南山大学人類学研究所

ISSN 2434-9577

Anthropological Institute, Nanzan University

類

人

ANTHR
OPOLO

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学研
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人類学研究所
研究論集第10号
Wisdom for Living with Natural Disasters
Edited by Miyako TAKAMURA

南山大学人類学研究所 2021

CONTENTS

Research Papers of the Anthropological
Institute Vol.10
Wisdom for Living with Natural Disasters
Edited by Miyako TAKAMURA

Categories

Introduction

ArticlesTitle

AuthorPage

Akira GOTO

1

Concerning Editing and Publication

Miyako TAKAMURA

2

Marginalisation, Communication, Everyday
Lives and Empowerment of Coastal Subaltern
Communities of South India

Gopalan RAVINDRAN

10The Roles of Women’s Self-Help Organizationsin the Process of Civil Reconstruction after the
April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

Ai TAKEUCHI

22

Waju：Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

Etsuko SHIMOMOTO

34

Koji KATO

50

Greetings

Catastrophic Disaster Causing Separation ofCulture and Loss of History：Museum
Activities by University Students for “Build Back
Better” of Local Culture『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）
Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Introduction

Greetings

When I was the director of the Anthropologicaldisaster sites in different countries and exchange

Institute of Nanzan University on 2015, I got a grant-

information. Within the third term, we invited guests

in-aid of Internationalization Promotion Project forfrom Asia and had the opportunity to take them to

3 years. Last 20 years in Asia, a lot of big naturalvisit the site of the Great East Japan Earthquake.

disasters occurred, like tsunami, earthquake, volcanic

The current project of the fourth term interna-

eruption, typhoon, etc. Such occurrences of disasters

tionalization promotion project starting from 2018,

are a big threat not only to people in Asia, but also

we held a meeting in Manila Philippines the country

the entire human race. Historically, the people ofwhich was hit by the Pinatubo volcano eruption andthe world have been responding to such disasters.

strong typhoon Yolanda in Visayas area. And also we

Humans have strengthened and improved life despite

invited guests from the country Japan to hold a pub-these disasters through innovative medical andlic symposium at Nanzan University.

transportation technology, but on the other hand, itThis journal is the final report and contribution tocannot be denied that the vulnerabilities of society

the development of the Institute as achievements ofhave become apparent due to modernization andinternational transmission of Anthropological Instituteglobalization.

of Nanzan University.

Each nation and International societies aim to build

I would like to express my deep gratitude to all

various policies and cooperation systems for large

researchers, contributors and all who were active

scale disasters. This is very important, but at thein the field inside and outside Japan with theirsame time it is necessary to reconsider traditions andcooperation in the past 6 years.

narratives about past disasters, review the wisdomon how humans cope and live with disasters in thepast. Therefore, listening to the multi-voice from thefield in local context would be what anthropologists
are required to do.
The theme of the third term internationalization
promotion project from 2015 to 2017 was “Establishingan Asian Anthropologist’s Network”. In thisproject, we created the base of network between
anthropologists in Asia who immerse themselves in*Nanzan University

1

Greetings

Akira GOTO*

Introduction『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Concerning Editing and Publication
Miyako TAKAMURA*Ⅰ

Introduction

residents. Therefore, this project focused on wisdom
for living with natural disasters cope with AsianThis is a final report of the 4th Internationalization
Promotion Project of Anthropological Institute,
Nanzan University, “Wisdom for living with Natural
Disasters” (2018-2020 academic year in Japan). This
project is composed of Asian Anthropologists that
focused on Natural Disaster in Asia.

anthropologists to reconsider the traditional wisdomof local society in living with nature.

Ⅱ Contents of the
Project

The objective of this project is to seek the role

The goal of this project is to create a networkof anthropology study on today’s human societyof Asian anthropologists to establish a hub ofproblems by establishing anthropologists andanthropological institute in Asia.

folklorists network in Asia. Also, by this method,

Most of all Anthropologists in Asia studied

the Anthropological Institute of Nanzan University

anthropology originated in Europe. Whenever they

can be a hub of the anthropological study network

teach anthropology in their own country, the method

in Asia, and the result of this project can be a bigof teaching should be adjusted according to thecontribution internationally.

country’s philosophy, culture, economy, nature orThis project has 2 main features. The first featuretechnology situations etc. This project aims to discuss

is to discuss how Asian anthropologist can contributehow the anthropological studies originated in Europe

in today’s social problems caused by Natural Disaster,

can affect the study of local society in Asia.

in cooperation with all related researcher, institute,

The local wisdom has been developed throughstakeholder and working on anthropological studies

living with natural disasters or calamities; onin Asia, despite of the fact that anthropology was

the other hand, we can say that those wisdoms

established in Europe.

were developed according to the place, time, type

Another feature is to reconsider anthropologicalof calamity, type of social impact etc. When thestudies as practical arts studies. Since the Great East

concern is about natural disaster or any calamity, weJapan Disaster occurred in 2011, the recovery and theshould not consider only scientific method or new

prevention from disaster became the priority subject.

technology to reconstruct, it should concern also the

But it is said that recovery measures using scienceinterdisciplinary field of several academic subjects

and technology does not consider the social life ofand practical immediate effects, because people*Nanzan University

2Institute, Nanzan
University

who face destructive circumstance found that evennatural science or technology can not cover to solve
destructive circumstances problems. Therefore, it isnecessary to make a recovery plan or rehabilitation

the rehabilitation plan focused only on science and2015(1) Visited Philippines, India, Miyagi area

technology and not considering the society’s culture,2016(2) Public Symposium “Hand Work and Recovery

residents and focus to reconstruct and develop their
new life after the calamity. In fact, after the Great

which was expected by the residents. Therefore, thefrom Disaster”

residents could not accept it and the rehabilitation(3) Group Discussion “Recovery from Disaster inwere not executed as intended.

East Asia and Anthropology”

In response to the social impact as mentioned(4) Visited Indonesia

above, the project of the Anthropological Institute of(5) Workshop about Disaster Museum.

Nanzan University has started. On the first project,(6) International Symposium at Nanzan University

it was concluded that the hidden and vulnerable“Disaster and the Role of the Anthropologist :problems on the affected area would come up

Efforts in Asian Countries”

gradually after the calamity occurred, although2017(7) Public Symposium Construction of Anthropologist

just after the calamity occurred, the science andNetwork forwarding to Locality Anthropology”

technology which produced or planned by the(8) Public Symposium “Continuing Discussion on

government worked out well. For example, in Asia

the Great East Japan Earthquake: Report fromthe calamity like earthquake, tsunami, typhoon,

the Miyagi Prefecture Disaster-Strike Area”

flood, volcanic eruptions and those calamities
occurs anywhere several times in a year. But the(9) Visited Miyagi area

occurred. And also the disaster-strike area should be

3-2 The 4th Internationalization
Promotion
Project of Nanzan
University(2018~2020)

considered for a long period time, not only for few

2018 (1) Published Research Paper of the Anthropologicalcultures, works of residents and type of calamity
are all different. Therefore, rehabilitation should
be considered according to the place where it

years.

Institute the No.4 and No.5.

With those previous results, this 4th project of(2) Visited University of the Philippines andanthropological Institute of Nanzan will focus on the

Disaster area in Philippines

theme of “Wisdom for living with Natural Disasters”(3) Public Symposium “Wisdom for living withand consider how local society had created those

Natural Disaster: Recovery from Disaster andwisdoms with anthropological points of view.

Occupation Changing”

Ⅲ Accomplishment ofInternationalization
Promotion Projectof Anthropological2019(4) Publish Booklet 5 “Continuing Discussion on
the Great East Japan Earthquake: Reportfrom the Miyagi Prefecture Disaster Area”(5) Visited Miyagi area(6) International Public Symposium at Universityof the Philippines: Wisdom for living with
Natural Disasters-Initiatives of Local
3

Concerning Editing and Publication

East Japan Earthquake (2011) occurred, it is said that

3-1 The 3rd Internationalization
Promotion Project ofNanzan University(2015~2017)by considering social life, culture and identity of the『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Residents in Response to Changes in their

the visitation in Leyte, Samar and Tubabao Islands,

Society-

we learned that Catholic Church accepted victims,

2020 (7) Published Research Paper of the Anthropologicalhealed and consoled bereaved families and people’s

Institute: Wisdom for living with Naturalmind. On the other hand, at Tubabao Island, people

Disasters

teach elementary school students about the natural
disasters and how to protect themselves.

3-3 Details of the 4thProjectof Nanzan University
from 2018~2020

According to our inspection tour in the areas wevisited, we can say that habitants at disaster-strickenarea don’t just depend on government support, butthey make effort to protect their own area and create

The 1st year 2018

their own plan to reconstruct their life and educate(1)Conducted meeting at University of the Philippines

people to live with natural disaster.

as a preparation for 2019 International
Symposium.

(2) The 3rd Public Symposium in Japan ofDate2018 October 4-10

Visiting Place

University of the Philippines

Anthropological Institute, Nanzan University

Diliman, Leyte Normal University
VisitorDate

2018.12.23 Sunday 13:00~18:00

Theme“Wisdom for living with Natural
Disaster : Recovery from Disaster

The person in charge of thisand Changes of Occupation”

project
Visited

Leyte island, Samar island,

AvenueNanzan University Q103

disaster-

Tubabao island and Mt. Pinatubo

strickenarea in Luzon island

Host

Anthropological Institute, Nanzan
University

areas[Details][Program]

Visited Professor Cynthia Neri Zayas at Universityof the Philippines, Center of International studies andGreetings(Anthropological Institute, Nanzan

Professor Jude Duarte at Leyte Normal University
for a meeting on the International Symposium on
2019. To understand the life of living with Natural

University）
Introduction

island, Tubabao Island where were hit by Typhoon
Yolanda in 2013.
Before the Pinatubo eruption, Aeta people used tolive in the mountains. We studied how Aeta people
try to go back to the mountains to continue their wayof life. They have been trying to construct the newroad on the mountains covered with volcanic ash.
Aeta people needed to maintain their traditional life,
but the government’s strategy is not for them to live

Miyako TAKAMURA(Anthropological Institute, Nanzan

Disaster in Philippines, we visited the Aeta residents
hit by Mt. Pinatubo eruption and Leyte island, Samar

Shinya WATANABE

University）
Presentation“Present and History of strategy of

Waju for Flood”
Etsuko SHIMOMOTO(Nihon Fukushi University)“Reconstruct town for new Tourism
after the Earthquake in Nepal on2015 –Case study of P area at Patan,
Nepal ”Ai TAKEUCHI(Japan Society for the Promotion ofback to in the mountains. So, Aeta people prepared to

Science Research Fellow / Nanzan

go back home in the mountain by themselves. About

University)4

“Disaster at Tsunami Occurring
Area, Reconstruction of Local work

Etsuko SHIMOMOTO described the history of Waju

and Area changes”

circulated by embankment that protects from flood

Shigeru HAYAMA

disaster in flood prone area of Kiso River in Japan.

(National Museum of Japanese

Ai TAKEUCHI reported the case study in Nepal
about trying to reconstruct the earthquake damage“Over heated Sea Cucumber

on April 2015. Before this calamity occurred, there

Fishing –Expansion and Contraction

was a women’s organization called Misa Putsa, thisin Indian Ocean on 2004–”
Yuki SUZUKI(Kokushikan University)
Shuichi KAWASHIMA,
International Research Institute ofDisaster Science Tohoku University
Akira GOTO
(Anthropological Institute, Nanzan
University）
Discussion[Object of symposium]organization accepted the strategy of creating New
Traditional Town for tourism, they had dance trainings
on it. Therefore, local women voluntarily committed
themselves on it to recover the town and promote
tourism on the town.
Shigeru HAYAMA analyzed some postcard lettersfound at the historical house talking about the changesof Sanriku area in Tohoku Japan where used to be
attacked by tsunami. According to the analyzation, thearea where tsunami occurred many times historically,
the local work had been reorganized every 30 to 50
years.

This symposium discusses the role of Anthropology

Yuuki SUZUKI presented the living strategy

focusing on initiatives of re-establishing jobs afterof Morken people in Indonesia who are fisherman

the disaster, how support-organization will affect theand change the fishing cost area in response to thedisaster area, cases of flood in Gifu on Waju Kiso River

environmental changes.

in Japan, Tsunami in Kisenuma Japan, Earthquake in
Nepal, Tsunami in Andaman area.

At discussion time, we had questions and commentsfrom attendants, especially the scientific knowledge,

Since Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011 occurred,

the existence of community, the reference material, therehabilitation support systems have been organizedchanges of local resident’s works, the consideration dueby the government, volunteer group and mass media

to the government strategy response to environment

etc. The method of rehabilitation is to cope with thechanges.

government, volunteer with considering the local people,

It was found that there are differences in “quality”

local work, local culture, local tradition and modern

and “quantity” due to the type of disaster, therefore,science. On the other hand, it has been criticized that

it is necessary to analyze each disaster cases, but not

the rehabilitation with science had been facilitatedanalyze all disaster as same calamity.

which residents were not expected. But people haveOn the other hand, referring to the role ofbeen struggling with natural disasters from long time

anthropology, it was discussed that anthropologist

ago, so local residents must have the knowledge on how

need to continue to study for long period withto cope or live with natural disaster.

anthropological approach, but not only temporary

Therefore, this symposium will discuss how the

research for rehabilitation. Because, the life styles haveorganization like government, NPO, NGO can affect

not been changed in response to disaster only, it would

the disaster area with the practical supports, the local

be changed even before the disaster. Therefore, it was

knowledge and the modern science on anthropologicaldeclared that anthropologist needed to do long period ofviewpoints.

research not only after the disaster occurred.
5

Concerning Editing and Publication

History)of Diving space after the Tsunami

Comments[Details]

The 2nd year 2019(3)Published “Jinruiken Booklet” 5 in Japanese and

Host

Anthropological Institute,EnglishNanzan University with the kindcooperation and support of the

Public symposium of “Continuing Discussion oncenter for International Studies,

the Great East Japan Earthquake: Report from

Diliman.

October 2017 at Nanzan University- .
[Program]“Talking about Disaster as a Taxi
Driver”

2019/10/5

Keiya Sakurai

Greetings

Akira GOTO

(Sendai Central Taxi, Driver)(Nanzan University),“What We Learned from the Disaster

Cynthia Neri ZAYAS(Center for International Studies,and How to Protect Our Lives”

University of the Philippines)

Kōichi Sakarai(Tourism Bureau Association ofIntroduction

Natori City, Board of Director of

10

号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第University of the Philippines

the Miyagi Prefecture Disaster Area” held on 1st

Lecturers

Hosted and organized by the

Miyako TAKAMURA(Nanzan University)

Harbor Marketing Cooperative
Association of Yuriage)〈Session 1:“Folk Beliefs as Resource“Learning

Management”

fromDisaster”〉(4)Visited disaster area in Miyagi

Sarah RAYMUNDO(Center for International Studies,Date2019 March 10-12

University of the Philippines)

Visited Place

Sendai city and Natori city in“In kinship There is Security: Aeta

VisitorMiyagi Prefecture

Resilience in Times of Disasters”

The person in charge of this project

Cynthia Neri ZAYAS(Center for International Studies,[Details]

University of the Philippines)

We provided “Jinruiken Booklet 5” to who co-operated“LANAB: Beneficial, Dangerous, andour project and attended “Memorial Event of Yuriage

Destructive Flooding”

3.11 on 2019”. The event was held on at Primary andNorman KING

Junior High School of Yuriage that was attacked by(Pampanga Agricultural Statetsunami on 2011.

College)“Struggling to Fish：Marginalization(5)International Public Symposium at University of theand Communication in the FishingPhilippines
Theme

Villages of North Tamil Nadu in the
Post-Tsunami Period”

Wisdom for Living with Natural
Disasters. -Initiatives of Local

Gopalan RAVINDRAN

Residents in Response to Changes
in their SocietyDate

5-6, October 2019
(Saturday-Sunday)

Venue(University of Madras)
Comments

Akira GOTO

for session 1(Anthropological Institute, Nanzan
University)

The University Hotel seminar

Discussion

room “Patio Annex”, University of
the Philippines Diliman

62019/10/6〈Session 2:
Initiative for
Rehabilitation
by LocalResidents or“Disaster Culture on ‘Waju ’”Etsuko SHIMOMOTO(Nihon Fukushi University)“Catastrophic Disaster Causing
Separation of Culture and Loss ofHistory：Museum Activities by
University Students for ”Build Back
Better” of Local Culture”
Koji KATO(Musashino Art University)“The Roles of Women's Self-Help
Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015
Nepal Earthquake”
Ai TAKEUCHI

local people on affected areas through some cases in
Philippines, Indonesia, India, Nepal and Japan.
For the cases of the Philippines, Cynthia NeriZAYAS, Sarah RAYMUNDO, Norman KING and
Wataru KUSAKA did the presentations. Cynthia NeriZAYAS, Sarah RAYMUNDO, Norman KING discussed
the conflict between the government and local resident
who lives in the affected areas of Mt. Pinatubo Eruption
in 1991. Wataru KUSAKA discussed how the life of
the residence in Leyte island changes in response to
discontinuing the coconut tree farming affected theirlives after the tsunami in 2004.
Gopalan RAVINDRAN pointed the distress offishermen after the 2004 tsunami disaster which is said
to be a man-made disaster.

