Article

Symposium on Calendars Used in Asia and Oceania

From Four Cases in the Banggai Islands, Indonesia

Makibi NAKANO*

11

号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第A Study of Classifications of the Seasons by Sama-Bajau
Fishermen:

This research aims to report seasonal classifications by Sama-Bajau fishermen in the
Banggai Islands, Indonesia, and consider the characteristic classification from a comparisonof the cases in four villages and relevant with climatological data. A fieldwork survey infour villages reveals that they cognize the season focusing on the seasonal winds and there
is a different classification for each season. They differ in the kinds of winds, the period,
and the cycle. In some cases, a seasonal cycle is more than biannual. Other characteristic
points are the main seasons cognized by two prominent winds: Utara (the season of thenorth wind) and Salatan (the season of the south wind), and usually have subdivided
seasons cognized by the strength of winds. Climatological data of temperature, rainfall,atmospheric pressure, wind velocity, and wind directions in the Banggai Islands indicatethat there are no prominent differences in these defined areas as a key expression by aretired fisherman has a possibility of locality in the cognition of the seasons in each village.
This study reported first the differences in Sama-Bajau fishermen’s classification of theseasons in defined areas. Future research is required to collect more cases of classificationof the seasons and make comparisons to understand the cognition of the seasons by SamaBajau fishermen and their locality.
Keywords
Sama-Bajau, Seasonal Classification, Seasonal Cognition
Contents
I
II

Introduction
The Sama-Bajau People and theClassification of the Seasons
III Overview of the Research Villages in the
Banggai Islands
IV Seasonal Changing in the Banggai Islands
V Seasonal Classification by Sama-Bajau
People in the Banggai Islands
1 Seasonal classifications in Village A

2
3
4

Seasonal classifications in Village B
Seasonal classifications in Village C
Seasonal classifications in Village D
VI The Ecological Cognition of Seasons by the
Sama-Bajau People
1 Discussion
2 Toward a study of seasonal cognition by
Sama-Bajau fishermen* Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University

46

their systems and technologies.

I Introduction

This study aimed to report the fishermen’s cognitionof classification of the seasons from the perspective ofobservations for their livelihood. Primitive calendars

the relationship between people, seasons, and naturaland time reckoning formed by this accumulation of data

phenomena. For this purpose, this article focuses on thehave been recorded in various regions of the world.

ecological cognition of the Sama-Bajau fishermen in

Yoshida (1980) revealed four fundamental elements inIndonesia.

their system: sun phenomena, moon phenomena, theThe Sama-Bajau people are known as ‘sea nomads,’

phenomena of stars or constellations, and other naturaland ‘sea gypsies’ because of their lifestyle of living inphenomena. Primitive calendars are often composed ofboats. These people have moved to the land and are

a combination of the four elements. The most wide-

scattered across Malaysia, the Philippines, andspread elements are lunar calendar systems, while cal-Indonesia. From the perspective of the studies of theendars referring to other natural phenomena are

Sama-Bajau people, it can be indicated that two points

extremely rare (Yoshida, 1980).

are to be studied.

In Northern Luzon, the beginning of farming is

The first point concerns ecological differences. Most

determined according to the swelling of mountainof the research has been conducted on the surrounding

streams, the blossoming of certain trees, and the migra-

Sulu islands or within the settlements built on or aroundtion of birds. In addition, the Bontoc Igorot people begin

coral reefs. The fishing activities and ecological cogni-

sowing when the cry of the nestling of the killing bird

tions within these communities provide representative

was first heard (Scott, 1958: 569–570). In New Britain,

examples of indigenous people. However, other Sama-

people use the Maenga calendar, which consists of

Bajau people live in coral reef areas that have not been

indigenous months. The names of the months are related

prioritized and are referred to as blank areas. The focus

to plants because each month begins when the leaves ofof this research, the Banggai Islands in Central

certain plants begin to fall, or when the flowers of others

Sulawesi, Indonesia, is a blank area.

begin to bloom. These phenomena determine the timing

The second point is the deviation from the academicof Maenga’s annual festivals as well (Panoff, 1969:

discipline. Research on Sama-Bajau commenced with

153–159).

the history of its origin and included exploring the

In Indonesia, a Sundanese village in West Java uti-

migration of scattered groups (Sopher, 1977 (1965);

lized a traditional calendar, based on seasonality andNimmo, 1968) and linguistic classification (Pallesen,stars, for agricultural operations (Igarashi, 1987).

