yogyakarta to the north, the regencies of Kulon Progo and Sleman to
the west, the Gunung Kidul Regency to the east, and the Indian Ocean to the south. This is also thebirthplace of the former Indonesian President, Suharto. 5 Due to the scarcity of natural resources andthe aftermath of a strong earthquake (6.3 on the Richter scale) in May 2006, this area is lessdeveloped compared to Yogyakarta City. The local government of Bantul puts education as its mainpriority in order to develop human resources. 6 As a result, there are 372 primary schools and 85
junior high schools (both public and private and religious and non-religious). In this study, SDN
Wonolelo (primary school) and SMPN 3 Pleret (junior high school) were chosen as research sites,
representing rural schools.
1.6

Profiles of the schools visited

1.6.1

Primary schools

4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogyakarta_(city)

5

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantul_Regency

6Interviewed with Bantul department of education officials 20 September 2010100

1.6.1.1 SDN Karangmulyo (2010)
This primary school is in Yogyakarta city. There are 18 teachers (12 females) and 4
supporting staff (1 female) to serve a total number of 150 students (69 females) for the year 2010. In
addition to the six regular classrooms, there are math and science laboratories, a storeroom, an
activity room, a first aid room, the headmaster’s room, a teacher’s room, a praying room, a library,
and a small house for the school guard and teachers. There are also two computers for the students
to use (see Figure 2 for details about the school facilities).
Figure 2: SDN Karangmulyo school map.
WattleTeacher

Teacher

WC

Bathroom

Well

School guard’s
house
Schoolyard

Praying room
Laboratory

Badminton

Well
Student toilet (M)Student toilet (M)Student toilet (F)Store room
Field

Activity room
First aid room

Basket ball

Library

Field

Student toilet (F)Class room 6
Class room 5
Class room 4

A

Headmaster’s officeB

Teacher’s office

Sport
fi ld

Class room 3Class room 2Class room 1

A, B = School house for teacher= Electric meter box= Flag1.6.1.2 SDN Wonolelo (2009)101

This primary school is in Bantul Regency. There are 12 teachers (5 females) to serve a total
number of 201 students (94 females) for the year 2009. In addition to the six regular classrooms,
there is a creativity room, an activity room, a first aid room, the headmaster’s room, a teacher’sroom, a praying room, and a library. There are five computers for the students to use.
1.6.2

Junior high schools

1.6.2.1 SMPN 9 (2010)
This junior high school is in Yogyakarta City, Katagede sub-district. There are 43 teachersand 13 supporting staff to serve a total number of 642 students (137females) for the year 2010. In
addition to the 18regular classrooms, there is as science laboratory room, a storeroom, an activity
room, a first aid room, a library, the headmaster’s room, a teacher’s room, a computer room (with50 computers), praying rooms, a house for the school guard, a music room, and a student's
organization room (See Photo 1 for the school map).
Photo 1: SMPN 9 map

102

1.6.2.2 SMPN 3 Pleret (2009)This junior high school is in Bantul Regency. There are 27 teachers and 13 supporting staff
to serve a total number of 319 students for the year 2009. In addition to the 12 regular classrooms,
there is a science laboratory room, a storeroom, an activity room, a creativity room, a first aid room,a library, the headmaster’s room, a teacher’s room, a computer room, praying rooms, a house for theschool guard, and a multi-media room (See Figure 3 for details of the school map).
Figure 3: SMPN 3 Pleret map
5

4

6

7

8

9

11

10

13

12

14

15

3

16

32

2

31

30

29

1

33

17

18
19
20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

1 = Headmaster room

9 =Class 8 C

2 =Administrative room

10=Class 8 B

3 =R. BP/BK

11=Class 8 A

4 =School coop

12=WC

5 =WC

13=Class 7 C

6 =Class 9 C

14=Class 7 B

7 =Class 9 B

15=Class 7 A

8 =Class 9 A

16= Audiovisual room10328

17=Security guard station

26=Activity room

18= R. UKS

27=Boy Scout room

19= Teachers’ room

28= Activities room

20= Meeting room

29= Basketball field

21= Computer room

30= Volleyball field

22= Lab IPA

31= Praying room

23=Library

32=Canteen

24=Book store room

33=Canteen

25=Storage room

2.

Purpose of the Study
This study examines the impact of BOS (Batuan Operasional Sekolah- School Operational

Assistance) and different kinds of scholarship programs for the four schools studied, in regards toschool accessibility and school quality. The analyses will be based on secondary data and theperspective of the school principals, teachers, representatives of the school committee member andparents. It then proceeds to the authors’ own analysis of the issue.
3.

Methodology
Primary data is derived from the interviews with officials from the Department of

Education in Yogyakarta City and Bantul Regency, school principals, teachers, 7 representatives ofschool committee members for the four schools studied and parents. 8 The secondary data wascollected from various sources, such as documents from the Department of Education in

7

Three teachers from each school were interviewed.
There were 20 parents in the interview (15 parents are in Bantul District and among those, 5 ofthem have children studying in Yogyakarta City and 5 parents are in Yogyakarta City). These 20
parents range in economic status: high, medium, and low-income.
104

8

Yogyakarta City and Bantul Regency, books, research reports, previous studies, school documents,and other publications.
4.

Scope and limitations of the study
The study focuses on only four schools: one primary school and one junior high school in

Yogyakarta city, 9 and one primary school and one junior high school in Bantul Regency 10 . The
analysis of BOS budget 11 and scholarship programs of only four schools, with limited primary data,
may not reflect the complete impact of educational finance on school accessibility and school
quality of nine-year education as a whole. In addition, the analysis on school accessibility might not
be accurate, due to missing enrollment data from these schools. With similar constraints, theanalysis of school quality, without the proof of student learning outcomes is also inadequate. Time
constraints and the authors’ inadequate knowledge also limit the scope and the analysis of the issue.
5.

Educational Finance in Indonesia
Law Number 20/2003 of the National Education System announces that every citizen aged

7–15 years must attend basic education, which implies that the government will provide freeeducational services to all pupils at the basic level of schooling. Also, Indonesia’s Education For
All Plan (2003-2016) has a target of reaching 100 percent gross enrollment rates at the primaryschool level and 96 percent at the junior secondary school level by 2009. To achieve theseenrollment targets in education, coupled with investments in improving the quality of education, it
is essential to sustain Indonesia’s growth and competitiveness in the region for the years to come.
Efficient and effective education spending will thus be a central element of Indonesia’s poverty
reduction strategy.
Indonesia’s past enrollment expansion closed the gap across income groups at the primaryeducation level, but striking inequalities remain at the junior and senior secondary levels. Problems
with access become more significant at the junior secondary school level, where there is aconsiderable divergence in enrollments among different income families. A child coming from apoor family is 20 percent less likely to be enrolled in junior high school than a non-poor
child. 12 Officially, basic education (grades 1–9) is compulsory for children aged 7–15, but the main

9

SDN Karangmulyo (primary school) and SMP Negeri 9 represent urban schools.
SDN Wonolelo (primary school) and SMP Negeri Prelet 3 represent rural schools.
11
The actual amount of BOS budget in each school was not accessible.
12World Bank, Poverty Assessment (2006)
10510

issue in terms of access to education concerns the transition to junior secondary schooling. Thus, inorder to successfully achieve universal basic education, the Indonesian government has tried tocover education expenses as much as possible by abolishing registration fees at the primary andjunior high school levels.
Both the central government and regional governments are responsible for education.
According to Law No. 32/2004 on Regional Government Administration, education is an obligatory
function for regional governments, both provincial and kabupaten/kota 13 , and for that reason,regional governments are obliged to manage and finance education. From2001 to June 2005, thegovernment allocated part of its fuel subsidy savings to a scholarship program (known as BKM) for
poorer families. School operational costs have come from a number of sources, primarily fromstudents via student tuition and various other forms of levies, from the central and regional
governments, and other sources including community contributions, business establishments, andother donors. The availability of school operating funds varies between regions, even between
schools in the same region. This diversity is affected by the capability and commitment of regional
governments and the community in supporting school activities. For that reason, there are schoolsthat have very well-equipped educational facilities, which are supported by large budgets, but there
are also schools with very minimal equipment and their budgets are actually inadequate forcovering the operational needs of the school (Widjajanti I. Suharyo et al., 2006).
A new financing mechanism, introduced in 2005, significantly altered the composition ofoperational revenue sources at the school level, by allocating resources directly to schools. For theperiod July–December 2005, the Indonesian government decided to change the direct recipient of
the funds from households to schools by allocating block grants for school operational costs throughthe Operational Aid to Schools (School Operational Assistance) Program (Bantuan Operasional
Sekolah, or BOS).

5.1

BOS Policy
Since July 2005, the Indonesian government grants BOS resources to all schools at the

primary and junior secondary levels. The BOS program is distributed to schools based on a perpupil allocation mechanism. 14 The BOS program covers approximately 41 million students, of

13
14

City
Ministry of National Education (MONE, 2005)106

which 62 percent are at the primary school level and 38 percent at the junior secondary
level. 15 Schools set up bank accounts in which the funds are directly deposited, reducing thepossibility of leakage and providing greater transparency.
BOS funds are to cover operational costs and are intended to thereby lower or eveneliminate school fees. There are guidelines on the use of the funds, but the schools still have a fairamount of discretion on how the funds are spent. Schools in which the total amount collected inschool fees is lower than the amount received in BOS grants are mandated to eliminate school fees
all together. Schools that collect more in school fees are supposed to eliminate fees in an amountequivalent to the grant received, while giving priority to poor students. This latter provision avoids
discouraging schools with fee collections higher than BOS from receiving the grant. The reason isthat if these schools were also required to completely eliminate school fees, the grant would actuallylead to a decrease in the operational budget.
Initially, primary schools received Rp. 235,000per pupil per semester, and junior secondary
schools received Rp. 324,500 (MONE, 2006).The government debated the level of the grant, as
MONE requested an increase for primary students to Rp. 300,000 and for junior secondary students
to Rp. 420,000, due to the fact that the current numbers are based on unit cost calculations at 2003
fixed nominal prices. Also, what is problematic is that the amount per student is set nationally anddoes not take into account regional price fluctuations. Later on, the grant was adjusted accordingly
and there was an increase in the amount of BOS budget to both primary and junior high schools,
with different distributions for schools in the city and in the district (See Table 2 for the details of
BOS grant to primary and junior high school).

Table 2: The grants of BOS budget to primary and junior high schools (2009)
Primary school (SD/SDLB)

Junior high school (SMP/SMPLB/SMPT)

Schools in city

Schools in district

Schools in city

Schools in district(Di Kota)(Di Kab)(Di Kota)(Di Kab)

Rp 400.000 per

Rp 397.000 per

student

student

Rp 575.000 per student

Rp 570.000 per student

Source: BOS Booklet 200915

Ministry of National Education (MONE, 2006)
107

5.2

Scholarship programsIndonesia experienced an economic crisis in 1985/1986 and again in 1997/1998, which

inevitably negatively affected the education sector. In order to avoid a repeat of the fallout of the
1985/1986 crisis, which resulted in a high number of student dropouts, the Indonesian government
has mobilized substantial resources from the annual rupiah budget and loan funds from the WorldBank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to launch nation-wide scholarship program forprimary and secondary schools. The program is called the Scholarship and Grant Program (SGP)and consists of two components: scholarships for students and block grant for schools. The
program’s objectives are to maintain pre-crisis levels in two areas: enrollment and quality, for bothbasic education (primary and junior secondary) and senior secondary schools 16 .
According to the interview with officials 17 from the office of the provincial government of
Yogyakarta Special Region, there are four main types of scholarship programs for schools in thisprovince:(a) Scholarships for special achievement in academics, sports, arts, etc.
(b) Scholarships for students from poor families at all levels (from primary tosenior high school).
(c) Retrieval scholarships aimed at those who have dropped out of school.
(d) Scholarships aimed at students vulnerable to dropping out (for senior highschool students only).
Noticeably, there are different kinds of scholarships available at different schools, as we
can observe from the four schools visited.
. SDN Karangmulyo (primary school in Yogyakarta City):(a) JDP: Education Security Net program:This scholarship is for students from poor families with welfare cards. 18 The quota for eachyear is 61 students, but it changes according to the budget 19 available.
16

For the details of this scholarship program refer to National Development Planning Agency(Bappenas), Republic of Indonesia (2001).
17
Interview on 20 September 2010.
108

(b) Poor scholarship program:This is also a scholarship for the poor students, but it doesn’t limit its application to only
those from families with welfare cards. Teachers select students in their class and meet together todiscuss appropriate candidates for the scholarship (7 students). The amount of the scholarship is
Rp360.000/year per student.
(c) BAZDA program:This scholarship is given by the Islamic community and targets 15 students (Rp150.000/student) per academic year. The school proposes the target students but the selection isdone by the local government.
. SDN Wonolelo (primary school in Bantul Regency):(a) Special achievement (academic achievement) scholarship program:This scholarship is for students with high academic achievement and is granted by theprovincial level of government. Only one student in the school is selected to receive the scholarshipof Rp 240.000 per semester.
(b) Poor scholarship program:
The grant for this scholarship is from the local government and in the amount of Rp
360.000 per year. To select students for the scholarship, the school has to collect the student’s
family identification cards and send them to the head of the village. There were 16 students in thisschool who received this scholarship in 2009.
(c) GNOTA national movement for orphanage students scholarship program:
The grant for this scholarship is Rp 120.000/year per student. There were three students
who received this scholarship in 2009.

18

To receive the welfare card the family has to apply to the local authority and there are certain
indicators to identify that the family is really poor.
19
The budget is from the central government, 165.000 rupiah/ year109

. SMPN9 (junior high school in Yogyakarta City):(a) Best performance in academics or sports scholarship program:
The Department of Education provides grants of Rp 600.000 per year for this scholarshipprogram and two students were selected in 2009; one for achievement in science and one for the
sport Tae Kwon Do.
(b) Scholarships for those vulnerable to dropping out:
The school collects all students’ family backgrounds and checks their family condition. The
next procedure is to submit the data to the Department of Education, which provides the grants.
There were 95 students selected in the year 2009. These students receive the scholarship until they
graduate. Each student received Rp 535.000 in 2009 but the amount was increased to Rp 550.000
rupiah/student in 2010.
(c) Scholarships for poor students from families with welfare cards:
There were 85 students who received this scholarship with the grant of Rp. 250.000 per
year.
(d) Special scholarship program for orphanages:
The grant for this scholarship program is funded by voluntary donations from the schooland parents. Twenty students have received it so far, but the number of students will change basedon the money collected every semester.
(e) Scholarships from private companies or NGOs:
This is a special scholarship program for this school, which receives grants from privatecompanies, NGOs and/or individuals who assist the school. The grant provider selects the students
eligible for the scholarship and the school facilitates the process with such things as information
distribution. The amount of the grant is Rp1.5 million/year.
(f) Scholarships from the Islamic community:110

Twenty students were selected in 2009 for grants from the Islamic community. The
religious (Islamic) community donates 1 billion rupiah per semester to this school and each students
elected for the scholarship receives a grant of Rp 400.000/year.
. SMPN3 Pleret (junior high school in Bantul Regency):(a) Retrieval scholarship program:
The grant for this scholarship is from the local government in the amount of Rp 375.000 per
year. There were 4 students who received the scholarship in 2009.
(b) Poor scholarship program:This scholarship is also from the local government, Department of Social Affairs. To decide
which student will receive the scholarship, a counselor will collect the family data and observe thestudent’s situation. The grant for scholarships is different based on the grade of the students.
Students from grade 7 and 8 would receive Rp 531.000/year, while those from grade 9 receive only
Rp 265.000/year. There were 22students who received this type of scholarship in 2009.
6.

Analysis
The Indonesian government’s efforts toward the education sector has been significantly

improving the enrollment rate of primary and junior high school as a whole at the national level
since the year 2000 (see graph 1 and 2). The following section discusses the impacts of BOS policy
and scholarship programs for the four schools visited in regards to school accessibility and school
quality.
6.1

School accessibility
According to the government policy, in every sub-district there is at least one junior highschool and in every village there is at least one primary school. However, education is not only the
responsibility of the government; some other non-government agencies have opened private schools
in order to absorb the rapid growth of the Indonesian population. According to Table 7, there is a
substantial number school in Yogyakarta City and Bantul Regency. According to the interview with
officials 20 from the Departments of Education in the two areas, these regions are considered as the20

The interview was conducted on 21 September 2010 in Yogyakarta City and 24 September 2010
in Bantul Regency.
111

home of education for Indonesian people. Yogyakarta City, being notable for its education
programs, has gained much attention from the government and help to develop this sector. The
aforementioned, Bantul Regency’s overall development target is the development of humanresources, thus the quality of education is maintained. Generally, in developing countries lack ofschool buildings is one of the major issues when considering problems of school accessibility.
However, it is reported by the Department of Education officials in both Yogyakarta City andBantul Regency that this is not the case in these areas.

Table 7: The number of villages and primary and junior high schools in Yogyakarta City and Bantul
Regency.
Yogyakarta City

Numberof villages

45

Bantul Regency

Number of Number of Number of
Number of Number of Number of
Numberprimary
subjunior highprimary
subjunior highof villages
schools
districts
schools
schools
districts
schools

192

14

65

75

372

17

85

Source: National Department of Education of Municipality of Yogyakarta and National Departmentof Education of Bantul Regency (2010).
The school accessibility in these two regions is generally good (see Table 8). Almost all
school-age children are registered in schools in both primary and junior high school levels.
Nevertheless, there are wide gaps between the numbers of students enrolled in junior high schools
for both areas is still significant.
112

Noticeably, in Yogyakarta City the school-age population is less than the number ofenrollment. The official of Department of Education in Bantul said that there are two main reasons
to explain this phenomenon. The first is that most of the parents simply think that the quality ofeducation in the city is better than the rural areas; therefore it is very reasonable for them to send
their children to Yogyakarta to continue their education at junior high school. To prove this case,five parents 21 who reside in Bantul Regency and send their kids to schools in Yogyakarta City wereinterviewed. They all shared the idea that schools in Yogyakarta City have a higher quality thanthose in Bantul. This is a significant concern for the government of Bantul Regency to consider andto develop the quality of education, especially since human resource development is the major
concern of the government in this regency. The second reason reported is that there are also
students who are under and over school-age enrolled in junior high schools in Yogyakarta City.
Table 8: School-age population and enrollment number of students in Yogyakarta and Bantul.
Yogyakarta City
Primary school

Bantul Regency

Junior high school

Primary school

SchoolNumber of
Number ofage
School-age
School-age
students
students
populatio
population
population
enrolled inenrolled inn (7～(7～12）(13～15）schoolschool12）
46,52145,952

22,352

22,76273,890Junior high school

NumberNumber of
School-age
ofstudents
population students
enrolled in(13～15） enrolled
schoolin school
70,89834,011

29,051

Source: National Department of Education of Municipality of Yogyakarta and National Departmentof Education of Bantul District (2010).
Surprisingly, if we look at the case of enrollment of junior high schools at grade 7 in SMPN
9 (Yogyakarta City) and SMPN 3 Pleret (Bantul Regency), there is a significant difference (seeGraph 3 and 4). The SMPN 9 has nearly double the amount of students enrolled compared to that of
SMPN 3 Pleret since the academic year 2006/2007. The simple reason to explain this phenomenon
is that SMPN 9 has 5 classrooms more than SMPN 3 Pleret. This could allow SMPN 9 to absorb
more students. In addition, SMPN 9 has more scholarship programs compared to SMPN 3 Pleret as21

The interview was conducted on 28 September 2010 in Bantul regency.
113

explained in the scholarship section. This could be one of the attractions for students to study at thisschool rather than in SMPN 3 Pleret, as it is believed that scholarships also increase theaccessibility of the students from poor family backgrounds. Furthermore, of the two schools wevisited, SMPN 9 ranked 5th in the city 22 while SMPN 3 Pleret is not highly ranked. Even so, theSMPN 3 Pleret can still be considered more popular than other schools in the region, as determinedby the increase in the number of students applying to this school in the last two academic years.
However, these two schools share the common constraint of a limitation of classroom and school
facilities as shown in graph 3 and 4.SMPN 3 Pleret rejected nearly half of the students who applied
every year, which is much more than that of SMPN 9. Nevertheless, the number of grade 7 enrolled
in these two schools remains steady for the last five academic years, which is a good sign of school
accessibility.
Graph 3: The number of students enrolled in SPMN 9 from 2006-2010
600
500
400

number of students
applying for 7th
grade

300
200
100

enrollment numberof students at 7th
grade

0
2006/2007

2007/2008

2008/20092009/20102010/2011

Source: SMPN 9 school document, Yogyakarta City.
Graph 4: The number of students enrolled in SPMN 3 Pleret from 2007-2010

22

Dinas Pendidikan Kota Yogyakarta : INFO RATA-RATA DAN RANKING SMP

BERDASARKAN HASIL NILAI UN THN 2009

114

250
200
150
100
number of students
applying for 7th grade5002007/2008

2008/20092009/20102010/2011enrollment number ofstudents at 7th grade

Source: SMPN 3 Pleret school document, Bantul Regency
Registration fee is not charged in the four schools visited, as these schools are
implementing BOS policy. 23 When asked about the parents’ opinion about “until what level they
can support their children to school,” the parents revealed hopes that they can do so at least up tosenior high school because the school fee is free 24 . One parent said that their two kids, who are now
studying at SDN Karangmulyo, received scholarships. Thus, they are not worried much about
education costs. In this regard, BOS policy and scholarship programs do enhance the chance ofchildren from the poor families to go to school.
In addition to educational finance issues, it has been a common belief that school location
can be one of the factors that affect the school accessibility. In this sense, the teachers 25 of thevisited schools confirmed that distance of the school from their house made the students lessmotivated to come to school. However, it seems to be contradictory to the parents view. Ninety
percent of the parents interviewed said that they are satisfied with the school location, as it isconvenient for their children to commute to school, especially for those who have kids studying at

23

This policy helps to reduce household expenditure on school fees across income levels.
Interview with 5 parents from low-income family on 23, 27, and 28 September 2010.
25
Interview with three teachers from each school visisted (12 teachers in total) on 22, 23, 27 and 28
September 2010.
115
24

primary school 26 . Thus, school location is not the problem in the Yogyakarta City and Bantul
Regency.
6.2

School quality
This section examines the quality of the schools examined by assessing five components:

teacher qualifications, teacher training programs, teacher monitoring systems, teacher incentive
schemes, and school facilities and activities.
6.2.1

Teacher qualification
Many developing countries face difficulties in providing good qualified teachers across thecountry and Indonesia is no exception. Generally, teacher salaries are relatively low compared tothat of other jobs, which can lower teachers’ motivations toward teaching. Thus, it is common forteachers to have second jobs. Also, in response to the expansion of school accessibility and to cover
the insufficient number of teachers, poorly qualified teachers is hired in many developing countries.
These elements negatively affect the teaching quality, which results in low quality of education.
Thus, the requirements to become a teacher in order to guarantee the minimum teaching levels
influence the teacher quality significantly.
Each school we observed during the fieldwork sets the level of civil servant as therequirement to be a teacher. In Indonesia, the requirement to be a civil servant is to pass the national
exam for that particular field. This means that every civil servant teacher has at least the standard
teaching knowledge to be qualified to become a teacher. According to the interview with teachers at
the four schools visited, all have the required qualification from the school and have worked for atleast 10years 27 . Surprisingly, the teachers interviewed did not complaint about their salary. They
said it is enough to partly contribute to family income. Notably, some of them have second jobs
besides working in the school.
We cannot accurately judge whether the teaching quality is good or bad, but we can roughly
assume that they have enough qualification to be a teacher 28 . In addition, it is assumed that because
they are experienced teachers that they are able to maintain second jobs without letting them
26

Twenty parents were interviewed on 22, 23, 27 and 28 September 2010. Five parents reside in
Yogyakarta City and 15 parents are Bantul residents.
27
Almost all the teachers interviewed have worked for the schools more than 10 years.
28
We couldn’t conduct classroom observation during the fieldwork due to time constraints.
116interfere with their classroom preparation. However, it is worth to investigate whether they
continuously receive in-service training.
6.2.2