(Research Fellowship for Young

Etsuko SHIMOMOTO discussed the culture of Waju

Scientists of Japan Society forsurrounding the embankment on Kiso rivers where

the Promotion of Science/Nanzan
University)“Community Responses to Climate
Change and Land Subsidence：The
Cases from Probolinggo, East Jawa
and Tambak Lorok, Semarang,

flood used to occur and the local knowledge against
flood, and how residents and government used to cope
up together.
Koji KATO argued on how tsunami affected
residents caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake

Central Jawa, Indonesia

in Tohoku area Japan 2011 are working on to re-

Dedi ADHURI

establish their life by themselves.

(Indonesian Institute of Sciences)“Disaster, Discipline, Drugs andDuterte：Transformation of

Ai TAKEUCHI mentioned how the establishedfinancial support activities for women on lower positionin the society affects the re-construction and re-Moral Subjectivities in Coconut

establishing the lives of the 2015 Nepal earthquake

Communities, Leyte”

victims.

Wataru KUSAKA

Dedi ADHURI discussed bout how residents accept(Nagoya University)

the new technique against the changes of weather andComments

Cynthia Neri ZAYAS

ground subsidence in Indonesia.

for session 2(Center for International Studies,
University of the Philippines)

Discussion

In short, this symposium discussed the conflicts
between the government and local organization,
introduced concrete initiatives of residents in attacked
area how they cooperate or negotiate for rehabilitation

2019/10/7

from natural disaster.

Field Trip on Pampanga in Northern Luzon Island,
Philippines[Details]
The symposium discussed how the disaster victims(6) Closed Lecture as Internationalization Project“Wisdom living with Natural Disaster” of
Anthropological Institute, Nanzan University

7

Concerning Editing and Publication

Community〉

cooperates with the organizations especially theThemePresenter『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10“smart city” projects (which seek to “beautify” beaches)

Marginalization, Communication,
Everyday Lives andcoastal roads and unsustainable development projects

Empowerment of Coastal

are doing far more greater damage to the coastal

Subalterncommunities livelihoods and everyday life contexts than

Gopalan Ravindran

what the natural disaster such as Tsunami did during(Madras Univsity)

2004.
This closed lecture would enlighten the participants

Date

8. March 2020

Venue

Q5 room Nanzan UniversityTime

14:00~16:00

Host

Anthropological Institute, Nanzan

about the relative characteristics and impact of “manmade disasters” such as the projects mentioned above
and the natural disasters like Tsunami. The centuries

University
Co-sponsor

old rights and relationships coastal communities
with their land and sea are being snatched away or

Faculty of Humanity, Nanzan
University

subverted by several mega projects in the name ofdevelopment. There are strong and well articulated[Object]

campaigns by the coastal communities to either

Humans have been living with nature, so thestop or minimize the social, cultural and livelihood

knowledge of living with nature has been created. On

damages these projects entail. Communication is one

the other hand, due to the development of science, thekey parameter of both marginalization and its counter

native knowledge has been marginalized, and sciencesite of empowerment. This workshop would focus on

has been prioritized. This fact can be considered as

the communication contexts of marginalization andthe relationship of man-made disaster. Today’s closed

empowerment to provide a unique perspective. This

lecture will reconsider local knowledge living withunique perspective is strengthened by the use ofnature, due to the fact of destruction of the environment

the “everyday lives” frame works that are native toby the project of “Development” in Subaltern Southboth classical and contemporary research studies inIndia.

anthropology, sociology and communication.

[Abstract]

In short, the lecture leverages the information

Coastal subaltern communities which kept thegathered through field works since 2016 by the author

meeting of people and cultures from afar for several

to engage with the issues of marginalization and thecenturies during the earlier phases of globalization areattendant modes of communication and empowerment

faced with major and minor threats to their livelihoods,

strategies employed by fishermen and their community

cultural and social practices for the past four decades

leaders to bring about a change in the everyday lives of(1980-2020). In this period, interestingly covers both

members of coastal subaltern communities.

the pre-globalization and globalization eras of thecontemporary kind.
The intervention of a major natural disaster Tsunami

Ⅳ Conclusionof 2004 on a massive negative scale has both accelerated

Etsuko SHIMOMOTO (Nihon Fukushi University)

the pace of marginalization of the coastal communities

mentioned how Waju system works to prevent flood(which in the context of the workshop refer to bothdisaster and is still important although Waju culture

traditional and non-traditional fishermen) and provided

became nostalgic as old wisdom and discussed that thisnew modes of engagements in their everyday lives.

system should be reconsidered when thinking about theThis workshop focuses on the south Indian state of

future of the people living in Waju who don’t know theTamil Nadu.

culture of Waju .

The construction of mega ports, industrial plants,
8

Ai TAKEUCHI (JSPS Researcher PD) mentioned therole of women’s self-help organization in reconstruction

initiatives and stakeholders and their relationship on

in Nepal. The organization was established to help

each place where disaster occurred.

women, but it is developed and devoted to reconstruct
the life of the earthquake victim in 2015 throughThanks
We would like to give thanks to the presenter,can be said that there were self–help organization forcommentators, all concerned people who did cooperated

women, that is why the re-construction organization

with this project, especially professors and staff of

was organized just after the earthquake, and it is a

the University of the Philippines who accepted andvery helpful organization because all members knew

organized the holding of the international symposium.

each other.

References

Koji KATO (Musashino Art University) mentionedthat “Build Back Better” project established after
the Great East Japan Earthquake encourage thelocal residents to remain in the affected area and cancontribute in rescuing cultural property and ensuring

Kato, Koji.
2021

of Culture and Loss of History：Museum

local cultural rescue.

Activities by University Students for “Build

Gopalan RAVINDRAN (University of Madras)

Back Better” of Local Culture, Research

described the Marginalization, Communication,

Papers of the Anthropological Institute (10):how especially women make everyday lives and

50-57.

empowerment though seaweed harvest and saltpanning in coastal subaltern communities of south India.
Through all this symposium and article in thisInternationalization project of Anthropological Institute,

Ravindran, Gopalan.
2021

Subaltern Communities of South India,

Disasters”, we learned wisdoms were created throughResearch Papers of the Anthropologicalthe natural disaster in response to the type of disaster,Institute (10): 10-21.

time and place when it occurred. And according toand make a plan for rehabilitation. Without the local
wisdom, the rehabilitation plans will not satisfy the

Shimomoto, Etsuko.
2021

Institute (10): 34-49.

considered and respected by the government, NGO,
We can say that what affects people’s life is not justnatural disasters, but also illness disaster like covid-19,

Waju：Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control,
Research Papers of the Anthropologicalresidents. Therefore, the local’s initiatives should be
NPO etc., those stakeholders.

Marginalization, Communication, Everyday
Lives and Empowerment of Coastal

Nanzan University, “Wisdom for living with Natural

those local wisdoms, reconstruction should consider it

Catastrophic Disaster Causing Separation

Takeuchi, Ai.
2021

The Roles of Women’s Self-Help Organizationsin the Process of Civil Reconstruction after

AIDS, malaria, Ebola etc., and also economic disaster,

the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake, Research

political problems. Each disaster we face, we needed

Papers of the Anthropological Institute (10):to find away on how to recover from such disasters.

22-33.

On that time, we can say it is necessary to consider
the local wisdoms used by the people to recover andorganized, what is the most important on each place,not just follow those stakeholder’s suggestions.
This project shall continue to focus on the local
9

Concerning Editing and Publication

creating new tourism business. On the other hand, it

論文 Article『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Marginalisation, Communication,
Everyday Lives and Empowermentof Coastal Subaltern Communities
of South India
Gopalan RAVINDRAN *Bronfenbrenner (1994) conceptualises chrono contexts as those referring to changes
caused by the passing of the temporal dimensions in one’s individual personality
as well as in one’s environment. The linkages between contexts of marginalization,communication, everyday life and empowerment of subaltern coastal communities inthe south Indian state of Tamil Nadu are explored and examined in this paper in termsof their chrono contexts. The coastal communities of Pazhaverkadu, Marina Beach,

Gulf of Mannar and Thuthukudi provide the contexts for this paper. The paper further
seeks to problematize the key terms such as marginalization, communication, everyday
life, subaltern coastal communities and empowerment with a view to move towards ameaningful methodological framework.

Keywords
Marginalisation
Communication

目次 Contents
Ⅰ

Introduction

Ⅱ

Not Lost for Words

Ⅲ

Conceptualization of Key Terms

Ⅳ

Pazhaverkadu S u b a l t e r n C o a s t a lCommunity

Everyday LifeⅤ Marina Beach Subaltern Coastal
Community

South Indian Coastal Communities

Ⅵ Women Seaweed Harvesters of Gulf ofMannarEmpowerment

Ⅶ

Salt Pan Workers of Thuthukudi

10

Ⅰ

Introduction

paper.
● Marginalisation

This paper explores and examines the interfaces of● Communication

marginalization, communication and empowerment in● Everyday Lifethe everyday lives of subaltern coastal communities● Subaltern Coastal Communities

in south India, with particular reference to Tamil● Empowerment

Nadu, a southern state with one of the long coast

This paper acknowledges the following inspiringlines in India. India is a peninsular geographicalwords of Max Horkhiemer and Henri Lefebvre for

entity and has long coast lines on the west and east

its birth, contexts and meanings. In his monumental

coast. The Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal intersect

work, Critique of Everyday Life, Henri Lefebvre

with Indian ocean at the southern tip of Tamil Nadu

said: “Life is unique. Man must be everyday, or

coast, Kanyakumari, which is also the southern tip

he will not be at all. …the critique of everyday lifeof India. The following terms are conceptualized- critical and positive - must clear the way for adifferently to fit the methodological framework of thisgenuine humanism, for a humanism which believes*Central University of Tamil Nadu

11

Marginalisation, Communication, Everyday Lives and Empowerment of Coastal
Subaltern Communities of South India

Figure. Left map: Study Area - Tamil Nadu - South India
https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/indianlanguages.htm.
Right map: Field Areas in Tamil Nadu - South Indi
Based on map in Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

This might sound complex and rather convoluted.

properly, it is not enough simply to look. People who

But, if one introspects for a while the wise men’slook at life - purely as witnesses, spectators - are notwords, quoted in the first section, one becomes

rare; and one of the strangest lessons to be learnt

aware of the fact that this is not complex at all. If

from our literature is that professional spectators,

aspiring to change or inspiring to change other fellow
human beings, with whatever advantages we have,contemplate life with less understanding and grasp

is not complex enough, then we a sof its rich content than anyone else. There reallyinterested to work for the empowerment of theis no substitute for participation!” This work was

marginalized subaltern coastal communities are also

in the making for three decades during 1940-1960s.

Not Lost for Words.

judges by vocation and witnesses by predestination,

Horkheimer (of the Frankfurt School) said: “In the

Clarity defines communication as well as any

interest of a rationally organized future society”,

sound methodology. Methodology should be delimited

critical theory sheds “critical light on present-day

and distinguished from the methods of informationsociety (…) under the hope of radically improving

gathering (which in the case of quantitative

human existence” (Horkheimer, 1937/1972, pp.188-

research refers to data collection). Methodology

10243). In these conceptions of Horkheimer andis the fountainhead of clarity of purpose in any

Lefebvre, what becomes unique is the samenessresearch exploration and examination in its simplisticof their message. The sameness is defined by theunderstanding. But it is about the clarity of thechange they wished to see in their domains ofconceptual or rather the philosophical purpose of any

critical enquiries – Lefebvre in the contexts of every

exploration or examination. Philosophy is not used

day life and Horkheimer in the context of criticalhere as a term of either implausible this worldly or

theory. The next section provides the conceptual andother worldly explorations, but is used to refer to an

methodological framework of this paper.

intellectually bounded territory of socially meaningful号（２０２１）『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

in the human because it knows it. ...To see things

academics

In an entirely different critical studies milieu, Max

Ⅱ Not Lost for Words
More often than not, the social and cultural world

insights and guide posts. Change, as a word, isalso about a philosophical insight as much as it is a
guidepost for academics who wish to give back totheir community/society something.

appears to exist on our terms, particularly if webelong to the socially and cultural privileged sections

Change is not yet another word in English or anyof the population. It appears so, but in reality theother language. As a verb, it becomes a philosophicalreverse is true. The reverse is more true of thesite to introspect the linguistic and non-linguistic

majority in developing countries where the social andcontexts of change. In fact, change becomes acultural world exists because of the prevailing social,cardinal guidepost of methodology on account of its

cultural, economic and political inequalities. As long

philosophical and sociological/cultural interfaces andas the clarity of thoughts of the researcher and theimplications. In effect, we are not Not Lost for Words,

persons whose frameworks the research

wishesas regards the methodology of the paper, if we areto use define our conceptualization of terms andclear headed as regards the clarity of the purpose,

their applications, one is not lost for words in one’si.e change. This paper’s methodology is borne of the

exploration and examination of the topic in question.

conception of the need, possibilities and challenges

Not Lost for Words is also a reminder that theas regards social, cultural and other domains ofsubjects of study are also the subjects which are Notchange in the everyday lives of subaltern coastal

Lost for Words .

communities of south India.
12

Ⅲ Conceptualizationof Key Terms

subalterneity.
The term marginalization is no different from theterm subalterneity in causing the dangers of inherent

otherness and perverse manifestations . A leading

conventional usages of the key terms used inexponent of Bharata Natyam , a classical Indian

this paper, this paper deems it as an opportunity

dance, Narthagi Nataraj (2013), a transgender artist,

to rethink these meanings and posit a different

who struggled to achieve new heights in her career,conceptual frameworks for marginalisation,

politely reminded me in a seminar I hosted. “To term

communication, everyday life, subalterneity,some arts and artists as marginalized arts and artists

empowerment and coastal communities. To begin

is not fair as there is a systematic attempt in these

with, there is a strong need to rethink the usage ofto brand us as the other which we do not deserve”.

the term, marginalisation. Its connotations have been

She seemed to say (these words are mine), “We are

growing wildly and negatively, according to members

artists and our arts are arts. Leave us free of yourof “marginalized” sections of the society.

academic language”. That’s how I read her poser inthat seminar which had the terms marginalization

Subalternity and marginalization are terms of,and performing arts in active circulation.

what I would term as, inherent otherness . They
are, like most academic terms, having noble intent,

The problem with the usage of the term,

but flawed relationships between the interlocutors

marginalization, is more in the contexts of one of theand the subjects of exploration and enquiry. Gayatri

hard hit coastal subaltern communities, fishermen.