1985; Grimes, 2000). In recent years, research has

People from Sumba Island utilized an astronomical

shifted to the creation and restructuring of identity byoperation to determine the appropriate periods forinvestigating relationships, such as those between therituals, which was shared by the transmission of infor-

nations and religions of the Sama-Bajau people

mation between settlements (Furusawa, 2017). These(Aoyama, 2006), as well as comparisons of mobility,

previous studies revealed the diversity of time reckon-

and maritime networks (Nagatsu, 2012). Previous

ing and calendars that are still used in the local society.

research emphasized that the Sama people are full-time

Not all people who live with and use the natural

fishermen, and are connected to the maritime environ-environment create each calendar. Except for somement, however, they have not devoted proper attention

cases, the appropriate or inappropriate period for fishing

to maritime activities, nor considered the significance ofis not specifically identified in comparison with that ofenvironmental recognition (Nagatsu, 1997).

agriculture. It is better to classify the process as a cogni-

Therefore, this study aimed to report on the ecologi-tion of classification of the seasons, rather than time

cal cognition of seasons by the Sama-Bajau fishermen

reckoning or a calendar. Previous studies on naturalin the Banggai Islands, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, by

calendars have mainly explored the former cases withcomparing the indigenous classification of the seasons

47

A Study of Classifications of the Seasons by Sama-Bajau Fishermen

Indigenous people have cognized time based on dailyreferred to as “drifters.”

based on winds and analyzing them tentatively accord-

Despite these changes, the Sama-Bajau people areing to scientific data.

still widely dispersed from the southern Philippines to号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11

Sabah, Malaysia, and the eastern part of Indonesia due

II The Sama-Bajau People and theClassification of the Seasons

to their former mobile life, and they remain dependent
on their sea area network. People and things continue toIn the coastal areas of the islands of East andmove (Nagatsu 2018). The Sama-Bajau people’s liveli-

Southeast Asia, some groups engage in fishing and live

hood is still centered on fishing, and the maritime tradeon board their boats. There are several marine-oriented

and processing of marine products continue. The

ethnic groups on the islands of Southeast Asia. Among

Sama-Bajau people are referred to as “people who speak

them, ethnic groups called Sama or Bajau (Bajau,

Sama languages daily and generally call themselves

Badjau, Bajo, etc.) are primarily found in eastern

Sama” (Nagatsu, 2012). As Grimes (2000) described,

Indonesia, Sabah, Malaysia, and the southern part of theSama-Bajau languages include various dialects in each

Philippines, and are characterized by their widespreadregion.

diffusion as a maritime people.

In the Sama-Bajau language in Sitangkay, Philippines

Studies on the Sama-Bajau people have accumulated(Fig. 1), the seasons are called musim or timpu

in the area around the Sulu Islands from the southern(Nagatsu, 1995). In Sitangakay, musim or timpu arepart of the Philippines to the northeastern tip of Sabah.

classified by seasonal winds, mainly from the southwest

The Sama-Bajau people are called “sea nomads,” ormonsoons between May and October, and the northeast“sea gypsies” because of their onboard residency, their

monsoons from October to March. The most prominent

mobile lifestyle, and their “drifting” together insouthwest monsoon, known as musim satan (season

Southeast Asian countries. Sometimes referred to as

south, in Sama-Bajau language), occurs between June“maritime people,” but with modernization, the tradi-and September. The storm is subdivided into six winds:

tional lifestyle of the Sama-Bajau people is changing.

satan tindaw labutan (south, appear, anchor literally, it

Presently, they do not live in houses (small boats thatmeans the first south wind), satan anak datu (south, thedouble as dwellings), but instead, reside in houses inindigenous name of a particular star means the south

shallow waters and on land, and therefore, are no longer

wind that blows when this star appears in the early

SempornaSitangkay

The Banggai Islands

Is. Borneo

The Wakatobi Islands

Jakarta
Makassar

Fig. 1. The location map of the Banggai Islands and surrounding areas(Developed by the author using d-maps.com)

48

February
March

January
December

April

June
October

July

SeptemberAugustOuter circumference: Change of wind
Inner circumference: Change of tide

Fig. 2. Concept of classification of the seasons by the Sama-Bajau people in
Semporna, Sabah state, Borneo Island, Malaysia(Source: Ono (2011), translated by the author)

night) as the beginning of satan tindaw labutan, satanin the evening in these periods is at the same height)

manuk (south—bird, which means the strong wind ana-

(Nagatsu, 1995).