Teacher training
Teacher training (in-service teacher training) is a highly important factor to maintain andimprove teachers’ skill because teaching contents keep changing to reflect the new demands fromsociety. Therefore, teaching methodology and skills also have to be updated to keep up with thechanges. Moreover, the training for teachers who have been in service for a long period is essential.
The four schools we visited have some systems for teacher training, both regular andirregular. SMPN 9, the junior high school in Yogyakarta City, provides administrative training at
the beginning of every new academic year. Also, subject training, i.e., computer and English, areheld irregularly. There are additional workshops or seminars for teachers, but they have to bear thecost for these outside opportunities. On the other hand, SMPN 3 Pleret, the junior high school in
Bantul, holds a teacher meeting once a month to provide the opportunity to share experiencesamong all teachers. Similar to SMPN 9, this school also provides chances for teachers to attend
outside workshops but teachers have to pay the attendance fee. In SDN Karangmulyo, the primaryschool in Yogyakarta City, only new teachers receive administrative training, and there are no
regular meetings provided. Although other schools seem to have insufficient training systems, oronly focus on administrative training, SDN Wonolelo, the elementary school in Bantul, has ateacher discussion group, which aims to allow regular sharing of teaching methodologies. Also, theschool has a special budget for supporting teachers to attend outside workshops or seminars in order
to attain teaching skills. It is significant that this school, in cooperation with the local government
and universities, helps teachers to attain higher levels of education.
As mentioned earlier, the training for in-service teachers in each school is mostly limited toadministrative training, and there is no financial support from schools to attend outside workshops
or seminars, except the primary school (SDN Wonolelo) in Bantul. Most of the teachers feelanxious about insufficient training opportunity and desire to be trained more in order to be able
teach better. Generally, we can say that there is a lack of in-service teacher training to upgradeteaching skills.
6.2.3

Teacher monitoring117

A teacher monitoring system is essential to observe teacher performance inside theclassroom. Training alone is not sufficient to improve the quality of teachers, but monitoring theeffective application of skills acquired from trainings is important as well.
Every school we visited has regular teacher observation at least once per semester. Theseobservations do not affect teacher’s salary. After the observation, the head teacher gives advice orcomments to help the teachers improve their teaching skills. The monitoring system in DN
Wonolelo, a primary school in Bantul is different from the other three other schools visited. The
school principal invites a school inspector from the local government to do teacher observation. It
was apparent that each school provides a monitoring system to observe teacher performance andteachers receive advice or suggestions from the head teachers. In short, we can assume that teachingprocess is closely observed by the schools to ensure the teaching standard.
6.2.4

Teacher incentives
As mentioned above, teacher salaries are normally low in developing countries, thus many

schools face difficulties to maintain and improve teacher motivation. During the fieldwork, weobserved the various kinds of incentive systems that each school provides to the teachers. SDN
Karangmulyo, the elementary school in Yogyakarta City, provides an annual bonus for all teachers,
and also extra bonuses from the local government for good performance. In SMPN 9, the juniorhigh school in Yogyakarta City, the bonus is provided based on the students’ academic achievement.
Also, a bonus is given to the best performing teacher (teaching quality, language ability, knowledgeetc.) in SDN Wonolelo, the elementary school in Bantul. For SMPN 3 Pleret, the junior high school
in Bantul, all teachers receive a monthly bonus from the local government. However, the teachersinterviewed expressed no excitement regarding the incentives they receive. From this observation
we determined that the bonus or incentive money added to their salary is not enough to motivate theteachers.
6.2.5

School facilities and activities
To provide a good quality education, school equipment and facilities must be maintained ingood condition. Here we define school equipment and facilities as the school building itself,
computers, library, and science laboratory and so on. Without sufficient facilities or equipment inschool, good quality education won’t be achieved, even though the school provides good quality
teacher training.
118

All four schools we visited have similar equipment and facilities and they seem to be
maintained in good condition, as each school has a person in charge of cleaning or the students have
duties to clean their classrooms 29 . However, we observed a serious problem regarding the budget
for school equipment and facilities. Before the implementation of BOS policy, schools had
autonomy to raise funds from the parents through a school committee, 30 thus if additional funds forrepairing or introducing new equipment were needed, the school could flexibly call for funds.
However, after the enforcement of the law, a new regulation forbids schools from fundraising fromparents. This regulation makes it difficult for schools to maintain and upgrade the equipment andfacilities with limited budgets. The significant problem we found was the fixed budget from BOS is
not sufficient, especially for the schools 31 located in rural areas of Bantul.
This was apparent from the interview held with the school administration. 32 They said thatthe school couldn’t afford to repair a damaged roof. Furthermore, insufficient equipment is also oneof the significant issues. In addition to that many teachers were anxious about this issue because
they think educational equipments/facilities must constantly be upgraded to catch up with changing
curriculum, such as ICT (Information and Communication Technology) products. A teacher in SDN
Wonolelo, a primary school in Bantul, warned the situation that the school is facing; there are only
two computers in the school and it is absolutely a burden to purchase new ones. The main cause forthis is the limited budget from BOS.
Another serious problem regarding limited budgets is the reduction or discontinuation ofschool events due to the difficulty of raising funds from parents. We heard from the interviewee 33
from SMPN 3 Prelet（Bantul）that the school doesn’t provide any school excursions or religious
ceremonies at the moment, though they were held before the implementation of BOS. SDN
Wonolelo (Bantul) also eliminated study tours, and reduced managerial skill training for teachers. It
is problematic because these outside school events help students to learn many things that can’t be

29

The school facilities were listed in the school profile section.
According to the interview with the representatives of school committee members we can say thatafter the implementation of BOS policy, school committees have been inactive in school planning
discussions.
31
The concern was raised up by the school administration of the visited schools in Bantul.
32
Interviews were held on 22, 23 September 2010 in Yogyakarta City and on 27, and 28 September
2010 in Bantul Regency.
33
The school administration officials.
11930

attained by daily school curriculums. In addition to these, schools have to work more on
administrative tasks in terms of financial report preparing.
Insufficient budget to maintain/update school facilities or equipment has been a significant
burden for schools in Bantul. Many teachers deplore conditions where facilities can’t be repaired
because of the limited budget. Also, new regulations of BOS forbid the introduction of new
facilities from the operational budget. Lack of flexibility in raising funds for school activities
reduced students’ opportunity of learning from outside of the school. It affects the student’s
learning profundity, because they have no opportunity to learn outside the classroom, nor are they
able to apply skills and knowledge that enrich lessons learned inside the classroom.
Beside the close observation of the factors that affect the quality of the school, we alsointerviewed10 parents 34 in Bantul who send their children to school. Six out of 10 interviewees
reported that their priority requests for the school are the improvement of school quality. Among
those, parents who from medium to upper middle income families send their children to private
courses (additional tutorials) or intend to change schools for their children to Yogyakarta City when
they finish primary school because they feel that the school quality in their area is not reliable. In
addition, we also had chance to talk to five additional parents 35 who have already sent their children
to school in Yogyakarta City because they think the schools in Yogyakarta City provide better
quality education than schools in Bantul.
7.

Conclusion
BOS policy and scholarship programs do accelerate school accessibility, which generally

maintains a healthy student enrollment. As evidenced from the four schools visited in Yogyakarta
City and Bantul Regency, the enrollment is on the right trend for achieving universal basic
education (9 years).However, the low number of students enrolled in junior high schools in Bantul
Regency should be a real concern for the local government of this area and as a result, school
quality should be reconsidered. Also, limitations in the number of classrooms at junior high schools
should be taken into account, along with the growth in number of primary graduates in both areas.
Disparity in school quality is still significant between schools in urban and rural areas.
Regarding the issue of school quality, some challenging issues were revealed. A lack of
34
35

The interviews were held on 27 and 28 September 2010 in Bantul Regency.
The interview was on 28 September 2010 in Bantul Regency.
120

opportunities for in-service teacher training, a lack of flexibility for fundraising and the gap in termsof BOS budget allocations to schools are some examples discussed in this study. This could be
confirmed by interviews held with parents who stated that inequity of school quality between
schools in Yogyakarta City and Bantul Regency is obvious. As mentioned in the earlier section ofthis report, BOS policy was established to ensure that compulsory education be available for all
Indonesian people by abolishing school fees. This goal is being attained, and enrollment has
gradually risen across the country. However, there is a negative side of BOS financing systems onschool quality, as discussed above.
To achieve complete compulsory education (9 years) nationwide, quality of education
shouldn’t be neglected. Even though the access to school has greatly expanded in the last five years,
school quality has become the more problematic issue.BOS policy and scholarship programs foreach school, have obviously played a great role to attract students to attend. However, it may take along time before ensuring a high quality of education for all.

8.

References

Adan Pusat Statistik Republik Indonesia (Statistics Indonesia). Retrieved July 2, 2010 fromhttp://dds.bps.go.id/eng/index.php
Behrman, Deolalikar, Lee-Ying (2002), Schooling through Education Decentralization in
Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Philippines, ERD. Working Paper Series No. 23 Economics
and Research Department, Asian Development Bank.
BOS booklet 2009. Indonesia
Franken, J. Indonesia’s 12-year compulsory education program, The Jakarta Post. Retrieved July 8,2010 fromhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/06/28/analysisindonesia%E2%80%99s-12yearcompulsory-education program.html
Ministry of National Education (MONE). (2005) Buku Panduan Bantuan Operasional Sekolah(BOS), Pengelolaan Keuangan, Monitoringdan Evaluasi 2006 [Guidelines for the School
Operational Assistance, Financial Management, Monitoring and Evaluation 2006]. Jakarta
121

Ministry of National Education (MONE). (2006). Laporan Perkembangan PKPS BBM

BidangPendidikan Tahun 2006: Bantuan Operasional Sekolah [Progress Report of the PKPSBBM Program for the Education Sector 2006: the School Operational Assistance]. Jakarta
People’s daily (2006), “Indonesia allocates little for education budget: Minister”, Retrieved
July 16, 2010, fromhttp://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200601/02/eng20060102_232330.htm
Suryadarma, D. Suryahadi, A. Sumarto, S. (2006), Causes of Low Secondary School Enrollment inIndonesia. The SMERU Research Institute, SMERU working paper.
The Jakarta Post (2010) Court ruling won’t affect education budget,” 03 April 2010. Retrieved July
18,

2010

from

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/04/03/court-ruling-

won%E2%80%99t-affect-education-budget.htm
The World Bank. 2004. Education In Indonesia: Managing The Transition To Decentralization.
Report No.29506. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Widjajanti I. Suharyo et al. (2006). A Rapid appraisal of the PKPS-BBM education sector: School
Operational Assistance (BOS) program 2005. Jakarta: SMERU Research Institute.
William H. Frederick and Robert L. Worden, editors. Indonesia: A Country Study. Washington:
GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993.
School Profile:
SDN Karangmulyo, Yogyakarta city (2010)
SDN Wonolelo, Bantul regency (2009)
SMPN 9, Yogyakarta city (2010)
SMPN 3 Pleret, Bantul regency (2009)122

Working Group 3
Administration

Disaster risk reduction in Bantul:
Organizational measures and people’s
awareness of these measures
1. Introduction
2. Findings
3. Arguments
4. Limitations
5. Conclusion
6. Appendix
7. Acknowledgement
8. References

Group Advisor
Associate Professor Yuzuru Shimada

Written by
Ando Kyuji,

Asuque Brian Taborada,

Tsurubuchi Teppei,

Yamada Takahiro**,Kataoka Ryosuke*,
Yasui Kazutaka,** Group Leader

123

Otsuka Miki

* Group Sub-leader

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSASB

Arbeiter-Samariter-Bund

BAKORNAS

The National Coordinating Board for the Management of Disaster

BAPPEDA

Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah

BAPPENAS

Badan Perencanaan dan Pembangunan Nasional

BLPT

Balai Latihan Pendidikan Teknik

BNPB

Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana

BPBD

Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah

CHF

Cooperative Housing Foundation

CWS

Catholic World Service

DFID

Department for International Development

DMC

District Management Consultant

DRR

Disaster Risk Reduction

EPH

Earthquake Proof Housing

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

GTZ

German Society for Technical Cooperation

IOM

International Organization of Migration

IRE

Institute of Research and Empowerment

JICA

Japan International Cooperation Agency

JRF

Java Reconstruction Fund

KESBANGLINMAS

Kesatuan Bangsa dan Perlindungan Masyarakat

KYPA

Komite Yogyakarta untuk Pemulihan Aceh

NGOs

Non Governmental Organizations

NMC

National Management Consultant

RT

Rukun Tetangga

RW

Rukun Warga

SMEs

Small and Medium-sized Enterprises

UGM

Gadjah Mada University

UN

United Nations

UNDP

United Nations Development Program

UNICEF

United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund

YP2SU

Yayasan Peningkatan dan Pengembangn Sumberdaya Ummat

124

1. Introduction
1-1 BackgroundIn 2006, an earthquake occurred in Bantul region, Yogyakarta province,
Indonesia. To analyze organizational measures toward the earthquake, this section firstconsiders a general framework for Disaster Risk Management policy. Also, it would be
important to make sure general conditions of public administration in Indonesia in order tolook at the event from an administrative aspect. Therefore, this section second thinks about
decentralization of Indonesia that has been promoted since the late 1990s, because it has
particularly had a great impact on public administration. Finally, this section goes on to
examine the earthquake in 2006 in detail.

1-1-1 Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
According to Kimura (2008), there are four aspects for the establishment of ananti-disaster system. These are 1) physical infrastructure, 2) administrative infrastructure, 3)social infrastructure and 4) knowledge and information infrastructure. Their functionality
depends on the daily activities of public administration. For the physical infrastructure, there
are warning systems, communication systems by radio, subsidies for reinforcing houses andthe like. For the administrative infrastructure, the arrangement of various laws such as the
Basic Law on Anti-Disaster Measures, specialized research committees, anti-disaster trainings
in both private companies and schools are included. For the social infrastructure, theestablishment of local anti-disaster systems by communities and anti-disaster broadcasting
systems by the media are involved. For the knowledge and information infrastructure, theprovision of anti-disaster training in schools, the creation of a website, the establishment ofanti-disaster centers and the expansion of publications need to be proliferated in order toenhance people’s awareness about disaster.
According to Prof. Meguro (2007) from Tokyo University, who specializes in the fieldof anti-disaster, 95% of the total victims of the Great Hanshin earthquake died due to thecollapse of their housing. Therefore, disaster proofing, as related to the improvement ofstructures, or the “hard aspect,” should be important. Also, for the reinforcement of housing,support in the form of government subsidies is limited, so self-help by citizens is needed tobuild damage resistant housing with an awareness of disaster prevention. Thereby, disastereducation, that is, “soft aspect” should also be promoted.

1251-1-2 Decentralization in Indonesia
After the end of President Suharto’s regime in 1998, the Indonesian government
introduced decentralization policies, which mainly aimed to maintain national territorial
integrity, improve public service delivery, and make regional governments more accountable.
Decentralization is supported by the belief that local governments are more familiar with theneeds of local people, therefore can provide appropriate public services. The challenge for theIndonesian governments under decentralization is to maintain the right balance between
respecting local autonomy and ensuring national objectives.
There have been problems under the process of decentralization. Unclear distribution offunctions between the central and regional governments used to cause rivalries between the
Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of Finance. In addition to this, exploitation ofnatural resources has also a big issue under decentralization.
Therefore, effective decentralization with a clear division of roles and responsibilities of
the central and local governments is essential in designing and implementing protective
measures that support individuals, households and communities.

1-1-3 Damages by the earthquake in Yogyakarta in 2006
In 2006 May 27th, an earthquake occurred in Yogyakarta province, then more than 5,700
people died, more than 30 thousand people got injured and 200 thousand houses weredestroyed (Resosudarmo, 2008). Table 1 shows the actual damages caused by the earthquake.
According to the table, on the one hand, it seems that there was much damage,
particularly for buildings such as houses, schools, health centers, public facilities and market
facilities. In Bantul, most houses built with bricks were not reinforced with concrete and were
not strong enough to uphold houses when the earthquake occurred. According to a leader of avillage in Bantul, 52% of the houses were completely destroyed, 23% were half destroyed,
21% were partly destroyed, and only 4% were not destroyed at all, while 86 people lost theirlives (Shiozaki, 2007, 113). This is a typical example of how many people died in theearthquake because of fragile houses. Rural household income is low for the region, andgenerally houses were constructed by amateur builders with the cooperation of the RT 1 in thisregion.
1

RT stands for Rukun Tetangga, which is neighborhood association composed with 30 - 50
households.

126

On the other hand, Table 1 shows that there are only minor damages in relation tocommunication facilities, electricity and water supply. For example, in Yogyakarta, watersupply was cut off only for two days.
Therefore, we can conclude that a feature of this disaster is that, although thisearthquake was normal size, serious damage occurred because of weak housing construction.
The significant lesson learned, therefore, is that damage on such a scale would not haveoccurred if the housing had been built with earthquake-proof designs.

127

Table 1: Summary of estimated damages caused by the earthquake
Central Java Province

Yogyakarta Province (including Bantul District
Bantul)Human

1,100 death toll, 18,500 injured

Housing

68,500

Education

houses4,600 death toll, 19,400 injured

4,100 death toll, 12,000 injured

destroyed, 88,200 houses destroyed, 98,200 72,000 houses destroyed, 137,000

103,800 damaged

damageddamaged725 school buildings destroyed

2,200 school buildings destroyed 950 school building destroyed(1,900 primary schools)

1 hospitals, 16 health centers, 56 17 hospitals, 117 health centers, 26 health centers and 67 health

Healthhealthposts

damagedor 324 health posts damaged or posts damaged or destroyed

destroyed

destroyed

relatively minor damage

relatively minor damage

relatively minor damage

Communication minor disruption

minor disruption

minor disruption

Electricity

few days of disruption

few days of disruption

few days of disruption

Water supply

minor disruption and few leaks

minor disruption and few leaks

minor disruption and few leaks

Transportation

Publicand 12 social facilities affected, 827 67

social facilities

religious facilities damagedsocial10-20%

facilities
of

total

affected, affected,

Prambanan

templereligious heavily damagedbuildings (2,200 facilities)
Business
Market

7,860 Small and Medium-sized 21,760 SMEs affected, 6 major 75% of total enterprises affectedEnterprises (SMEs) affectedhotels damaged(including 14,620 SMEs)

10 traditional markets damaged

85 traditional markets damaged

17 traditional market damaged

facilities
Source: Resosudarmo (2008)131

1-1-4 Emergency relief and recovery planning, and rehabilitation process 2
After the earthquake happened, people stayed in simple tents near roads. From a few days
to 2 weeks, people made tents within their residential sites. Around two months after theearthquake, temporary houses were built within their residential sites. They were often made ofwood or bamboo (Shigemura, 2006). Gadjah Mada University (UGM) offered a model for
temporary shelters built with bamboo, which is a traditional material for architecture inIndonesia (Shiozaki, 2007, 114). Because of the high expense of building materials, some local
people tended to build just barracks or tents (Ibid, 114).
The National Coordinating Board for the Management of Disaster (BAKORNAS), alongwith provincial and local authorities, played a leading role in coordinating emergency response
mechanisms on the ground (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2006). Staffs
of the UN and BAKORNAS were deployed to Yogyakarta on May 14, 2006, to monitor andsupport the preparation related to the possible coming eruptions of Mt. Merapi. Following theearthquake which happened on May 27, 2006, the team worked with the local government toestablish a mechanism for sharing information and coordination among various actors. This may
be one of the reasons why the response by the public organization for the earthquake was soquick (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2006).

1-1-5 Processes of rehabilitation and reconstruction
Although local people should be central in reconstructing their lives, there were many
actors involved with the reconstruction process in order to support local people, including thecentral government, provincial governments, local governments, local communities, NGOs,
universities and international organizations.

1-1-5-1 Governmental activities
Local governments in the affected regions had planning and implementation capacities,
while the national government played a coordinating and implementation role in this case (ADB,
2006, 1). After the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, Indonesia enacted a new law on disaster2

The initial coordination of emergency relief, rescue efforts and resource supplies included
following activities: (a) Indonesian military transported planes for implementing plan andevacuation, cooperating with teams of medical staff; (b) Hospitals were set up by Ministry of
Health; (c) Essential supplies of water, food, tents, and beds were coordinated by Ministry ofSocial Affairs; (d) Transport and implementation assistance was provided by Ministry ofTransport (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2006).

132management (Law 24/2007) that outlined the principles, division of labor, organization andimplementation of the National Disaster Management System, including the role of internationalorganizations. The new disaster management law brought a major shift in the establishment of amore dedicated agency to deal with disaster, Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana(BNPB 3 ). BNPB is empowered with a strong mandate to coordinate line ministries on the entire
cycle of disaster management from pre-, to post-disaster stages. The Law also clearly mandated
the creation of disaster management agencies at the provincial (mandatory) and district(depending on the needs and capacities) level. Recent initiatives are now directed to establish a
disaster management agency counterpart at sub-district and community level in an attempt toeducate and encourage the local people to be involved in the whole process of disastermanagement.
The governmental financial support for reconstruction of houses is called POKMAS.
POKMAS is a coinage made of Kelompok, which means ‘group’ and Masyarakat, which means‘community’ (Hayashi, 2009). The financial aid would be given to the POKMAS group,
consisting of 15-18 people, and POKMAS distributes the money to individual villagers. Only
permanent housing, not temporary shelter, is eligible for POKMAS. Local communities
determine the way of organizing POKMAS and distributing the fund. POKMAS had beenutilized in the Bantul Region after the 2006 earthquake (ibid).

1-1-5-2 Local people’s activities
In the reconstruction process of houses, neighbors cooperated with each other to build
homes, especially in the rural areas, where the idea of mutual help is common. Mutual help
within communities is of particular importance because it is expected that there is no migrationof people or the destruction of communities during the steps of evacuation, temporary living,
and building permanent houses, therefore original communities are preserved (Shiozaki, 2007,
115). Since local people do not have experience to build concrete houses, university staffs teachbasic skills of house construction. This process is called community training (Ibid, 115).

1-1-5-3 Disaster education
Disaster education is one of the important disaster mitigation policies. Our definition ofdisaster education is to learn how to protect people and communities when disaster happens by:

3

BNPB is the National Disaster Management Agency.

1331) understanding the mechanism of disaster; 2) investigating the actual circumstances of society
and regions; and 3) leaning how to prepare for and cope with disaster through self-support,
co-support, and official support (Cabinet Office, Government of Japan).
As an example of the need for disaster education, a remark made by the principal at anelementary school, when asked about disaster education, replied that he did not know themechanism of an earthquake itself. Moreover, education such as running under the desk is notpracticed at school (Disaster Prevention Information Research Center, 2006).
In Japan, schools are often designated for use in an evacuation when disaster happens.
Therefore, it is important to spread the idea through disaster education, that infrastructure suchas schools, which work for mitigating disaster, should be built with earthquake-proof methods(Ibid).

1-2 Objective/purpose of the study

When the 2006 earthquake happened in Indonesia, despite the frequency of earthquakes
and the relative normal size, serious damage occurred, especially in Yogyakarta. The lack ofprovision for disaster awareness of local people and the lack of Earthquake Proof Housing(EPH) were two reasons why the earthquake caused widespread injury. The lack of local
people’s disaster awareness depends on the capacity of the government to take measuresagainst earthquakes. Therefore, current policies of these two aspects of DRR are important to
be investigated for tackling future earthquakes. In addition, post-decentralization DRR policies
are also examined, since decentralization may have influenced these policies.
Thus, the two aspects of DRR policies and the situation in Yogyakarta are surveyed inthis paper. In order to examine these, the research focuses on three points: disaster education,
earthquake proof housing and comprehensive DRR.

1-2-1 Disaster education
As we stated above, our definition of disaster education is to learn how to protect people
and communities when disaster happens by: 1) understanding the mechanism of disaster; 2)
investigating the actual circumstances of society and regions; and 3) leaning how to prepare forand cope with disaster through self-support, co-support, and official support (Cabinet Office,
Government of Japan). Disaster education is not only for children in schools, but also for people134in households, communities and workplaces. Also the way disaster education is provided
includes school curriculum, social education at the community level and mass media.
When an earthquake happens, people’s actions should be a result of what they havelearned. For example, if people have experienced a drill for protecting themselves or evacuating,they may be able to reduce risk of serious injury. Therefore, the promotion of education of DRR
should be provided by the government as in the case of schools, where the government isinvolved in the process of establishing school curriculum. Education of DRR also needs
cooperation with civil society because local people know the most about their own community.
Therefore, this paper will mainly discuss how much local people understand government policy
and programs related to disaster education.

1-2-2 Earthquake proof housing
There is little information about what types of material (brick, brick reinforced by
concrete, bamboo, concrete, etc.) were used for housing through POKMAS. Since thereconstruction was managed by Gotong-royong, which means the culture of reciprocity in Java.
This means that villagers, who built their own houses, might reconstruct their houses in theirfamiliar ways, for example, with brick building, even though there were the initiatives promoted
by Gadjah Mada University which promoted the reconstruction of houses with bamboo or
concrete. It can be also anticipated that the local government just prepared for POKMAS and did
not support local people to build EPH. Therefore, housing without earthquake proof structures
may be in common in Yogyakarta region. This means that local people in Bantul may be stillvulnerable to the possible devastation of future earthquakes. A survey of the current situation of
EPH in Bantul, especially if it reveals that there is insufficient disaster prevention, will therefore
contribute to the disaster prevention of future earthquakes in the region.

