Eubios Journal of Asian andInternational Bioethics
EJAIB Vol. 33 (2) March 2023
www.eubios.info

ISSN 1173-2571 (Print) ISSN 2350-3106 (Online)

Official Journal of the Asian Bioethics Association (ABA)

Copyright ©2023 Eubios Ethics Institute(All rights reserved, for commercial reproductions).

Contents
page
Editorial
33- Darryl Macer
Mindanao sustainable agrarian and agriculture
development (MinSAAD) project: Ethicalconcerns of rural infrastructure projects
in B’laan settlement area, Davao del Sur
34-Rio C. Aguillon-Depalubos and Rogelio P. Bayod
Environmental issues and technologicalchallenges caused by Covid-19
43-Resty Ruel V. Borjal
Disaster bioethics: Towards a holistic approach,
adaptive, resilient, and responsive framework 47-Aldrin Quintero
Peace Education in Experiential Learning
Course: Gauging the Pro iciency in Embedding
Peace-Lens and Teaching Performanceof Mindanao Prospective Teachers
57
Jovar G. Pantao
EJAIB Editorial Board
65
Ordering information
65

Editorial: Our planetary journey

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Let’s take a minute to re lect on our oneness with allof life. We are one of millions of species living on ourshared planet, and in fact living entities comprised ofharmonious interactions between a hundred species
that create each of us to be the persons who forsome years of our planet’s ive billion year journey
exist as beings sharing with some other beings ajourney that we call life. The papers in this issue of
EJAIB present different dimensions of that sharedlife in a holistic sense.
21 years ago in the Eubios Declaration forInternational Bioethics (2002) a group of human
lives agreed to this principle, which stands evenmore relevanrt today as it did then:“Life as a Whole
13. We recognize the dependence of all life (biota) on
intact, functioning ecosystems, and the essential
services that ecosystems provide. We urge action tohalt environmental damage by humans that reduces
biodiversity or degrades ecosystem processes.

14. Whereas wildlife provide numerous free services
that make our life possible and pleasant, cleaning theair, water, and the soil of pollutants, providing food,medicines and a beautiful place to live, wildlife are in
grave danger from the loss of habitat, the spread of
exotic species, pollution, and direct consumption byhumans. Wildlife often cannot protect themselvesfrom humans, so without our help they cannot survive.
The presence of humans greatly reduces the usefulnessof a habitat to wildlife. Wildlife reserves act as sources
for replenishing our supplies of animals and plants.
Therefore, we urge all nations and peoples to makethe protection of wildlife and wildlife habitat a toppriority. In particular we urge them to set aside alarge portion of their territory, interconnected by the
wildlife travel corridors, for the exclusive use of
wildlife, off limits to humans.“
In the irst paper of this issue Rio C. AguillonDepalubos and Rogelio P. Bayod examine how ethics
can promote some good practices in rural
infrastructure projects in Mindanao. The design andexecution of truly sustainable projects requires
assessment through decades, yet as the huge impact
of COVID-19 policies has shown, our environmental
impact can be signi icantly impacted through thespace of a couple of years. These are among theconclusions of the paper by Resty Ruel V. Borjal.
Aldrin Quintero has developed a holistic
approach, adaptive, resilient, and responsive
framework for Disaster bioethics. It is not exclusive
as the only approach that can assist us in disasterbioethics. Jovar G. Pantao explores approaches forpeace education, as war is one of the worst, yet mostcommon, disasters that humans enact on not only
other humans but the whole planet.
The papers in this issue are all substantial efforts
to articulate values that may help us survive better
while living out our lives responsibly while ourpaths, and shared journeys, can be sustainable for all
beings now and in the future. We owe this to ourancestors who did this in their own ways, and wehave a lot still to learn.
- Darryl Macer (Email: darryl@eubios.info)

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

Mindanao sustainable agrarian andagriculture development(MinSAAD) project: Ethicalconcerns of rural infrastructure
projects in B’laan settlement area,
Davao del Sur-Rio C. Aguillon-Depalubos
Cor Jesu College, Graduate School Department, thePhilippines
riodepalubos@g.cjc.edu.ph-Rogelio P. BayodCor Jesu College, Graduate School Department
roger.bayod@gmail.com

Abstract
Land reform, combined with complementary
support services and infrastructure development,
may effectively reduce rural poverty. However,
empirical evidence on the extent of the impact islimited as well as the pathways by which the impacts
reach the bene iciaries. This paper assesses theimpact of Mindanao Sustainable Agrarian andAgriculture Development (MinSAAD) project not
only in terms of economic development but also thesocial and ethical concerns surrounding the project
conceptualization and implementation, especiallyamong indigenous communities.

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Introduction
Rural poverty remains one of the biggest challenges
in development. Though it is not explicit, agricultural
ethics traces its roots in a long history of religious,
political, and philosophical contemplation on
agriculture and the environment. God promised thechildren of Israel an abundance of land early in the
Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) (Deut. 3:8; 15:4).
The Bible also forbade wealthy landowners frompurchasing small farms. (Lev. 25:13, as noted in
Spiegel 1991). Aristotle, a pupil of the Greek
philosopher Plato, spoke on the signi icance ofagricultural knowledge in the individual and societal
pursuit of the "good life" hundreds of years after
Plato had explored the need of rebuilding agriculture
following the mythological Deluge. From John Locke
to Thomas Jefferson, enlightenment intellectuals
emphasized on the role of "tillers of the soil" inpolitics, economics, and philosophy, and on the basic
worth of agriculture (Spiegel 1991).
A systematic approach to the ethics of farming,
rural infrastructure, resource management, foodprocessing, distribution, trade, and consumption
developed in the latter half of the 20th century and is
now known as agricultural ethics. Concerns about
speci ic problem areas that occur in the food system
are combined with components of philosophicalethical analysis to form agricultural ethics.
Agricultural ethics is now supported by a large,
global community of academics, scholars, farmers,

policymakers, and activists who think and write
about these issues. It is promoted by philosophersand scholars from religious studies, the socials c i e n c e s , a n d t h e a g r i c u l t u ra l a n d r u ra l
infrastructure disciplines.
Among the project interventions, farm-to-market
roads appeared to have the most signi icant impact
on the communities. The bene its of the projectinterventions, however, were disproportionately
captured by the wealthier households, resulting inworsened income distribution in the communities.
In the transformation from labor use to moremechanized modes of production andtransportation, the poor, i.e., the wage laborers,
generally lose out, at least temporarily. Futureinterventions in rural infrastructure provisions
should include measures to assist the poor toincrease their capacity to capture new employmento p p o r t u n i t i e s g e n e ra t e d by d e ve l o p m e n tinterventions.
This paper explores the ethical concerns of rural
infrastructure and support services’ relevance toproject design, the ef iciency of implementation,effectiveness in achieving results, sustainability ofbene its, changes that could be attributed to theproject, collaboration among partners, and key
lessons learned from the implementation of rural
infrastructure subprojects provided by the
Mindanao Sustainable Agrarian and Agriculture
Development (MinSAAD) project of the Departmentof Agrarian Reform (DAR) and inanced jointly by theGovernment of the Philippines (GOP) and Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The paper
discusses how ethical concepts and tools canaddress various problem areas in agri-infra systems
and how consideration of agricultural ethics might
be institutionalized.
Methodology
The paper utilizes secondary data as regards to theeconomic and social impacts of the project. In
addition, the paper incorporates the narratives ofthe people, especially, among the indigenous
peoples, as regards to the effects of the project on
their economic and social lives. Finally, the paper
also presents the ethical implications of thedevelopment project implemented among theindigenous peoples in Davao del Sur.
Findings and discussion
The results are presented in tables in terms ofassessing the initial impact of the MinSAAD Project
among the indigenous peoples in Davao del Sur. For
purposes of clarity, the assessments were merely
focused on the following parameters such as
relevance, effectiveness, bene iciary participationand satisfaction, ef iciency, and sustainability of eachrural infrastructure component such as farm-tomarket road, bridges, post-harvest facilities, andrural water systems.

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

35

Table 1. Completed FMR subprojects in B’Laan settlement area, as of July 2021

Subproject Title

Location

Quantity

Cost (Php)

Date Completed

Rehabilitation of Sitio San Roque,Bangkal Gumituyom-Sitio Kilong,
Manga FMR

Matanao, Davaodel Sur

3.15 km

20,941,189.81

20-Sep-18

Rehabilitation of Sitio Biernesan-Sitio
Gulara-Centro Towak- Satuma FMR

Matanao, Davaodel Sur

3.98 km

24,831,529.18

03-Jul-18

Rehabilitation/Construction ofBoundary Upper Katipunan,
Matanao-Glamang-Purok 5,
Malawanit-Sitio Blazan, Malawanit
Elementary School-Blazan, Purok 7,
Magsaysay FMR

M a g s a y s a y,
Davao del Sur

6.35 km

48,979,646.26

02-Jul-19

Rehabilitation of Sitio AcaciaMacabulos-Upper Asbangilok FMR

M a g s a y s a y,
Davao del Sur

5.11 km

55,056,773.21

29-Nov-20

Table 2. Completed Bridge Subprojects in B’Laan settlement area, as of July 2021
Subproject Title

Location

Quantity

Cost (Php)

Date Completed

Construction of San Roque Bridge

Matanao, Davao del Sur

30 lms

14,687,668.27

29-Nov-18

Construction of Malawanit Bridge

Magsaysay, Davao del Sur

25 lms13,561,128.34

02-Jul-19

Table 5. Completed PHF Subprojects in B’Laan settlement area, as of July 2021
Subproject Title

Location

Unit

Cost (Php)

Date Completed

Construction of San Miguel
Post Harvest Facility(Warehouse)

Magsaysay, Davao del Sur

1 WH

2,768,034.57

04-Nov-16

Construction of Malawanit Post Magsaysay, Davao del Sur
Harvest Facility (Warehouse)

1 WH

900,714.83

29-Nov-18

Construction of Kapok Post
Harvest (Warehouse & Solar
Dryer Facilities)

Matanao, Davao del Sur

1 WH & 1 SD

4,847,930.05

08-Feb-17

Construction of Bangkal Post
Harvest Facility (Warehouse)

Matanao, Davao del Sur

1 WH

2,058,961.60

20-Sep-18

Construction of Asinan Post
Harvest Facility (Warehouse)

Matanao, Davao del Sur

1 WH

727,147.13

29-Nov-18

Table 6. Completed RWS Subprojects in B’Laan settlement area, as of July 2021
Subproject Title

Location

No. of HH

Cost (Php)

Date Completed

Construction of Glamang Level
II RWS

Magsaysay, Davao del Sur

360 HH

7,681,914.15

16-Jun-17

Construction of Malawanit(Sitio Blazan) Level II RWS

Magsaysay, Davao del Sur

240 HH

Construction of New
Katipunan Level II RWS

Matanao, Davao del Sur

Construction of Cabasagan
Level II RWS

Matanao, Davao del Sur

08-Jun-18
6,434,893.30

401 HH

28-Sep-17
9,343,451.77

256 HH

02-Jul-19
8,650,717.76

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

Farm-to-market roads and bridges (FMRB): Fourof the 39 approved farm-to-market roads areprogrammed under MinSAAD funding in the B’laan
Settlement Area in the municipalities of Matanao
and Magsaysay, Davao del Sur. As of July 2021,
accomplishments were reported in Table 1.
In Matanao, Davao del Sur, where the FMRBs
were already completed, travel time from the farm to
the road decreased by 16%. The decrease in travel
time due to FMR indicated that the road had beenbrought closer to the farms and faster means oftransportation could already reach some farms.
The construction of the San Roque Bridge andMalawanit Bridge in the municipalities of Matanao
ang Magsaysay respectively, has provided local
people with temporary employment since a numberof residents were hired as construction workers andlaborers during the implementation period.
Informant 1 stressed that “We used to walk forhours before reaching our school until the road was
opened in the early 70s, thanks to the perseveranceof our elder leaders before. Now that the road wasconcreted, it paved the way for new opportunities aswell. We can now go to the center town in a shorter
period of time and various retailers can now reachus, and without the cooperation of the affectedbarangays, this project will cease to exist.”
The decrease travel time results in economic
bene its since the residents have enough time toattend to their farms and businesses; they may havemore time to attend to the needs of their families
and provide quality time to their children.
Table 3. Means of Transport: farm to road
Means oftransport

Farmers usingmeans oftransport

Change2014

2017

Carabao

11.4%

5.4%

-53%

Cart /sled

8.6%

8.1%

-6%

Horse

54.3%

56.8%

+5%

Manual

5.7%

2.7%

-53%

Motorcycle

5.7%

8.1%

+42%

Tricycle

8.6%

0.0%

-100%

Truck

5.7%

18.9%

+232%

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Table 4. Comparative changes in travel time andtransport costCompleted

Ongoing FMRBFMRBNo MinSAADFMRBFarm to Road
Time

-16%

-7%

-2%

Transport Cost

-25%

+21%

+1%

Barangay to Town Center
Time

-32%

-8%

-12%

Transport

-11%

-2%

-0%

Cost - Palay

The increase in usage of truck for transportation(5.7% to 18.9%) indicated penetration to farms thatwere hard to reach before the FMR project wasundertaken. There was a 25% decrease in transport
cost in Barangays Manga and Bangkal in Matanao,
Davao del Sur. But it did not mean that the drivers/
haulers were charging less. The decrease came fromfarmers shifting to other means of transport thatwere cheaper in the irst place. While the increase oftruck and other forms of transport is a sign offprogress, it also implies possible increased risk ofenvironmental harm. In addition, the increase ofpeople and traders traveling to the indigenous
communities implies a possible risk to culturalpreservation when there are no proper regulations
to mitigate some of these social and environmental
effects.
Table 4 compares changes in travel time andtransport cost in barangays with completed FMR,
barangays with ongoing or partially completed FMR,
and barangays without MinSAAD FMR. (though somebarangays without MinSAAD FMR may already havea road constructed before MinSAAD.) The bene its
brought about by the completed FMR can be readily
seen. But there is one glaring discordant igure in thetable and that is the 21% increase in transport costfrom farm to road in barangays with ongoing FMR. A
possible explanation is that farmers had to bring
their products farther down the road, past the
portion under construction.

Relevance: All the FMRBs programmed under
MinSAAD clearly manifested positive results such asa reduction in travel time and the facilitation oftransport of agricultural products in distantcommunities to the markets. These FMRBs areusually located in vast agricultural production areas
but with poor road accessibility. Every bridge
subproject under MinSAAD connects FMRs to
improve the transport of agricultural products andmobility of people.
The FMR connecting Barangays Bangkal andManga in Matanao, Davao del Sur spanned from
Sitio Bangkal-San Roque- Gumituyom-Sitio Kilong
and included the construction of 30 l.m. RCDG
Bridge. Before the MinSAAD- assisted FMR project,
the existing FMR that traversed the rich rice ield
was in a very bad condition and even motorcycles
had dif iculty crossing. The most common means oftransportation to bring the palay (rice) products tothe market in Matanao Poblacion was throughhorseback up to Manga or Bangkal Proper thenthrough tricycle or four-wheel vehicle to the
Poblacion. A horseback supported travel charged
P30.00 per cavan of palay up to Bangkal or MangaEubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

