Antigua andBarbudaSIDS 2014 Prepatory Progress
Report (July 2013)
Prepared by Dr. Janil GoreFrancis in collaboration with theEnvironment Division – Ministryof Agriculture, Housing, Lands,
and the Environment

Table of Contents
1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1
COUNTRY PROFILE .................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2
REPORT OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................................ 52

NATIONAL ASSESSMENT: WHERE WE ARE ......................................................................................... 7
2.1
CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE ............................................................................................................. 7
2.2
NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS .................................................................................................. 10
2.3
WASTE MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................................................................... 12
2.4
COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Fisheries ......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.5
FRESHWATER RESOURCES................................................................................................................................... 17
2.6
LAND RESOURCES ................................................................................................................................................. 19
2.6.1 National Physical Development Plan ............................................................................................................... 19
2.6.2 National Environmental Management Strategy ........................................................................................ 20
2.6.3 Environment Protection Management Bill.................................................................................................... 21
2.7
ENERGY RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................................. 22
2.8
TOURISM RESOURCES ........................................................................................................................................... 25
2.9
SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION: AGRICULTURE & FOOD POLICY .................................. 26
2.10 BIODIVERSITY ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
2.11 NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND ADMINISTRATIVE CAPACITY ........................................................................ 32
2.11.1 Data Mapping and Information ....................................................................................................................... 33
2.12 REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND TECHNICAL COOPERATION ........................................................................... 33
2.13 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION................................................................................................................... 33
2.14 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 34
2.15 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT RESOURCES AND CULTURE....................................................................................... 35
2.16 TRADE LIBERALIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION ............................................................................................... 37

3

EMERGING CHALLENGES ........................................................................................................................ 39

4

PRIORITY AREAS ....................................................................................................................................... 40

5

LESSONS LEARNT & REMAINING GAPS .............................................................................................. 41
5.1
DATA COLLECTION AND MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................... 41
5.2
FINANCE .................................................................................................................................................................. 41
5.3
THEMATIC GAPS .................................................................................................................................................... 42

6

POLITICAL COMMITMENT...................................................................................................................... 44

7

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................ 45

8

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 462

1 Introduction
The historic Rio Earth Conference brought sustainable development to the global political agenda. As
part of this process and in recognition of the peculiar vulnerabilities and challenges faced by Small Island
Developing States (SIDS) a separate program, the Barbados Program of Action (BPOA) and its
subsequent successor, the Mauritius Strategy of Implementation (MSI), was developed. This approach
was envisaged as a separate commitment strategy specifically for Small Island Developing States toeffectively address sustainable development issues. Essentially, the overall objective of the BPOA and the
MSI is to secure renewed political commitment for sustainable development, and assessing the progressof SIDS in their capacity to address new and emerging challenges. It is important to note that the
Barbados Program of Action represents the first commitment, collectively and comprehensively
addressing the sustainable development issues faced by SIDS. In conjunction with the MSI it also
provides a strategic framework that aims to mitigate the underlying vulnerabilities of SIDS.
The BOPA was adopted with fourteen priority areas and the necessary actions to be undertaken to meetthese objectives. The priority areas included climate change and sea level rise, natural and environmental
disasters, management of waste, coastal and marine resources, freshwater resources, land resources,
energy resources, tourism resources, biodiversity resources, national institutions and administrative
capacity, regional institutions and technical cooperation, transport and communication, science andtechnology and human resource development. The other cross sectoral areas identified as requiring
attention included capacity building, institutional development at the national, regional and international
levels, cooperation in the transfer of environmentally sound technologies, trade and economic
diversification as well as finance. In culmination of the ten-year review of the BPOA there was the
adoption of the MSI for the further implementation f the BPOA. In recognition of the fact that SIDS werestill having constraints in implementing the BPOA the MSI set out nineteen priority areas building on theoriginal fourteen from the BPOA. The additional areas included graduation from least developed country
status, trade, sustainable production and consumption, health, knowledge management and culture. These
were aimed at helping each SIDS to meet the international targets and goals established.
As part of the reporting requirements under these two strategies as well as to asses their progress,
countries are expected to conduct internal and regional assessments prior to the 2014 SIDS Conference todetermine how the first conference and other subsequent processes have influenced their development
agenda. In preparation for this important meeting SIDS member states have held several regional
meetings including at the levels of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Group of Latin
America and the Caribbean States (GRULAC). Subregional meeting led to a series of recommendations
at the regional and global levels, which included calls for the strengthening of the CARICOM and theAlliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), establishing a new model of ocean governance and improving
the coordination with the United Nations system in relation to defining sustainable development
indicators. In line with the country priorities identified by Antigua and Barbuda, the following emerging
issues were acknowledged at the meeting: non-communicable diseases, ecosystem services, thechallenges associated with the opening of new shipping routes in the Arctic region and higher sea levels,
climate change and energy, food and livelihood security. Priority was also placed on the weather-related
disasters that have put the countries of the Caribbean to the test over the last decade. These have hadserious implications for the economies of the region in addition to the global economic recession.

At the level of the GRULAC, a meeting held in Santiago Chile on the 7-8th September 2012, identified thefollowing priorities for the countries in the region. Antigua and Barbuda supports these priorities andaligns itself at the national level with a commitment to ensure their implementation. The priorities
include:The eradication of extreme poverty,
A change in patterns of production and consumption, in which the developed countries shouldplay a leading global role,
Effective access to and transfer of safe and appropriate technologies, without conditionality andon preferential terms for developing countries,
The promotion of a global intellectual property rights regime that facilitates the transfer of suchtechnologies, in keeping with the commitments undertaken by each country,
Full implementation of the right to access to environmental information, participation and justiceenshrined in Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration,
A global institutional framework for sustainable development which is efficient and flexible andensures the effective integration of its three pillars,
New, additional, stable and predictable financing for supporting implementation activities indeveloping countries,
The fulfilment of mitigation and adaptation commitments in relation to climate change and thebuilding of resilience to its impacts,
Greater South-South cooperation and exchange of successful experiences,
The restoration of harmony with nature,
Better ways of measuring countries‟ wealth that adequately reflect the three pillars of sustainable
development.
Despite these challenges progress has been made at the national level as Antigua and Barbuda has
undertaken a number of national and regional initiatives to attain sustainable development. These
initiatives have been outlined in the sections below based on the priorities considered in the BPOA andthe MSI.
The preparation process for SIDS 2014 is being led by the Permanent Mission of Antigua and Barbuda to
the UN in New York and at the national level by the Environment Division and the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs.

1.1

Country Profile

Antigua is located at 17o 10‟ N and 61o 55‟W with a total land area of 270Km2. Approximately 40Km to
the north is the island of Barbuda which is located at 17o 35‟N and 61o 48‟W with a land area of 155
Km2. The islands are part of the Leeward Islands which are in the north-eastern section of the Caribbeanarchipelago. The twin islands of Antigua and Barbuda sit on an extensive underwater platform known as
the Barbuda Bank which has a total area of 3,500 Km2 and is within the EEZ estimated at 110,071 Km2.
In 2007, Antigua and Barbuda was ranked 57th on UNDP‟s Human Development Index making it the4second highest ranked in the OECS after Saint Kitts and Nevis which was ranked 54th. This high humandevelopment rank is based on a life expectancy at birth of 73.9 years, a literacy rate of 85.8%, and GDP
per capita of US$12,500 in 20045. Such a high standard of living makes the twin island one of the threemost attractive places for intra-regional migrants within the GEF SGP‟s subregional programme area,with the others being Barbados and Saint Lucia.
According to the Caribbean Development Bank, Antigua and Barbuda‟s economy recorded the best
economic performance in the 25 years since independence when GDP grew by 12% in 2006 comparedwith 5% in the previous year. In 2005, the GDP at market prices was estimated at US$459.487 million
and the GDP per capita was US$10,513. This relatively high GDP per capita was made up ofcontributions from various sectors as follows: Transportation and Communications (20.8%); Government
Services (16.8%); Construction (16.2%); Financial and Business Services (16.1%); and Hotels andRestaurants (9.9%). Comparatively, the Agriculture sector contributed only 3.6% to the value of GDP in2005 and has continued its steady decline for a number of years. The main direct and indirect contributor
to GDP is tourism which is the most significant economic driver for the economy. In 2005, CDB
estimates gross tourism revenue amounted to almost 50% of GDP. Like many other SIDS in the
Caribbean, the economy of Antigua and Barbuda has transitioned from an agrarian to a more service
oriented economy within the last 25 years, but the economy lacks diversity and therefore resilience.
Crime, poverty and environmental degradation are considered major issues affecting the future
development of Antigua and Barbuda. The CDB in its recent economic review noted that violent crime
involving firearms had the potential to undermine the “... social and economic fabric of the country, butalso because of its potential impact on tourism”. Poverty is also a major concern with estimates as high as
18% being quoted, up from an estimated 12% in 1994. This increase is of concern and the Government iswell aware of this situation. That same report also noted that there was an increase in evidence of coastal
degradation which could have adverse impacts on the quality of the environment and the tourism industry.
Antigua and Barbuda enjoys a high standard of living but the economy like many SIDS, is fragile andvulnerable to social and environmental issues, which includes the impacts of disasters, in particularhurricanes.

1.2

Report Overview

The Government of Antigua and Barbuda has taken many strides in its effort to implement the
Barbados Program of Action to achieve the agenda 21. This report provides an overview of theadvancements, gaps and emerging challenges of the country.
The report first summarizes the progress made in the thematic areas of the BPOA and MSI with specificmentions of the significantly improved policy and legislative framework that guides national
considerations for sustainable development.
Pivotal to the policy and legislative framework forsustainable development, the reports highlights the National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) andNational Environmental Management Strategy which cumulatively creates an overarching framework forland use developments. The upcoming enactment of the Environment Protection and Management Billsignifies the country‟s progress towards environmental sustainability and economic development.

5

The report will demonstrate that although the Government of Antigua and Barbuda has demonstrated
much political will through the development and adoption of national policies addressing the various
facets of sustainable development, climate change adaptation and mitigation presents a great challenge, in
addition to invasive species and global economic trends and policies. The growing impacts of climatechange and responsibility to meet international mitigation standards have enlisted a significant amount offinancial investment to address this undue pressure. Not only within the context of the national economy,
but greater financial assistance is required to support the implementation of national policies aimed at
adapting the environment and natural resources as well as social liveability.
Overall, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda has made significant effort to enact the legislation andestablish an enabling environment necessary to address the management of its natural resources.
However, the process for creating a legislative environment suitable to promote the basic tenants ofsustainable development has not followed a coordinated path.

6

2 National Assessment: Where we are
The following chapter provides a brief summary of the national actions undertaken to implement the
BPOA and MSI. The chapter first summarizes the progress made within the key focal areas of the BPOA
and MSI as well as major challenges experienced therein. Conclusion of this chapter highlights thenational policy and legislative framework developed to support the advancements made in environmental
management and development planning to attain sustainable development despite constraints within thethematic areas of trade liberalization and globalization.

