Legislation and Research Activity in Russia about the RadiologicalConsequences of the Chernobyl Accident
Igor A. RYABZEVand Tetsuji IMANAKA*
Institute of Problem of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences
Leninsky st. D-33, Moscow 117071, Russia*Reserch Reactor Institute, Kyoto University; Kumatori-cho, Osaka 590-04, Japanerrors due to the specificity of this case. Among thespecific features of the Chernobyl accident, it isnecessary to note the following:
1. The complex composition of radionuclides
polluting the environment, which changes in avariety of ways depending on the direction anddistance from the source.
2. Physico-chemical properties (dispersibility,
solubility etc.) of radioactive precipitation, which
also change over a wide range.
3. The diversity of natural and meteorologicalconditions which influence redistribution andmigration of radionuclides in ecosystems.
4. The vast territory of radioactive pollution and thesheer number of people living under conditions ofchronic ionizing radiation of small doses.
Owing to the above-mentioned circumstances,large-scale and systematic studies of the ecologicalandradiobiologicaleffectsofradioactive
contamination in areas adjacent to the Chernobyl APS
were started in the first weeks after the accident.

I INTRODUCTION
One of the principal problems in liquidating theafter-effects of the Chernobyl APS accident in the firstweeks and months after it occurred was to protect
people from external irradiation and internal intake ofradioactive products through the consumption of local
food stuffs. To solve this problem, evacuation of the
population and livestock from a 30-km zone aroundthe APS was carried out in the first days after thecatastrophe. In the following period, assessment of thepollution of agricultural products in areas adjacent to
the Chernobyl APS became one of the primary tasks,
as was a general assessment and forecast of theecological consequences of the environmental
pollution both in natural and agricultural ecosystems.
The approach to solve these problems assumed:
1. Detailed study of the radiation characteristics ofsurface contamination, i.e. spatial distribution,
composition and density of pollution by released
radionuclides, dose of external γ-radiation indifferent landscape-ecological conditions, including
surface waters.
2. Study of migration and penetration of the mostdangerous (long-lived) radionuclides into the soil,
their solubility and potential for root intake in
different soil-geographical conditions.
3. Study of the initial aerial pollution of wild andagricultural vegetation. Later, assessment ofaccumulation coefficients of dangerous radionuclides
by the biomass of wild and agricultural plants at theroot intake to address the problem of how to use theyield economically.
4. Study of the accumulation of dangerous
radionuclides in milk and organs of agricultural
animals to solve the problem of animal products' use.
5. Assessment of direct effects and prognosis of
long-term (genetic) effects of radioactive
contamination on functional parameters of natural
ecosystems, animals and human beings.
Many of these research directions had beendeveloped during the study of environmental pollution
by radioactive products formed during nuclear
weapons tests, as well as accidents at nuclear power
installations. However, the simple application ofprevious
radioecologicalandradiobiologicalknowledge to the Chernobyl catastrophe could leadand did actually result in a number of significant

II LEGISLATION AND REGULATION IN
THE USSR AND RUSSIA CONCERNING
CHERNOBYL
2.a. Legislation and regulation pertaining toradiation dose limit
In April and May of 1986, the Governmental
Commission of the Council of Ministers of the USSR
and the Ministry of Health of the USSR directed
implementation of protective activities and theliquidation of the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe. The first decision concerning limiting theirradiation dose of the population was to evacuate thepopulation from a zone where the exposure dose rate
exceeded 25 mR/h (a level observed approximately ata radial distance of 10 km from the Chernobyl APS).
Then a decision was made to lower this limit to 5
mR/h corresponding to a zone with a 30 km radius.
Among other decisions made on the level ofministries and institutions of the USSR, it is necessary
to mention the following:- On May 12, 1986, the National Committee on
Radiation Protection of the USSR (NCRP)
determined to limit the irradiation dose for the
population to 500 mSv/year, and for children under
14, pregnant women and nurses to 100 mSv/year.
40presented to him (her) about the radiation situation,
irradiation dose and possible health effects.
Based on the above concept, a law of the USSR,"On Social Protection of Citizens Affected by the
Irradiation as a Result of the Chernobyl APS
Catastrophe" was written up and approved in May of1991. This law established the rights of citizens who
took part in the liquidation of the catastrophe, those
resettled to new places, and those who still live in thegiven territories.
After the collapse of the USSR, the RussianFederation succeeded to addressing the tasks ofcoping with the consequences of the Chernobyl
catastrophe. At present, there is an elaborated conceptof radiation, medical and social protection andrehabilitation of the Russian Federation population
who were irradiated due to the accident. It contains a
concrete list of recommended measures for radiation
protection of people who still live in situations
vulnerable to the accident consequences. Thoseterritories where people have a possibility to receive
the annual effective dose exceeding 1 mSv arerecognized now as being polluted. They are
categorized in the following manner:- zone of obligatory resettlement: areas where soil
densities of Caesium-137, Strontium-90 and
Plutonium are 1480, 111 and 3.7 kBq/m2 or higher,
respectively.
- zone of limited inhabitancy: areas where the annual
dose of the people may exceed 5 mSv (Caesium-137
density from 555 to 1480 kBq/m2).
- zone with the right to resettlement: areas where theannual dose is higher than 1 mSv (Caesium-137
density from 185 to 555 kBq/m2).
- zone of living under periodical control: areas where
the annual dose should not exceed 1 mSv(Caesium-137 density from 37 to 185 kBq/m2).
Within this concept, those who have received adosage of more than 50 mSv of acute and 70 mSv ofchronic irradiation are recognized as ‘irradiated’, andas ‘affected’ are those who have developed a disease
whose occurrence has been proven to be as a result ofirradiation from the accidents. All of the people
referred to are being included in the nationalradiation-epidemiological register.
A program of medical assistance and rehabilitation
has been developed for all those ‘irradiated’ and‘affected’. Special attention is being paid to the‘affected’ people and groups at increased risk amongthe ‘irradiated’. In the system of medical protection
and rehabilitation of the population, activities areforeseen to raise the resistance to and protect
irradiated people from cancer, as well as for limiting
the influence of injurious factors of a non-radiation
nature. Psychological support and rehabilitation of the
population are aimed to limit and prevent thedevelopment of stress among people living in thepolluted territories. In order to do so, efforts are- On May 22, 1986, a dose limit of 100 mSv/year wasdetermined for the entire population.
- In 1987, NCRP approved norms of radiation safety(NRS-76/87). These norms gave the Ministry of
Health the right to establish dose limits for the
population irradiated as a result of the accident. A
limit of 30 mSv was established for 1987, with alevel of 25 mSv established for 1988 and 1989.
According to decree No. 1452-1 of the Supreme
Soviet of the USSR made April 25, 1990, “About theUnique Program for Liquidating the Consequences of
the Chernobyl APS Accident and the Situation
Related to this Accident” and decree No. 645 of theCouncil of Ministers of the USSR made June 30,
1990, about this problem, a concept was developed
concerning living in the areas affected by the
Chernobyl APS accident. The objective of thisconcept was to formulate principles and criteria tojustify the practical measures aimed at maximizing the
mitigation of possible negative after-effects of theChernobyl APS accident relating to human health andcompensation of losses.
The basic principles and criteria are as follows:
1. Each person living on the territory polluted withradionuclides or having lived there for at least theestablished minimum period has a right tocompensation for losses in the form of legal
privileges, and guaranties of social and medical
protection.
2. The irradiation dose resulting from radioactivity due
to the Chernobyl APS accident is the principal
criterion for making decisions about the necessity ofprotective measures, their content and scale, and thecompensation for losses.
3. Overexposure (above the level of the natural andtechnogenic background for a given locality) of theaverage annual effective equivalent dose not higher
than 1 mSv (0.1 rem) from the radioactive
precipitation as a result of the Chernobyl APS
accident is considered acceptable and does not
require any intervention.
4. It is mandatory to carry out resettlement of people
from the populated areas registered on the official
list, by taking into consideration the establishedintervention levels and socio-economic conditions.
5. Besides radiation protection, the following
countermeasures must be taken:- improved medical service, including special medical
observation of groups at increased risk, treatment insanatoria and sanitation in resorts;- provision of nutrition at full value including
additional microelements, vitamins;- measures to lower socio-psychological tension;
6. Each person living on the territory polluted withradionuclides has the right to make the decisionindependently about whether to continue living on agiven territory or choosing resettlement to anotherplace, on the basis of the objective information