1-2-3 Comprehensive DRR
Matsui (2009, 32-35) mentions that although Indonesia is said to have been widelydecentralized since the end of the Suharto regime, such decentralization made new centralized
authorities on a smaller scale in some regions. Such authorities may have conflicts with otherauthorities. It might be true even in terms of DRR. Decentralization may cause the creation ofmany institutions, which has its own DRR policy or strategy, and these DRR policies may notalways cooperate with each other. This research attempts to survey the types of DRR policies
and programs for each institution and to examine how these institutions cooperate with each135

other.

1-3 Research questions

1-3-1 Disaster education
To specify current governmental policies and activities of disaster education, as well as
the local people’s perception about them, the research asked the following questions: “Whatkind of policies for disaster education does the government have?”; “How does the government
provide information of these to local people?”; and “How much do local people understand andutilize the information?”

1-3-2 Earthquake proof housing (EPH)
In order to know current disaster prevention measures by the communities in terms of
housing, the research asked the following questions: “What kind of housing is built in selectedvillages and what kind of know-how do the residents use to build their houses?”; “Is there any
support which has been provided after the earthquake in 2006 for local people to build EPH atleast bamboo house?”; and “What is the local people’s awareness about EPH and about the
governmental support for EPH?”

1-3-3 Comprehensive DRR
To identify and evaluate the existing institutions and policies regarding DRR and to
identify constraints that exist between government and local people in terms of DRR, theresearch sought to answer the following questions: “Was there any channel for coordinating theimplementation of DRR programs between the government and local people?”; “What were theroles of each stakeholder in every stages of national comprehensive DRR program?”; and“What was the capacity and how was the implementation for DRR policy for each institution?”136

1-4 Hypotheses

1-4-1 Disaster education
Governments could have provided more information regarding disaster education forpeople after the Java earthquake in 2006.

1-4-2 Earthquake proof housing (EPH)
We test three hypotheses about EPH: 1) the proportion of brick houses without concrete
reinforcement is largest in the village; 2) there is little support given by the government otherthan POKMAS because of the lack of local demand for disaster proof housing; and 3) local
people have less access to the information about the way of building concrete or bamboo
houses and are not well aware of the effectiveness of bamboo or concrete houses for disasterprevention.

1-4-3 Comprehensive DRR
There are some constraints in the implementation of a comprehensive disaster risk
reduction program by the government.

1-5 Methodology

1-5-1 Questionnaire survey
We conducted a questionnaire survey to local people in Wukirsari Village. The village
was one of most seriously damaged villages from the earthquake in 2006. Our aims of thisquestionnaire survey were: 1) to know the situation of villagers’ houses before and after theearthquake; 2) to learn about the people’s understanding about disaster education and EPH; and3) to understand people’s perceptions about governmental DRR policies, including disaster theeducation policy and EPH policy. Detailed items of the question are shown in Appendix 1 andall the answers of the examinees are shown in Appendix 2.
Wukirsari Village is located 15 km south of Yogyakarta in the Imogiri Sub-district, Bantul
District. It consists of 16 sub-villages and its area is 15 km2. 60% of the village is hill region and
40% of the village is flat land. There are 4,596 households and 93 RT, with a total population of137

15,730. The poverty line is under 800,000 Rp per capita income and according to this standard,
991 households, that is, 22% of the households, are under the poverty line.
Questionnaire surveys were conducted with 29 local people in Wukirsari Village. Amongthe 29 respondents, 24 people were male and 5 were female. The age of participants varied with
4 people in their 30’s, 5 people in their 40’s, 13 in their 50’s, 5 people in their 60’s and 2 people
in their 70’s. Occupations ranged from work as construction workers, tile makers, farmers, foodprocessors, or self-employed. Because some of the villagers were illiterate, we directly asked
these participants the questions in the questionnaire with the help of our translators. Other
villagers’ questionnaires were distributed and collected by the village leader.

1-5-2 Interview survey
We conducted interview surveys with governmental agencies, NGOs and the primaryschool principal. Our aims of the interview survey were: 1) to know each agency’s role in termsof DRR; and 2) to learn the inter-actions or coherent actions of each of the stakeholders andactors in the process of implementation of the DRR policy at provincial, district, sub-district andvillage level. The lists of our interviewee are shown in Table 2. Before each interview, we madethe lists of basic questions in order to search out required information to test our hypotheses.
There were some differences among the items of questions for each interviewee, as the research
progressed, causing us to eliminate some questions, while adding others. Detailed information
about the basic questions is shown in Appendix 3.

138

Table 2: The list of interviewees and examinees
Date

Time

Location

Name of informants

Sep. 20(Mon)

10:30

Yogyakarta provincial government (Public Works)

Mr. Gatot Saptadi

13:00

Bantul district government (National Unity and the Protection of Society)

Mr. Supriyanto

13:00

Bantul district government (Public Works)

Mr. Sunarso

13:00

Bantul district government (Education)

Ms. Partini

8:00

2 presentors before Mr Gatot from Education and National Society at provincial level: Mr
S k ti Bi t
(Ed ) d M R di t (N ti l U itd th P t ti
fS i t )Yogyakarta provincial government (Planning Office)Mr. Danang Syamsurizal

10:00

Yogyakarta provincial government (Education)

Mr. Sukanti Bintoro

8:00

Wukirsari Village head office

10:00

Local people (Wukirsari Village)

14:00

Yayasan Peningkatan dan Pengembangn Sumberdaya Ummat (YP2SU)

Ms.Norma, Ms Diah

8:00

Wukirsari Village head office

Mr. Bayu Bintoro

Bantul District government (Education)*

Ms. Partini*

8:00

Bantul District government (Public Works)

Mr. Anang, Mr. Sunarso

14:00

DRR forum

8:30

Ngasinan Elementary School

Mr. Mujiya (school principle)

13:00

Mr. Supriyanto*

8:00

Bantul district government(N ti l U itd th P t ti
f S i t )*International Organization of Migration (IOM)

13:00

Institute of Research and Empowerment (IRE)

15:00

Java Reconstruction Fund (JRF)

Sep. 21(Tue)Sep. 22(Wed)Sep. 23(Thu)

Sep. 24(Fri)Sep. 27(Mon)

Sep. 28(Tue)Mr. ujang,

Ms. BiasantiMr. Johan Grundberg, Mr. Hernowo Poetranto JB,
M Y h R h tS t
Mr. Sg Yuliyanto, Mr. Sunarji Zamroni,
M B b
H d
Mr. Arief Budi Wahyono, Mrs. Sri Aminatun, Mrs. Cici

Note: We conducted both interview survey and questionnaire survey with local people in Wikirsari Village. Informants with * indicates that we conducted interview survey twicewith them because of time adjustment.

139

2. Findings

Through the interview process, our research questions yielded some important
information. In this section, we explain about the results of the interviews divided by type of
informants. The contents are as follows:
2-1 Government
2-1-1 Yogyakarta provincial government
2-1-1-1 Public works
2-1-1-2 Planning office2-1-1-3 Education
2-1-2 Bantul district government
2-1-2-1 Public works
2-1-2-2 National Unity and the Protection of Society
2-1-2-3 Education
2-2 Local
2-2-1 Wukirsari Village leader
2-2-2 Ngasinan Elementary School
2-3 NGOs
2-3-1 Java Reconstruction Fund (JRF)
2-3-2 International Organization of Migration (IOM)
2-3-3 Institute of Research and Empowerment (IRE)
2-3-4 Yayasan Peningkatan dan Pengembangn Sumberdaya Ummat (YP2SU)
2-3-5 DRR Forum

2-1 Government

2-1-1 Yogyakarta provincial government

2-1-1-1 Public Works: Interview with Mr. Gatot Saptadi on September 20
The basic role of this office is data collection related to public policy, which includes atier of administrative disaster management system. The system is roughly in charged by three140

organizations: national BNPB, and Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah (BPBD 4 ) in
provincial and district level. Disasters are categorized into two types based on size of damage
into national disaster and district disaster. For national disasters, International NGOs
participate and for district disasters, local NGOs play important roles.
For the inter-actor communication channel, the government of lower level has to submit
daily reports to the government of upper level to prevent conflicts between the national andlocal government.

2-1-1-2 Planning office: Interview with Mr.Danang Syamsurizal on September 21
The basic role of this office is coordinate with the four provincial agencies of Public
Works, Department of Education, Economy and Governance about DRR and it is also incharge of rehabilitation and reconstruction planning. After the earthquake happened, theplanning department allocated part of the national annual budget for the province torehabilitation and reconstruction. They have no regulation except POKMAS (annual budget forearthquake damage) for building materials, and no guidelines from government about housing
standards. The government does offer aid for houses suffering at least average damage. The
requirement for government support is that houses should be designed to be earthquake proof,i.e., designed to withstand shaking. The government also sends facilitators who come from
UGM in order to train how to make disaster proof housing. In addition, they play a social
function by helping the people to organize communities, especially POKMAS, to help the
people to manage POKMAS and to teach them how to make houses.
POKMAS is a community-based organization that manages the community group. One
POKMAS consists of 10-15 families and this POKMAS will create one account into which thenational government deposits funds. Within the POKMAS it is decided in which order thefamilies will receive the funds. Each household will get Rp.15000000, though they do not get
it at one time.
For the action plan, they have keep channels of communication with other sectors suchas the national planning division, international NGOs, the UN agencies, academic societies andlocal NGOs. As intermediate, they cooperate with the national government for the evaluationof damage in order to decide actions needed. In addition, they coordinate with the departmentof education for the promotion of disaster risk awareness. National declarations were made to
4

BPBD stands for Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah in Indonesian .

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integrate DRR with the school curriculum.

2-1-1-3 Education: Interview with Mr. Sukanti Bintoro on September 21
The basic role of this office is to create programs about DRR. There are four types ofplanning: drills/training (so citizens can understand the geography or to simulate disastermitigation), hazard mapping, materials (guidebook) and multi-media education.
They have channels of communication built into the curriculum and promote training
programs and lessons. They also cooperate with Kesatuan Bangsa dan Perlindungan
Masyarakat (KESBANGLINMAS 5 ), Public Works, Balai Latihan Pendidikan Teknik (BLPT6 ),the health office and the Office of Social Affairs (Foundation of new building).

2-1-2 Bantul district government

2-1-2-1 Public Works: Interview with Mr. Sunarso, Mr. Anang on September 20 and
24
The basic role of this office is to be responsible for technical disaster reduction action,
especially helping to build houses, as well as planning and building schools. They consult withthe school authorities on the status of buildings to decide whether they can be repaired or must
be totally destroyed and rebuilt. They set the standard of housing, and within that standard,
concrete is the most desirable. Cement, rock, and brick with roofs made of tile and steel arealso recommended. Although construction using concrete is recommended, this type of
construction was also affected by the 2006 earthquake because the houses were built on theearthquake line.
Joglo 7 houses are also not recommended because of their expense even though, they too,are better than other types of house construction. Wukirsari Villagers prefer Joglo because they
can have access to wider areas of land and it is easy to use the locally grown Jati tree, which isused for Joglo houses. However, for the urban areas these houses are more difficult to buildwhen considering the price differences. Jati tree is Rp. 15 million per 1 ㎥ compared toconcrete at Rp. 3 million and Kalimantan tree at Rp. 9 million. To be sure, Wukirsari Villagers
5

KESBANGLINMAS stands for Kesatuan Bangsa dan Perlindungan Masyarakat inIndonesian. (National Unity and the Protection of the Society)
6 BLPT stands for Balai Latihan Pendidikan Teknik in Indonesian.
7 Joglo is Javanese traditional houses which were made by wood and now Joglo rooms wereused for multi-purposes such as guest room.

142prefer Joglo style houses and they are considered a symbol of prestige like that of having two
or more wives or having a bird. However, a new trend in housing, those made of concrete,became more prestigious in the 1970s and many homes built in the 1980s were built ofconcrete. The ones built earlier, before 1980s, were totally destroyed in the earthquake becausematerials were inferior, however houses built with concrete after 1980s, were less damaged,
indicating that people were gradually becoming educated in the importance of building
materials, resulting in stronger concrete homes. In addition, Public Works coordinated with
district management consultants, who had come from private contractor companies. Basicallysuch funds came from the EU and passed to the Indonesian national budget. In 2006, Public
Works at district level signed a contract for accepting funds from JRF. Since it was a national
level agreement with JRF, Public Works did not have a meeting with JRF about the use andallocation for the funds. POKMAS was initially included in the annual budget, and JRF was
accepted later, therefore it generated a complicated budget system when it comes to theprocedures to get financial aid regarding house reconstruction.
Local people didn’t demand from the government a policy of earthquake proof housing,but people can give their input by using RT and Rukun Warga (RW 8 ) and the information ofdamaged house will be reported through RT/RW. The government disseminates information
about earthquake proof housing through both the media (e.g. daily newspaper) and official
letter to village leader. The village leader will then meet with local people in order to socialize
POKMAS. People in Bantul did not accept bamboo as a material for EPH and considered it
only for use as temporary shelter, so Public Works other materials for EPH, such as concrete,
metal, stone and slate. In the meantime, before 2010, Public Works was responsible for issuingbuilding licenses but after 2010, the responsibility was passed to a permission office, which
has the dual roles of sales permission and research permission. The reasons for transferring the
responsibility were: convenience and work efficiency which enable people to get various kindsof permission at one place. (This structure is called “one roof, one service”) The permission
office which, is supported by Public Works, has the role of issuing permits for sale andresearch but also issues permits for design and materials. There is a district regulation thatallows for transfer of responsibility. It takes 14 days maximum to issue a permit after
documentation is submitted.
Public Works and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) tackling with a8

RW stands for Rukun Warga in Indonesian, which is composed by a group of 8~15 RT.

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technical training project, making technical service center in district level, in order to inform
local people and carpenter how to build house, and how to apply F1 form 9 . They serve as
Commitment-maker and communicate with community about distribute funds. They have two
communication channels which are; village leader and consultant. About relation to the NGOs,
they receive fund from NGOs, therefore they need to have meeting; but do not have periodical
meeting. In the meeting, they report ongoing situation of POKMAS and fund giving to society.

2-1-2-2 National Unity and the Protection of Society (KESBANGLINMAS):
Interview with Mr. Supriyanto on September 20 and 27
The National Unity and the Protection of Society is responsible for coordinating
activities of 3 steps; before, emergency and after disaster. This office gives disaster training tothose who live in Bantul district. The training manages to disasters such as flood, fire,
earthquake, tsunami and other kinds of disasters. It is also responsible for victims andevacuations in emergency situations. They promote social activities for disaster risk
management. These are either physical, as in how to build disaster proof housings or
non-physical, which includes disaster preparation activities for children to the elderly.
In order to inform people, this office holds meetings with Public Works, the financedepartment and planning development in order to coordinate the policies of each department.
They also invite sub-district leaders to disseminate information about government policies.
From there, the information trickles down; sub-district leaders inform village leaders, village
leaders inform sub-village leaders and sub-village leaders inform RT leaders (every household).
In addition, this office engages the mass media to disseminate information about policies to the
public. In order to protect people from disaster, they built early warning systems about tsunami
in three sub-districts: Sroundakan, Sanden and Kretek. They give warning five minutes before
the earthquakes via three loudspeakers. Designated professionals in the government are in
charge of monitoring.
New concepts and information are channeled through various means. The Department ofCivil Engineering at the Indonesian Islamic University in Suleman and Gadjah Mada
University give reports to this office about materials and methods for housing construction.
This office meets once a week internally and also has meetings with other actors such as Public
Works, universities and NGOs, including JRF, JICA. Outside actors give recommendations for9

F1 Form is an official document which surveys the situation of suffered households anddamaged houses after earthquake.

144

construction and NGOs can contribute funds. There is no policy to strengthen inter-actor
cooperation.
Mr. Supriyanto also told us about POKMAS, though the POKMAS system was notdirectly related to the office’s regular work. Requests or demands from people seem to becentered on housing policies only, in particular POKMAS. Some local people felt the
distribution of POKMAS was unfair and inquired about why they were not chosen to bemembers in the POKMAS program. This office conducts actual evaluations for the distributionof the POKMAS benefits.

2-1-2-3 Education: Interview with Ms. Partini on September 20 and 23
The basic role of this office is the management of the elementary school disasterawareness program. Activities include making guidebook for disaster awareness for theteachers, creation of disaster prepared schools, implementing simulation programs and trauma
recovery. (Ms. Partini gave us the information about the role of this office especially related toelementary school management.)
In addition, because of decentralization, the office has the power to create and act on its
own policy, but they still have to let the province know about their activities. Thus, theprovincial educational office is still powerful and serves as the coordinator of these districts. It
is also responsible of reporting to the provincial level, and also when it comes to DRR program,
it is coordinates with the provincial educational office in cooperation with some NGOs.
However, naturally as a district with autonomy, they can directly negotiate with NGOs,
by-passing the provincial government.
In the area of education for the trauma healing, this office cooperates with Yogyakarta
State University, UGM, Komite Yogyakarta untuk Pemulihan Aceh (KYPA 10 ), YAKKUM
Emergency Unit (YEU 11 ), United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF),
Arbeiter-Samariter-Bund (ASB 12 ), KESBANGLINMAS, and so on.

10

KYPA (Committee for the Recovery of Ache) is a civic group of Acehnese residents in
Yogyakarta.
11 YAKKUM stands for Yayasan Kristen untuk Kesehatan Umum in Indonesian.
12 ASB (Worker’s Samaritan Federation) is a German NGO.

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2-2 Local

2-2-1 Wukirsari Village leader: Interview with Mr. Bayu Bintoro on September 22 and23
The role of this village leader is to make a vulnerability area map support NGOs and to
inform village people through local meetings of simulation and disaster preparedness activities
for children to the elderly. The map is divided into three areas, red, yellow, and green in
relation to their potential for disaster. Houses located in red areas are at highest risk and it isrecommended that they be relocated as soon as possible. Yellow areas indicate areas where thepossibility of disasters like flood and hurricane exist, and green areas are the safest. This
color-coding idea came out of a local initiative. Before making these classifications, people
had already been using a disaster map made by a local NGO and this new map was made withthe aid of JRF. River areas are severely affected because of the rainy season. In river areas,
which were close to the epicenter of the earthquake, people were also affected by flooding.
Three days after the earthquakes, there were continuous rains which caused additional disasters.
Because of this, people also realized their vulnerability to floods.
This village has its own regulations about earthquake, which was created by theformer president Skarno, who put into effect the principle laws of Indonesia (after
independence). The current law is No. 24, created in 2007 and concerns national coordination
for DRR. Procedures for rebuilding houses include steps where people first need to fill in a
special sheet requested by the government, which is called FA form. After collecting data at the
district level, officers report to the Public Works. Public Works at the district level and UGM
students observed and reported on the number houses damaged and to the degree they werehouses. For this village, the earthquake of 2006 resulted in 1,145 houses that were totally
damaged, 1,600 houses were severely damaged and 1,419 houses that were partially damaged.
There were 1,769 households who received funds or support from various sources, including
22 houses from IOM, 247 houses from JRF and 1500 houses from POKMAS.
When comparing the causes of damages to houses between the earthquakes that occurredin the 1940s and the one in 2006, the main difference was the type of houses. While houses in
1940s were mainly built of bamboo and wood, those of 2006 were mainly made of Joglo. Afterthe earthquake of 2006, the Joglo houses were still standing while most of others, including
concrete houses, collapsed. Joglo houses are made of the Jati tree, which was originally only
built by wealthy people. Ordinary people also use Joglo style houses nowadays, with the146difference between the wealthy and the others being the number of polls used. The Joglo house
we visited during this research had 26 polls, which had a feature of the Joglo style houses.
Wealthy people tend to have more ornaments. Joglo houses have two good points when
considering characteristics to withstand earthquakes. The wood from Jati tree is very flexible
when shaken. In addition, the architecture of Joglo houses also allows them to move flexibly
during earthquakes. There are five to seven stages in the design of the Joglo houses. And there
is a similar type of house, which is called Limasan.
Government cooperated with JRF, mapping the vulnerable areas in the village level, andthen the data was reported to the district level, provincial level and the national level.

2-2-2 Ngasinan Elementary School: Interview with Mr. Mujiya, school principal, on
September 27
This school has 203 students, 10 regulation teachers, 5 honorary teachers, 2
administrative officers and 1 maintenance staff. In Yogyakarta, each elementary school has its
own curriculum, especially for DRR. Each curriculum is adept at maintaining the school
environment with local culture around the school, thus each school makes their own
curriculum for DRR following the Provincial Education Department DRR curriculum andNational Education Department curriculum as guides. The DRR curriculum is incorporated
into almost all subjects, especially science, social lessons and language (Bahasa). There werematerials from several organizations such as JICA regarding disasters were also provided just 4
months ago. In the lesson at the school, they teach about earthquakes using simulation. During
the simulation teachers make the warning sounds and students hide under the table. After
waiting until the shaking stops, they run outside the school in one line, protecting their headwith something like their school while avoiding pushing each other to prevent unnecessary
injuries. In addition, they have a specific curriculum for the healing of the trauma ofearthquakes that involve outside learning, playing games and singing. Catholic World Service(CWS) invites 20 students to the science museum, Taman Pintar, to learn more about DRR
while they enjoy playing in their playground.
Each school has to cooperate with the Bantul District Department of Education, schoolcommittee, parents, public figures in Wukirsari Village and NGOs concerning their own
curriculums. However, for the NGO curriculums, as stated earlier, CWS invites 20 students, 10boys and 10 girls to be trained in DRR, while ASB invites 5 teachers.

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2-3 NGOs

2-3-1 Java Reconstruction Fund (JRF): Interview with Mr. Arief Budi Wahyono, Mrs.
Sri Aminatun and Mrs. Cici on September 28
The basic role of JRF is distributing funds for housing damaged by disasters and making
disaster maps. The Java Reconstruction Fund (JRF) is composed of members from Britain,
Denmark, Canada, Finland, the Netherlands, the EU and the ADB. JRF funds are given forhouse building. JRF signed a grant agreement with the national level of the Public Works
Office (2007-2011). They offered funds only for homes that were totally damaged house or
heavily damaged. The difference between POKMAS and JRF is that POKMAS covers all thetypes of damaged houses while JRF covers only completely and heavily damaged houses.
JRF communicates with World Bank, Public Works (national level), IOM, National
Management Consultant (NMC), and District Management Consultant (DMC) about funds tolocal people.

2-3-2 International Organization of Migration (IOM): Interview with Mr. Johan
Grundberg, Mr. Hernowo Poetranto JB and Mr. Yohan Rahmat Santosa on September
28
The basic role of IOM is to provide emergency houses (pre-fabricated bamboo houses),
DRR training for earthquake proof model houses, disaster education (through campaigns),build adjusted houses (to fit the needs of handicapped persons) and medical assistance. They
provided approximately 15,000 emergency houses built from bamboo. These houses werepre-fabricated transitional houses with a maximum lifespan of 1~2years. They also provide
transportation and logistics support for other NGOs and service providers and give medical
assistance and DRR training for earthquake proof model houses. They have built 20 houses fordemonstration and 6 community centers for an earthquake proof housing training program. As
for disaster education, they have a specific program/project about DRR, which is composed of
public information and campaigns during DRR and post-DRR.
IOM communicates with United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Cooperative
Housing Foundation (CHF), DRR Forum, JRF, Dutch Red Cross, The Deutsche Gesellschaft
fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ 13 ), Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah
13

GTZ (German Society for Technical Cooperation) is a private international enterpriseowned by the German Federal Government.

148

(BAPPEDA 14 ), Badan Perencanaan dan Pembangunan Nasional (BAPPENAS 15 ), the national
technical coordination team, and so on. As for JRF, it is basically a Trust Fund from the WorldBank and they have a coordinate housing reconstruction with UNDP. They are an observer
member NGO of the DRR Forum.

2-3-3 Institute of Research and Empowerment (IRE): Interview with Mr. Sg
Youliyanto, Mr. Sunarji Zamroni and Mr. Bambang Hudayana on September 28
IRE started in 2003 and its role is working for democracy, good governance, education,community empowerment, and so on. After the earthquake in 2006, IRE participated in thereconstruction process and provided livelihood support and temporary shelters with IOM in
Wukirsari Village. IRE also had a recovery program to support the batik industry, which wasdestroyed by the earthquake, as well as a livelihood recovery program for women who worked
in the batik factories.
IRE received funds to start a program of promoting disaster education with training in
the village. They trained the village leader, carpenters, midwives, civil servants, first aid
workers, facilitators and emergency shelter builders.
IRF has communicates with and is supported by 70 NGOs. IRE practices sweeping
organization and education techniques to promote disaster education for the bottom majority.
They promote partnerships with government at the local provincial and district levels, NGOs,
and community.