logically sounding like a bird flapping its wings), satan

Importantly, Nagatsu (1995) clarified the following:buntal (south— the indigenous name of a certain star,“—Musim satan or musim uttalaq is unlike the regularwhich means the south wind which is blown when thisseason within a certain annual period but is confirmed

star appears largely and clearly), satan bungkal gamutas the season when those winds blow.” The date of the(south—pull out seaweed root, which means the strong

Mag’mboq ritual, which connects with the season eachsouth wind which is strong enough to pull out theyear, is conditional. The Mag’mboq ritual is always

seaweed root), and satan anganggook gulami (south—

conducted on the next low tide of the day when the firstgrab like hold it down rice ears, it means the strong

shipment of rice arrives from Tawi-tawi, which is thesouth wind likes to grab rice ears and press them down).

adjacent island. The date is overlaid with the angang-

The most prominent northeast monsoon, called musim

gook gulami period, which is the conclusion of theuttalaq (season—north), blows from December tomusim satan. According to Monden (1986: 127), thisFebruary. It is not specifically subdivided, as in musim

ritual was held on August 13, 1984. That ritual recorded

satan. Except for these two main winds, there are otherby Nagatsu in 1994 was held on September 20.

transitional periods between musim satan and musim

The overlaid cognition of winds and tides is alsouttalaq: barat daya (the southwest), habagat (the west),

found in another Sama-Bajau village in Borneo Island,hilagaq (the northwest), timul (the east), and t’ddoq (theMalaysia (Fig. 2), also called musim and tahik,calm). They are understood as periods, not as seasons

respectively.
Figure 2 illustrates the concept of seasonal classifica-(Nagatsu, 1995).
Characteristically, the tahik (tide) is a significant

tion by the Sama-Bajau people in Semporna County, on

cycle that is overlaid annually with the wind and is

the east coast of the Sabah state, on Borneo Island. Inclassified annually into three tahik seasons. Tahik satan

the remote islands of Semporna, the southwest monsoon(tide—the south) is nearly overlaid with musim satan,

occurs generally from May to September, whereas the

tahik uttalaq (tide—the north) is nearly overlaid withnortheast monsoon is prevalent from December tomusim uttalaq, and their transition periods are tahik

March. The two seasons are further classified according

timbang (tide—balanced, because the tide at dawn andto wind direction and strength. However, these detailed

49

A Study of Classifications of the Seasons by Sama-Bajau FishermenMay

NovemberDecember
NovemberJanuary

barra’

February

October

SeptemberMarchsangai banga’salatangAugust

July

April

May
June

Fig. 3. Concept of classification of the seasons by the Sama-Bajau people
in the Wakatobi Islands, Indonesia

11号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第sangai teddo/
sangai matai(Source: Stacey (2007), developed by the author)

classifications are dependent upon the day, and thus, canperiod of strong westerly winds, heavy rains, high seas,

be flexible. Ono mentioned that the fishing activity ofstorms, and squalls. The end of the west monsoon in

the Sama-Bajau people has traditionally been conducted

March is another transitional period with winds thatwith constraints dictated by the seasonality of the winds,

may blow from the southwest, northeast, or northwest.

moon phases, and tidal movement, which is indirectly

This is followed by the doldrums, a period of light

verified by the fact that they classify and recognize thevariable winds and smooth seas usually lasting for aseasons by detailed moon phases and tidal situations,week or two, which is ideal for fishing, but there is stillbased upon the direction and strength of winds (Ono,the possibility of intermittent squalls or cyclonic activity2011).

in the waters of northern Australia. Then the strong
easterlies return, and the cycle begins again (Stacey,

Stacey (2007) described the case in the Wakatobi

2007: 37–38).

Islands (Fig. 3) as follows: Sama-Bajau people in the
Wakatobi Islands in Indonesia also cognize the seasons

Previous studies focusing on the Sama-Bajau people

by winds. The east monsoon (saltatang in Sama-Bajau

often mention indigenous knowledge of seasons

words/musim timur in Indonesian words) begins in(Sinapoy & Djalante, 2020). However, only a few

April and ends in November. The beginning of the east

reports have referenced specific data and local names.

monsoon is characterized by strong easterly winds

Several common points can be noted. First, the sea-(sangai banga’/angin timur kencang) lasting until July.

sonal cycle is one year. Second, the seasons are classi-

These winds bring light rain between the months of May

fied by winds, or overlaid with winds and tides. Third,

and July. This is followed by a period of light south

the wind classifications are mainly divided into twoeasterlies and a period of calm or no winds (sangai

monsoons in a year and include subdivided winds andteddo/sangai matai/angin mati/angin teduh) between

transitional periods.