41

Table 1 Temporary acceptable level of Caesium and Strontium contents in food products(TAL-94)
Concentration (Bq/kg, l)Name of foodCaesium-134, 137
Strontium-90
1. Milk and milk products, bread and bread
products, grains, flour, sugar, vegetable and370
37
animal fats, margarine
2. All types of infant foods (ready to be
185
3.7
consumed)
3. Other food products
600
100
Also, in 1987, the new “Norms of Radiation
Safety” (NRS-76/87) and “Principal Sanitarian Rulesof Work with Radioactive Substances and Other
Ionizing Radiation Sources” (PSR-72/87) wereapproved. They defined more precisely somestandards about the influence of ionizing radiation onhuman beings. The experience gained in radiation
control and prophylactic activities in corresponding
institutions and the environment was reflected in them,including the knowledge gained from the liquidationof the Chernobyl after-effects. PSR-72/87 was valid
on the USSR territory and, after its collapse, on the
territory of Russia until recently. At present, they havebeen revised, amended and corrected, and in the
shortest time are to become obligatory to apply theentire Russian territory.
In addition to the principal laws and regulations
mentioned above, a number of instructions,recommendations and rules were published. They
were oriented to decreasing the dose commitment andradionuclide intake by people living on polluted
territories and those working in various spheres of theeconomy. For example: “Instruction on Protection ofPopulation from Accidents Which Release
Radioactive Substances into the Environment,”“Instruction on Radiation Safety for the 30-km Zone
around the Chernobyl APS,” “Provisional Instruction
on Forestry Regulations and Radiation Safety underthe
ConditionofRadioactive
Pollution,”“Recommendations on the Agro-industrial Complex
Activities under the Condition of Radioactive
Pollution of Territories,” “Recommendations to the
Population about Behavior on Territories Polluted
with Radionuclides” and so on.

expected to raise the level of people’s knowledge
about irradiation effects, to provide convincing
information about the radiation situation, and to create
psychological support services in polluted areas.
In accordance with this concept, certain
amendments and changes were introduced into the lawof the Russian Federation, “On Social Protection of
Citizens Affected by Radiation as a Result of theChernobyl APS Catastrophe,” which was approved by
the State Duma of the Russian Federation on July 12,
1995.

2.b. Legislation and regulation concerning
radioactivity levels in foods, water and air
Before the Chernobyl APS accident, limits onradionuclide intake with food, water and inhaled air byhumans, as well as permissible levels of radioactive
contamination of different surfaces, were defined in
the “Norms of Radiation Safety” (NRS-76) and the“Principal Sanitarian Rules of Working with
Radioactive Substances and Other Ionizing Radiation
Sources” (PSR-72/80). Complying with these
documents was obligatory for all state and cooperative
enterprises, institutions and organizations throughout
the USSR. After the Chernobyl APS accident,
however, they could not be complied with across avast territory. Therefore, starting May 3, 1986, the
USSR's NCRP established a temporary acceptablelevel of radioactive iodine of 3.7 kBq/l,kg for drinking
water and food products. It was then revised on May
30, 1986, by the USSR Ministry of Health to add
standards for Caesium-137 and -134. These standards
were calculated to not exceed 50 mSv of the internal
dose permissible for the first year after the accident.
Meanwhile, on May 7, 1986, the USSR Ministry of
Health approved temporary permissible levels of
surface contamination of land, vehicles, clothing, skin,etc., which were then reduced on October 26, 1986.
The temporary acceptable levels of pollution offood products and water with cesium isotopes wereintroduced in 1988 (TAL-88) in order to limit theinternal irradiation dose. TAL-91 were thenestablished in 1991, and TAL-94 (Table 1) in 1994.
The acceptable levels of pollution of food products
and drinking water decreased gradually, and in the last
document the levels correspond to those in the
majority of European countries and the USA.

III GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONCONCERNING CHERNOBYL
The principal policy of the government was madein two directions:- to carry out restoration and decontamination
activities aimed at decreasing radioactive pollution of
the territories;- to provide social guaranties to the sufferers, first ofall, their resettlement away from polluted zones,
supply of clean food products and organization of
medical service.