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Proper. Moreover, horses and single motorcycles
had to cross San Roque River through its river bed
in the absence of a bridge connecting the twobarangays.
Informant 2 said: “Not only this road will bring
faster and better access for farmers, this FMR will
also bene it people by bringing local labor in ourmunicipality.” With a rehabilitated road and new
bridge constructed, the low of agricultural
products from barangays Manga and Bangkal will
become unimpeded, faster, more comfortable andcost less. Upon completion of the two projects,
namely: FMR and Bridge, a circumferential roadconnecting barangays Towak, Manga, Bangkal,
Asinan, Cabasagan, and Poblacion, all in Matanao isformed, thus, transport of agricultural products
from and to these areas will become easier, faster,and at much lesser cost.
A good road network is expected to bring
improvements in hard-to-reach production areas.
Hence, the four completed FMRs are now boosting
economic development around their service areas.
Four-wheel vehicles, tricycles, and motorcycles
from Poblacion can now travel smoothly to
Barangays Manga and Sitio Kilong traversing along
vast rice paddies. Some people from Sitio Kilong
expressed high satisfaction with the improvementof the FMR because it will be easier for them to go
to the Poblacion and to Barangay Bangkal once thebridge construction is completed. Before theproject was implemented, sacks of palay (rice)
were transported to Matanao Poblacion throughhorseback and motorcycles which had to cross San
Roque river through its river bed.
Informant 3 stated: “Farmers spend P20-P30 per
sack of harvest when they transport these to otherareas. Now, we have wider road and a bridge over
the river that make it easier and cheaper for farmers
to reach new buyers. Transport cost is reduced byaround 75%.”
The preparation of the plans and POW for all FMR
subprojects programmed under MinSAAD had gone
through the standard procedures adopted by the
DPWH. Thus, the plans and POW of every FMR wereprepared with irm bases. These were further
reviewed by the MPMO and the Consultant’s Team ofexperts on infrastructure projects.
The strategy of providing Portland cement
concrete pavement (PCCP) on steep sections of the
FMR proved effective to maintain the accessibility ofthe entire road length. The case of the Upper New
Katipunan-Malawanit FMR in Magsaysay, Davao delSur showed that steep sections with PCCP remained
stable. Most FMR subprojects were implemented
beyond their original target completion dates. In thecase of the Sitio San Roque, Bangkal-GumituyomSitio Kilong, Manga FMR, the implementation went
beyond by about one month from its original date ofcompletion due to unfavorable weather condition at
the project site. Some construction work went
beyond by almost ive months from its original dateof completion due to variation order, unworkable37

days due to heavy rains, and right-of-way issues,
among others.
An informant explained: “MinSAAD Project reallyadheres to standards and speci ications and strict
compliance on the approved POW and plans. The
remove and replace strategy imposed by the
MinSAAD Inspectorate Team has made us keener
and stricter on our construction implementation andlocales are involved as laborers in the roads andbridges construction.”
Sustainability: Upon completion of every FMR
project under MinSAAD, it is turned over to and will
be under the care of the concerned Municipal LGU.
The responsibility for its regular maintenance shallform part of the Annual Investment Plan (AIP) of themunicipality. The Matanao and Magsaysay LGUs areready to take on the responsibility of maintenancework for the completed and turned-over FMRB
subprojects. This was substantively discussed with
the SPMO and the Executive Secretary of theMunicipal Mayor. The Municipal LGUs has suf icient
heavy equipment that can be utilized in the regular
maintenance of the road and bridge projects once
completed and turned over to them. This heavyequipment includes the following: dump trucks, six
units; road grader, backhoe, road compactor andexcavator, one unit each; and pay loader, two units.
An informant said: "We are going to protect andtake care of this road and bridge since it is a legacy
that is worth keeping.”
Post-harvest facilities (warehouse & solar drier):
As of July 2019, ive (5) post-harvest facilities in
B’laan Settlement area were completed and turnedover. These facilities were provided to different
peoples’ organizations in support to the AAAD
component of MinSAAD.
Relevance: The existing solar dryers in the area are
not enough to accommodate all the rice products
from the production areas especially during peakharvest season. Harvested palay (rice) will bethreshed on site using a portable rice thresher andpalay (rice) will be put in new or clean sacks/bags.
After threshing, palay (rice) will be procured by the
consolidating PO and brought to drying facility.
Dried palay (rice) will be brought inside the houses
tserving as temporary warehouse and will wait forthe milling schedule. The construction of Kapok Post
Harvest (Warehouse & Solar Dryer Facilities) as
managed by Matanao Balipao Farmers Irrigators
Association (MABAFIA) as the lead ARBO,
maximized the bene its from agricultural produced
by improving its quality and improved the farmeconomy through the value-added bene its derived
from the increase in the price of the agricultural
products through protection of the stored
agriproduct from inclement weather and pests, andreduction of storage losses or deterioration ofquality agri-products.

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

Effectiveness and bene iciary satisfaction: The
project was well implemented through the combined
efforts of MinSAAD MPMO and Consultants,
Municipal LGU and the bene iciary-organizations.
Utilizing the warehouse as the processing center andstorage facilities of the organization is expected toincrease the ef iciency of production once an area ismade available. The solar drier has been used fordrying palay, cocoa beans, corn and other crops, andhas started to generate income for the organization.
Despite the delay in the turn-over of the project due
to delayed release of the Municipal LGU cash
counterpart, the organization was allowed to
immediately use the facilities after its completion.
Ef iciency: The cost of the implementation of
warehouses and solar driers varies according to site
condition. Sites which are hardly accessible incur
more expenses in the delivery of construction
materials. Generally, the cost of the PHF constructedunder MinSAAD is within the standard construction
parameters. The implementation of the warehouseand solar drier. The subproject was of iciallycompleted based on the original target date of its
completion.
The Municipal LGUs provided support in the formof cash, equipment, manpower, and fuel in the
preparation of site where the project wasconstructed. The Peoples’ Organizations monitored
the implementation of the project and hired
somebody to check regularly the materials being
delivered at site. The connection of electricity fromthe electric cooperative was put up as counterpart ofthe organization. Labor counterpart consisted ofmainly unskilled workers in the construction who
were Barangay residents.
An informant said: “POs should manage theproject well to generate more income and to buy
additional units of corn shellers and otherequipment to cater more farmers in their respective
areas and adjacent barangays.”
Sustainability. Once the PHF is turned-over to therespective bene iciary-organization, the operationand maintenance (O&M) of the PHF is assumed by
the concerned organization.
During the FGD
sessions with bene iciary-organizations withcompleted warehouse and/or solar drier, it was
found out that they have the set of policies to carryout the O&M activities.
Speci ically, they havealready set the rates of fees for the use of the
facilities.

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Rural Water Systems (RWS): Four of the total of 26
level II type rural water system (RWS) subprojects(i.e., communal faucets or tap stands) were
programmed under MinSAAD in B’laan Settlement
Area. Table 7 shows the details of the completed
RWS subprojects in Matanao and Magsaysay, Davaodel Sur bene iting some 1,257 households. These
RWS subprojects were being implemented byrespective Municipal LGUs through private

contractors. These bene iciary LGUs also put up
corresponding counterparts as their equity for every
subproject.
The awareness of bene iciary households about
the MinSAAD RWS in barangays where there is sucha subproject is 76.8%. Some 61.2% of households
avail of the services of these RWS while 18.4% ofhouseholds have their own shallow wells withpressure tank or might be illegally connected to the
RWS leading to faucets inside their houses.
The average monthly rate for water consumption
from RWS being charged by WUAs is P200.00 per
month. However, bene iciary households are willingto pay only P65.00 per month or 20.20% lower than
the average rate charged by WUAs. The average
expense for water per month by households isP68.00. This indicates that some household
consumers are not paying at all or are not paying in
full. The average availability of water from tap standsof RWS constructed by MinSAAD is 22 hours per day.
This indicates an adequate supply of water fromt h e s e RW S . T h e ave ra g e d a i ly h o u s e h o l dconsumption for drinking water is 14 liters, while,for other domestic purposes, 100 liters.
The average time spent for fetching water fromthese RWS is six minutes including time from houseto tap stand, waiting time, and back from tap standto house. Baseline data reached 14 minutes. This
indicates that with RWS provided by MinSAAD, timespent for fetching water has decreased by 57%.
Some 84.10% of the households drawing waterfrom these RWS knew that their water source has
been subjected to potability test in 2017. Therefore,
some 94.4% of these households felt assured that
their water was safe for drinking. Households thatreported incidence of waterborne diseases was
3.9%, while the baseline data was 7.9%, whichmeant a 51% reduction.
Table 7. Bene its from rural water systems
Bene it

HH Bene iting

Shorter time for fetching water

38.8%

Less expenses for water

15.5%

Better hygiene

24.3%

More water for lushing

14.6%

Reduced incidence of water borne
diseases

10.7%

More drinking water

61.2%

More water for washing and cooking

35.0%

Water for gardening

7.8%

Relevance. Safe and potable water is a basic
necessity of every individual because. The need for areliable water system in every community should begiven utmost priority. Before the construction of thewater supply system in Barangay Glamang,Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
Magsaysay, Davao del Sur, residents were drawing
drinking water from a spring located around two
kilometers from their residences. Drawing waterfrom this source usually took an hour because of the
distance. Others who have the means would rather
pay P10.00 per container (18 liters) to water
fetchers on motorcycles. A household consumes
around ive containers per day or a total expenditureof P50.00 per day for water.
Table 8. Sources of drinking water
Source of Drinking
Water

HH Availing

Deep well pump

1.0%

Open spring

3.9%

Spring box

22.3%

Tap stand61.2%

Own faucet

18.4%

Bottled/Puri ied water

1.0%

Others1.0%

In the past, diarrhea epidemic infected residents
in Barangay Glamang due to use of unsafe water.
With MinSAAD water supply project, the lingering
problem on accessible and supply of potable waterin the barangay has been inally solved. At present, a
total of 215 households are served with potablewater through 60 units tap stands.
Effectiveness and bene iciary satisfaction: With
the availability of potable water from the MinSAAD
water supply project in Barangay Glamang,
improvements in the everyday lives of residents
were noted. Since the water supply project became
operational, nobody was reported to contract any
water-borne disease. Everybody can take daily baths
easily with comfort. Washing clothes and cleaning
their houses become easier than ever.
Watering their backyard gardens and ornamental
plants can now be done regularly, and time saved infetching water can now be used for other economic
activities such as cacao farming and other farm
activities. Two (2) tap-stands each were shared witha public elementary school in Barangay Malawanit,
Magsaysay and Barangay Cabasagan, Matanao.
Pupils in these schools are now being taught theproper sanitation practices, such as, regularbrushing of teeth, proper use of toilets, etc.

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Ef iciency: An ideal water supply system is drawing
its potable supply from a natural spring and bringing
it down to its bene iciaries through gravity type
distribution system.
The Glamang RWS uses a pump to draw waterfrom a drilled deep well because there is no available
spring as a good source of water nearby. However,the Magsaysay LGU through the assistance from39

MinSAAD MPMO and Consultants Team (MCT) wasable to successfully construct a water system level II
now bene iting about 215 households on actual
headcounts with 60 tap stands.
Sustainability: Every bene iciary-organization of
RWS from MinSAAD is fully aware of its
responsibility to operate and maintain the watersupply subproject. These organizations have comeup with sets of guidelines to follow to sustain theiroperation. The Glamang Farmers and Workers
Association (GLAFAWA) which is the bene iciarygroup of the water supply subproject in Glamang has
formulated policies as the base for the operation andmaintenance of the water supply system. Amongthese are the following:a) Monthly tariff of P204.00 shall be collected fromevery household-consumerb) Forty percent (40%) of the monthly watercollection shall be allocated for the O&M expenses,
such as, electric bill, replacement of any parts/
materials destroyed, purchase of chlorine, etc.;c) Forty percent (40%) of the monthly watercollection shall be allocated for the allowances ofworkers, such as, plumbers, meter reader, bill server,
caretaker, manager, bookkeeper, treasurer, etc.; andd) Twenty percent (20%) of the monthly watercollection shall be saved as Trust Fund of GLAFAWA
deposited in a bank.
Policies formulated and agreed upon by the
association are being strictly enforced, especially, inthe collection of water tariff. If the association
tolerates late payment of some consumers, this may
create precedence for others not to pay their bills ontime. The life of the water supply system depends on
the available resources to keep it always inserviceable condition especially that it is operatedusing a pump and electricity. The municipal LGU,
through the Municipal Engineering Of ice (MEO) is
continuously monitoring and assisting the GLAFAWA
in the operation and maintenance of the watersupply system, particularly on the technicalconcerns.
Management and collaboration: The positive
response of bene iciaries to delivered subprojects
indicates a generally good match between Project
design and interventions, on one hand, and theneeds of farmers, their organizations, and theircommunity at large, on the other hand. In mostcases, promoted crops match bene iciary needs andpreference, as well as local conditions. Introduced
technologies are relevant. Most equipment andfacilities provided meet client needs and preference,
although in isolated cases some equipment remain
unused.
The MinSAAD design/framework is aligned withhigher level plans and local development plans.
FMRs and bridges, as a category of subprojects, meetthe needs of the community as a whole. They open
new areas for agricultural development and they canserve as the initial spoke or artery of a future road40

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

network. In some cases, however, they appear to be
stand-alone subprojects as there is no clear
integration with other development efforts.
Relevance depends to some extent on thereadiness of farmers to transition from survival tofood security to agri-business. As there is a tendency
in the Project to work with models and standard
subprojects, this readiness has not been suf iciently
assessed such that even within a barangay some
farmers may feel left out even if the delivered
subproject is relevant to a majority of farmers.
Effectiveness and bene iciary satisfaction: The
main MinSAAD Project framework of convergence
for integrated area development along the value
chains of promoted key commodities is sound andhas been shown to work in some other projects in
Mindanao and elsewhere in the Philippines.
The Project strategies are coherent within the
Project framework and have been met with varying
degrees of success. They are not uniformly
successful due to problems with the timing andsequencing of their application and the lack ofnecessary adaptation to different speci ic contexts.
Ef iciency: The main issue with project ef iciency isthe delay in the completion of subprojects. The
causes of the delays are the various stages ofsubproject development, and not just in theimplementation or construction stage. Some delays
arise from the build-up of negative slippages. For
small subprojects, the longest delay is in the
procurement stage.
Implementation stage is hampered by lack ofconsultations leading to mismatch between agreed/
preferred equipment and actual delivery; thistranslates to lost working days. A host of otherissues serve as barriers at this stage such asinclement weather; dif icult access to subprojectsite; threats to peace and order; road right-of- way;
dif iculty in getting deed of donation; andsubstandard contractor performance. In someinstances, the cost-bene it ratio was high. If it was
clear what other development was planned in thearea, then it would have been easier to justify thehigh subproject cost as a necessary initialinvestment.
Sustainability: There are four inter-related
strategies being worked-out to ensure Projectsustainability: (a) Creating a support network forassisted POs, facilities, and agri-businesses; (b)Handing over responsibility for maintenance, repair,and even expansion to LGUs in the case of FMRs and
POs in the case of irrigation systems, rural water
systems, and processing and post-harvest facilities;(c) Making subprojects such as agri-businesses andrural water systems self-liquidating; and (d)Creating a mechanism for continued monitoring of
subprojects after the end of the MinSAAD Project.

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Importance of ethics in agriculture
In this paper, three main secular ethical traditions or
theories are interchangeably linked as tojusti ications for the rightness or wrongness of theimplementation of the agri-infra interventions of the
MinSAAD Project, namely: (1) Rights theory. This
theory holds that individuals have rights (i.e.,justi iable claims against others that others do or do
not treat them in certain ways). Rights theory isbased on the idea that individuals are entitled to not
be harmed against their will— “harm” means both
physical harm and damage to property and interests.
If an action causes or will cause harm to individuals,
rights theory declares this action unethical, and nobene its (or a very limited set of bene its) canoverride this determination; (2) Utilitarian theory.
Utilitarianism is a “consequentialist” theory, whichmeans that right and wrong are determined not by
appeal to some absolute limit (e.g., rights), but by
taking into considerations all the consequences of anaction (Maboloc, 2020). There are different
interpretations of what counts as a good or bad
consequence, but in its most general sense,
utilitarianism holds that people should always act tomaximize bene icial consequences and minimize
harmful consequences. As it is sometimes put:
Ethical actions produce “the greatest good for thegreatest number of potentially affected living
beings.” In practice, this usually means attempting to
produce “net bene its”—more bene icial
consequences than harmful ones. This “caveat” isbased on the recognition that most (if not all) actions
have some potentially harmful implications, even if
unintended, and (3) Virtue theory. This theory holds
that ethically we ought to act by a set of ideals or
character traits—the kinds of traits a just, fair, good
person would exhibit through his or her actions(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). An actionthat either fails to follow these ideals or puts otherpeople in a position such that they cannot follow
their ideals, is wrong. Indeed, not following virtues,
or preventing others from following virtues, isharmful to oneself and others.
Rural poverty is a serious problem in thePhilippines, and the Agrarian Reform Communities(ARC) are among the most disadvantaged populationgroups. Baseline studies conducted in 1997 by the
University of the Philippines Los Baños determinedthat more than 70% of agrarian household members
lived below the poverty line (Morales, 1999). This
study reveals that the average agrarian household
annual income was US$792.72 compared with thenational poverty threshold of US$1378.36.
Recognizing that poverty is most prevalent amonglandless farm workers and sharecroppers, thegovernment’s dominant way of addressing poverty
has been to transfer ownership and control of land
assets to such agricultural reform bene iciaries. An
integral component of land distribution is theprovision of rural infrastructure and support
services to complement agricultural productivity
and enhance the welfare of impoverished farmworkers and sharecroppers (Morales, 1999).
Agrarian reform is recognized as a prerequisite
for growth with equity in developing countries asEubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
evidenced in Japan, the Republic of Korea, Taipei,
China, and the People’s Republic of China, whichhave successfully implemented this reform (Morales,1999). The redistribution of land helps reducepoverty by granting full ownership and control to
the farmer-bene iciaries and providing thenecessary support services and infrastructure to
make the land productive while laying thefoundation for broad-based development. Throughthe successful implementation of land reform
programs, these countries have achieved sustained
economic growth and successfully reduced absolutematerial poverty among their populace.
T h eComprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) isan integral part of the Philippine Government’s longterm strategy for reducing poverty, stimulating
economic growth, and promoting social justice.
Actual lands distributed, to date, reach some 1.4
million hectares bene itting some 2.4 million
farmers, which can form the base for an enhanced
agriculture sector. The government also harnesses
the economic potentials of awarded agriculturallands by transforming agrarian reform bene iciaries(ARBs) into pro itable entrepreneurs by capacitatingthem in better and better agricultural productionand enabling them to engage in value-adding
activities, enterprises, and agri-business and toparticipate competitively in the market.
The
Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) pursues thisthrough Agrarian Reform Communities (ARCs) and
ARC Clusters as catalysts of growth and further
expands the program to cover more ARBs, as well as
non-ARBs in the communities, by pursuing ARC
connectivity as a means to facilitate access to input
sources, production and market information andfacilities, technology, social processes and politicalinstitutions.
While the availability and quality of rural
infrastructure are never substituted for ef icientmacroeconomic and agriculture-speci ic policies andthe effective implementation of such policies,
inadequate infrastructure can be a signi icant
constraint to growth and productivity. Researchshows that productivity increase in agriculture,
which is an effective driver of economic growth andpoverty reduction, depends on good rural
infrastructure, well-functioning domestic markets,
appropriate institutions, and access to appropriatetechnology (Andersen and Shimokawa 2007).