2.1

Climate Change and Sea Level Rise

Antigua and Barbuda ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
on February 2nd 1993 while the Kyoto Protocol, a subset of UNFCCC, was ratified on October 28th 1998.
As a country, Antigua and Barbuda is in the process of preparing its Third National Communication
however, the Second National Communication for Antigua and Barbuda, submitted in late 2011highlights the current climate change situation including present and futuristic impacts. It also details theimpact climate change will have on the weather and climate sensitive economic sectors. This subsection
also details the implementation of Antigua and Barbuda‟s obligations under the UNFCCC, including thedevelopment of a climate change database, implementation of monitoring programs, research programsand economic instruments and policies as well as development of an inventory of GHG.
Like many SIDS, Antigua and Barbuda‟s contribution to global CO2 emissions is insignificant, but the
impacts of global warming will be severe because of its high vulnerability. Antigua and Barbuda‟ssurvival depends on its natural resources and climatic condition. Without appropriate adaptation, climatechange may have an extremely harmful impact on the sustainability of the development process with thecoastal zone being most vulnerable. Table 1 highlights the following as the projected changes to Antigua
and Barbuda‟s climate due to global warming:

Climate
Parameter

Predicted change
forthe Insular
CaribbeanF1

Predicted change for
Antigua and BarbudaF2

Notes

Air
temperature

Increase of 1.8 - 4.0°C Increase of 1.3oC by the
There is evidence to suggest that the climate of Antigua
by 20992050s
Increase of 1 - 3.5oC by the and Barbuda is changing. Both maximum and minimum
temperatures have increased in the recent past.
end of the century
The warming trend is expected to continue. The country
is projected to be 1 to 3.5 degrees warmer by the end of
the century. Winter months will see marginally larger
increases in temperature than summer months.
The frequency of very hot days will increase, while very
cool nights will decrease.

Sea
surface ~1.7oC by the end of Up to 2oC by the end of thetemperature
the century
century
Sea level rise

Carbon dioxide

Rise of 0.18 – 0.59 m Rise of 0.24 m by 2050F3
by 2099
Reduction in pH of An increase in carbon
the oceans by 0.14 - dioxide emissions through0.35 units by 2099
2050.

1Based on global predictions from IPCC WGI, 2007
2Climate Studies Group, Mona. University of the West Indies
3Estimate for the Caribbean

Caribbean Sea levels are projected to rise by up to 0.5 m
by the end of the century.

Table 1: Predicted Impacts of Climate Change

Hurricanes

More intense with More intense with larger
larger peak wind peak wind speeds and Hurricane intensity is likely to increase but notnecessarily hurricane frequency.
speeds and heavier heavier precipitation.
precipitation.

Precipitation

UnclearDrier (in the mean) by the
Climate change will likely make the dry periods occur
end of the century
earlier in the year and rainy periods (in June/July) drier.
The seasonality of Antigua and Barbuda will be largely
unchanged. The cooler (with respect to late season
temperatures) dry early months and wet hotter latemonths will still prevail.

Winter months will see

marginally larger increases in temperature thansummer months.
The frequency of very hot days will increase, while very
cool nights will decrease.
There is a likelihood that the country will be drier (inthe mean) by the end of the century

9The island‟s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change is effectively documented, particularly as it
relates to droughts and hurricanes. The country experiences droughts of at least one severe drought per
decade and hurricanes which pose annual threats. In September 1995, Hurricane Luis devastated thecountry resulting in a 17% decrease in tourist arrivals; 7000 unemployed; damages amounting to
US$128.35 million or 30.49% of GDP. These impacts are common after hurricanes and with the projected
increase in the frequency, size and intensity of hurricanes, climate change adaptation strategies havebecome an imperative part of national development planning.
To show its commitment to the international process of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to reduce therate of climate change impacts, Antigua and Barbuda pledged to implement the Copenhagen Accord in2010 and pledged a target of 25% reduction of its emissions by 2020.
According to the First National Communications to the UNFCCC the total CO2 emissions for 1990 and1994 were 288.3 Gg and 334.40Gg respectively. The greatest proportions came from Residual Fuel Oil(46.9% in 1994) used for thermal electricity production; Gas/Diesel Oil (27.6% in 1994) used forelectricity and road vehicular transport; Gasoline (22.1% in 1994) used in vehicular transport mainly, andalso in agriculture and fishing. Comparatively smaller emissions were also documented from LPG (3.4%
in 1994) used primarily in the residential sector. These figures have not changed much since the lastreport in 2009.
This commitment is crucial as it will also help in meeting the anticipated requirements of the new
emissions agreement to be negotiated by 2015 under the Durban Platform. The Government is yet to put
in place the necessary institutional and other arrangements to set the meeting of this target in motion.
However, it is expected that with the assistance from the GEF, and access to other finical support as
indicated in section three and eight of the Copenhagen accord, this will be completed and approved for
implementation in 2013.
In the interim, the government has undertaken activities also aimed at meeting the Cancun agreementswith its undertaking of inventories to determine its human-generated greenhouse gas emissions, as well as
through accessing mobilized funds internationally so as to undertake effective actions based on therequirements of the agreement and meeting the climate change challenges.
It is worth nothing that the establishment of effective institutions and systems to ensure the achievementof the objectives in the country has still not been completely implemented. Additionally, though work on
the protection of the forest reserves in the country has begun, this has not yet been completed. As an
objective of the agreement, this goal remains on the agenda and is currently being addressed through theimplementation of the physical development plan and the protected areas system plan.

2.2

Natural and Environmental Disasters

As in the case of many SIDS, a major obstacle for Antigua and Barbuda in its pursuit of sustainable
development is that of natural disasters. Extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, wildfire, andheat waves can cause significant damage whenever they occur and are responsible for a large part of theclimate related impacts4. The type, frequency and intensity of extreme events are expected to change as

4

ESAL 2009 Environmental Variability and Extreme Event Forecastingthe Earth‟s climate changes. Tropical Waves, Depressions, Storms and Hurricanes are relatively common
in this region.5,6 These storms form just off the coast of Africa during the Hurricane season (June –November) and usually pass somewhere through the Leeward Island chain (of which Antigua andBarbuda is part) on a north westerly course depending, of course, on the atmospheric conditions. Even if
the islands do not receive direct hits from storms, the storm surge is usually enough to create significant
damage to the coastal regions. Antigua and Barbuda had a forty- five year reprieve of direct hits bydangerous storms. In 1950, two severe hurricanes stuck these islands in the space of twelve days causing
great damage. In 1995, Category 4 Hurricane Luis devastated Antigua on the 4th - 5th Sept. to be followed
ten days later by Category 1 Hurricane Marilyn. The damage was in the millions of dollars. The fortyfive year reprieve lead to little attention being paid to design standards and the development of known
hazardous areas. There was closure and loss of revenue in all major tourism facilities along the coast,
17% decrease in tourist stay over arrivals (Graph 8) and 7000 persons were left unemployed. The total
cost of damages was EC$ 346.54 million or 30.49% of the GDP at factor cost in 1994.
In 1998, Category 2 Hurricane Georges struck Antigua and Barbuda causing damage estimated at
EC$200 million. In 1999, Category 2 Jose hit Antigua in October and Hurricane / Tropical Storm Lenny
hit in November, the combined estimated damage was EC$ 247.43 million. Since 19997Antigua andBarbuda has gone 12 straight years without a hurricane making land-fall on our shores. This, however,does not mean that Antigua and Barbuda has been without its challenges. In 2011, Antigua and Barbuda
encountered 3 tropical storms, namely Irene, Maria and Ophelia. Although tropical storms do not bring
substantial winds, the rainfall and coastal erosion associated with them can at times wreak significant
damage. In recent years, tropical storm Omar (2008) cost US$18 million in damage8. Direct impact on the
tourism arrival however was minimal.
As part of a large scale GEF funded project, an Environmental Sensitivity Index Map was developed inpartnership with the National Office of Disaster Services. The map created as part of an Environmental
Information Management and Advisory System (EIMAS) uses a Geographical Information Systems(GIS) based platform to digitally highlight the locations and types of ecological resources within the
country. Through the use of the EIMAS, flood hazard maps have been developed to plan and coordinate
emergency responses. Additionally, the 2012 National Physical Development Plan makes strong
recommendations and prohibits development within certain areas. The National Disaster Risk
Management Plan has been recently updated as part of a regional initiative in partnership with Caribbean
Disaster Emergency Management Agency.
Disaster management on the island is spearheaded by the National Office of Disaster Services and its
management and administrative board is the National Disaster Council. During disasters, the National
Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC) is activated and consists of many key stakeholders across

5National Office of Disaster Services, Govt. of Antigua & Barbuda

6 Cordell Weston, Hurricane the Greatest Storm on Earth, (Antigua Archives Committee) pp 4-8
7Destin D (2012)The Atlantic Hurricane Season Summary – 2011 Special Focus on Antigua and Barbuda, Antigua and Barbuda

Meteorological Servicehttp://www.antiguamet.com/Climate/HURRICANE_SEASONS/HurricaneSeason2011.pdf
8Antigua and Barbuda Meteorological Services (2008) The Atlantic Hurricane Season Summary – 2008Special Focus on Antigua andBarbudahttp://www.antiguamet.com/Climate/HURRICANE_SEASONS/2008/Hurricane_Season2008.pdf

11

government ministries and civil society. Guided by the National Disaster Risk Management Plan, theNEOC plans and coordinates the appropriate risk management measures based on the type and location ofdisasters.

2.3

Waste Management

Significant measures have been undertaken to implement the national actions proposed for waste
management. However, the environment continues to be degraded by the improper disposal of wastes,
particularly liquid waste as there is no central sewer system. Waste is officially deposited at one site,namely the Cooks Sanitary Landfill and Civic Amenities Site, located on the western part of Antigua.
The Cooks Landfill is properly constructed, efficient and fully operational. However, sewage collected isdisposed of via land pits that are later buried. These pits are located near a wetland preceding Hanson‟sBay. With the assistance of the GEF Small Grants Program and the Rotary Club of Antigua Sundown,
the Antigua Barbuda Waste Recycling Cooperation (ABWRC) was established as a national recycling
facility that caters to plastics, glass, and scrap metal.
The development of fiscal policy to encourage environmentally sustainable imports and local productswith low waste or degradable waste content was achieved through the Environmental Levy Act (Bottling
and Can levy). The Levy was initially established to see large scale imports benefitting by exportingbottles and cans, however in reality, it became a revenue measure that redounds to the benefit of the
National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA). Revenue generation is further constrained as
more and more businesses have been granted exemption by the Government which is a grave cause forconcern to NSWMA. Moreover, the existing business plan has since been outdated.
Some progress has been made with regards to the development and implementation of appropriate
regulatory measures, including emission discharge and pollution standards for the reduction, prevention,and control and monitoring of pollution from all sources. Regulations exist as per the Solid Waste
Management Act 1995 and the Litter Act, while pesticides are regulated under the implementation of theStockholm convention. Some monitoring is done through breast milk testing. As it relates to effluent
emissions, hospital effluent emissions are not monitored. The enforcement of the aforementioned
regulations still presents a challenge despite ongoing public awareness campaigns.
The NSMA engages schools through its Environmental Services Division and Schools Program as part ofa public awareness and education campaign. However, this is not fully functional as more campaign
efforts are needed to realize separation of wastes at the source, and illegal dumping. Moreover, garnering
support and buy in at the policy level has not yet been fully realized.
In accordance with Annex V of the International Convention Prevention of Pollution from Ships(MARPOL 73/78), the mechanism exists for the collection of solid waste by barge however, the system is
not ideal. The system has departed from what was set out under the OECS ship and solid waste projectand requires further improvements.
Waste Data is collected at Cooks Sanitary Landfill based on the category and quantities of wastes
received. The NSMA continues to measure all categories of waste for waste management through waste

12receipts and a waste type attracter tipping fee. However, although the quantity of wastewater ismeasured, proper disposal continues to be an issue as sewage is just buried in pits at the landfill.
Wastewater generated on the island is predominantly disposed either to on-site sub-surface disposal
systems (soak-aways and drain fields) and/or to roadside gutters, culverts and watercourses9 as there is nocentral sewage collection and transfer treatment system in place. During heavy rainfall, this poses a
significant threat to freshwater resources and the potential spreading of diseases. By contrast, theDevelopment Control Authority (DCA) in corporation with the Central Board Of Health has consistently
required the construction of mechanical type on-site wastewater treatment plants as a prerequisite to theapproval of all major new tourism and commercial projects around the island. As a result, almost 75% of
the hotels in the north-west tourism zone and 48% of the larger commercial buildings in the St. John‟s,
the capital, have wastewater treatment plants. These plants are typically extended aeration, activatedsludge treatment plants, operating as continuous or sequencing batch reactor (SBR) plants. They aredesigned to treat to secondary level effluent standards (i.e. <30 ppm BOD, < 30 ppm TSS) and often haveno provisions for nutrient removal.
Through partnership with the regional Integrated Watershed and Coastal Areas Management (IWCAM)
project and the GEF funded Sustainable Island Resource Management Mechanism (SIRMM) project anational wastewater management strategy was developed and is in the process of adoption. Moreover, asewage treatment plant was installed within the North West coast to cater to residential as well as
commercial entities in the nearby area as a demonstration project. The treated grey-water produced will
be sold to farmers and some hoteliers to assist with irrigation and landscaping.
Additionally, through the SIRMM project, which is a large scale GEF project, an environmental
management system inclusive of an online wastewater management database has been established. The
database enables a varied selection of large, medium and small scale hotels within the North West coast to
upload data on their respective wastewater management systems and also generate analysis report. Thisinitiative has been successfully achieved through public private partnership in that the Central Board of
Health, and Environment Division have unlimited access to the uploaded data. Analysis reports generated
will alert the respective government agencies to discrepancies or to breaches within the system andinitiate a full onsite investigation. Although established as a pilot demonstration project with only 5
hotels currently using this database, it is envisaged that this tool will be expanded to other hotels andeventually commercial buildings.