42

4. Biomedical aspects of radioactive pollution.
5. Decontamination bases.
6. Methodological and instrumental provision ofcontrol for the radiation situation.
Leading scientists of the USSR entered into the
Coordinative Council, and scientists from various
ministries, institutions and academies were charged
with implementation of this program.
The “State Union-Republican Program on the
Liquidation of the Consequences of the Chernobyl
APS Accident for 1990-1995” was worked out later
on, as were legislative acts regulating different aspectsof activity in the post-accident period.
However, it must be pointed out that both researchand socio-economical programs for 1992-1995 were
not implemented. The principal reason for this is that
only 16% of the scheduled funds were provided forthis period. In this case of unsatisfactory financial
provision, only selected activities were implemented,
disregarding the integrated approach. Thus, theplanned objectives were not met and the indices ofpeople’s lives did not improve. This period, moreover,coincided with a general socio-economical crisis in
Russia, the rapid decline in industrial and agricultural
production, the appearance of unemployment andimpoverishment of the population. All of theseprocesses exerted negative effects on the health andbirth-rate of the country. The mortality rate increased,
and the population in the Russian Federation began todecrease.
It is also necessary to note that the pre-Chernobyl
radiobiological science in the USSR was oriented
mainly to the study of the effects of high irradiationdose on cellular, tissue and organisms of living things.
When the Chernobyl catastrophe took place, experts
found themselves in a complicated situation. The
classic texts of radiobiology asserted that effects ofsmall-dose irradiation in people should not be that
extensive. Therefore, such terms as ‘radiophobia’,‘acute psychological stress’ and so on were often usedby the officials to describe the situation.
Other than mentioned above, a very importantbiological concept of the non-proportionally strong
effects of small doses of radiation on biologicalobjects has been developed. It was formulated in the
1960’s by Professor BURLAKOVA E. B. (and,independently, in the 1970’s by Canadian researcher,
PETKO A.). This concept requires to the revision ofmany commonly accepted theories concerning‘dose-effect’ dependence, not only for ionizing
radiation but for all physico-chemical influences onliving organisms. Therefore, before making optimistic
predictions, it is necessary to understand theregularities of the effects of small doses of radiationand carry out extensive investigation into this field.
The results of research concerning the effects ofChernobyl radioactive contamination on human healthwere reported at the World Health Organization’s

Since the time of the accident, the following
organizations have been in charge of handling theconsequences of the accident in the former USSR andthen in the Russian Federation:- Since May 1986 - Governmental Commission of theCouncil of Ministers of the USSR,- Since 1989 - State Commission on Emergencies of
the USSR Council of Ministers,- Since 1990 - State Committee of Russian Federationon the Liquidation of Consequences of theChernobyl APS Accident.
- Since 1994 - Ministry of Russian Federation on Civil
Defense, Emergencies and Liquidation ofConsequences of Natural Disasters.
Besides the above, almost all of the union andrepublican ministries and institutions have been
involved in the liquidation of the Chernobyl
consequences and the activities to help the affected
population right from the first years after the accident.
Currently, the ministries below fulfill these functionsin the Russian Federation:- Ministry on Civil Defense, Emergencies andLiquidation of Consequences of Natural Disasters;- Ministry of Health;- Ministry of Social Protection;- Ministry of Agriculture;- Ministry of Forestry;- Ministry of Atomic Energy and Industry;- Ministry of Chemical Industry;
The Ministry of Health and the Ministry on
Emergencies are responsible for medical assistance tothe people affected by the Chernobyl APS accident. In
the period after the accident, the material-technicalbase of health services was improved significantly inseveral areas. Necessary scientific methods weredeveloped to examine and treat adults and children.
Practical medical activities were undertaken; all ofthese activities acted to preserve the health and,sometimes, the lives of thousands of people.

IV ACTIVITY OF THE ACADEMY OFSCIENCES
Immediately after the Chernobyl APS catastrophe,scientists of the Academy of Sciences and theAcademy of Medical Sciences simultaneously started
functional and expeditionary investigation.
In 1986, the “Coordinative Council on Scientific
Problems Related to the Ecological Aftermath of New
Technologic Systems” was created at the Presidium of
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and headed byAcademician ALEKSANDROV A. P. The “All-Union
Science-Technical Program on the Liquidation ofChernobyl APS Accident Consequences for
1986-1990” was worked out under the support of thisCouncil. The program consisted of major six foci:
1. Geophysical aspects of radioactive pollution.
2. Agro-industrial aspects of radioactive pollution.
3. Ecological aspects of radioactive pollution.
43

of what took place and what has continued until thepresent time. Thirdly, organization of social-patriotic
activity based on the experience having worked at
Chernobyl.
At present in Russia, besides the Union“Chernobyl”, there are many regional publicorganizations made up of Chernobyl invalids.
Charitable funds (e.g. A. Yaroshinskaya Fund) also dowhat they can to help the people affected by
Chernobyl.

conference in Geneva in November 1995. They can beformulated as follows:
1. Thyroid cancer incidence among children andadolescents is several tens of times as high as was
prognosticated by medical officials. Obviously, therate of other types of cancer has begun to increase inrecent years.
2. (As compared with children in similarsocio-economic conditions living on “clean”
territories) more than half of the children born on thecontaminated territories show a delay in mental
development (psycho-linguistic and other forms).
3. Immunological and cytogenetic disturbances has
been found in people living on territories polluted
with radionuclides and those who worked at the
Chernobyl APS after the explosion of the 4th block.
4. Incidence of cataract, cardiovascular diseases,
diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory andurogenous systems are increasing.