September and November. The latter part of the eastThus, a significant question remains. Do these three

monsoon is a transitional period of changing windcharacteristic points apply to all other villages of thedirections (sangai taputar/angina pancaroba) that leads

Sama-Bajau people, despite differences in locations andto the beginning of the west monsoon (barra’/musim

ecological conditions?

barat). The west monsoon starts in late November orsometimes early December and lasts until March. It is a50other settlements, but again, occasionally rests within

III Overview of the Research Villages in the
Banggai Islands

them.
Fisherman O engages in skin diving, sometimes handline fishing, and fake bites. Usually, he fishes with his

participant observation, and fieldwork was conducted

friends or relatives (keluarga), after arriving at fishingintermittently from August 17, 2016, until December 2,

spots, and engaging in separatory, not cooperate in2018 in four villages in the Banggai Islands, Central

fishing. He was born in Village A in 1972, has no experi-

Sulawesi, Indonesia. Fieldwork was conducted primar-ence staying for a long time in other settlements, but

ily in villages A, B, C, and D, for comparative fieldwork

sometimes rests in other settlements.

in 2019. The interviews were conducted in the Sama-

Fisherman P engaged in handline fishing and fakeBajau language and Indonesian languages. A retired

bites and sometimes engaged in longline fishing forfisherman, P, in Village A, assisted the author in inter-

general fish and sharks and is a retired fisherman.

preting the Sama-Bajau language.

Usually, he goes fishing with fisherman A and utilizes

Village A is the settlement with the largest population

longline fishing. His parents are Mandar, which is anamong the Sama-Bajau people in the Banggai Islands

ethnic group in Indonesia, who were known as maritime(Nagatsu 2017). According to the village office, as ofpeople, and who were born in Kendari city in Southeast

2017 the population of Village A comprised 3,793 resi-

Sulawesi. Fisherman A sailed and sometimes stayed

dents and 1,010 households. The main inhabitants of thebriefly in Village A. Although he was not affiliated withvillage are Sama-Bajau, Mandar, Bugis, Makassar, andthe Sama-Bajau people originally, after marrying a

Chinese. They intermarried resulting in mixed ethnici-

Sama-Bajau woman in Village A, he joined the Sama-ties. Despite their intermarriage, diversity remains in

Bajau people as he and others cognize. He began living

language. The primary fishing methods in Village A arewith his wife in Village C and then moved to Village A

net fishing, bombs, longline fishing, handline fishing,in 1971. He fished with another fisherman until his wifeand skin diving. Other sources of livelihood include

died. According to the interviewees, the four settlements

gathering shells and farming fish and seaweed (Nakano,are inseparably linked by family relationships.
Villagers generally utilize small boats without sails.

2020).
Before the semi-structured interview in Village A, an

According to the interviewees from Village A, after aninterview regarding basic fishing activity was conducted

era of using dwelling boats that they lived in, they

with 15 fishermen. They were chosen by fisherman P, toresorted to sailing ships with paddles, because sailinginclude all fishing methods. Interviews with three out ofships are easily driven by the direction and strength of

the total number of interviewees: fishermen A, F, O, andthe winds, which is a useful characteristic. After all,P were conducted to obtain comprehensive information

fishing time and route are dependent on the wind.

about fishing knowledge.

However, their fishing style changed significantly after

Fisherman A engages in handline fishing and fakethe introduction of boats with engines because they nolures and sometimes engages in longline fishing for

longer relied on the monsoon, although they cannot sailgeneral fish. Both methods are conducted by him alone.

in the direct direction of the monsoon. For example,

He was born in Village A in 1958 and is friends withthey cannot sail to the east during the southeast

fisherman P, who with him, is particularly well known

monsoon. Fishermen A and P were the first to obtain an“nelayan pintar” (wise fisherman) by villagers. He has

engine in Village A. They borrowed an engine from ano experience of staying for a long time in other settle-

Chinese broker in Village A. During this era, fishermenments but occasionally rests within them. Similarly,

in Village A generally sailed and fished in the south.