Spivak’s famous intervention, Can the Subaltern

On the one hand, they are located physically at the

Speak? is but another shade of intervention between

margins of the land - they belong to the coastal

and among the academic interlocutors of subaltern

margins of the country or territory. They are at thestudies and not the subjects of their studies. In

economic, and consequently, social/cultural margins

this context, I am also reminded of what theof the mainstream society that has its heart andBrazilian ethnomusicologist and academic activist,

mind in the land and its hinterlands. Once during

Samuel Araujo(2020), mentioned with regard to thea field work in a fishing village in Pazhaverkadu ,invisible dimensions of the supposedly politicallyone fisherman revealed another problematic of theand academically valid terms such as inclusion,academic terms such as marginalization, subalterneity

empowerment, marginalization etc., He was referringand empowerment etc., When asked how does heto the rise of perverse inclusion which seeks torelate to the attempts of the mainstream media ininclude the abominable social elements within thereporting fishermen’s issues, particularly the longextended notion of the widely popular category,running issue of Tamil Nadu fishermen getting killed

inclusion. The same is true of India as well, where theby Sri Lankan navy for their alleged trespass into

opponents of the social justice policy of reservation

the territorial waters of Sri Lanka, he responded:have in recent times succeeded in including“These issues can neither be understood nor reported

themselves as a part of the social justice driven

truthfully by you people with a land-based psyche.

reservation system. This is what Samuel terms as

These can only be understood, reported and handledperverse inclusion. The dangers of inherent otherness

by us, the sea-based people.”and perverse manifestations have to be factored inany exploration and examination which seek to use

What becomes apparent in the above mentioned

terms such as marginalization, empowerment andremark of the supposedly illiterate fishermen is a

13

Marginalisation, Communication, Everyday Lives and Empowerment of Coastal
Subaltern Communities of South India

While there are literary and taken for granted

『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

sound, politically correct reasoning that militates

is a process rooted in the spatial politics wherein theagainst the dangers of inherent otherness andbone of contestation is the divergent views of theperverse manifestations . Marginalisation, as a term,

margin as the beautiful and exotic by the real estate

becomes useful, however, if we get critical about its

logic driven city planning in the age of neo liberalism

irrelevance and relevance. It becomes irrelevant withand as the lifeline of everyday life of fishermen,

the attendant dangers of inherent otherness andwhere beauty of life depends on the space provided

perverse manifestations. It becomes relevant withby the margin to park boats, repair nets, sell fish etc.,

the attendant sensitivity and advantages of what
Orlanda Fals Borda(1969) articulated as participatory

In the conventional logic, marginalisation refers

action research, where the plans, methods evolve out

to those who have been pushed to the marginsof the encounters of the egalitarian kind between theof existence politically, economically, socially andacademic interlocutors and the subjects of research

culturally. Marginalisation occurs on account of whatand social change.

becomes dominant and hegemonic at the centre.
What happens at the margins and peripheries are

Marginalisation, in this paper, is also used in thethe effects of what happens at the centre. The centre

context and spirit outlined by Orlanda Fals Borda.

is where the socio-economically/politically privileged

It is meant to draw attention to the dangers ofclasses have their hold. While the generalities of theinherent otherness and perverse manifestations .

conventional logic may be true, the particulars ought

One dimension of the alternative approach is theto be explored anew and mapped critically. If thepolitical provocation and attention even the much

wishes of Horkheimer and Lefebvre have a reason

discredited term, marginalization, provides to relate

to come alive, it is because of their change heralding

to the relative disparities between the divergent

potential. If marginalisation has to be turned aroundrealities of the people of the land and the people ofgainfully, theoretically for its movement towards a

the seas and the resultant erosion or damage suffered

new state, empowerment, where change becomesby the people of the sea or the coast on accountmore than a bright hope and sure possibility, thenof the encroachment of the margins of the land byboth terms, empowerment and marginalisation, havethe people of the land. The margins of the land are,to see the light of new conceptualizations. This paperin effect, the margins of the sea as well. But thismakes a small initiative in this regard in the following

unique liminal space is the centre of livelihood for theparagraphs.

fishermen on the coast. This is not like any other landoutside the margins, the hinterlands or the downtown

Re-conceptualization of any key term involvesof the city. It is the heartland. Marginalisation, in thisraising of critical questions. The critical questions

context, refers to the process of struggles for andposed by Mowat (2015) with regard to marginalisation

against the coastal subaltern communities such as

are: I) What does it mean to be marginalized? andthe fishermen, salt panners and seaweed harvesters,

Marginalized from what?. While finding possible

in their attempts to retain the margin as the centre

answers to these questions, Mowat (2015) argues theof their livelihood. Marginalisation, in this context, iscase of resilience as a parameter of conceptualization

not an academic term to brand the processes whichof marginalization. According to Mowat, resilience

keep the subalterns as subalterns in a wayward andcan be visualized both at the individual and social

aimless sense. It is a specific and rooted process oflevel. At both levels, it also translates as resistancethe spatial struggle with economic, social and cultural

to conditions of marginalization. Mowat (2015) bases

implications. In this sense, it is not a process rooted

the argument also on the work of Bronfenbrennerin the sociology and economics of backwardness. It(1994), who argues the case of the ecological model of14

human development wherein the contexts of micro,

processes that development actors can support andmeso, exo, chrono and macro contexts play a key role

facilitate for achieving pro-poor growth”. The onlyin human development. Micro and meso contexts aredifference between Buddha’s conception and theabout the relationships individuals have at the family

conception of Eyben (2008) et.al is the later’s stress on

and work place levels. The exo contexts are about

the prerequisite of poverty.

relationships at the levels of two different social sites
Similarly, another key term used in this paper

to changes caused by the passing of the temporal

relates to communication . Communication, in its

dimensions in one’s individual personality as well as

dominant version, is a routine context of transmission

in one’s environment. The macro contexts are outsideof information. This paper seeks to leverage thethe ambit of micro, meso, exo and chrono contexts.

alternative conception of communication provided byJames Carey (1989). Carey argued the case of ritualBronfenbrenner (1994) is cited by Mowat (2015) for

model of communication over the transmission model

the potential of his model to reveal the roles of theof communication. According to Carey (1989), “in ainterfaces of power and politics on the sites of theritual definition, communication is linked to terms

two questions raised earlier, i.e I) What does it meansuch as sharing, participation, association, fellowship,

to be marginalized? and Marginalized from what?.

and the possession of a common faith.” While relating

The answers to these questions depend on how wellto the transmission view of communication, Carey

we re-conceptualize the key term, marginalization(1989) said: “Although it led to solid achievement

alongside the axes of power and politics and theit could no longer go forward without disastrous

micro, meso, exo and chrono contexts.

intellectual and social consequences.” This key
term’s re-conceptualization is in tune with the re-Along with such a re-conceptualization, we need

conceptualization of the earlier terms as all three

to rethink and re-conceptualize another key term,

are seeking to work towards the possibilities of realempowerment. Empowerment is about imagining achange as wished by Lefebvre and Horkheimer.

new reality and working towards realizing it. Down
several millennia since Buddha’s famous saying, “AnAnother key term which begs our attention is

idea that is developed and put into action is more

subalterneity . This term is a derivative of one of theimportant than an idea that exists only as an idea,”coinages by Gramsci (1973) in his prison writings.

the radical conception of empowerment remains the

The Gramscian term was appropriated for a newsame. The latest ones doing the rounds are only para-conceptualization of writing history by the Subalternphrases of the statement of Buddha.

Studies Group led by Ranajit Guha during 1980s.
Ranajit Guha (1998) said: “Subaltern Studies made its

For instance, Eyben et.al (2008) said regarding

debut by questioning that assumption and arguing

their conception of empowerment : “We understandthat there was no such unified and singular domain

empowerment happens when individuals andof politics and the latter was, to the contrary,organized groups are able to imagine their world

structurally split between an elite and a subalterndifferently and to realize that vision by changing thepart, each of which was autonomous in its own

relations of power that have been keeping them inway. Much of what we have to say has indeed

poverty. ...The implications of this understanding canbeen concerned with documenting the existence of

be explored through the different facets of social,these two distinct, but interacting parts as well as

economic and political. These are conceptual tools

with arguing why such a structural split between

for identifying complex and mutually dependentthem was historically necessary.” According to
15

Marginalisation, Communication, Everyday Lives and Empowerment of Coastal
Subaltern Communities of South India

in one’s environment. The chrono contexts refercoastal state of Andhra Pradesh and Kerala in south

condition of being erased from sites of articulation

India. Tamil Nadu is one of the leading states in India

and representation. In what modes the re-(total number of states 28 and union territories 9) inconceptualizations of these terms are operationalized

terms of economic (second highest GDP among Indianwith regard to the coastal communities explored instates at US 290 billion and 8.5% of India’s GDP),social and human development indices (HDI of 0.708,

this paper.

compared to the national figure of 0.647 and Japan’s

this paper is taken up towards the later sections of

The size of India’s coastal population is estimated to

The four subaltern communities chosen for thebe 250 million. This measure is a skewed measure in

study are in Pazhaverkadu (Thiruvallur District),

the sense that it considers those living within 50 kms

Marina Beach (Chennai District), Mannar Gulf

from the coast as members of coastal population. This

(Ramanathapuram District) and Thuthukudi

10

paper seeks not to measure the size of the population(Thuthukudi District). The former two are sites ofthat may be deemed as coastal communities inmarine fishing communities and the later two areterms of kilo meters, but in terms of the dependence

into seaweed and salt harvesting.

号（２０２１）『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

Dutta and Basu (2018), “Subalternity refers to the0.915) (Wikipedia , 2020). It has the highest percentage
Another contentious term in the title of thisof urbanization in India (48.5% of population lives inpaper relates to coastal communities. Once again theurban areas against India’s figure of 31%). There areconventional logic of coastal community is given a go

608 marine fishing villages in Tamil Nadu (2020).

by in this paper on account of the following reasons.

of certain sections of population whose source of
livelihood is the sea and its immediate neighbourhoodin the land area. These communities range from thewidely known universal category of fishermen to
the lesser known categories of seaweed harvesters

Ⅳ Pazhaverkadu
Subaltern Coastal
Community

and salt harvesters. In short, coastal communities

Pazhaverkadu is home to 30+ fishing villages andare those who survive on the sources of livelihood

the region is home to India’s second largest brackishprovided by the sea and its neighbourhood. Coastal

water lake (the first is Chilika lake in Orissa). The

communities are inherently subaltern in naturearea is in the border regions of Tamil Nadu andas their sources of income are meagre enough toAndhra Pradesh. The Buckingham canal and thesurvive and not good enough to graduate to othertributaries of Kosasthalyar feed the lake. There areclass domains in society. This paper does not taketwo fishing communities in the region. Those who

into account the owners of mechanized fishing vessels

subsist on fishing in the confluence of canal/rivers

who may live off the resources of the coast, but are

and lake and those who go out to the sea to fish.

rich enough to be non-subalterns within the fishing

These communities are bound by the protocols fixedcommunity.

by the village bodies and their laws. The vessels
which go out to the sea have to cross the estuary

The following sections deal with four subalternwhich links the lake with the sea. The estuary is

coastal communities in the south Indian state ofalso a problem spot as the dramatic recent change

Tamil Nadu. Before we proceed further, here arein the movement of sands along the coast havea few snippets of facts about the field area, Tamil

become the source of sand bars in the estuary. The

Nadu. Tamil Nadu has the second longest coast

fishermen lost close to 4 months of work last year asline (1076 km) after Gujarat, a state on the Western

the government machinery could not act in time tocoast (1600 km). Tamil Nadu’s coast line borders theclear the sand bars. The proliferation of sand bars

16

a few days every month without work (until 1980s,

of ports and thermal plants between Ennore andgovernment used to provide compensation for all

Pazhaverkadu . The Kattupalli port, which is 20+ kms

the fishermen on a daily basis and v) the chocking

from Pazhaverkadu is due for massive expansionof the Pazhaverkadu estuary, due to a combination

after its takeover by the Adani group, alleged toof factors ranging from the rapid accumulation of

be close to the ruling party. Protests by the local

sand because of the strong currents caused by thefishermen started last year and are continuing.

construction of the port and lack maintenance. This

They fear that the fishing villages will be wiped out

meant that fishermen could not venture into sea forby the mega expansion of the port with attendant

several days in the recent past as their boats had to

infrastructural developments such as mega express

cross from the lakeside through the estuary to get toways in the region. The unusual warming of water

the sea”.

currents and the high level of pollution of sea wateris blamed on the Ennore thermal plant. Fishermen of

Mowat’s (2015) two key questions with regard

this region are, as a result, counting their chances of

to marginalisation are: I) What does it mean tosurvival in the face of these mega projects and thebe marginalized? and Marginalized from what?.

indifference of the state and central governments to

In the case of the fishermen of Pazhaverkadu ,the fast changing threat scenarios that are haunting

marginalisation is always about their alienation fromthem.

their source of livelihood, the complex eco-system
of Pazhaverkadu where the interface of the estuary

Ethiraj (2019), who is a senior office bearer of the

becomes the lifeline for both sea faring and river-local fishermen’s association, (Thiruvallur District

bound fishermen. Marginalisation at the hands of theTraditional Fishermen’s Association ) dealt with theforces of industrialisation, India’s space programmes

problems faced by the subaltern coastal community

and infrastructure development to benefit theat Pazhaverkadu in the following manner. “Unlike

industries seems painful to the local fishermen, to say

the past, we are now struggling to fish . The reasons

the least. From the perspective of the ecological model

are to be located in the following order: I) the rapidof human development proposed by Bronfenbrennerindustrialization of the coast, in an unregulated(1994), what is striking is the prevalence of themanner by the government, in collusion with thechrono context. According to Bronfenbrenner

corporates, unmindful of its effects on the livelihood(1994), “A chrono system encompasses change orof fisherfolk ii) the setting up of Kattupalli port inconsistency over time not only in the characteristics

2012 in the village of Kattupalli, Ennore, was ruinousof the person, but also of the environment in which

for fisherfolk, in Ennore and Pazhaverkadu as thethat person lives (e.g., changes over the life course inestuaries in both places could not cope with thefamily structure, socioeconomic status, employment,

rapid sand formations and lack of regular dredging,place of residence, or the degree of hecticness andresulting in the destruction of the eco system. Thisability in everyday life）.” While the local fishermen’s

eco system once provided best quality prawns andassociation led by elders like Ethiraj are working

fish varieties in the country. iii) the recent acquisition

hard to express their resilience and resistance as aof the Kattupalli port by the mega Indian corporation,

parameter of marginalization (Mowat,2015) through

Adani Group, which has been growing exponentially,

concerted campaigns to save their environment

thanks to its nexus with the present government atand themselves from the looming threats posed by

the centre and the group’s plan to construct a superthe rapid industrialisation of their fragile coast, themega harbor iv) frequent rocket launches from theemergence of the chrono contexts of their ecologies

nearby space centre at Sriharikota snatches away

as well as themselves becomes apparent too. Elders
17

Marginalisation, Communication, Everyday Lives and Empowerment of Coastal
Subaltern Communities of South India

in the estuary area is blamed on the construction

like Ethiraj have undergone transformations overencroachers who should be evicted.

the past decades temporally in the same modes their『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

fragile eco-system underwent. Here, the temporality

Marina beach area is the home of 11 fishingof transformations remains the same for both thevillages for several centuries and are probably theindividual fishermen like Ethiraj and the environment,

only fishing villages inside a metropolitan area in

Pazhaverkadu .

India. The fishermen of the villagers are exhibiting
both resilience and resistance, as in the case of the

For the subaltern fisherfolk like Ethiraj,

Pazhaverkadu fishermen, in facing the threats ofsubalterneity is the other side of representation ofa different kind. As in other contexts where thetheir eco-system and their lives. Contrary to how

subaltern coastal communities are facing the threats

academics define subalterneity, it is the reality offrom neo-liberalism inspired policies and decisions of

threats fishermen face rather than the representations

the local government and judiciary, the fisherfolk atof such threats in media, government meetings andMarina beach are also at the receiving end because

public fora. Contrary to the notions of empowermentof such policies. But, in contrast to other contexts

cited early on (Eyben (2008), fishermen like Ethirajof marginalization and threats to livelihood, what is

are unable to imagine their lives differently. They

at work in Marina beach area is the “aesthetics” ofare born to fish in Pazhaverkadu and they hold the“blue flag beach” as the role model for Marina beachregion’s diversity and ecological beauty as dearly

to emulate. They are, as usual, enamoured of theas their lives. They are unable to imagine a reality

surface level and very subjective class centric beauty

where their fishing villages disappear to give spaceof the beach without the fishing boats, nets and the ill

for the mega port and express way. Empowerment toclothed dark skinned fishermen. They are, as usual,them resides in saving the status quo and saving the

not worried about the damage done to the beautiful

status quo means saving the fragile eco system. Their

coast by the huge inflows of urban sewerage into

communication modes are transmission oriented ascoastal waters, the estuaries that are encroached byregards the campaigns against the threats to their

the high rises, ports and mega oil spills of ships on

livelihoods, but are ritual centric as regards their

the coast. The words of Bharathi (2019), President

sense of belonging to their environment and fellowof the South Indian Fishermen Welfare Association ,subaltern members.

who has been the subject of the chrono contexts ofthe changes his environment and himself experienced

Ⅴ Marina Beach
Subaltern Coastal
Community

ever since he was a young boy, stand testimony tothe tragedies of the chrono context. Bharathi (2019)
said, “Our ancestors took for granted their traditionalrights over their homes, fish stalls and work spaces

In the case of the Marina beach (Chennai)

on land/sea. They did not register their properties

subaltern community, the threats are not from ports

on land. Moreover, they were more than willing toand expressways, but from the articulations andconcede their lands for government buildings on theattempts of the local corporation, judiciary and theKamarajar Salai, whenever requests from government

media to read the meaning of the sea and beach fromcame. All the fishing villages in Marina area had

the perspective of the “blue flag beaches” in othergiven their lands to government, both during British

parts of the world. To them, the beauty of the one

and post-independent periods. We are now at a greatof the longest urban beaches in the world is marredloss, realizing the folly of our ancestors and theirby the presence of the fishing boats, fish stalls

misplaced trust in governments. For instance, now

and fishermen’s nets. To them, fishermen are thewe do not have space to build a community/marriage

18their boats, nets, women folk selling fishes and theirvillages on the Marina. The government built a police

customers who are thronging the “loop road” fish

station here several years ago, despite our opposition.

market every day for fresh and affordable fish. They

Even though, the police station was shifted recently

are, as in the case of the fishermen of Pazhaverkadu ¸

to the police headquarters building on the westerncommunicating well both in the transmission modesside of Kamarajar Salai, we are shocked to learn thatand ritual modes. The ritual mode inspires them

they have registered four grounds of our land, where

to remain as a tight knit community that does notthere was police station”.

want to surrender to the logic of “blue flag beach”
development of their neighborhood, whereas the

Bharathi, is now at the forefront of struggle

transmission mode helps them to cultivate solidarity

against the attempts of the local corporation towith the like minded communities, NGOs, social

expand the “loop road” as a major thoroughfare, shift

media and conventional media. In fact, Bharathi

the fish market, deny right of space for mending

has been successful in managing his campaigns on

their nets and parking their boats and eventuallysocial media through facebook and whatsapp. His FB

evict the fishermen from the area. These attempts

page, Kadolara Seithigal (News of the Coast ) is thehave been defeated in the past, according to Bharathitransformation of the journal with the same name he(2019), by their resilience and its transformation as

had to discontinue due to financial reasons.

a resistance. A case in point he narrates relates tothe opposition they mounted against similar moves
during 1980s. The protests drew the condemnation (ofthe government action to remove the fishing boats
from the beach area) from the Supreme Court of

Ⅵ Women Seaweed
Harvesters of Gulfof Mannar

India. The protests also drew police firing in which

Compared to the coastal subaltern communities

many fishermen died. Such protests provided thewhich are into marine fishing, there is a strong

chrono contexts of Bronfenbrenner (1994) as well as

community of women divers from 21 villages in

the inspiration for new leaders of subaltern coastal

Ramanathapuram district. These women, like theircommunities to emerge.

fisherfolk counterparts of Pazhaverkadu and Marina

beach , are also organised under the banner of Women
In fact, in one of the conversations, Bharathi (2019)

Seaweed Harvesters’ Association . In India, seaweed

said: “As a young boy, I was witness to the violence

is used in both food non-food sectors such as foodlet loose against our community. This motivated me

processing, textile and dye industries. The harvesting

to enter public life for the cause of my people.” Asof seaweed started, along with pearl fishery, in thementioned in the case of the subaltern community

region during the colonial period, when the prisoners

at Pazhaverkadu , members of the 11 fishing villages

were employed for diving to gather seaweed, conches

are rallying behind leaders like Bharathi to save theirand oysters. What was once an occupation of menfolk

sources of livelihood in a metropolis that seeks to

is now the domain of women divers. They row theirerase the margins and the people who called themboats at sunrise to nearby islands and spent several

their home for several centuries.

hours diving under water in depths ranging from
15 ft -70 feet to collect seaweed and sea conches.