VI LIST OF SCIENTIFIC
ORGANIZATIONS WORKING ON
CHERNOBYL
6.a. Physical processes and radioactivity releasedynamics
The following organizations have been involved ininvestigating the physical processes and the dynamics
of radioactivity release during the course of theChernobyl accident:• Russian Scientific Centre “Kurchatovskij Institut”,
Moscow• All-union Scientific Research Institute for Nuclear
Power Plant Operation (VNIIAES), Moscow• Scientific Research and Design Institute for PowerTechnology, Moscow• Institute of Problems of Safe Development ofAtomic Energy of RAS (Russian Academy of
Sciences), Moscow• Science-Production Corporation “V. G. Khlyupin
Radievyj Institut”, St. Petersburg• L. Ya. Karpov Research Institute of Physical
Chemistry of RAS, Moscow• Ministry of Defense of the USSR
6.b. Radioactivity contamination and radiation
monitoring• Institute of Experimental Meteorology of
Science-Production Corporation “Tajfun”, Obninsk• State Committee of the Russian Federation on
Sanitarian-Epidemiological Control, Moscow• All-Russia Research Institute of Agricultural
Radiology and Agroecology, Obninsk• Radiation Hygiene Research Institute, St. Petersburg• V. I. Vernadskij Institute of Geochemistry andAnalytical Chemistry of RAS, Moscow• Science-Production Corporation “V. G. Khlyupin
Radievyj Institut”, St. Petersburg• Institute of Problems of Safe Development ofAtomic Energy of RAS, Moscow• Institute of Applied Geophysics, Moscow• Moscow M. V. Lomonosov State University,
Moscow• A. N. Severtsov Institute of Evolution and Ecology
of RAS, Moscow
CBGD: Since 1991, efforts to create a Central
Bank of Generalized Data (CBGD) started at theInstitute of Problems of Safe Development of Atomic

V ACTIVITY OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATION ABOUT CHERNOBYLThe Union “Chernobyl” is the biggest and mostramified public organization uniting the participants inthe liquidation of the Chernobyl APS accident. Its
brief history follows:
1. August 1988 - an initiative group was created ofthose who worked in 1986 on the cleaning of the 3rd
and 4th blocks of the Chernobyl APS and who werestill working in the zone.
2. December 1988 - the first version of the union’s
Statutes was written up.
3. April 5-11, 1989 - the first four primaryorganizations of the future Union were created.
4. April 12, 1989 - the uniting session took place, thus
making the date of birth of the Union.
5. May 13, 1989 - 1st Conference of Union“Chernobyl” took place at the Zeleny Mys settlementin the Kiev region. The Statutes were approved, thefinal name of the Union was approved, the Board
was elected, and a declaration to all “liquidators” andto the public organizations and movements of the
USSR was composed.
6. April 14- the broadcast from the all-Union radio
station “Mayak” of a program about the organization,
its aims, and the tasks of the “Chernobyl” union.
In different cities and regions of the USSR,
organizations, societies and associations of“Chernobyl” people began to appear independently,
and already in October 1989, the All-Union
Conference of the “Chernobyl” Union was held in
Kiev. 344 persons from 11 republics of the USSR
participated in it.
The Union “Chernobyl” took the great tasks uponitself. Firstly, protection of the interests of the Union
members, their families, and the people affected by the
Chernobyl APS accident. Secondly, discovery of thetruth relating to Chernobyl and an objective analysis
44and analysis, as well as the means to interpret them bycomputer, enable carrying out systematic analysis andpredictions of radiation situation on polluted areas
with an acceptable level of precision and validity.
There is no analog of this set of models in terms of thescale and computer technology.

Energy of RAS. The information for CBGD was
supplied by tens of organizations participating in theliquidation of the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
accident, including those mentioned above. The total
volume of accumulated data is over 1 Gbyte. At
present, CBGD consists of more than 20 sub-banks
which include the following:- data bank on the radiation-hygienic situation insettlements (nearly 10 thousand settlements in
Russia, up to 150 indices about every settlement);- data bank on the radioactive pollution of agriculturaland forest lands, and agricultural products;- data bank on the demography (sex-age distribution
and sex-age mortality due to different causes from1982 to the present in the majority of Russian
regions);- data bank on the population’s migration in thezones of radioactive contamination;- data bank on the chemical pollution of atmosphere,
surface waters, agricultural lands and agricultural
products;- data bank on socio-psychological status of
population;- data bank on legislative acts, directive documents,
and reference information concerning the problem ofliquidating the consequences of radiation accidents
and catastrophes;- data bank of electronic maps of Russian territories
polluted with radionuclides with a scale of
1:500,000;- data bank on the registration of persons affected by
Chernobyl or other radiation catastrophes.
An integrated computer system has been
elaborated for analyzing and processing the CBGD
data. It can be used in different analyses and increating prognostication systems to support
decision-making by officials at the time of radiation
accidents. ‘Model Bank’ is a part of the integrated
system and consists of:- models of atmospheric transfer of radioactive
admixture;- models of migration of radionuclides in soil and inwater systems;- models of radionuclides transfer within food-chains;- models for analysis and processing of spatiallydistributed radioecological data;- models for calculating the radiation field andequivalent dose in human organs from sources withvarious geometrical forms.
- models for calculation of equivalent doses in 25
organs and tissues of persons of different ages incases of radioactive substances intake throughinhaled air, food, or direct injection into the blood;- models of risk calculation.
The system presupposes a wide choice of sources,
radionuclides and materials which are frequently usedin calculation. The formation of the data bank, modelbank, and development of methods of data processing

6.c. Dose estimation
Thyroid dose: The Medical Radiological Scientific
Centre (MRSC, Obninsk) of RAMS (Russian
Academy of Medical Sciences) and the Radiation
Hygiene Research Institute (St. Petersburg) have beenworking from the first weeks after the accident toreconstruct thyroid doses received by the populationof Russia as a result of the Chernobyl APS accident.
In the first weeks after the accident, the personnel ofthese institutions measured the Iodine-131 content in
the thyroid of approximately 31,000 persons. The
results of these direct measurements were used todevelop a dose reconstruction model which allowed
the carrying out of a retrospective assessment of
individual and average thyroid doses in settlements.
External dose: The State Scientific Centre of theRussian Federation - the Institute of Biophysics,
Moscow, has been involved in reconstructing the doseof external β- and γ-irradiation received by those who
worked in the zone of the Chernobyl accident. The
lack of individual dosemeters in the months just after
the accident and their virtual absence among themilitary servicemen and clean-up workers made suchstudies necessary. In order to improve the verifiabilityof the available information about γ-irradiation doses,
all ‘liquidators’ were divided into 10 cohorts withdifferent quantities: Chernobyl APS personnel,‘Sarcophagus’ builders, military liquidators and so on.
The distribution of individual doses of γ-irradiation
was determined for all cohorts, as well as thestatistical parameters including the average andmaximum values for each cohort. Doses of
β-irradiation of skin and crystalline lens received in
the first months after the accident were assessed using
the β/γ ratio, and, starting in July 1986, they were
measured in a sample of the liquidators using themultilayer dosemeters developed at the Institute ofBiophysics. The Medical Radiological Scientific
Centre (Obninsk) is concerned with a retrospective
assessment of individual accumulated doses among
the population of the central part of Russia after the
Chernobyl APS accident using the ‘EPR’ method(spectrometry of dental enamel). Dental clinics
collected extracted decayed teeth. More than 2,000
samples of individual accumulated doses have beenmeasured until now.
Internal dose: To reconstruct the internal
irradiation dose, special methods were developed at
the Institute of Biophysics of the Ministry of Healthand the RSC “Kurchatovskij Institut.” These methods
are based on the results of measurements of Chernobyl
45

