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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Table of Contents
Volume 9

Number 10

September 2019

Preface: Cretaceous Earth Dynamics and Climate in Asia
G. Li, K. M. Xu, Z. G. Ning, P. Schnabl, X. Li, Z. G. Zhang, J. Qin, Y. B. Huang, J. Guo…………………………539

The Key Role of Aptian-Albian Marine Fossils from Eastern Heilongjiang in
Marine-Nonmarine Stratigraphic Correlation
G. Li, P. Bengtson……………………………………………………………………………………………………543

Taphonomy and Sedimentological Significance of Oyster Shell Beds within Cretaceous
Transgressive Sediments in Japan
H. Ando………………………………………………………………………………………………………………547

Land-Ocean Linkage: Pelagic Cherts in Mesozoic Neritic-Terrestrial Sequencesin East Asia
A. Matsuoka, T. Ito, Y. Sakai……………………………………………………………………………..……………551

New Data on the Litho- and Biostratigraphy of the J/K Boundary Interval of the Lower
Reaches of the Lena River (Eastern Siberia)
I. N. Kosenko, O. S. Urman, E. K. Metelkin, B. N. Shurygin, A. E. Igolnikov….…………………………………554

Macrofossil Assemblages in the Ryazanian Stage (Lower Cretaceous) of the Stratotype Region
O. S. Urman, B. N. Shurygin, O. S. Dzyuba……………………………………………..……………………………558

Biradiolites from the Yigeziya Formation of the Southwestern Tarim Basin
X. Rao…………………………………….……………………………………………………………….……………562

First Report of Redeposited Cretaceous Radiolarians in the Eocene Sand-Shale Member ofZhepure Formation, Tüna, Yadong, Tibet
X. F. Li, G. B. Li……………………………………………………………………………………...…………………566

Hauterivian-Barremian Bivalves from the Boulouha Formation of the Dahar Escarpment,
Southern Tunisia: Stratigraphy and Regional Correlation
B. Kamel, J. Sha, S. Mohamed, G. Li, B. A. Walid, O. Mohamed……………………………………………………569

Kimmeridgian Foraminiferal Faunas of Northern Eurasia: Significance for Interregional
Correlations and Palaeobiogeography
C. P. A.-M. Colpaert, B. L. Nikitenko……………………………………..………………………..…………………573

Origin of Angiosperms and Their Diversification in the Cretaceous
X. Wang…………………………………………………………..……………………………………….……………577

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Preliminary Study of Flora from the Upper Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formationin Luozigou Basin, Wangqing, Jilin Province, Northeast China
Q. Xu, X. J. Yang…………………………………………………..………………………………………...…………581

Phototropism of Petrified Wood and Its Relation with the Rotation of Different Blocks
in China and the Possibility of Application in the World
Z. K. Jiang, B. P. Liu, Y. D. Wang, M. Huang, T. Kapitany, N. Tian, Y. Cao, Y. Z. Lu, S. H. Deng………………585

Pollen and Spores from the Lower Cretaceous of Central Mongolia andTheir Paleoclimatic SignificanceN. Odgerel, N. Ichinnorov, A. Eviikhuu, B. Tegshbayar…………………..…………………………………………589

The Origin and Diversification of Plant Family Dipterocarpaceae
M. Bansal, S. K. Nagaraju, V. Prasad……………………………..………………………………...…………………593

The Stratigraphic, Palaeobiogeographic and Phylogenetic Significance of Aquilapollenites
S. Mishra, S. P. Kadukothanahalli Nagaraju, M. Bansal, V. Prasad……..………………………………...…………597

Advances in the Study of the Non-Marine Ostracods in Luanping Basin, Northern Hebei(North China): A Preliminary Result
Z. H. Qin, D. P. Xi, B. Sames, Q. Q. Pang, X. Q. Wan…………………..……………………………………………601

Late Turonian Microfossils and Paleoclimate in the Songliao Basin, NE China
Y. Cui, D. P. Xi, Z. H. Qin, X. Q. Wan………………………………………..………………………………………605

A Hope for an Integrated Taxonomy of Fossil and Extant Clam Shrimps
G. Li, X. Teng…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………609