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The economic, social, and ethical concerns of
MinSAAD project in Davao del Sur: MinSAAD is apoverty alleviation project in selected marginalized
areas (12 settlements) in Mindanao. The Projectaddresses poverty issues through competitive andsustainable agriculture using an inclusive approachand modalities in investments that are based onvalue chain analysis of key agricultural commodities.
The Project is therefore focused on sustainableagricultural development and support services suchas irrigation, rural roads and bridges, rural watersupply, marketing, and related aspects; effective

41

governance and social protection; and others thatwould support the objective of alleviating poverty in
marginalized target areas.
MinSAAD Project is a cooperation between the
Government of the Philippines and the Governmentof Japan, with the latter extending a loan of PhP3.350
Billion through the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) and the former providing a P1.052
Billion counterparts. The lead implementing agency
is the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR). The
Project loan agreement was signed on March 30,
2012, and the Project loan took effect on July 3,
2012. The Project loan closes on July 3, 2020. This
Project is aimed to increase agricultural productivity,
product value, and income of agrarian reformbene iciaries and other small-scale farmers throught h e p rov i s i o n o f s m a l l - s c a l e a g r i c u l t u ra l
infrastructure and agricultural/organization
capacity-building-ding support thereby contributing
to increasing competitiveness and sustainability ofagriculture in the covered areas.
Rural poverty is linked to the exposure of thehouseholds to economic vulnerability, through theirchronic dependence on agriculture for income
generation. A starting point in mitigating thisvulnerability is a comprehensive improvement inaccessibility. This would substantially reducetransportation cost and thereby lessen the isolationof rural communities from basic welfare services(Barrios, 2008). Community participation is crucial
in identifying development projects; it can help tominimize the wastage of resources on inappropriate
projects, and enable resources to be allocatedinstead it to other productive uses. The provision ofrural roads, bridges, post-harvest facilities and rural
water systems should be bundled properlywith support services and capacity-building
activities. This can enhance the demand for otherinfrastructure and services, resulting in a dynamic
evolution of essential elements in the pursuit ofrural development. Bundles of intervention improve
the production ef iciency of rural households at thedifferent stages of production, both on and off the
farm.
Rural development interventions should pay
special attention to the more vulnerable segments ofthe community, especially, the farmers. Interventions
should aim gradually to detach them from complete
dependence on agriculture, without putting theirfood security at risk. Rural infrastructure
investments can lead to higher farm and nonfarm
productivity, employment and income opportunities,
and increased availability of wage goods, thereby
reducing poverty by raising mean income andconsumption. If higher agricultural andnonagricultural productivity and increased
employment directly bene it the poor more than the
non-poor, these investments can reduce poverty
even faster by improving income distribution as
well.
However, targeting government interventions tore d u c e p ove r t y c a n o n ly b e re ga rd e d a s

42

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

supplementary to fostering economic growth, whichis the more durable approach to sustained poverty
reduction and overall improvement in livings t a n d a rd s . P u b l i c i nve s t m e n t i n p hys i c a linfrastructure is needed to raise productivity andachieve long-term growth. Such investment is
especially critical in rural areas for at least two
reasons: irst, because ample potential remains forraising rural productivity and employment, thereby
contributing signi icantly to faster overall economic
growth in many developing countries; and, second,
because rural areas are home to the majority of thepoor in our country.
Crop agriculture and animal production, alongwith managed forests, dominate human-controlled
ecosystems on a national and international level.
Agriculture has had, and will continue to have,signi icant negative effects on the environment.
There are three main areas of ethics that are raisedby these environmental effects. First, the methods
used in agricultural production may have hazardous
impacts through the release of organic wastes andchemical pollutants, which may harm non-target
creatures, leave chemical traces in food, andendanger farm workers and other people. Second,the utilization of genetic resources, water, and soil in
agriculture can be wasteful. Third, in addition to theindirect impacts of exposure to chemical poisons,agriculture has a variety of effects on wild creaturesand natural ecosystems (CAST 1994).
Transgenic crops, for instance, have unintended
environmental effects (UNFAO 2001). Although mostindividuals would concur that these topics create
ethical dilemmas, attempting to de ine a response
raises challenging philosophical issues. Each topic
revolves around issues of acceptable risk andstandards for comparing the degree and distributionof risks to bene its. There are con licts between
utilitarian and rights-oriented approaches to risk,
just as there are with food safety. Additionally,
because of their impacts on the rights or welfare of
future generations, wasteful behaviors and theireffects on natural places may be seen as having
ethical signi icance. On the other hand, some people
think that humans have duties of care and respect
for nature that go beyond any use of natural
resources that humans will ever make. (Taylor
1981). What exactly constitutes a negativeenvironmental impact has resurfaced in discussions
about how transgenic crops affect the ecosystem.
(UNFAO 2001). Relevant here is also the question ofwhether transgenic crops might bene it theenvironment more than conventional varieties.

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Concluding remarks
Morality is everyone's responsibility. Another reason
for leaving out ethics is a long-held but now mostly
debunked belief that morality and value judgments
are incompatible with or contrary to the practice of
science. This perspective may have caused
administrators to overlook creating ethics programs,
particularly within agricultural research andeducation, as agriculture grew more deeply
impacted by science and scienti ic study. So, it seems
sensible to think about how ethics might beinstitutionalized more successfully than it is now.
Everyone involved in the food system should starttaking ethics into account when making decisions,taking actions, and supporting policies as this is themost direct way to institutionalize ethics. This kindof thinking has been done, as already said in thiswork, on occasion; however, in order toinstitutionalize agricultural ethics, it must become a
top priority. Regrettably, other in luences like
expediency, politics, and economics usually interferewith ethical contemplation. Another element isinertia. It would take a huge paradigm shift inpeople's lives, habits, and organizations to attempt toincorporate ethical debate and evaluation into
routines today.
The public's faith in agricultural – infrastructurescience, for example, may call for institutional andindividual actions that go above and beyond thesteps outlined in this paper. These solutions caninvolve expanding the public's options for decisionmaking or improving outreach initiatives to gather
opinions from a diverse variety of persons. But in theend, the question of institutionalizing ethics in theagri-infra system comes down to each of us
accepting that if ethical issues are to be understoodand ethical con licts are to be resolved, it is our
responsibility to understand and contribute within
the parameters of our place in the system. After all,the word "ethics" means "way of life."
Investments in the nation’s infrastructure may benecessary and relevant as we advanced to the fast
trend of technology, but these changes sometimes
come with a cost to vulnerable communities andfuture generations. But with every infrastructure
plan comes a host of potential ethical issues thatnational, state, and local leaders need to consider:gentri ication, the potential effects of change inclimate, impacts on local culture, and the availabilityof affordable housing, to name a few.
There are important ethical questions for thenation to consider before diving into such a major
and widespread investment in transportation
networks, drinking water systems, renewableenergy, and other infrastructure projects. Often,
there are unintentional consequences that result
from improving infrastructure. For instance, we
installed rural infrastructures that led to an increase
in rents and displaced marginalized communities.
Rents went sky-high. Local people were forced to theoutskirts of town while often their source of
livelihood remained inside the city.
Political and ethical considerations surroundtechnologies. We have to think about the distributionof harms and bene its, along with who gets to have avoice in such decisions. Say, points to cities, where
improvements to the highway system have been asigni icant bene it to residents in the suburbs, buthave left people who live in the city’s core to deal
with increased pollution and adverse health effects

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
such as asthma. Of course, such issues are notunique to rural areas.
Civil engineers and development workers should
consider the ethical impacts of new transportation
systems, road and bridge constructions, and otherinfrastructure like environmental concerns andnoise. There are public hearings and other ways forthe local public to be involved in the planning
process It’s just very important to involve
stakeholders in the process of re-routing, updating,or building new infrastructure that affects the public.
We need to make sure that people’s voices are heard
and part of the decision-making process to indcommon ground. In some cases, the perception ofdivision or the creation of a barrier may not always
be the residents’ viewpoint.
References

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Ali, I., & Pernia, E. M. (2003). Infrastructure and poverty
reduction-what is the connection?
Anderson, D. No date. A Brief History of Agriculture:
Background Information. University of Illinois Collegeof Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental
Sciences, Urbana–Champaign, <http://
www.aces.uiuc.edu/~sare/backinfo.html> (12 January
2004)
Anderson, S. (ed.). 2000. Views from the South: The Effectsof Globalization and the WTO on Third World Countries.
Food First Books and the International Forum on
Globalization, Oakland, California.
Barrios, E. B. (2008). Infrastructure and ruraldevelopment: Household perceptions on ruraldevelopment. Progress in planning, 70(1), 1-44.
Berry, W. 1977. The Unsettling of America: Culture andAgriculture. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco,California.
Blatz, C. (ed.). 1991. Ethics and Agriculture. University of
Idaho Press, Moscow, Idaho.
Connelly, Lynne M. "Trustworthiness in qualitative
research." MedSurg Nursing, Nov.-Dec. 2016, p.
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Faiz, A., Faiz, A., Wang, W., & Bennett, C. (2012).
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https://iep.utm.edu/virtue/
Llanto, G. M. (2012). The impact of infrastructure on
agricultural productivity (No. 2012-12). PIDS
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Maboloc, C.R (2020). Ethics in Contemporary Philippine
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Molenaar, A. A. A. (2013). Durable and sustainable road
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Sawada, Y. (2015). The impacts of infrastructure indevelopment: A selective survey.
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Streimikiene, D., Bilan, Y. (2015), „Review of Rural
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Trochim, W. M. (2006). Qualitative measures. Researchmeasures knowledge base, 361, 2-16.

Environmental issues andtechnological challenges caused by
COVID-19-Resty Ruel V. Borjal
Department of Social Sciences, College of Arts andSocial Sciences, Central Luzon State University,
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
restyvbojal@clsu.edu.phAbstract
COVID-19 has made some changes that in luence
every element of human living from physical andmental to environmental disruption. This healthcrisis created discussions on the need to addressenvironmental issues and technological challenges.
This paper will draw upon Martin Heidegger’s
Question concerning technology and show that theeffects of environmental issues on human lives are
impossible to ignore; thus, there is a need to foster a
new thinking. I will begin irst by showing how
technological thinking presents environmental
problems and increases the risks where humanbeings and nature are reduced to a ‘standing reserve’.
Second, I will present that the environmental crisishas been the result of the predominance oftechnological understanding of the world andhumanity’s persistent sway of challenging nature,
thus, reducing the world into a manageable resource.
I will re lect and use a Heideggerian concept of
meditative thinking which promotes not only
environmental sustainability but also encourages astrong person-environmental connection. The
impact of the current crisis generated by the
Covid-19 pandemic allows for the opportunity oftransforming change in the attitude of individuals
and discloses a way leading to a re-awakening of
one’s care for things and nature as a whole.
Introduction
COVID-19 pandemic has exposed humanity in themost susceptible situation. The contemporary
human beings stand facing against the most dreadfulinfectious disease in this modern decade. This fatal
viral disease has infected millions of people andclaimed many deaths worldwide. The main culprit
pathogen belongs to the Coronavirus family.
Symptoms include pneumonia, fever, malaise, andmuscular aches. Corona virus outbreak started in
December 2019 in Wuhan, China (WHO 2020) and it
was declared a pandemic in March 2020 (WHO2020). Globally, as of March 10, 2023, there havebeen 676,609,955 con irmed cases of COVID-19,
including 6,881,955 deaths reported to WHO.
In 2019, environmental disasters swayed theissue of climate change into the public arena, viz-à-44

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

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viz the effects of modernity in encouraging humans
to challenge, exploit and manipulate nature. In early
2020, the advent of COVID-19 in public discourse
also occupied our attention through a series ofcritical discussions about the interrelatedness
between environmental and global health crises.
Heidegger’s insights could highlight thecontemporary locus of environmental crisis throughhis critique of the materialistic approach of scienceand technology. Today’s scienti ic approach is purely
calculative, where everything is challenged forth intoquanti ication. The post-global pandemic concerns
like the environmental crisis should consider if
technology’s place in the new normal should becontrolled.
Two major observations are of particularsigni icance in this world brought about by the many
devastating aftermaths of the COVID-19 pandemic.
First, COVID-19 provided a chance for theenvironment to recover and regain her freshness
temporarily primarily because of lockdowns ofbusiness establishments, factories, workplaces, andrestrictions of quarantine protocols on many
economic activities. Moreover, this pandemic
reduced violence against nature and safeguarded
nature from the patriarchal exploitation.
Consequently, nature was temporarily saved fromher perilous condition. Heidegger’s warnings areabout the danger of thoughtlessly granting theGestell. For Heidegger (1977a, 21), Gestell is “the way
in which the real reveals itself as standing-reserve.” In
today’s age, Gestell, or enframing develops as thedominant mode of revealing. Enframing urges
humans into a technical attitude, which endangers
and hinders the revelation of things and other waysof viewing the world. Marcuse (1964) contends that
this technological rationality has compelled a onedimensional society wherein there is only one
system of rationality that displaces all other humanvalues and ideas. Marcuse (1941, 420) thinks:
Since reality, identity, and freedom lose theirnatural potency, Marcuse spoke of onedimensional reality, behaviour, or thinking. The
fear or challenge is that "Everything cooperates
to turn human instincts, desires and thoughts
into channels that feed the apparatus… The
relationships among men are increasingly
mediated by the machine process."
The overlapping environmental-technological crises
and the COVID-19 pandemic have concurrently
heightened discussions since 2020. Whileenvironmental issues amplify and generate newforms of concerns, all of which are interconnectedwith the technological challenges, the onset of the
COVID-19 pandemic has generated new challenges
and demonstrated global changes.
My main claim in this article is that meditative
thinking is a successful attempt in transforming ourattitude toward technological apparatuses. Thus, tothink differently, i.e. meditatively, is an antidote
towards technological reform which prevents
technological devices to get a hold of our lives so as

not to exploit and manipulate our lives and nature in
general. The COVID-19 pandemic shows a promising
attitude toward understanding and caring for theenvironment in linkage to the present age ofthoughtlessness. Heidegger (1996b, 45) asserts: “Agrowing thoughtlessness has taken place and it needs
to be addressed.” This thoughtlessness establishes
from the reality that man as Heidegger (1996b, 45)
mentions is “in light from thinking” in today’s
technological age. The good thing about lockdowns
can thus be identi ied with Heidegger's term to think
about our values centered on the restoration ofnature and his de inition of technology in humanity’spresent period which frames everything into
technological structures. Our experience of today’s
world become inauthentic since we were forced toengage with others through technology, we treat
others without care, we see others as disposable,
and on call for technological purposes. Immersion intechnology limits our way of thinking as it reveals
the world exclusively as a stockpile of resources.
Contemporary human life: Calculative thinking:Contemporary human life is unthinkable in theabsence of technology because our relationship withnature and the way we share in the world isbounded by technology. Modern technology has
deeply changed human action as it discloses theworld in a challenging way. Part of its goal is an
unceasing quest for competency and production
while exploiting beings and nature in general.
Heidegger’s writings on modernity center explicitly
on the problem of technology. The term technology
is a central issue in many of Heidegger's works, hisessay The Question Concerning Technology (1977b) isdevoted to it.
In The Question Concerning Technology (1977b),
Heidegger af irms that human beings partake in howtechnology reveals the world, but he condemns theinterpretation of nature as a mere means for humanconsumption. Heidegger posits that technology is far
beyond machines, and he de ines and identi ies
enframing as the essence of technology. This
technological thinking (calculative thinking)nowadays has become the only form of thinking.
Following Heidegger’s notion of enframing, whichmeans everything in nature is treated as ‘standing
reserve’, the truth is set aside favoring the calculative
will, and intelligibility is lost. It is on this basis, that
Heidegger’s critique and views about modern
technology are challenged. He further suggests thatmodern technology is the kind of revealing thatgoverns modern technology in a challenging way
since it threatens and presents dangers to future
generations. The idea of care is neglected. Thus, thispaper endorses the possibility of release from thereigns of enframing, with a return to original
thinking through meditative thinking. The kind of
thinking that contemplates and questions the
problems generated by technology. Meditative
thinking rescues human beings who have been
fundamentally transformed by modern technology.
This could be an effective tool against the calculative