2.4

Coastal and Marine Resources

The islands of Antigua and Barbuda are emergent parts of a 3400 sq. km sub-marine platform. The depthof water between the two islands is 27 -33 m. The coastline of Antigua is indented with numerous
islands, creeks, inlets, associated sand bars and wet lands. A large portion of the east, north and south
coasts are protected by fringing reefs. On the west coast, there are large areas of sandy bottom in shallow
water, with sandy bottom between fringing reefs and the shore. The coastline of Barbuda is less varied

9IWCAM Wastewater Management Strategy

13

but has extensive reef systems especially off the east coast. Sections of Antigua and Barbuda‟s coastline
are in various states of erosion based on recent changes in wave action. As the impacts of climate change
increases, and tropical storms and hurricanes become more intense, the impact of these features on the
coastline have become even more severe.
Antigua and Barbuda has one of the most extensive networks of mangrove wetlands in the Eastern
Caribbean; with an estimated 4,900 ha of mangroves in 1991.There are thirty-six (36) mangrove sites in
Antigua and nine (9) sites in Barbuda. In Antigua, the sites range from very small single layer stands oftrees to large, complex basin systems with multiple species Four species of mangroves are known tooccur in Antigua and Barbuda; Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), Langucularia racemosa (whitemangrove), Avicennia germinans (black mangrove) and Conocarpus erectus (buttonwood). In Barbuda,
there is the luxuriant 352 ha fringe mangrove of Codrington Lagoon and narrow scrubby borders ofmangroves around salt ponds. Mangroves essentially are vital to maintaining healthy beach and reef
systems. They act as natural breakers and buffer zones that protect the coastline from erosion duringstorms. Additionally, the mangroves act as sediment traps, protecting the reefs from being smothered byeroded soil and other geological material from the land. Finally they act as nurseries, breeding andfeeding grounds and provide a habitat for both marine and terrestrial wildlife.

Photo 1: Example of a Mangrove habitat in Antigua

Climate Change will significantly disrupt the mangrove ecosystem, especially, since these areas are
already under stress from natural (hurricanes, droughts) and anthropogenic sources (pollution &destruction – caused by dredging and filling). Recent work undertaken through a number of projects,
including the SIRMM (Sustainable Island Resource Management Mechanism) and GEF IWCAM(Integrating Watershed and Coastal Areas Management) projects have sought to examine effective
methods of addressing the impacts of land based sources of pollution on the mangrove systems
particularly on the north west coast of the island. In some cases, work that has been completed over thelast three to four years has resulted in the reintroduction of mangroves in some critical sites such as the
Mckinnons Pond.

14

Coral reefs are found around both islands of Antigua and Barbuda and the estimate coverage varies froma high of 25.4519 km2 to a low of 15.820 km2. Antigua and Barbuda sits on a shallow rock-floored„shell‟ covered by a variety of reefs. The edge of the „shell‟ is at depths of 90 – 180 m where it drops tooceanic depths. On the windward east coast there is better reef development due to the high wave energy
providing circulation of nutrients and flushing with absence of fine muddy sediment. However, on theleeward west coast the reefs are poorly developed because of lack of circulation and abundance of finesediment. The optimal temperature for reef growth is 29oC (Brown 1989). The mean sea surface
temperatures range between approximately 27.5°C or 81.5°F and rising to around 29.5°C or 85.1°F in
September and October and falling to around 26°C or 78.8°F in February and March (1971 – 2000)10. It is
at temperatures of 30oC and above that bleaching of the corals takes place. Prolonged exposure to hightemperatures can result in irreversible bleaching of the corals.
Beaches and sand bars provide a major barrier to the constant force of coastal erosion. Antigua andBarbuda boasts many beaches that are critical to its tourism industry and culture. The beaches provide a
habitat for nesting turtles and other animals and plants. Unfortunately, the beaches are illegally used as asource of fine aggregates in construction; therefore, sand mining is a significant concern in addition to thepotential impacts of Sea Level Rise and other climate influenced coastal erosion events. Additionally,another major source of coastal erosion is the building of concrete structures too close to the shoreline andthe use of poorly designed and unregulated sea defenses.
At the meeting of the UN General Assembly on the 27th -28th September, coastal and marine resourceswere identified as a priority area in need of urgent attention. Specifically it was identified that coastal andmarine resources: protecting coastal ecosystems and coral reefs from pollution and over-fishing, is inneed of special attention. As a small island developing state, Antigua and Barbuda recognizes thepotential impacts natural and man-made activities can have on its coastal and marine resources. As such,the resulting challenges highlighted in the previous paragraphs and the 1999 call from the UN General
Assembly, provide the basis on which the country‟s management policy for coastal and marine resources
is being established. Nationally, the government has embarked on a program to effectively manage its
resources with moves to strengthen both institutional and legislative arrangements. Through the efforts of
the Fisheries Division, the Barbuda Council and the Codrington Lagoon National Park as well as theEnvironment Division and other supporting agencies, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda hasembarked on the development and implementation of management plans and legislation for effective
marine resource management. Since 1999 progress has been made with the enactment of an updated
Fisheries Act and relevant regulations, cabinet approval of a National Land Use Plan and theincorporation of an EIA process in the development of coastal areas. Additionally, there has been theestablishment of three new marine protected areas (the NEMMA, Palaster Reef and Cades Bay Marine
Reserve). National efforts to protect marine resources have been matched regionally as the Caribbean
countries bond together to sustainably manage coastal and marine resources. There is evidence of this in
the efforts to implement the Caribbean Challenge project for sustainable marine resources management
currently being implemented in thirteen Caribbean countries including Antigua and Barbuda.

10http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsst.shtml

15

Though these efforts are on the way, challenges still remain. There are existing problems in developing
and implementing proper coastal zone management plans, addressing the impacts of climate change andnatural disasters, effectively collecting recording and incorporating necessary data on the marine andcoastal areas on a continuous basis as well as the effective declaration and management of marine
protected areas. These gaps form the basis of the priority areas identified by the government of Antigua
and Barbuda on paving the way forward to achieve the objectives of the BOPA and the MSI. Regionally,
there is still a need for harmonize policies on coastal and marine resource management issues as well as
the strengthening of capacities of the regional institutions to monitor such issues. Internationally, theexploration of the advantages of South- South Corporation and the use of international efforts to monitor
the issues relating to this activity are still lacking. A lack of available financial resources also highlight anexisting gap to be addressed prior to the government‟s implementation of relevant activities under thispriority area.

2.4.1 Fisheries
The coastal and marine areas of Antigua and Barbuda comprise a variety of ecosystems (mangroves, coral
reefs, sea grass beds and beaches) with natural resources including fisheries resources. According to the
Antigua and Barbuda Fisheries Development Plan 2006 – 2010F11F, Antigua and Barbuda establisheditself as an archipelagic state in 1982 with a 12 nautical mile territorial sea, an Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ) and a Fishery Zone of 200 nautical miles. The full extent of the EEZ is unknown although it isestimated to be about 110,071 km2 with a shelf area of about 3,568 km12. This includes the Antigua andBarbuda shelf (3,400 km2), South Bank (40 km2), a section of Anguilla shelf (7 km2), Redonda shelf (98km2), Havers Shoal (5 km2) and a section of St. Christopher and Nevis shelf (18 km2). This relatively
large sea space is seen by many to offer vast potential for fisheries development especially for the
migratory species. There are areas of the Redonda & island Shelf that are not frequently fished by vessels
from Antigua and Barbuda, due to distance from Antigua and to the apparent prevalence of ciguatoxic
fishes found in the area.
The nature and extent of the coastal and marine areas are primary determinants of types, amount and tosome extent the distribution of the two main categories of fisheries (demersals and pelagics) in Antigua
and Barbuda. Fisheries production in Antigua and Barbuda is considered to be small scale (Horsford, I.,
2008; James P. A., 2008). The demersal fishery is well developed while the pelagic fishery may beconsidered underdeveloped.
Demersal resources of the Antigua and Barbuda shelf, including reef fish species, conch and lobster, areclosely associated with coral reefs, mangroves and sea grasses which are either adult habitats or nurseryareas for juveniles (GOAB/UNEP, 1997). The pelagic resources that are highly mobile, generally
migratory and seasonal are of less importance to the fisheries of Antigua and Barbuda mainly because of11(Appleton, Horsford, & James, 2005)16

aasociated socio-economic factors such as increased operational cost13 and a cultural tradition of
harvesting the demersals14.
The demersal resources include: the Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus), the queen conch(Strombusgigas), shallow reef fishes, and deep slopes fishes. The pelagic resources are divided into small
coastal pelagics found mainly nearshore or around the coast and larger coastal pelagics at the shelf edge
and in the oceanic regions of the EEZ. These resource types and the fisheries for them have beensummarised in the Antigua and Barbuda Fisheries Management Plan (Appleton, Horsford, & James,
2005). Lobster, conch and a variety of finfishes form the major landings. Most of the lobster is exported
to the French West Indian islands, particularly Guadeloupe15.
Although the sector is relatively healthy there are significant threats to the basic biodiversity base of thefisheries. These include:
Pressure from over-fishing and other marine activities
Coastal development, particularly the development of hotels and marinas
Pollution both from land-based and marine sources.
Fluctuations within the global economy and market conditions.
Most scientists agree that corals‟ ability to adapt to shifting environmental conditions resulting fromclimate change depends on the severity of other human stresses, such as fishing pressure, coastal
development and land-based sources of pollution. Socio-economic conditions within the sector will
provide the framework to determine the stresses on the natural environment.
The Fisheries Division is the national authority mandated to manage and develop the fisheries sector of
Antigua and Barbuda. The Division continues to monitor and provide status report on the fisheries sector
including beach analysis changes.

2.5

Freshwater Resources

Freshwater resources on the island although significant, are also limited and have been poorly regulated.
Antigua‟s drainage areas were initially consolidated into thirteen (13) distinct watersheds. However, six(6) major watersheds were highlighted as critical based on their socio-economic, agro-ecological andhydrological values16as highlighted in Figure 1. Combined, they constitute 43 percent of Antigua‟s land
area; sustain 50% of its forests, and 90% of its crops. They also contain 90% of Antigua‟s ground watersupply and 90% of its surface water reservoirs.