SEM Morphological Study of the Paratype of the Spinicaudatan Feiyunella zhedongensis(Chen and Shen, 1977) from Cretaceous of Linhai, Zhejiang, South-East China
X. Teng, G. Li………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………613“Conchostracan” Records from Western Gondwana Related to Cretaceous
Palaeoclimatic Features
O. Gallego, N. Cabaleri, C. Armella, M. Monferran, V. Jiménez, I. Zacarías, D. S. Nieto……………………….…616

New Vertebrate Fossil Site from the Early Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation, Sakon Nakhon
Province, Northeastern Thailand
P. Chanthasit, S. Suteethorn, W. Naksri, H. Y. Tong, K. Wongko, T. Sonoda……………………………………619

Induszalim bala Mesoeucrocodile from Pakistan
M. S. Malkani…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………623

Smallest Titanosaur from Indo-Pakistan Landmass
M. S. Malkani…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………627

Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 539-730
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Medium Sized Stocky Titanosaur from South Asia
M. S. Malkani…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………631

Large Titanosaur from Indo-Pakistan Peninsula
M. S. Malkani………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………635

Cretaceous-Paleogene Transition of Reptilian Tetrapods across Deccan Volcanism in India
D. M. Mohabey, B. Samant………………………………..…………………………………………………………639

Vitakrisaurus saraiki Theropod from South Asia
M. S. Malkani…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………643

The Cretaceous of Shandong Province
Y. Q. Liu, H. W. Kuang, K. M. Xu, Z. G. Ning, N. Peng, S. X. Du, J. Chen…………………………………………646

Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Paleoenvironment and Terrestrial Biota in Shandong Province
H. W. Kuang, Y. Q. Liu, K. M. Xu, Z. G. Ning, N. Peng……………………………………..………………………650

Comparison of the Palaeomagnetic Parameters of Non-Marine Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary
Sediments in Dorset (SW England), Hebei and Liaoning (NE China)—A Preliminary Study
P. Schnabl, G. Li, Š. Kdýr, G. Kletetschka, P. Skupien, A. Svobodová, K. Hladíková, M. Cao,W. A. P. Wimbledon……………………………………………………………………………………..……………654

A New Understanding of the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation in Western Liaoning
Z. J. Wu, L. W. Qiu, H. P. Wang……………………………………………..……………………………..…………658

A Research of the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary in the Pingyi Basin, Shandong Province
J. Chen, S. X. Du, C. Chen, F. C. Liu, Z. G. Ning, X. S. Song, S. C. Liu, H. N. Lu, Y. Q. Liu, H. W. Kuang…….……661

Magnetic Susceptibilities in the Cretaceous-Paleogene Section in Uzgruň, Czech Republic
T. Elbra, P. Schnabl, Š. Kdýr, M. Bubík………………………..………………………………………………...……665

Jurassic-Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Malaysia
M. N. B. A. Rahman…………………………………………………………..…………..……………………………668

Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Pakistan
M. S. Malkani…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………671

The Difference between Jurassic and Cretaceous Cherts in Central Europe and Its Heat
Treatment before Stone Chip-Ping (Pilot Study)
P. Schnabl, M. Monik, Z. Nerudova, D. Milde, S. Kdyr.……………………………………………………………674

Reconciliation of the Early Slip History of the Altyn Tagh Fault, Northern Tibetan
F. Lv, B. Ran, C. S. Wang, L. D. Zhu, Z. J. Wang, Y. Y. Han………………………………………………………677

The Cretaceous Tectono-Stratigraphic Complexes of Priamurye (Far East of Russia)
G. L. Kirillova…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………680

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Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Phu Sung Fossil Site of the Lower Cretaceous
Sao Khua Formation, Sakon Nakhon Province, Northeastern Thailand
P. Ditbanjong, P. Chanthasit, K. Wongko………………………………..…………………………………………684

Overview of Cretaceous Non-Marine Deposits and Their Palaeoclimatic Characteristics
in the North of Vietnam
N. X. Khien, N. T. M. Ngoc……………………………………..………………………………………..……………688

Late Cretaceous Climate of the Indian Subcontinent
V. Prasad…………………………………………………………..…………………………………...………………692

Evaluation of Cretaceous Hinterland Weathering and Climate in the Sichuan Basin, SW China
T. Cho, H. Mantani, T. Ohta, G. Li……………………..………………………………………………..……………696

Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Erg Deposits in the Mengyin Basin, Western Shandong
Province, China: Inferences about the Wind Regime and Paleogeography
H. Xu, Y. Q. Liu, H. W. Kuang, N. Peng, K. M. Xu, J. Chen……………….……………………………...…………700

The Cretaceous Period of Weather Similar to the Present One and Its Diverse“Conchostracan” Fauna
O. F. Gallego, M. D. Monferran, V. C. Jiménez, I. A. Zacarías, C. Armella, D. S. Nieto, N. G. Cabaleri…………704

Formation Mechanism of Reduction Spheroids with Dark Cores in Cretaceous Red Beds
in Jiaolai Basin, China
Y. Yang, W. Z. Fu, J. F. Yu, Z. G. Ning, J. J. Cui, Q. Li, X. L. Wang, X. Z. Zhuo……………………………………707

Lithostratigraphy of the Late Cretaceous Khao Ya Puk Formation in Nakhon Thai Region,
Thailand: Implication for Depositional Environment
P. Nulay, P. Intharajak…………………………………………..……………………………..………………………711

Landslide Hazard Zoning in Na Heaw District, Loei Province, Northeastern Thailand
N. Khampilang, P. Nulay…………………………………..………………………………………………..…………714

Study of Rock Mechanic Property and Mineralogy Relationship of the Huai Hin Lat
Formation, Sap Phlu Basin, Northeastern Thailand: Implications
for Understanding of Shale Gas Reservoir RockB. Arsairai, N. Ruenmai, Q. L. Feng, C. Chonglakmani……………………………………………………...………718

Field Excursion Introduction for IGCP 679 1st International Symposium: Progress in
Cretaceous Geology in Shandong Province, China
K. M. Xu, G. Li, Z. G. Ning, Y. P. Wang, J. Qin, F. Z. Zhang, X. Z. Li, X. Q. Zhu…………………………………722

Diversification of Eupolypods in Mid-Cretaceous—Evidenced
by Myanmar Amber Forest
C. X. Li, L. B. Zhang…………………………………………………………………………………………………726

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 539-542
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Preface

Cretaceous Earth Dynamics and Climate in Asia
Gang Li1*, Kemin Xu2, Zhenguo Ning2, Petr Schnabl3, Xin Li1, Zhigang Zhang2, Jie Qin2,
Yongbo Huang2, Jing Guo2
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Nanjing, China
2
Institute of Geology, Shandong Institute of Geological Survey, Jinan, China
3
Institute of Geology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
1

Since the industrial revolution, the increasing usage of fossil energy by hu-

How to cite this paper: Li, G., Xu, K.M.,
Ning, Z.G., Schnabl, P., Li, X., Zhang, Z.G., mans has led to a continuous increase in atmospheric CO2 emissions, thereby
Qin, J., Huang, Y.B. and Guo, J. (2019) disrupting and unbalancing the global carbon cycle [1]. The direct result is a
Preface: Cretaceous Earth Dynamics andvery rapid global warming. We are now experiencing its likely effects, such as
Climate in Asia. Open Journal of Geology,
the waning of pole ice caps, rising sea levels, regional changes in precipitation,
9, 539-542.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910036
acidification of the ocean, more frequently extreme weather events (such as heat
Received: August 30, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019waves), and expansion of deserts. The development of human civilization urgently requires us to acquire a deeper understanding of the development trendof this rapid climate change and its environmental effects, a topic that in recent

years has become a hot issue of common concern from the general public to the
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
scientific community [2] [3].
This work is licensed under the Creative
The Asian continent offers unique opportunities for studying the Cretaceous
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
greenhouse climate and ecosystems. A variety of environments resulted in dihttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Accessverse ecosystems on land and in the oceans. Cretaceous marine strata of theeastern Tethys (India and Tibet of China) and the western Pacific (Japan, South

Korea, China and Russia) open an indispensable window for the study of theoceanic anoxic events, oceanic oxygen-rich events and rapid climate changes [4][5] [6]. Cretaceous continental deposits in Asia [7] [8] [9] [10] contain abundantterrestrial organisms that witness the ecosystem evolution and significant rapid
climate changes [11] [12] [13].
Various Cretaceous terrestrial lithologic records and large igneous provincesin Asia bear witness to the environmental changes and ecosystem evolution [14][15]. Cretaceous pedogenic carbonates of paleosols and fossil leaf stomatal index
quantitatively depicted the fluctuation and evolutionary trends of the atmospheric CO2 levels [16]. Desert deposits in the interior regions of the continent(Mongolia, China, and Thailand) reveal the shift of subtropical high-pressure
belt and dramatic changes in climatic zonation pattern in Asia [17].
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G. Li et al.