liquidators of 1986-1987 (4.4%), 864 resettled people(0.2%). In 1993, there were registered 8,006 invalids
among the liquidators (2.2% - 1st class, 58.6% - 2ndclass, 32.9% - 3rd class). Incidentally, malignant
neoplasms constitute 3.61% within the structure of
disablement, while diseases of the nervous system andsensory organs - 26.39%, mental disorders - 15.12%.
Therefore, one of the most real and complicatedproblems in determining the socio-medical
after-effects of the Chernobyl catastrophe is toconduct a complex (integral) evaluation of the damage
to liquidators’ health, including both direct radiation
effects and other factors relating to participation in theliquidating work of Chernobyl.

radionuclide content in organs and tissues of those
who took part in the liquidation of the accident
consequences. The Radiation Hygiene ResearchInstitute (St. Petersburg, filial branch - Novozybkov)
carried out individual surveys of the cesium
radionuclides content in the organ of more than
90,000 people living on territories having a density ofCaesium-137 pollution over 550 kBq/m2. For the
purpose of effectively using the information obtained,
a data bank to reconstruct individual irradiation doses
is being developed at the institute. It includes primarydata of the radiometric surveys of the population, thedata on the radiation situation and social factors
determining irradiation conditions, as well as softwarefor verifying data and processing information.
In addition to the above, efforts to reconstruct theequivalent irradiation dose are being held in the
Laboratory of Radiation Genetics of the N. I. Vavilov
Institute of General Genetics, Moscow, by means of
the FISH method - fluorescence analysis ofchromosomes after in-situ hybridization of DNA
samples with specific reagents for certain
chromosomes. It is noteworthy that the dose definedby this method does not always coincide with theofficial dosimetric data.
Institute of Problems of Safe Development ofAtomic Energy of RAS are occupied with thelong-term prospective assessment of dose.

6.e. Other scientific organizations related to
Chernobyl
Besides the above-mentioned, the following
Russian institutes have also played a role in solving
various problems related to the Chernobyl APS
accident:• Hematological Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Endocrine Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Medico-Genetic Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Oncological Scientific Centre of RAMS.
• Moscow P. A. Gertsen Research Oncological
Institute.
• Research Institute of Neurology of RAMS.
• V. P. Serbskij State Scientific Centre of Social and
Juridical Psychiatry.
• Institute of Psychology of RAS.
• Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry.
• Department of Psychology of Moscow State
University.
• All-Russia Centre of Ecological Medicine.
• Research Institute of Experimental Veterinary.
• Republican
Science-Production
Veterinary
Radiological Laboratory• Institute of Biology of Komi Scientific Centre of
Ural Section of RAS.
• All-Russia Research Institute of Chemical
Production of Forestry.
• State Research Institute of Lake and River Fishery.
• Institute of Ecology of the International Engineering
Academy.
• Institute of Chemical Physics of RAS.
• Science-Production Corporation “Radon”.
• State Scientific Centre VNII NM of Academician A.
A. Bochvar.
• Kaluga Institute of Sociology.
• Institute of Economics of RAS.
• Institute of Physical Chemistry of RAS.
• Institute of Parasitology of RAS.
• Laboratory of Forest Science of RAS.
• Institute of Epidemiology of the Ministry of Health.
This list is far from complete.

6.d. Epidemiological study
In 1986, immediately after the Chernobyl APS
accident, the USSR Ministry of Health approved alarge-scaled program creating the All-Union
Distributed Register of irradiated persons. All
republics of the former Soviet Union were involved in
the creation of this Register as were a significant
number of scientific and other institutions.
Presently, the National Radiation-Epidemiological
Register (NRER) exists in Russia. The Ministry on
Emergencies of Russia is the general sponsor of thework carried out within the Register. The headorganization is the Medical Radiological Scientific
Centre of RAMS which collects primary medical anddosimetric data through 24 regional centers.
The Register includes three subsystems ofprincipal medical-dosimetric information:
1. Registration list of the people affected by irradiation
divided according to special dosimetric categories(Southern Urals, Altai, Chernobyl and other regions),
2. All-Russia State Medical-Dosimetric Register(RSMDR, so-called Chernobyl Register, created in1986).
3. Registry of expert councils.
Presently, the creation of the Chernobyl register in
Russia is practically over. At the end of 1994, the database of RSMDR contained information on 370,120
persons including 159,027 liquidators (43.0%), 8,091
evacuees (2.2%), 185,912 inhabitants of Russian
contaminated territories (50.2%), 16,226 children of46

The institute employs 8,500 staff in total: with thenumber of scientific staff at 3,048, technicians -2,562,
workers - 2,198 and other specialists - 692. There are
13 Academicians of RAS, and 900 Drs. and Cds. of
Dr. Academician VELIKHOV E.P. is the director of theInstitute.