13

Expansive shelf area force fishers to travel longer distances to catch these species, especially large pelagics.

14

Householders generally prefer „plate size‟ fish.

15

Fisheries Division Statistics

16ESAL, 2008 based on Fernandez 1990

17

Figure 1: EIMAS image of Wells and Watersheds of Antigua

On the other hand, the watersheds in Barbuda are poorly defined with no comprehensive studies.
Barbuda‟s watersheds are divided into ten (10) watersheds that are solely located in the highlands or areas
with any „appreciable slope.‟ There are no delineated for flat areas on the island where surface runoff islimited normally but may become significant in flood conditions. Reports highlighted that sand mining
has impacted the major ground water source for Barbuda however, many of the properties in Codrington,
are able to source ground water using their own wells. Reports further suggest that the water is often
brackish and in some cases contaminated due to the proximity of household sewage.
Water resources on the twin island state are used for both domestic and agricultural purposes. However,the demand for water has drastically exceeded the available supply from ground and surface water
sources. This has been primarily due to population growth and improper development. As a result, thecountry is increasingly dependent on desalination which is more expensive to produce to meet national
needs17.
National capacity to manage and regulate water resource management is severely constrained with avariety of agencies having the onus of different aspects relating to its management. The Antigua Public
Utilities Authority has legislative oversight to regulate the use of water sources but does not manage or
regulate the disposal of wastewater. This is managed under the Public Health Act (Cap 353) thatprovides legislative powers to the Central Board of Health, another Government agency. Duringconsultations on the formulation of a Model Water Policy and Act as part of an OECS regional project,
the following constraints were highlighted:
a fragmented and poorly coordinated approach to water resources management and services
provision;
rising and competing demands for water and an absence of allocation and mediation mechanisms
to resolve conflicts over the use of water resources;

17Sustainable Island Resource Zoning Plan for Antigua and Barbuda (including Redonda) 201218

inadequate control of land-based sources of marine pollution (LBS) and concomitant provision ofwastewater management services;poor enforcement of regulations;weak financial position of the water service providers and an inability to mobilise adequate
financial resources;
lack of planning for the impact of natural disasters and climate change.
The draft National Water Policy and Act in addition to watershed regulations are currently under review
for possible amendments prior to enactment. Moreover, the National Physical Development Plan inrecognizing the above mentioned constraints calls for Watershed management units to not only facilitate
water supply but to also restrict development within the surrounding parameters.

2.6

Land Resources

Antigua and Barbuda became a party to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification on
June 6th 1997. Initial communication reports highlighted two priority issues, namely drought and land
management. As previously highlighted in Section 2.5, the management of water resources are being
addressed both through the National Water Policy and National Physical Development Plan to assist in
the alleviation of drought. With regards to the use of land resources, preliminary reports concluded that
Antigua and Barbuda, including the offshore island of Redonda relies heavily on the integrity of itsvariety of ecologically significant species and ecosystems to support three prime competing land uses,
namely agriculture, residential and tourism development. However, there has been a general lack ofcohesive conservation, management and planning frameworks for the islands‟ development18.
The existing legislative framework is disjointed with approximately forty pieces of legislation that govern
various elements geared towards sustainable development by a variety of Government Departments andStatutory Organizations with little or no means for cooperation or consultation. This fragmented
institutional structure developed as a tradition to provide legislative jurisdiction to Government agencies
that were major users of the various resources. An example of this may be seen in the management ofwater resources. The Government of Antigua and Barbuda however, intends to achieve a moreconsultative legislative and institutional framework while consolidating issues of land resources andsustainable development through the implementation of two major national policy documents: the
National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) and the National Environment Management Strategy(NEMS) and their respective enabling legislations. The adoption of the NPDP provides the context
through which the Physical Planning Act (2003) can effectively guide the development process of
Antigua and Barbuda. This sets the pace for addressing many of the challenges faced with land and water
resources, biodiversity, tourism and agriculture.
2.6.1 National Physical Development Plan
As part of a large scale GEF based financing initiative, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda
18Government of Antigua and Barbuda. SIRMM Project: Preliminary State of the Country Report 201019

undertook to develop and elaborate the National Physical Development Plan. Titled the Sustainable Island
Resource Management Zoning Plan (SIRMZP), it was developed through a series of public consultations
before gaining adoption by Parliament in July 2012. The Plan is supported by the Physical Planning Act
2003 and will shortly benefit from updated regulations. With a strategic view of attaining sustainable
development, the Plan creates an “umbrella” that will guide national development to achieve thefollowing objectives:
1. Provide for the protection of critical ecosystem functions and habitats, minimizes
environmental risks, and seeks to optimize the productive use of environmental resources;
2. Promote the development of a network of cohesive mixed‐ use settlements that offer a rangeof housing options that respond to different income levels and living preferences whileproviding ready access to local commerce, public services, and facilities;
3. Establish economic growth and employment centres that focus on tourism, professional
services, agriculture, and industrial development;
4. Presents proposals to improve the configuration and efficacy of the road network and public
transportation system;
5. Specify substantive and procedural regulations and administrative frameworks that may be
used to guide development in accordance with national policies; and6. Provide a framework for the preparation of detailed local plans that are in accordance withnational land use priorities and strategies.
Through the implementation of the NPDP, the following national outcome are attained: improving the country‟s socio-economic base; reforming the public sector;
 sustaining and conserving the country‟s biodiversity; reducing the national debt/GDP ratio to sustainable levels; alleviating poverty; reducing vulnerability to national disasters;
 strengthening the relationship between the inhabitants of the island of Antigua
and enhancing private and public sector partnerships.

and Barbuda;

2.6.2 National Environmental Management Strategy
The NEMS is a national-level outcome of a sub-regional environmental framework, the St. Georges
Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability. The Government of Antigua and Barbuda,
along with other member states in the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) signed the
Declaration in 2000. The Declaration is a framework document that incorporates principles from the
Barbados Plan of Action for SIDS. The NEMS is therefore the adaptation of the regional principles of Rio
Declaration and other International agreements that have been adapted to the national situation in Antigua
and Barbuda.
The NEMS has a vision for Environmental Sustainability that considers the inclusion of all citizens instriving:

20

“to build a nation that treasures the environment and voluntarily acts to ensure theprotection, conservation and sustainable use of natural resources” .
This vision is supported by a strategy which is driven by the following 12 principles from the St.
George‟s Declaration which the GOAB decided were directly relevant to the country:
Foster the Improvement in the Quality of Life.
Integrate Social, Economic and Environmental Considerations into
Development Plans, Policies and Programs.
Improve on Legal and Institutional Frameworks.
Ensure Meaningful Participation by Civil Society.
Ensure Meaningful Participation by the Private Sector.
Use of Economic Instruments for Sustainable Environment Management.
Foster Broad-Based Environmental Education, Training and Awareness.
Manage the Impact of Disaster.
Ensure the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources.
Protect and Conserve Biological Diversity.
Manage and Conserve Energy.
Negotiate and Implement Multi-Lateral Environmental Agreements.

National

These principles are supported by 12 strategies and several recommended actions and are considered the
backbone of environmental sustainability in Antigua and Barbuda and the main policy vehicle in whichinternational agreements, legislation and national policy are reflected. The NEMS is currently being
updated to reflect adjustments in the recent developments within the legislative framework, most notably
the NPDP and the National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan.

2.6.3 Environment Protection Management Bill
The development of the draft Environment Protection and Management Bill has been a long journey.
Initial drafts commenced in 2005 with an overall aim to establish and consolidate a legal regime forsustainable environmental protection and management in Antigua and Barbuda and for incidental andconnected purposes. The Bill builds on other existing legislations and endeavours to address gaps therein
particularly as it relates to the development planning process and protection of environmental resources.
The document also addresses the nation‟s coordination and management of multilateral environmental
agreements.
After much stakeholder consultations and objections, the final draft will be brought before Cabinet in
September 2013 for enactment.

21

2.7

Energy Resources

Antigua and Barbuda relies almost exclusively on fossil fuels for electricity generation, transportation andcooking19. There are no natural resources of fossil fuels in Antigua and Barbuda. Secondary fuels
including gasoline, jet kerosene, gas, oil/diesel, heavy fuel oil (bunker fuel oil) and LPG, all are imported
for local consumption. A 2005 study by the Caribbean Energy Information System reveal that Antigua
and Barbuda‟s energy costs relative to GDP and GNP exceed those of the other members of the OECS.
The draft National Energy Policy highlighted that during the period 2005 to 2009 total sales by the West
Indies Oil Company (WIOC), sole importer of the country‟s fuel, averaged 12% of the GDP. The Policy
further notes that in 2008 the sales revenue peaked at 15% of GDP which translates into unsustainable
demands on the country‟s foreign exchange reserves. The previously referenced study from 2005 also
shows that energy costs consumed one-third of the country‟s foreign exchange.
The National Energy Policy sets out the Government‟s vision as follows:“Antigua and Barbuda will meet the energy needs of the present generation while safeguarding
the environment and enabling future generations to meet their own energy needs. All citizens andresidents will have access to affordable, efficient, socially responsible and reliable forms ofenergy.”pp5.
One of the largest consuming forms of fossil fuels on the island is electricity generation. From since theenactment of the Public Utilities Act (Cap.359) in 1973, it became an offence for any person or company
to “generate, distribute, supply or sell electricity without the prior written permission of the Antigua
Public Utilities Authority”. That is to say that the Authority held the monopoly for electricity generationand distribution.
It therefore stood to reason that alternative sources of generating electricity were not automatically legal
in Antigua and Barbuda. This arrangement was seen as a mechanism to ensure a sustained source ofrevenue for the Antigua Public Utilities Authority. However, in accepting the SIDS DOCK Challenge
and making the voluntary commitment to the Copenhagen Accords, various measures have been
established to integrate renewable sources of energy within the economy in a coordinated manner.
In 2010, the government formed the Energy Unit, in the Office of the Prime Minister and developed a
National Energy Policy and an associated plan. The Unit was formed to assist with the coordination of
all actors within the economy and to provide the government with a coherent low carbon way forward.
The key players in the implementation of this and other uses of energy and their roles and responsibilities
are described below.
TheEnergy Unit under the Office of the Prime Ministry will be responsible for the overall
implementation of the other Energy‐Use Policy and will provide expert advice and guidance withrespect to all Other Energy‐Use initiatives.