In this special issue, there are 50 short research papers covering a broad spectrum of fields reflecting many facets of biodiversity, palaeoenvironment,
palaeogeography and palaeoclimate from the marine and non-marine Cretaceous sequences in Asia. The special issue is divided into four sections: 1) new
research results on fossil records in the marine Cretaceous deposits in Asia provide important taphonomic [18], palaeogeographic and palaeoecological information which are useful for inter-continental, marine and non-marine biostratigraphic correlation [19] [20], and palaeoceanographic and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction; 2) new research results on Cretaceous non-marine
fossil records provide the information of the palaeogeography, palaeoecology
and palaeoclimate on land in Asia and South America, including a discussion
on the origin of angiosperm [21], the turnover of fossil flora and faunas, andthe description of new dinosaur taxa; 3) the overview of progress in the Cretaceous stratigraphy in China, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Far East of Russia, Thailand and Vietnam, especially including a discussion on the new stratigraphic
framework in Shandong province [22], and the new progress on the Jurassic/Cretaceous and Cretaceous/Paleogene boundaries in China; 4) Cretaceous
palaeoclimate reconstruction based on evidence from fossil records, special
lithology and palaeo-weathering index. The Late Cretaceous floral turn-over in
the Indian subcontinent indicates a latitudinal shifting of the Indian plate fromsub-tropical to tropical zone during the Maastrichtian [23]. A palaeoweathering
analysis of claystone samples intercalated within the mid-Cretaceous aeolian
sandstone indicates that an alternate pluvious/arid paleoclimate controls the
Sichuan basin during the mid-Cretaceous [24]. Aeolian deposits documented
in the Santai Formation in the Mengyin Basin may indicate a change inpalaeowind regime during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous time interval[25]. The four sections of the special issue are topically overlapping and closely
linked. They demonstrate a new exciting start of the UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Acknowledgements
We are sincerely grateful for the critical reviews of all referees who helped to
improve the manuscripts included in the present volume. The study was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences (XDB26000000) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China(41572006, 41688103, 41972007). This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS
IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 543-546
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The Key Role of Aptian-Albian Marine Fossils
from Eastern Heilongjiang in
Marine-Nonmarine Stratigraphic Correlation
Gang Li1*, Peter Bengtson2
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Nanjing, China
2
Institute of Earth Sciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
1

How to cite this paper: Li, G. and
Bengtson, P. (2019) The Key Role of Aptian-Albian Marine Fossils from Eastern
Heilongjiang in Marine-Nonmarine Stratigraphic Correlation. Open Journal of Geology, 9, 543-546.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910037
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
The alternating marine and nonmarine coal-bearing Lower Cretaceous successions are well developed in eastern Heilongjiang, northeastern China, including the Jixi Group in the west and the Longzhaogou Group in the east.
The correlation of these two lithostratigraphic groups with the nonmarine
Jehol Group is important for dating the exceptionally well-preserved Jehol
Biota. The Early Cretaceous marine fossils recovered from eastern Heilongjiang include ammonites, bivalves, radiolarians, foraminifers and dinocysts.
During the early Aptian transgression the ammonite fauna entered the Hulin
and Mishan areas and the bivalve Aucellina fauna in the Jixi area. This
enables correlation of the marine lower part of the Chengzihe Formation of
the Jixi Group with the Qihulin Formation of the Longzhaogou Group.