VII

DESCRIPTION OF SOME LEADINGORGANIZATIONSa) Medical Radiological Scientific Centre (MRSC)
of RAMS was established based on the ResearchInstitute of Medical Radiology created in 1962 in
Obninsk. An academician, TSYB A. F., the chairmanof Russia Scientific Commission on Radiation
Protection, is the director of MRSC.
MRSC is a research and medical institution
concerned with fundamental and clinical radiobiology,
experimental radiology, radiopharmaceutics, radiation
diagnostics,
radiation
epidemiology,
andradiooncology.
MRSC consists of 10 departments uniting 32
laboratories and sections as well as 11 independentscientific units. The Center’s clinic has 400 beds.
The Center’s staff numbers over 1900 including
350 scientists (25 professors, 51 Drs. and 174
candidates of Dr.).
From the first days after the Chernobyl APS
catastrophe in 1986, scientists and specialists of
MRSC have been engaged actively in efforts
concerning the estimation of possible medical
consequences of the accident and the elaboration of
measures to mitigate their influence on human health.
At present, MRSC conducts studies of the biologicaleffects of small doses of radiation, reconstruction ofirradiation doses using cytogenetic methods andEPR-spectrometry, epidemiological investigations of
the Russian population. Regular investigations arecarried out in Kaluga, Bryansk and other regions. As
described before, the Chernobyl Registry (RSMDR) is
maintained by MRSC.
In addressing the Chernobyl-related scientific andmedical problems, MRSC collaborates fruitfully with
WHO, IAEA, Commission of European Community,scientists from Japan, Germany, USA, Great Britain,
Finland, France and other countries.
b) Russian Scientific Center "Kurchatovskij
Institut" was organized in November of 1991 based on
the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy. The former
Kurchatov Institute was established during World War
II for special military purposes. After quick success inachieving its first task, the Kurchatov Institute began
to work in a wide range of scientific fields not only for
military, but for peaceful, practical and fundamental
purposes. The scope of the Institute gradually widened
to where it has contained practically every field of thenatural sciences.
At present, the main activities of the Institute are
related to the development of safe and clean nuclear
energy (power reactor and fuel cycle), control ofthermo-fusion and plasma processes, and research fornuclear physics of low and medium energy, solid
physics and superconductivity.

c) Institute of Biophysics was established in 1946
to investigate the effects of ionizing radiation on livingorganisms and the methods to ensure radiation safetyof persons working in the nuclear industry. It belonged
at first to the Academy of Medical Sciences of the
USSR and then was moved under the Ministry of
Health of the USSR. Since 1995, it has been called theState Scientific Center of Russian Federation Institute of Biophysics.
The principal activities of the Institute are researchin the fields of radiobiology in animals and man,medical cures for radiation syndrome and protectionof individuals from various sources of radiation.
Standards for radiation safety in the USSR have beendeveloped based on the results of this research.
Radiation dosemeters, various instruments andmedicines have also been invented to protect thepeople from radiation.
There are 5 Academicians and one associate
Academician in the Institute. There are now 64 Drs.
and 215 Cds. of Dr. Since 1968, Academician IL'IN
L.A. has been the director of the Institute

VIII

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIONRELATED TO CHERNOBYL
8.a. Cooperation within the framework of the
4-side agreement among CEC, Russia,
Ukraine and the Republic of Belarus
The long-term and structural help began after
concluding an agreement on June 23, 1992, between
the Commission of European Community, theRepublic of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine on
overcoming the consequences of the Chernobyl
catastrophe.
Thisagreement
permitted
theinvolvement of the leading scientific institutions in thefields of radioecology and radiation medicine of thedifferent EC countries into direct cooperation withthose institutes of the former USSR which since thefirst stage in 1986 had worked actively on the accident
liquidation.
The first step within the framework of thisCEC-CIS agreement was the organization of 7
experimental and research projects in 1992. In 1994,
the number of projects was increased to 16. Presently,
specialists of 30 Russia institutes participate in them.
The EC partners are represented by nearly all leading
institutes of CEC countries.
Implementation of these projects is not
humanitarian aid, but rather presupposes theequivalent participation of the 4 sides. From the side47

At the end of 1995, a protocol of agreement was
signed between the Ministry on Emergencies of
Russian Federation and the International Union ofRadioecologists about a project of Program of
Independent International Expertise called the“Assessment of the Actual State and Ecological Safetyof the Alienation Zone and Influence to the AdjacentZone.”
This project (costing 900,000 ECU) is being
carried out by the initiative of Ukrainian
Minchernobyl with the participation of the Ministry on
Emergencies of Belarus and that of Russia.
The Ministry on Emergencies supports thecooperation of Ukrainian and Belarussian scientists
and will assist with the Program.

of CEC, financial support is given according to itemsof the agreement: equipment, exchange of scientists
and local support. Thus, from 1992 to 1995, within theframework of agreement the CEC side provided nearly
2 million ECU. This is quite a significant contribution
to support the intellectual part of the program - toprovide help to Russian scientists. It was aconsiderable help in purchasing up-to-date scientificequipment. The sum used to procure equipment for theyears of the collaboration reached more than 0.5
million US dollars.
In 1993, the Coordinative Council decided tocreate national secretariats in each participating
republic in order to support cooperation and to solve
practical problems. It was worthy to note thathigh-ranking officials of Ministries on Emergencies of
Russia, Belarus, of Minchernobyl of Ukraine and theXII Directorate of EC entered into the Coordinative
Council. In 1994, the structure of project coordination
was perfected, and the Directive Group was created.
The mission of the Directive Group was to guarantee
the implementation of projects according to the policyof the Coordinative Council, as well as to prepare
reports on project implementation for the Coordinative
Council.
Russians had close contacts not only with therepresentatives of western laboratories, but also with
Ukrainian and Belarussian scientists. The experience
gained by this collaboration is very important toestablish partnerships on all levels of executive power
across the CIS.
The Minsk Conference about this work (March
18-22, 1996) may serve as a good example ofsuccessful cooperation. The complex approach ofinternational groups to solving the task of how to
overcome the greatest nuclear accident of the XX
century is reflected in its proceedings.