Fisherman F engages in handline fishing and fake bites,

Initially, however, they sailed to the east and finallyconducted by him alone. He was born in Village A in

discovered a new fishing location. Additionally, the era

1960 and has no experience staying for a long time inindicates that before modernization, a livelihood in the51

A Study of Classifications of the Seasons by Sama-Bajau FishermenThis research used semi-structured interviews and号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11

village was dependent upon seasonal winds. Thus, wind

the Banggai Islands. In 2000, the Sama-Bajau popula-knowledge was essential for them. Today, the Sama-tion comprised 751 residents (Nagatsu, 2017). Except

Bajau people continue to observe seasonal calendars

for the Sama-Bajau people, other ethnic groups areaccording to the winds, although they can sail to any

Buton, Jawa, Madura, Bima, and Selayar. According toplace at any time. During the author’s fieldwork, several

the oral history in Village D, it was formed by the people

fishermen were asked about the season of a particularfrom Kendari intent on a limited stay. Fisherman S wasday, and each fisherman answered according to the windborn in Village A, was 35 years old, and moved tocalendars.

Village D from Village A in 2002 because of an earth-Village B is a settlement with a large population of thequake in 2000.

Sama-Bajau people in Banggai Islands. In 2000, theThere are daily movements of the Sama-Bajau people

Sama-Bajau population totaled 1,079 residents (Nagatsu,

among the four villages. Their primary purposes are to2017). The main inhabitants of the village were Sama-

trade materials for fishing, giving food, and ceremonies.

Bajau. Chinese are rare in Village B. According to theFishermen traverse these four villages in their small

oral history in Village B, it was formed by several fish-boats, and others easily find regular or irregular boats

ermen who moved from Village A following the earth-for portals. These villagers acknowledged the Sama-quake. Fisherman Q was born in Village B, was 39 years

Bajau people in each village as “keluarga” (family) orold, and engages in handline fishing for octopi and skin“kemanakan” (brother).

diving.
Village C is a settlement with a large population of

IV Seasonal Changing in the Banggai Islands

the Sama-Bajau people in the Banggai Islands. In 2000,
the Sama-Bajau population comprised 1,064 residents

In the Banggai Islands, the rainy season is from April(Nagatsu, 2017). The main inhabitants of the village

to July, and the dry season is from August to March. The

were Sama-Bajau. According to the oral history inarea consists of three regencies: the Banggai Regency,

Village C, it was formed by several fishermen who

the Banggai Kepulauan Regency, and the Banggai Laut

aimed to catch a shark from the Salabangka Islands inRegency (Fig. 5). Within them, villages A and C are inCentral Sulawesi. It is near Banggai City, which is thethe Banggai Kepulauan Regency, and villages B and D

center of the old kingdom of Banggai. Fisherman R was

are in the Banggai Laut Regency. In the Banggaiborn in Village C, was over 40 years old, and engages inRegency, Luwuk is the largest city in the surrounding

handline fishing.

area. According to Köppen’s climate classification, it isclassified as a tropical rainforest climate (Af).

Village D is a settlement of the Sama-Bajau people in

Banggai Regency

Village A

䕽Banggai Kepulauan Regency

Village C
Village B
Banggai Laut Regency

Village D

Fig. 4. Research villages in the Banggai Islands

Fig. 5. The location of regencies in the Banggai islands
area after 1999

(Source: Developed by the author using Google Earth Pro)

(Developed by the author)

52

Fig. 7. The hythergraph of the Banggai Kepulauan Regency in 2015
(Made by the author based on data from BPS)

Fig. 8. The hythergraph of Banggai Laut Regency in 2015
(Made by the author based on data from BPS)

1016.00

8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

1014.00
1012.00
1010.00
1008.00
1006.00
Jan

Feb MarApr May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov Dec

Atmospheric Pressure in BK

Atmospheric Pressure in BL

Wind Velocity in BKWind Velocity in BL

Atmospheric Pressure (hPa䠅Wind Velocity (knot)

Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Velocity in Banggai
Kepulauan Regency and Banggai Laut Regency in 2015

Fig. 9. Monthly average atmospheric pressure and monthly average wind speed in the
Banggai Kepulauan Regency (BK) and the Banggai Laut Regency (BL) in 2015
(Made by the author based on data from BPS)

53

A Study of Classifications of the Seasons by Sama-Bajau Fishermen

Fig. 6. The hithergraph of the Banggai Regency in 2015
(Made by the author based on data from BPS)

10-d. Surface currents in August

10-b. Surface currents in April

10-e. Surface currents in October

10-c. Surface currents in June

10-f. Surface currents in December

11号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第10-a. Surface currents in February

Fig. 10. Surface currents in Southeast Asia
(Wyrtki 1961: 164–169)

Figures 7, 8, and 9 illustrate the hythergraph in thethis data, monthly rainfall is typical in May for the rainy

three regencies in 2015. Figure 10 illustrates theseason and September and October for the dry season.

monthly average atmospheric pressure and monthly

In the three regencies, the seasonal changes in tempera-

average wind speed in the Banggai Kepulauan Regency

ture, rainfall, atmospheric pressure, and wind speed

and the Banggai Laut Regency for 2015. According towere not prominent.