Keywords
Lower Cretaceous, Aptian, Albian, Marine-Nonmarine Correlation, Marine
Fossils, Eastern Heilongjiang, Northeastern China

1. Introduction
The upper Mesozoic deposits in China are mainly of nonmarine origin [1] [2].
The lack of index fossils makes it difficult to correlate precisely the nonmarine
Cretaceous successions with the standard geological time scale. In particular, it isproblematic to identify the nonmarine Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary [3], and todate the well-known Jehol Biota [4] [5]. In eastern Heilongjiang in northeastern
China, an upper Lower Cretaceous succession of alternately marine and nonmaDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910037 Sep. 20, 2019

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G. Li, P. Bengtson

rine coal-bearing rocks is well-developed, comprising the Jixi Group in the west
(in which component taxa of the Jehol Biota were recovered) and theLongzhaogou Group in the east [6]. Since the discovery of the first ammonite
specimen in 1958 [7], the coal-bearing beds in eastern Heilongjiang have attracted the attention of the Chinese geologists, not only because of the economic
value of the coal, but also owing to the difficulties of stratigraphic correlation of
the nonmarine and marine beds.

2. Marine Transgressions in Eastern Heilongjiang
The Early Cretaceous transgressions introduced marine faunas into eastern Heilongjiang, thus providing opportunities to correlate the Jixi and Longzhaogou
groups. During the early Aptian transgression, the seawater advanced from theeastern continental margin through a narrow bay across the Hulin and Mishanareas to the Jixi area. The lower Aptian marine beds of the lower part of theChengzihe Formation (Jixi Group) have yielded an Aucellina (A.) caucasi-

ca-Filosina subovalis-Thracia rotundata assemblage [8]. The contemporaneous
marine Qihulin Formation (Longzhaogou Group) has yielded the following macro- and micro-faunas: 1) a low-diversity ammonite fauna dominated by Pseu-

dohaploceras? cf. nipponicum and Pseudohaploceras peideense, with subordinate Eogaudryceras (E.) cf. yunshanense [9]; 2) an abundant bivalve fauna containing Nuculana (Praesaccella) cf. yatsushiroensis, Filosina subovalis and Thracia rotundata [8]; 3) a low-diversity, poorly preserved radiolarian fauna containing Archaeodictyomitra sp., Novixitus sp. and Xitus sp. [10]; 4) a
low-diversity agglutinated foraminifer fauna with Cribrostomoides nonioninoides, Haplophragmoides concavus and H. gigas minor [11].
The upper Aptian marine deposits of the upper part of the Yunshan Formation (Longzhaogou Group) are characterized by an Aucellina (Aucellina) cauca-

sica-A. (A.) aptiensis-Filosina subovalis-Thracia rotundata bivalve assemblage,
overlain by beds containg an Aucellina (A.) cf. caucasica-A. (A.) cf. aptiensis bivalve assemblage and an Odontochitina operculata-esperopsis didaoensis dinocyst assemblage. The upper part of the Chengzihe Formation (Jixi Group) contains a marine Sinopsamobia ovalis-Filosina subovalis bivalve assemblage [8].
The Albian marine transgression introduced dinocysts to the Muling Formation (Jixi Group), which include the endemic taxa Circulodinium cingulatumand Sentusidinium sp., and the cosmopolitan species C. attadalicum, Palaeope-ridinium cretaceum and Oligosphaeridium totum [8]. A contemporaneous marine Sinopsamobia ovalis bivalve fauna has been identified in the Zhushan Formation (Longzhaogou Group).

3. Marine-Nonmarine Correlation
The marine lower part of the Chengzihe Formation can be correlated with the
Qihulin Formation through the early Aptian marine transgression that brought
the ammonite fauna to the Hulin and Mishan areas and the bivalve Aucellina to
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the Jixi area [9]. The brackish-water bivalve Sphaerioides yixianensis (= Tetoria

yixianensis) and the freshwater bivalves Arguniella cf. quadrata and Arguniellacf. ventricosa from the upper Chengzihe Formation provide direct correlation
with the Shahai Formation of the Jehol Group in western Liaoning [9]. The
overlying Fuxin Formation of the upper part of the Jehol Group can be correlated with the Muling Formation of the upper part of the Jixi Group, through a

Sphaerium bivalve fauna contained in both formations.