2-3-4 Yayasan Peningkatan dan Pengembangn Sumberdaya Ummat (YP2SU):Interview with Ms. Norma, Ms. Diah on September 22
YP2SU was started in 2004 and currently has a staff of 35. They engage in microfinance activities in three regions, including the Bantul Region. After the earthquake in 2006,
they assisted with distribution of food, medicine, and temporary shelters. They also gave
training on how to build houses with coordination among NGOs. Training is held by staff thathave the capacity, but mostly from the Indonesian Red Cross and Jakarta State University.
They have a program called the “Disaster Aware School,” which has been funded with
900 million Rp. from UNDP. The program started in June 2010 and targets three pilot schools(one each, elementary, junior high, and high school) in Bantul. The three schools were chosen
14
15

BAPPEDA is Regional Development Planning Body at provincial level.
BAPPENAS is Indonesian National Development Planning Body.

149based on their high vulnerability for disaster and by recommendation of the Department of
Education at the district level, as well as the disaster department. Each school trains students
and teachers and has different risk reduction program depending on its geographical location as
related to different potential disasters, i.e., earthquake, tsunami, flooding, land erosion, etc.
Each school also has a part of the curriculum devoted to disaster education and this curriculum
is formulated with coordination of the National Disaster Department, Red Cross, ASB from
Germany, UNDP, international NGOs, and local NGOs.

2-3-5 DRR Forum: Interview to Mr. Ujang, and Ms. Biasanti on September 24
The DRR Forum started in 2006, after the earthquake happened. The Ministry of Social
Affairs at the level of the provincial government supports this forum and it targets young
people with the anticipation that it is easier to shape the thinking of younger people towards
disaster readiness in regards to earthquakes. The forum aims to inform about earthquakes
through the community radio and local newspaper. The basic role of this forum is socialization
ranging from children to elders in the community, as well as, data collection. In regards to datacollection, its role was to survey the death toll of the earthquake so as to construct a monumentthat the named the victims. This was to make people aware of the misery of the earthquake.
After that, they asked older people in the community about their experiences of former
earthquakes, a subject that had been previously rarely talked about. After the earthquake in2006, forum members started to ask the elderly about their experiences and they started to talkabout it. Thus, this forum has three main roles, which include keeping alive the memories ofthe earthquakes that occurred around the 1940s, collecting historical data of occurrences in thevillage and mapping of vulnerable areas. They facilitate the three villages of Girirejo, Srimulyo
and Trimulyo. From July 2010, they’ve had more than 15 meetings. Catholic organizations
were invited to share information. The government also invited four villages to share
information about disasters. This meeting is held for 3 days twice a month. There is also hopeto build the DRR Forum at the district level, so that like the provincial level, there will besupport by the legal foundation. In terms of legal aspects, up until the present, DRR has been
supported by only village regulations. Some villagers trust this forum because it is based in thecommunity, however if there are upper level legal supports, it is assumed that there will be anincrease in trust among the local people.
In 2008, trauma healing education was held at five elementary schools. DRR, especiallytrauma healing education, was integrated into the school curriculum. It uses teaching tools such150

as books that teach about disaster education in interesting and enjoyable ways. The trauma
healing program is designed through the corroboration of the Gadjah Mada University,
Department of Psychology and other universities. They believe that there are concrete ways toheal children who have experienced trauma, through fun activities and raising children’s
spirits.
DRR Forum has communication channel with social development department, UK
Department for International Development (DFID), JRF, Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), local NGO institution of empowerment. They cooperate with thedepartment of social affairs, JRF, and CWS about the Mapping.

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3. Arguments
3-1 Hypothesis about Disaster Education: Governments could have provided
more information about disaster education for people after the Java earthquake
in 2006

3-1-1 Evidence that supports the hypothesis
The results for question number 1 in the questionnaire on the part of Disaster Education:
Are you aware of any policy from the government at any level (national, provincial, district)
about disaster risk reduction education?
Out of 29 sheets, the answers are:-Yes: 10
-No: 15-No answer: 4
In this community, the number of people who were aware of government policies was
less; therefore this could be evidence to support this hypothesis. All answers of interviews withlocal people in Wukirsari Village are shown in Appendix 2.

3-1-2 Evidence that does not support the hypothesis

3-1-2-1 The results of the interview with Ms. Partini (Officer of Elementary
Education in Bantul District), Mr. Mujiya (Principal of Ngasinan Elementary School)
about school curriculum and simulation programs
According to Mr. Mujiya, each school makes its own curriculum for DRR following the
DRR curriculum of educational office at provincial level and the curriculum of national
department of education as guides, as well as in coordination with the educational office at
district level. 16 In addition, this school has created DRR curriculum for each subject, whichcorresponds with Ms. Partini’s statement that the educational office integrates DRR programfor everyday lessons. 17
Therefore, after the earthquake in 2006, it can be said that each level of government wasable to provide enough information about DRR curriculum to students within the school
16
17

From the interview with Mr. Mujiya on September 27
From the interview with Ms. Partini on September 23152system.
Ms. Partini answered that the educational office implements simulation programs inschools, and Mr. Mujiya explained about the contents of simulation in the school we visited.
We also asked students in the school to simulate the condition which an earthquake happened,
and the result of simulation showed that the students have adequate knowledge about DRR.
For example, they could perform the following activities in the simulation:-Protect their head-Do not panic-Hide under the table-Go out of classroom after the earthquake stops-Give first aid
From this result, after the earthquake in 2006, it can be inferred that the government has
provided sufficient information about disaster education for school children.

3-1-2-2 Interview to DRR ForumDRR Forum, which is supported by the district government, plays an important role interms of providing information related to DRR, from the government to the local people not
only in Wukirsari Village, but also in other villages. According to interviews with the staffs of
DRR Forum in Wukirsari Village, they sometimes communicate with local people throughcommunity radio and the local newspaper to inform local people about the governmental DRR
policy, since these media are an easy way to access and get information from the government.
DRR Forum in Wukirsari Village facilitated the formation of new DRR forums in three othervillages and they have had more than fifteen meetings since July 2010. 18 Therefore, it can besaid that the government has built connections and has shared information about disastereducation with the local people through the DRR Forum.

3-1-2-3 Disaster education for special school and inclusive school
In the interview with Mr. Sukanti Bintoro, an officer of Education, Youth, and Sports in
Yogyakarta Province, he mentioned that they introduced a training program for disabledstudents in inclusive schools. According to the explanation, special schools are for only
disabled students, while inclusive schools accept everyone. In addition, they use guidebooks

18

From the interview with DRR Forum on September 24

153

published by ASB (German NGO) as a guideline for disaster education for disabled students.
Guidebooks include how to build infrastructure for disabled students and are also used forteachers’ DRR learning. 19 This suggests that the government offers comprehensive disastereducation program through the promotion of programs for all students.

3-1-2-4 Trauma recovery program
The government has provided information to the schools regarding disaster education in
addition to DRR curriculum and simulation.
According to the interview with Ms. Partini, an officer of Elementary Education in
Bantul District, the program for trauma recovery is still going on because of the time it takes toheal from the trauma of the earthquake. The trauma recovery program, provided by thedepartment of education at the national and provincial levels is composed of singing, dancing,
and theater arts. The program was coordinated with cooperation with Yogyakarta State
University, Gadjah Mada University, UNICEF, ASB, KESBANGLINMAS, and so on. 20
Even though this evidence does not directly disprove the hypothesis, it implies that the
governments’ support of disaster education covers a wide range of the areas of education anddisseminates information about DRR.

3-1-3 Analysis of the evidences

3-1-3-1 Why is the number of people who are aware of disaster risk reduction
education by governments small in the questionnaire survey?
Four examinees in this village that answered “Yes” for question 1 of the disastereducation part, knew about the government policy for socialization by the government andNGOs. Three of them suggested that the government should create socialization policies
repeatedly and more frequently. One of the interviewees suggested that the government shouldmake disaster socialization routine, for example once in three months. 21 These results imply
that activities by the government in the village were not held regularly. From this point of view,if the government creates regular socialization activities, which are related to disastereducation, awareness about the government's policy would be raised, and people could get
19

From the interview with Education of Department in Yogyakarta Province on September 20
From the interview with Ms. Partini on September 23
21
From the questionnaire survey to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22
20

154

information and knowledge about disaster education directly from the government.
The answers of the questionnaire also suggest that activities carried out by NGOs andcommunities were more familiar to people during the first few months after the earthquake in2006. While 28 out of 29 answered that they did not know about government policy, they havetheir own action plan within the community and their family in order to avoid too muchdamage when disaster happens. They answered that they learned about risk reduction andaction plans from the community and NGOs. 22 Interviewees tended to answer question number
1, “Are you aware of any policy from the government at any level (national, provincial,
district) about disaster risk reduction education?” with a focus on the immediate
post-earthquake phase rather than the current effort of disaster education. Most of themmentioned that during the few months after the earthquake, the government did not support
people very much, while NGOs played an important role. For example, IOM provided training
about rebuilding houses for people and lectures about disaster mitigation for village leaders.
Also one NGO provided DRR training for people in Wukirsari Village. 23 From these points, it
seems like NGOs had more frequent and various support than the government in the immediate
post-earthquake phase, therefore, people recognize NGOs’ activities as more helpful than thegovernment when it comes to disaster risk reduction education.
In addition, the earthquake in 2006 brought damage to a wide area, which was different
from more local disasters such as landslides. In the case of large-scale disaster such as theearthquake in 2006, it can be assumed that in the immediate post-earthquake phase, there musthave been difficulties and limitations for the government to provide sufficient information on
its own in terms of the limited number of civil servants. Even though, the government’s lack of
preparation for large-scale disasters could be lessened for future disasters if NGOs, which are
more rooted in local regions, can play important roles toward disaster education as opposed to
the government with its limited capacity.

3-1-3-2 Contradiction between the results of the questionnaire and information fromDRR
We conducted a questionnaire survey in Wukirsari Village, where DRR Forum is
working. The results of the questionnaire prove the hypothesis in terms of the people’s poor
understanding of the governmental disaster education policy; whereas the staffs in DRR Forum
22
23

From the questionnaire survey to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22
From the questionnaire survey to local people in Wuffffkirsari Village on September 22155

told us that the government communicates to the local people through DRR Forum in terms ofdisaster education. 24 This contradiction may be attributed by the fact that DRR Forum could
not yet cover all RT/RW in Wukirsari Village.
Another reason may be that government’s activities were in a sense, invisible behind theactivities of DRR Forum even though the government provided information through DRR
Forum; therefore governmental information on disaster education is transmitted indirectly,
which results in a small number of people who are aware of the government’s policy.

3-1-4 Conclusion
In the immediate phase post-earthquake, local people tended to recognize that NGOs,
rather than the government gave more support for local people of Wukirsari Village, where we
gave the questionnaire survey. In Wukirsari Village, local people might have insufficient
information about governmental disaster education policy because of the limited number ofcivil servants to visit there and because of the dominant influence of NGO’s disaster education
activities. This is one of the reasons why only a small number of the local people are aware of
information that the government has provided. Another possible reason is that, from local
people’s perspective, the government’s activities to spread information about disaster education
were not held regularly; therefore people did not have a chance to learn this policy and get
information about disaster education.
On the other hand, in the case of Ngasinan Elementary School, the information about
DRR curriculum from the government at national, provincial, and district levels has beensuccessfully provided to schools. Actually, pupils in the schools were well aware of thecontents of disaster education.
Also, in terms of community, the government cooperates with local CBOs and DRR
Forum, so that to provide information to the community through local media, even thoughthese activities are not well recognized by the local people.
Overall, the government has gradually provided more information about disastereducation to people through local CBOs and school curriculum after the earthquake in 2006.

24

From the interview with DRR Forum on September 24156

3-2 First hypothesis about EPH: The proportion of brick houses without concrete
reinforcement is highest in the village

3-2-1 Evidence that supports the hypothesis
According to the Table 3 below, bricks were used as housing material for 25 houses andconcrete was not used before the earthquake in 2006.

157

Table 3: Materials used for housing
Brick

Steel

Wood

Sand

Clay

BambooCementStone

Concrete

Coral

Limestone

Asbestos

Before the earthquake

25

2

7

9

7

12

13

4

0

0

4

0

After the earthquake

14

14

5

15

0

0

18

6

1

2

1

1

Considered desirable by

22

21

2

18

2

0

14

4

5

0

0

0

local people

Source: From the questionnaire survey to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22158

3-2-2 Evidences which do not support the hypothesis
According to the table above, there are many kinds of materials, apart from brick. Also,
after the earthquake in 2006, only 14 houses utilized brick and 1 house utilized concrete.

3-2-3 Analysis of the evidences
We first assumed that there would be mainly brick houses. Before the earthquake in2006, the proportion of brick without concrete is the highest. There are several reasons that
local people used bricks for their houses. According to Table 4 below, the main reason shouldbe economic constraints of local people. Thirteen examinees of the questionnaire survey
answered that they used brick without concrete for their housing since they did not haveenough money at that time. 25 Also, five of local people chose to use it because it was easy tofind, and three of them responded that it looked good. 26
On the contrary, the proportion of bricks for housings decreased to 14 after theearthquake. The reason is because the government and NGOs gave various supports to local
people in building their houses. The proportion of cement increased after the earthquake. It has
been partly achieved by the financial support of both the government and NGOs. Also, there isan example of government support in which government staff provided the design plans of the
housing to the local people and taught how to use cement. 27 The proportion of concrete andiron has also slightly increased. This is because of the introduction of a new concept of thebuilding provided by the government. Before the introduction of this new concept, thedesirable housing materials were concrete, cement and brick. 28 After the introduction of the
new concept, the desirable housing materials became iron with concrete. 29

25

From the questionnaire survey given to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22
From the questionnaire survey given to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22
27
From the questionnaire survey given to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22
28
From the interview with the National Unity and the Protection of Society on September 27
29
From the interview with the National Unity and the Protection of Society on September 27
26

159

Table 4: The reasons that many local people used brick without concrete(23 of local people used brick without concrete).

Economic constraint

11

Accessibility

6Good Looks

1

Durability

1Good quality

3

Bad looks

1

Source: From the questionnaire survey to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22

3-2-4 Conclusion
In conclusion, the hypothesis that the proportion of brick without concrete reinforcementin the village is the highest proportion is proved for the case before the earthquake in 2006, as
indicated by the interviews of the local people in Wukirsari Village. However, even before theearthquake in 2006, many materials, except brick were utilized for houses. Also, differing fromthe hypothesis, after the earthquake in 2006, the proportion of brick decreased and the
proportion of concrete slightly increased as well as cement, iron and the like. The reasons
behind this change are the result of interventions by the government and NGOs, providing
local people with financial and technical support. Also the change of concepts towards housingmaterials by the government would have influenced the outcome.

3-3 Second hypothesis about EPH: There is little support by the government, other than
POKMAS, because of the lack of local demand for disaster proof housing

3-3-1 Evidence that supports the hypothesis
The government corrected the data about the amount of total damaged houses, and as aresult 1145 houses were totally damaged. The government cooperated with the national army,
UGM and international NGOs, which checked all of the data submitted to the Public Works ofthe national government level. The district government chose 1769 households as recipients of160

subsidies, which came from the POKMAS system, but local people who were not chosencomplained and clarification was the responsibility of the Public Works at the district level.
Finally, an additional 388 households were selected by the district government. 30 In such way,
we observed that POKMAS was working well as a part of EPH policy. However, local people
who were not initially chosen by the government as POKMAS recipients complained to thegovernment, and finally the district government selected an additional 388 POKMAS
recipients. From this point, we can say the demand of the local people was conveyed to at least
the district level government through RT, partly disproving the argument of this hypothesis.
As a reply to the question: “Is there any demand by the local people / request forgovernment housing policies?” an officer of the National Unity and the Protection of Society
said that there was a demand from local people only in terms of POKMAS. 31 His answer may
support the hypothesis.

3-3-2 Evidence that does not support the hypothesis
The office of the National Unity and the Protection of Society in Bantul District takes
the responsibility for disaster training. Since 2010, it has held the workshop on how to makeearthquake-proof housing with UGM and office of Public Works. 32 Thus, the office provides
the training for earthquake-proof houses.
The government offers two kinds of assistance. One is financial aid for an average levelof damage to houses, however the government requires that houses are designed to bedisaster-proof, for example, against shaking. Facilitators are sent from UGM in order to train in
the construction of disaster-proof housing. 33 The latter support is the evidence that may
disprove our hypothesis.
The government instructed on the design of the housing, for example, how to use
reinforced concrete, and also offered food and clothes to local people in damaged areas.
According to the local people living in Bantul District, soon after the earthquake happened,“the government offered tents.” This fact doesn’t support the hypothesis. 34
As a reply to the question, “How do local people get information from the government

30

From the interview with the head in Wukirsari Village on September 22
From the interview with National Unity and the Protection of Society on September 27
32
From the interview with Mr. Supriyanto and his fellows, officers of National Unity and theProtection of Society, at Bantul district government office on September 20
33
From the interview with the Planning Office on September 21
34
From the questionnaire survey given to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22
31

161

about earthquake-proof housing?” Mr. Anang in Public Works answered that there are two
methods. One was through the media (daily newspaper) and the other through official letter tothe village leader, who will meet with the local people in order to organize POKMAS. 35 We
can say, according to these facts, the evidence doesn’t support the hypothesis.
As a reply to following question, “Do you have technical training?” it is noted that
Public Works and JICA were tackling the project by creating a technical service center at the
district level. In this way they were able to inform local people and carpenters how to build
houses and how to apply F1 form.
Before 2010, Public Works was responsible for giving building licenses but after 2010,
the responsibility was passed to the permission office. House design and the materials used are
two things that require permission. The permission office has the roles of sales, as well as,
research permission. Responsibility was transferred because of a higher work efficiency andbecause the idea of “one roof, one service.” The permission department is supported by Public
Works. There is a district regulation that allows the transfer of responsibility. 36 Therefore, it
can be said that the government is trying to increase the number of earthquake-proof house by
setting the regulations.

3-3-3 Analysis of the evidences
People living in earthquake affected areas are not satisfied with POKMAS because of
the corruption by the government and they also think that 5 million RP is not enough formaking disaster-proof housing. 37 In addition to this, the local people in Wukirsari Village said
that basically, there was no support from government because they did not have enough people
to go to every village. After the earthquake happened, people preferred work rather than being
offered money, because aid made them feels shameful. Actually, there was clothing and foodaid but the most important thing for the people after the earthquake was additional aid forreconstruction of their houses. 38 On the other hand, from the interview with the National Unity
and the Protection of Society on 27th September, the officer said that there was a demand fromthe local people only in terms of POKMAS. 39 As we mentioned above, the local people had
several complaints for the government, while the government officer in the National Unity and35

From the interview with Mr. Anang in Public Works on September 24
From the interview with Mr. Anang in Public Works on September 24
37
From the interview with IRE on September 28
38
From the questionnaire survey given to local people in Wukirsari Village on September 22
39
From the interview with National Unity and the Protection of Society on September 27
36162

the Protection of Society mentioned that there was a demand from local people only in termsof POKMAS. In short, there is a contradiction of perception between civil servants and the
local people about the demand of public services of DRR.
The government instructed on house design, like how to use reinforced concrete, andalso offered food and clothes to the local people in the damaged areas. However, the procedure
to apply these goods was complicated. The government needs to simplify the application
procedures, give additional support in the Technical Service Center and improve the quality ofthe tents used as emergency housing. The government created the Technical Service Center for
informing the local people on how to write F1 forms for getting aid, but some local people
couldn’t understand the procedure for submitting the applications. Thus, the government andTechnical Service Center needs to determine the areas that are not clear for the people.
Because of the lack of budgeted funds, the government needed to depend on
international NGO funds, like JRF’s funds, in addition to POKMAS. Basically, funds comefrom the EU and are passed to the Indonesian national budget. In 2006, Public Works at the
district level just signed a contract without meeting with JRF about the way the funds would beallocated and used, since it was a national level agreement with JRF. Initially POKMAS wasincluded in the annual budget and JRF followed, resulting in a complex system. If JRF funds
had been included in the annual budget of government, the procedures to get financial aid
regarding house reconstruction would have been less complicated.
In regards to the selection of POKMAS recipients, some people felt that the distribution
was unfair and thus, inquired to the government why they were not chosen resulting inevaluations conducted by the National Unity and the Protection of Society (Public Works at
district level). Therefore National Unity and the Protection of Society needed a clearer
standard in order to decide POKMAS recipients. 40
As for the demand from local people for a government policy of earthquake-proof
housing, there is in fact no direct route to petition the government, but people can submit theirrequests by using RT/RW.

Information about damaged houses is also reported through

RT/RW. Therefore, as a result of the boost in DRR policy, RT/RW takes the role of linking
local people with the government. 41

40
41

From the interview with Mr. Anan in Public Works on September 24
From the interview with Mr. Anan in Public Works on September 24163

3-3-4 Conclusion
Before the field survey, we regarded POKMAS as a just fund for reconstruction ofhouses, thus the offered a hypothesis that the government offered only financial support for
local people as a part of the earthquake-proof housing policy. However, our field survey
revealed that POKMAS has a function of training people to learn how to build
earthquake-proof

houses.

Inaddition,thegovernment

promotes

constructionofearthquake-proof houses by setting permission standards for building new houses and helps
local people to build earthquake-proof housing through technical service centers. Therefore,
we cannot conclusively state that there is little support offered by government other than
POKMAS. In terms of local people’s demands about earthquake-proof houses, we understoodthat there was some satisfaction for the selection of households for POKMAS in Wukirsari
Village. Through the questionnaire survey, we observed that local people have different
demands related to earthquake-proof houses, while one government officer told us his office
did not receive any requests from local people other than POKMAS in terms ofearthquake-proof housing. We need to do further research on this point.

Table 5: Results of question 12-b in the questionnaire survey

Examinee

Answers which support

Answers which do not support

Answers

hypothesis

hypothesis

which are notrelated to the
hypothesis
test

1

The most desirable
materials is steel andcement.

2

Combinations of steel & concretefor house

3

Steel

4

Combinations of steel & concrete

5

Iron and concrete for cast(combinations of steel &164

concrete)
6

Steel

7

Concrete frames (refers to
combinations of steel & concrete)

8Strongenough

9

n/a

10

n/a

11

Brick, cement, steel andclay roof

12

Cement, brick, rock, sandand steel

13

Brick, sand, cement and
steel

14

Steel, cement, sand, brick,clay roof

15

Cement, brick, rock, sandand steel

16

Sand, cement, rock and
steel

17

n/a

18

Cement and steel

19

Cement and steel

20

Redbrick, cement, sand and
steel

21

Cement, rock, sand, brickand steel

22

Cement, brick with concrete ring

23

Cement, steel and sand24

Steel, brick, sand cement
and steel

25

Steel, wood, brick

165

26

n/a

27

n/a

28

n/a

29

n/a

Source: Questionnaire survey given to local people in Wukirsari Village

3-4 Third hypothesis about EPH: Local people have less access to the information about
the way of building concrete or bamboo houses and are not well informed about theeffectiveness of bamboo or concrete houses for disaster-prevention

3-4-1 Evidence that supports the hypothesis
The answers for question 12-b in the questionnaire survey are shown in Table 5. A
summary of the answers are shown in Table 6. According Table 6, only five people out of
21—that, is 23.8% of the examinees—mentioned concrete as an EPH material. The other 16
villagers did not mention concrete. They generally wrote down steel, cement, brick, sand androck as desirable materials. This fact implies that local people are not well informed about theeffectiveness of concrete houses for disaster-prevention.
One possibility is that they just did not know the name of concrete even though theyknow how to make concrete. They did pick up cement, sand, and rock, which are all the
ingredients of concrete. However, at least it can be said that government did not inform thelocal people about the concept of concrete.

Table 6: Results of question 13 in the questionnaire survey
Answers which support

Answers which do not

Answers which are not related

hypothesis

support hypothesis

to the hypothesis test

16 out of 21 (76.2%)

5 out of 21 (23.8%)

8 out of 29

Source: Questionnaire survey given to local people in Wukirsari Village

3-4-2 Evidence that does not support the hypothesis

3-4-2-1 In POKMAS, people learn how to build houses, which meet the requirements

166

of the government
The officer in the Planning Office explained that the office has three functions related to
POKMAS: 1) help the people to organize communities, especially POKMAS groups; 2) help
local people to manage POKMAS; and 3) teach people how to construct houses. These
functions imply that local people have the opportunity to become aware of the government
standards on EPH. 42

3-4-2-2 House trends are reflected by the social change 43
According to officer of Public Works, after the start of the 1970s, there was new trend in
housing in which people assumed concrete houses were the most prestigious. However,concrete houses, which were built in 1970s, were totally destroyed by the earthquake in 2006
because the materials used were inferior. However, many of those built in the 1980s, were only
slightly damaged by the earthquake. After the start of the 1980s, people were gradually
educated and began to build stronger concrete houses, indicating that people gradually
accumulated knowledge of EPH. It is possible that this change of housing trends was induced
by social and cultural changes, rather than incentives for EPH, but still it can be said that local
people increased their knowledge about EPH through these changes.