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thinking of the technological structures responsible
for environmental destruction.
Calculative thinking enslaved both humans andnature. Today, humanity is captivated by enframing.
We have witnessed the consequences of the rapid
occurrence of production through the rise offactories and industries that were tangled withtechnological progress. Humans are in a dangerous
situation in which they are absorbed into technology
and are inclined to disturb the environment.
Humans became what Heidegger calls a standing
reserve. Everything becomes a resource to be used.
According to (Heidegger, 1993, 325) “enframing is
the manner in which being manifests itself in the ageof technology.” Enframing allows human beings to
see the world only as a standing reserve. Heidegger(1993, 322) notes that “it limits one’s way of thinking
in order to make reality calculable and manipulate
the worl, a standing reserve.” Modern technology
controls and directs how a person thinks, decides,
and operates, it governs and manipulates everything.
Many would agree that it is morally wrong forhuman beings to destroy the environment, primarily
because a sustainable environment is essential to
our well-being, and thus, the natural environment
ought to be cared for, respected, and protected.
The crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic andits disastrous results has changed how we live.
Despite experiencing fear, anxiety, and despair, aworldview grew with a magni ied sense ofcommunal compassion among humans and reawakened our connection with nature. I claim thatthe calculative (technological) thinking andmechanical model of modern technology mustchange and I propose meditative thinking as anantidote. In Heidegger’s later philosophy, hepresented his key concept, Gelassenheit, often
interpreted as releasement (Heidegger 2010, xi).
Heidegger’s Gellasenheit embraces the idea of caring
for nature. The survivors of the pandemic must learn
to think outside of the purposes of scienti ic andtechnological use as we now live with an infectedworld, and learn how to dwell, i.e., to heal, save theworld and revive it.
Meditative thinking as an antidote: Heidegger
critiques the dangers and saving power oftechnology and posits meditative thinking as analternative to technological culture. Technology
pushes humanity towards relentless demand whichchallenges the rest of nature. Heidegger (1977b,
16-17) asserts that “everything is taken as standing
reserve” to be manipulated and that ultimately
causes much harm regardless of its bene its.
Everything around is treated as a resource and may
be called for further ordering, readily available to be
objecti ied or manipulated. It is important to notethat Heidegger himself is not anti-technology, he is
not ignoring the bene its of modern technology forhe does not dispute technology. Heidegger (1977a,
28), irmly believes that “technology is not the danger
and that there is no demonry in technology.” He urges
us to question the thoughtlessness of humanity amidff

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

45

the danger caused by modern technology. In
Heidegger’s Discourse on Thinking (1966a, 6), he
observes that the “most thought-provoking in our
thought-provoking time is that we are still notthinking.” We are currently in an age ofthoughtlessness, obviously referring to today’s
technological age. If we persist to be indifferent andconsumed by technology, then its essence with all its
interrelated dangers shall remain obscured to us.
Everything in this world is controlled to stand by
and to be readily available on hand. To stand there asa mere resource. Heidegger (1993, 322) calls this a“standing reserve.”
A result of technological mismanagement fromhuman activities is environmental issues, some ofwhich are related to health, socio-economic, andnatural changes. Climate change, pollution anddestruction of natural resources are technologicallyin luenced. On one hand, technology is signi icant toaccomplish our needs, to better our lives, andachieve success and an apparent reason of humanconvenience, on the other hand, uncontrolled
technology destructively governs the environment.
Technology has improved our way of living; however,it goes with a great cause. Humanity in general has
fallen prey to technological culture. Heidegger offers
humankind an antidote for this: think meditatively.
Meditative thinking is our tool against
quanti ication and objecti ication of the world. It reawakens our capacity for fundamental questioning.
This serves as an antidote suitable to the danger ofcalculative thinking for it transforms our attitude
toward technical apparatuses. Heidegger (1966b,54) calls this attitude “releasement toward things.”
This releasement leads us to be open to the mysteryof things. Heidegger (1966b, 56) argues that through“courageous thinking” releasement toward thingsand openness to the mystery may lourish. They
provide a new perspective from which to approach
our appropriate interrelation with the rest of nature
towards technological reform. Meditative thinking
should replace calculative thinking to free therelationship with the things in the world.
Heidegger’s passionate call on letting beings be wasirst mentioned in Being and Time’s (Heidegger
2008) maxim of phenomenology: “To the things
themselves!” To be free and dwell with a proper
relation to other human beings, to the technologicalworld, and the rest of nature. Heidegger calls us on
the dangers involved in the technological views
which display the power of modern technology as it
reduces the meaning of everything into merefunction. He fears that the time will come whencalculative thinking becomes dominant as the only
way of thinking and establishes itself as a permanent
form of life.
COVID-19 pandemic: The danger and saving
power: During the lockdown, we lost our
individuality in our everyday activities and werereduced to mere tools used to ful ill the ends of the“crowd”. The experiences brought by the COVID-19
pandemic give an avenue for technology to46

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

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strengthen our fallenness through its enframing
power. These periods led humanity to experience aninauthentic mode of existence. On a positive note,
the COVID-19 pandemic provided an opportunity tothink about our authentic existence, away from theillusions of the crowd. In The Question Concerning
Technology (1977b), Heidegger describes how
modern technology de ines the contemporary periodof humanity and “enframes” everything through thetechnological structures. Through this technologicaldominance, humanity was trapped in thetechnological culture which allows thoughtlessness.
Chellis Glendinning (1990) and Kirkpatrick Sale
(1995) claimed today’s technological advancement
harmed humanity. They both worked on themeaning of technological change, focusing on "howtools and their affordances change and alter the
fabric of everyday life" (Watson 2016, 20).
Throughout the lockdown, humanity sway to thedelusions and the deception of enframing, others
become hasty, disposable, easily ordered and waiting
to be used. There was a shift away from our world
and ourselves. Human beings suffer from
disenchantment, our meaningful relation with theworld was lost and we were separated from ourdaily routines.
Undeniably, calculative thinking has directed us toachieve and reach our goals in this contemporary
world, but it fails to consider the essential meaningof things. Heidegger (1966b, 46) argues that
calculative thinking “never collects itself” because it
is constantly rushing and quickly moving. Heidegger(1996b, 45) asserts a “growing thoughtlessness”
which needs to be addressed even with all the
positive results, as well as the effectiveness andproduction of this kind of thinking. This
thoughtlessness establishes itself and transforms thecontemporary man, which according to Heidegger(1996b, 45) is “in light from thinking.” To fully
understand our present situation, we needmeditative involvement with the world which
engages us to think further, to be cautious, to focus
on the reality of our existence and, to refrain from
calculative thinking which manipulates us toward
the rule of machination, as Heidegger (1996b, 47)
says:
Because man is a thinking, that is, a meditating
being. Thus, meditative thinking needs by nomeans be "high- lown." It is enough if we dwellon what lies close and meditate on what isclosest; upon that which concerns us all, eachone of us, here and now; here, on this patch ofhome ground; now, in the present hour ofhistory.
Philosophical thinking in the light of the pandemic istransformative, we can examine which kind of
thinking holds up, and which requires change andallow them to lourish in this post-pandemic period.
This allows us to shift away from being the mastersof nature. We can become the shepherds of nature
who care and protect. Being mindful in our dealings
with both environmental and technological use helps

to shape a post-COVID-19 future. Our concern withthe world leads us to a more truthful understandingof ourselves before science alters it. Humanity’s
exploitation of the environment narrates how
technological thinking leads to the unstoppablemanipulation of resources for our pleasure, where
we all become strangers not only to others but also
to ourselves. Heidegger regards the signi icance oftechnology, what he is against is the manipulation ofnature. He calls us to be aware that we are only
caretakers of nature and not masters. It is safe to saythat his ethics is a form of virtue ethics because it
focuses on certain attitudes and characteristics
essential to achieving a good life. The COVID-19
pandemic reminds us to care and save the world. It
promotes a meaningful encounter toward a kind of
thinking that cares for nature.
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic exposes us to manyenvironmental concerns such as the devastation ofnature alongside the alteration of human existence.
This article attempts to reveal that the COVID-19
pandemic travels from one aspect of human life toanother. Environmental and technological concerns
can permit us to experience two different but related
domains of the human world. The coming of thepandemic into the human sphere can be identi ied aspart of the disruptive human intervention in thenatural environment. This is, in fact, the implicationof our negligence in taking care of nature as we
become masters of it, we became enframed bytechnological structures and the calculative use oftechnological apparatuses.
COVID-19 itself reveals the changes of global
disruption on environment and health, it highlights
the dangers of the technological operation to bothhuman and non-human worlds. Environmental
resources are consumed as mere means (standing
reserves) by calculative thinking designed for
economic advantage and usefulness to ful ill theends for humanity’s gain. Environmental destruction
and technological dominance challenge human life.
Saving us from the dangers of pandemics means
rescuing us from the abyss of the enframing.
Preventing the destruction of nature and avoiding
the dangers of future pandemics requires a different
kind of thinking. We need to go back to a life of
thinking – meditative thinking which promotes thevalue of care in restoring nature and as an essential
component to technological challenges.
References
COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Scienceand Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University
h t t p s : / / g i s a n d d a t a . m a p s . a rc g i s . c o m / a p p s /o p s d a s h b o a r d / i n d e x . h t m l # /bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6
Glendinning, Chellis. 1990. Notes Toward a Neo-Luddite
Manifesto. Utne Reader 38/1: 50-53.

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
Heidegger, Martin. 2008. Being and Time. Translated byJohn Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. New York.
Harper Perennial.
Heidegger, Martin. 2010. Being and Time. Translated by
Joan Stambaugh. Albany: State University of New York
Press.
Heidegger, Martin. 1993. Building, Dwelling, Thinking: In
Basic Writings. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Heidegger, Martin. 1966a. Discourse on Thinking. A
Translation of Gelassenheit. John Anderson and E. Hans
Freund. New York. Harper and Row.
Heidegger, Martin. 1966b. Memorial Address in Discourseon Thinking: A Translation of Gelassenheit. Translated
by John M. Anderson and E. Hans Freund. New York.
Harper and Row Publishers.
Heidegger, Martin. 1977a. The Question Concerning
Technology: In Basic Writings: From Being and Time(1927) to the Task of Thinking (1964). Edited by David
Farrell Krell. New York: Harper & Row.
Heidegger, Martin. 1977b. The Question Concerning
Technology in The Question Concerning Technology andOther Essays. Translated by William Lovitt. New York;
London: Garland Publishing.
Marcuse, Herbert. 1964. One-Dimensional Man. With a
new introduction by D. Kellner. Boston, MA: Beacon
Press.
Marcuse, Herbert. 1941. Some Social Implications ofModern Technology. Studies in Philosophy and Social
Science 9, no. 3, 414-439.
Sale, Kirkpatrick. 1995. Lessons from Littudites: Setting
Limits on Technology. Nation 260, Issue 22: 785-788.
Watson, Sara. 2016. Toward a constructive technology
criticism. Columbia Journalism Review. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/ 10.7916/
D86401Z7.
World Health Organization (2020) Coronavirus Disease(COVID-19) - Events as They Happen. https://w w w. w h o . i n t / e m e r g e n c i e s / d i s e a s e s / n o v e l coronavirus-2019/events-asthey-happen
World Health Organization (2020) Novel CoronavirusChina. https://www.who.int/ emergencies/diseaseoutbreak-news/item/2020-DON233

Disaster bioethics: Towards aholistic approach, adaptive,
resilient, and responsive
framework-Aldrin Quintero, Ph.D.
Notre Dame of Marbel University, Philippines
Email: mengzi.khun@gmail.com

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Abstract
Disasters can expose injustice and be a stimulus forreform. They can trigger deeper philosophical andsocietal re lection that has a positive impact.
However, little conceptual unity exists across legal
documents, policy guidelines, and disasterscholarship. This study revisits the dominant
approaches of how disasters are conceptualized

47

from the perspective of fundamental normative
approaches in moral and political philosophy. Ethicaljusti ication for actions taken in the face ofcatastrophe needs recourse to normative traditions.
It thereby contributes to enhancing awareness andrecognition of the real-world importance of basic
concepts and disaster criteria from the normative
perspectives of virtue ethics, consequentialism,
deontology, capability approach, vulnerability,
human rights, and communitarianism.
Introduction
Disaster bioethics is a ield of recent interest that
falls within the broader area of applied ethics. While
ethical dilemmas have existed throughout human
humanitarian relief history, they have rarely been
examined in detail (Magone et al., 2011). Such
dif iculties create challenges for those seeking toaddress ethical issues in disasters. One of thereasons for this is the way resources and people are
overwhelmed in catastrophe. Another is that
contemporary bioethics addresses issues raised
within public health ethics, itself a ledging ield ofbioethics (Lee et al., 2012).
Disasters are typically viewed as overwhelmingly
adverse events. However, a more thorough analysis
reveals that they do sometimes exclusively bringnegative consequences. Disasters can provide an
impetus for change that brings positive outcomes,
such as changes in building practices or regulations
when previous ones are shown to be inadequate.
Disasters can expose injustice and be a stimulus forreform. They can trigger deeper philosophical andsocietal re lection that has a positive impact(O’Mathuna, 2020).
Furthermore, disasters involve complex issues ofglobal inequalities and our responsibilities towards
our fellow humans. They also raise challenging
ethical issues. Decisions made at high levels bygovernments and on the ground by individuals have
ethical components. Even the decision to classify anevent as a natural disaster has ethical implications.
In any case, disasters are very complex and
unpredictable situations with far-reachingconsequences which affect a vast population.
Disastrous events have occurred in developing
nations, but developing countries are more
vulnerable and experience such incidents more
intensely (Rahman & Shaw, 2015). Historically, many
cities were severely affected by human-induced or
natural extreme events and incurred numerous
economic losses, disruption of the urban systems,
and human casualties. In the pre-disaster phase, city
g o ve r n m e n t s w e re u n p r e p a r e d , s o t h e s ecommunities suffered great devastation. Due to thelack of such effective disaster emergency
preparedness, many city budgets were consumed
with emergency response, rehabilitation, earlyrecovery, and reconstruction duties after disasterstrikes.
Importantly, disasters create unique medical
preparedness and response needs. They also require

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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

ethical thought and preparation concerning resource
allocation, public health concerns, limits on
individual autonomy, and danger to providers. The
contribution of ethics to disaster risk reduction lies
within the analysis and management of causal
factors of disasters. Many decisions concerning thesefactors involve ethical components, such as how to
use resources reasonably, care for people properly,
take due account of vulnerability, and act withwisdom amid complexity and uncertainty.
Ethical justi ication for actions taken in the face ofdisasters needs recourse to normative traditions. To
address these vital issues and analyze theircomplexity, this study introduced conceptual
research in disaster bioethics and aimed to stimulate
further work. The researcher explores the dominant
approaches to conceptualizing disasters in academic
disciplines, especially philosophy. It enhances
awareness and recognition of the real-world
importance of basic concepts and disaster criteria
from the normative perspectives of Virtue Ethics,
Consequentialism, Deontology, Capability Approach,
Human Rights, and Communitarianism.