8.d. Cooperation with UNESCO
The program of cooperation between the USSR
and UNESCO surrounding Chernobyl problems wasestablished in June of 1990.
According to the “UNESCO-Chernobyl” Program,
235,000 US dollars were provided for purchase of
equipment, reconstruction of buildings, and training ofspecialists-psychologists for three centers ofsocio-psychological rehabilitation being created in
Uzlovaya (Tula region), Nikolskaya Sloboda (Bryansk
region) and Bolkhov (Orel region).
Additionally, UNESCO gave 12,000 US dollars
for equipment to be used of the childhood sport
schools in Novozybkov, the Bryansk region.
In its first stage, the “UNESCO-Chernobyl”
Program foresaw implementation of 70 projects on the
territories of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus concerning
the liquidation of the Chernobyl APS accident
consequences. Taking into consideration certain
priorities, 30 projects were selected for realization
including 9 on the Russian territory. In order tooversee their implementation, the Coordinative
Council was created consisting of representatives ofBelarus, Russia, Ukraine and UNESCO. The projects
listed below are being carried out successfully:- Project No. 1 “Language Support” has been carriedout from 1992 until the present.
- Project No. 18 “Associated Schools”; within its
framework the spread of knowledge is expectedamong pupils about prophylactic measures in casethey stay in the areas affected by the Chernobyl APS
accident.
- Project No. 32-33 “Creation of Zones ofSocio-Economical Development”. Such zones willbe created in Gagarin, the Smolensk region.
- Project No. 42-45 “Culture” has been in place since1993. The exchange of art exhibitions, musicians has
been taking place. The International Seminar“Children of Chernobyl” was held in France in 1994.
- Project No. 79 “Sport Equipment” was conducted in
Novozybkov, the Bryansk region.

8.b. Cooperation with the Commission ofEuropean Community within the frameworkof TASIS program
Cooperation between the Ministry on Emergenciesof the Russian Federation and CEC within theframework of the TASIS program has been lesssuccessful. This is due to the fact that there is not acapable infrastructure in Russia to permit the planningand implementation of the project, and that Russian
specialists, mainly from the affected regions, are notclosely involved with the work.
In 1995, within the framework of the TASIS
program, it was planned to start a project costing
about 400,000 ECU to train medical personnel inthyroid cancer therapy.
This program is expected in total to complete 3-4
projects concerning Chernobyl.
8.c. Cooperation with the International Union ofRadioecologists

48

8.e. Cooperation with the World HealthOrganization (WHO)From 1991 to 1994, 6 projects of WHO’s program
were carried out in Russia: “Medical Aspects of theChernobyl
Accident”
IPHECA,“Thyroid”,“Hematology”,“Epidemiological
Register”,“Sustaining Activity (Biological and PhysiologicalDosimetry)” and “Pre-Natal Injury of Brain”. The
Bryansk and Kaluga regions of Russia, which are themost polluted with radionuclides, were covered bythese projects.
The IPHECA (International Program on the Health
Effects of the Chernobyl Accident) program’s budget
for three affected countries constituted 20 million US
dollars received by WHO mainly from the governmentof Japan. Russia received unique diagnostic anddosimetric equipment through this program, as well as
hardware costing a total of nearly 6.5 million US
dollars. The use and operation of the equipment
purchased are under the supervision of WHO.
51 Russian specialists were trained in foreign
centers which accounts for part of the IPHECA
program’s budget. 16 Russian medical specialists
visited Japan (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) in 1992-1994
at WHO’s expense to participate in a one-monthtraining course on medical equipment.
The IPHECA program is oriented to diagnosis of
diseases and analysis of their possible relationshipwith irradiation factors. Regretfully, medical
assistance to the people who revealed pathology is notincluded within the framework of this program.
In 1994, the budget of the IPHECA program was
exhausted. The results of the implemented studies
were generalized in a report “Medico-RadiologicalResearch in Prior Directions” published by WHO at
the end of 1995. The pilot project “Thyroid” hasbecome a permanent project. It is also planned tocontinue research on the “Dosimetry” project. A new
project “Liquidator” has also been formulated andapproved.
8.f. Cooperation within the Russian-German
Dosimetry Program
In 1991-1993, the Russian-German Dosimetry
Program was carried out successfully to solve theproblem of how to define radiation burden on the
population and environment of the territories of theRussian Federation affected as a result of theChernobyl catastrophe. The German side gave to
Russia 4 movable research laboratories equipped withwhole body counters, devices to measure radioactivityof environmental samples, and two camping-vans. The
total cost of the equipment was 1.25 million Germanmarks. Nearly 200,000 people living on polluted areasof Russia were observed as a result of this joint
project.

8.g. Cooperation with the USA
According to a treaty between the government of
the Russian Federation and the government of UnitedStates of America, an agreement was concluded aboutcollaboration in the field of studying radiation effects
in order to minimize the influences of radiation
pollution on human health and the environment. The
planned budget of this program is 1 million US
dollars. The projects are planned to look at theradiation consequences of the activity of the
production corporation “Mayak” in the South Ural.
The cooperation plans in the future to include projects
related to the consequences of the Chernobyl APS
accident and nuclear weapons tests at the
Semipalatinsk testing ground.
8.h. Cooperation with France
The French public organization “Rotary Club”
supplied, as humanitarian aid, an immuno-pharmiclaboratory costing 162,000 francs to the All-Russia
Centre of Radioecological Medicine (St. Petersburg),
and trained service personnel. Besides this, theorganization provided technical maintenance for two
years.
On June 23, 1993, according to a commission of
the Russian Government, an agreement was concluded
with the Medical Committee on Nuclear Safety of theFrench Republic about a cooperation in the field ofstudying the consequences of radiation accidents andexchanging knowledge of how to control
post-accident situations. At present, works on
implementing this agreement is being continued.
8.i. Cooperation with Japan
Cooperation with Japan at an official level started
in 1990 based on an agreement between the Japanese
government and the USSR. Within the framework ofthis cooperation, Japanese scientists of the Radiation
Effect Research Foundation (RERF), National
Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), Universityof Hiroshima, University of Nagasaki and others havebeen involved. The experience in Japan of overcoming
the after-effects of the atomic bombing ofHiroshima-Nagasaki provided valuable information to
the USSR, later the CIS, scientists to cope with theconsequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe. Other
than the official level, the Sasakawa Memorial HealthFoundation launched the "Chernobyl Sasakawa
Project" in 1991 to provide medical services financed
at 5 billion yen over five years. They created 5 clinicalcenters and have examined more than 130,000
children around the contaminated territories in Russia,
Belarus and Ukraine. There are also many otherNGOs in Japan carrying out humanitarian activity tohelp the sufferers of the Chernobyl catastrophe.