3-4-2-3 Two ways to inform people about DRR—daily media and official letter 44
The government has at least two ways to inform people about DRR policy and programs.
The first channel is through the media, like the daily newspaper. The second is an official letter,
which is delivered to the village leader. The village leader will then have a meeting with thelocal people in order to organize POKMAS. These channels imply that the central and local
governments have the capacity to inform government standards of EPH to local people.

3-4-2-4 IRE program about EPH toward local people 45
Four months after the earthquake in 2006, IRE taught local people about EPH. IRE firsttaught leaders of the village, civil servants, midwives and carpenters about how to prevent
housing from being destroyed and how to make a standard of housing. Therefore, it can be said
42

From the interview with the Planning Office in Yogyakarta provincial government on
September 21
43
From the interview with Public Works in Bantul district government on September 24
44
From the interview with Public Works in Bantul district government on September 24
45
From the interview with IRE on September 28

167

that local people in the area where IRE had a training workshop, knew about EPH, though thestandard of IRE was not clear.

3-4-3 Analysis of the evidence
Though POKMAS basically includes the function of training on how to build
earthquake-proof houses, we found that POKMAS did not always let people follow thegovernmental standard of EPH. POKMAS is a community-based program, including theorganization so that people could be aware of EPH and the governmental policies about EPH.
However, POKMAS did not work well in 20% of the cases as a government support;
POKMAS groups, which did not follow governmental EPH standard, did not have the standardof housing. 46
Though local people have access to the information about how to build EPH and theymight be aware of the effectiveness of concrete and bamboo housing construction, they do notalways build concrete and bamboo houses. One reason is that local people think bamboo housemight represent the family as “poor”. 47 Another reason is that they might still use wood orother material. They might prefer traditional wooden style house called Joglo and Limasan. 48
The officer of IOM mentioned that the use of bamboo sometimes implied low householdincome, so local people prefer not to use bamboo. In addition, the officer of Public Work toldthat only the Joglo style had survived in the earthquake in 2006, while most concrete houses
were destroyed. Since that experience, many people still believe that the Joglo style is muchstronger than concrete against earthquakes.
Since there are many standards of EPH, they may cause confusion about the desirable
EPH materials among villagers. 49 Different actors have different perceptions about preferred
EPH materials. For example, the Wikirsari Village leader strongly supported the Joglo style ofhousing. His opinion is based on the results of the earthquake in 2006, when only the Joglo
style houses survived. The office of Public Work in Bantul District basically supports the useof concrete. The officer agreed that Joglo style might be better than concrete house, but heexplained that to build Joglo is more expensive than concrete houses. According to the46

From the interview with National Unity and the Protection of Society in Yogyakarta
provincial government on September 20
47
From the interview with IOM on September 28
48
From the interview with Wukirsari Village head office on September 23 and to Public
Works in Bantul district government on September 24
49
From the interview with Public Works in Bantul district government on September 24

168

questionnaire survey given to the local people in Wikirsari it was found that they do notrecognize Joglo housing as a desirable. In summary, there might be a gap in the recognition of
housing that is most desirable for EPH, between the local people and the government, as wellas among local people themselves.
When we proposed the hypothesis, our understanding of POKMAS was limited and weassumed that the POKMAS system just provided money to local people. Therefore, thishypothesis has a negative perception about the local people’s knowledge on how to build
earthquake-proof houses. Through the field survey, we learned that POKMAS offered not only
money but also organizational training and training on how to build earthquake-proof houses.
Limited knowledge of POKMAS was one reason we found several pieces of evidence that
disprove the hypothesis.

3-4-4 Conclusion
The result of the questionnaire survey may partly support the hypothesis because most
respondents did not point out concrete as an earthquake proof material. However, the resultsof the interview survey showed evidence that disproves the hypothesis. Those who received
POKMAS might know how to build EPH and the government has communication channels
to tell local people the standard of EPH and importance of it. In addition, some NGOs also
implement trainings for local people about EPH. Therefore, it is better to say that people
know about EPH and how to build it, though the material is not always concrete.
Bamboo was not used for permanent housing, though it was strong enough to survive
when earthquake occurred. In this sense, it can be concluded that bamboo is not used andnot perceived as a desirable earthquake-proof material.

3-5 Hypothesis about comprehensive the DRR program: There are some constraints in
the implementation of the comprehensive disaster risk reduction program run by thegovernment

3-5-1 Evidence that supports the hypothesis
The results of interviews with each level of government show, on the government side,
the provincial level and district level government offices have their own program for DRR
policy, which is distinct from one another.

169

Based on the interview with Mr. Danang Syamsurizal, officer of the Planning Office atthe provincial level, he said that in the action plans for the national and provincial governments
cooperated with each other, but actually there are few opportunities to communicate with the
district government because the only way to communicate is through official letter. 50
About the interview with Ms. Partini who is an officer in elementary education in Bantul
District, though her position is under the provincial level of education, because ofdecentralization the district has the power to enact on its own programs, though it still has toget approval from the province about its activities. 51
According to interviews with officers of Public Works in the district government, Mr.
Sunarso and Mr. Anang, Pubic Works was forced to sign the JRF fund in 2006 without enoughconsultation, though it was a national level agreement. 52 In the case of the district level ofgovernment, there was no agreement with the JRF. In the beginning of the rehabilitation stage,
there was only POKMAS which came from the national budget and then later came the JRF.
Since both were part of housing rehabilitation assistance fund, but independent from each other,that makes the entire process of distribution of housing rehabilitation assistance fundcomplicated. This is one example that indicates that this complex system made the fund
distribution system insufficient and confused beneficiaries when they applied for aid. In
addition, different actors have different standards regarding EPH. For example, the government
has a “new concept of building.” Before introducing the concept, housing materials had been
concrete, cement and brick, but after introducing the concept, emphasis was put on concretewith iron support polls. While the government has such standards, other actors have different
standards. The IHCESAN Foundation, invested Rp. 360 million for 20 permanent shelters,
which were built with GTZ funds. The JICA has also supported building houses based on its
own standards. For the latter two data the respondents failed to mention the standards
themselves. These results proved that there were different standards for EPH in Yogyakarta.
Additionally, it was learned from the interview with the officers of IOM, Mr. Johan Grundberg,
Mr. Hemowo Poetranto, JB and Mr. Yohan Gogon, that they have their own standards, which
are concrete, cement, and extraordinary brick. 53

50

From the interview with Planning Office in provincial government on September 21
From the interview with Ms. Partini on September 23
52
From the interview with Public Works in district government on September 20 and 24
53 From the interview with IOM on September 28
51

170

3-5-2 Evidence that does not support the hypothesis:
The results of the interview with an officer of Public Works at the provincial government
level, Mr.Gatot Saptadi, revealed that there is no conflict between national and local
government policies because of local autonomy of disaster risk management that is under the
regulation of upper level government. 54 In addition, according to the interview with the officerof elementary education in Bantul District, Ms.Partini, when it comes to DRR program, thedistrict and provincial levels of education have a meeting in ST DRR. 55
As it was mentioned, with most of the interviews with the various stakeholders, thoughgovernment activities were not well known to people during the immediate phasepost-earthquake, the government has done various activities for disaster education, with thecooperation with other actors of DRR. The first one is the mapping activity, and second is thecirculation of information. Regarding the mapping, from the interview with the village leader,
Mr. Bayu, it was found that the government cooperated with JRF to map the vulnerable areasin the village and the data was to be reported to the district, provincial and the national
levels. 56 Regarding information circulation, according to the interview to Mr. Supriyanto, theofficer of National Unity and the Protection of Society in Bantul District, before disseminating
information to local people, the office holds meetings with Public Works, the Financial
Department, and the Planning Development Department in order to coordinate policies of eachdepartment. After that, they invite sub-district leaders to meetings to inform them of thegovernment policies. From there the sub-district leaders inform village leaders. At the sametime, information is circulated through RT leaders and finally to every household. 57
Public Works has been doing activities to plan and build schools, coordinating with
district level education departments, and financial departments. The office also has a consultswith school authorities about their school’s status as to whether or not their school needs to be
repaired or reinforced. Therefore, information is not directly addressed to the local people inthe support of disaster-proof housing, 58 however, these coordination and consulting systems
will improve the situation for local people in the end. In summary, the government has awell-organized DRR system in regards to the education department.
54

From the interview with Public Works in provincial government on September 20
ST DRR is a union made by KESBANGLINMAS (National Unity and the Protection ofSociety), UNDP, District and Provincial department of education
56
From the interview with Mr. Bayu on September 23
57
From the interview with Mr. Supriyanto on September 27
58
DPH is comprehensive disaster-proof housing against disasters in general, not only
earthquakes.
55171

3-5-3 Analysis
In order to test our hypothesis we tried to answer some basic research questions that weused in order to evaluate the whole process of implementation of the comprehensive disasterrisk reduction program.
After a thorough analysis on this process, like constraints placed by each government
about DRR program, most of the respondents said they are just exercising their institutionalrights, which they ought to enjoy by the power of the implementation of decentralization. Such
exercise of power creates a new situation that can be viewed as a constraint in theimplementation of a comprehensive DRR program. All actors that felt the responsibility of
taking part in the formulation and implementation of DRR program may sometime convenewith each other and share ideas but they don’t have a single DRR program that can be viewed
as comprehensive program. This also caused an overlapping of implementation of programs
that leads to confusion, not only on the side of the common people, but also on the side of theservice providers themselves. We have also seen that due to these multiple programs, anotherproblem occurred within the ranks of the service providers. This problem was inter-agency
program promotions of DRR which resulted in the dilemma of which program to promote,because each agency wants their program to be adopted.

3-5-4 Conclusion
Decentralization might cause less coordination of DRR policy between upper levels ofgovernment and the district level’s government, though we found some measurement for
promoting coordination among different tiers of the government in the educational department.
At the district level, it can be said that there are comprehensive DRR policies andprograms. Different department agencies at the district level coordinated with each other for
DRR and this coordination also linked with the sub-district level, village level and district level.
In other words, there are both vertical and horizontal coordination regarding DRR policy andprograms under the district level.
In terms of the cooperation with NGOs and other agencies outside of Indonesia, such as
JICA, the government in Indonesia could improve by building more coordinated DRR policies
and programs. Each agency’s different aid systems relating to DRR may induce inefficiency orconfusion of the entire DRR policy and program in Bantul.
Through the results of interview in Yogyakarta, we found that each institution tends to172

have their own DRR program, and that sometimes this causes difficulties in coordination,
however their DRR programs seem to be efficient enough to circulate information about
disaster risk reduction and inform people of the knowledge about disasters, especially about
earthquake and how to prepare for it.

4. Limitations
Our research tried to examine to what extent government policy regarding disastereducation is transmitted to local people. We analyzed this point by investigating people’s
perception about disaster education policy, as well as the system for transferring governmental
information regarding disaster education. Through these ways, we could evaluate people’s
understanding regarding disaster education policy and the effectiveness of the government’s
measures for announcing its disaster education policy. However, we were not able tocompletely understand what kind of knowledge regarding disaster education that the local
people were able to obtain. We could, show several findings regarding the Ngasinan
Elementary School pupils who showed a clear understanding of what to do when theearthquake occurred. In addition, some answers for question number 28 of the questionnaire:“If ever, another disaster comes, and do you have idea what to do in order to lessen thedamage,” demonstrated their knowledge of disaster education. However, it is not clear how
much the school curriculum regarding disaster education contributed to increase the entire
community’s awareness about disaster education. In addition, many examinees of thequestionnaire did not answer the question 28. In order to overcome this limitation, we needed
to do more research on how students’ knowledge regarding disaster education transmits to theirparents or other adults in their community. We also needed to improve our questionnaire so as
to grasp local people’s actual knowledge regarding disaster education.
When we developed our hypotheses regarding EPH, we mainly relied on literature that
only mentioned concrete and bamboo as earthquake-proof materials. Therefore, ourhypothesis’ scope of housing materials is limited to concrete and bamboo. However, throughour survey, we realized that in reality, there are varieties of materials that can be used for EPH.

173

We also found that bamboo was not perceived as earthquake-proof material. Though bamboo isstrong enough against earthquakes, it easily rots. Therefore, it cannot be recommended as
earthquake-proof material for permanent houses. Further detailed discussions, which consider
a variety of materials for EPH, might be required.

5. Conclusion
Our research focused on DRR policies and activities in the Bantul region. In particular,
we formulated arguments concerning disaster education, EPH and the comprehensiveness of
DRR policies and activities in the region.
Our hypothesis about disaster education was that the government could have provided
more information regarding disaster education for people after the Java earthquake in 2006. In
Wukirsari Village, local people tended to be more aware about NGOs’ activities regarding
disaster education than the government’s activities because of the active role of NGOs andconstraints within the governmental activities. In addition, although there are activities lead byNGOs to circulate governmental information, it does not necessarily raise the people’s
awareness of the government’s policy. On the other hand, it might be said that government has
provided enough information regarding disaster education to the Ngasinan Elementary School,
so that the school was able to formulate a good curriculum for disaster education. Therefore,
based on these observations, it can be said that the government may have successfully offeredadequate information of disaster education for elementary schools while they might have notprovided sufficient information for the village in general.
Our hypothesis about the situation of current EPH in the region was that the proportionof brick houses without concrete reinforcement is the largest in the village. The results of thequestionnaire survey supported this hypothesis. However, in reality, the usage of sand, steel
and cement had increased.
Another hypothesis related to EPH was that there were not additional supports bygovernment other than POKMAS because of lack of local demand for disaster-proof housing.
Before the field survey, we regarded POKMAS as a just fund for the reconstruction of houses,

174thus the hypothesis meant that the government offered only financial support for local people
as their EPH policy. However, our field survey revealed that POKMAS has the function oftraining people to learn how to build EPH. In addition, the government promotes constructionof EPH by setting permission standards for building new houses. Also the government helps
local people to build EPH through technical service centers. Therefore, we might not be able tosay that there was little support by the government other than POKMAS. In terms of local
people’s demand for EPH, we understood that there were local people’s complaints regarding
the selection of households for POKMAS in Wukirsari Village. Through the questionnaire
survey, we observed that local people have different demands related to EPH, while somegovernment officers told us their office did not receive any requests from the local people otherthan POKMAS in terms of EPH. This point needs further research.
The last hypothesis related to EPH was that the local people have less access to theinformation about how to build concrete or bamboo houses, and are not well informed about
the effectiveness of bamboo or concrete houses for disaster prevention. In terms of bamboo,
our assumption was wrong; we thought bamboo was a better material for the earthquake-proof
housing. Although it is actually strong enough to survive earthquakes, it is rots easily andtherefore, it is not suited for permanent housing. In addition, bamboo was perceived as sign ofthe poor, so local people did not want to use it. In the case of concrete, few people commented
that it is a desirable material for earthquake-proof housing in the questionnaire survey. This
fact may support our hypothesis, though there is the possibility that they just did not know thename “concrete” while knowing how to make it with cement, sand and rock.
Our hypothesis about comprehensive DRR was that there are some constraints in theimplementation of comprehensive disaster risk reduction programs by the government.
Although we found that there was less coordination among the upper levels of government,
and between the government and foreign agencies, decentralization has made it effective foragencies at the district level to implement comprehensive DRR programs by making the mostof the flexible coordination among different agencies linking district, village, and sub-village
levels.
In this research, we could not consider the variety of materials for earthquake-proof
housing because of limitations of knowledge before doing field survey. In addition, we wereconstrained in our analysis regarding the local people’s actual knowledge about disastereducation and limited to generalize our findings and analysis from one village and one school
observation. Further research is needed to overcome these limitations.

175

Through our research, we might suggest following points to contribute to DRR policies
and programs in Bantul region. First, since the disaster education curriculum seems to be welldeveloped in Bantul region, it might be better to introduce and implement part of thecurriculum directly to the local community as a kind of non-formal education. Second, it might
be better to set a minimum platform and minimum common standard for DRR activities among
the different agencies, especially between government agencies and non-government agencies
or other country’s official agencies. Such an example would be establishing an agreement on
the basic requirements of earthquake-proof houses.

6. Appendix

6-1 Appendix 1: Items of questions on questionnaire survey
Dear interviewee,

We are students of Graduate School of International development Studies, Nagoya University,
Japan.
We are doing research about earthquake occurred in 2006.

Thank you very much for your cooperation to answer this questionnaire.
Please answer following question.
If some question is not clear to understand, please ask us.

Disaster proof-housing
1, Sex2, Age3, Job & place to work
4, Do you have any roles such as “ketua RT atau RW” in your community? (If you think thisquestion is not suitable to ask, please tell us.)5, What is your family structure? (ex, me, father, mother, 2sisters)
6, How much was your house damaged by earthquake in 2006? (ex, roboh, rusak berat atau
rusak ringan)
7, What types of materials were your houses made of before the earthquake happened? (ex,176cement, brick, bamboo, and combinations of steel & concrete)
8, Why did you use the material?
9, Do you know POKMAS? If you don’t know POKMAS, please skip question from 10 ~ 12.
10, Did you use POKMAS, when you repaired your house?
11, If yes in the question 10, how did you manage the rest of money needed?
If no in the question 10, why did not you use POKMAS?
12, What types of materials are your new houses made of?
12-b, In your opinion, what are most desirable materials for tackling to earthquake?
13, What kinds of government support do you know?
14, What kinds of government support did you need except POKMAS when you built new
house?
15, Did you use gotong-royong support when you built house?
16, What are the good points of gotong-royong support, and what are the points in whichgotong-royong support need to be improved?

Disaster Education
1. Are you aware of any policy from the government at any level (national, provincial,
district) about disaster risk reduction education?
a. How did you know about this policy?
b. What do you think about this policy?
c. Do you have any idea or suggestion in order to make this policy better or to make itsuits your needs?
2. Do you have your own action plan in order to avoid too much damage when disastercomes? Please choose as many as you can.
a. In your community.
b. In your own family.
c. In your workplace.
Yes: From whom did you learn about risk reduction or action plan? Please choose as many as
you can.
a. From the community.
b. From the NGO.
c. Within the family.
No: If ever, another disaster comes, do you have idea what to do in order to lessen the damage?

177

Terima kasih banyak atas bantuan Anda

6-2 Appendix 2: Result of questionnaire survey
Disaster proof housing
1,
Female

Male

N/A

4

24

1

2,
30-40 years old

41-50 years old

51-60 years old

61-70 years old

5

5

14

5

3,
・Self-employed, working place is 15km off the village
・Tile maker in the village
・Housewife
・Building contractor
・Craftsman of roof-tile from soil (he is worker and business owner) at his house
・I don’t work, but sometime I work as masseur
・I’m working as crispy chips packer at my neighbor's house
・Farmer in rice field near from my house
・Roof maker・Workshop in the house where I live
・Labor・Entrepreneur
・Private・Roof maker in Demi benda Wukirsari Imogiri

4,
Yes

No

N/A

178

1 (Ketua RT)

26

2

5,
1-5 members

6-10 members

11-15 members

16-20 members

21-25 members

22

4

2

0

1

Totally damaged

Totally collapsed

Collapsed

Flattened to the6,
Heavily
damaged16

ground
6

4

2

179

1

7, 12, 12-b
Materials used for housing
Brick

Steel

Wood

Sand

Clay

BambooCementStone

ConcretCoral

Limestone

Asbestose
Before the earthquake

25

2

7

9

7

12

13

4

0

0

4

0

After the earthquake

14

14

5

15

0

0

18

6

1

2

1

1

Considered desirable

22

21

2

18

2

0

14

4

5

0

0

0

by local people

180

8,
The reasons why people chose the materials
Economic Accessi-

Good

constraint

Looks

14

bility6

1

Durability

1

Good

Bad

quality

looks

3

1

Common1

Unable

to N

meet

the /

requirement

A

1

1

9,
Yes

No

N/A

23

5

1

Yes

No

N/A

28

1

10,

11,
Those who answered yes・All members of my POKMAS had made decisions through deliberation before they received
POKMAS fund.
・One of decisions is both elderly member and the member. And those who need a priority were
given precedence by all members. I got POKMAS fund latest. I bought materials for my house・Together with all members of my POKMAS, we managed the money
・The POKMAS fund was received by member’s POKMAS in 2 phases, 1st phase is 7 million
rupiah and 2nd phase is 8 million rupiah. Then we bought materials together too
・I don’t really understand about POKMAS. That is because my husband managed POKMAS. I
only know a little, for example communities are divided into groups.
・The member of POKMAS received the POKMAS fund based on priority scale
・I received POKMAS fund distribution in 3 phases. 1st phase is 6 million rupiah for building
the house foundation. 2nd phase is 4 million rupiah for buying steel, cement and other materials.
3rd phase is 5 million rupiah.
・I managed it based on materials of house and aspect of money.
・The member of POKMAS applied a priority scale for POKMAS member who got POKMAS

181

fund. I got the 1st phase and then I bought materials.
・My POKMAS member consists of 15 members. Based on priority scale, we decided 8 ofmembers became 1st receiver of POKMAS fund.
・Based on deliberation, I got POKMAS fund on 2nd phase. I received POKMAS fund amounts
15 million rupiah directly.
・POKMAS fund to construct a house・Some money to buy materials
・To buy rocks, cement, sand and concrete
・The money was used for materials and operational purpose
・To recover the damaged house. Steel, cement, wood, clay, steel and cement the most・Some portion of the money to buy materials
・Some portion of the money for material and the rest for operational

13,
・15million rupiah were provided from government. And government gave us a plan forbuilding earthquake-proof housing.
・Government taught us how to mix cement or what kind of aggregate is better.
・Government’s support is not much. Training were provided by a NGO (IOM).
・I remember only POKMAS, I forget another supports from government. I got a suggestion
briefing that the use of money should be appropriated to POKMAS purpose.
・About house training or something like that, I remember that Posyanis training from UGM.
Posyanis training is not government’s program.
・I only knew about POKMAS, the POKMAS decision is using combinations of steel &concrete for the house building.
・I only knew that POKMAS fund. Money of POKMAS is set in community groups.
・Financial aid (refers to POKMAS), socialization of earthquake-proof housing
・I only knew POKMAS fund. It is 15 million rupiah.
・I think there is no support from government except POKMAS. I remember that government
didn’t give training support for me. But I ever participated in training held by IOM.
・Clothes
・Support to rebuild housing
・Counseling, fund・Volunteer

182

・Gotong-royong
・Money amounting to 90 thousand rupiah per person, and counseling on disaster-proof house.
・Economy recovery
・Assistance fund・There is no government supports except POKMAS.
・15million rupiah were provided from government. And other aids were provided by NGOs.

14,
・I want government to simplify the procedure. When we got the aid, reports and receipts wererequired and these were troublesome.
・Teach us how to mix cement or cut the end of the steel frame.
・Provide job
・Nothing, but I really expected to get the working capital assistance from government.
・Training for house building
・I expected to get a loan fund. But I got nothing.
・Building permits
・I expected an aid material kind, but government didn’t give it.
・Repair tools
・Clothes・Gotong-royong
・Money・Food・blanket・More POKMAS fund・Assistance from PMI (Indonesian Red Cross) and counseling・Counseling on earthquake-proof house
・Counseling on earthquake-proof house construction, assistance for entrepreneurship fund

15,
Yes

No

N/A

15

13

2

183

16,
The good point・That reduces our burden.
・It is useful to remove the garbage or ruins on the road and etc.
・It fosters relation with neighbor.
・It is conducted mundanely and the cost is cheap. It is enough for providing food and drink. So
far, it’s OK. But, in the future, gotong-royong should be changed if family become to live
separately and individualism prevail.
・The work become easy・Togetherness
・Harmony
・Friendly・Solidarity. I feel happy because same people helped me. I say thank for them・Mutual help
・The cost become low
・Gotong-royong make the burden of work for the people who needed easier・The work become to finish quickly
・Work could be completed faster

The point needed to be improved
・It is better the procedure is more simplified.
・When gotong-royong could not help me because of busy for much requirement of people, I
felt I was excluded.
・When I truly needed gotong-royong, it couldn’t help me.
・Increase the technical experience of building for the common people. That is because
common people don’t have the technical experiences of building. Their technical experience ofbuilding is less. It made the built of house not finished・Knowledge of technical building. This is because sometime the community who work
together (gotong-royong) does not appropriate to the guidelines of good building.
・Togetherness. If community can’t be togetherness, gotong-royong can’t be good.
・Increase gotong-royong of work quality because gotong-royong still poor in quality
・In need of repairmen and Togetherness
・Get suggestions/recommendations

184

・Cost saving effort

Disaster Education
1,
Yes

No

N/A

10

15

4

1a,
・Collected information with neighbors.
・Policy socialization at village government level, and from NGO
・Sub village head’s policy socialization
・Join the training
・Counseling on disaster (earthquake) mitigation

1b,・There was food support, but it did not go smoothly.
・Good because this policy always reminds community of earthquake.
・Good because I am aware of earthquake.
・Good because I can prepare myself beforehand.
・Good because more people get to know about disaster, and pay attention to it.
・Feel Safe, secure, and cautious.
・It must be cautious.
・It gives people experience.