Acknowledgements
The study was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDB26000000) and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (41572006, 41688103, 41972007). This is a contribution to
UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

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Li, G. and Matsuoka, A. (2012) Jurassic Clam Shrimp (“Conchostracan”) Faunas in
China. Science Report of Niigata University (Geology), 27, 73-88.
https://doi.org/10.1080/028418501127346846[2]

Xi, D.P., Wan, X.Q., Li., G.B. and Li, G. (2019) Cretaceous Integrative Stratigraphy
and Timescale of China. Science China Earth Sciences, 62, 256-286.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-017-9262-y[3]

Li, G. and Matsuoka, A. (2015) Searching for a Non-Marine Jurassic/Cretaceous
Boundary in Northeastern China. Journal of Geological Society of Japan, 121,
109-122. https://doi.org/10.5575/geosoc.2015.0001[4]

Chang, M.M., Chen, P.J., Wang, Y.Q., Wang, Y. and Miao, D.S. (2003) The Jehol
Biota: The Emergence of Feathered Dinosaurs, Beaked Birds and Flowering Plants.
Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers, Shanghai, 1-208.

[5]

Zhou, Z.H., Barrett, P.M. and Hilton, J. (2003) An Exceptionally Preserved Lower
Cretaceous Ecosystem. Nature, 421, 807-814. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01420[6]

Li, G., Matsuoka, A., Yang, Q. and Sha, J.G. (2019) Middle and Late Jurassic Radiolarians from Nadanhada Terrane of Eastern Heilongjiang Province, Northeastern
China. Paleontological Research, 23, In Press.
http://www.palaeo-soc-japan.jp/publications/pr/2019PR006_Li_etal.pdf[7]

Huang, B.H. (1963) The Age of the Mesozoic Coal-Bearing Measures of the Northeastern Part of Northeast China. Chinese Science Bulletin, 9, 69-71. (In Chinese)[8]

Sha, J.G. (2007) Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Northeast China: Non-Marine and Marine Correlation. Cretaceous Research, 28, 146-170.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2006.12.002[9]Li, G. and Bengtson, P. (2018) Early Cretaceous Ammonites from Eastern Heilongjiang, Northeastern China, and Their Chronostratigraphical Significance. Cretaceous Research, 88, 197-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2017.10.009
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G. Li, P. Bengtson[10] Li, G. and Yang, Q. (2003) Confirmation of an Early Cretaceous Age for the Qihulin
Formation in Eastern Heilongjiang Province, China: Constraints from a New Discovery of Radiolarians. Cretaceous Research, 24, 691-696.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2003.07.004[11] Li, G. and Yu, S.M. (2004) Discovery of Agglutinated Foraminifers from theLongzhaogou Group in Eastern Heilongjiang Province. Science in China Series D:
Earth Sciences, 47, 122-127. https://doi.org/10.1360/02yd0156

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 547-550
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Taphonomy and Sedimentological Significanceof Oyster Shell Beds within Cretaceous
Transgressive Sediments in Japan
Hisao Ando
Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Science, Ibaraki University, Mito, Japan

How to cite this paper: Ando, H. (2019)
Taphonomy and Sedimentological Significance of Oyster Shell Beds within Cretaceous Transgressive Sediments in Japan.
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 547-550.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910038
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Through taphonomical analyses of Crassostrea shell beds included in several
Japanese Cretaceous strata, paleoecological and sedimentological significanceof intertidal muddy and sandy bottom dwelling oysters are examined. The
Upper Cretaceous Crassostrea shell beds show a variety of modes of occurrence, lithological changes and sedimentary structure, suggesting composite
formative, paleoecological and sedimentary processes. Crassostrea seems tohave adapted from muddy substratum during early Cretaceous to coarser
sandier substratum often influenced by physical turbulence such as tidal currents and waves during the mid-Cretaceous time, associated with increasing
in shell size and thickness, and colony dimension.

Keywords
Taphonomy, Oyster, Crassostrea, Cretaceous, Japan

1. Introduction
Oysters are sessile and suspension filter-feeding bivalves living on rocky/shelly
ground as epifauna and sand/mud bottom as epi-/semi-infauna [1]. Among several genera of oysters, Crassostrea has adapted to muddy tidal flat in brackish-water inner bay areas since Late Jurassic, often forming large-scale colonies/reefs [2]. Because Crassostrea shell beds are often recognized in JapaneseCretaceous strata, they provide useful information on sedimentary processes ofthe estuary deposits as well as paleoecology of Crassostrea and its reefs.