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Disaster bioethics principle: There is anincreasingly conceptual, ethical, and pragmaticintersection between the concerns of traditional
public health ethics and the emerging academic
discourse on disaster bioethics. This intersection has
not received any scholarly attention in the bioethics
literature. This chapter attempts to give an overview
of the knowledge in disaster bioethics literature andhow disasters have been conceived in philosophy. I
attempted to summarize and discuss some works
where philosophers have explicitly de ined disasters
and tracked down the ethical account. This enabled
us to consider the disaster theoretically and guide us
to intervene on the ield when the actual disasteroccurred. Several different ethical approaches indealing with disasters have been propounded byphilosophers, notably three dominant normative
schools: virtue ethics, utilitarianism, and Kant’s
deontology. I also added to the list the same
approaches to political philosophy, such as thecapability approach, vulnerability and human rights,
and communitarianism.
However, even though these three ethical theories
seem to be the “ideal” theories for dealing with the
problematic situations arising from disasters, it isargued that they are not ideal at all, as they overlook and do not take into account the particularfeatures of the problematic situations and the
feelings of both, the victims and the workers.
Moreover, after careful examination, it turns out that
Kant’s deontological account is not just the formal
distanced ethical theory that irst appears to be. It
also possesses an empirical account, the ethicalaccount of virtues, which can be directly applied tothe problems caused by disasters in the real world.
Especially by presenting us with a detailed analysisof the duty of justice and the duty of bene icence,
Kant succeeds in bringing out the practical relevancethat his theory of virtues has for disasters. Thus, it
must be examined to tease the epistemic gap (s).
The current state of knowledge of disasterbioethics: How have philosophers de ined andconceptualized disasters? The short answer issurprisingly little. They have hardly de ined it
explicitly and provided implicit de initions, prettymuch like everyone else who has attempted it; thatis, they have de ined it in ways that suit their
purposes. That is the short answer; of course, it is
too short (Sandin, 2009).
Approaching the conceptualization of disasters inphilosophy requires an idea of what philosophy is.
Philosophy, in this sense, is about searching foranswers to the questions borrowing from Kantian
epistemic inquiry – ‘What is there? What can weknow? What ought we to do?’ The focus of theresearch on this matter will be on analytic tradition.
The researcher summarizes and discusses someworks where philosophers have discussed
philosophical issues about disasters and disasterlike situations without much discussion of thede inition of the term. Those have mainly been
ethicists, normative, applied, and politicalphilosophers.
Under the stress of the global problems that
plague humanity, philosophers have been dealing
systematically with these issues for the last 20-30
years. As O’Mathuna points out, there are, on the one
hand, the philosophers who claim that a form ofutilitarianism is the appropriate theory for dealing
with the problems of public health, famine relief, anddisasters; there are, on the other hand, the scholars
who contented those deontological accounts like, forinstance, Kant’s deontological theory, are the ideal
types for considering these dilemmas (O’Mathuna,2016).
De ining disasters: To begin with, there is at least
one non-philosopher whose efforts must be
mentioned: E.L. Quarantelli. There are at least two
reasons for this. First, Quarantelli has an analytic
philosophical approach to the de initional issue. His
work is an outstanding example of Carnap’s idea of
explication, ‘the transformation of an inexact,
prescienti ic concept, the explicandum, into a new
exact concept, the explicate (Carnap, 1950). Second,
philosophers discussing disasters refer to
Quarantelli (Voice, 2016; Zack 2009). In his
introduction to the seminal volume, what is a
Disaster? Quarantelli recounts how he asked several
scholars to ‘put together a statement on how they
thought the term “disaster” should beconceptualized for social science research
purposes’ (Quarantelli, 1998). The emphasis is on
the original, and it is important. Quarantellicontinues by saying that while ‘[a] minimum roughconsensus on the central referent of the term
“disaster” is necessary,’ he emphasizes that at thesame time ‘for legal, operational, and different
organizational purposes, there is a need for andEubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
there will always continue to be different
de initions/conceptions’ (Quarantelli, 1998).
However, he also argues that ‘for research purposes
aimed at developing a theoretical superstructure forthe ield, we need greater clarity and relative
consensus’ (Quarantelli 1998, emphasis in original).
Despite the surprising scantiness of academic
philosophical discussions, disaster—or the potentialof disaster—has been a looming presence inWestern philosophy since its early days. For
instance, in the Timaeus and Critias, Plato recounts
the myth of Atlantis where disaster befalls the oncemighty kingdom: “But at a later time, there occurred
portentous earthquakes and loods, and one grievous
day and night befell them, when the earth swallowed
up the whole body of your warriors, and the island of
Atlantis in like manner was swallowed up by the sea
and vanished; wherefore also the ocean at that spot
has now become impassable and unsearchable, being
blocked up by the shoal mud which the island createdas it settled down.“ (Plato 1925, 25c–25d)
Similar eschatological myths have prevailed over themillennia in Christianity and other religious
traditions. A pivotal point in this development, andone which perhaps marks the beginnings of modern
philosophical engagement with disasters, is the
Lisbon earthquake of 1755. It struck on November
1st when many of the city’s inhabitants attended
mass. The city center, where the nobility dwelled,
was particularly badly damaged (Dynes, 2000).
The Lisbon earthquake igures in the interchange
between Rousseau and Voltaire (Cassidy, 2005).
Philosophically, the disaster prompted Voltaire’squestioning of the optimistic worldview of Leibniz,
the Pope, and others (Dynes, 2000), a view Voltaire
subsequently ridiculed in Candide. Rousseau replied,
and the discussion concerned Providence and God’s
place (if any) in a world containing evil or apparent
evil. The theodicy is still discussed in the context ofdisasters, e.g., volcanic eruptions (Chester, 2005).
However, for several reasons, Rousseau’s reply isalso interesting from a more secular point of view.
One is that it points to a conceptualization ofdisasters that recognizes that ‘natural’ disasters do
not strike blindly—the way buildings are located andconstructed affects the outcome, as do, to someextent, the actions of the victims (if they postpone
evacuation in order to collect their belongings ornot, for instance; Cassidy, 2005). The Lisbon
earthquake was also the irst disaster in a nascentmodern nation-state. It was the irst disaster inwhich the state accepted the responsibility formobilizing the emergency response and fordeveloping and implementing a collective effort forreconstruction’ (Dynes, 2000). The Lisbon
earthquake, thus, in more than one respect, can besaid to have been the irst modern disaster.

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Disaster conceptualizations in philosophy: In a
recent paper, Paul Voice (2016) describes areas
where philosophers might be concerned withdisasters. First, there is a set of metaphysical and, in49

some cases, theological issues. This is what
concerned Rousseau and Voltaire in the wake of the
Lisbon earthquake, and it would be expected that
here is where you could ind statements at least
purporting to be the true answer to Quarantelli’squestion, ‘what is a disaster?’ Second, there is the
ethical approach, which is concerned mainly withindividuals and their actions. Here belong also
applied ethical issues such as the responsibilities ofhealthcare workers in disaster situations, triage
questions, and so on. Third, there is the politicalphilosophical perspective, which is concerned
primarily with institutions rather than individuals,
with questions such as what coercive measures thestate is justi ied in taking in a post-disaster situation.
In this category, we can ind the heritage from
Hobbes and materials from discussions about justwars and warlike situations (Sandin, 2009).
However helpful, it appears that at least one ield ofphilosophy that could and arguably should beconcerned with disasters is missing from Voice’s
categorization: epistemology and its close relative,
the philosophy of science. Discussing some of theissues treated in Quarantelli’s (1998) volume would
likely bene it from such approaches, and indeed
some of the authors in that volume touch upon them,for instance, Dombrowsky (1998). Oliver-Smith(1998) uses another standard item from the toolboxof analytical philosophy, W.B. Gallie’s notion of
essentially contested concepts.
Voice discusses some de initions of disasters. He
notes that they typically emphasize harm and thebreakdown of life in a community. Since thesecriteria are not unique to disasters, the amount ofharm sets disasters aside from non-disastrous
events involving harm. ‘[A] high degree of the harm
often (but not always) in a spatially con ined place
and a brief period combine as rules of thumb for
identifying a disastrous event’ (Voice, 2016). He
points out that such a ‘de inition’ hinges on others
and that there are demarcation problems, such as
how much harm is required for the disaster label tobe applied, and so on. Voice argues that ‘[m]ore
academic de initions of disasters are mostly
constructed from a sociological perspective’ (Voice,2016), referring to the Quarantelli tradition.
Voice (2016) de ines a disaster as ‘an event that
destroys or disables the institutions required formoral agency and effective citizenship’. He argues
that a disaster is more than aggregated individual
harm and that no one needs to be physically harmed
for a disaster to occur, nor does any property have to
be damaged, ‘although nearly all disasters are
violent events of some kind’ (Voice, 2016). It is
dif icult to envisage such a non-violent disaster, andVoice does not provide examples. Perhaps abreakdown of communication systems might it sucha de inition. However, it would be more natural to
say that such a situation is a crisis, which might
result in a disaster (if harm occurs). Voice, however,emphasizes that disasters in this sense need not be
sudden but that ‘the slow erosion of dignity and50

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citizenship in a case like Zimbabwe is a disaster’ too(Voice, 2016). Voice’s position implies that states
owe disaster victims not only emergency relief but
also longer-term rebuilding, for instance, providing
schools and other things required to restore citizen
capacities. However, the state does not owe thevictims to restore the level of well-being that they
had before disaster struck.
In summary, philosophers—at least analytic—
who have thought about disasters have typically
been political philosophers dealing with the
Hobbesian tradition’s problems of state authority
and exceptions or ethicists. Some of those ethicists
have been applied ethicists who have pondered theactions, duties, and responsibilities of individuals inemergencies, of which disasters constitute a subset,
along with wars and other situations. Many of them
have been working in medical ethics and discussed
issues about the actions of medical professionals
such as nurses and physicians in disasters anddisaster-like situations. Others have been normative
ethicists who have reasoned around the implicationsof disasters for a speci ic normative position.
Sometimes the relationship between normative
theory and applied disaster ethics is unclear (Mallia,2015). If one wants to ponder what philosophers
have contributed to the discussion of disasters, theterm ‘disaster’ itself might not be the mostimportant focal point. Other related terms may be as
relevant as ‘crisis,’ calamity,’ and ‘catastrophe.’ The
terminology might be confusing. For instance,
writing about global catastrophic risks, including
what they call ‘existential’ risks, Bostrom andĆircović (2008) do not appear to distinguishbetween catastrophes and disasters. Perhaps mostimportantly, the discussions involving ‘emergency’m ay b e p o te n t i a l ly re l eva n t fo r d i s a s te r
philosophizing (Sorell, 2013; Walzer 2000, 2004).
Consequentialism: Consequentialism argues thatthe morality of an action is contingent upon theaction’s outcome or consequence. Hence, morally
right action produces a good outcome orconsequence. The more people are affected by suchan outcome, the better it is (Harris, 2011).
Consequentialist ethics is essential in the context
of disasters. The reason is that disasters frequently
affect large numbers of people. Accordingly, thefocus is often not on the individual but on theconsequences for more signi icant numbers ofpeople. Hence, consequentialism is an approach to
ethics that appears to it the context of minimizationof deaths and suffering in disaster settings.
Nevertheless, how did consequentialism becomea theory, and how has it tried to address disasters?
Utilitarianism is an appropriate moral theory
irrespective of the fact whether the context isregional (earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes) or
global (ultimate harm disasters included) – as longas it deals with many people rather than a single
individual. Similar to other types ofconsequentialism, utilitarianism might be entirely
appropriate in disaster settings while being muchless adequate moral theory in normal, non-disaster,and non-emergency settings.
In disaster settings in which decisions have to bemade that are based on triage aimed at saving themost signi icant possible number of lives withinsuf icient resources, the number of lives saved
trumps respect for cultural conventions. The reason
is that saving lives is a universal moral value. It ismorally more signi icant than a culturally
determined convention relevant only in a speci ic
context with relative rather than universal values(Rakic, 2014).
One among many examples is the following.
Disaster responders have saved lots of people’s lives
by performing amputations. Although the amputees
have been ostracized in some cultures they
originated from, ending up starving, this has not
resulted in disaster responders ceasing to perform
amputations. The reason is that, in some instances,
amputations can save lives.
A dogmatic sacralization of cultural speci icity isimmoral if we discriminate between people based onsocial status or other traits and infer that some lives
ought to be preferred to others’ lives. The extent towhich cultural values are to be respected is a matterof degree. That is why their value is relative rather
than universal. They are conventions.
Speci ic moral values, on the other hand, are morethan conventions. Treating human lives equally is
one such value. Still, even here, there can be
exceptions. In disaster settings, the value of equal
treatment of human lives can sometimes be
relativized. It might be morally justi ied to “let go” oflife to save more lives. In cases where decisions are
made about multiple lives, while medical resources
are insuf iciently available, disaster respondents
might have a moral duty not to treat a patient who isunlikely to survive – to save more lives.
All in all, in different situational settings, different
moralities are preferred. Settings in whichconsequentialist ethics are preferred are those inwhich decisions about multiple lives must be made.
Disasters generally belong to them. It can therefore
be concluded that disaster settings appear to requiredisaster consequentialism.
Deontology: Deontological accounts emphasize
duties. According to Kantian deontology, ourfundamental duty is to respect the other person andto treat him not merely as a means but at the sametime as an end. On this account, we do not only have
duties to ourselves but also to other people. In asituation of need and destitution, we would not want
to remain helpless and deserted by others. In thesame way, we cannot want to leave other people
without help when they ind themselves in need. The
Universal Law of Nature, therefore, prescribes that
we help others when they are in dif icult
circumstances like, for instance, disease, poverty, ordisaster, as it also prescribes that other people help
us when we ind ourselves in circumstances ascomplex as these (Kant, 1997).

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In his ethical writings, Kant often claims we havea moral obligation to help those in need and in poor
conditions. In The Groundwork, when he tests the
Formula of the Universal Law of Nature against
particular examples, Kant mentions the case of theman who, even though he is in a position to help andsupport those in need, prefers to live in comfortableconditions and indulge in pleasures (Kant, 1997).
Kant recognizes that there is nothing wrong if one
behaves this way as long as one also abstains fromharming those in need. However, this person cannot
will that his maxim becomes a Universal Law of
Nature because, in that case, the Universal Law
would involve a contradiction of the will. He may
ind himself in situations of need and despair, and“by such a law of nature arisen from his own will, hewould rob himself of all hope of the assistance hewishes for himself” (Kant, 1997).
He also speaks about the duty of bene icence toother people in several parts of The Metaphysics ofMorals (Kant, 1996a). In particular, he argues about
the duties of love we have to other human beings,
which he divides into duties of bene icence,
gratitude, and sympathy (Kant, 1996). However, healso speaks about the duty of bene icence in thecontext of civil society. The wealthy are obligated tothe state because, by submitting their will to theprotection of the state, they owe their existence andwealth to it (Kant, 1996). The state, therefore, has
the right to contribute part of its wealth to its poor
fellow citizens. The way to do this will be either by
imposing taxes on wealthy citizens’ property andincome or by establishing funds and supportingsocial institutions and organizations (Kant, 1996).
Put in this way, and it would seem that the duty ofbene icence realized by the state in the context ofcivil society is a duty of justice. However,bene icence, which makes sense regardless andindependently of the commonwealth, is a duty ofvirtue. Quite understandably, one may wonder
whether Kant’s virtue ethics approach has to tell us
something about famine relief, poverty, and disasters
on a global stage.
Certain Kantian scholars believe these two duties
constitute the core of Kantian ethics (O’Neill, 1993).
The core of Kantian ethics, to remind the reader, isprovided by the Formula of the End in itself: “So actthat you use humanity, whether in your person or
the person of any other, always at the same time as
an end, never merely as a means” (Kant, 1997).
Nevertheless, the requirements of each duty are
entirely different. The duty of justice requires that
we guide our behavior on the maxim that we neverharm or cause anything wrong to others. On theother hand, the duty of bene icence requires that we
act in ways that foster and promote other persons’ends (O’Neill, 1993).
O’Neill, for sure, provides us with a deeper
understanding of the Formula of the End in itself
when she analyzes it by the duty of justice and the
duty of bene icence (O’Neill, 1993). To use a person
as a mere means, and not at the same time as an Endff

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in itself, implies that I treat her in a way or in ways towhich she has not given her free, informed consent.
She has been coerced if she has not consented to mytreating her like I do. If, on the other hand, she has
consented to it while she was kept in ignorance, thenshe has been deceived.
Of course, in our everyday dealings with others,
we may often use one another as a mere means. I
may use, for instance, my students during my
lectures and tutorials as a kind of guinea pig to test
how they respond to the very controversial
philosophical ideas I propound. However, they alsouse me as a mere means; when they exhaust me
mentally to cultivate their intellectual capacities andcritical thinking. Nevertheless, I am pretty aware ofthis and consent to it, as they are also aware of theeducational procedure that has been going on andagreed on. As long as both parties have freely
consented to enter a deal in the frame of a social andcooperative scheme, no deception or coercion is
involved.
There may be cases, however, in which one party
may have been deceived into consenting tosomething to which he would not have consented if
he had known. Thus, if someone gives a promisewith the intention of not keeping it, he is behavingon a maxim that the person to whom the promise ismade cannot have known. Consequently, he agrees
to something to which he would not have agreed if
he had known the promisor’s fundamental maxim.
According to Kant’s ethical theory, the person who
has in this way been driven to consent to something
to which he would not have consented if he had
known the other party’s maxim of behavior has been
deceived and coerced; in a word, he has become avictim of injustice (O’Neill, 2016).
However, as already mentioned, in addition to theduty of justice, the Formula of the End in itself also
involves the duty of bene icence (O’Neill, 1993). Thisimplies that we do not violate the Formula only
when we deceive, coerce or do injustice to a person.
We also treat the other as a mere means, and so
violate the Formula when we refuse at least some of
the times to foster the others’ ends like our own,
especially when the others are in situations offamine, poverty, and disasters.
Kant’s deontological account, particularly his
theory of virtues, is the appropriate ethical accountfor dealing with disasters, famine, and world
poverty. I take sides with O’Mathúna in claiming that,
contrary to what certain philosophers havesupported, utilitarianism and Kant’s deontologicalformal account are far from “ideal” theories when
dealing with disasters, as they leave out theparticular features of the situation, the feelings andthe intentions of those involved, whether victims or
healthcare workers. However, as I then point out,
Kant’s deontological account, apart from its formalpart, also includes an empirical part, which renders
his ethical theory applicable in the concrete
circumstances of the real world. The conclusion
reached is that Kant’s account of these two duties of52

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virtue is so carefully worked out that it leaves no
doubt that it is the right one for dealing withdisasters.
Virtue ethics: Virtue ethics studies the character
traits of good persons. This includes analyzing how
ordinary people can emulate moral role models toimprove their character. The contemporary
discourse about virtues and disasters includes thelong-standing analysis of the role of reason andemotions in virtues. However, the discourse also
considers what virtues are relevant in disastersituations. Two important examples of the latter are
the virtues of humanitarian workers and the virtuesof those who suffer disasters.
Many philosophers have not been interested
primarily in analyzing the moral rightness of
individual acts but instead focused on how humanlife should be led. This involves an analysis of whatkind of personal characteristics are essential parts ofa good life. Such personal characteristics can be
categorized into those traits or qualities that are
good, virtues, and harmful vices. Virtue ethics, ingeneral, is the study of these character traits.
Compared to consequentialist and deontologicalethical theories, virtue ethics refocuses an actor’s
habits and motivation in general instead of his or her
deliberation and acts on a single occasion. Virtue
ethical theories often share a teleological characterwith consequentialism. Virtues are good forsomething, for living a good, complete, or lourishinghuman life. Even if there is much disagreement
about the speci ic de initions of all character traits, it
seems that a good life, according to a virtue
perspective, should include the development ofcharacter traits like bravery, industry, benevolence,
integrity, and friendship. However, as withdeontological theories, virtue ethics does notpresume that ethics foremost concerns maximizing
the good. Instead, the good life might also include
protecting some values against others.
It is natural to start with Aristotle (384–322 BC)
because he is perhaps the most famous philosopher
who has thought about virtue ethics. His most
famous work on ethics, The Nicomachean Ethics,
provides a rich understanding of what a good life
might be and how virtues igure as parts of this life.
Aristotle’s thinking about virtues builds upon his
philosophical anthropology of the nature of humanbeings. As a starting point, Aristotle presumes that
there are better and worse ways to live a human life.
All things have an end, a telos. This is true of knives
and other tools but is likewise true for humanbeings. The telos is what is the speci ic character ofan entity. For a knife, the characteristic is cutting. A
good knife is then characterized as being suitable to
cut with. Humans, too, have a characteristic trait, ourcapacity to reason. A good human life must therefore
include reason (Aristotle, 2004). Aristotle’s analogy
is plagued with strong assumptions that are not easy
to accept. The knife is made, but that is not true ofhuman beings.