1c,・Good enough.
・It was hard to get information. Only a part of people who were close to officers could get
more support.
・The policy socialization should be held not only in post-disaster period, but also in normal
condition in order to make people and community remember about the danger of disaster.
・The policy socialization or information should be repeated.
・Stakeholders, such as village government should make disaster socialization routine, likeonce in 3 months.

185

・Disaster proof housing could be sustainable.
・Government must take account of this situation

2,
Action PlanYesa. Community b. Familyc. Workplace

Community

N/A

0

1

and

Family
5

No

17

0

6

b. NGOc. Family

Community

Community

and NGOand Family

51Learn from:a. Community

3

19

0

N/A

1

Preparation to lessen the damage of future disaster・I experienced evacuation drill with speaker in community.
・I attended the socialization meeting at RT level.
・I think myself get panicked when disaster happens.
・I think preparation is needed to lessen the damage.
・I suggest followings: take cover under the table, do not panic, and wear helmet.
・Having plan and being ready lessen the damage.
・I have plans: cover under the table, and run outside to the open field.

6-3 Appendix 3: Basic questions to each informant

6-3-1 Public Works (Provincial and District) and Planning Office (Provincial)
1. What kind of policies does Indonesia have about disaster education?
2. What is the role of your agency?
3. Are there any supports by government to disaster-proof housing other than POKMAS?
4. Is there any campaign letting people know the importance of disaster proof housing?
5. What kind of communication channel (inter-actor channel) do you have?

186

6. Do you have any inter-actor support system (in order to strengthen the inter-actor
channel)?

6-3-2 National Unity and the Protection of Society (District)
1. What kind is the role of your office? We especially want to know more about; your roleof “disaster education”, your role of “setting new concept of building” and Other roles related
to Earthquake-proof housing
2. How does your office give information about governments’ support to local people?
3. Is there any local people’s demand/request about governments’ housing policies?
4. How do your office work together with other actors (for example: UUM and Office of
Public Works)?
5. Is there any policy (law, rule or fund) to strengthen inter-actor cooperation for
Earthquake-proof housing?
6. What is the average cost of building house before introducing new concept of building?
And what is the average cost of building house after introducing that concept?
7. If you know, please tell us the average income of household in Yogyakarta and in
Bantul8. What kind of communication channel do you have?
9. Do you have any corroborate with other department in Disaster Education program?

6-3-3 Education (Provincial and District)
1. What kind of curriculum do they have about disaster education?
2. What is the role of your institution?
3. What kind of communication channel (inter-actor channel) do you have?
4. Do you have any inter-actor support system (in order to strengthen the inter-actor
channel)?

6-3-4 Wukirsari Village Head
1. Are there any supports from government for disaster education?
2. Is there any disaster education for community members?
3. What kind of policies do you have about disaster education?
4. What role of your agency?
5. Have your village ever been received any public support for re-construction of village187housings?
6. If yes, what kind of support did you receive?

7. If it was a funding support, how much money did you receive?
8. How did you utilize the public support?
9 Who were the beneficiaries of this support?
10. How did your village reconstruct housing?
11. Did you know POKMAS? Did your village receive POKMAS?
12. What kind of communication channel (inter-actor channel) do you have?

6-3-5 Local People in Wukirsari Village
Same questions in questionnaire survey are used for the interview survey to local
people.

6-3-6 School Principal in Ngasinan Elementary School
1. What kind of curriculum do you have about disaster education?
2. What is the role of your institution?
3. Does each teacher have the role when Disaster happens?
4. What kind of material do they use?
5. How do they train children on Earthquake happen?
6. Do they have the specific education for trauma healing?
7. What kind of communication channel do they have? (NGO/Government)
8. Are there any corporations with other school?

6-3-7 YP2SU and DRR Forum
1. What kind of project do you have about disaster education and disaster proof housing?
2. What is the role of your agency?
3. What kind of communication channel do they have?
4. Do you have any inter-actor support system (in order to strengthen the inter-actor
channel)?

6-3-8 IOM (International Organization of Migration)
1. What is the role of your agency?

188

2. What do you think about POKMAS and how do you cooperate with POKMAS system?
3. What kind of communication channel (inter-actor channel) do you have?
4. Do you have any inter-actor support system (in order to strengthen the inter-actor
channel)?

6-3-9 IRE (Institute of Research and Empowerment)
1. What is the role of your agency?
2. How does your office give information about its support to local people?
3. With what organizations (governments, NGOs RT/RWs) do you have relationships forearthquake-proof housing?
4. On what way does your office cooperate with other organizations?
5. What do you think about POKMAS and how do you cooperate with POKMAS system?

6-3-10 JRF (Java Reconstruction Fund)
1. What is the role of your agency?
2. What kind of communication channel do you have?
3. Is there any inter-actor support system?
4. Could you explain more about disaster map in Wukirsari Village?
5. What do you think about POKMAS and how do you cooperate with POKMAS system?

189

7. Acknowledgement

First of all, our research would not have been possible unless the enormous contributions
from all informants who kindly gave their cooperation to us. We are most grateful to officers
from Yogyakarta provincial government and Bantul district government, village head andpeople in Wukirsari Village, school principal, teachers and students in Ngasinan Elementary
School, and staffs from NGOs. It is a great pleasure to thank those who made our researchpossible.
Then we would like to show our gratitude to Professor Shimada from GSID andProfessor Ririn from Gadjah Mada University for sincere advice and warm encouragement.
Our special thanks also goes to Professor Ngov Penghuy from GSID for all of thearrangements of our research. We are deeply in appreciation of their enormous support.
We are indebted to staffs from Gadjah Mada Univerisy to carry out our research withgreat assistance, kind support and hearty friendship. All of their efforts and contributions
cooperated to make our research very meaningful. We would like to express our sincerest
thanks.
Finally, Nia and Tiwi, our best translators, without your sleepless contribution, and yourcharming smiles, we may not reach to the end of our research. We wish our academic andpersonal friendship would continue forever. Thank you very much.

190

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Disaster Prevention Information Research Center. 2006. Mid-Java Earthquake emergency
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University Chiki Kenkyujo. (in Japanese)
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(Accessed on November 11, 2010). (in Japanese)
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Shelters to Housing Reconstruction. Graduate school of engineering, Kobe University.
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Kamogawa. (in Japanese)
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Working Group 4
Tourism and Culture

Desa Wisata in Local Community:
SUSTAINABILITY OF KASONGAN DESA WISATA

1. Background
2. General Information
3. Kasongan general information- local industry and tourism
4. Administration of Kasongan Desa Wisata
5. Impact
6. Conclusions
7. Acknowledgement
8. Appendix
9. References

Group Advisors
Professor Kimiaki TAKAHASHI (GSID)

Written by:
Ayumi Yaegashi **Momoka Wada *Ryosuke Kondo

Hiromi Tsuchida

Keiko Ikeda

Yudai Nakai** Group Leader * Group Sub-leader
192

1. Background
This research was conducted in the Kasongan area, Bantul District, Yogyakarta Special
Region, Indonesia. The focus of this research is on the tourism and culture sector in
Yogyakarta. In order to investigate the relationship between tourism and community, thetourism policy “Desa Wisata,” which in other words, refers to an alternative, pro-poor tourism
policy, was selected. “Desa” means “village” and “Wisata” means “tourism” in the Indonesia
language. Thus, Desa Wisata is translated to “Village Tourism” or “Tourism Village” inEnglish. For this research, Desa Wisata will be the reference for the name of this policy as it is
the official name in Yogyakarta. One of the villages designated as Desa Wisata is Kasongan,
which is the case selected for this research.
This report consists of two parts. The first part is to clarify the actual situation of theadministration of Desa Wisata, especially the roles of local people in the introduction process
and management system. The second part is to evaluate the impacts of Desa Wisata from the
aspects of economy, environment, culture, and society.

The results of both parts are

examined and evaluated in terms of the sustainability of Desa Wisata. All findings in thisreport are based on results of fieldwork.

1-1. Research Objectives

1.

To clarify how each actor has played a role through the introduction process and the
management system in Kasongan Desa Wisata.

2.

To investigate the impact of TV in Kasongan in terms of economical, environmental,social and cultural aspects from the perspective of sustainability.

1-2. Research Hypothesis“In the case of Kasongan Desa Wisata, local people are involved in the introduction
process and management system. In addition, positive impacts on local the community are
generated in terms of economical, environmental, cultural and social aspects.”

1931-3. Research Methodology

In order to achieve the objectives mentioned above, a number of surveys wereconducted. To observe the current situation of Kasongan, interviews were held with nine local
people in Kasongan, eight civil servants (see Figure2), one researcher and 11tourists who
visited Kasongan (29 people in total). In addition, questionnaires were given to 35 local people.
The objective of holding interview surveys with local people, civil servants and the researcher
was to determine how Desa Wisata was introduced in Kasongan and also to evaluate themanagement system of POK DARWIS. We also examined what impacts were caused by the
introduction of DesaWisata. Interviews with tourists were conducted in order to examine theirsatisfaction with Kasongan DesaWisata. Questionnaires were also distributed to collectquantitative

data

relatedtothe

Figure 1： The attributes of 35 respondents in Kasongan

impacts on local people after the
introduction of Desa Wisata.
Figure 1 shows the attributes
oftheKasonganpeopleavoid

a skewed

sampleRange

Gender0 to 1

Age

21-72

who

answered our questionnaire. In orderto

Variablebydomiciles, respondents were chosen

1to 5

1
2
3
4
5
6

3
0
10
46
14
9

1 to 6

RT01
RT02
RT03
RT04
RT05
RT06

6
11
23
23
23
14

1-10
11-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
more than 51
Yes
No

14
11
20
26
11
9
91
9

by locations of their workshops orhouses (RT is the partition which

Family member

divides land). As the
Figureshows, however, relatively

fewer respondents lived in RT 01
compared to those who lived in other
RTs.

In

terms

of

gender,Locationtheproportion between men and women
was almost equal. The age range
among respondents was from 21-72,
however, most of them were under 40

Range of residence(year)

1 to 6Engagement of Desa
Wisata0 to 1years old. The majority of them hadfour people in their family. In
addition, the range of residence terms

194

Value (%)
Male
49
Female
51
21-30
23
31-40
46
41-50
14
51-60
6
61-72
6

in Kasongan had no specific bias among respondents.
Interviews with tourists included 10 domestic tourists and one international tourist. Theinternational tourist was deliberately chosen to determine the opinions of those traveling fromoutside the country. Other respondents were from domestic areas that ranged in distance from
Kasongan. Four respondents were from near places (20 minutes to 2 hours travel distance),
while others were from more remote areas (4 to 7 hours travel distance). There was bias interms of gender with 9 out of 10 respondents being women, as a result of the random sampling.

Figure 2: Interview list for civil servants

Name

Date

Place

Position

20 Sep. 2010

Yogyakarta government

Head of marketing division

2 Mr. Jono

22 Sep. 2010

Bantul tourism office

Secularity of tourism department

3 Mr. Trabul

22 Sep. 2011

Bantul tourism office

Head of tourism department

4 Mr. Sryandoro

20 Sep 2010

Bantul district govenrment

Director of tourism programme

5 Mr. Bibi

21 Sep. 2010

Bangunjiwo office

Head of Bangunjiwo office

6 Mr. Andoyo

21 Sep. 2010

Bangunjiwo office

Head of development program

7 Mr. Widodo

27 Sep. 2010

Bangunjiwo office

Secularity of Bangunjiwo office

8 Mr. Muhardi

24 Sep. 2010

His house

Head of Kasongan Village

9 Mr. Subrujo

24 Sep. 2010

His Craftshop

Head of POK DARWIS

10 Mr. Afmad

26 Sep. 2010

His house

Former head of Kasongan Village

1

Mr. HeriLanfino2. General Information

2-1. General Information of tourism in Yogyakarta and Bantul

2-1-1. Tourism in Yogyakarta

Characteristics of tourism in Yogyakarta and neighboring areas
Yogyakarta is located in the center of the island of Java. Yogyakarta has a strategic

195position in the history of Indonesia’s development as a nation-state. Yogyakarta has a lot of
tangible culture, including Candi Prambanan (Prambanan Temple Compounds), various
traditional buildings and handcrafts, such as batik and ceramics among others. There is also
intangible culture such as traditional ceremonies and dances. These historical and cultural
heritages currently have become the major tourist attraction for both international and national
visitors. For Yogyakarta, the tourism industry is one of the most important industries. However,
due to the earthquake in 2006, the tourism of Yogyakarta was affected greatly. For example,
many historical and traditional buildings were destroyed. Therefore, the central government ofIndonesia, such as the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the other ministries, provided
Yogyakarta with financial support for rehabilitating buildings.
Yogyakarta is ranked fourth as a tourist destination area in Indonesia, following Bali,
Jakarta, and Batam. Tourists visit three districts in Yogyakarta. These are the Bantul district inthe south, sharing 30 percent of the total visitors within Yogyakarta; the Sleman district, whichshares 28 percent; and Yogyakarta City, which shares approximately 27 percent. Most of theforeign tourists go to the Prambanan Temple followed by the Sultan’s Palace in the heart of thecity. Other destinations are the Parangtritis beaches and Malioboro Street, which is located in
downtown Yogyakarta. Local visitors prefer these destinations more than do foreign visitors.
Borobudur, located in the northwest district (about 42 km from the center of Yogyakarta), is
also a famous tourist destination.

Current challenges of tourism in Yogyakarta
The numbers of tourists are declining slightly in all Indonesian districts. Yogyakarta isin same situation. For the Yogyakarta government, the tourism industry has an important value
to maintain financial conditions. There are several reasons for the decline. The first reason isthe effect of earthquake, which occurred in 2006, and the lingering government concern
regarding some safety issues. The second reason is the deterioration of the tourism
environment, such as the problem of traffic jams, which leaves some tourists exhausted anddissatisfied. In the local context, when local community is a tourist destination, the local
people are the key actors interacting with the tourists. In summary, the government is facing
hard challenges to solve the severe matter of the decline of tourists. Therefore, they are trying
to achieve new objectives for the tourism industry of Yogyakarta, as listed below

Tourism policy of Yogyakarta government
196

These are the tourism policies of Yogyakarta:
1.

To improve the welfare of the people both materially and socially in Yogyakarta

2.

To promote the preservation of culture and arts in Yogyakarta

3.

To improve partnerships among the government, the private sector and the community

4.

To improve the quality of human capital for those who are involved in tourism

5.

To promote community capacity building with an increasing awareness of tourism incommunity

2.1.2 Tourism in Bantul

Characteristics of tourism in Bantul
Bantul is one of the districts in Yogyakarta. The population of Bantul was 820,541 in
2006. The area of Bantul is 50,685 hectare and consists of 17 districts. (BANTUL DALAMANGKA, 2008)
There are two royal cemeteries and natural tourism resources such as caves,agro-tourism areas and beaches. Also, Bantul has many Desa Wisata with various
characteristics and museums. Diverse kinds of handcrafts: batik, ceramic and carved leather
are produced in Bantul. (BANTUL “SOUL OF JTWA” JOGJA)
According to the Bantul tourism office, 1,439,260 tourists visited Bantul in 2009.
Domestic tourists accounted for 1,403,279 visitors and 35,981 people came from overseas
countries. In brief, 98% of visitors were domestic tourists. In 2009, revenue of tourism industry
was Rp 4,361,159,125. (Ministry of Tourism and Culture in Bantul)

Tourism policy of Bantul
According to an officer of the Ministry of Tourism and culture in Bantul, the main
objective of tourism in Bantul is to directly empower the community in order to attaineconomical benefit through the tourism sector. According to Bantul government, 80% of thepeople who live in Bantul district are engaged in the handicraft sector. The government
acknowledges it is important to educate them to develop Bantul District. Hence, they are alsoemphasizing human resource development under the tourism policy. They try to deal withissues related to market problems, as well as the traditional market.

Bantul government’s promotion of the tourism industry197

To promote the tourism industry in Bantul, the government is focusing on activities that
seek investors through advertising. In the advertisements, the government explains the numberof visitor and the benefits of investing in Kasongan. In addition, the Bantul government holds“Jawa promo” to promote Bantul’s activities. Sixteen sub-villages’ activities were selected for
exhibitions held in Japan, Malaysia, Singapore and China twice a year. The Bantul government
holds fashion shows and community forums and makes brochures, websites and galleries topromote handicrafts.

The selection process of Desa Wisata
Bantul government plays an important role in the selection process of villages to becertified as Desa Wisata. Firstly, the government receives application forms from local
communities and then inspects these communities. Finally, the government authorizes thevillages that meet their criteria for Desa Wisata, though this does not appear officially in thepolicy. In Bantul, 20 villages have applied and 10 villages were certified as Desa Wisata.

2.2 Desa Wisata as an alternative tourism policy

2.2.1 Background of Desa Wisata

In the 1980s, the concept of the Tourism Village, which is conducted all over the world
today, arose as an alternative style of tourism growing out of the criticism towards
mass-tourism. In the case of Indonesian, the concept of Tourism Village was introduced in
Yogyakarta and the name was translated to Desa Wisata in the Indonesian language. The
definition of Desa Wisata is “a village equipped with an original and unique rural setting(including social and economic, traditional culinary, culture, local customs and traditions, andlocal specific architecture) which could be developed and promoted further as a tourism
destination.” (Priasukmana et. al., 2001) The principles of Desa Wisata include
decentralization,

local

autonomy

law,

rural

economicdevelopment

strategy

andcommunity-based tourism. Desa Wisata is a new form, which offers tourists natural andcultural experiences that are closely related to the lifestyle of the particular communities. It istargeted to both international and local visitors who live in urban areas. Desa Wisata serves asa destination offering both relaxation and some special interest to them. As for international
tourists, those from Japan and Australia are a large proportion of those that visit Desa Wisata in198

Yogyakarta. In the case of Yogyakarta, there are more than 25 Desa Wisata. Each Desa Wisata
has its own characteristics, which offer ceramics, traditional houses, batik crafts, etc.
To be appointed as a Desa Wisata, there are a minimum of requirements to be fulfilled
including accessibility, community leadership, convenient climate, safe environment,
accommodation and relationship with other tourism destinations. According to Priasukmana
and Mulyadin, the following objectives of Desa Wisata [Soetarso and Mulyadin, 2001] areconnected to the policy of the tourism industry:(1) Exploring the village potential for local economic development(2) Create jobs for local people(3) Ruralization: back to village campaign, managing the problem of overcrowded
big cities(4) Promoting self-pride among rural youths(5) Improving social tolerance and social cohesion(6) Promoting rural vocational education in subjects related to tourism (foreign
language, etc.)

2.2.2. Definition of sustainability in the case of Kasongan Desa WisataThis research focuses on sustainability of Desa Wisata because sustainability is one of
the key contents of alternative tourism development. In general, alternative tourism is a
substitute of mass standard tourism. For example, ecotourism, responsible tourism,
agro-tourism and etc, are recognized as alternative tourism. Although alternative tourism
development is conducted all over the world today, there is no concrete definition of“alternative.” In the context of Desa Wisata in Indonesia, this research defines “alternative” as“sustainable.”“Sustainability of Kasongan Desa Wisata is accomplished by both the administration of
Desa Wisata by the Community Based Organization (CBO) and that resulting positive impacts
on the local community in terms of economical, environmental, cultural and social aspects as aresult of the introduction of Desa Wisata:”
In summary, this definition is based on these five aspects:
A) Administrative aspect: Local people are involved in the introduction process andmanagement system of Kasongan Desa Wisata.
B) Economical aspect: Kasongan Desa Wisata further stabilizes income of local people.
199C) Environmental aspect: Local people pay more attention to the environmental
situation in Kasongan.
D) Cultural aspect: Local people accept the change of culture.
E) Social aspect: Social cohesion among local people is improved.

3. Kasongan general information- local industry and tourism-

3-1. Research site, Kasongan
Picture 1: The gate in front of “Kasongan”
In this research, Kasongan Desa
Wisata was decided as research site.
Kasongan Desa Wisata is one of Desa
Wisata in Bantul District and famous for its
ceramic industry which, entails a specificcharacteristic of the Kasongan Desa Wisata.
Kasongan is in the southern area of
Yogyakarta. It is located 6.5 km from thecenter of Yogyakarta. The dimension of
Kasongan is 407 hectare, which are
divided into six areas presented in Table
1-2. The population of Kasongan is around
1400.
Table 1 shows the administrative structure in Indonesia. Kajen sub-village is divided
into six areas. In fact, Kasongan consists of only RT 03 and RT 04 in the Kajen sub-village. An
RT is a minimum administrative segment in Indonesia. However, the actual research site
consists of six areas, representing RT 01-06, generally known as the Kasongan Desa Wisata.

Table 1: Administrative structure in Indonesia
200

Bantul District
Kashihan Sub-district
Bangunjiwo Village
Kajen Sub-village
RT01

RT02

RT03

Kajen

RT04

Kasongan

History of the ceramic industry in Kasongan

RT05

RT06

Sentnan(-1970)

Producing ceramics has been a common profession for generations in Kasongan. The
production of ceramics began around 320 years ago in Kasongan. (Ponimin, 2005) Thus, thisarea has a long history in ceramic production.
Around 1925, production of ceramics developed mainly into the production ofpottery/vases. During this era, the creation process was mostly responsibility of women, while
the men provided the clay and were responsible for the firing and marketing. (Ponimin, 2005)
During the Dutch colonial period (1800-1942), ceramic production began in Kasongan.
It is said that villager found a dead horse owned by Dutch detective on his rice field. He wasafraid of punishment and therefore, gave up his land ownership. Other villagers followed him
resulting in the local people becoming ceramic craftsmen. This tradition has continued to thepresent.
The village has developed traditional techniques for producing ceramics. According to
the interview, craftspeople mainly created saving boxes in the shape of frogs, turtles, roosters,
and elephants, as well as cooking devices. In the 1970s, the ceramic production began toexperience a fairly rapid progression. Modern influences and culture entered Kasongan
through various media outlets and Kasongan was introduced to the public for the first time.

History of the ceramic industry in Kasongan (1970-)
201

As revealed through interviews, two prominent artists in the 1970s were involved in
Kasongan ceramic production. One artist, Sapto Hudoyo conducted trainings for improving
skill and technique in making ceramic products. Another artist, Suliyantoro Sulaiman
introduced Kasongan to Jakarta. Therefore, local people in Jakarta came to know Kasongan asa famous village that produced quality ceramic products. She also held exhibitions in foreigncountries to expand the market overseas. Due to this movement, the ceramic products became
more modern and artistic.
The main series of production mainly used to be cooking devices, but due to exposurein the global market, the products today are mainly chairs, tables and pots. Commercial,large-scale production started in the 1980s. This then led to the beginning of the exports ofproducts to foreign countries.
In 1995, Desa Wisata was introduced in Kasongan. According to the questionnaire andinterview survey, 95% of people, or about 660 workers, who live in Kasongan are working inhandicraft s. The remaining 5% of the population is managed in the agriculture sector or civil
servant jobs. Of the people surveyed, 91 % answered that they are involved in Desa Wisatathrough the ceramic industry.

Current situation of Kasongan
There are many ceramic products shops on both sides of the street in Kasongan Desa
Wisata. Various ceramic products made in Kasongan Desa Wisata have spread to international
markets. Export of ceramics has increased compared to the period before the introduction of
Desa Wisata. Hence, the increase in numbers of visitors who visit Kasongan mainly for
ceramic goods has also increased, resulting in a demand for goods and more tourists visiting
Kasongan. However, increasing the production of more ceramic goods means that there must
be more red land, which is obtained from a near-by village. This is necessary for making
ceramic goods, but the amount of red land is limited. In addition, an increase in productionmeans a deterioration of the environment, through the increase in hiring which emits smoke
into the atmosphere.

Tourism development in Kasongan
Kasongan has historically prospered due to the ceramic industry through its many
tourists. Hence, the Indonesian government acknowledges the significance of Kasongan Desa
Wisata in order to further promote tourism development. For Kasongan, the ceramic industry is202one of its special features. The ceramic industry is their vehicle for attracting more tourists andto promote Kasongan from the aspect of tourism. Kasongan aims to emphasize tourism
development through the introduction of Desa Wisata. The government also recognizes that forthe purpose of encouraging tourism development, it is inevitable to include the local people’s
participation. It can be said that, the linkage of the local people with the ceramic industry
aimed at tourism is crucial in Kasongan In other words, tourism development in Kasongan isconducted in line with the policy of the Yogyakarta government.