As in the case of the fishermen of Pazhaverkadu ¸

Sea conches are the property of the state and thethe impossibility of imagining a different reality stares

women can only sell to the local government dept.,at them and they are determined not to “empower”

The seaweed is sold to private buyers. While Indianthemselves by co-imagining a beautiful beach without

media have ran stories on these women several
19

Marginalisation, Communication, Everyday Lives and Empowerment of Coastal
Subaltern Communities of South India

hall for the benefit of families in the seven fishermenwith their sarees on. There is an unintended dose of

Ⅶ Salt Pan Workers ofThuthukudi

unrealistic representations of empowerment these

In comparison with the three subaltern coastal

stories have come to attach to the daily routines ofcommunities mentioned above, the case of the saltthese women. But, as the president of the Women

panners/workers of Thuthukudi district provides

Seaweed Harvesters’ Association , remarked bluntly

a different narrative. It is a narrative which

in one of the newspaper interviews, it is not about

underscores the tragedy of economic deprivation at

empowerment. It is about surviving to beat poverty

the heart of other tragedies that have befallen thisand earn money for the running of family. “Ours isn’t

community. Is it a community? This question opens

a tale of empowerment. We are just trying to makemany windows of introspection for any academic

ends meet,” said Rakkamma.

interested in working with people of the subalterntimes, such stories try to pitch the unusual angle –wonderment at women diving in a country like India『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

kind with the key terms this paper employs. Here
Compared to the subaltern communities of

the issues of marginalization and subalterneity

fisherfolk, where women do not venture to sea toought to be read differently as many of the salt pan

fish and are only doing onshore support work such

workers are also subsisting on agricultural workas drying the unsold fish, selling fish and cleaning/

during off season (when the salt pans are closed

cutting fish for customers, in the case of thesedue to inclement weather). Salt harvesting in India

women divers, they are venturing into sea on theiris controlled by the laws of the Union government

own and diving into depths of 15-70 feet without

and the state/local government have no role to play

any proper gear, solely banking on their lung power

to address the issues even when there are crises.

and diving skills. The highlight of their work is theThis sector is not faced with the threats of neo-

implementation of what Buddha said with regard

liberalism, as in the case of the fishing sector, but isto empowerment. “An idea that is developed andfaced with the threats of monsoon rains, cyclones andput into action is more important than an idea that

other vagaries of weather. In 2018, the Gaja cyclone

exists only as an idea,” They are also sporting thedevastated the entire production area in anotherresilience mentioned by (Mowat,2015), but here it

salt producing region of Tamil Nadu, Vedaranyam .

does not translate into resistance, as in the case of

Women and men are found in almost equal number

the subaltern coastal communities of Marina beachin this sector, unlike the coastal fishing communities(Chennai) and Pazhaverkadu . There is a looming

where women do not take to seas and the seaweed

possibility of young women in the families of these

harvesting sector where the men do not take to2000 women not taking to the diving routines of theirdiving. Among the tragedies these workers face,

mothers as they are getting their school and college

the health related tragedies such as renal and retina

education to move on to less arduous and non-risky

failure are very high. There is a high incidence ofjob sectors. This may be read as an instance of a

victims with renal and retina failure. As in the casechrono system that will not see any change in theof the seaweed harvesters, these workers are also

environment where harvesting of seaweed and conch

reluctant to let their children take to salt panning.

takes place, but will see the gradual disappearance

The chrono system in the case of this community willof the women divers of the present, who may or may

also go the way of seaweed harvesters of Mannar

not be replaced by men.

Gulf .

20

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1998

Dominance without Hegemony: History
and Power in Colonial India, HUP.

Araujo, Samuel.
2020

Personal Communication. February 28,2020.

Horkheimer, M.
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Critical Theory: Selected Essays, New

Bharathi.
September 30, 2019.

Subversion and Social Change in

Mowat, Joan G.
2015

Research Journal. 14(5).

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1994“Ecological Models of Human Development”.
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Map of India
		

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		https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/
india/indianlanguages.htm.

Vol. 3, 2nd. Ed. Oxford: Elsevier.
Carey, James.
1989

Communication as Culture: Essays on
Media and Society, London: Unwin
Hyman.

Dept.of Fisherie’s Report, Government of Tamil Nadu.

Map of Tamil Nadu - South India
		

Accessed January 29,2021.

		

Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Narthagi, Nataraj.
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2018

“Subalternity, Neoliberal Seductions andSpivak, Gayathri C.
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of Social Change,” Cultural Studies andCritical Methodologies, 18 (I).pp.90-93.
Economy of Tamil Nadu.
Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu. Accessed
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Ethiraj.
2019

Personal Interview with the author on
September 29, 2019.

Gramsci, Antonio.
1973“Can the Subaltern Speak”

Macmillan.

Freedom: Decolonizing Global Market

		Personal Communication. January 04,
2013.

https://www.fisheries.tn.gov.in/
Dutta, Mohan J. and Basu, Ambar.

"Towards a New Conceptualization of
Marginalisation". European Educational

Columbia, New York: Columbia University

Bronfenbrenner.

Critique of Everyday Life, London:Verso
p.xix, 237,252.

https://www.blueflag.global/

Borda, Orlando Fals.
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Lefebvre, Henri.
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Blue, Flag,		

York: Continuum. pp.188-243.

Personal Interview with the author on

Selections from the Prison Notebooks,
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Nowell, London:Lawrence &Wishart

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Basingstoke:

Marginalisation, Communication, Everyday Lives and Empowerment of Coastal
Subaltern Communities of South India

2019

Traditional and Critical theory. In

論文 Article『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

The Role of Women’s Self-Help
Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the
April 2015 Nepal Earthquake
Ai TAKEUCHI *In the former royal capital city of Patan in Nepal, NGO and Nepal local government
established women’s Self-Help Organizations (S.H.O.s) to support the Newar women who
are inferior to their families to start a small business and improve their status in theirhome in the 1990s. The members of women’s S.H.O. took literacy, business, and skill
training. After the project of NGO and local government, the local women in Patan had
been establishing their own organization one after another. Since then, they have been
doing not only the activities of the main purpose of social development but also various
activities’ in response to local needs according to the actual situation.
The 2015 Nepal earthquake caused serious damage to Patan. Immediately after theearthquake occurred, the main people who rebuilt the town were only men, and thewomen had been staying at home taking care of their family. But 1 year after theearthquake, women’s S.H.O.s have been starting to reconstruct their communities.
Along with them, the farmer caste Jyapu ’s S.H.O.s has been successfully leading thereconstruction of the community uniquely. In a case of N Tole (community), S.H.O.
members focus on multiple businesses and started new businesses. For example, theyeffectively started using the vacant room of the local disaster prevention centers andmanage an exercise class for local people and daycare centers for old people. And also
they are going to manage a traditional Newar dance show for tourists. In another caseof P Tole, a lot of houses were partially or completely destroyed, local people decided
that all destroyed houses shall be rebuilt with guest rooms on each house to aim
tourism. Women’s S.H.O. members are working at the construction sites as same as men.
After building all the houses, S.H.O. members plan to show the traditional Newar dance
and foods to tourists in P Tole.
Most of the previous disaster studies emphasizes only the vulnerable aspects of thewomen, but this paper illustrates that the women members of S.H.O.s in Patan canmanage the reconstruction in their community utilizing their experiences and abilities
though the activities of S.H.O. for long years.

Keywords
The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake
Newar People
The Farmer Caste Jyapu
Civil Reconstruction
Women’s Self-Help Organization(S.H.O.)

目次 Contents
Ⅰ

Introduction

Ⅱ

Overview of Study Area

Ⅲ

Public help of Lalitpur Metropolitan City

Ⅳ Formation and Development of women’s
self-help organizations
Ⅴ The community reconstruction process
and the role of women's self-helporganizations
Ⅵ Conclusion：Examination

22

Ⅰ

Introduction

activities on women as well as the changes broughtby the post-earthquake of the Newar society. Andin part 4, the reconstruction activities of the Jyapu

a large earthquake of magnitude 7.8 occurred in thecaste after the 2015 earthquake will be discussed.

central and western parts of Nepal. Severe damage

Two citizen-led reconstruction projects, such as

was observed in Nepal, China, Bhutan, Northern“Diversified management” and “New town planning

India, and Bangladesh. The earthquake caused

utilizing Newar tradition” will be highlighted. Finally,buildings to collapse, avalanches, and landslides,

the role of women’s S.H.O.s in these two projects will

killing 8,891 people, destroying 605,254 houses, andbe further analyzed in detail.

damaging 288,255 houses. About 188,900 people were

Ⅱ Overview of study
area

temporarily evacuated. In the Kathmandu Valley,
many buildings and temples registered as World
Cultural Heritage sites, including the Durbar Square,
Swayambhunath, Boudhanath and Dharahara Tower,
were also damaged by this devastating earthquake.

2-1 Patan (Lalitpur
Metropolitan City)

According to a United Nations announcement, about

Patan flourished in the late Malla dynasty (1476-

8 million people were affected, equivalent to about1768) in the 15th century, after the Malla dynasty

30% of Nepal’s population.

was divided into the three kingdoms of Kathmandu,

From 2003 to 2015, I conducted fieldwork on the

Bhaktapur and Patan. It is located 5 kilometers south

various activities of women’s groups in the old royalof Kathmandu, the capital city, on a plateau on thecity of Patan (Lalitpur Metropolitan City) and theirsouth bank of the Bagmati River, inside of a circularimpact on women as well as social changes. After theroad called Ring Road. Patan has an overwhelming

2015 Nepal earthquake, houses collapsed and people

number of Buddhist temples in comparison with

were injured in Patan, and community restoration

the other two old Malla cities, Kathmandu andand reconstruction activities are still underway in

Bhaktapur, in the Kathmandu Valley. These old

the present day. In particular, among the Jyapu

cities, former royal capitals, are still mostly occupied(farmer caste) communities, “creative reconstruction

by Newar people. In Newar society, the concept

activities” have been seen and women’s self-of purity or impurity of the object or person is

help organizations (S.H.O.s) are actively involved

perceived by whether one can touch or interact with(Takeuchi 2012,2018). My research focuses on thethings and people. And this kind of perceived purity

role of women’s S.H.O.s in rehabilitating the Jyapu

or impurity exist both in the daily code and in thecommunities. I conducted fieldwork nine times inhierarchy of the social classes (the caste system).

between November 2015 to December 2019 focusing
on post-earthquake reconstruction activities.

There are Newar people, who practice Hinduism
and Buddhism. It is to be noted that both religions

Part 1 of this paper gives an overview of theare intertwined and some festivals are mixed based

study areas. Such as Patan, and the Newar ethnic

on these religious concepts. Buddhism originallygroups that are living there. Part 2 of this paper is

had no caste system, but in the Kathmandu Valley,

going to explain the public help given by Lalitpur

Buddhists observe caste system based on Hindu

Metropolitan City. In part 3, I am going to discussphilosophies. The royal palace and temples are

the history and activities of women’s self-help

located in the center of the city, are surrounded byorganization in Patan and the impact of thesefour and five-story brick and timbered multi-family*Nanzan University

23

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

At 11:56 am Nepal Standard Time on April 25, 2015,

『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Figure 1. Patan (Lalitpur Metropolitan City)
Source: 2007 Encyclopedia Britannica. Inc
dwellings. Upper caste people live in the center of thecaste group (Kasai ) and cleaning caste group (Pode )city and lower caste people live on the outer edge ofare considered to be the lower caste of society. On

the city. Each caste lives their life based on the rigid

the other hand, despite the caste ranking, each caste

caste system.

group has its own deity and customs, and each has

As I stated above, the city has a basic urban

its own caste identity for its caste group (Gellner

structure based on a religious view, and this

1996: 63-68). The order of caste and the degree ofstructure is formed according to the caste structure,

purity or impurity are determined at birth of thethe mandala worldview and the concept of “pure andindividual and are generally considered to be fixed.

impure”. The urban structure is linked to traditional

In Patan alone, there are more than 50 tals (family

culture of Newar.

names, or caste groups) (Maharajan 2002: 35). the

Jyapu (farmer caste group) has the largest number

2-2 Newar peopleof households of any caste group, followed by Bale

Newar people experience all phenomena through(gold and silver Buddhist statue crafters caste),the lens of whether something is pure or impure.

then the Gubaju (Buddhist monk caste), and thePure and impure views are derived from the world

Sessyo (government job caste group). The number

creation myth taught in Hinduism, and also fromof households in other caste groups is not very large.

the caste system, which defines people’s occupation

Different caste people keep a distance from otherand ritual role. A person’s caste level, occupation

caste groups, except for certain ceremonial Occasions.

and conducting of ritual roles are predetermined by

For an example, it is not customary for a upper caste

ones ancestral caste level. For an example, God has

family to allow a lower caste group or person into

the attribute of “purity”, and members of the priest

their house. In addition, there are restrictions against

caste group (Hindu priest Deyobalm , Buddhist priest

inter-caste marriage, and on “food transfer” between

Gubaju ), who are believed close to God, regarded

the different castes. Such as, the inability to receive

as upper caste, while in contrast, a butcher whowater and food (especially rice) from people of lower

handles meat is considered “impure”. The butcher

caste family or group and the inability to eat with24

lower caste people (Yamagami 2001). In particular,
cooked rice is seen as a likely conduit for impurenessbecause it is eaten on a daily basis. It is said that
one must not share a meal place with anyone otherthan family members. (Yamagami 2008: 60). Today,
traditional values, especially among young people
are changing. However, many elderly people live
according to the traditional caste norms.

Ⅲ Public helpof Lalitpur
Metropolitan City
3-1 Public assistance byLalitpur Metropolitan
City Office

Figure 2. Damaged temples
in Patan Durbar Square(November 14th, 2017 photographed by the author)
meets all the standards set by the government and iscompleted.
As of December 2019, 6,300 victims in Lalitpur
have received first-time grants. Second grants have

According to the government officer in charge

been awarded to 25% of the initial recipients, andof earthquake reconstruction work in Lalitpur

third grants to 20% of the first recipients. In all, 7,373

Metropolitan City Office, the damage to Lalitpur

people have received support from the City Office

was 49 fatalities, 128 injured people, 2,300 collapsed

between 2015 and August 2019. After the earthquake,houses, 5,000 partially damaged houses, and 75,000

the regional development bureau under the City

affected people. The role of the city office is to

Office had distributed shelters and tents, as well as

provide grants to all the applicants, who are seriously

baby clothes and diapers to pregnant women andinjured or have damaged houses based on standards

mothers with babies. One week after the earthquake,set by the Nepalese government. The damaged

large tents provided by UNICEF were set up in thebuildings are assessed and placed in one of threegardens of the City Office and in the fields of Wardgroups (red: no entry, green: safe, yellow: living will

8. About one month after the earthquake, children

be possible after repairs), and a disaster certificate ID

gathered, painted, and danced. At that time, children

card is issued for the affected applicant. The Nepalese

were given notebooks, pens, and erasers, as well as

government has instructed municipalities to provide

snacks by the local government officials.

300,000 rupees 1 (approximately 300,000 yen) for themet, applicants can receive financial support to begin

3-2 Public assistance by theWard officerebuilding their homes. First time applicants receive

After the earthquake, ward offices received

50,000 rupees if they pass the ground check; therelief supplies for the residents from City Offices,second time they receive 150,000 rupees, if their work

International organizations, NGOs, and others. Wardsatisfies the DPC seismic standard; and the third

8 3 , The most damaged area of Patan, received moretime they receive 100,000 rupees, if their first floor

relief supplies than any other ward. The City Officerebuilding of houses. If home rebuilding criteria are1
2

2

According to the conversion rate of 1 NPR = 0.95 JPY (as of September 25, 2019).
The data in this section is based on interviews with officials in Ward 8 and Ward 4 (August 2019).