19Government of Antigua and Barbuda 2010: National Energy Policy (draft)

22

The Office of the Prime Minister has the portfolio responsibility for other Energy‐Uses, andwill have responsibility for the development and implementation of Other Energy‐Use initiatives,
including economic performance.
The Environment Division (Ministry of Agriculture, Housing and Environment) will provide
advice and guidance on the environmental impacts of all Other Energy‐Use programs. The
Division will facilitate proposals for consideration of projects to benefit from the Clean
Development Mechanism.
The Ministry of Finance and the Economy will be responsible for establishing any financial or
tax incentives;
Local Education Institutions will play a key role in keeping abreast of research in Other Uses ofEnergy and the linkages between their uses and impact on human health and the environment, andthus ensuring environmental sustainability.
Antigua Public Utilities Authority - As the lead agency charged with the responsibilities ofnational generation and distribution of electrical energy, have standardized training and practices
for persons wishing to get involved in renewable energy sources as highlighted in the“Interconnection Policy.”
One of the key priority areas identified during the scoping exercise for the National Energy Plan (NEP) isthe need for an action plan on sustainable energy consumption and generation. The ultimate challenge forsustainable energy consumption and generation is, therefore, to satisfy the appropriate level of energyrelated needs of every human being by using a variety of technologies and fuels tailored to local
conditions rather than merely increasing energy supplies, while keeping the overall cost andenvironmental damage as low as possible.
The Sustainable Energy Action Plan (SEAP) is intended to serve as a road map for future energy use in
Antigua and Barbuda from 2012 until 2030. The SEAP contains short (1-5 years), medium (5-10 years),and long (10-20 years) term actions designed to enhance the implementation of the policies and goals of
Antigua and Barbuda‟ National Energy Policy (NEP). These actions foster energy conservation, energy
efficiency, and diversification of energy source and energy use needed for sustainable energy
consumption and generation.
The strategies identified to meet the above are as follows:
Strategy1: Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency
Strategy 2: Renewable Energy Development
Strategy 3: Education and AwarenessIn order to implement the aforementioned SEAP it is necessary to define for each strategy the following
points:Indicate the target “quotas” to be accomplished
Identify the specific actions to be implemented
Identify the responsible agency for each action
Identify and choose appropriate indicators to measure the outputs of each project
Assigned the appropriate priority in terms of short, medium and long terms
Specify cost and potential sources of funds for each project23

The Energy Unit will be responsible for the creation of the first draft of the SEAP based on the abovementioned strategies and points.
Roles and Responsibilities of the Energy Unit
The Energy Unit was mandated by the Cabinet to take on the following responsibilities:
To develop with consultation a SEAP for submission and approval of the Cabinet;
To lay down rules and conditions for prescribing the price of energy in accordance with the NEP,
the SEAP and APUA;
To monitor, evaluate, and act as the focal point for coordinating and supporting theimplementation of energy policies, management and development plans of the country.
To facilitate coordination among all key stakeholders responsible for energy matters, to ensurecompliance of their operations with the NEP and the SEAP;
To monitor and evaluate the results of the implementation of the NEP and the SEAP, and makeadjustment measures if required;
To compile energy balance, for analysis of the energy supply and consumption trends andevaluate the anticipatory impact for the purpose of preparing the proposals in respect of the NEP
and the SEAP,
To perform other functions as entrusted by the Prime Minister or the Cabinet.
In 2012, the APUA launched Green Antigua, an initiative powered by APUA that seeks to provide anenvironmentally friendly approach to resource management. Globally, focus has been shifted onpreserving the environment through the reduction of wastage. Green Antigua focuses on reducing thewastage of water and electricity through the conservation of the above mentioned resources, specificallythe project hopes to achieve its goals through the use of market incentives, public awareness, training andcertifying RE technicians and allowing interconnection of non-fuel generation of up to 50 Kw.
Based on the country‟s energy consumption and its commitment to the UNFCCC process, the country has
begun the process of investigating potential investments in renewable and alternative energy sources.
Antigua and Barbuda has on average 268 hours of sunlight per month, solar energy has considerable
potential and, in fact, is currently widely used to heat water. In addition, wind energy, which was
extensively used in colonial times as evidenced with remnants of windmills throughout the country, mayalso be harnessed. The feasibility of both forms of energy is now being explored in the interest oflowering GHG20 emissions and reducing outward foreign exchange flows. It is worth mentioning howeverthat in a study by ONREL and the OAS titled “Energy Policy and Sector Analysis in the Caribbean 20102011” it was estimated that Antigua and Barbuda could generate 400MW from wind21.

20

Second National Communication for Greenhouse gases (GHG)

21 http://www.ecpamericas.org/data/files/Initiatives/lccc_caribbean/LCCC_Report_Final_May2012.pdf

24

With regards to the transport sector, changes within the international market are forcing the local private
sector to import newer fuel types, namely ultra-low sulphur based diesel. As of 2006, a new fleet of
ULSD diesel engines have been issued from international manufacturers. Like many of the SIDS,
Antigua and Barbuda is forced to cope with this transition on its own, with the incurred costs being
absorbed by consumers, the private and public sector. Additionally, The Island has seen the emergenceof micro-scale businesses creatively recycling used oil, both crude and cooking oil, to create other typesof vehicular fuel.

2.8

Tourism Resources

The country‟s primary resources include a very agreeable climate, outstanding land and seascapes,
extensive areas of high ecological value, an engaging history, democratic governance, a well-educatedand healthy population, and significant natural resources (beaches, agricultural lands and fish stocks).
While the country‟s natural resources were of primary economic importance throughout much of its
history, the other resources listed, in addition to easy accessibility to North America and Europe, have led
to a thriving tourism industry; which now makes the country even more susceptible to both the impacts ofclimate change and global economic recession.
Tourism is the lead employment generator in the twin island state with and is regarded as the mostimportant productive sector, and was in 2007 estimated to account for 40 % of all employment, 85 % offoreign exchange earnings, 52 % of total investment and 70 % of GDP (directly and indirectly). Total
earnings, and tourist arrivals saw a strong growth in 2007 (up 26.5% from 2006), but has since declinedwith the economic crisis. For Antigua and Barbuda, economic growth in the medium term will continue
to depend on income growth in their tourist markets, the US and UK.
The growth in tourism has previously led to environmental degradation primarily along the cost.
However, in pursuit of sustainable development, the Ministry of Tourism has established a Sustainable
Tourism Unit focussed with ensuring that tourism products do not negatively impact the environment
within which they are developed. A National Sustainable Tourism Plan and Policy is currently being
developed through regional partners to address six thematic areas, mainly: tourism management, capacity,
marketing, transportation, environment linkages and health, safety and security. Moreover, the NPDP,
highlights areas that are not ecologically sensitive for the development of tourism products. The
Government, through the implementation of donor funded projects are in the process of establishing comanagement strategies and partnerships with community based groups for eco-tourism products.
In the 2013 Budget Statement, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda identified a commitment tolaunch a Green Tourism Initiative Programmed to assist tourism operators to assess and reduce theirenvironmental impact. The programme will focus on the adoption and facilitation of energy efficiency ofbuildings, renewable energy, and water conservation, integrating waste management,
environmental/energy-efficient technologies and developing “green” policies and procedures. As aprecursor to this the Government had already reduced and waived import duties on the various renewableenergy and energy efficient technologies.

25

By contrast, Antigua and Barbuda's agricultural sector accounted for 3.3% of GDP in 2007, in 2010 thishad decreased to between 2.5 and 3 %.[1,2] The fishing sub-sector grew by almost 5 % from 2006 to
2007, reflecting new facilities for fisheries in St. John. The sub-sector contributed almost 52 % of thesector‟s output. Agricultural production is focused on the domestic market and is further constrained by ashortage in labour. The tourism and construction sectors compete with higher wages. Furthermore, local
production has not been able to meet local demand all year round.
The Global economic recession resulted in a slowdown in the tourism sector. As the island‟s resources
are extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change coupled with the outcomes of multilateralnegotiations, further decline may be inevitable.

2.9

Sustainable Consumption and Production: Agriculture & Food Policy

Antigua and Barbuda‟s agriculture can be described as vibrant, modern, and to some extent prosperous
and competitive. The Government‟s overall goal in the agricultural sector is to “improve Antigua andBarbuda‟s food security and reduce poverty”. To this end a policy was developed to guide thedevelopment of this important sector. The policy was formulated to ensure that the capability of the
agricultural sector‟s strategic role in national development is sustained and enhanced in light of the newand emerging challenges facing agricultural development. This is because global imperatives require
agriculture to become internationally competitive; unfortunately, not all areas in agriculture in Antigua
and Barbuda can realistically become competitive. Thus, the policy will focus on new approaches toincrease productivity and competitiveness, deepen linkages with other sectors, venture into new frontierareas as well as conserve and utilize natural resources on a sustainable basis.
The Agriculture sector in Antigua and Barbuda is yet to attain its full potential. Despite a dramatic
decline after the collapse of the sugar industry many years ago, the Agriculture sector accounts forapproximately 4 percent of the nation‟s GDP. Sustainability reports indicated that Antigua and Barbuda
may be approaching a critical stage where the country has less agriculture land per capita than is required
for sustainable agriculture development. This places greater pressure on the need for sound agriculturalland use practices and policies for conservation and reclamation of all possible Class 1, Class 2 and Class
3 lands22.
In an attempt to build national resilience and sufficiency, attempts are being made to optimize
development opportunities within this sector through national policies and programs. The Ministry ofAgriculture in 2009 produced a National Food Production Plan aimed at strengthening the country‟s
capacity for food production to ensure national food security. Four year targets were set with areas ofstrategic focus including agro-processors, farm roads, analytical services, plant protection and marketingand post-harvest. The National Food and Nutrition Security Policy, issued in 2012, targets the criticalfood and nutrition security problems in Antigua and Barbuda. An analysis of the current situation
indicated that these problems relate to all four components of food and nutrition security, viz.,

22

Government of Antigua and Barbuda: State of the Country Report: Preliminary Findings 2010

26

Availability, Accessibility, Consumption/Utilization and Stability of supply23. The policy highlights
priority areas including capacity building, legislation, and protection of water and land resources
necessary for food production. Efforts are also being made to strengthen inter-regional trade.
It is anticipated that the sector will achieve a growth rate of 2.1 per cent per annum. Thus, the contributionof the agricultural sector to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is expected further increase from its present
4% base. New sources of growth are expected to emerge in agriculture resulting from various initiatives
to promote new products and emerging industries such as agroforestry, biotechnology products, andspecialty natural products.
At the heart of the National Land use policy is the fundamental premise that agricultural land must be
protected in Antigua and Barbuda and so the policy embraces Antigua and Barbuda‟s Agricultural Land
Use Policy as part of the issue to be addressed in the National Land Use policy; the purpose of the
Antigua and Barbuda Agricultural Land Use Policy is to foster and facilitate rapid development of theisland‟s agricultural land resource, while ensuring the continued productive capacity of the island‟s
agricultural land resource and guaranteed economic profitability of all producers; the agricultural land use
policy considers the location, size, function and growth of existing and new settlements and their spatial
and functional relationships and this policy provides a framework for the provision of physical and social
infrastructure and opportunities for economic activity, in accordance with a comprehensive settlement
strategy. In addition, this policy also articulates a sustainable development strategy that allocates the mostappropriate land for various activities and in so doing considers the capacity of such land to sustain
development in the long term, that is, from 2010 and beyond, and the need to provide for economic
growth, without degrading or damaging the island‟s scarce and fragile land resource base.

2.10 Biodiversity

Photo 2 Antigua Racer Snake(Alsophisantillensis Antiguae)

Photo 3 Barbuda Warbler(Dendroicasubita)

Based on recent assessments, there are 71 freshwater fish species and 400 marine fish species found in
Antigua and Barbdua. Additionally, two native species of amphibians; namely a tree frog
(Eleutherodactylusjohnstonei) and a marine toad (Bufomarinus)also call Antigua and Barbuda home.
23

Antigua and Barbuda National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 201227

Twenty terrestrial reptile species or sub-species have been documented for Antigua and Barbuda of whichfour are thought to be extinct , one is presently considered endangered; namely the Antigua Racer Snake(Alsophisantillensisantiguae). The Iguana delicatissima was also on the endangered list but is now extinct
in this country though it still exists in neighbouring islands such as Anguilla. The Antigua Racer Snake isthe rarest snake in the world, with only about two hundred living. It is found on Bird Island, an island off
the coast of Antigua. Antigua and Barbuda has three endangered species of turtles which nest on thebeaches, namely the hawksbill, green and leatherback (the loggerhead is known to traverse the waters).
Other examples of reptilian species found include the following: The Red-footed tortoise(Geochelonecarbonaria); The Green lizard (Anloisbimaculatusleachi)which is a sub-species endemic to
Antigua and introduced to Barbuda; A wattsiwattsi which is an endemic sub-species which wasintroduced to Saint Lucia; an endemic ground lizard (Ameivagriswoldi)which is common in Barbuda, but
found only in selected sites in Antigua; and an endemic subspecies of lizard which has been recorded forRedonda.
With regards to birds, there are 182 species found on the island. Two-thirds of the population is migratory
leaving 60 residents. Antigua and Barbuda is considered an important stopover along the Trans-Atlantic
migratory route between North and South America. Approximately 20 of the 60 resident birds are
considered endemic to the West Indies sub-region and in some cases restricted to the Lesser Antilles.
Inventories have revealed at least two species which are considered endemic sub-species (the Broadwinged Hawk, Buteoplatypterusinsulicola; and a Barbuda endemic sub-species or Dendroicaruficauda).