Aristotle claims that reason, a speci ic humanability, and our highest faculty govern a good life.
This has two dimensions. First, the best life is spentin continuous contemplation since that is thep r i m a r y a c t iv i t y a s s o c i a te d w i t h re a s o n .
Contemplation is an activity we can practice byourselves, which has value (Aristotle, 2004). Second,
living under reason includes acting in a way that is
appropriate to the situation at hand by using ourintellectual capacity for practical reasons (Aristotle,
2004). A virtuous person’s characteristic is that heor she has a disposition to act appropriately in
different situations. A brave person can avoid acting
rashly and cowardly (Aristotle, 2004). A virtuous
person who possesses practical reason will also beable to respond appropriately to different situations,
including emotional responses where itting. For
example, anger can be justi ied when a person istreated without due respect.
Another critical thinker in the virtue ethicaltradition is David Hume (1711– 1776). In Hume’scentral work, An Enquiry Concerning the Principlesof Morals (1751), he provides an account of virtues
that shares some similar traits with Aristotle,
speci ically the importance of emotions and thesocial utility of virtues.
Hume’s thinking on virtues is shaped by his
general empiricist methodology in which he seeks
the explanation of different phenomena, including
morality. This means that Hume, too, sees emotions
as a signi icant part of morality, even more
fundamental than reason. Morality is not true, false,
reasonable, or unreasonable; it is a matter of proper
motivation, which emotions can only provide (Hume,1998). Hume’s core idea is that humans aregoverned mainly by a wish to do good for others(Hume, 1998). In Hume’s complex moral psychology,
humans are driven by both egoism and sympathy foreach other, but the latter holds moral importance.
This can be noted by the fact that we can even praisethe virtuous character of an enemy (Hume, 1998).
It is noteworthy that Hume also sees a practical
function for emotions. Hume claims that a virtue is acharacter trait that humans ind agreeable or helpful(Hume, 1998). A counterargument is that humans
might have different emotional responses todifferent character traits, and thus Hume’s argument
seems to lead to relativism. Instead of accepting thisoutcome, Hume argues that humans like and dislike
the same moral character traits. This moral sense iscommon to all normal human beings, even if not all
have developed it to the full extent. He also claims
that we tend to praise those character traits, which,in the long run, are helpful for society andindividuals (Hume, 1998). Thus, Hume and Aristotle
agree that virtue is bene icial and that a morally
good life is the best way to live. This contrasts themwith a shared experience that acting virtuously isoften not as successful as deceiving and maximizing
one’s egoistic bene its.
A reoccurring idea in the history of virtue ethicalthinking is that humans are not morally static

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creatures but can develop their moral virtues.
Aristotle stressed the importance of proper moral
teaching (Aristotle, 2004). Hume claimed that thenatural virtue of fellow feeling could be
strengthened with education (Hume, 1998).
MacIntyre also identi ies the importance of learning
the internal rules of excellence in a tradition(MacIntyre, 1985), and Slote argues for extending
our sympathy to others through oral education(Slote, 2007). The idea of moral development has animportant implication. We cannot be content withthe current state of our moral capacity. We might bebrave, just, and humane, but we have not achieved
these virtues' inal stage. There is always room for
improvement. Aristotle, Hume, MacIntyre, and Slotestress that we can improve only by learning fromthose who have achieved a higher stage of virtue.
Turning to the connection between virtues anddisasters, we can note that disasters, in the sense of
unforeseen radical events with signi icant negative
impacts on many people, are linked to virtues in two
ways. First, what is a morally excellent response to
those disasters we might face? Second, what is a
morally excellent response to disasters that others
face?
A virtuous ethical perspective can identify several
promising paths for future research. Resilience is ofgeneral importance for a good life since every
person would bene it from returning to everyday life
after an intense experience. It is also clear that thevirtue perspective provides a more stringent moral
ideal than traditional professional, ethical codes.
Virtues are not about meeting minimum standards
but about actively pursuing excellence in moral
matters. There is no room for complacency in suchan ideal. Ethical standards will therefore need to beunderstood as pedagogical tools in the pursuit ofexcellence or to be set so high that they are seldom
or ever achieved. The ancient and contemporary
thinkers who analyze virtues do not believe thatsuch moral excellence is beyond human ability.
However, they acknowledge that morality makes
intense demands on us, and a general bene it ofvirtue ethics is to make this demand explicit.
Vulnerability and human rights: The concept ofvulnerability has been introduced in the bioethicaldebate recently. The vulnerability has been a core
notion in philosophy, particularly in Continental
schools. In a sense, every human being is vulnerable.
In bioethics, the concept has been introduced
initially in clinical research to demarcate groups ofindividuals or populations as ‘vulnerable’ andtherefore entitled to special protections. With theglobalization of bioethics, suffering, and risk in theface of medical research, technologies, and care havebecome global realities, so the concept ofvulnerability has emerged as one of the principles ofglobal bioethics, for example, in the UNESCO
Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights.
The principle of vulnerability is especially salientin the context of global disasters. It points the ethicaldiscourse in speci ic directions focusing more on

53

ameliorating the conditions that produce
vulnerability rather than on emergency actions
focused on saving lives. In this connection, thehuman rights discourse might be helpful to focus
attention and actions in connection to disasters. This
discourse can complement the dominant ethicalframework of humanitarianism in disasterprevention, relief, and recovery. Both ethicaldiscourses are strongly connected with the notion ofvulnerability. Human rights language presents thesufferers of disasters as bearers of rights rather thanvictims. It also focuses on structural violence,
economic injustice, and global solidarity.
However, this requires a critical reformulation ofhuman rights discourse since it often adopts aneoliberal approach. It assumes that globalization
offers opportunities to strengthen human security
and provide basic needs rather than threatening
them. In practice, human rights discourse is nolonger used to protect the vulnerable but tolegitimize the global practices of neoliberalism. It
often shares the vision of progress, growth, anddevelopment that underlies neoliberal approaches
and policies, hardly questioning the negative
relationships between social context, trade, andhuman lourishing. Global bioethics, if taken
seriously, can redirect human rights discourse to
ways to prevent future disasters.
Vulnerability is used in disciplines ranging fromphilosophy, theology, and ethics to ecology, computerscience, and physiology. There is an enormous
diversity of formulations and interpretations. Aninteresting approach is proposed from a generalsystem perspective focusing on the conceptualcomponents of the notion, regardless of the domains
in which it is used and whether it is used for humanbeings, communities, or countries. Neil Adger, aclimate change researcher from the United Kingdom,de ines vulnerability as “the state of susceptibility toharm from exposure to stresses associated withenvironmental and social change and from theabsence of capacity to adapt” (Adger, 2006). This is afunctional, not a content de inition. It does notclarify the fundamental characteristics ofvulnerability but shows how the notion functions
and relates to other concepts. This approach is
helpful since it urges us to consider the conceptual
elements that we need to consider in understanding
the notion. Vulnerability is a function of exposure,sensitivity, and adaptive capacity.
The irst component is exposure. There must be
external stresses or perturbations that produce
potentially harmful threats. These threats are hard
to avoid for human beings since they arecontinuously exposed to each other and the social
and natural environment.
The second component is sensitivity. This issusceptibility to harm or damage. Generally, it is “thedegree to which the system is modi ied or affectedby an internal or external disturbance or set of
disturbances” (Gallopin, 2006). From a medical
perspective, sensitivity is inherent in the body,Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

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organs, tissues, and cells: they can be affected, forexample, by lack of oxygen. From a generalperspective focusing on the human person,
sensitivity is inherent in the human predicament,
existing before exposure.
The third component is the ability to adapt or thecapacity to respond. Sometimes a distinction is madebetween coping ability and adaptive capacity. The
irst is the short-term capacity to overcome external
stresses; the second is the longer-term adjustments.
Humans can cope, adapt and adjust, resisting andovercoming threats.
Vulnerability is a core notion in the international
human rights language. Bryan Turner (2006) has
developed the theory that the foundation of humanrights is our shared vulnerability. Human beings areembodied agents. Because of their biologicalvulnerability, humans feel pain and can suffer. They
also depend on others to grow and mature, become
autonomous individuals, and be cared for in illness
and aging. They are socially connected because theyneed social support and legal protection.
Vulnerability demands that humans build social andpolitical institutions to provide collective security.
Human rights have emerged because human beings
can recognize pain and suffering in others. Michael
Ignatieff defends human rights with the argument of
moral reciprocity. Human actions are justi ied or not
because we can imagine the pain and degradation
done to other human beings as if it were our own(Ignatieff, 2001). The emergence of human rights
language in the second half of the eighteenth century
was based on philosophical ideas of individualautonomy and equality. People learned to empathize
and think of others as equals (Hunt, 2007).
Humans are moral agents; they have the capacity
for moral empathy, conscience, and agency because
they live in what Turner calls “an existential context
of shared experiences of pain and humiliation”(Turner, 2006). Turner argues that human rights areuniversal principles because vulnerability is shareda n d t h u s c o n s t i t u t e s c o m m o n h u m a n i t y.
Furthermore, it connects them as rights of individual
human beings to the social rights of citizens throughsocial institutions and arrangements. However, sucharrangements are always imperfect and inadequate,
thus precarious. This dimension of precariousness iscritical in disasters. Vulnerability means worldopenness. Humans are essentially vulnerable beings.
They can never be completely protected and madeinvulnerable.
What are the implications of a broader notion ofvulnerability for disaster bioethics? When thevulnerable person is considered a ‘failed’
autonomous subject, the vulnerability will not only
be located in the individual. However, it will also
imply a speci ic practical response, i.e., protection by
substituting the lack of capacity through the voice ofothers. This particular framing is normatively
driven: it results from the primacy of the ethicalprinciple of respect for personal autonomy. What isless clear is that signi icant dimensions of the notion

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of vulnerability are left out of consideration. For
example, structural, social, economic, and political
determinants that disadvantage people are notdeemed relevant. The focus on individual weakness
preempts a social and political perspective thatconsiders vulnerability as the outcome of speci ic
situations, argues that people are made vulnerable
in speci ic contexts and that the notion is more
related to the ethical principles of justice, solidarity,and equality than individual autonomy. The paradox
is that the discourse of vulnerability has developedin association with increasing processes ofglobalization. It gives voice to today’s experiencethat everyday existence is more precarious, that weare exposed to more hazards and threats, and that
our capacities to cope have decreased. The fall-out ofthese processes for individual persons has correctly
instigated bioethics to address the problem of how
persons can be protected and empowered.
Nevertheless, as long as bioethics does notcritically examine the production of vulnerability
itself, it does not address the root of the problem.
Framing vulnerability as a de icit of autonomy not
only presents part of the story but also implies alimited range of options and actions. In this sense,
mainstream bioethics’ interpretation of vulnerability
is ideological: it directs theoretical and practicalattention away from the circumstances that makesubjects vulnerable.
When disasters strike, human rights are not lost.
Citizens have the same rights as before, but
exercising them will be more dif icult. Often, theyneed to be prioritized because the circumstances do
not make it possible to apply all simultaneously.
Governments also have the same duty to protect
human rights, but exercising this duty in disastrous
conditions may be more complicated. Victims ofdisasters face various human rights challenges:
unequal access to assistance, discrimination in aid
provision, unsafe resettlement, property restitution,and displacement. These challenges can occur indifferent phases of disaster management. Humanrights-based approaches should therefore beincorporated in all phases: preparedness, emergency
relief, and response, reconstruction, and recovery.
They should offer a holistic approach focused on thebasic needs of victims.
It is argued that four categories of human rights
are at stake in disasters. First is the right to theprotection of life. This is the priority of disaster relief
directly after the catastrophe has occurred. It is also,
as discussed above, the primary concern of
humanitarianism. Second, are the rights related tofood, health, shelter, and education. These are needs
included in the right to health. Third are rights
related to long-term economic and social needs(housing, land, property, and livelihood). Fourth arerights related to other civil and political protectionneeds (documentation, movement, and freedom of
expression). While the irst two categories of rights
are especially relevant during the emergency phase,the two last categories are particularly relevant in

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the recovery and reconstruction phases (BrookingsBern Project on Internal Displacement, 2008).
This framework of rights shows thecharacteristics of a human rights-based approach. Itemphasizes equality. The assistance should be
provided based on need. It is a coherent approachsince rights are interconnected. The right to housing
is linked with the right to health and water.
Furthermore, the human rights-based approach iscontinuous; implementing the right to shelter
demands a transition from rudimentary shelter into
longer-term reconstruction or development (Carver,
2011). However, in overwhelming situations, rights
cannot be applied to everyone, and not every rightcan be applied. This means that priorities must be
selected and that triage is necessary, not merely at
the level of individual victims but also at the mesoand macro-levels (ten Have, 2014). Furthermore,interpretation is needed to determine what a speci ic
human right means in local conditions. Displacement
is a common and signi icant problem with disasters.
The right to a shelter means people can live
somewhere in security and dignity. However, what isthe content of this right in very different countries,
and who are the rights-holders? Human rights
discourse does not specify what kind of shelter
needs to be provided.
The human rights framework is mainly advocatedfor prevention and preparedness. One reason is thatdisasters will have a disproportional effect on people
and populations that are vulnerable. Marginalized
populations will suffer the most. Pre-existing humanrights violations, poverty, and government
corruption will also impact the outcomes of disaster
response efforts. Mechanisms of injustice that exist
before disastrous events happen will continue tomanifest themselves during disaster response andrecovery (Hurst, 2010). Chile is an excellent exampleof how a human rights-based health system canguide disaster response to protect vulnerable
populations such as children. Because of pre-existing
programs, children and families could be quickly andef iciently supported after the earthquake of 2010
(Arbour et al., 2011)
Disasters are associated with ethical questions.
The dominant framework dealing with thesequestions is humanitarianism, appealing to values
such as saving human life, solidarity, andcompassion. This chapter argues that this ethicalframework should complement the human rights
framework. Disasters, humanitarianism, and humanrights are interconnected by vulnerability.
Vulnerability re lects the precariousness of thehuman condition and the fragility of the humanspecies. It also re lects radical changes incontemporary human existence due to globalization.
Disasters occur because of (increasing) humanvulnerability. At the same time, vulnerability is also asource of human rights. Because every human isvulnerable and there is a constant possibility ofharm, human beings need each other and mustcooperate. They need institutions such as humanffEubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