25

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquakewith modern education, are waning and caste norms

ward office. Besides that, several items were donated.

women’s self-helporganization (S.H.O.)?

Such as, daily necessary items, food from the Central

Women’s S.H.O. was first established in the year

District Administrative Office (CDO), tents from1991, by a local NGO that targeted Newar Jyapu『人類学研究所 研究論集』第sent 100,000 rupees (approximately 100,000 yen) as

the Red Cross, and acetaminophen from the several(farmer caste) women in Patan. CDS (Community

NGOs ENPHO and YUM, which are actively involved

Development Section) 5 in Patan had formed sevenin the public health sector. According to many of thewomen’s S.H.O.s between 1996 and 1999. Although,ward offices, a few days after the earthquake, ward

there have been no other projects since 2000, theoffice staff formed a rescue team and they began to

CDS has been supporting S.H.O.s and conducting

work again. At that time, the role of the ward officea number of operational trainings. Women withwas mainly to distribute relief supplies, received

knowledge of the women’s S.H.O.s have begun

from each organization. In addition, although notto establish other new S.H.O.s by them in thea ward, the Jyapu Samajdonated 10,000 rupees

community of Patan, where they live. They have(approximately 10,000 yen) for each injured Jyapu

been playing an important role to empower themember as a measure of public assistance.

women social as well as economically. In addition,

10

The Ward 4 office stood out by its effective

donation, medicines, and other food supplies to the号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

4

response. International NGOs sent donation, rescue

they have been working based on the needs of theircommunities and caste groups.

supplies (gloves, helmets, boots, picks, and masks) and

There are also some other groups that choosetents to each ward office, and their first task was to

not to register their establishment with the CDS

distribute them to the residents. Seven days after the

because they prefer to work for their own interests

earthquake, the Ward 4 office had provided the plaza

rather than for the government. There are several

as a public shelter, built tents, and provided foodrequirements for registering women’s S.H.O.s withto residents. They were able to operate smoothly

the CDS. For an example, there must be more thanbecause they had providentially received earthquake

30 members, there must be one week of training indisaster training from an International NGO, the day

the establishment, the CDS can dictate how the S.H.O.

before the disaster took place. As a result, they were

will be managed, annual visits to the CDS must beable to anticipate the disaster more effectively thanmade, meetings must be attended and reports of theother ward offices in this area.

organization must be submitted, and leader of theorganization must be changed every three years

Ⅳ Formation anddevelopment of
women’s self-helporganizations

alternatively. To register with CDS scheme has somany benefits for women. Such as they can get
training in arithmetic, reading and writing, vocational
training such as courses in using sewing machine
and hairdressing, aptitude training, public speaking,and guidance in hygiene and nutrition from a health

4-1 What does mean thecenter.

3 Ward 8 consists of 12 toles (communities), with about 2,200 houses and a population of about 12,000. In Ward 8, the number of collapsed houses
exceeded 400, and the region was the most affected by the earthquake in Lalitpur. The first quake, followed by several aftershocks, left between
50 and 60 people injured. In Ward 8, there were no deaths, but a resident of Ward 8 was walking on a street in another ward and died of a heart
attack after seeing the university wall collapse in front of him.
4 Jyapu Samaj is a large farmer caste group self-help organization that comprises 40 communities of farmer caste groups living in Patan.
5 CDS (Community Development Section) is an administrative organization under the umbrella of City Office.

26

Women’s S.H.O.s go against the traditional Newar
values of keeping to one’s own caste group, as

homes and doing various outside activities, includinggroup meetings and events.
One of the characteristics of S.H.O.s for the Newarof which caste group they belong to. However,

women, is to conduct “small entrepreneurship

women have established S.H.O.s in each tole (small

activities” (such as microcredit, vocational training,community), so in Patan, where traditionally people

literacy training). Such activities aim to develop

are segregated by caste group, members of the same

women’s financial independence, which is the original

S.H.O. are allowed to interact with others of different

purpose of development. In addition, S.H.O.s organize

caste groups.

many community activities, such as participating

As of November 2018, there are 300 S.H.O.s inin festivals, cleaning up communities, establishing

Patan. Some groups have more than 20 years ofcommunity clinics according to the needs of theexperience. Until the year 2000, many women were

tole. Each tole is active, with its S.H.O. performing

unable to join as a member to a group because theira variety of new community activities to meet its

families opposed them from going out of their homes.

needs.

However, women’s S.H.O.s had been established inevery tole by the year 2010.

While initially many men strongly opposed thewomen from joining S.H.O.s and working outside

At meeting, women can get various kinds ofthe home. However, now they have come to know

information from the government and they get

and recognize that S.H.O.’s community work has aan opportunity to learn about sanitation, garbage

positive impact on the tole. Since the establishment

separation and recycling methods, which they canof S.H.O.s in Patan, women have gained a social role

practice at home. Women’s S.H.O.s are serving thein the tole, expanding women’s freedom and raising

tole and bringing so many benefits, therefore, S.H.O.

women’s social status like never before. In this way,

member’s husbands and other members of the family

S.H.O.s have unintentionally changed the traditional

can allow the women to participate in the training.

gender structure.

At the time of the national election, administrative

Ⅴ The community
reconstruction
process and the roleof women’s self-helporganizations

officials taught S.H.O. members about what is themeaning of a political party, what is the meaning of
citizens vote and how to cast one’s own vote. During
Election time, candidates frequently campaigned ineach tole and invited not only tole leaders but also
the women’s S.H.O. leaders to campaign events.

4-2 The life changes ofwomen who belong to
S.H.O.s
The gender structure of Newar society haschanged since Patan’s Newar women began to join
S.H.O.s. As mentioned earlier, traditionally, Newar
women were restricted to the private area of theirhusband’s house and parents’ house, and they could
not go out freely without the permission given by
their family. Once they started participating in S.H.O.s,
women became more accustomed to leaving their

The community reconstruction process and therole of women’s S.H.O.s were selected for researchbecause of their high level of women’s involvementin the community reconstruction process. In thisstudy, I will focus mainly on two toles in Patan,
referred to as N Tole and P Tole in order to preserveanonymity, which after the earthquake started new
urban development projects in which women’s S.H.O.s
are active in the process of reconstruction. In doing
so, I will discuss how women’s S.H.O.s are involvedin the project and their role in the community

27

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

they serve all women in the community regardless『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

reconstruction activities.

on their own. In addition to the original development

5-1 Reconstruction project：“Diversified management”
based on women’s ideas
in N Tole

activities, the S.H.O. is currently carrying out various

a. Overview of N Tole

measurement, routine health checkup, cleaning roads

activities based on women’s problems and community
needs.
For an example, members of this women’s S.H.O.
perform community activities, such as blood pressure

Talking about N Tole is located at Ward 20

and temples for residents in the Tole. Last year, theyin Lalitpur City and it has about 150 houses and a

repaired houses damaged by the earthquake. (All the

population of about 400. Most caste groups that live

damaged houses in N Tole have now been almostin the community have the last name “Maharjan”.

repaired.) Also, leisure activities, such as excursions

The N community is known for its historic Quina

and banquets are organized for members. In one

Gane Dyo (the god Ganesh) temple, which holds thenotably successful venture, of this women’s S.H.O.

festival of Jal Binayak Jatra. The festival starts on

was to convince the city office to clean a previously

the evening of the full moon in November. On that

unused garbage area and turn it into a parking lot.

day, in the evening around 6 pm, mankaa guthi, a

The S.H.O. members operate the parking lot. They

men’s band performing during ceremonies, begins tohave hired security guards from security companies

play. In recent years, women have been allowed tobecause it is dangerous at night. Since there is almost

participate. Men carry a portable shrine with Quina

no parking space in Patan, therefore this parking

Gane dyo inside, and women dance and play musicalmanagement venture is successful and also profitable.

instruments while parading through the town of

The profits from the parking operation are deposited

Patan.

into the community’s Sakhakari (financial union), but

6

In N Tole, the damage from the earthquake waswhen the community needs a large amount of money

minimal. Four houses were nearly collapsed, but mostfor events like community festivals and banquets andhouses were just cracked. There were no fatalities.

the donations are often made to the community from

For two months after the earthquake, community

this fund.

members stayed in tents in a large parking area run
by N Tole.

c. After the 2015 Earthquake
In N Tole, before the disaster, the women’s S.H.O. s

b. Activities of women’s S.H.O. in N Tole before

had cleaned up a garbage dump in the community

the 2015 earthquake

and used the space as parking lot, with the help of

N Tole has a women’s self-help organization

men. For two months immediately after the disaster,that was established in 1999. As of November

the space was provided for free of charge to establish

2017, N’s women’s S.H.O. had 92 members. Thisevacuation tent camp for Tole members.

S.H.O. was established to conduct three main

Although the women’s S.H.O. has been active in

activities: vocational training, literacy training, andwomen’s activities and for the Tole for some time

microfinance. Every member pays a small amountnow, members said that they had little time toevery month and the money thus collected is put

work for the women’s S.H.O. immediately after the

into a large fund. Members can borrow money fromearthquake. According to interviews with women

this fund and can take loan to open small businesses

living in Patan, after the earthquake, children’s

6
Guthis are social organizations that are used to maintain the socio-economic order of Newar society. Mankaa Guthi is one type of Guthis. The
members of Mankaa Guthi play traditional music instruments on the ritual occasions28

schools were closed for a long time, and many

tourists. Therefore, several vacant houses in the Tole

working men had to take a long time off from theirwere cleaned and renovated in order to accommodate

office work. Even when they returned back to theiraround 10 people at one time. Homestay hosts used

work, the men were afraid that the earthquake

to serve Newar dishes. Therefore, the S.H.O. womenmight reoccur, and they continued to leave thehad undergone cooking and cleaning trainings.
The second project was to use an empty or vacantback home as early as possible for a while. Women

house in the Tole, in order to manage boutiquewere often busy and had to take care of their family

stores. Women’s S.H.O. members used to keep themembers. In other words, many women were notstore open and tailor kurta (punjabi dresses) andable to leave their homes immediately after thesari. According to interviews, in November 2017, thedisaster.

location of boutique stores had already been finalized

On the other hand, immediately after thein the Tole and were in the process to open soon.

earthquake, men were able to work toward recovery.

The S.H.O. hopes to create employment for women

Men already had a network outside the home, which

through such boutique management.

they relied a lot to get financial and technical support

Third, they planned to use the empty space in thefor N Tole and successfully they were able to build acommunity disaster prevention center, in order tocommunity disaster prevention center in N Tole.

create a community day care facility for the elderly
people. This would be made available to about 100

d.Launching the project “Diversified management”

elderly people in the community. At present, theOne year after the earthquake, women’s self-

S.H.O. members are currently applying to open thehelp organizations finally started working for

facility with the ward office. When there were noreconstruction

7. At that time, the women’s S.H.O. insuch events to take place, this community disaster

N Tole had three projects to help people in order toprevention center was closed most of the time.

rebuild their lives once again, after the earthquake

Therefore, they wanted to use this center for suchthrough diversified management.

good reason.as much as possible. The plan was to

The first project focused on tourism. The first

open from 9:00 am to 6:00 pm as day care for thecomponent of this plan was to hold a show once in aelderly people. Activities would include communal

month and sell tickets to tourists. The show would

play, dance, and also for exercise class. A doctor used

include Newar dance and live music and a traditional

to visit once a month, in order to check the health

Newar style banquets prepared by local residents. In

condition of the elderly people.

order to serve this purpose, women’s S.H.O. members
started to conduct banquet cooking training sessions
to give training to its residents Also, three years ago,
they created a macha pucha (children’s group), andthey asked the children (both boys and girls) of theircommunity between the ages of 8 and 16 to learn
dancing and playing instruments like flute, drumfrom the members of mankaa guthi (men’s traditionalband). The second component of the tourism plan was

Figure 3. Members of women’s S.H.O. in N tole
(April 25th, 2018 photographed by the author)

to organize a program like homestay program for

The elderly day care service plan was aimed to

7
The border blockade between Nepal and India was in turmoil from September 24, 2015 to February 2016. With logistics stagnating, suppliesof daily necessities, which had relied on imports from India, fell sharply in Nepal and fuel and drug shortages became severe.

29

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

office voluntarily and many of them used to return『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

create employment for women’s S.H.O. members.

to live with their relatives, while others have rented

And the day care service for the elderly allowed toapartments. Even now, four years after the disaster,

give free space for women who have elderly familysome people are still living in the evacuation shelters

members to leave and find work outside of their

because they cannot even afford to pay monthly rent

homes. In addition, even if a disaster strikes, they canof an apartment.

feel reassured that elderly people are in a safe place
like disaster prevention enter. If a disaster occurs

b.Launching the project “New town planningduring use, there is no need to move elderly people

utilizing Newar tradition”

out of their homes in terms of disaster prevention.

After the earthquake, P Tole discussed how

It is believed that it will also reduce the burden

residents could restore and rebuild the community.

on everyday families and will be beneficial for all

It was thought that economic disparities would

residents of the community.

be a major problem if the community was rebuilt

5-2 Reconstruction project:“New town planningutilizing Newar tradition”
in P Tole of Patan

individually.

a.Overview of P Tole

A leader in P Tole, Mr. R.M, chairman of the
NGO Maya Foundation and president of a diamondcompany, suggested the idea of “New town planningutilizing Newar tradition” to residents. The purpose ofthis project was to invite tourists to their community,

P Tole is located in Ward 3 of Lalitpur City, within order to revitalize the town, preserve tradition,

a population of about 700 and there are around 115

generate income for the local people, and also tohomes. All inhabitants belong to the peasant caste

raise the standard of living in the tole. The Maya(family name: Maharjan). Maharjan have traditionallyFoundation (NGO) was trying to create a new town

worked in agriculture, but now they have no

by paying for a portion of the reconstruction costs

dedicated farmers and have sold most of their land

and attempting to attract tourists to P Tole. Theor built new houses there, leaving little land forfirst floor of each house is a craft shop or café; thefarming. Usually, most of the people in this area farmsecond floor is a space for guest rooms for tourists;

only for their own consumption. At present, the mostand the third and fourth floors are the owner’s living

common profession in P Tole is making hand crafted

quarters. Room reservations are handled by a central

Buddha statues and to work in offices. In recent

office that arrange an accommodation for guests to ayears, the number of young people studying abroad

guest house. This is to ensure that every guest houseand working abroad have increased a lot.

has an equal chance to have guests. The aim is to

P Tole was the worst affected area of Patan in thegive all residents equal work opportunity. Initially,

Great Nepal Earthquake, with 60% of homes were

the plan was to build 82 project houses (7 chokes),collapsed and inhabitants were unable to live in their

but the number of houses increased to 87 because thehouses. However, no one was died directly from thelarge number of applications were submitted. This

earthquake, but two people were died due to theproject was set to be completed within three years.

shock of such a traumatic event.
The biggest problem in the post-disasterc. Activities of the women’s S.H.O. in P Tole

community was that there were many poor people

The women’s S.H.O. in P Tole has 110 members,

living in houses that had collapsed so badly due towho pay 220 rupees a month (200 rupees are athe earthquake, they could not afford to rebuild theirdeposit, 20 rupees are a donation to the Tole). Whenhomes once again. Some inhabitants have given up

the earthquake occurred, they cleaned the rubble off

in rebuilding their homes and gone back hometown

the road so that people could pass through. Every30

day since the start of the project, from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m.,

yet to establish cultural norms for dividing a guest

they helped with the manual labor of reconstruction

house. Some families have decided that one siblingand provided food and drinks to the people working

will become the owner of the guest house while theon the site. At first, there were many volunteers, butother siblings will receive a portion of the house’safter a year and a half, the men gradually stopped

original value or future earnings from the guest

coming to the site because they were busy withhouse.

because Tole leaders are worried that the labor force
would be reduced and as a result the construction
period would be extended further.
According to my fieldwork, I have conducted in
November 2018, S.H.O. members have been training
for three months in Newar dance and traditional
instruments for tourism shows. These dances are tobe performed for guests in restaurants and stages in

Figure 5. Scenery during a breakin construction work in P Tole
(April 27th, 2018 photographed by the author)

P Tole guest houses. In the fall of 2019, the women
performed dances, which they had mastered.