Photo 4 Green Heron

Photo 5 Frigate Bird

Bats are the only native terrestrial mammals, with seven species of bats resident in these islands. There
are several introduced mammal species, for example, the European Fallow deer (endangered) the Giant28

African Snail, the Cuban Tree Frog and the Indian mongoose. Some of these species, such as the Giant
African Snail are a threat to the country‟s economy as well as its biodiversity; a situation that may be
exacerbated by the impacts of climate change. Finally, there are 26 recognized Cetacean (marine
mammals) species associated with the islands
Antigua has a variety of vegetation types; however, as previously mentioned clearing of lands duringcolonial rule to accommodate increased size sugar plantations means that the biodiversity of vegetation is
not as robust as it once was. The current climatic and geological conditions however have contributed tothe development of a diversity of habitats in which species thrive. There are 1158 species from 149
families (Lindsay &Horwith 1997b) of plants found in Antigua and Barbuda. This includes 45 species offerns and fern allies; 4 species of gymnosperms and 1,109 species of flowering plants. Approximately 197
species of flowering plants merit special conservation measures of which 22 are endemic to the Lesser
Antilles, one of which Pectisericifolia may be endemic to Barbuda, and 73 are classified as rare.

Map 1 Protected Areas in Antigua

29

Map 2 Protected Areas in Barbuda

There are six designated protected areas based on their historical and ecological values. These areas
include Nelson‟s Dock Yard National Park; the North East Marine Management Area (NEMMA); Cades
Bay Marine Reserve; Codrington Lagoon National Park; Diamond Reef Marine Park and Palaster Reef
Marine Bark. Finally, there are other smaller protected areas grouped under the establishment of the
National Parks Act of 1984. This comprises of the Devil‟s Bridge National Park (244 acres), Green
Castle Hill National Park (87acres) and the Fort Barrington National Park (85 acres). Ten (10) additionalsites have also been proposed however, many of the established protected areas lack proper management
plans or the institutional structure to implement such management plans.
One of the concerns for biodiversity currently, is the number of threats to their survival in Antigua andBarbuda. These include:
Fragile terrestrial and marine ecosystems such as mangrove wetlands and coral reefs endangered bydevelopment projects, pollution and misuse.
Vulnerability to external economic and natural environmental events, such as economic recessions,hurricanes, and climate change. Droughts and hurricanes have severely impacted the bird population,
as well as vegetative communities and their dependent fauna.
Lack of human resource capacity in key biodiversity areas
Inadequate physical infrastructure.
Conflicting land use activities, especially among housing, tourism and agricultural activities.
Land degradation due to uncontrolled grazing; and limited institutional capacity to manage thedevelopment process due to the presence of weak and fragmented land use and development control
mechanisms.
The loss of habitat primarily through the sub-division of lands for housing, tourism development,
agriculture and the mining and dredging of sand.

30

Fragmentation of natural communities by road-ways, and other man-made features that form abarrier to the movement and dispersal of species.
The introduction of non-native species, like the mongoose, lemon grass and Lion Fish that have a
detrimental effect on native wild species by acting as predators, parasites or competitors.
Overgrazing by livestock mainly goats, sheep, cattle and donkeys that pose a serious threat,particularly in upper watershed areas.
Pollution as a result of excessive nutrients or sewage discharge into coastal waters, as well as theunregulated and excessive use of pesticides.
Natural and anthropogenic activities that stress coral reefs through direct destruction and over-fishingandThe main trend shows that the biodiversity of the country, on which its economy depends, is being
destroyed by the unsustainable use of resources. The purpose of development is to improve the quality ofhuman life through utilization of and access to the resources provided by biodiversity. If this biodiversity
is used in non-sustainable ways, the quality of human life both in the present and the future is being
compromised.
Antigua and Barbuda‟s marine biodiversity is increasingly threatened by habitat destruction,overexploitation, and destructive fishing methods. Mangroves that function as nurseries, breeding
grounds and habitats for both marine and terrestrial wildlife are being destroyed for coastal development,
especially those associated with the tourist sector. In Barbuda, the sustainable use and protection of the
Codrington Lagoon and its mangroves are critical to the biodiversity of Barbuda, particularly theconservation of the Frigate Bird Sanctuary.
For both Antigua and Barbuda, the sea turtle is being depleted through the destruction of its habitats bycoastal construction, sand mining, pollution and over-fishing. Additionally, the regulatory mechanisms toprotect nesting and foraging turtles and their habitats are inadequate.
Sea grasses that provide food for fish and turtles and that function as nurseries for young conch, spiny
lobsters, shrimp and a variety of fish are being destroyed. Coral reefs are in very poor condition, stressedby high sedimentation, and activities like over-fishing, destruction by the anchoring of boats, improper
placement of fish traps, garbage, breakage by recreational diving, and the release of partly treated sewage
from coastal holiday developments directly into the sea.
In general, fishing and tourism are the main activities that are adversely affecting Antigua and Barbuda‟smarine biodiversity. However, sand mining still constitutes a significant threat to coastal properties andresources. Agro-diversity is being destroyed through the over-use and misuse of herbicides and pesticides,
though the number of different kinds of pesticides and the amount of pesticides used are now better
managed through the Pesticides Control Board. Still, one concern is the disposal of obsolete chemicals
and other hazardous wastes.

31

In an effort to address these issues and actively protect the country‟s biodiversity, the country has
undertaken the completion of a Systems Plan for the development and management of an effective systemof protected areas and the revision of its current National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(NBSAP). The plan outlines a strategy and a clear set of objectives, along with activities designed toachieve them. This National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan (NBSAP), a requirement under the UN
Convention of Biodiversity, is near completion and represents the island‟s long term plan of action forsustainable use of biodiversity. It is aimed at the sustainable use and conservation of biological diversity
in Antigua and Barbuda based an established list of national targets guided by the UNCBD Achi Targets.
Additionally, the country has undertaken the development of relevant institutional support (human andtechnical) for conservation as well as necessary innovative means of ensuring financial sustainability inmanaging the country‟s biological resources. There have also been efforts to include local communities
and relevant groups into the process of conserving and sustainably using the countries natural resources.
Internationally, Antigua and Barbuda has shown its commitment to the protection of biological diversity
through its ratification of the UNCBD and the CITIES conventions. Its move to ratify the Nagoya
Protocol on Genetic Resources also confirms its determination to ensure ownership of its rights over its
biological resources. Priority has also been given to working with regional as well as internationalorganizations to support regional, national and international integration of sustainable natural resource
management policies into the management system developed by the country.
Ongoing studies on plants, birds and other wildlife are helping to build a reliable information base of thevarious areas of significant biodiversity value in the country. However, gaps still exists in efforts toensure conservation, protection and sustainable use of resources. These require better understanding ofspecies abundance, location and habitat requirements24. There is still a critical need for financial, humanand technical resources in order to effectively achieve the goals of the BOPA and the MSI with regards tobiological diversity. The priority areas to be addressed as part of the country strategy moving forward
include management of invasive species, biodiversity valuation and its impact on the social and economic
development of the country, the mainstreaming of biodiversity into other sectors and the building ofclimate change resistant biodiversity habitats and species.

2.11 National Institutions and Administrative Capacity
Agencies are encouraged to refer to the various policy documents (which are periodically reviewed for
Cabinet approval) when developing their work program. Ministries have instituted an aggressive
approach to the development of work programs and for the development of annual budgets. These arebrought before the Ministry of Finance at the level of the Budget Director‟s office and the Office of the
Director of Planning where the work programs are scrutinized for adherence to the various plans andprograms. Departmental Budgets are then approved based on their adherence to national goals andobjectives.
The process is quite rigorous and occurs over a period of five months. At the time of the adoption of the
Budget by Parliament the budget should reflect the activities related to the NEMs and the NPDP.
24

Sustainable Island Resource Zoning Plan for Antigua and Barbuda (including Redonda) 201232

Furthermore, as a means of tracking and coordinating the implementation of MEA related projects on the
ground, the Project Management Unit was established in 2012. This Unit coordinates the development of
national projects seeking donor funding for the implementation of MEAs. The Unit is comprised ofagencies across the various Ministries involved in sustainable development, including, Tourism,
Agriculture, etc.
2.11.1 Data Mapping and Information
The GEF funded SIRMM project assisted with the creation of a Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
based platform to map not only all environmental resources but also socio-economic amenities. The
Environmental Information Management and Advisory System (EIMAS) is currently used by five key
government agencies. These include the Environment Division, Development Control Authority, Surveys
Division, National Office of Disaster Services and the National Parks Authority. The Surveys Division
act as the central data hub and holds all digital copies of referenced geographic data while the otheragencies continually update GIS map layers relating to their respective usage. The introduction of
EIMAS has greatly influenced development planning, disaster risk mitigation and management as well as
environmental impact analysis.

2.12 Regional Institutions and Technical Cooperation
Antigua and Barbuda has been fully involved in regional activities executed by the OECS, ECLAC,
UWI, CARICOM and most recently CEHI. The two national actions agreed to under the BPOA
have been previously implemented (NEMS and St. George‟s Declaration). Participation in regional
projects are ongoing. Current initiatives include the IWCAM, IWeco, SIDS Dock, OECS Water
Policy and Act, and the Caribbean Challenge Initiative.

2.13 Transport and Communication
Antigua and Barbuda is well networked with access routes both by land and sea. The VC Bird
International Airport is currently under expansion to address international safety and efficiency standards.
The NPDP recommends an airport expansion area and buffer zone which has been encompassed within
the airport‟s expansion. Deep Water Harbour is the main infrastructure to support passenger and cargosea transportation with a docking capacity to hold up to 4 cruise ships. The NPDP strongly recommends
improving the efficiency of road linkages between the airport and port facility.
Commuting in Barbuda is negligible due to its small size however, Antigua has 2 public transportation
hubs known as the East and West Bus Stations. Except for dedicated school buses, buses are privately
owned with no Government subsidy. Although the public transportation system provides good coverage,
the south east of the island is inadequately serviced, with no service after 6pm. 2001 Census data
highlighted that 23% of the population utilize public transportation to commute to work.
A preliminary report compiled by the Ministry of Transport highlighted that Antigua has approximately
443 miles (713 kilometres) ofprimary main roads and 120 miles (193 kilometres) of secondary roads.
However, road infrastructure in Barbuda accounts for 7miles (11km) of paved major roads while33secondary roads and other routes are mainly made of dirt, gravel or crushed corals. The network in
Antigua provides for good coverage throughout the island except within the southwest and southeast
regions that are comprised mainly of steep mountain slopes and large resort estate limiting public access.
As it relates to inter-island ferry service between Antigua and Barbuda, there is currently a privately
owned service in operation, however, the Government has recently upgraded the ferry in Barbuda as isintending among other things to alloiw small cruise vessels to start docking off Barbuda. However due tothe shallowness of the waters around Barbuda a short-ferry service from the ships to the port facility will
have to be developed.
Communications is also a notable direct and indirect contributor to the GDP. In the 90‟s, there was asignificant increase in offshore business in Antigua; including off-shore gaming and betting, benefitingfrom the high quality telecommunications and internet services available.25 Since the late 80‟s, thetelephone service was upgraded from old “switching” technology (analogue) to a more modern digitalsystem DMS 100 (Antigua & Barbuda was one of the few Caribbean islands with updated
telecommunications at that time). Investments were maintained and many upgrades were installed over
the years to keep the telecommunications system up to date; for example the Centrex system. The local
telecommunications company APUA (Antigua Public Utilities Authority), in consultation with Cable &Wireless, installed fiber optic cables underground, island wide, encased in conduits. Although, the major
hurricanes of the mid to late 90‟s destroyed much of the telephone wiring above ground, the major
network cables were unharmed being buried. Once the wiring above ground was replaced, thetelecommunications system was up and running. The increase in the number and intensity of storms thatis expected with climate change is a motivating factor to bury as many cables as possible but at this stage
it would be more expensive to bury even more cables than to replace above ground cables annually.