54

1 Seasonal classifications in Village A

In the islands of Southeast Asia, monsoon winds blow

As with Village A, the interviews revealed that fourwest monsoon (November to April), the currents run

main seasons were classified according to the direction

approximately anticlockwise around Sulawesi. Fromand strength of the winds: Utara (the season of the north

May to November, no such simple pattern can be dis-

winds), Salatan (the season of the south winds),

cerned (Fig. 10, Wyrtki, 1961: 164–169; Whitten et al.,Banggak (the season of hard winds), and Paneddoh (the1988: 108).

season of calm winds) (Fig. 11). During the Salatanseason, five wind directions were noted: Selatan, Barat(west), Tunggara (southeast), and Timur (east). In these

V Seasonal Classification by Sama-Bajau
People in the Banggai Islands

winds, the Selatan, Barat, and Tunggara blow successively in this order. However, wind durations were not

In the four villages in the Banggai Islands, the season

constant. Timur winds blow approximately three times

is “battu” or “musim” in the Sama-Bajau language. The

during the Salatan season for approximately one week.

latter is identical in the Indonesian language. During theImportantly, a cycle of seasons extends for two years,

interviews, the rainy and dry seasons in the four villages

although in general, a season can last for one year.

were not mentioned. According to them, there are no

According to them, for example, if 2017 is the first year

original terms in the Sama-Bajau language for the rainyof a cycle, June is considered the Utara season for 2017.

and dry seasons. Fishermen answered the question

However, the month of June was considered the Salatan

about the season based on winds, rather than tempera-

season of 2018, the opposite wind direction of the Utara

ture or rainfall.

season. Interviewees mentioned this seasonal cycle as“putar” (turn).

In each of the four villages, the units of the year,
month, and day were the same as a general calendar.

The characteristic points of the seasonal classification

However, fishermen vaguely remember specific dates,by winds in Village A are as follows: First, the Utara

and sometimes do not recall the actual months.

and Salatan seasons are the main seasons, whereas the

The seasonal classifications within the four villages

Banggak and Paneddoh seasons are lower distinctions

are completely different; nevertheless, fishermen live inof these main seasons. According to Figure 11, a year isvillages that are socially and proximally close andconfigured by the Utara and Salatan seasons, and thecommonly answered questions based on winds.

Banggak and Paneddoh seasons comprise subdivisionsof the former. In this paper, the former represents themain season, and the latter signifies the sub-season.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12
The first
year
The second
year

Utara‫؟‬The season of the north winds. The wave is strong in costal area.
It become stormy in the night, good for fishing in the daytime
Salatan‫؟‬The season of the South strong winds.
The winds become a bit calm in the night, but too stormy in the daytime.
Bangaq‫؟‬The season of strong winds.
It is stormy for a whole day, not good for fishing.
Paneddoh‫؟‬The season of calm winds.
It is good for fishing in the daytime and the night.
Fig. 11. Seasonal classifications by winds in village A(Developed by the author)

55

A Study of Classifications of the Seasons by Sama-Bajau Fishermen

twice a year. In Sulawesi, Indonesia, during the north-2 Seasonal classifications in Village B

Second, the main seasons are dependent upon wind

Regarding Village B, four main seasons are observed,

direction, whereas the Banggak and Paneddoh sub-sea-

which are nearly the same as those for Village A,

sons are dependent on wind strength.

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Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11

Third, the Utara and Salatan seasons occur in irregu-

namely, Utara, Salatan, Banggak, and Paneddoh (Fig.

lar patterns, whereas the Banggak and Paneddoh

12). Every four seasons manifested regularly, and aseasons are practically regular seasons.

cycle of the seasons was completed within one year.