Ⅵ Conclusion：
Examination
This paper, through fieldwork, has shown how thecivil reconstruction process in Patan has been carriedout since the Great Nepal earthquake and how
women’s self-help organizations have been involved in
Figure 4. Members of women’s S.H.O. in P Tole
(November 18th, 2018 photographed by the author)

the reconstruction process. The Nepalese government
mainly focused on the more severely damaged
suburbs of Kathmandu. Therefore, in the Patan,d. Project Issues

public assistance was insufficient. For an example,

What is currently a problem is the financial

the government did not create enough temporarydifficulties of residents engaged solely in agricultural

housing for victims in Patan. For this reason, theactivities. These residents can borrow funds, but

residents independently took the lead role for thetheir ability to repay the loan is in question.

community reconstruction activities. In this paper,

There is a consensus that division of property will

the Jyapu settlements were examined, along with the

be a major problem in the near future. In Newarrole of women’s S.H.O.s in the N Tole’s “Diversified

culture, when it comes to the division of property,

management” project and the P Tole’s “New town

a wall is built to divide the house equally amongst

planning utilizing Newar tradition” project. The

sons, so it becomes a narrow house. Houses are being

farmer caste was chosen because women in this area

rebuilt the same size as before the earthquake, so thehave so far been the most active in women’s S.H.O.s

sizes of rooms vary depending on the house. In theand they are also active in reconstruction.

future, when it comes to divide the property, there

Both the N and P communities started tourism

will be an issue like who will get the guest room. As

venture after the disaster. These reconstruction

guest houses are a new concept, Newar people haveefforts are aimed at creating jobs for all community
31

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

work. The women’s labor has thus become invaluablemembers and reshaping life in the N and P

One of the reasons women were able to participate incommunities. It is noteworthy that women’s points ofrecovery is that women’s S.H.O.s have improved theirview are included in reconstruction. For an example,

organizational management skills and other abilities

in N Tole, women supported the idea of a senior day

through various activities over many years.
In this paper, the role of women’s self-helporganizations in reconstruction was discussed.

falls to the women in the family, but it is very tiring

Reconstruction aimed at tourism has provoked

and time-consuming work. Having a day care service

instances of what can be termed “remaking andhelps the women to take care of their elderly family

creating culture”. For an example, guest rooms formembers while freeing them to work outside theforeigners feature different ceiling heights, Western-home. The equality of all community members isstyle toilets, curtains and beds, in order to fulfill

here emphasized.

the need and requirement of the foreign customers.

earn money. Care for elderly family members usually

As the “Disaster and Gender” (Enarson 2000,

There are also several unsolved issues, such as how

Tsunozaki 2007) study pointed out, during natural

to divide the guest rooms into property in terms ofdisaster, women are likely to be vulnerable and belegal condition. In the future, I would like to address

10

unable to access to relief supplies because of theirand analyze those unsolved issues from the viewpointlack of education and social rights. Even in Patan,of tourist anthropology.

号（２０２１）『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

care service because they want to work in order tothe family responsibilities and roles in the home

Referencesthat women had before the disaster were amplified
and expanded by the occurrence of disasters andemergencies, thus confining them to their homes.
The women’s S.H.O. was able to do almost nothing
for roughly a year. However, over a year later, finally

Enarson, Elaine.
2000

Programme on Crisis Response andwomen were able to begin their work outside theReconstruction no.1. International Labour
Organization.

home as S.H.O. members. In N Tole, the women’s
S.H.O. had played a central role in reconstruction,using buildings, human resources, and unique culturesin the community to plan for sustainable tourism, andGender and Natural Disasters : Infocus

Gellner, David N.
1993

Monk, Householder, and Tantric Priest.
Newar Buddhism and its Hierarchy ofgradually rebuild. The project is underway.

Ritual. Cambridge University Press

In addition, in P Tole, using the empty space of1976“Intra-Caste Organization in a Newari
Village: phuki and sana guthi” (inthe Disaster Prevention Center as day care for theJapanese) Minzokugaku kenkyu. 40, pp.

elderly on a daily basis is a unique idea from the271-298, Japanese Society of Cultural

perspective of women at home. Men who work

Anthropology

outside during the day cannot run a day care, andwomen are often engaged in the area of care athome. As women already possess the knowledge

Maharjan, Keshav L.
2002“Katomanzu Kinkou no Toshi Furontia:
Patan Shi no Machikeisei wo Jirei ni

and ability to take care of elderly people. Therefore,[Urban Frontier of Kathmandu Valley: A

it was very easy for them to gain the required very

Case Study of Patan City (The Frontier in
Comparative Perspective)]” (in Japanese).

little training.

Mita Gakkai Zasshi. 95(2), pp. 221-240, Keio

In Patan, women’s S.H.O.s, established in the 1990s

Universityand 2000s, have gained organizational management
skills through the experience of women’s activities
and have expanded their social roles in communities.
32

Takeuchi, Ai.
2012“A case study of the social impacts of theactivities of Newar farmer caste women,
through women’s self-help organizations“Misa Pucha” in Nepal”. Hikaku
Mainoritigaku [Comparative Minoritology].
3, pp. 91-110, Association of Comparative
Minoritology
2018“Neparu Daijishin no fukkoukatei ni

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquakearawarerujyenda-Patan no N toru wo
jirei toshite [ (Gender roles in the processof reconstruction of the 2015 Nepal
earthquake-A case study of N tole in
Patan) ]” (in Japanese). Autres. 9, pp. 71-88.
CREA
Tsunozaki, Etsuko.
2007“Tojyoukoku ni okeru saigai tojyenda[(Disasters and Gender indeveloping countries)]” (in Japanese).
Oyane, Jyun /Urano, Masaki /Tanaka,
Jyun /Yoshii, Hiroaki (ed.) Shinsai・fukkou
no shakaigaku, pp. 229-236. Koubundo

Yamagami, Aki.
2001

“Kegare ni matsuwaru kannen to sono
shosou-nepa-ru bafun no shisen[ (On the
Nortion of Impurity in Various Aspects:
A case Study of the Nepal- Bahun) ]” (inJapanese) Seikei Jinbunkenkyu. 9, pp. 111155. Journal of the Graduate School of
Humanities of Seikei University

2008“Kome no Syouchousei- Neparu shakai
niokeru jyou/fujyoukannnenn wochuushinn ni[ (Symbolism of rice: conceptsof purity and impurity in the Newarsociety of Nepal) ]” (in Japanese) Seikei
University Center for Asian and PacificStudies. 33, pp. 59-78. Seikei University33

論文 Article

Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

EtsukoSHIMOMOTO *This paper describes Waju as a specific Disaster Prevention Method by local
residents. Waju is a society surrounded by a ring-shape embankment that protects thevillage or fields at Nobi plain from the floods of the 3 rivers, Kiso river, Nagara river,and Ibi river.

10

号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Waju：

Traditionally, residents have been using rich water for transportation and fishing, but
at the same time the rich water causes floods. The knowledge of living in Waju is thewisdom needed to enjoy the rich waters and be safe from floods.
One good example is the Juroku Waju case in Ogaki city Gifu. It is a community
where residents use water together, share a sense of danger of flood risk, and feelthe World of Water. The technologies of water usage are directly related to the floodprevention, and the technology of controlling water is connected to the God of Water
and its ritual.
Disaster prevention is not only a special technology for the resident of Waju, but also
it is related to their daily life. This local disaster prevention will show us the method ofliving with natural disasters in our daily life.

目次 Contents

Keywords

Ⅰ

Introduction

Waju

Ⅱ

The History of Waju

Ⅲ

Water use and flood control in Juroku

Water Use
Flood Prevention
God of water

Waju
Ⅳ Vernacular technology and Ethos of thecommunity
Ⅴ Conclusions

Local Technology

34

Ⅰ

Introduction

consider following government hazard maps andevacuation advisories as disaster prevention.［Katada

1-1 Challenges of preventing
disasters in modern Japan

2012：38-52］Such situations may lead to delayed

What are the necessary things in order to live

about natural disasters is not enough to realize truly

with natural disasters? Mechanism knowledge of

proactive disaster prevention. So we cannot say thatthe occurring disasters, education to convey the

we are living with natural disasters. The important

experience, technology to reduce the damage,thing is that each element becomes meaningful andcommunity collaborations, and disaster prevention

systematic wisdom is applied in our daily life. Whatplans, etc. Perhaps, the essentials of all thesekind of life is that? In this paper, I am going to report

elements, and most importantly, these elements area case study about Waju, which has historicallyconnected, and it is what is being practiced in one’s

created a mechanism for living with natural disasters.

The Japanese archipelago is a natural-disasterIn other words, providing knowledge and services

1-2 What is Waju?

prone area all over the world. Every year,“Wa” means a “circle, ring, surround”, “and Ju

earthquakes, typhoons, heavy rains occur anywhere“means “inside, community”. The word Waju is a

in Japan. From time to time, we get disasterconventional term with multiple meanings. Waju is

information through media. Evacuation drills aredefined as mental equipment and social aspects.

conducted in schools every year. Disaster researchgroups are also doing their best. Advanced civilengineering techniques are also developed. The
administration encouraged the formation of a

1. It is a ring-shape embankment surrounding thehouses and cultivated land in the floodplain
2. It is a community that protects properties fromflood damages in a ring-shape embankment“voluntary disaster prevention organization” in local[Ando 1988：10-12] [Ito 1979：19].

residents. Various elements to overcome the disaster

Examples similar to Waju can be seen inseem to be fully aligned.

the Ganges Brahmaputra Plains and Polder in

However, disaster prevention measures in Japan

Netherlands. In Japan, such society was formed incannot be said to be satisfactory. Katada who is an

the lower tone river basin of Kanto plain and lower

excellent disaster prevention educator pointed out

Kiso River basin in Nobi plain. This paper focuses

that: since the people depend only on the government

on people living in a society called Waju, which waswhen it comes to disaster prevention, they have lost

formed in the lower Kiso river basin of the Nobi

their own initiatives in preventing disasters. One

plain.

example is flood control; in Japan, river embankments

The people in Waju have created a deep connection

have been developed to withstand the heavy rainwith the waters during the repeated floods in history.

that occurs once every 100 years. As a result, floods

They have sought ways to use water and prevent

have been reduced and minor floods are no longer

floods at the same time. We can learn the wisdom

an issue. This is a great achievement, but at theof living with natural disasters according to theirsame time, we have become vulnerable to disasters

lifestyle.

by leaving personal security to the government andmanaging disaster prevention. Advances in disaster
preparedness have increased social and humanvulnerability. Those who lost their initiatives just

1-3 Research history
of Waju

There is some research conducted about Waju

*Nihon Fukushi University

35

Waju: Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

individuals’ life.

evacuations and more damages.

in 1930. We can read the actual history of the Waju

of the past?

region from this research. Research on Waju began

1-4 The uniquenessof Juroku Waju

due to society’s interest in flood issues. [Nakazawa
1936, Matsuo 1939] In 1929, a conflict between the

In these circumstances, Juroku Waju is in aunique position. Juroku Waju is located in Juroku

Jiken”). The Academic attention was turned into

town, Ogaki city, Gifu prefecture, and still maintains

Waju, the special society that caused the conflict,

the Waju embankment.

improvement led to the dispatch of troops (“Saikawa

Since WW2, research papers on Waju havechanges in land use and living spheres, flood control,increased. The main approach was geography andagricultural ritual, etc. [Gifu College of Economics

agriculture. Many Waju studies at that time included

Regional Economic Research 1983]. The report

keywords such as “land improvements” [Sirai 1964,

notes that the land improvement and economic

Kawamoto 1967, Oomot 1975]. The background of thedevelopment have changed the livelihoods and land

problem, you can see that there is an interest on how

usage, but flood control activities and rituals have10

to modernize the Waju area. The Waju area, which

been maintained.

号（２０２１）『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

upstream and downstream inhabitants over the river

rural economists and local influential people wrote
books about Waju.

In the 1980s, Gifu College of Economics conductedjoint research on Juroku Waju, reporting on history,

has a lot of floods but rich in water, has the potential

In “Transforming Waju” 1996, Yasuda, a local

for a granary. As part of the postwar increasing

historian, introduced a case study of Juroku Waju. He

production policy, Waju got the attention. Since then,introduces the activities of flood control and religion

flood damage was reduced, and land improvementof water god, and points out that the high awarenesshas progressed rapidly.

of flood control is maintained.

While the Waju area has been changing in thisIn 2008, the Sociology Laboratory of Nagoya

way, social sciences became interested in Waju’s

University reported “Reconstruction of Water

unique society increased. Ando and Ito systematicallyEnvironment: Case of Ogaki City”. In this report,

clarified the characteristics of Waju’s history and life

Juroku Waju is positioned as an area to maintain theculture from a vast amount of data and fieldwork

community of Waju compared to the urban area of​​

[Ando1975, Ando 1988, Ito 1979]. This valuable

Ogaki City.

research conducted while Waju was changing is still
the basic literature for learning Waju.

These studies emphasizes that while the entire
Waju region is developing, traditional mechanisms

And as Japan’s economy progresses, so does Waju
in Ito’s “Transforming Waju” published in 1996, it isare maintained in Juroku Waju. Juroku Waju is “theWaju” that exists in modern times.

reported that the elucidated characteristics of Waju

I have been doing fieldwork around the Juroku

have been transformed and lost. It is a complete

Waju since 2009 to explore the relationship of thetransformation, not only its infrastructures, such as

peoples in the waters of Waju. I wanted to see notlandscapes and river flows but also from residents’

only the flood but also their whole relationship withawareness.

the water. There are three perspectives: (1) how they

The decreased in Waju’s research since then may

have been using the water, (2) how it is associatednot be unrelated to the loss of Waju properties. Mr.

with flood control, and (3) how spiritual values for

Ito points out that the flood damage in 1976 raisedwater are expressed. The content of this report isawareness of flood control again, but 50 years havebased on my doctoral article published in 2015.

passed since then. More people in the Waju area have

In the following, after describing the history of

not experienced floods. Will this Waju be the legacy

the entire Waju area (Chapter 2), we will examine36the actual conditions of water use and flood control
in the Juroku area (Chapter 3) and discuss its

These lands were not developed until the 17th
century due to floods during heavy rain.
Ando speculates that the first Waju was formed inhere, I would like to discover a concrete image ofNobi Plain in the early 17th century [Ando 1988：320]

living with natural disasters.

. Since then, development has progressed in the 19th

Ⅱ The History of Waju

century. There are two reasons why the developmentof Waju has progressed in the 17th century.
1. The civil engineering technology was developed.

2-1 The Birth of Waju

2. It is necessary to develop newly cultivated lands.

First, let’s discuss the history and background of

Figure 3, right side, is a model of a developmental

Waju in Nobi Plain. The Nobi Plain is located in theprocess in Waju. The Waju was formed during

central part of Japan. The Kiso River, Nagara River,the process of “partial embankment” to “ringand Ibi River flow. These three rivers are collectively

embankment” development. A partial embankment

known as “Kiso-sansen”. The Waju is located in

is an embankment to prevent water from flowing

the downstream area of Kiso-sansen. Its range isto the upstream. The direct hit of the flood can beapproximately 1800 square kilometers (Figure 1).

avoided, but the water can still slowly enter from theAt present, Kiso-sansen is divided into three rivers,

downstream.

but it was man-made only. On the left side of Figure

The next step was to construct a ring-shape

2 is the Kiso-sansen drawn in 1754. It is shown thatembankment to prevent water from entering thesansen is connected by a tributary and flows like adownstream side. This will allow all the lands withinmesh. Many sandbanks were created like an island.

the embankment to be developed as paddy fields andFigure 1. Kiso-sansen in Nobi plain
37

Waju: Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

characteristics. Perform an analysis (Chapter 4). From

『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Figure 2.
『Satsumahan-Otetsudai-Bushin-Mokuromi- Ezu』
[Yoshioka 1986:13]
Figure 3.
The Stages of Waju’s development[Based on Ando1988：19]

38

making a waterway sluice gate to drain the water

1600 to 1900 is shown. The green line showsin the embankment. In this way, a typical Waju has

the Waju embankment. During the first fifty years

been developed.

of the 17th century, Waju developed significantly in

2-2 The Development ofWaju

the delta area, which was previously undeveloped
at zero meters above sea level. Over the next fifty
years, floodplains will gradually develop. In thisarea, which consists of the natural embankment andrich water while preventing floods. The downstream

back swamp, it is probable that the construction ofarea of Kiso-sansen is rich in water. Therefore,

the Waju embankment made it possible to use themany waterside cultures flourished. Such as waterback swamp. Waju’s development in the 18th century

transportation, rice cultivation in waterways, river

was slower than the 17th century. However, it can befishing, original river fish dishes, etc. And also

seen that the alluvial was developed without the needgroundwater is abundant. There are many flowing

for Waju embankment. The reason why Waju waswells where the water continues to spring.

formed in the alluvial area is that the flood damage

However, the development of Waju causedin the entire area increased due to the development

some water problems. In Figure4 a diagram ofof the downstream area. And then Waju will expand

the developmental process every 50 years from

into the sea through reclamation and it will be

Figure 4. Development history of Waju [Based on Ando 1988]

39

Waju: Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

The Waju has made it possible for residents to useformed from the small remaining lands.

demolished for land development and road

However, thorough Waju development has brought『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

maintenance.

more negative aspects than the benefits of water.

Residents have lost the environment surrounded

The development of Waju without gaps eliminatedby a ring-shaped embankment. It is no wonder thatthe flood control basins where floods could freely

as flood damage decreases, industrial structures

enter. In addition, sedimentation had progressed due

and motorization changes, the social significance ofto the fixed river channels, and the riverbed had aa community that lives and protects property fromhigher elevation than the land, and the river had

flood damage in a ring-shaped embankment has also

become a ceiling river.

been lost.