2.14 Science and Technology
The Ministry of Information, Broadcasting, Telecommunication, Science and Technology has undertaken
a number of initiatives to advance technology within the public domain. Most notably is the Connect
Antigua Barbuda Initiative which strives to improve computer literacy in schools, communities as well as
the elderly population. The Ministry has also initiated a project to teach interested resident how todevelop mobile applications so as to encourage greater innovation and development.
The Ministry is also in the process of establishing an Open Data Readiness Unit to manage theGovernment‟s open data initiative. An assessment was conducted by representatives of the World Bank,
the International Development Research Centre of Canada, and the Caribbean Open Institute.
It was concluded that Antigua and Barbuda is in a position to move forward quickly with an Open Data
initiative.

25Environment Division, Integrating Management of Watersheds & Coastal Areas in Small Island Developing States of the Caribbean National Report for Antigua & Barbuda:(January 2001), p 14

34

However, as it relates to climate change mitigation and adaptation, the country has been slow in accessing
green technology primarily due to the high costs incurred for capital expenditure. Currently, the use ofGreen technology is primarily centered on solar and small scale wind energy.

2.15 Human Development Resources and Culture
As previously highlighted, one of the key goals of the NPDP is to enhance liveability to provide a goodquality of life for all. This includes education, social and healthcare amenities, culture and recreation.
The second Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of the United Nations is to achieve Universal Primary
Education or more specifically, “to ensure that by 2015 all children (both boys and girls) will be able tocomplete a full course of primary schooling”. Primary or elementary education consists of the first years
of formal, structured education that occur during childhood. Within the Caribbean universal free andcompulsory primary education is nearly achieved by all countries, but with a marked gender performance
gap in favor of girls. In Antigua and Barbuda, this was found to be the case in that primary education isboth free and compulsory. As a means of supporting and encouraging attendance, the Government
provides all text books and two uniforms free to all students. Additionally, there is subsidized optionaltransport and a growing school meals programme.
In 2012, out of the 1577 children that wrote the Common Entrance Exam (exam taken at the end of the
primary education) 84.6% passed and of those who passed 54.6% were girls and 45.4% were boys,
indicating that there is a slightly better performance of girls.
Education facilities are widely available in Antigua and Barbuda at the pre-primary, primary, andsecondary by both the public and private sectors. In addition, the Antigua State College, the Antigua andBarbuda Institute of Technology, the University of the West Indies Open Campus , the American
University of Antigua (AUA), as well as, numerous institutions that provide specialized vocational
training are available for post-secondary studies. As of 2012, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda
began the process of merging the Antigua State College, the Antigua and Barbuda Institute ofTechnology, the Antigua and Barbuda Hospitality Training Institute as part of a longer term goal toestablish the University of Antigua.
In recent years, as a means of addressing problems with overcrowding in urban secondary facilities, theGovernment has made plans to increase the number of school plants. With this increase in public andprivate secondary school plants, the Government has also taken the opportunity to expand beyond MDG 2
and set universal secondary education as a national goal. The increase in the number of public schools
will also have the positive side effect of increasing the number of hurricane shelters as many schools dueto their space, facilities and proximity to communities double as emergency shelters.
A further concern is the number of students who do not complete secondary school. Data from the 2001
census indicates that among residents 15 years of age and over, 96% have completed primary standard (46 year), while 67.3% completed secondary school, 24.2% pre-university, and 9% university (CSO, 2001).
Greater attention to providing the facilities and programs that will encourage students to continue to thesecondary and tertiary education levels is needed if the country is to compete in the knowledge economy

35

Antigua is subdivided into six medical districts, each of which is assigned a District Medical
Officer (DMO). Health care is provided through a number of public health care clinics in addition to 3
privately owned institutions. The Mount St. John Medical Centre is the main public provision of
specialized medical services on the island with 187 beds. This hospital has affiliation with the American
University of Antigua thereby establishing it as a teaching hospital which augments the number ofservices provided.
Provision of adequate medical services in Barbuda is hindered by the lack of modern laboratory facilities,
which necessitates that basic tests be performed in Antigua140. Further, in Antigua, the commitment todecentralize health services as a basis for developing local health districts did not yield the expected
results. The system is still centrally managed. Patients from rural areas continue to travel to St. John‟s for
X‐ray, laboratory, and drug services. In 1994, 82,988 visits were made to all services in the clinics, withapproximately 20 % for child health services, 17.6% for hypertension, and 9.1 % for diabetes141. The
Spring View Hospital in Barbuda is usually closed on weekends, with staff on call.
In keeping with the recreational needs of Antiguans and Barbudans, efforts are being made to provide anumber of activities throughout the year. These are predominantly sporting activities which include
cricket, sailing, tennis and golfing. Additionally, sports and other recreational facilities and playgrounds
are well established throughout the country. Of note, one of the most popular cultural activities in
Antigua and Barbuda is Carnival.
Crime, poverty and environmental degradation are considered major issues affecting the future
development of Antigua and Barbuda. The CDB in its recent economic review noted that violent crime
involving firearms had the potential to undermine the “... social and economic fabric of the country, butalso because of its potential impact on tourism”. Poverty is also a major concern with estimates as high as
18% being quoted, up from an estimated 12% in 1994. A survey conducted in 2006 estimated thecountry‟s poverty levels at 18.4%. In 2012 however poverty estimates has decreased to 9% based on asurvey done by the Food and Agriculture Organization26. The poverty level is of concern and theGovernment is well aware of this situation. In October 2012 the Ministry of Agriculture initiated steps toaddress this situation by signing an agreement with the FAO to reduce extreme poverty in the twin islandstate.
It is worth noting that the previous report mentioned from the CDB also noted that there was an increasein evidence of coastal degradation which could have adverse impacts on the quality of the environment
and the tourism industry. Antigua and Barbuda enjoys a high standard of living but the economy likemany SIDS, is fragile and vulnerable to social and environmental issues, which includes the impacts ofdisasters, in particular hurricanes.

26http://www.caribarena.com/antigua/news/latest/101977-agreement-signed-to-eradicate-extreme-poverty.htm

36

2.16 Trade Liberalization and Globalization
The Government of Antigua and Barbuda has made efforts to improve the level of participation ininternational trade to enhance the economic development of the island. Antigua and Barbuda has
identified mechanisms to expand foreign direct investments, increase the role of the services sector in thenational economy and develop and strengthen national initiatives and economic reform policies.27 Most
recently, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda has begun development of its national implementation
plan for trade facilitation measures. The draft plan considers approximately 39 measures to facilitate
trade. These measures cover publication, rights of appeal, penalty disciplines, uniform forms anddocumentation requirements. In light of this, a national committee on trade facilitation has been
established to administer the implementation of these measures.. The Plan has been undertaken as part of
the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) initiative on implementation of
the WTO Trade Facilitation for developing countries.
However, sustainable development as facilitated by the strengthening of national economic policies may
continue to be undermined by both internal and external factors. Internal factors include the existence ofspecific vulnerabilities such as the small size, inadequate capacity (institutional, financial, regulatory andtechnical) and vulnerability to natural disasters. External factors mainly include the impact of unilateralforeign policies on national economic sectors such as the financial and gaming industries.
The 1998 harmful tax competition report by the Organization for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD) classified Antigua and Barbuda as a “tax haven” with “potentially harmful tax
regimes.” The Government of Antigua and Barbuda responded to the continuous repositioning (by theOECD) of regulatory requirements of the offshore financial sector amidst concerns of money laundering
during the late 1990s. As a result, the number of offshore banks in Antigua fell from 57 in 1997 to 15 in
200328. This yielded a slump in the economic sector and further highlighted the nation‟s vulnerability toexternal directives.
Moreover, Antigua's offshore gaming industry employed over 2,000 people and generated over US $7
million in license fees. As a result of severe legislative pressure from the United States, employment
within the sector declined significantly. In response, Antigua and Barbuda presented arguments to the
WTO panel that showed that the US government's legislation against transactions between US financial
institutions and Antigua and Barbuda-based Internet gaming companies were in breach of the US
government's obligations under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The Dispute
Settlement Panel at the WTO has recently recommended that the US government bring the offending

27 Government of Antigua and Barbuda (2004).

Barbados Program of Action (BPOA)(BPOA) National Assessment Report for the Ten Year Review of the BPOA

28 Government of Antigua and Barbuda (2004).

Barbados Program of Action (BPOA)(BPOA) National Assessment Report for the Ten Year Review of the BPOA

37

revenue measures into conformity with US obligations under the GATS but the US has failed to comply
with the WTO rulings. The government of Antigua and Barbuda sought the right to impose retaliatory
measures and was awarded by the WTO the right to target US $21 million per annum against US
intellectual property rights.
The development of the services sector is also an area of great concern. Under the GGATS, Antigua andBarbuda has experienced a pervasive drain of skilled service professionals in the health and educational
sectors to the US and Europe. Summarily, it should be noted that the plethora of regional agreements andmultilateral frameworks have great implication to Antigua and Barbuda as government‟s decisions are
becoming increasingly restricted by external forces in which there is minimal input. With the highdependence on trade and foreign direct investment, Antigua and Barbuda suffers from a high fiscal
sensitivity to trade globalization and liberalization.
The existence of investment distorting trade barriers in the form of foreign policies which hinders national
access to global markets will continue to present great challenges and will become a priority area toachieving sustainable development.

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3 Emerging Challenges
In addition to the various innate challenges of the multi-sectoral areas previously highlighted, thecountry is now faced with new and emerging threats. These include:
Invasive species- The country has seen an increase in the influx of invasive species that threatens
both the ecosystems and livelihoods. Such species include the Lion Fish, the Giant African Snailand Lethal Yellowing of Palms. There is a need to determine the impact of these invasive species
and implement levels of redress. Invasion of the Lion Fish may become one of the greatest
threats to the region‟s marine reef system, primarily due to their ferocious appetite. The impactsof the Lion Fish will not only affect the ecology of the island‟s marine system but also cause
ripples in the livelihood of fisher folk communities and eventually tourism. The Giant African
Snail also threatens national food security as their appetite incorporates over 500 types of plant
species, of which these include food crops. Each snail has the capacity to lay approximately
1200 eggs in a year in addition to their innate ability to burrow underground and remain dormant
for up to 2years. This now proves difficult for national authorities to control the population andimpacts therein. The Lethal Yellowing is impacting facets of the tourism product and hundreds ofPalms on the island are being affected and subsequently destroyed. Finally, given the emerging
concerns of biotechnology and genetically modified organisms, adequate mechanisms will
have to be identified and implemented to circumvent possible negative implications forbiosafety.
The Global Financial Crisis and subsequent G-20 growth framework – ODI Publications
highlighted that the recent global financial crisis has had large and variable effects on theeconomies of developing countries. The Global Financial crisis has crippled tourism
investment as a number of properties/developments have been stalled or abandoned. Also withmajor markets like US and UK/Europe affected, tourist arrival numbers are down. The
Government is now part of an IMF fiscal adjustment program and as a result, theGovernment‟s resources are tightly constrained for only critical expenditures.
Furthermore, economic deliberations within G20 summits may stimulate financial regulations
that may severely impact developing countries like Antigua and Barbuda. Discussions continuallyhighlight the need for global bank levies as well as banking capital and liquidity rules. These may inturn reduce investment opportunities in developing countries as revenues will be used to alleviatenational deficits29.
Rise in global Fuel prices / Green Economy– as the price of oil has doubled (at least) since 2003
it has made the cost of doing business in Antigua and Barbuda increasing demanding. It has also
threatened the viability of our regional airline. Additionally, the G-20 growth framework emphasizes theneed for economic growth to be sustainable, and consistent with environmental policy goals. As a result,subsidies on fuel are being removed and will be ceased by 2020.