55

rights to survive and lourish. Vulnerability,
therefore, is not just an individual attribute.
Mainstream bioethics construes vulnerability as
de icient autonomy. It does not consider that
autonomy demands appropriate conditions to arise,develop, and be exercised. Vulnerability, therefore, ismisconstrued as an individual attribute; instead, it
directs attention toward the underlying conditions
for human lourishing. Vulnerability is not merely
inability or de iciency but also ability andopportunity. Vulnerable subjects are not victims
needing protection or dependent on benevolence or
the strong. Human capabilities will develop wheninequality and structural violence have been
removed, and the appropriate social, cultural,political, and economic conditions for humanlourishing have been created. Ethics itself has
emerged through re lection on the experiences ofvulnerability. Human rights-based approaches
articulate a perspective that is stronger thanhumanitarianism.
Capability approach: Although Sen had alreadybegun work on the capability approach to justice in1979 (Sen, 1979), the term ‘capability’ does notappear in Poverty and Famines (1981). For Sen(1999), poverty is conceived as capability
deprivation. Development can be seen as increasing
the fundamental freedoms (capabilities) people haveto live the lives they value and have reason to value.
Within the development ield, this view contrasts
with the view of development seen as an increase inincome, which is the approach that had beenendorsed by the IMF and World Bank for many years(however, the institutions’ approach has now, tosome extent, changed partly as a result of Sen’swork). The capability approach to development also
distinguishes itself from those concentrating on
resources, such as make the industrialization ormodernization approaches or some versions of thebasic needs approach. In the present context, it isessential to make clear that while Sen’s work on
famines is explanatory, the capability approach in
Sen’s version primarily analyzes the evaluative spacefor well-being. Nonetheless, there areinterconnections (Sen, 1989), as discussed below.
It is essential to state that although the capability
approach is normative, it does not entail one speci ic
theory of ethics or justice. Sen and Martha
Nussbaum, the leading proponents of the approach,hold different views about ethics and justice andhave different aims. Nussbaum’s principle question
is “When is a society just?” In answering thisquestion, she puts forward and defends a list of ten
central capabilities that individuals should have, as
near as possible, for societies to be just. These
capabilities provide a threshold of justice forunderwriting constitutional guarantees (Nussbaum,2001). Although Nussbaum’s work is vital andinnovative, it does not claim to go beyond
fundamental social justice. Regarding disasters, it
only tells us that fundamental injustices are done
and that the government is responsible for changing

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the situation. It does not provide a detailed analysisof the responsibilities involved in disasters.
Sen (2009) rejects Nussbaum’s fundamental
question, which he sees as neither a good starting
point nor an ending point for a theory of justice. It
should not be read as meaning that Nussbaum’s
work is less critical.
Sen has done little work on disasters since the1980s. Instead, his work has concentrated on issues
connected with development and justice (Sen 1999,2009). His efforts have been institutionalized
through the Human Development Index (HDI) andthe Human Development Reports supported by theUnited Nations Development Program. Much of thework within the capabilities approach, moregenerally, has been on been on speci ic aspects ofthese issues. However, it must be emphasized that
Martha Nussbaum’s work on justice cannot be
considered a footnote to Sen (see especially
Nussbaum 2001, 2006).
This brief discussion does not exhaust the issues
involved, but it does show that the complexity of
ethical issues is increased when we embrace theshift in the understanding of disasters in which Sen
played a key role. This shift has been ignored inmuch of the climate change debate. The discussion
also points to a fundamental problem within thecapability approach. We might argue thatdevelopment can be understood in terms of freedom,but if we are to answer the question, ‘Is development
sustainable or not?’ we need to evaluate theconsequences of our doings and beings and what ishappening to the environment. This expands theevaluative space and brings resources back into the
picture, albeit seeing these as broader than income.
It would also lead us to reject the Human
Development Index (HDI) as a stand-alone igure
which does not relate to the environment.
Sen’s work on famines was path-breaking and asigni icant achievement in itself. He has had anenormous impact on development studies, policy,
and practice (through the HDI) and made asigni icant contribution to the theory of justice as a
critic and protagonist. The sad paradox is that thedevelopment Sen envisages will lead to moredisasters by ignoring sustainability issues. Thus,
while we need to reduce people’s vulnerabilities by
increasing their freedoms and adapting to climatechange, we must also engage in actions to mitigate
and reduce hazards more generally. We must
establish which freedoms are legitimate and which
can be reasonably rejected.
Communitarianism: As with any approach to moral
thinking and choice, communitarianism cannot be
neatly summed up and described without
philosophical controversy. Thinkers in thecommunitarian tradition subscribe to different
versions of the theory and emphasize alternative
aspects of it. For the classical expression ofphilosophical communitarianism, see Walzer (1984),
MacIntyre (2007), Taylor (1992b), and Sandel(1998). The philosophical articulation of thecommunitarian moral view was, in large part, acritical response to John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice(1999), irst published in 1971, that revitalized
political philosophy and that ixed a liberal moral
and political view as the dominant normative
outlook in political philosophy. In response to Rawls’
work, the main themes of ethical communitarianism
were articulated in the 1980s. In later decades,
communitarian political literature, less concernedwith the niceties of philosophical debate and moreconcerned with a critique of Western culture,
emerged.
There is a further epistemological dimension to
the communitarian criticism of universalist
liberalism. Communitarians are skeptical aboutclaims to the authority of Reason, or of humannature, of universal human rights, and so on – eachof which purports to ground and justify the universal
normative claims of liberalism. Instead oftranscendent universalist values, communitarians
avert to the authority of practice and traditionanchored in a particular, historically locatedcommunity. Hence, the critique of universalism isthat moral and political values are particular tocommunities and that knowledge of these values
comes from an education in and participation in the
traditions and practices of a particular community.
A consequence of rejecting transcendent moral
and political values is that, on the communitarianview, the source of a person’s ethical outlook, hernormative view on the world, is anchored in theparticular circumstances of her upbringing and herties to family and community. These are the values
that make sense to her, that, as it were, illuminate
the moral landscape for her. It follows that it makes
no sense to adopt a neutral, impartial moral stance –in fact, such a stance is incoherent on thecommunitarian account. It also follows from thisview that there is no Archimedean point from which
to make judgments concerning the validity of one’s
moral outlook. Impartiality concerning moral
judgments is thus also rejected by communitarians
as a universalist liberal iction. Moreover, thecommunity out of which particularist values emerge
is considered valuable. Since it is the source of ourvalues, the community acquires a central place inthinking about and addressing moral questions. The
community’s composition and continuity are vitalfor a moral agency’s foundation; instead of moral
objectivity or impartiality, which are tied to theliberal universalist view, the communitarian calls forand requires an attitude of critical and re lective
partiality towards one’s community and its values.
This attitude of partiality towards one’s community,
its norms, and historical continuity will be vital toassessing the communitarian contribution tothinking about disasters.
Disasters are extreme events that expose ethicaltheories to contradictions, conceptual confusion, and
dif iculties. Communitarianism is not immune tothese challenges. For example, the sorts ofcommunity virtues championed by communitarians,Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
in particular political communitarians, such as goodneighborliness, family support, and community
togetherness, are, in some extreme circumstances,likely to lead to worse rather than better outcomes.
It would be a service to the literature for acommunitarian position on these extreme
circumstances to be fully articulated and defended.
While a communitarian approach to disaster theory
is initially attractive because of its emphasis on thecommunity's role in preparing for and mitigating theconsequences of disasters, much more philosophicalwork needs to be done to articulate a communitarian
approach fully and respond to it the several
criticisms.

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Conclusions
Ethical justi ication for actions taken in the face ofdisasters needs recourse to normative traditions,and this research attempts to provide setting thestage for more focused normative debates. Since
disasters often involve making decisions for the goodof many. Consequentialist ethics is often thepreferred moral approach in disaster settings where
decisions affect more signi icant numbers, not justindividuals. This approach is suited to politicaldecision-making, especially in the domain ofinternational relations and also in disaster settings.
In such large-scale contexts, consequentialism ismost adequate as a moral theory. However, othersituations require different approaches to ethics.
The importance of saving more lives in disasters,
but notes that emergency ethics will accept that not
everyone can be saved. This approach can lead to aneglect of other important values, including humandignity, justice, and human rights. Disasters have a
way of leading to the neglect and violation of humanrights. While some have criticized the adequacy of ahuman rights approach, this paper provides reasons
to rede ine humanitarianism in terms of rights. The
concept of vulnerability is a core notion incontinental philosophy. Vulnerability has emerged asa critical principle in global bioethics and is
especially salient in the context of global disasters.
Its usefulness partly arises because it highlights theconditions that produce vulnerability and how thesemight be ameliorated rather than focusing on theemergency decisions needed in disasters.
The broader and longer view of disasters is
continued as this paper applies Amartya Sen’s
capabilities approach to disasters. This research seesa clear connection between Sen’s work and disasters
because Sen emphasizes the social context in whichhazards occur. Sen’s early work on famines exploredtheir social dimension, mainly how famines arise notbecause there is no food but because certain people
in society lack entitlements to food. Sen’s early work
has been criticized as incomplete, but it overlaps theimportance of poverty and vulnerability in causing
disasters. Sen moved into a normative framework indeveloping his capabilities approach. Sen points
to weaknesses in resource-based approaches, suchas Rawlsian views of justice, and end-state

57

approaches, such as consequentialism. Examining
how the capabilities approach could contribute tonormative discussions with disasters while
acknowledging the challenges in such an endeavor.
I n c o m m u n i t a r i a n e t h i c a l t h e o r y, t h econtribution of communitarian ethics to disasterethics simultaneously re lected its philosophical
dif iculties and weaknesses. A communitarian lens
can identify ethical issues that other ethicalperspectives might underemphasize. Instead ofRawls’s impartial moral stance, the communitarian
ethical theory emphasizes all people's social andcultural roots and brings them to their ethicaldecision-making. This approach is skeptical about
the states and their agencies’ values, preferring local
community autonomy. Little has been written on
how communitarian ethics applies to disasters,
something odd given the emphasis on community indisaster literature.
Virtue ethics has been revived recently, adding a
distinctive and thought-provoking perspective on
disasters. Western virtue ethics begins with Aristotle
and moves through Hume, MacIntyre, and Slote.
Exploring the virtue of resilience, including
perseverance, is a promising avenue for further
research exploration. Immanuel Kant’s discussion ofvirtues is not just a formally ideal ethical theory, but
it also possesses an ethical account of virtues.
Kantian deontological virtues directly apply to the
problems caused by disasters in the real world. He
examined this debate much earlier and concluded
that ideal theories were compatible with nonideal
approaches. His explorations in helping those inneed and poor conditions apply to recent disasters.
Kant developed two duties of virtue, namely, theduty of justice and the duty of bene icence.
Thus, ethical dilemmas are increasingly
recognized as a paramount disaster preparedness
and response element. It will take careful researchand engagement with affected communities toensure this is done well.

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Peace Education in Experiential
Learning Course: Gauging theProficiency in Embedding PeaceLens and Teaching Performanceof Mindanao Prospective Teachers- Jovar G. Pantao, PhD, MPSA
Faculty, College of Education, Mindanao State
University, the Philippines
Email: jovar.pantao@msugensan.edu.phAbstract
This study aimed to determine the pro iciency inembedding peace lens and performance ofprospective teachers of Mindanao State UniversityGeneral Santos during their teaching internship inDadiangas West Central Elementary School during
the 2nd Semester of Academic Year 2022-2023. Using
embedded mixed method approach, this study
employed survey, classroom observations andre lections to glean data from the prospective
teachers and their cooperating teachers. Generally,
the pro iciency of the prospective teachers in
embedding peace lens was described as outstanding
with managing and utilization of various
instructional materials including ICT to consistently
support the learning targets of the peace-embedded
lessons. The indings also reveal that there were few
classroom observations where pre-service teachers
found it dif icult to connect the skills and knowledge
from multiple sources and experiences. The result
yielded that prospective teachers exhibited
outstanding teaching performance. In addition, theanalysis shows that prospective teachers are more

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
likely to demonstrate improved performance during
teaching demonstrations if they are successful inembedding peace lens ideas into the teachinglearning delivery. Hence, this study recommends forprovision of thorough instruction on the principles
and practices of peace education before theirinternship and offer continuous coaching support andresources to aspiring teachers for them to effectively
embed peace education across subject areas.
Key words: peace education, pro iciency, teachingdemonstration performance, Experiential Learning
Course, prospective teachers,

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Introduction
Peace education nowadays has become an importantelement. Embedding peace lens in the curriculum
has never been more crucial than it is now, given thecomplex challenges the world faces with regards tosocietal divides. As a response, peace educationencompasses addressing the underlying causes ofcon licts, promoting social justice, and encouraging
sustainable development in addition to thepromotion of peaceful coexistence. It encourages
students to engage in productive discourse,
appreciate diversity, and critically assess issues.
In the Philippines, peace education has become an
essential instrument for tackling the nation's longstanding problems with armed con lict andbloodshed. In 2006, President Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo issued Executive Order 570, mandating the
DepEd to mainstream peace education into the basic
formal and non-formal education curricula, utilizing
existing peace education exemplars and other peacerelated modules, and to enhance supervisors,
teachers, and non-teaching personnel's knowledge
and capability on peace education through theconduct of peace education workshops. Additionally,
the order directed the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) to incorporate peace education
into teacher education.
In 2019, the Department of Education Order 32
was also issued to provide national policy
framework on learners and Schools as Zone ofPeace. The Framework de ined the components andguiding principles in the declaration andestablishment of Schools as Zone of Peace. Recently,
the Department of Education priorities include
peace education in the K–12 curriculum. DuterteCarpio (2023) stated that DepEd will make an effort
to teach peace competencies. However, due to a lackof a comprehensive implementation plan for
executing the framework, establishing theinfrastructure, and monitoring and assessing theresults, peace education in the country has often
fallen short of its anticipated results.
Despite the dif iculties in successfully
implementing peace education, Mindanao State
University has made many efforts to carry out its
special mandate to sustain the gains of peace byintegrating Mindanao's cultural communities into
the country's socio-cultural and political life throughhigh-quality and relevant public education. As a key

59

institution in this cause, it made signi icant efforts
for peace and development.
Through BOR
Resolution No. 224, S. 2001, the Institute for Peaceand Development in Mindanao (IPDM), which ishoused in the Of ice of the University President with
campus satellite components, was established. The
IPDM serves as the peace and development arm of
the university which aims to amplify the efforts inadvancing the cause for national unity, integrationand sustainable peace through peace education,
peace research and peace action. In 2017, the MSU
system BOR approved the Resolution No. 356, S.
2017 which mandated the offering of a three-unit
Fundamentals of Peace Education (FPE 101) course
in all undergraduate programs of the university. This
course was designed to make the students
understand the value of life, human dignity, andrespect for religious and cultural diversity, all ofwhich are essential in developing them as peacebuilders and peace advocates.
Moreover, the Bachelor of Elementary Education
Department of Mindanao State University has
piloted the initiative to encourage the prospective
teachers in embedding peace lens in the delivery of
their lessons during their Experiential Learning
Course or Teaching Internship. This is inacknowledgement of the idea that the Teacher
Education Institution play a crucial role in
implementing peace education. According to theresearch study's indings, the majority of teachers
and aspiring educators are in favor of including
peace education in pre-service teacher preparation(Amin et al., 2019). Thus, it is necessary for theprospective teachers to be trained on how to deliver
lessons that incorporate peace themes. Bashir andAkbar (2021) strongly suggested the inclusion ofpeace education suggested into the teacher
education curriculum.
The potential for peace education to foster goodsocietal changes has been highlighted in several
studies that have examined the impact of peaceeducation in diverse situations (Salomon, 2012;
Hicks, 2014). However, little study has particularly
examined the ability of pre-service teachers to teachby including a peace lens into their lessons.
Understanding their practices and approaches toimplementing peace education might offer insightful
information about how teacher preparation
programs can be improved to better prepare future
educators.
Statement of the Problem
This study aimed to determine the pro iciency inembedding peace lens and performance ofprospective teachers of Mindanao State UniversityGeneral Santos during their teaching internship inDadiangas West Central Elementary School.
Speci ically, this study sought answers to thefollowing questions:
1.What is the level of pro iciency of the prospective
teachers in embedding peace lens in the delivery of
their lesson?

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

2.What is the level of teaching demonstration
performance of the prospective teachers?
3.How does the teaching pro iciency of theprospective teachers in embedding peace lensin luence their teaching demonstration
performance?
Research Design and Instrumentation
This study employed embedded mixed method
design which focused on the prospective teachers’delivery of lessons embedded with peace lens. It was
designed to describe the teaching pro iciency ofprospective elementary teachers from Mindanao
State University-General Santos City during theirinternship. This design was appropriate because the
combination of quantitative and qualitative data wasmade possible to gain a more-in-depth
understanding of the teaching pro iciency of preservice teachers. In this research, practices of the
pre-service teachers on embedding peace lensthroughout their internship were determined. These
practices were monitored and assessed through theconduct of classroom observations. Theseobservations were supplemented by survey andreview of the documents such as lesson plans andre lection papers of pre-service teachers.
Several tools were used to determine the ability ofthe pre-service teachers to embed peace in theirlessons throughout their internship. The main tool
used for evaluating their practical implementation ofpeace-embedded teaching practices were classroom
observation. The supervising teacher, cooperatingteachers and master teachers kept close eye on theclassroom activities, noting how the pre-service
teachers embed peace in their lessons. Meanwhile,
5-point Likert Scale was also administered to thirty(30) cooperating teachers to describe the practices
of pre-service teachers on embedding peace in theirlessons. In addition, ive (5) open-ended questions
were also served as their guide in the writing theirre lection on their teaching internship.