4. Administration of Kasongan Desa Wisata4-1. Introduction Process of Desa Wisata in Kasongan

Desa Wisata Policy was introduced to Indonesia as one strategy of Pro-poor Tourism.
As we explained in Chapter 2, the ceramics industry in Kasongan has had a long history andmany tourists and buyers had visited Kasongan. Although the place of Kasongan is not in thecity, it had the potential to become a tourist destination because it has had the ceramic industry
as a core attraction for tourism. As per the requirements from government (see Table 3-1),
Kasongan was approved as Desa Wisata in 1995.
In general, to be selected to become a Desa Wisata, the local residents have to submit
an application form to the government. However, in the case of Kasongan, a government
officer, who chose the pottery industry, introduced Desa Wisata policy as a tourism orindustrial development strategy. The officer of tourism and culture in Bantul considered that
tourists and buyers going to Kasongan might increase by giving the name of Desa Wisata.
Perhaps, in this early stage, Desa Wisata might be called a “political tool.” Mr. Afmad, who
was the mayor of Kasongan from 1962 to 2002, states in his interview, "I do not know evenwhen Kasongan was approved as Desa Wisata. Desa Wisata was introduced by thegovernment-led." Thus, the introduction of Kasongan was not made by the initiative ofresidents, but rather as a top-down approach by the government, without involving theparticipation and voices of local people.

4-2. Management system of Desa Wisata203

4-2-1. Current situation of Kasongan Desa Wisata

In order to achieve the purposes of Desa Wisata, which is the empowering of thecommunity, it is crucial to have a well-functioning management system based on local people’s
participation. However, in the early days of Kasongan Desa Wisata, the concept of Desa
Wisata was not established among the local people of Kasongan.
Since the early 2000s, the importance of involving local people in Desa Wisata policy
began to be recognized among the prefecture and district governments. From an international
context, in some Desa Wisata of Bantul, “POK DARWIS” had been created as a community
based organization. In the case of Kasongan, “KAJIGELEM” was established by the initiativeof chairman of Bangunjiwo Village in 2008, and POK DARWIS was also organized as one of
the activities of KAJIGELEM in the same year. POK DARWIS has carried out important roles
in Desa Wisata of Kasongan. It is organized under the control of the Office of Tourism andCulture in Bantul. Moreover, they have another organization, which is called Unit Palayanan
Teknis (UPT) and is organized under the control of the Office of Industry, Trade, andCooperation in Bantul. Table 3-2 shows the structure of POK DARWIS and UPT. A moredetail explanation about the roles of the four key organizations in Desa Wisata follows. Thesefour organizations are the Bantul government, KAJIGEKEM, POK DARWIS, and UPT.

Table 2: Desa Wisata requirement in Indonesia
1. Have good accessibility, so that it can be reached by tourists via various modes of transportation
2. Have interesting objects such as nature, art and culture, legends, local foods, etc. to be
developed as
tourism objects
3. The people/community and the local government officials will welcome and give strong support
to thetourism village and also to the tourists that come to the village
4. The security is guaranteed

Source: Soetarso and Mulyadin [2001]
4-2-2. Role of each stake holder in Kasongan Desa Wisata204

Bantul government
The Bantul government has two offices concerned with Kasongan Desa Wisata. One is
the Office of Tourism and Culture, and the other is the Office of Industry, Trade, andCooperation in Bantul. The main activities for the Office of Tourism and Culture are topromote activities for improving the number of buyers and investors for Bantul. There are
exhibitions held twice a year in Asian countries such as Japan, China, Malaysia, and Singapore.
They have also played a role of selecting Desa Wisata in Bantul. After receiving applications
from the village groups, they visit the candidates,

and finally select the appropriate places for

Desa Wisata, based on the requirements. Finally, the government plays the role of monitoring
Desa Wisata by keeping in contact with the local Desa Wisata offices. In Kasongan’s case,meetings between officers and the local leader are held once a month. The officer of tourism
and culture stated in the interview that the main discussions are about the promotion of tourism
in Kasongan during these meetings.
The Office of Industry, Trade, and Cooperation of Bantul has conducted the following
three activities: 1) training for local craftsman; 2) investing money for constructing buildingsthat are used the training of the craftsman and workshops for visitors; and 3) management of
the UPT on a monthly basis. This office has played an important role in terms of the
improvement of Kasongan’s ceramic industry.

KAJIGELEM
KAJIGELEM was established in 2008, under the suggestion by the head of
Bangunjiwo Village. The KAJIGELEM project has also joined not only Kasongan, but also theother three sub-villages, of Jippangan, Gendeng, and Lemah Dadi, located in Bangunjiwo
Village. There are two objectives of KAJIGELEM. The first is to restore the environment
destroyed by the earthquake in 2006 and the second is to strengthen the relationship of the four
sub-villages in terms of economic and social aspects. Today, Kasongan plays the central role,
turning Kasongan’s previous experience to an advantage. Members of KAJIGELEM arecomposed from each of the four villages, especially local business leaders and officers in
Bangunjiwo.

POK DARWIS
205

POK DARWIS is the most important key organization in Desa Wisata policy. Their roleis being a mediator between the Office of Tourism and Culture and the local craftsman. As
explained above, POK DARWIS of Kasongan was established in 2008 as one of the
KAJIGELEM’s activities. Because of limitation of human capital, they cannot make POKDARWIS only in Kasongan sub-village. The objective of POK DARWIS is to promote tourismof Kasongan Desa Wisata and to empower the community. There are four activities. First is tobe a guide of Kasongan Desa Wisata for guests introduced by the Bantul government, while
the second is the management of the home stay enterprise. Third is education for improving theguiding skill and fourth is to hold meetings with the Office of Tourism and Culture in Bantul.
Although one objective is to empower the community, the main activities have focused on the
promotion of tourism and to invite buyers and investors to Kasongan. From this reality, we cansay that there is gap between the objective and practice in the POK DARWIS policy of
Kasongan.
The head of POK DARWIS is Mr. Subrujo, who was the officer in Bantul. Now he ismanager of big pottery enterprise in Kasongan. As explained above, POK DARWIS was
created as a community based organization, as stated by the officer in the Office of Tourism
and Culture in Bantul. Along with this principle then, basically the members of POK DARWIS
should be all the craftsmen in Kasongan. However, many craftspeople who live in Kasongan
do not know the existence of POK DARWIS. In the results of the questionnaire, in response to
the question “Do you know the POK DARWIS,” only 27% craftspeople said “yes”, while theremaining 73% people said “no”. Thus, the local people of Kasongan have not recognized
POK DARWIS. Therefore, it is difficult to say POK DARWIS is a community-basedorganization.

Unit Palayanan Teknis (UPT)The Unit Palayanan Teknis which called “UPT”, (in English, Technical Service Unit),
was made under the control of the Office of Industry, Trade, and Cooperation in 1970s in
Kasongan. UPT have organized all villages that have a local industry such as pottery or
bamboo. The objectives of UPT are to improve the skill of production of the local industry andto offer visitors learning opportunities to know of the local industry. Therefore, main activities
of UPT are training of special techniques for local craftspeople, holding workshops for visitors,
and conduct statistical survey in each industrial village. The members of UPT are all ofcraftspeople who live in Kasongan. Workshop activities and training for craftspeople have206

been often conducted by UPT. Thus, activities of UPT greatly contribute to the ceramicindustry of Kasongan.

4.3 Summary

The research question about the administrative aspect was: “How have local people
been involved in the introduction process and management system of Kasongan Desa Wisata?”
Throughout interviews, questionnaire survey and observation, it was found that the local
people’s participation and voice have not been involved in the introduction process andmanagement system of Desa Wisata. The authority and management system have been grasped
by only a limited number of local people, such as local business leaders and civil servants of
Bangunjiwo. In order to involve the local people of Kasongan into the management system of
Desa Wisata, POK DARWIS must be able to play an important role. However in the results,
POK DARWIS has not worked based on all of the local people’s participation. Under thiscondition, we cannot say POK DARWIS has worked based on the local people in Kasongan.
Moreover, we found out that the structure of Kasongan Desa Wisata has weighted
economical supremacy in terms of administrative and practical measures. For instance, thecurrent activities of POK DARWIS are primarily concentrating on how to attract buyers andinvestors from outside. Given the above situation in Kasongan, we can state that POKDARWIS has forgotten the original principle of a tourism policy based on local people,
running only for commercial purposes.

Table 3: Stakeholders of Kasongan Desa Wisata
207

NAME

Main Activities in Tourism and industry

Jurisdictionof Kasongan Desa Wisata
1. Financial Support (In order to maintain environment

1

BantulGovernmentof infrastructure in Kasongan)
Yogyakarta Government

2. Promotion (In order to increase number of buyers)
3. Management (Meeting with POK DARWIS)
4. Training

2

Babngunjiwo
Office1. Promotion
Bantul government

3. Contact to Bantul government
1. Office of industry, trade,and cooperation in Bantul

3

KAJIGELEM

2. Organizer of "KAJIGELEM"

government
2. Office of tourism andculture in Bantul
government

1. Maintain infrastructure of Bangunjiwo village by using
financial support of Bantul government
2. Promotion in order to increase buyer and investor
3. Introduction of Tourism Attraction in 4 sub villages for visitors
4. Introduce special product of four villages each other
5. Meeting with mayor of four sub villages in order toimprove cluster development in Bangunjiwo village
1. Guide Kasongan Desa Wisata for Guest who came

POK
4

DARWIS"KAJI

Office of tourism andculture in Bantul
government

GILEM"

from both of International and Domestic by introduced
Bantul government
2. Management of Home stay Enterprise
3. Education for improving Guide skill
4. Meeting with office of tourism and culture in Bantul
1. Promotion

5

UPT

Office of industry, trade,

2. Training for craftspeople

cooperation in Bantul

3. Workshop for Visitors or Educational Institution

government

4. Statically Survey
5. Contact to Office of Industry, trade and cooperation

6

Crafts people

1. POK DARWIS

1. Making and selling pottery"KAJIGELEM"

2. Joining the training given by UPT and Bantul

2. UPT

government

5. Impact208

5-1. Economical aspect

There are more than four economical impacts caused after Kasongan was authorized as
Desa Wisata and all are positive. Some of these are increase of tourists, buyers and income, andthe change in expenditure structure, among others. In addition to these impacts, three major
challenges are found in the current situation.

5-1-1. Findings

Increase of tourists
More tourists started to visit Kasongan compared the situation before the introductionof Desa Wisata. According to the results of the questionnaire survey to the local people, 97 %of the respondents stated that the number of tourists who visit Kasongan increased after
Kasongan became Desa Wisata. In addition, the results of our questionnaire survey given to
tourists show that 7 out of 11 respondents recognize Kasongan as Desa Wisata. They also
stated that they became aware of Kasongan as Desa Wisata through various media such as TV,
magazines, the internet, etc. Three out of 11 respondents visited Kasongan through sightseeing
tours. There are a lot of websites about Kasongan on the internet and some of them are written
in both English and Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian official language). The website
YOGYES.COM, whose aim is to introduce Yogyakarta, for example, has a page to explain
about Kasongan. On the page, there are six URLs of tour agencies that have tours planned tovisit Kasongan as one of the destinations. These facts show that there are many promotions of
Kasongan as Desa Wisata directed at both inside and outside of Indonesia. Furthermore, as aresult of these promotions, the numbers of tourists have increased in Kasongan.
Picture 2 Around a bus stop, a tourist bus and tourists

Increase of buyers
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Kasongan became more famous as Desa Wisata, not only for tourists, but also morebuyers started to visit Kasongan. In our interview survey given to local people, several crafts
people mentioned that the recognition of Kasongan as Desa Wisata contributes to increased
buyers. This change reduces the amount of the local crafts people’s work because the buyers
make the trip to the economical centers, such as Yogyakarta City, in their place, in order to sell
their products. In interviews, some crafts people say that they used to go to Yogyakarta city tosell their products or exported them, however currently it is not necessary to do such a thing
and that reduces their burden. These results of the survey demonstrate the relation between the
introduction of Desa Wisata and the increase of buyers. As a result, local people obtain morechances to sell their products to buyers and reduce their time and effort to hawk at remoteplaces as well as the cost to export their products. This is the second positive impact caused by
the introduction of Desa Wisata.

Increase of income
The third point about economical impact is the increase of local people’s income.
Through interviews with the local people, some say that their income has increased from theauthorization of Desa Wisata. The results of the questionnaire survey also strongly support this.
Though incomes of the majority are from 200,000 Rp. to 500,000 Rp. in 1995, in 2009, mostcan earn more than 1,700,000 Rp. per month (Figure 3, 4). Additionally, some crafts people
refer to the causal relationship between the increase of income and that of tourists and buyers,
with the latter contributing to the former. These findings indicate that the introduction of Desa
Wisata had a positive effect on the local people’s income through an increase of tourists andbuyers.

Change of expenditure structure
Because of the increase of income, the expenditure structure of the local people has alsochanged in some aspects after the introduction of Desa Wisata. According to the results of thequestionnaire survey, currently Kasongan people spend more money on education, savings andmedical care compared to 1995 (See Figures 5, 6 and 7). These results show that the local
people’s living standards generally became better during the period from 1995 to 2009. A crafts
person also mentioned that the authorization of Desa Wisata led to the increase of income andthat it improved living standards in such aspects such as education. These results demonstrate210

that the increase of local people’s income caused after the introduction of Desa Wisata
improved their living standard to some extent.

Figure 3: Monthly income of Kasongan people in 1995
4%

Figure 4: Monthly income of Kasongan people in 2009

Below200,000Rp.

Below200,000Rp.

4%

6%200,000-500,000Rp.

0%

4%
11%

500,000-800,000Rp.

500,000-800,000Rp.

38%

200,000-500,000Rp.

6%
15%

43%

800,0001,100,000Rp.

800,0001,100,000Rp.

1,400,0001,700,000Rp.

39%

1,100,0001,400,000Rp.

9%

1,100,0001,400,000Rp.

1,400,0001,700,000Rp.

9%

12%

Above1,700,000Rp.

Above1,700,000Rp.

Author (2010)

Author (2010)

Figure 5 Change in expenditure structure /medical care

Figure 6: Change in expenditure structure

0%
3%

18%

4%

Decreased
drastically

0%

17%

Decreased
drastically

Decreased
38%

Decreased

No change

No change

44%

Increased

Increased
35%

Increased
drastically41%

Author (2010)

Author (2010)

Figure 7: Change in expenditure structure

0%
9%

3%
Decreased
drastically
Decreased
41%

No change
Increased

47%
Increased
drastically211
Author (2010)

Increased
drasticallyOther positive impacts
There are other impacts in regards to economic aspects including the appearance of newoccupations, decrease of unemployment and improvement of infrastructures.
Firstly, the introduction of Desa Wisata increased job diversity within Kasongan. A
crafts person stated that the introduction of Desa Wisata brought new industries, such as paintshops, food courts, home stay enterprises and restaurants.
Secondly, the authorization of Desa Wisata brought about a decrease in unemployment
within Kasongan. Through the interview survey given to the local people, a crafts person
mentioned that more people were able to engage in the ceramic industry after Kasongan had
become Desa Wisata.
Improvement of infrastructure is the third point. Kasongan had some issues with
infrastructure, such as bad condition of the roads. However, the introduction of Desa Wisata
improved the situation to some extent. According to the Bantul District government,
construction on some infrastructure in Kasongan resulted in better access to Kasongan from theoutside.
The other economic impact is the introduction of skill training. In our interview survey,
a crafts man stated that the introduction of Desa Wisata brought them an increase of skill
trainings given by government, such as training of finishing processes (the last process ofmaking ceramic products). These trainings have raised their technique for making theirproducts.
Skill training can increase local people’s income, and the other impacts improve theirliving standards.

Current challenges
Stiff competition
While all the economic impact of the introduction of Desa Wisata is positive as alreadyexplained in detail, currently Kasongan is facing some problems related to its economy. Stiff
competition is one of these challenges. As Kasongan becomes more famous for ceramic
products, the number of crafts people also has been increasing. According to the result of ourquestionnaire survey, 34% of respondents got involved in Desa Wisata within the last10 years.
On the other hand, some crafts people say that the number of buyers who visit Kasongan has
not changed. This situation of imbalance between the number of crafters and buyers, leads tostiff competition inside of Kasongan. Furthermore, local people are facing competition212

between Kasongan and the outside. There are some countries that export products similar to
Kasongan’s, such as South Korea, China, Thailand and Vietnam. Because of these multiple
factors, the Kasongan people cannot raise the prices of their products.

Lack of natural resources
Another problem is lack of natural resources. In order to make ceramic products, firewood and red land are essential materials for Kasongan people. However, firewood has been
imported from the outside of Kasongan (Karimantan). This situation leaves their production
vulnerable to a dependency on external factors. For example, if the transfer of firewood falls
behind schedule their production also will become delayed. However, a more important thingis the lack of red land. Although red land is another essential material in ceramic production,
currently only few areas are in Kasongan. Most of the red land has been imported into
Kasongan from another district (Godean, in Sleman District). Because of the distance,transportation cost is high when they use the red land from Godean and even the land inside
Kasongan tends to be expensive because of its scarcity. These factors have raised production
costs.
Revenue decreases
Because of these factors, in short, low prices and high costs, currently revenue fromselling ceramic products has been decreasing. Given that many people mention this in theinterview survey, it is one of the most serious problems for the current situation.

Vulnerability on exports
Though many ceramic products have been exported to other areas or countries from
Kasongan, there are some problems regarding exports. Currently, income of some local people
depends heavily on exports in order to avoid from the problem of copying. According to ahandicraft worker interviewed, he tried not to sell his products in Kasongan in order to protect
them from copying by other crafters. However, export from Kasongan has been affectedseriously by external factors such as currency crisis, Bali bombing and the earthquake in 2006.
In each case, income of the local people decreased drastically. These findings demonstrate thatthe economic foundation of these people, whose income depends mainly on exports, isvulnerable to eternal factors.

213

Economic gap among local people
There is an economic gap between owners of large factories and those of small/middle
workshops. One of the major reasons is that those who own small/middle workshops have no
sufficient knowledge of to improve their economic condition. One of the crafts people
explained it when he mentioned that he does not know how he can increase his income. There
are no systems to transfer knowledge from owners of large workshop to those of small/middle
workshops, witch is essential to enter markets directly. According to the Bangunjiwo office,organizations supported by government, such as POK DARWIS, are reluctant to accept local
people, except for some extremely wealthy ones, into the organizations because they do nothave a sufficient educational background or networks with the government and markets. In
short, such organizations do not need local people’s participation because they regard it is themas being of little use. Therefore promotions conducted by the government are aimed at only thelarge workshops and owners of small/ middle workshops hardly have chances to accessmarkets or to even obtain information about them. Furthermore, lack of internet facilities isanother reason for a shortage of information. Although there are some websites established by
Kasongan people, they are generally managed by large workshops 1 and that means only large
shop owners can enjoy the information gained from the internet. Lack of the internet facilities
makes it difficult for small/middle workshops to access markets outside of Kasongan directlyby themselves.
Another important reason for the economic gap within Kaongan is the lack of capital.
In Kasongan there is a lot of “Koperasi,” or organizations which lends money to workshop
owners. However, many small workshop owners are regarded to have no credit and cannot
access loans. In short, most of Kasongan’s local people have no way to increase their economic
standing, due to a lack of sufficient information and capital.

Figure 8 indicates connections between the economic impacts caused when Kasongan
was authorized as Desa Wisata and its current challenges.

1

For example, we can see a website directly created by local people here:(http://www.potterykasongan.com/)214

Figure 8: Flow chart of economic impacts and current situation

Direct impact
Better infrastructures

More buyers

Promotion

Skill training provided

Increase of tourists

Increase of income

Decrease of unemployment

Change of Expenditure

Increase of job diversity

Better living standard

Current situation
Crafters increasing

Lack of natural resources
Decrease of revenue

Buyers do not increase

Stiff competition

Copying

Dependence on exports
Vulnerability of exports
External negative factors

Lack of Knowledge
Economical gap
Lack of capital

Better living standard in the future?

Author (2010)215

5-1-3. Summary

This section described the economic impacts brought about by the introduction of Desa
Wisata and our hypothesis that “Desa Wisata has further stabilized the income of local people.”
In summary, as explained in detail, the authorization of Desa Wisata increased the local
people’s income mainly through an increase in tourists who visit Kasongan, as well as moretraining for skill development. As a result, living standards also improved in various points,
such as better change in the expenditure structure, an increase in job diversity, better
infrastructure, and job creation. Among others, the increase of income and change in
expenditure structure are perhaps the most significant findings. These results of the survey
shows that the introduction of Desa Wisata succeeded in attaining not only an increase in theamount of income, but also improvement in living standards. These findings support our
hypothesis.
All economic impact caused after Kasongan became Desa Wisata is positive, however,currently there are many challenges in Kasongan. Revenue of ceramic products has been
decreasing because of stiff competition inside and outside of Kasongan and the inability to
reduce production costs due to the lack of natural resources within Kasongan.
Exports of products are subject to external factors and the financial scale is quite
different between small/middle workshops and large ones. Due to time and limitations in thissurvey, specific connections are not found between the introduction of Desa Wisata and thesechallenges. Despite this limitation, the results of the survey show, indeed Desa Wisata
contributes to Kasongan’s economy and its sustainability. Future studies can address therelationship between the authorization of Desa Wisata and current challenges revealed by the
research.

5-2. Environmental aspects

Throughout the limited literature reviews and documents related to Kasongan Desa
Wisata, it became clear that more and more tourists have been visiting Kasongan Desa Wisata
due to the exposure of its traditional ceramic products on the global market since the 1980s.
Despite still today, the majority of the tourists visiting Kasongan are domestic tourists, buyers
from Europe and from other southeastern countries, who can be found in the village quite often.

216

From the information acquired prior to the fieldwork from an environmental aspect, there weremain two predictions for Kasongan Desa Wisata;

1. The local people in Kasongan Desa Wisata understand the principle of Desa Wisataand have strong awareness towards the environment of Kasongan.
2. Due to the increase in international and domestic tourists, the amount of garbage has
increased of which has lead to a garbage issue and the local people are incapable ofmanaging the garbage generated by tourists.

5-2-1. Findings I (Bantul District government)

Throughout two interviews with the Bantul District Tourism Department officials, therespondents stated that;•

The awareness of local people in Kasongan towards the environment is extremely
high;

•

No environmental issue exists in Kasongan what so ever•The government provides garbage disposal services such as the supply of trash cans todispose garbage in, and collects the garbage once in every 3 days. It is then transferredto Imogiri District to be recycled and burnt.
(Some suitable garbage is provided and distributed as feed for cattle).

•

The environmental issue of biggest concern today in Bantul District overall is thegarbage that is disposed by the tourists on the beach which has no relation to Kasonganor Desa Wisata.

However, it was made clear that there has been garbage issues long before theintroduction of Desa Wisata in Kasongan, and that the introduction of Desa Wisata has
influenced the amount of garbage being disposed by the local people.

Other than the garbage

issue that existed before the introduction of Desa Wisata, it can be said that Desa Wisata has
not generated any further environmental issues, and that the current situation in Kasongan has
been managed well by the government.

217

5-2-2. Findings II (Kasongan Desa Wisata villagers)

Through interviews and questionnaires to the local people in Kasongan, only 36% of
the respondents answered that they consider there to be no environmental issues in Kasongan.
However, unlike what the Bantul District government stated, there was;•No existence of a garbage disposal system.

•

No trash cans/ garbage disposal space provided. This led the local people to manage
their garbage by themselves by disposing it by the river.

Therefore, the garbage along the river has been accumulating for many years by the
local people. Although local people acknowledge that disposing garbage around the river
results in negative outcomes for the environment, they claim that this is the only way to get ridof their waste since there has been no support from the government.
Despite the fact that the government does not provide any support to the villagers interms of garbage disposal, there was once a project that provided a garbage disposal system.
However, since the government collected money from the villagers to dispose of the garbage,
the project was soon terminated.
However, here again, it was made clear that the introduction of Desa Wisata has notchanged the amount of garbage being disposed, nor to any environmental issue in Kasongan.
Picture 3 Garbage around the river218

5-2-3. Summary
This section describes the impact of the environmental aspect of Desa Wisata. The
hypothesis was that local people have further paid attention to the environment after the
introduction of Desa Wisata. As it is easy to see from Findings I and II, there are significant
differences between what the government states, and the actual situation in Kasongan today.
The local people clearly stated that it is necessary for the government to provide support thatenables the local people to manage their garbage by not having to damage the environment.

Despite the fact that the garbage issue has existed before the introduction of Desa
Wisata in Kasongan, neither the local people nor the government is making a move to improvethe current environmental situation which could be regarded as a failure to follow the Desa
Wisata principle or that there is not a high enough awareness of environmental issues. There
should be more opportunities and chances for Kasongan villagers and Bantul government
officials to exchange opinions and information. It is necessary that the government listen to thevoices of the local people and their needs more. From these results, our findings do not support
our hypothesis.
In order to reach a level of what the local people would describe Kasongan as anenvironmental-issue-free village, there are several recommendations we could make toimprove the current situation:•

The government should provide garbage disposal systems for the villagers.