29 ODI Publications. (2010). G-20 financial regulation, international bank lending and low-income country

growth4

Priority Areas

Set against the backdrop of pursing sustainable development, the main areas of grave concern include
climate change adaptation and mitigation, biodiversity, waste management and energy resources. Climate
Change adaptation and mitigation were cited as the biggest challenge faced by the country based on theimpacts summarized as follows:
Destruction of /damage to critical habitats (beaches, mangroves, sea grass beds, coral reefs)
Climate change impacts may contribute directly to overfishing, pollution, and loss of wetlands andnurseries
Increased coral bleaching as a result of a 2°C increase sea surface temperature by 2099
Sea-level change can cause loss of coastal wetlands and land area in general; saltwater intrusion
Destruction to coastal infrastructure, loss of lives and property due to the increase occurrences ofextreme weather events.
General economic losses to the country due to the loss of infrastructure
Changes in coastal pollutants will occur with changes in precipitation and runoff
With regards to national biodiversity, the influx of invasive species as well as the growing impacts ofclimate change, the country desperately needs a strategy to effectively address these issues. Given thecurrent gaps previously highlighted, biodiversity conservation and valuation must be balanced withmanaging invasive species, as well as mainstreaming biodiversity into other sectors and the building ofclimate change resilient habitats and species.
Further, Antigua and Barbuda's sewage mechanism has begun to suffer to the point where it will havenegative implications for public health and the country's natural environment. The coastal zone is alsodegrading and guarantees an adverse impact on tourism in the near to medium term if the appropriate
measures are not taken. Establishing the necessary infrastructure to effectively address waste management
as well as explore waste to energy initiatives require significant financial investment which is currently
not available due to the fiscal situation of the country.
In terms of energy resources, the country is still heavily dependent on fuel imports and attempts made toincrease the use of renewable energy sources are still limited. Long-term financing for appropriatetechnologies that can be developed as small scale systems must be balanced with the development of
national technical capacity. Additionally, use of renewable energy sources must be regulated and will
require legislation. Finally, a strategy and implementation thereof are needed to divert the current focus ofincreasing energy supplies to sustainable energy consumption and generation.
Sustaining and improving economic growth in the country will be the foremost priority area of theGovernment. Tourism, construction, agriculture and fisheries, and Small and Medium Enterprises will be
the priority sectors over the next five years. These will be the focus of considerable effort by theGovernment to harness domestic and external resources to support economic growth and sustainable
development but are all vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

5 Lessons Learnt & Remaining Gaps
The following chapter seeks to highlight major gaps within the thematic areas of the BPOA and MSI aswell as within the national framework for monitoring and achieving sustainable development.
Nationally, data collection and management is a persistent gap when attempting to establish baselines formonitoring and review. Finance, although a major gap, attempts are being made through theestablishment of a national fund. Gaps within key thematic areas have been compiled in a tabular format.

5.1

Data Collection and Management

During the preparation of the National Land Use Plan/ Sustainable Island Resource Zoning Plan, asignificant amount of data was observed to be lacking, outdated and poorly recorded. As in the case of
the legislative framework, the storage of data is also disjointed with a number of agencies holding various
types of data with no standardized means of verification or certification. Attempts are currently underway
to utilize one government agency as a center for data certification and storage.
Moreover, the lack of sufficient human resource capabilities is an inevitable challenge for all SIDS.
However, collaborations are being made with academic institutions to utilize students to assist with datacollection and management.
There are still gaps within the transportation sector as there is a need for a national transportation policy
to provide efficient public transportation systems and reduce the number of private passenger vehicles.
These will in-turn contributes to the country‟s GHG emissions. .

5.2

Finance

Although many management plans for the various facets of sustainable development have been created,
sufficient financing and human resources are deemed insufficient for successful implementation,
particularly in recognition of the Government‟s fiscal situation. Gaining international access to grant
based financing for shifts towards a green economy and technology transfer have proven to be difficult as
SIDS such as Antigua and Barbuda may not yield substantive economic dividends. Additionally, muchfinance is needed to transform the transport sector to ensure alignment with international issue of fuelefficient vehicles including ULSD.
It is envisaged that through the enactment of the Environmental Protection and Management Bill, a
Sustainable Island Resource Fund (SIRF) will be established. The SIRF will be designed to promote thesale of ecosystem services and divert from the traditional polluter pay principle. A major source ofrevenue for the Fund will be the deployment and sale of renewable energy and the provision ofwastewater management services, including the treatment and resale of used oil. The fund will
establish these services with assistance from international donors, regulatory levies, andbudgetary allocations from the Government‟s consolidated fund. Services will be provided at
rates lower than that of the private sector.

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5.3

Thematic Gaps

In pursuance of sustainable development through the BPOA and MSI Framework, major gaps andchallenges within ten (10) of the respective thematic areas have been captured below as follows:
Table 2: Gaps and Challenges in key thematic areas of the BPOA and MSI

Thematic Area
Gaps
Climate Change and Sea Establishmentofeffective
Level Rise
institutions and systems toensure the achievement of the
UNFCCC and BPOA objectives
in the country is still not been
completely implemented.
Natural and Environmental Implementationof
Early
Disasters
Warning Systems
Waste Management
Establishingefficientwastewater
management
systems to curb pollution ofmarineandterrestrial
ecosystems.
CoastalandMarine Development andResource
implementation of proper
coastal zone management plans.
Regional harmonization ofpolicies on coastal and marine
resource management issues aswell as strengthening thecapacities of regional
institutions to monitor such
issues. Internationally, theexploration of the advantages ofsouth- south corporation and theuse of international efforts tomonitor the issues relating tothis activity are still lacking.
Freshwater Resources
Completion and implementationof Water Policy and Act.
Regulationsfor
Watershed
Protection.
Land Resources
Development of local area plansto achieve national objectives
that are responsive to theeconomic, environmental andsocial needs.

Challenges
Full compliance to all requirements of
the UNFCCC obligations.

The financial investment required toestablish a national or central sewer
system is too exorbitant. Therefore,
small scale systems are being pursued
through international donor funding.
A lack of available financial resources
to develop and implement the relevant
activities.

False scarcity of land.

Harmonizationoflandadministration, and tenure.
Improved enforcement andmonitoring of regulations and42Energy Resources

performance bonds.
Reducing energy consumption Increase in fuel prices.
and establishing a balance with Affordable access to environmentallyenergy generation.
sound sources of energy and energy
efficient technologies.
Establishment of baselines andtargeted quota for generation Increasing financial investments
and consumption

Investmentin
researchcapabilities of energy sources.
TourismCompletion and implementationof the National Sustainable
Tourism Plan and Policies
Biodiversity
Lack of ecosystem services
Invasive species
valuation.
Reduced land availability due to theLack of human capacity
competing uses of land
specialized in biodiversity
management.
National institutions and Poor coordination amongst
administrative capacity
stakeholders. Failure to increase
partnerships with the private
sector.
Transport
and Lack of a National Transport
Communication
PolicyScience and Technology
Establishinglinkageswithenvironmental policy

43

6 Political Commitment
Based on the previously compiled sections, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda has demonstrated
much commitment by developing the necessary policies and management plans needed to guide thevarious facets of sustainable development. However, additional commitment is needed as it relates tonational financial investments and strategies to implement and support these policies. Efforts may bemade either through national budgetary allocations or enabling earmarked revenue streams andestablishment of national environmental/ development funds with regional affiliations. Considerations
should be made to the diversification of the economic base to cater to a green economy that is low carbon.
The movement towards a green economy is deemed as a critical pathway to sustainable development. The
definition for “Low Carbon” is still actively being debated. To many vested interests this means a change
in way they do business. In the petroleum industry low carbon is not a word that is welcomed with open
arms. Within the Climate Change convention this term raises significant problems with certain countries
and is hotly debated. In Antigua and Barbuda this term is still yet to be defined at the national level andthe relevant actions to get there are still being contemplated.
If the term for Low Carbon is that of the AOSIS position, where this drop in the use of Carbon isconsistent with the 1.5 degree target, then for Antigua and Barbuda this would mean a correspondent dropin the use of fossil fuels. Since the sources of emissions are mainly from electricity generation andtransportation, this could translate in an over 80% drop in the use of fossil fuel. If the country was toachieve this it will have a significant impact on the country‟s competitiveness in the market place. More
importantly however it would significantly reduce the cost of living and poverty levels of the citizens of
the country. The overall economic impact would be revolutionary. The country would be almost
completely immune to the shocks of oil prices.
To get from energy dependence to energy independence, is technically possible for Antigua and Barbuda
but will require a significant political effort to accomplish. Even if there is complete and total political
will however, this process will require the access to technology and financing. This is the situation thatposes the most challenge to SIDS. It is easier to get financing for a diesel power electric generator that it
is for wind turbines or solar panels. The reality of a low carbon economy will be almost impossible for asmall country like Antigua and Barbuda to reach unless access to financing and priority for financing ischanged.
The extent of the political will to date has resulted in the development of a new energy policy and thesetting a target under the Copenhagen accord to cut its emission by over 25% using 1990 as the base year.
This target will be evaluated and actions plan drawn up during 2012. This process will be done as part of
the Third national communication for Climate Change. Until this additional plan is drafted up theconcept of the low carbon economy is still very much undefined in Antigua and Barbuda. Until the timethat such a policy document is available the NEMS and NPDP and the NEP policies will continue to be
the guides to a more “green economy.”

7

Conclusion

The government of Antigua and Barbuda has made many strides in its implementation of the BPOA andthe Mauritius Strategy for Implementation. Of the 14 priority areas of the BPOA, all or most received
attention with 4 areas needing priority focus in light of the emerging challenges. These priority areas
include Climate Change, waste management, Biodiversity, and Energy Resources. The recent enactment
and adoption of the National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) provides the framework which willassist in advancing these areas.
Moreover, the additional areas of the MSI are still being addressed and have made significant
improvements. These include health, education, sustainable production and consumption, national andregional enabling environments. The area of trade globalization and liberalization continues to be anissue due to external forces in the form of foreign policies which hinders national access to global
markets.
Antigua and Barbuda is in a situation where it is in the top twenty in terms of global electricity prices.
This is coupled with high fuel prices for transportation places this tiny economy in an unsustainable
position. The country has made great strides in policy and institutional arrangements for the protectionof its natural resources and in its social programs. These however have come at a significant price andthe country has had to enter into an IMF program to restructure its finances.
During the consultations for this report many of the participants saw the way forward for the country is
via a low carbon approach. This was a very popular view in the country. However, the undue andgrowing pressures of climate change adaptation and mitigation make the necessary finances and political
will to get there require tremendous effort. The country is looking to the international community tocome up with the necessary financing mechanisms to make this transformation happen.
At the national level the Government is satisfied that much of the institutional support required is in place
to facilitate the necessary legislative and policy initiatives and will continue to initiate the development
and implementation of the necessary plans to achieve sustainable development.

45

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