Due to these effects, it is difficult to drain out
the water inside the Waju and flood always stays
inside. This situation accelerates as the number of
Waju increases. As a result, floods occur frequently
and caused bigger damage. Rice harvest has been
reduced due to floods. Waju was supposed to becreated to increase rice fields but instead, it was
reduced. This was the contradiction in the circle.

2-3 The Declining of Waju
In the late 19th century, flood damage in thelower Kiso-sansen was severe. Therefore, it wasnecessary to stabilize the flow of the whole river at
the national level, instead of small-scale renovation
work for each area as before. It is a project to makethe water flow to the sea promptly by separating
Kiso-sansen and straightening the river. However,
it is not easy to divert the huge Kiso-sansen. Civil
engineering technology brought from the Westduring the Meiji era made it possible. As a result of

Figure 5.『Santaiga-SuiribunryuKaisyukeiryaku-Zenzu』[Yoshioka 1986:23]

the construction work from 1887 to 1911, the Kiso,

In such situation, the complete ring-shaped

Nagara, and Ibi rivers became independent rivers

embankment in Juroku Waju is maintained up to

and transformed into straight-running rivers (Figure

the present. Why is that so? How are they balancing

5). This drastically improved water stagnation in thewater use with flood control? In the next chapter, welower Kiso Mikawa basin.

will focus on the Juroku Waju.

Kiso-sansen diversion also means no use for Waju
anymore, When the river itself became straight, thering-shaped embankment was cut off.
Furthermore, river renovation started in 1927 tostrengthen the river embankment in the Kiso-sansen.
The introduction of an electric drainage machine
reduced the flood damage in the Waju area.

Ⅲ Water use andflood control
in Juroku Waju
3-1 The Declining of Waju

The need for Waju embankment has diminished,

The reason why Juroku Waju maintains its Waju

and the remaining Waju embankment has been

embankments according to the water environment40

in the 19th century. However, a land improvement

the Alluvial fan. It is known for its self-injecting

project that began in 1954 included a plan to build

groundwater springs below the end of the Alluvial inan embankment on the right bank of the Otani River

the Nobi Plain. In recent years, the area has shrunk,to develop the western part of the Otani River into

but Ogaki City is still famous for its self-injecting

farmland. At that time, there was the opposition who

groundwater. Juroku Waju is not exempted. The

is eliminating the flood control basin would create aquantity is small, but some people come to fetch

flood risk. In order to respond to that opinion, a weir

quality water from a distance.

was built on the right bank of the Otani River [Gifu

Focus on the water environment of Juroku Waju.

Prefecture 2004: 5].

Juroku Waju is located at the junction of the Otani

Ai River and Otani River are at risk of causing

River and Ai River tributaries of the Ibi river (Fig.

floods in Juroku Waju. In the Ai River and Otani

6). Otani River has a “weir”. Weir reduces the risk ofRiver, the water volume tends to rise rapidly because

the embankment to collapse by making a part of thethe distance from the water source to the junction isembankment lower than the surrounding area so thatshort. Because it is a small tributary, it cannot flow

the river overflows when the amount of water in thesmoothly under the influence of the Ibi River, whichriver exceeds a certain amount. In other words, thehas a large flow. There is no place for the water towestern part of the Otani River is a basin for watergo, causing flood damage.

to escape when the Otani River rises.

The worst damage to the Waju is the broken

There was a historical background to the factembankment of the Ai River. Historically, Ai

that the weir was built here. The Otani River wasRiver embankment has been broken many times.

originally a river without an embankment, and at the

According to the records, it has been broken 14 times

time, the area was flooded with water. In the 17th

between 138 years from 1815 to 1953, and it has been

century, Waju embankment was built along the river

broken once every 10 years. After it was damaged

in the eastern part of the Otani River to preventin 1953, Ai River embankment was reinforced andfloodwater intrusion. In other words, there was an

repaired between 1959 and 1964. Since then, Ai Riverembankment only on the left bank of the Otani River.

embankment has not been broken. Flood damage

Since then, the Otani River flood has only flooded

has been reduced by river improvements as in otherthe western basin. The situation did not changeeven if Juroku Waju built the Waju embankment

Waju areas.
However, the eastern part of Juroku Waju is still aflood control basin and the riskof flooding continues. Sixteen
overflows have occurred since
the weir was created in 1959
[Gifu Prefecture 2004: 5]. Photo 1
shows the most recent flood that
overflowed from Otani river weirin 2004. A large area of ​​178ha
was flooded in the Arasaki areaof ​​Ogaki city. However, there
was no major damage during
Juroku Waju because the water
was prevented from flowing in

Figure 6. Water environment in Juroku Waju

41

by the Waju embankment. It

Waju: Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

Juroku Waju is a small Waju located at the end of

『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Figure 7. Overflowed from Otani River in 2004[Asia Air Survey Co.,Ltd.]means that Waju embankment worked completely.
After that, the weir was raised by 1.05 meters
by renovation work in 2007. After this construction,

and an aging population as is the case in Japan asa whole. They belong to a community sharing oncommon destiny for floods.

no overflow has occurred from the weir to date.

In Juroku town, there are six groups called

However, as long as there is a weir, the risk

“Seko”, which divides the settlements into parcels.

continues. Waju embankments are still needed toRepresentatives from each Seko gather to form

prevent flood damage.

the Juroku town residents’ association. Residents’

3-2 History and Society

association and Seko are the basic structure ofself-governing in Juroku town. Each Seko has a

The village of Juroku Waju has a long history.

designated person in charge of accounting, “Nengyoji”,

However, Waju embankment was built in the“Suibo (flood control officer)”, “Bosai (disasterlatter half of the 19th century. The reason for theprevention officer)”, and “Kairyo-kumiai (improvement

construction of Waju embankment is probably due

cooperatives officer)”. Nengyoji is a leader whoto the development of the downstream area, whichis responsible for information transmission andincreased the impact of flood damage. It is recorded

shrine rituals. Suibo corresponds to flood and Bosai

that it was difficult to negotiate with the surrounding

corresponds to earthquake and fire. Kairyo-kumiai isvillages when constructing a new embankment

responsible for agricultural production. In this way,

because the risk of flooding the surrounding villages

the autonomous organizations in Juroku town are

increases when a new embankment is constructed.

united in autonomy, security, religion, and livelihood.

There are approximately 160 households and 500

96% of the arable land area in Juroku Waju are rice

people living in Juroku town. Ogaki city’s population

fields. Historically, rice cultivation has been their mainincreased significantly during the economic growth

livelihood. It’s one of their satisfactions to produce

period of the 1970s and 1980s. However, in Juroku

lots of rice. In order to keep the residents in line withtown, there was an influx of population from outside,

the use of water agriculture, the Kairyo-kumiai willsuch as the construction of two apartment houses,

set the date for starting the irrigation, pest control,

but the number is small. It can be seen that theand rice planting. Rice farmers must adhere to these

traditional settlement size is maintained. However,common rules.

at present, the number of people per household isdecreasing. They are facing a declining birth rate

42

In the past, everyone goes to the rice field before
dawn to plant rice earlier than anyone.

However, even in Juroku Waju, the changes in themaking a hole in the Waju embankment, which

industrial structure has encouraged the residents to

weakens the embankment and causes a high risk

move away from rice cultivation. Making rice in smallof flood damage. However, the water flowing fromrice fields like Juroku Waju does not make enoughthe mountains are rich in nutrients and suitable formoney. By walking through Juroku Waju, you canagriculture. In addition, the amount of water is larger

see the whole rice field scenery. However, it is kept

than other water sources.
The underground water is a convenient water

fields.

source that keeps on springing when you dig, but it

3-3 Water use

has a low temperature, so it needs to be heated to
be used for agriculture. Also, once you dig, water

Some water resources have been used inwill spring continuously, and the soil will be loose,

Juroku Waju. The water of Ai River (Figure

therefore, caution is needed when using underground8-1), groundwater (Figure 8-2), flowing from thewater. In addition, groundwater that springs invillage upstream called Otare(Figure 8-3), and the

Juroku Waju has different water quality depending

waterworks that come through water pipes(Figureon the area. There are areas where clear water

8-4).

springs and areas where red “Sob-mizu” containing

Each has its own water properties orcharacteristics.

iron is springing. Both can be used for agricultural

For example, Ai River’s water was taken bywater, but Sob-mizu is not suitable for domestic

Figure 8. Water resources
1. River water, 2. Underground water,
3. Otare, 4. Water works.
43

Waju: Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

by only a few inhabitants entrusted with the rice

water.

For domestic water use, flowing well has been

Otare is the least flooding water. However, theuseful for a long time, later on, waterworks wasamount of water is not strong because it flows fromintroduced in 1950. Until today, they are using both.

the neighboring village.

In this way, water usage is directly linked totechnological evolution. For example, the technique ofdrawing water from the river over the embankment,of this is that water can now be controlled only by aand the technique of digging well was special. In

faucet. The amount of water is abundant.

addition, the introduction of electric pumps used forand public agricultural water resources. One example

10

Afterward, the amount of groundwater decreased;

Even if the form of water usage was changed,

therefore the electricity was applied to wells. The

there are parts that cannot be changed. One iswaters from Ai River has not been used since 1953

the joint management of irrigation water. Unlike

after the embankment was destroyed by the flood.

irrigation water that can be used for each house,

Instead, since the year 2000, public agricultural water

irrigation water is directly linked to the flow of water.

was introduced.

It is performed as follows.

号（２０２１）『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

Modern technology gave benefits to waterworks

Different water resources in Juroku Waju havegathering more water from the well, waterworks,changed overtimes. Figure 9 is a chart that sorts the

public agricultural water resources is all majorwater types used in Juroku Waju by time-based onchanges. So it is said that water is more comfortableinterviews and pictures.

and easier to control. Although comfortable water

In the past, it seems that the water resources

resources are available, they are still using multiple

used for agriculture came from Otare, Ai River, andwater sources. The reason behind this is not clear,wells. Since digging well techniques were introduced

but it seems that using many options could help

in the 18th century, the number of wells increases.

lower the risk of flood and control water away.

Figure 9. Changes of water use
44

At present, the common water irrigation system indrills for flood damages(Figure 12-1). Mowing of the

Juroku Waju used for agriculture is the water fromembankments(Figure 12-2). Cleaning waterways in

Otare, electric well and public agricultural water.

Waju (Figure 12-3). It is a duty of all households.
When the flood risk increases, do the following:side of Waju. After opening the intake, close the

The flood season is the season for rice cultivation,waterway gate and open the rice field intake andso the water in Waju is drained. Judging from thefill the rice field with water. After enough water

water level of the river and the amount of rainfall,

was accumulated, fill up the next rice field. In thisresidents are dispatched. The first dispatch will be

way, water is passed from the high lands to thethe residents’ association member and “Nengyoji” oflow lands in Juroku Waju. During the rice planting

each Seko, the second dispatch will be a Suibo (flood

season, the whole Juroku Waju is filled with water.

control officer) of each Seko, and the third dispatch

Thus, the irrigation system is implemented with thewill be one man from every house. They go to thecooperation of the residents.

embankment place assigned for each team, check

3-4 Flood control
Next, I will discuss the resident’s initiatives during
floods. What are the preparations of each household
for flood risk?

and look around and pile up sandbags on dangerous
places and keep monitoring the place. This vigilanceis prioritized over work regardless of occupation.
In this way, the residents are using water andcontrolling floods in Juroku Waju. By knowing the

Daily preparation is as follows: In order to prevent

characteristics, nature of water and cooperation

submerging into water, houses are built in a stoneof the residents, the effectiveness of water control

basement. In wealthy houses, shelters are built ontechnology will increase. Although the burden on thehigher land with stone walls. It is called “Mizuya”.

residents is large, it is a rational mechanism.

(Figure 10) The evacuation boats lifted under theeaves are called “Agebune”(Figure 11).

Figure 10. Mizuya

Figure 11. Agebune

When the flood is rising, do the following: Bring up
the home appliances and assets to the second floor.
This action is called “Mizukatazuke”. And preparation
for black-out or if the gas supply has stopped, people
keep emergency food, cook rice.
What are the preparations for flood in a Waju unit?

Figure 12. Preparations for flood in a Waju unit
1. Disaster prevention drill,
2. Mowing, 3. Cleaning waterways

3-5 Oral traditions and rituals
related to the waters
In addition, there are many oral traditions andrituals related to the waters of Juroku Waju. EachFi r st of a l l , t here is a n a n nua l event a s aritual and oral tradition accurately represents the

preparation for flood control. Disaster prevention

characteristics and natures of water and it is an
45

Waju: Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

These intakes are located on the high northwest

annual event for the residents.
Looking at the Fiture 13-1 drawn in the Edo period,
we can see the water is close to the shrine. This issimilar to the current “Otare”. This shrine is the mostimportant among the Juroku Waju. So, we can say『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10that the shrine was built at the location of the oldest
water source. From this, we can understand theimportance of this water source.
Ai River has another name called “Arakure-gawa(Rough river)”, an uncontrollable river. It’s because thewater here suddenly increases and the embankment
breaks down. There is a water god shrine on theembankment of Ai River (Fiture 13-2). The locationof the shrine tells the point that have a big risk,
and also a ritual is held every year during the flood
season. In this way, residents can remember the risk
on Ai River and recognize the dangerous places.
Juroku Waju has many flowing wells, among which
is a legendary well-known to have been dug by afamous monk with magical power (Fiture 13-3). This
well was so famous that it was written in the Edo
period local magazine as a “well that never dries”. It
is not just this special well that has an oral tradition
associated with it. It is said that there is a water god
in the flowing well. Because of this, the well shouldn’t
be filled up with water to keep space for God’s
blessings. In fact, if you fill up a well that has beendug, there is a possibility that the land might collapse.
Although it is different from the direct water
source, rituals are also held on Waju embankment. It
is a monumental ritual that recorded the name of thepredecessor who built an embankment by struggling
with conflicts with the surrounding villages (Fiture13-4). After the ritual, they clean the waterway. The
residents confirm the importance of the embankmentand collaborating on water control.
As mentioned above, each oral traditions andrituals teach the nature of water that has different
characteristics, and its importance.
Figure 13. Ritual and oral tradition
1. Oldest water source,
2. Water god shrine,
3. Living a water god well46

through active involvement. A Fudo is a word that
expresses “the relationship of society to the earth.” In
the Fudo world, the environment is not just material.
Everything has a meaning and every place has
been given a human value.
In Juroku Waju there are two aspects, the world
two complement each other without contradictions.
In this way, the technology used for water and flood
damage prevention in Juroku Waju, is unique andlocal.
To emphasize these non-generalized technologies
rooted in the locality, Rudolfsky and Illichi used theconcept of “vernacular”. It is born under the “human
Figure 13. Ritual and oral tradition
4. Monumental ritual

Ⅳ Vernaculartechnology andEthos of thecommunity

life that is self-supporting, non-marketable, reciprocaland embedded in life”. It is to be distinguished from“human life derived from a uniform and standardized
services and exchanges provided by specialists”.
The Juroku Waju residents are a community thatuses and controls water base on this vernacularworld. And they have the intent to maintain the
structure of such a community. The obligation to“attend all households” to prevent flood and rituals
is a matter of course as a member of Waju. Hereyou can read the internalized ethical orientation,or ethos, that is shared by the inhabitants of Waju
as a member of the community. This ethos is not
an abstract idea, but it is a practice through actual
flood control, water use, rituals, and accumulated
empirically. In addition, it has been inherited
historically, and the people who live today are
positioned as an extension of the history of thecommunity.

Figure 14. Vernacular technology
These oral traditions and rituals are based on theirwater control experience.

Ⅴ Conclusions
So far, we have seen how the Juroku Waju

In other words, they discover the nature andpeople made their living with water. The two major

characteristics of water, understand it, and express

characteristics of their lives are: First, using water

it symbolically. In particular, it seems the partevery day is connected to flood control. Second,that cannot be controlled by human technology istechnology and worldviews are connected.

expressed as “God”.

Waju is a community that shares “rich water

The philosophers Tetsuro Watsuji and Berqueuse”, “flood control risk”, and the “worldview ofcalled it “Fudo” to see the world as “something”

the divine water”. Actual use of water and flood
47

Waju: Ethos for Water Use and Flood Control

of Fudo and the world of function and material. The

『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

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10

control technologies are linked to the world of water

prevention, thorough “vernacularism” and “everyday

including its divinity, also water control technologies

practice” will be an absolute basis. How to design

and water divinity are fused. This is the unique

technology created from universal laws as vernacularcomposition of Waju, which has both the risk andtechnology? And, how do you apply it to yourfear of flooding and abundant water resources.

everyday practice? This wisdom will be needed

Water, a natural thing, is beyond human control.
You can get benefits from it, and you may suffer aby the local residents when considering disasterprevention in the future.

disaster. You need to know the nature of water tocontinually derive benefits and minimize disaster.

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traditions or rituals, and indigenous technologies

Ando, Masuo（ed）.
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Kokon Syoin.

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the Waju system is not easy to maintain in today’s
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be able to learn this Waju knowledge for the future
rather than considering it as “old wisdom.”