49

16. "Effects of Radioactive Contamination on the
Ecosystem on the Ground in the Zone of the Chernobyl
NPP Accident (1986-1996)", Trudwi Komi Nauch.
Tsentra Uralskoy Otdeleniya RAN, No. 145, Syktyvkar,
1996 (in Russian).
17. MERWIN S.E. and BALNOV M.I. ed., "The Chernobyl
Papers", Vol.I, Research Enterprises, Washington,
1993.
18. YAROSHINSKAYA A.A., "Chernobyl: Top Secret",Drugie-Berega, Moscow, 1992 (in Russian).
19. YAROSHINSKAYA A.A. ed., "Nuclear Encyclopedia",Blagstvoritelny Fond Yaroshinskoy, Moscow, 1996 (inRussian).
20. SOKOLOV V.E., RYABOV I.N., RYABTSEV I.A. et.al.,"Effect of Radioactive Contamination on the Flora andFauna in the Vicinity of Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant", Soviet Scientific Reviews, Section F, Harwood
Academic Publishers. 1994.
21. "Medical Aspects of the Chernobyl Accident",
IPHECA report, WHO/EHG 95.19, 1995 (in Russian).
22. "Transfer of Radionuclides to Animals, Their
Comparative Importance under Different Agricultural
Ecosystems and Appropriate Countermeasures",
EC-Experimental Collaboration Project No. 9, Final
Report, ECSC-EC-EAEC, Brussels, 1996.
23. "Radiation Dose to Liquidators", Byulleten
Natsionalnogo
Radiatsionno-Epidemiologicheskogo
Registra, 2, Obninsk, 1995 (in Russian).
24. TSYB A.F., "Development of the All-Union Registerfor the Sufferers from Radiation of the Chernobyl
Accident", Meditsinskaya Radilogiya, 1989, No. 7, pp.
3-6 (in Russian).
V.K.,
TSYB
A.F.
et.al.,
25. IVANOV"Radiation-Epidemiological Analysis of RSMDR Data
about Participants in the Liquidation of the Chernobyl
NPP Accident", Atomnaya Energiya, 78(2), 121-127,
1995 (in Russian).
26. NIKIFOROV A.M., SHANTYR I.I. et.al., "Radiation
Dose to the Participants in the Liquidation of theChernobyl Accident", International Conf. One Decade
after Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of theAccident, Vienna., April 8-12, 1996. pp. 192-194 (inRussian).
27. KARPOV V.B., YAKOVLEVA N.G. et.al., "SomeCharacteristics of Health Status of Liquidators of theChernobyl Accident, Inhabitants in the ContaminatedTerritories and Participants of Nuclear Weapon
Experiments", ibid., p. 338 (in Russian).
28. IVANOV E.V., BALONOV M.I. et.al., "Concentration
for Radiation, Medical and Social Protection of
Inhabitants Suffering from Radiation Accident", ibid.,
pp. 342-343 (in Russian).

IX LIST OF IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONSBY RUSSIAN SCIENTISTS ON CHERNOBYL
1. "Information to IAEA about the Chernobyl NPP
Accident", Atomnaya Energiya, 61(5), 301-320, 1986
(in Russian).
2. "Ecological Consequences in the Natural Environment
in the Area Contaminated by the Chernobyl Accident",
UNESCO Report to XIV Session, Nairobi, June 1987.
3. ASMOLOV V.G., BOROVOI A.A., DEMIN V.F.,
KALUGIN A.K. et.al., "The Chernobyl Accident: One
Year After", Atomnaya Energiya, 64(1), 3-23, 1987 (inRussian).
4. "ProblemsofEcological
Monitoring",
Scientific-practical Conference, Bryansk, 1991 (inRussian).
5. KRISHEVA I.I. ed., "Radioecological Consequencesof the Chernobyl Accident", USSR Nuclear Society,1991 (in Russian).
6. "Radioecological, Medical and Social-EconomicalConsequencesoftheChernobyl
Accident:
Rehabilitation of Territories and Inhabitants",
All-Russian Conference, 1995 (in Russian).
7. BURLAKOVA E.B. ed., "Consequences of theChernobyl Catastrophe: Human Health", Center for
Russian Environmental Policy, Moscow, 1996.
8. ZAKHAROV V.M. and KRYSANOV E.YU. ed.,"Consequences of the Chernobyl Catastrophe:
Environmental
Health",Centerfor
RussianEnvironmental Policy, Moscow, 1996.
9. ADAMOV E.O., IONOV A.I., PODLATSOZ L.N. et.al.,"Extended Analysis of the First Phase during the
Accident Process at the 4th Reactor of ChNPP", FirstInternational Working Group for Severe Accident and
Their Consequences, Nauka, Moscow, 1990, pp. 33-38(in Russian).
10. ADAMOV E.O., VAZINGER V.V. et.al., "Qualitative
Evaluation of the Effects of Possible Disturbances at theTime of the Chernobyl Accident", ibid., pp. 48-68 (inRussian).
11. IZRAEL YU.A. et.al., "Radioactive Contamination in
the Environment in the Zone of the Chernobyl NPP
Accident", Meteorologiya i gidrologiya, 1987, No. 2
pp. 5-18 (in Russian).
12. Izrael Yu.A., "Chernobyl: Contamination in theEnvironment", Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1990 (inRussian).
13. IZRAEL YU.A. et.al., "Radioactive Contamination by
Caesium-137 in the European Part of CIS Territory in
1992 as the Result of the Chernobyl NPP Accident",
Metodika i Nekotory Rezultatwi Aviatsionnoy
Gamma-semki Radioaktivnogo Zagryazneniya Territorii
Evropeiskoy
Chast
Rossii,
Gidrometoizdat,
St.Petersburg, 1994, pp. 16-51 (in Russian).
14. POPOVA O.N., TASKAEV A.I. et.al., "Genetic Stability
and Variability of Seeds of Grass Population in theZone of the Chernobyl NPP Accident", Nauka,
St.Petersburg, 1992 (in Russian).
15. KOZUBOK G.M., TASKAEV A.I., et.al., "Radiation
Effects on Coniferous Forest in the Zone of theChernobyl NPP Accident", Syktyvkar, 1990 (inRussian).

Acknowledgment: The authors are grateful to Dr.
Anatoly A. IGNATOVICH of the Institute of Radiobiology,
Academy of Sciences of Belarus and Ms. Cynthia
HEFFELFINGER of Tokyo Institute of Foreign Language
for their useful comments and help in preparation of themanuscript.

50