2. Paleoecological and Sedimentological SignificancePhysically unstable, brackish and tide-influenced muddy tidal flat is not suitable
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H. Ando

for filter feeding benthos because of high sedimentation rate and soupy substrateeasily subject to burial and smothering of gill by suspended mud. However,

Crassostrea could overcome these problems by the lightweight shell microstructure and a relay-type ecological strategy that new generations of individuals
grow upward attached to other shells of the previous generations as a responseto the rising sediment surface and succeeded in occupying a large niche. As it
has flourished since early Cretaceous, many large-scale Crassostrea shell beds arefound in several strata of various ages and areas, also in Japan.
Sedimentologically, Crassostrea shell beds are a good index for inner bay
brackish environments as a facies fossil. In general, estuary and inner bay systems tend to be formed during transgressive stages. Their sediments and Crasso-

strea shell beds are mostly restricted to incised valley fills within transgressive
systems tracts (TST). Crassostrea shell beds are one of keys for evaluating formation processes of TST.
Because of active bioturbation in estuary and inner bay environments, strata
are usually massive and lack of physical sedimentary structures. But autochthonous oyster shell beds preserve the original features of colonies/reefs such as
growth patterns of individuals and colonies as well as burial processes.
Semi-autochthonous and even allochthonous shell beds also record event stratifications and accumulations such as storm/tidal/tsunami erosion and reworking.
Crassostrea shells and their fragments are often reworked and transported into shallow open-marine environments by waves and tidal and storm currents.
Crassostrea reefs may have been eroded through shoreface erosion duringtransgression and provide a large amount of reworked shells into shoreface.
Crassostrea reefs are one of large carbonate factories/sources providing shellmaterials in siliciclastic shallow shelf setting in the Northwest Pacific region.

3. Crassostrea Shell Bed Distribution in Cretaceous Strata ofJapan
Japanese Cretaceous strata are distributed reflecting the tectonic setting of
Cretaceous arc-trench system composed of backarc, intra-arc, forearc andtrench-fill basins [3]. In the intra-arc side Crassostrea shell beds are found in theLower Cretaceous strata such as the Yoshino Formation (Fm) (Berriasian-Valanginian), Toyonishi Group (Gr) in west Honshu, and the Ushimaru
Fm (Hauterivian-Barremian), Tetori Gr in central Honshu, represented by
Crassostrea ryosekhiensis and C. tetoriensis, respectively.
On the other hand, along the forearc side from SW to NE, 1) Goshoura (Albian-Cenomanian) and Mifune Grs (Cenomanian) represented by C.
kawauchidensis, 2) Himenoura Gr (Campanian) in Kyushu, 3) Shiroyama Fm(Upper Campanian), Izumi Gr in Shikoku, 4) Tamagawa Fm (Upper Turonian–Lower Coniacian), Kuji Gr in north Honshu, 5) Mikasa Fm (Upper Cenomanian-Lower Turonian), Yezo Gr and 6) Hakobuchi Fm (Upper Campanian),Yezo Gr in Hokkaido, include characteristic shell beds in mode of fossil occurrence respectively. Except 1) for C. kawauchidensis, Crassostrea species in 2) to
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H. Ando6) are still not taxonomically identified. However, their stratigraphic ranges
generally cover the whole Cretaceous: Lower Cretaceous by the intra-arc strata,
and mid and Upper Cretaceous by the forearc strata.

4. Paleoecological Trends on Crassostrea and Shell Beds
Early Cretaceous Crassostrea species tend to be smaller less than 15 cm in size
(shell height) and thinner in shell thickness, though they form bouquet-likesmall patchy shell concentrations. They generally occur from muddy lithofacies
suggesting sporadic small patchy reefs on muddy tidal flat substratum.
Mid- and Late Cretaceous species are generally thicker than a few cm and longer
than several tens cm at maximum, and form thick shell beds over several tens’ cm
long, occasionally over 1 m. They often constitute composite/multiple-event
shell beds formed by intermittent colonization and physical reworking units
within each bed. Several shell beds are intercalated with fine sandy layers without fossil shells in a thick intertidal sandstone section as exemplified in the Tamagawa Fm, Kuji Gr. The mid- and Upper Cretaceous shell beds tend to be silty
very fine to fine sandstone in lithology, and coarser than the Lower Cretaceous
ones.
This suggests that Crassostrea adapted from muddy substratum to coarser
sandier substratum influenced by tidal currents and waves with increasing inshell size and thickness, and colony dimension during the mid-Cretaceous time.