Fourth, except for the duration of the Salatan season

The three characteristic points of seasonal classifica-

from approximately January to April of the following

tion by the wind in Village B are first, the Utara andyear, the periods for the main seasons are like the scien-

Salatan seasons which comprise the main seasons,tific calendar.

whereas the Banggak and Paneddoh seasons act as a

During the interviews, Fisherman P, who provided

subdivision of the main seasons. Second, the main

supporting translations, answered again with the inter-seasons are dependent on the wind direction, whereas

viewed fishermen. Sometimes, he answered with a dis-the sub-season is dependent on wind strength. Third, thecrepancy of about one month compared with his initial

main and sub-seasons arrive and last punctually every

answer. According to him, the beginning and end ofyear.

each season are off by about one month. The difference

3 Seasonal classifications in Village C

is caused by these seasonal transition periods; therefore,
all mentions are the same. Other fishermen mentioned

In Village C, seven seasons were mentioned, namely

this when they did not define the beginning and end of

Utara, Salatan, Banggak, Paneddoh, Barat, Tunggara,seasons according to a specific month.

and Baleba (Fig. 13). Baleba is the season of the northwest winds. The cycle of the seasons lasted for three

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Utara: The season of the north winds
Salatan: The season of the south winds
Bangaq: The season of the hard winds
Paneddoh: The season of the calm winds
Fig. 12. Seasonal Classification of winds in village B(Developed by the author)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12
The First
Year
The Second
Year
The Third
Year

Utara: The season of the north winds
Salatan: The season of the south winds
Bangaq: The season of the strong winds
Paneddoh: The season of the calm winds
Barat: The season of the west winds
Tenggara: The season of the southeast winds
Baleba: The season of the northwest winds

Fig. 13. Classification of the seasons by winds in village C(Developed by the author)

56

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12
The First
Year
The SecondYear

Bangaq: The season of the strong winds
Paneddoh: The season of the calm winds
Barat: The season of the west winds
Tenggara: The season of the southeast winds
Fig. 14. Classification of the seasons by winds in village D(Developed by the author)

years.

VI The Ecological Cognition of Seasons by
the Sama-Bajau People

The characteristic points of the seasonal classification
by winds in Village C are as follows. First, the Utara,

1 Discussion

Salatan, Barat, Tunggara, and Baleba seasons are themain seasons, whereas the Banggaq and Paneddoh

The most important point of these four cases is thatseasons are sub-seasons. According to Figure 13, inevery village is different, and three of them utilize aterms of duration, the former five seasons last in paral-

seasonal cycle lasting more than two years. In the caselel, and the Banggaq and Paneddoh seasons are includedof Village A, the seasons of the first and second years do

as subdivisions of these main seasons. The Paneddoh

not match. Figure 10 illustrates the surface currents inseason is considered the main and subdivision of that as

Southeast Asia, including the Banggai islands, it is nec-

mentioned above. Second, the main seasons were classi-

essary to compare the same date in the first and second

fied by wind direction, whereas the sub-seasons wereyears in Figure 11. The interviews in Village A wereclassified by wind strength. Third, all seasons wereprimarily conducted between August 20 and Octoberirregular. However, there are some regular occurrences.

20, 2017, which is represented as the first year of Figure

For example, November is the season of south wind

11. Hence, 2018 was the second year. Therefore, theevery year. The duration of the Utara and Bangaq

first year is the odd-numbered year and the second year

seasons in the first and third years were the same.

is even-numbered. Then the active data of the winddirection on the same date of odd and even years were

4 Seasonal classifications in Village D

selected. Figure 15 illustrates the wind direction on the

Six seasons were mentioned in Village D namely,same dates in 2006 and 2009. The circle indicates the

Utara, Salatan, Banggak, Paneddoh, Barat, andlocation of the Banggai Islands and the surrounding

Tunggara (Fig. 14). A cycle of seasons lasted for twoareas.
Figure 15-a illustrates the wind direction for theyears.
The characteristic points of the seasonal classification

evening of June 14, 2009, which is an odd-numberedby winds in Village D are as follows: First, the seasons

year, and illustrates that it blows the south wind in thelast in parallel and are not classified into main and sub-Banggai Islands, which is the opposite direction to thoseseasons hierarchically. Second, the seasons were classi-

winds that were blown on the same date during the first

fied by wind direction or strength. Third, only the Utara

year. Figure 15-b illustrates the wind direction for theseason was nearly on time. Fourth, the Utara season isevening of June 14, 2006, which is an even-numberednearly the same as the scientific calendar.

year, showing that the direction of the wind is also
south, identical to that of the second year.
There is a possibility that the fishermen in Village A

57

A Study of Classifications of the Seasons by Sama-Bajau Fishermen

Utara: The season of the north winds
Salatan: The season of the south winds

号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第1115-b. Wind direction on the evening of June 14th, 2006