•

The villagers should not dispose the garbage around the river.
Although the introduction of Desa Wisata has given very little effect on the amount ofgarbage being disposed, a couple of interview respondents answered that the increase intourists has lead to garbage issues since there is no garbage bins in the village. Therefore, due
to the lack of such services from the government, tourists dispose garbage in the village.
While many of the villagers still dispose their garbage around the river since there is nogovernmental support, there are people who are aware that the garbage issue is severe. Even
though they are conscious about this situation, they cannot do anything to solve this issue
without the support of the government. There must be a high priority for the government toprovide services that they are saying that they are providing.
Another finding shows the correlation between economical and environmental aspects.
Local people regard the decrease of Gotong Royong as an inevitable fact in order to pursue
219

economical benefit. However, actually the result of the decrease of Gotong Royong activity,
such as the increase of garbage, could affect their economical activities. According to ourinterviews with tourists, it was found that tourists who visit Kasongan enjoy not only buying
their products, but also the landscape of Kasongan. Deterioration of the environment could
lead to a decrease in tourists and thus, a decrease of their income.

5-3. Cultural aspect
This research will know consider now the implications on cultural. An interview withthe village chief of Bangujinwo Village was conducted. Kasongan is located in Bangunjiwo
Village. Therefore, he is well versed in the situation of Kasongan. According to the head of thevillage, the change of design and pattern of ceramics due to the needs of tourists or buyers is
positive if local people can gain economic benefit. Hence, he does not acknowledge theimportance of their local culture. From the standpoint of locale people who actually makes
ceramics, the research sought to clarify how local people have accepted tourism culture.

5-3-1. Findings

Making production fit demand
There are two types of ceramic products in Kasongan. The first type is the traditional or
local design, which is originated mostly from Javanese culture. Examples of this are loro
blonyo, patung semar and cooking devices etc. They have a long history of production. The
second type is interior product such as desks and chairs, modern artistic products and statues of
Buddha. After the introduction of Desa Wisata, the demand for products, which belongs to thesecond type increased compared to before the introduction of Desa Wisata.

In fact, craftspeople have reacted positively and have accepted the need to makeproducts that fit to the demands of buyers and tourists. The reason why they readily accept thisfact positively is that they feel making products that are adapted by the needs of buyers andtourists is their job and they need to follow the trends of the market. The amount of ceramic
products and the number of people who are involved in the ceramic industry is actually
increasing after the introduction of Desa Wisata. It clarifies that the introduction of Desa
Wisata contributes to the succession of local culture in Kasongan.
220

Due to the introduction of Desa Wisata, their income reached a satisfactory level.
Hence, they feel that the change in design or pattern of ceramics brings them good effects.

Picture 4 loro blonyo

Picture 5 A Buddha statue

Respect for traditional products
Even today, traditional products are produced if they receive orders for them. However,they tend not to produce traditional ceramics any more. They do still maintain skills that havebeen passed down from generations and are aware of using their original skills when they
make products in order not to be imitated by other people. They are proud of using theirtraditional skills and ways to make ceramic products.

Pride in making ceramic products
On the whole, local people have pride in making ceramic products in Kasongan. Today,
they make various series of ceramic products because they have adapted to the demand of themarket. They feel that their products are desired in the market today. After the introduction of
Desa Wisata, the number of tourists who visit Kasongan increased. Tourism brought them a
new stimulus and is indirectly related to a rise in their motivation to make ceramic products.
Almost all of the people interviewed answered that they liked to make ceramic products. One
person who we interviewed said, “I am proud of making ceramic products because I can get
income sufficient to cover our life.”

221

Current challenge
Originality
As we mentioned above, ceramic products that local people make are adapted to theneeds of today’s market, today. Therefore, it means their ceramic products do not reflect theoriginality of Kasongan, and they have no central characteristic for their products. In fact,some of local people feel that they should maintain the traditional styles, such as loro blonyo.
Because they have traditional products and skills to create them, they can maintain the
traditional styles if they desire. However, they tend to pay more attention to orders by buyers,which are adapted to the trends of market and not their original products. Local crafts people
seem to little desire to produce and preserve traditional products.
This issue is related to economical pressures and also due to the lack of originality
caused by their incentive to increase, as well as the intervention of buyers. It was assumed that
there was exploitation by mediators that would prevent an increase of income for local people.
Strong dependence on mediators would result in less originality of ceramic products in
Kasongan. It seems that this structure influences local people give priority only to economic
aspects, especially income. One of the keys to solve this problem may be to improve access tomarket. More concretely better access to the internet may be a solution. When they get better
access to markets, it is assumed that it would be easier to reduce dependence on mediators,
leading to the production of more original products. This leads to the possibility of bothincreasing income and maintaining culture. Maintaining the original culture could also support
sustainability in economic terms. We can regard original culture as a resource and if it ispossible to establish their original culture as a brand, it could strengthen their products’
competitiveness in the global markets.

5-3-2. Summary
This section explains the impact of the cultural aspect of Desa Wisata. The hypothesis
was that local people would accept the change of culture after the introduction of Desa Wisata.
According to the research, the local people did accept a change in their culture. The
introduction of Desa Wisata brought them in increase in income and the number of goods
produced. These outcomes increased their motivation to make ceramic products surely and it isrelated to taking pride in the production of their ceramic products. Local people are satisfied

222with the introduction of Desa Wisata due to the increase of income and amount of production.
This finding supports the hypothesis.

Under the present conditions, they have no strong incentives to maintain theirtraditional culture because they rely on copied culture and demand by buyers or tourists eventoday. However, local people who live in Kasongan are not aware of the concept of copied
culture. It is proposed that if further development is to take place they have to consider
maintaining their original ceramic products. This will be related to the future growth for
Kasongan Desa Wisata. In fact, true still exists and therefore, they should have confidence andtake pride in the production of their traditional ceramic products. To emphasize the originalityof their ceramic products will increase the value of their products through creating a popular
brand of products that only exists in Kasongan.

5-4. Social aspect
This section focuses on the social impact which is caused by the introduction of Desa
Wisata. Two findings about the relationship among crafts people and Gotong Royong are madethrough interviews and questionnaires.

5-4-1. Findings
Relationship among crafts people
Through interviews with crafts people, it was found that they do not consult with others
when they have problems. The crafts people said they solve problems by themselves or talkwith their friends. It seemed that crafts people do not communicate with each other and do nothave opportunities to talk about any problems. Therefore, there are weak relationships among
their professional networks.

Gotong Royong
Gotong Royong has two meanings; one is a spirit of helping others and the other isvolunteer activities. People cooperate and take part in volunteer activities, such as road repairs.
Interviews were held with the former head of the village, who served from 1962 to
2002, and a crafts person. In this interview they explained about the change of “Gotong
223

Royong” after the introduction of Desa Wisata. It was thought that Gotong Royong was thestandard for establishing a sense of local cohesion because there were many people exhibitinga strong sprit of helping each other and participating in volunteer work, examples of local
cohesion.
The findings from these interviews are expressed in below Table 4. Questionnaires
were also distributed and revealed that 97% of the people who answered said there was Gotong
Royong in Kasongan. However, 55 % of people thought that Gotong Royong became weakerafter the introduction of Desa Wisata, while 31 % thought it had not changed. An additional
14 % of people answered it become stronger after introduction of Desa Wisata (See Figure 9).
All of the people who answered the questionnaire said they wanted to help each other when
they were dealing with economic hard times.

Table 4: Result of interviewing with two people
Former head of Kasongan

A crafts person

Change of

Spirit of “Gotong Royong” declined

The frequency and participants of “Gotong

Gotongafter introduction of Desa Wisata.

Royong” decreased after introduction ofRoyongDesa Wisata.

Before theMost of people built a house freely

People had to do a lot of things, for example

introduction of

before introduction of Desa Wisata.

fixing and cleaning a road and painting.

Desa Wisata

One of story referred to the cooperation

Lack of budget

and construction of a bridge in 83 days.
After thePeople hire builders to construct their

Society is less responsible for many things.

introduction ofhouses.

Everything is done by the government. For

Desa Wisata

People knew the principle of “time isexample, the government repairs the roads

money.”and infrastructure that used to be repairedby local people.

Reason ofLevel of economy is increasing. Peoplechangebecame busier with their business due toeconomic growth.

The rest

Author (2010)

In 2006, there was pretty strong

People try to make opportunities toearthquake. Gotong Royong camecooperate on the weekend but they cannot

reappeared after the earthquake. People

join because tourists come to Kasongan andshared money and food at that time.

they are busy with work.

224

Figure 9: How Gotong Royong changed after the introduction of Desa Wisata14%
WeakerNo change
31%

55%

Stronger

Author (2010)
According to interviews with the two people, one of the reasons of decrease of Gotong
Royong spirit was related to economic activity. Some could not afford to consider about
cultural aspects when they concentrated on pursuit of economic growth. Whether a person will
increase their work time when he or she is in a better economic condition, (such as better
income per time), depends on each person’s preference. Those who like their private time will
reduce their work time in that situation. On the other hand, those who have a stronger incentive
to work will work more. However, according to the result of our questionnaire survey, it seems
that the Kasongan people have tended to work more even when their economic situation getsbetter. It means a decrease of their volunteer time and therefore, it seems that Gotong Royong
spirit is inversely proportional to economic growth.
As mentioned above, Gotong Royong also means volunteer activities. One regular
activity of Gotong Royong, for the people of Kasongan was gathering and talking about
environment issues and even promoting regular cleaning activities. These actual activities are
based on the Gotong Royong (helping others) spirit. Thus, the decrease of this Gotong Royong
spirit can directly and negatively affect the environment of Kasongan.

5-4-2. Summary
This section describes the impact on the social aspects resulting from Desa Wisata. The
hypothesis is that the introduction of Desa Wisata improved local cohesion. According to thefindings, however, they do not support the hypothesis. Desa Wisata did not improve local
cohesion an in fact, it has gradually weakened after the introduction of the Tourism Village225concept. Because crafts people do not appear to communicate with other crafters very much, it
was determined that the relationship among people in Kasongan seemed to be weak. Althoughsome people said the atmosphere in Kasongan improved as a result of an improved economy
after the introduction of Desa Wisata, opportunities for cooperation among local people
decreased gradually. However, most people thought it to be an inevitable result of increased
economic benefit.

6.

Conclusions
The assumption before conducting field research was that Kasongan Desa Wisata

should have the potential for sustainability from the five aspects of administration, economy,
environment, culture and society. However, the results of this research indicate that Kasongan
Desa Wista is not sustainable tourism because of following reasons:First, POK DARWIS, as the administrative organization of Kasongan Desa Wisata, is
not a true CBO as is claimed to be in the policy of the Bantul government. All staff membersof POK DARWIS are civil servants and local business leaders. Local people were not involvedin the introduction process of Desa Wisata, nor are they involved in the management system of
POK DARWIS. In addition, POK DARWIS does not work multi-functionally. Due to theshortage of financial support from the central government to Kasongan Desa Wisata for
tourism promotion, the administrative organization of Kasongan Desa Wisata is engaging
mainly economic activities such as seeking investors, and guiding guests from the government
in order to gain financial benefits only for the promotion of the ceramic industry but not for
tourism promotion.
Second, sustainability in regards to the environment and social aspects was found to be
negative. Regarding environmental sustainability, neither the local people nor the government
was making a move to improve the current situation. As for the social aspects, the social
cohesion has gradually weakened in the local community. However, other findings regarding
economical and cultural aspects are positive. As for the economic aspect, the income of thelocal people is increasing as along with the number of tourists and buyers. In regards to thecultural aspects, they accept that their culture is changing. As a result, the aspects affected by
the introduction of Kasongan Desa Wisata have not worked for enhancing sustainability in thecase of the Kasongan local community.
There are no specific connections between the administration aspect and economical,
226

cultural, social and environmental aspects in terms of the local people’s initiative. Local people
in Kasongan have not been involved in the introduction process nor the management system.
Prof. Janianton Damnik in the Center of Tourism Studies, Gadjah Mada University, stated that
“Desa Wisata is a political instrument,” meaning that the concept of KDW was not originatedfrom the perspective of the local people, but rather completely from the side of the government.
In the early stage of the introduction process of Desa Wisata, the Bantul government intended
to promote Kasongan only by giving it the name Desa Wisata. More recently, the Bantul
government established a CBO to get more funding from the central government in order tomaintain local infrastructure. In other words, the opportunities for local people to participate in
the decision making process were not found through the introduction process of Kasongan
Desa Wisata and even now, POK DARWIS is excluding local people.

7.

Acknowledgements
This research was conducted from September 18th to October 2nd 2010 under theOverseas Field Work (OFW) program in Nagoya University. With 6 members in the group,
Working Group 4—Tourism and Culture group—could not have been able to conduct thisresearch without the generosity, helpfulness, and kindness of respective professors, colleagues,
and translators of Nagoya University and Gadja Mada University.
Without the cooperation of Professor Nanang and Professor Suharto from Gadja Mada
University, we would not have been able to know the existence of Tourism Village (Desa
Wisata) in the first place, in addition to further information about the tourism industry inIndonesia. Under the admirable management of these respective professors, the 2 weeks wespent in Yogyakarta concluded with fruitful outcomes.
We must not forget the three brilliant translators and coordinators, Mr. Muhammad
Rum, Miss Dian Fatmawati, and Mr. Faris Alfadh from Gadja Mada University. We can say
with great confidence that this research was impossible to conduct without the effort of thesethree translators. In addition to their usual work, thanks to their relentless work for the entire 2
weeks from morning to night with us, every single document, interview and questionnaire wastranslated. Moreover, their quick action in dynamic situations was highly admirable.
Professor Takahashi, our supervisor, was also very helpful by providing us withappropriate suggestions and advice by observing our group work from a distance. Professor
Takahashi’s guidance was always supportive from the very beginning of the OFW group work.
227

Also, his support towards presentations and this Final Report was exceptional.
Last but not least, we must not forget to appreciate the continuous work by Professor
Shimada and Professor Penghuy for making this OFW program successful. Despite facing
unexpected situations, both professors guided us with appropriate directions, and were always
there to provide everyone with kind words concerning individual physical and mental health.
Finally, we would like to thank officials from Yogyakarta Government, Bantul
Government, Bangunjiwo Government, and the villagers and Village chief of Kasongan
Village, for kindly welcoming us by providing us with their valuable time and extremely
helpful and significant information.
Once again, we would like to take this opportunity to show our gratitude to all thepeople who have supported us and who have contributed to this research, making it a
successful study. We are sure that this relationship of Nagoya University and Gadja Mada
University will continue, and that further cooperation will always be possible.

2288. Appendices

The questionnaire for Kasongan people
Please tell me your basic information;z

Name_____________________________________________z

Age__________

z

Occupation____________________z

Family members_________________________________________________z

For how many generations have you lived in Kasongan?_________________________z

For how many years have you lived in Kasongan?______________________z

Is your occupation related to Desa Wisata?

Gender____male____female

Yes

No

To those whose occupation is related to Desa Wisata;zWhich part of Kasongan do you work at?___________________________________

z

What

was

your

occupation

beforetheintroduction

of

Desa

Wisata?_________________________________z

For how many years (generations) have you worked in Desa Wisata industry?

___________________________________To those whose occupation is not related to Desa Wisata;zWhich part of Kasongan do you work in?___________________________________z

Are you a member of “POK DARWIS”?

Yes

No

To those who are not a member of “POK DARWIS”;z

Do you know what “POK DARWIS”?

Yes

No

Please circle either “yes” or “no”, and also the reason why you think so;
Q1.Do you know Kasongan village is a Desa Wisata?
Yes

No

Q2.Do you think the number of tourists has increased due to the introduction of Desa Wisata?
Yes

No

Reason____________________________________________________________________229

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Q3. Do you accept tourists to visit sites that show the process of the production of ceramic
goods or the kiln?
YesNo

Reason__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Q4-1.
If you have lived in Kasongan since before the introduction of Desa Wisata (1995),
What was your income before the introduction of Desa Wisata (_______)?
□under 2,000,000Rp.

□2,000,000 Rp.—5,000,000 Rp.

□5,000,000 Rp.—8,000,000 Rp.

□8,000,000 Rp.—11,000,000Rp.

□11,000,000Rp.—14,000,000 Rp.

□14,000,000Rp.—17,000,000Rp.

□17,000,000Rp. and above

Q4-2.
What is your current income?
□under 2,000,000Rp.

□2,000,000 Rp.—5,000,000 Rp.

□5,000,000 Rp.—8,000,000 Rp.

□8,000,000 Rp.—11,000,000Rp.

□11,000,000Rp.—14,000,000 Rp.

□14,000,000Rp.—17,000,000Rp.

□17,000,000Rp. and above

Q5. If you have lived in Kasongan since before the introduction of Desa Wisata (1995), howhave the following costs you incur changed from 1995 to present (after the introduction of
Desa Wisata)? Please circle the appropriate number.
Increased drastically-5, Increased-4, No change-3, decreased-2, Decreased drastically-1

230

z

Clothes

5

4

3

2

1

z

Light, Fuel, and Water expenses

5

4

3

2

1

z

Rent

5

4

3

2

1

z

Food

5

4

3

2

1

z

Education costs (general education)

5

4

3

2

1

z

Medical costs

4

3

2

1

z

Transportation costs (eg. Fuel, bus and taxi fee, etc.)

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

z

5

Luxuries (eg. Cigarette, traveling, theatre)

If one runs a store;zRent (store)

5

4

3

2

1

z

Tax

5

4

3

2

1

z

Savings

5

4

3

2

1

Q6. If you have lived in Kasongan since before the introduction of Desa Wisata (1995), do you
feel that the prices of commodities have changed before and after the introduction of Tourism
Village (from1995 to present)? (Please circle either “yes” or “no”.) Please tell us the specificprice if possible;

Increased or not?
z

Rice

Yes

No

Before_____________Rp.
231

After
_____________Rps

z

Oil

Yes

No

_____________Rp.

_____________Rpsz

Petroleum

Yes

No_____________Rp.

_____________Rps

z

Eggs

Yes

No

_____________Rp.

_____________Rps

z

Flour

Yes

No

_____________Rp.

_____________Rps

Q7. How do you expect the following to be impacted by Desa Wisata? (Please circle)
Quite significantly-5, Significantly-4, So-so-3, Not very significantly-2, Not significantly at all-1z

Economical benefit

5

4

3

2

1

z

Harmony among local people

5

4

3

2

1

z

Development of local culture

5

4

3

2

1

z

Preservation of local environment

5

4

3

2

z

Improvement of communication skills

4

3

2

1

z

Improvement of technique related to pottery/ ceramic products

5

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

2

1

z

Improvement of self esteemz

Exploring the potential of the village to enhance economic growth
5

4

3

Q8.Do you think the introduction of Desa Wisata was good?
Yes

No

Q9-1.Do you think Gotong Royong still exist in Kasongan?
Yes

No

Q9-2.What do you think about Gotong Royong before the introduction of Desa Wisata?
Stronger

No change

Q12. If the economical situation becomes worse, will you help others?
Yes

No

Q13.Do you think Kasongan has garbage problems?
Yes

No
232

Weaker1

9. References
Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Republic of Indonesia, 2001.
Connellpage and Joanne Stephen, “Destination-Progress.” Connellpage and Joanne Stephen.
Stutainable Tourism Volume 1. 2008
Mulyadin Priaskmana and Mohamad Soetarso. “Pembangunan Desa Wisata: Pelaksanaan
Undang-undang Otonomi Daerah.” INFO SOCIAL EKONOMI vol.2 No.1 [2001]: 37-44.
PAPERS 2007 Conference EATOF. “Sustainable Tourism in the Yogyakarta Special Region,
Indonesia: Challenge and Opportunity.” EATOF 2007. Yogyakarta Special Region: Department
of Culture and Tourism, Yogyakarta, 2007. 1-4
Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Indonesia. “Description of Yogyakarta”
2008. Indonesia’s official Tourism Website.
14, July, 2010 <http://www.indonesia.travel/en/destination/457/yogyakarta>
Office Revolution. Revolution office3, Oct, 2010 <http://www.sahabatjogja.com/desa-agro-wisata-turi/>
Tait

Carrie.

“Bootsn

All”

1st

Sep,

2002.

Bootsn

All.

25,

June,

2010,

<http://www.bootsnall.com/articles/02-09/kasongan-a-quaint-pottery-village-central-java-indonesia.html>.
Tour Jogya.com. “Kasongan, A line of Sculptures Villages.” Tour Jogja.com. 25, Jun. 2010,<http://www.tourjogja.com/berita-74-kasongan-village-a-line-of-sculptures.html>.
Traveltours and Java. Java tours and travel.
3, Oct, 2010, <http://www.javatoursandtravel.co.id/>.
Yogyes.com. Yogyes.com. 14, July, 2010, <http://www.Yogyes.com/>.

233

List of Individual and Company Donors to the Overseas Fieldwork Fund
(In order of receipt)

Taguchi Fukujukai Foundation
The Aichi Bank, Ltd.
The Bank of Nagoya, Ltd.
The Chukyo Bank, Ltd.
Aichi Steel Corporation
The Daisan Bank, Ltd.
Toyoda Machinary Corporation
Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc.
Okaya & Co., Ltd.
The Tokai Bank, Ltd.
Central Japan Railway Company
Nagoya Railroad Co., Ltd.
Toyota Industries Corporation
Japan Transcity Corporation
Takisada Co., Ltd.
The Hyakugo Bank, Ltd.
Shikishima Baking Co., Ltd.
Chuo Seisakusho, Ltd.
Toyoshima & Co., Ltd. Nagoya
headquarter
Toho Gas Co., Ltd.
Matsuzakaya Co., Ltd.
Maruei Department Store Co., Ltd.
Muto Shoukai Co., Ltd.
Yoshiyuki Hattori, CPA
Nagoya Mitsukoshi, Inc.
CPA Mitsuoka Akira Office
Howa Setsubi Kogyo Co., Ltd.
Kowa Company, Ltd.
Daido Steel Co., Ltd.
Sankyo Kasei Sangyo Co., Ltd.
NGK Spark Plug Co., Ltd.
NGK Insulators, Ltd.

Year 1991
Otake Corportaion
Tsushima Kogyo Co., Ltd.
Tomita Co., Ltd.
Showa Seiyaku Co., Ltd.
Hotta Setsubi Kogyo Co., Ltd.
Sankichi Kondo, CPA
Nakamo Sun Route Co., Ltd.
Hayashi Yaokichi Co., Ltd.
Kazuo Oguri
Matsukazeya Co., Ltd.
Toyota Motor Corporation
The Kitankai
Hoyu Co., Ltd.
Daito Sanshin Co., Ltd.
Yamasei Sangyo Co., Ltd.
Tachibana Shouten Co., Ltd.
Asahi Kako Co., Ltd.
Year 1992
Sintokogio, Ltd.
Dai Nippon Construction
TOENEC Corporation
Aichi Toyota Motor Co., Ltd.
The Tono Shinkin BankThe Juroku Bank, Ltd.
UNY Co., Ltd.
The Ogaki Kyoritsu Bank, Ltd.
Pacific Industrial Co., Ltd.
Toyoda Gosei Co., Ltd.
Nippondenso Co., Ltd.
Aisin Seiki Co., Ltd.
Toyota Tsusho Corporation

234

海外実地研修基金に拠出いただいた個人・企業一覧（受け入れ順）
平成 3 年度
株式会社大竹製作所
津島興業株式会社
富田株式会社
昭和製薬株式会社
ホッタ設備工業株式会社
公認会計士 近藤三吉
株式会社ナカモ・サンルート
株式会社林八百吉商店
小栗和夫
株式会社松風屋
トヨタ自動車株式会社
社団法人キタン会
ホーユー株式会社
大東三進株式会社
山清産業株式会社
株式会社立花商店
朝日化工株式会社

財団法人田口福寿会
株式会社愛知銀行
株式会社名古屋銀行
株式会社中京銀行
愛知製鋼株式会社
株式会社第三銀行
豊田工機株式会社
中部電力株式会社
岡谷鋼機株式会社
株式会社東海銀行
東海旅客鉄道株式会社
名古屋鉄道株式会社
株式会社豊田自動織機製作所
日本トランスシティ株式会社
瀧定株式会社
株式会社百五銀行
敷島製パン株式会社
株式会社中央製作所
豊島株式会社名古屋本社
東邦ガス株式会社
株式会社松坂屋
株式会社丸栄株式会社武藤商会
公認会計士 服部義之
株式会社名古屋三越
公認会計士 光岡朗事務所
朋和設備工業株式会社
興和株式会社
大同特殊鋼株式会社
三協化成産業株式会社
日本特殊陶業株式会社
日本ガイシ株式会社

平成 4 年度
新東工業株式会社
大日本土木株式会社
株式会社トーエネック
愛知トヨタ自動車株式会社
東濃信用金庫株式会社十六銀行
ユニー株式会社
株式会社大垣共立銀行
太平洋工業株式会社
豊田合成株式会社
日本電装株式会社
アイシン精機株式会社
豊田通商株式会社

235