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Translated by Nakayama, Gen.Chikuma
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Introduction to “Fudo”; Bring Culture Backto Nature, Nature Back to Culture ,Tokyo,

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論文『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

ArticleCatastrophic Disaster Causing Separation ofCulture and Loss of History:
Museum Activities by University
Students for “Build Back Better” of Local Culture

Koji

KATO *In the Great East Japan Earthquake, the tsunami triggered by the earthquake caused
serious damage in the coastal area of Tohoku. The disaster caused damage not only tohumans, but also to many collections of historical, cultural and natural value stored bymuseums. Under the Cultural Assets Rescue Program, restoration efforts were madeat more than 50 sites in Miyagi Prefecture alone. As a curator of the Tohoku Gakuin
University Museum, I have been engaged in rescue, treatment, and classification ofarchaeological, ethnographical and geographical artifacts, old documents, and historicresearch data together with our university students.
Today, residents of the tsunami-hit region are clearly expressing their longing forthe image of their past daily lives. This is because these residents cannot feel thesense of time of the past, present and future about their hometown in the processof restoration through which their community landscape is changing drastically. In
addition, construction works to raise the ground level are underway to establish a safer
community, but there is a delay in construction. In such situation, the residents are
beginning to lose even their memories of the past scenery of their hometown.
For people who have decided to continue living in the tsunami-hit area, the separationof their culture and the loss of their history as a result of the catastrophic disaster areserious problems. It is of course the issue of local residents, and it is also the issue of
ethnographer. People are trying to find meaning in the past, find connection to thepresent, and draw a near-future vision of their community. I believe that it is importantfor cultural property rescue and museum activities efforts to contribute to ensuringthat many more local cultural resources are utilized than had been before the disaster,and to serve as opportunities to identify and discover new cultural resources. I call thisapproach “Build Back Better” of culture.

Keywords
Great East Japan Earthquake
Museum Activities
Folklore Research
Local History and Culture

目次 Contents

Ⅰ

Introduction

Ⅱ

Museum Activities and Folklore Research
for the Reconstruction of the Affected
Areas

Ⅲ

Exhibition with Local Residents toRediscover Local History and Culture

Ⅳ Conclusion

Build Back Better50

Ⅰ

Introduction

were deteriorated and damaged so severely thatmany of them no longer retained in their complete
form. To improve this condition, I conductedfrom representing the history and culture in adesalinization and pest control using carbon dioxide,

traditional academic context to creating public space

under the guidance of the National Museum offor social practice by diverse actors. Conceptualizing

Ethnology. The aim of the primary cleaning, is tothe exhibition of culture is closely connected by ourremove the dirt. I took the lead role in providing

understanding of how our society sees itself. It is not

information on the condition of each material and to

our job to represent them. We should rather give

instructing others how to clean those arifacts. Therethem the space to represent themselves. Today, thewere forty students, engaged in the cleaning process

museum is no longer a place to present curatorialat a time.

research results, because more active involvement

During the period of disaster reconstruction, I

in social practice by curators, is one of the social

carefully thought what meaning could be founddemands of museums.

in these objects that would be valuable forIn the Great East Japan Earthquake (2011), thecommunicating local history and culture. Besides

tsunami was triggered by the earthquake that

that, I also thought about the things that disaster

caused serious damage in the coastal area of Tohoku

survivors most want to cherish, and how curators can

Region. At that time, I engaged myself in the rescue

make these things, while encouraging an interactive

activities of cultural property. Talking about these

dialogue.

activities in brief, such as protecting the collections

I thought that rescued artifacts should not beof history, culture and natural sciences documents

returned directly to storage room, but rather should

owned by museums. Many cultural assets andbe shown and displayed to local residents, in ordervaluable museum collections were damaged by theto understand and discuss social practices through a

Great East Japan Earthquake. The Committee for

dialogue involving both citizens and the researchers.

Cultural Assets Rescue program had worked toAlong with university students, I designed exhibition

rescue a wide variety of cultural properties owned

for people to make a conversation on these displayedby the disaster affected museums. More than 50

arifacts and express their true feelings about “whatmuseums and repositories were damaged at athey want to tell” about these rescued artifacts.

time. Immediately, after the earthquake took place,

Then, by using the qualitative data gathered fromTohoku Gakuin University came forward to involvethe interviews, we held discussion with the local

themselves in the project to rescue all the collections

residents and finally we found the theme of ourof disaster affected museums. Then the University

next exhibition. It was an attempt to seek “What do

had accepted an archaeological and folklore collection

they want to talk about next”. We conducted moreof the Ayukawa Repository in Ishinomaki City,

interviews. The exhibition held in the autumn oflocated on the Oshika Peninsula. From the repository

2020, it is the 24th exhibition since the disaster took

center, eight truckloads of artifacts were carried into

place and our rescue activities are still ongoing.

the University campus.

I think that sharing one’s disaster experience inA large amount of severely damaged artifacts hadwords was not an easy task for many survivors. I

cleaned by the university students for two years.

was invited to visit Houston and New Orleans as

Since tsunami-affected cultural assets had been

the hurricane Katrina affected areas to wintness

exposed to the weather for three months until theyvarious survivor’s practices. I think people in thewere rescued by the University, These properties

United States, spoken expression seems to be more

*Musashino Art University

51

Catastrophic Disaster Causing Separation of Culture and Loss of History:
Museum activities by University Students for “Build Back Better” of Local Culture

The role of contemporary museums have changed

the tsunami-hit region are clearly expressing their

However, comparatively in Japan, positive power of

longing for the image of their past daily lives. This

substance and sound seems to be reversed more. I

is because these local residents cannot feel the sense

think we can potentially understand the local cultureof time of the past, present and future about theirof disaster affected areas from material cultural

hometown in the process of recovery through, which

resources in a more effective way.

their community landscape is changing drastically.

Ⅱ Museum Activities
and Folklore
Research for the
Reconstruction of
the Affected Areas
Ayukawa, in Ishinomaki City, is located near theand art works rerated to local culture and Mingu.

tip of the Oshika Peninsula on the Sanriku Coast of

In Japanese folklore study, the tools of folkways are10

the Tohoku Region in Japan It is to be noted thatcalled Mingu, which means materials of common

Ayukawa was the nearest land area to the epicenter

people’s day to day life. At an exhibition, our studentsof the Great East Japan Earthquake (2011). This place

conducted interview to the visitors about their life/

was suffered a devastating damage from the tsunami.

For an example, food, clothing, shelter situations,

Today, ten years since the Earthquake, residents offishing and farming skills, social relationships, families,号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第powerful healing tool rather than material expression.

For people who have decided to continue livingin the tsunami-hit area, as a result of catastrophic
disaster, the separation of their culture and the lossof their history are the serious problems for thesepeople. People are trying to find meaning in the past,find connection to the present, and draw a nearfuture vision of their community.
We exhibited old pictures, old documents, maps

Figure 1. Ayukawa Port (2019)52

kinship and the local community, local folkloristics

mobility. But, in the process of restoration from thebeliefs, annual events as well as many other issues.

Great East Japan Earthquake, life spaces are being

The accumulation of narrative records from local

separated from the seashore, due to the relocation

residents, helped a lot to reveal how they used to liveof their settlements to higher ground areas andin their local community before the tsunami disasteraquaculture is being recommended.

affected their lives.
one of the world’s three best fishing fields. It is tobe noted that this area attracts many whales. Since
it is being used to hunt a wide variety of whales, alarge number of whaling companies were allowed toestablish their offices about 100 years ago. In addition,

Ⅲ Exhibition with
Local Residents toRediscover Local
History and Culture

local land owners also jointly started to invest in

I have introduced some of the exhibitions

coastal whaling and began to hunt minke whales.

organized by University students and local residents.

On the Oshika Peninsula, a rich fishery culture was

Our partner includes temporary shopping street,

formed, whaling, deep-sea fishing (ocean fishing),fishing and whaling companies, community councils

large-scale set-net fishing, aquaculture of oysters,

for revitalizing the town, women’s associations,wakame seaweeds, ascidians etc.

folk performing art groups, local hotel owners,

According to the collective memory of the local
residents, the “golden age” of Ayukawa was fromaround 1955 to 1960, which was the heyday ofschools, welfare facilities for elderly and a working
environment for people with disabilities.

at the tip of the peninsula, the town attracted many

3-1 Topic: People Connected  through Labor

young aspiring people to find jobs there. TheyOne of the world’s top three fishing fields, thedreamed that they could gain an opportunity to

Ishinomaki/Sanriku-Kinkasan is rich in abundant

make big profit, but in reality it was not so easy. In

resources. At this forefront location of modern

those days, people were competing with each otherfishery, residents were brimming with enterprise

to make a fortune through the network, they had

and eager to accept advanced techniques. Many

established while working.

people came to the peninsula to make a good fortune.

commercial whaling and deep-sea fishing. Located

The end of the “golden age” was brought by the
adoption of a commercial whaling moratorium by the

Priority was placed on the co-worker relationships
even over their family relationships.

International Whaling Commission (IWC) from the

Fishery managers and ship owners accept young

perspective of international resource management

men who came to work from outside through a fiction(1982) and the establishment of a 200-mile fishing zone

parenthood. It’s called EBISU-OYA. When accepting(1977). As a result, the main fishery industry of thefamily migrants, wealthy families sometime become

Oshika Peninsula was replaced by the tourism andrelatives. It’s called WARAJI-NUGI. People called theaquaculture. Later on, the industrial structure of therelationship SHINSEKI (relatives) even though there

Oshika Peninsula was characterized by settlement

was no blood connection.

and stability. Like many other areas of Japan, theToday, fishery trainees invited from Indonesia

peninsula began to face such social problems. Such as

are in charge of fishery labor. Fishery companies

population outflow, a declining birthrate and an aging

treat Indonesian people, like their children and now

population, the sluggish performance of primarytrainees became an important actor for local shrine

industries. Their culture was enriched throughfestivals.
53

Catastrophic Disaster Causing Separation of Culture and Loss of History:
Museum activities by University Students for “Build Back Better” of Local Culture

Ishinomaki/Sanriku-Kinkasan is considered to beaccording to whaling companies and public offices.
The baseball competition was so common at thattime. We exhibited about the connection between thewhaling industry and baseball culture.

『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Figure 2. Students interviewing local residents

3-2 Topic: Kinkasan,
  Holy Place for Fishermen
As an isolated island located in the Oshika
Peninsula, Kinkasan is a sacred place of faith forthe fishermen. In the Edo Period, this island wasa training place for followers of mountaineering
asceticism. Therefore, women were not allowed tothis place. In modern times, tourism has developed,with the number of visitors to the shrine. Many
people come to visit this shrine, to pray for long-lifeand the happiness of their family members.

Figure 4. Booklet on sports and whaling

3-4 Topic: Entertainment
  Provided by Companies
In the middle of the 20th century, the heyday
of commercial whaling, large-scale set-net fishing,and deep-sea fishing, fishing companies served as aprovider of entertainment for the local community.
These companies served as an important sponsor
for the Oshika Whale Festival, an annual grandfestival featuring the passage of a portable shrine tocelebrate the local deity of the Kumano Shrine. Not
ony this, many other local festivals and events were
often sponsored by these companies. Many shops
lined the streets, including general stores, hardware

Figure 3. Kinkasan Island

shops, bicycle shops, movie theaters, cabarets, and

3-3 Topic: Whaling
  Companies  and Sports Culture

many restaurants serving Japanese dishes, Western
dishes and Chinese dishes.

During the period of the Japanese restoration fromthe Second World War, Japanese people depended onwhales for their intake of animal protein. This was
the background to the prosperity of Ayukawa, which
attracted many young aspiring people to find jobs
through their connections with whaling companies
from across the country. In those days, baseballplayers were hero. Baseball teams were organized
54

Figure 5. Oshika Whale Festival in 2019

3-5 Material Culture  and Narrative
University students interviewed local residents
about their memories and stories of their daily lives,
which is reminded through the exhibited materials.
works. The exhibits made visitors feel at home,encouraging them to share their own narratives.
Resonating with such narratives, other visitors
remembered their own daily lives and discussed witheach other.

Figure 7. Flyer for an exhibition of souvenirs broughtback by whalers

3-7 Workshop with  elementary
  school students
Activities with elementary school students are also
one of our important projects. such as elementary
school students and University students engage
Figure 6. Exhibition of illustrations
based on interviews

themselves in conducting several interviews withthe elderly people and to conduct workshops andexhibitions. For those children were raised in the

3-6 Souvenirs for whalers

affected areas, this is a valuable opportunity for them,to relink their past memories of the region with the

In Ayukawa, many men have experience forcurrent life. We created a Ming battle card game. We

working in the Antarctic Ocean. They brought backalso wrote a drama based on a folktale of a fishingsome interesting souvenirs from the Antarctic Ocean

village and performed this drama.

and many people cherish them as family treasures.
Sush souvenirs are Antarctic ice, creatures, exotic
shells, animal specimens and whale bone art etc.
In addition, whalers worships and dedications for
hunting big size whales at Ayukawa/s several
shrines and temples are also valuable materials that
help us to understand and represent the life of pastcommunities.

Figure 8. Workshop with elementary school students

55

Catastrophic Disaster Causing Separation of Culture and Loss of History:
Museum activities by University Students for “Build Back Better” of Local Culture

Some stories were selected for developing illustration

Ⅳ Conclusion

important, to think about survivor’s wisdom for livingwith natural disaster. Recovery and reconstruction
policy from natural disaster and development policy
of affected areas are going side by side. We have torescue and museum activities, to contribute andpay attention both human-size and community-size
issue as well as economic and politic-size issues.

to ensure that many more local cultural resources10

addressed only by specialized researchers. To draw a

Finally, I would like to conclude that local museums

future vision of local culture and history, collaboration

can play an important role. We will organize anis essential among the public sector involved in

exhibition with a theme selected based on local

cultural administration, social education, NPOs, NGOs,

residents’ interest and discuss a theme for the nextcompanies, citizens, and others.

exhibition at the venue.

号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第I believe that it is important for cultural property

are utilized than had been before the disaster and

The purpose of my research is to bridge people’s.to provide several opportunities to identify andseparated history by using ethnographical anddiscover new cultural resources. I call this approach

museum skills. I believe that it is important for“Build Back Better” in the field of culture. To thiscultural property rescue and museum activities

end, local museums can play an important role byefforts to contribute and to ensure that many moredemonstrating their ideas and techniques developed

local cultural resources are utilized than had been

after the end of the war in the fields of collection,

before the disaster and to provide an opportunity

classification, preservation, and use of historicalto identify and discover new cultural resources. I

materials, which serve as local cultural resources.

call this approach “Build Back Better” in the field of

History and culture are not fields that should be

culture.

Even after the completion of the restoration work,

In the year of 2019, October a new town was

we should continue to collaborate with a wide variety

opened in Ayukawa, named Whale Town Oshika.

of local people. We will organize an exhibition on aThis town includes a new permanent shopping street,theme based on local residents interest and we willa memorial museum, a national park visitor center

continue to discuss a theme for the next exhibition at

and a whale museum. In these museums, I would likethe venue. The main purpose of these exhibitions is

to show the process of rediscovery of history andto create an active environment, where we can easiyculture in which students and local residents haveidentify what people would like to cherish, discusscontinued after the disaster.

and share their viewpoints through something
specific topic.

I will continue my research to write ethnography
as a folklorist and continue to share cultural

Human-size and community-size issue are also the

Figure 9. Sanriku National Park visitor center
56

resources with local residents as a curator. I want

Figure 10. Oshika Whale Museum

to make a bridge between the past and present,
separated by the tsunami disaster of local residents
who have decided to remain in the affected areas.

Catastrophic Disaster Causing Separation of Culture and Loss of History:
Museum activities by University Students for “Build Back Better” of Local Culture

References
Koji, Kato.
2017“The Story of Cultural Assets and their
Rescue: A First-Hand Report fromTohoku”, Fabula 58(1-2), pp.51-75.

2019“Sarachi To Kojigenba Kara No Bunka
Souzou To Rekishi Jissen” Yutaka Suga
and Katsutaka Hojo (ed), Public History

Nyumon: Hirakareta Rekishi Gaku He No
Chosen , Bensei Shuppan.

57

『人類学研究所 研究論集 第 10 号』
執筆者紹介 (Contributors)
Akira GOTO

Professor, Nanzan University

Miyako TAKAMURA

Researcher, Nanzan University

Gopalan RAVINDRAN

Professor, Central University of Tamil Nadu

Ai TAKEUCHI

Researcher, Nanzan University

Etsuko SHIMOMOTO

Part-time lecturer, Nihon Fukushi University

Koji KATO

Professor, Musashino Art University

人類学研究所 研究論集 第 10 号
ISSN 2434-9577

2021 年 3 月 31 日 発行
編集者 高村 美也子
南山大学人類学研究所〒 466-8673 名古屋市昭和区山里町 18 電話（052）832-3111（代表）E-mail: apai-nu@ic.nanzan-u.ac.jp
印刷 株式会社ウェルオン 電話（052）732-2227 デザイン 株式会社サウザンドデザイン