15-a. Wind direction on the evening of June 14th, 2009

Fig. 15. Wind direction in Southeast Asia
(QuickSCAT with addition from the author)cognize the subtle differences in geography according tomaking mistakes. Therefore, using a natural calendar isthe location of small islands and the shape of bays that

better for identifying seasons.”cannot be analyzed in the meteorological data. To(Recorded by the author 2020).

address this possibility, measurements must be per-The cognition of fishermen is localized, even if theformed using an anemometer. However, even if they

location is very close. Their seasonal cognition isunderstand this data and reflect on their seasonal classi-

embedded in the locality, and seasonal cognition by the

fication, it is difficult to explain that wind directions are

Same-Bajau people who are scattered throughout

opposite on dates during the odd- and even-numbered

diverse areas and the various environmental conditions

years. In addition, why a cycle of seasons is two years

can still interact.
From the latter explanation, fishermen are continuinglong cannot be explained.
While these uncertain points should be studied, thisto use the seasonal calendar, based on their indigenous

study attempted to consider the character of the seasonalcognition, even though they can refer to the modern

classification and the Sama-Bajau people’s ecologicalcalendar. The fact that fishermen still fish following

cognition according to other possibilities.

their seasonal cognition reveals the advantage andimportance of indigenous knowledge against the scien-Interestingly, fisherman P mentions the key expres-tific information in modern Sama-Bajau society.

sions concerning the differences in each seasonal

Based on this, the uniqueness of seasonal cognition inclassification.
Fisherman P, who had immigrated to Village A,

the four villages renders a high interest in seasonal

explained the differences in the seasons among the four

winds, due to differences in maritime conditions andvillages:fishing methods. In contrast to the seasonal cognition in“If (someone) has the experience of staying in a settle-

previous studies of the Sama-Bajau people who engage

ment, (he) can understand the season of that settlement.

in coastal fishing in the prominent coral reef areas, there

If not, (he) cannot know it.”is no such area in the Banggai Islands, and the fishermen“When (we) utilize only the natural calendar (kalen-

usually engage in open sea fishing (Nakano 2020). For

der alam in Indonesian), no one will mistakenly identify

them, knowledge of the direction and strength of thea season. However, after the modern calendar (I do notwinds is necessary to determine the fishing grounds.
Seasonal cognition based on the high interest in theknow who made it, maybe a wise one), people started

58

winds embedded in Village A appeared in a traditional

endar for agriculture and rituals (Hata 1976; Furusawa

song among villagers:

2017), and the calendar to predict the seasons.
This study identified the possibility of a confirmative

Madambila timurna patanaang Peling (The east of

cognition of the seasons by fishermen. Future work

Madiata boe mannanna kampohku (On the water,

revealing the above points can reconsider seasonal cog-

there is my village)

nition as the previous of the Sama-Bajau people

Missa patanaanne manning parumaang (There is no(Nagatsu 1995; Stacey 2007; Ono 2011), such as why

dry place at home)the date of the Mag’mboq ritual differed by almost one

Lamu takatonangnta irune kampohku (If you know,

month in 1986 and 1994 (Monden 1986; Nagatsu 1995).
There are additional issues to consider, though thisthat is my village)
Battuna Salatan A dikamaseang (When it is instudy is the first to discuss seasonal cognition and its

Salatan season, A is calm)interaction with the Sama-Bajau fishermen. The results

Battuna Utara A dipagegerang (When it is in Utara

are meaningful for future research concerning the inter-season, A is rowdy)

action between ecological environments and people,

Coba coba pikirta ai sabana (Try to think what theand for the Sama-Bajau studies. Further research canreason is)build upon this study to systematize the ecological cog-

Lamu takatonangta lingau tuntukta (If you know, tellnition of Sama-Bajau fishermen.

me)Acknowledgements

The lyrics explain the situation during the Utara

This research was supported by the Ministry of Research,season and the Salatan season. This song is sung daily,

Technology, and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia,

when children perform housework, or when parents sing

Institute for the Culture of Travel (Japan), scholarships from thechildren to sleep.

Japan Student Services Organization, supporting program forInteraction-based Initiative Team Studies (PI: Takuro Furusawa),

2 Toward a study of seasonal cognition byscholarships for studying abroad from the Heiwa Nakajima
Foundation, and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science

Sama-Bajau fishermen(KAKENHI), grant number 19J14629.

This article reported the Sama-Bajau fishermen’s
ecological cognition of seasonal classification tenta-

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