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Participants and Data Collection
The participants of this study were the thirty (30)cooperating teachers who were of icially employedat Dadiangas Wet Central Elementary School during
School Year 2022-2023 as well as their thirty (30)pre-service teachers from Mindanao State University
General Santos. In this research, the cooperatingteachers observed the student-teachers from
Mindanao State University for a period of three (3)months. With a total of eight (8) classroom
observations, the delivery of the lesson embeddedwith peace lens was assessed. Also, thirty (30)survey forms were distributed to the cooperatingteachers, which were all completely illed out afterive (5) days.
In addition, the student-teachers were asked towrite and submit re lection paper which allowed
them to evaluate their experiences in the delivery of
their lessons. The paper focused on how theteaching demonstration helped them accomplish

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their goal and how did it supported their growth.
The lesson plans of the student-teachers were also
reviewed to identify the areas where integration ofpeace lens was evident.
Data Analysis
The rating of the prospective teachers in theirteaching demonstration was the outcome(dependent) variable, while the survey
questionnaire on pro iciency in embedding peacelens answered by the cooperating teachers was theindependent variable. Descriptive statistics such as
frequency count, percentage and weighted mean
were used for the quantitative analysis of the data. In
addition, Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coef icient was utilized to determine whether theteaching pro iciency in embedding peace lens does
contribute to the teaching performance ofprospective teachers.
In addition, qualitative
analysis was also made to support the quantitative
data.
Results and Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine theteaching pro iciency in embedding peace lens andperformance of prospective teachers of Mindanao
State University-General Santos during their four (4)months teaching internship in Dadiangas West
Central Elementary School during the 2nd Semesterof Academic Year 2022-2023. Table 1 presents thelevel of teaching pro iciency of prospective teachersin embedding peace lens in the delivery of theirlessons.
As shown in Table 1, the cooperating teachers
observe that the prospective teachers from
Mindanao State University-General Santos always
manage diverse instructional materials including
ICT to consistently support the learning targets ofthe peace-embedded lesson (4.87) and utilize
appropriate materials essential in achieving the goalof embedding peace lens in the area (4.83). The preservice teachers demonstrate how to use technology
into their lessons while promoting respectfor diversity and inclusivity. In order to introduce
their lessons and give students opportunity toparticipate, all pre-service teachers were observed
to use Powerpoint presentations. They use graphics
and bulleted information as well as embed videos
that support the embedding of peace in the lesson.
“It is essential to contextualize as well as to present
images in order to connect the students to theauthentic world.”
Aside from that, the pre-service teachers always
contextualize the lesson to connect to the real-life
experiences of the learners (4.80), use different
questioning techniques to generate responses fromthe learners on peace-related topics and themes(4.80), and encourages the learners to actualize theirlearning into real-life situations (4.80). They always
ensure that they bring the prior experiences of thelearners in the classroom. During classroom
observations, cooperating teachers noted that theEubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
pre-service teachers always start with activities thatallow the learners to bring their experiences in theclassroom. The insight papers of the pre-service
teachers echo that they ind this effective because
this can bring active and meaningful learning in theclass.
Table L Teaching Pro iciency of Prospective
Teachers in Peace Lens Embedding (N=30)
Indicators

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13. facilitates re lection activities
for the learners to realize themeaning and relevance of thelesson to promoting peace.

4.73

AlwaysAdvanced

14. incorporates socio-emotional
learning dimension in delivery todevelop empathy, solidarity, andrespect for diversity among thelearners.

4.63

AlwaysAdvanced

15. facilitates activities to criticallyempower learners to makeinformed decisions.

4.77

AlwaysAdvanced

Weig
hted
Mean

Description

VerbalInterpret
ation

AlwaysAdvanced

4.77

Advanced

4.77

16. initiates discussions to engage
the learners in generating
solutions to the critical issues.

Always

1. facilitates effective engagement
to build new lesson from priorknowledge of the learners.

AlwaysAdvanced

4.80

Advanced

4.70

17. encourages the learners toactualize their learning into reallife situations.

Always

2. introduces the lesson in avarious ways to connect peace,
themes, topics, and concept.

AlwaysAdvanced

4.73

Advanced

4.80

18. facilitates appropriate
assessment strategies congruent to
the objectives peace-embedded
lessons

Always3. contextualizes the lesson toconnect to the real-life experiencesof the learners.
4.uses different questioning
techniques to generate responses
from the learners on peace-related
topics and themes.

4.80

AlwaysAdvanced

19. provides timely andappropriate reinforcement to the
behaviors of learners that arepromotive of peace.

4.73

AlwaysAdvanced

5. asks essential questions related
to peace topics and themes
integrated in the lesson.

4.73

AlwaysAdvanced

20. utilizes appropriate materials
essential in achieving the goal ofembedding peace lens in the area.

4.83

AlwaysAdvanced

6. motivates the learners to freely
ask questions to satisfy theircuriosity.

4.73

AlwaysAdvanced

Mean

4.74

AlwaysAdvanced

7. presents peace-embedded
lesson logically in a developmentalmanner.

4.70

AlwaysAdvanced

8. facilitates varied peaceeducation pedagogies suited to thedifferent kinds of learners.

4.70

AlwaysAdvanced

9. manages diverse instructional
materials including ICT toconsistently support the learning
targets of the peace-embedded
lesson.

4.87

AlwaysAdvanced

10. employs different activities todevelop the awareness of thelearners on their peace values.

4.7

AlwaysAdvanced

11. paces the peace-embedded
lesson appropriately to respond to
the needs and dif iculty of thelearners.

4.67

AlwaysAdvanced

12. embeds integrative approach in
the delivery of the peaceembedded lessons.

4.63

AlwaysAdvanced

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The pre-service teacher…

“I used relevant real-life scenario or thoughtprovoking questions to stimulate the interest of thelearners. The content embedded with peace lensfacilitated meaningful class discussions.”
Some examples of embedding peace lens in thelesson are integration of culture of sharing, con lictresolution, non-discriminatory hiring of employees
and respect for diversity. In Mathematics class,culture of sharing was integrated in Mathematics
lesson on inding the area of a circle. Activities
provided to students when solving word problems
also stimulate the learners to learn how to resolve
the con lict in a given situation peacefully. In
Edukasyong Pantahanan and Pangkabuhayan class,non-discriminatory hiring of employees was
simulated. A pre-service teacher taught “serbisyo at
produkto” by initiating an activity which made thestudents take responsibility of the hiring ofproduction worker of tuna chorizo from applicants
coming from different tribes (Blaan, Ilonggo andMaguindanaon).
“Peace lens integration emerged as crucial element for
creating an engaging classroom environment.”
In addition, respect for diversity was always a partof cooperative learning activities in the class. Since
the pre-service teachers of Mindanao State
University were trained in social laboratory for62

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

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coexistence, there is automaticity for them toadvocate respect for people coming from different
background. This practice was appreciated by thecooperating teachers as they shared that this iscoherent with the promotion of Child Protection
policy in the Department of Education. With theirexperience of integrating peace lens, they re lectedthat this practice is necessary.
“Taking into account the beliefs, traditions, andculture is essential to successfully promote and embed
peace in the class.”
Generally, the pro iciency of prospective teachers in
embedding peace lens obtained a mean of 4.74
described as always. This implies that theprospective teachers are outstanding in embedding
peace lens in their lesson. They are able tosuccessfully integrate a peace lens into the way theyteach students because of the training they received
from the university that encouraged them to learn
about peace, knowledge, and attitudes. The 3-unit
Fundamentals of Peace Education (FPE101) course,which is a requirement for all undergraduate
programs at Mindanao State University, was takenby the pre-service teachers in this study. This course
was designed to produce students who value peace,are change agents or change accelerators, peace
advocates, champions of peace, and builders of aculture of peace.
From the result, prospective teachers are found to
be excellent at using instructional materials thatembed peace. This can be attributed to their
exposure to various educational technologies that
include the use of Information and Communication
Technology. In the Philippines, Teacher Education
Institutions, one of the program outcomes of the
Bachelor of Elementary Education program was forthe teachers to use tools and technology toaccelerate learning and teaching. The pre-service
teachers observed in this study have exhibited thisoutcome during their internship as they received
trainings from their courses such as Technology for
Teaching and Learning and their major courses.
Kopca (2012) explained that teachers can regularly
connect their lessons with peace because their
exposure to a variety of instructional tools.
Pre-service teachers displayed the constructivist
practices of active learning, student-centeredapproach, and real-life teaching. The constructivist
approach of peace education is consistent with thispractice. In line with constructivist theory (Piaget,1970), students actively construct their view of theworld by drawing on their existing knowledge andexperiences. As observed, the pre-service teachersbuild on students' prior knowledge bycontextualizing the lesson to relate to their actual
experiences, making the lesson more relevant anduseful. This approach boosts student engagement
and enthusiasm for learning because students canapply topics related to peace to their own lives andcommunities (Vygotsky, 1978). Constructivist peaceeducation also encourages students to apply what
they have learned to actual situations. By using

peace-related knowledge in practical contexts,
students develop problem-solving abilities and thecon idence to address differences in theircommunities without resorting to violence (Dewey,1938). In order for students to actively participate infostering peace, teachers are crucial in assistingthem to apply what they have learned in theclassroom to real-world situations (Boyle-Baise,
2002). The constructivist theory that learning ismost successful when it is incorporated intomeaningful experiences is supported by thispedagogical approach. It equips students with theinformation and perspective necessary to promote
peace.
Teaching demonstrations are essential parts of theteacher training process because they give
prospective teachers an opportunity to present theirabilities in a real classroom context. Table 2 shows
the performance of prospective teachers from
Mindanao State University-General Santos indelivering their teaching demonstrations.
Table 2: Performance of the Prospective
Teachers in Teaching Demonstrationsf
96-10023

Percentage
77 %Remarks

90-95

7

23%

Very Good

85-89

0

0

Good

80-84

0

0

75-79

0

0

Above
Average
Average

Below
75
Total

0

0

Poor

30

100%

Excellent

Table 2 shows that 77% of prospective teachers
received "excellent" ratings and 23% received "verygood" ratings in their teaching demonstrations.
Based on this result, majority of the pre-service
teachers from Mindanao State University-General
Santos have demonstrated exceptional skills in thedelivery of their lesson while almost a quarter of the
pre-service teachers received very good rating
which still shows a solid performance, albeit being
just short of the outstanding level. These pre-service
teachers probably did a good job in delivering theirlessons, although there may be some space for
growth or re inement.
Generally, the pre-service teachers from Mindanao
State University-General Santos exhibited
outstanding teaching demonstration performance.
This entails ef icient lesson preparation, interestingteaching strategies, and the capacity to modify theirstrategy to accommodate various learning
requirements. They excelled because they weretrained to deliver lessons for elementary learners.
The comprehensive and rigorous teacher education
program they had at the university includes acombination of theoretical knowledge with practicalteaching experiences. For example, they take bothprofessional and major courses from irst year to
third year to ensure they receive adequate training
and preparation for teaching elementary learners. In
their pedagogy subjects, they are required toperform teaching demonstrations.
In the context of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory ofeducation, a strong curriculum, knowledgeable
professors, experienced cooperating teachers, andmotivation can all be attributed for the excellent
teaching performance of pre-service teachers from
Mindanao State University-General Santos.
According to Vygotsky's theory, because learning is asocial process that occurs via interactions withothers, cultural context has a substantial impact on a
person's ability to learn. In this case, pre-service
teachers are trained by the university using welldesigned curriculum that encourages the integrationof a peace lens. Their professors or supervisingteachers mentored and directed them so that they
could absorb appropriate and responsive teaching
methodologies including integration strategies toincorporate peace lens in the delivery of theirlessons. Also, the pre-service teachers are given
bene icial opportunities to engage in authentic
teaching experiences and receive prompt feedback
from cooperating teachers in real classroom
settings, which helps them develop their practicalskills and con idence. In addition, the pre-service
teachers displays enthusiasm for continuous
learning.
Table 3: Relationship between the Teaching
Pro iciency in Peace Lens Embedding andTeaching Demonstration Performance ofProspective Teachers
Variables

Teaching
Pro iciency
in Peace
Lens
EmbeddingCorrelation
Coef icie
nt (r)

r2

pvalueRemarks

Decision0.4307

0.18
85

0.017

Signi icant

RejectHo

Teaching
Demonstration
Performance

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

Table 3 presents the statistical analysis on whether
the teaching pro iciency in peace lens embedding
contributes to the teaching demonstration
performance of the pre-service teachers. The
indings show a fairly positive relationship between
the two variables, with a computed r-value of 0.4307
and a p-value of 0.017. This positive correlationshows that when prospective teachers show a higher
pro iciency in integrating the peace lens in teaching-ff

Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

63

learning, they are more likely to do well during
teaching demonstration. Although the link between
the two variables in this case is not very strong, it
tends to get stronger as one variable rises, as seenby the positive correlation coef icient.
According to the degree of linkage, there is only atangential relationship between teaching pro iciency
in embedding a peace lens and teachingdemonstration performance of prospective teachers.
The correlation is statistically signi icant because
the p-value is below the standard signi icancethreshold of 0.05. However, the teaching pro iciency
in peace lens embedding may only account for alittle fraction of the variation observed in teachingdemonstration performance, despite the fact that
there is a statistically signi icant association(r2=0.1885).
Interestingly, the indings uncover that the future
educators who adopt a peace perspective into theirpractices are more likely to show increased
performance during teaching demonstrations. By
encouraging a peaceful and inclusive learning
environment, these teachers support strong student
engagement, effective classroom management, andpositive teacher-student connections. When ateacher encourages a peaceful classroom, thelearning process is positively impacted in a variety
of ways. According to studies, creating a peaceful
climate in the classroom improves student
involvement, makes it easier to manage the classeffectively, and strengthens teacher-student
relationships (Hoy, 2019). Teachers that prioritize
promoting harmony and inclusivity support thecreation of a welcoming and productive learning
environment for their students, which improves
overall teaching effectiveness. Additionally, Jennings
and Greenberg (2009) asserted that teachers'
performance in the classroom is improved when
they place a high value on fostering inclusivity. As aresult, this promotes a positive and productive
learning atmosphere for the students. When a safe
and inviting environment is given for them, students
feel valued and respected, which boosts their
engagement, motivation, and active participation in
the class (Lewis et al., 2018).
Conclusions
Generally, the prospective teachers from Mindanao
State University General Santos have generally
changed how teaching and learning are delivered.
They have integrated peace themes including
respect for diversity, con lict resolution, and aculture of sharing in teaching elementary learners inpublic elementary schools due to their advanced
level of pro iciency in embedding a peace lens.
Evidently, the prospective teachers have worked toinclude concepts related to peace while adhering toconstructivism, contextualization, cooperation,
active learning, and real-world connections teaching.
The prospective teachers' pro iciency gained during
their training at the College of Education has

64Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)

encouraged them to implement lessons using a lensof peace.
The prospective teachers in this study haveexhibited very good to excellent performance inteaching. With their preparation before internship,
they have planned out and implemented theirlessons well with integration of a peace lens. They
meticulously planned a pedagogical repertoire thatis inclusive and peaceable as a result of the BEED
Department's initiative of encouraging students tointegrate the peace lens, which in turn contributed
to their great performance during their teachingdemonstration.
This study comes to an understanding that teaching
performance can be in luenced by how well a peacelens is integrated. Teachers are more likely to
succeed during teaching demonstrations when they
integrate the peace lens with more pro iciency.
Although the link between the two variables is notvery strong, it tends to get stronger as one variablerises. Teachers who adopt a peace perspective into
their teaching practices are more likely to show
increased teaching performance.
Recommendations
Based on the analysis and indings of thisresearch, the following recommendations arepresented:
1. Mindanao State University and the Department of
Education can consider initiating series of activities
to develop a manual for designing lessons embeddedwith the peace in the context of teaching internship;
2. The College of Education can conduct training
needs assessment of pre-service teachers andcooperating teachers in embedding peace lens in thedelivery of lessons for elementary teacher;
3. The Bachelor of Elementary Education
Department can standardize the provision ofthorough instruction on the principles and practicesof peace education before deployment of theprospective teachers in the cooperating school andoffer continuous coaching support and resources toaspiring teachers for them to effectively embed
peace education across subject areas.
4. Teacher Education Institutions can endeavor todesign and implement a capacity building program
to train the prospective teachers on writing anddelivering lesson exemplars embedded with peace
lens; and5. A evaluation study can be endeavoured todetermine the relevance, coherence, effectiveness,
ef iciency, sustainability and impact of peace lens
integration of prospective teachers in the pursuit ofquality education and peace.
References

f

f

f

f

f

Amin, S., Jumani, N. B., & Malik, S. (2019). Integrating
peace education in pre-service teachers training
programs: Views from teacher educators and prospective
teachers in Pakistan. International Journal of Service
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Bashir, S & Akbar, R. A. (2021). Determining the Effect ofPeace Education on Knowledge and Attitude ofProspective Teachers: An Experimental Study. Bulletin of
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Brookhart, S. M. (2010). How to assess higher-order
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Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 33(2) (March 2023)
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