5. Conclusion
Crassostrea shell beds often included in the Cretaceous transgressive deposits inintra-arc and forearc basins in Japan, provide important information on theirtaphonomical and sedimentological formative processes. Crassostrea and its related species have adapted from muddy tidal flat in brackish-water inner bay
areas during early Cretaceous also to sandier tidal flat often influenced by tidal
currents and waves during the mid-Cretaceous time, with general trends of increasing in shell size and thickness, and colony dimension.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported financially by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C)(No.17K05688). This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

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Stenzel, H.B. (1971) Oysters. In: Cox, L.R., et al., Eds., Treatise on Invertebrate
Paleontology. Mollusca 6, Part N, 3 of 3, 953-1224.

[2]

Chinzei, K. (2013) Adaptation of Oysters to Life on Soft Substrates. Historical Biol549

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H. Andoogy, 25, 223-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2012.727412[3]

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910038

Ando, H. and Takahashi, M. (2017) Reconstruction of the Cretaceous Paleo-Japan
Continental Arc-Trench System Reconsidered from Cretaceous Geologic Records in
the Japanese Islands. Kaseki (Fossil), 102, 43-62.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 551-553
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Land-Ocean Linkage: Pelagic Cherts in
Mesozoic Neritic-Terrestrial Sequencesin East Asia
Atsushi Matsuoka1*, Tsuyoshi Ito2, Yusuke Sakai3
Department of Geology, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
Research Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan
3
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan; Ono City Board of Education, Ono, Japan1
2

How to cite this paper: Matsuoka, A., Ito,T. and Sakai, Y. (2019) Land-Ocean Linkage: Pelagic Cherts in Mesozoic Neritic-Terrestrial Sequences in East Asia. Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 551-553.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910039
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Chert clast-bearing epi-continental neritic-terrestrial Jurassic and Cretaceoussequences are sporadically distributed in southwestern Japan. Typical andgeological entities are the Torinosu Group and Tetori Group. Radiolarian
dating of chert clasts enables us to discuss denudation stages of mid Mesozoic
accretionary complexes. Chert clast-dominated conglomerate can be used for
identifying marine beds within terrestrial sequences.

Keywords
Pelagic Radiolarian Chert, Conglomerate, Accretionary Complex,
Neritic-Terrigenous Sediments

1. Introduction
Mesozoic sedimentary sequences in East Asia are categorized into two types;
marine accretionary complexes and epi-continental neritic-terrestrial sequences.
The accretionary complexes are distributed in the eastern margin of Asia including Russian Far East, the Japanese Islands, and the Philippines [1] [2]. The
epi-continental neritic-terrestrial sequences are distributed mainly in Russian
Far East, China, the Korean Peninsula, and the Japanese Islands. Oceanic rocks
such as pelagic chert are typical components of accretionary complexes. They
are also included in neritic-terrestrial sequences as recycled clasts. They areimportant not only in recognizing the provenance of sedimentary basins but
also in tracing the denudation history of accretionary complexes. The pelagic
materials are tools for linking lands and oceans. We introduce two examples of

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chert-bearing conglomerate in neritic-terrestrial sequences in Japan: the Torinosu Group in the Southern Chichibu Terrane, Outer Zone of southwest Japanand the Tetori Group in the Hida and Hida-Gaien terranes, Inner Zone ofsouthwest Japan. Significance of the pelagic cherts within neritic-terrestrial sequences is discussed.

2. Epi-Continental Neritic-Terrestrial Jurassic andCretaceous Sequences in Southwest Japan
2.1. Torinosu GroupThe Torinosu Group and its equivalents are late Jurassic to early Cretaceous neritic sequences distributed disconnectedly in the Chichibu Belt in southwest Japan. Three terranes are recognized in the Chichibu Belt based on characteristicfeatures of their components and geologic structures: the Northern Chichibu,
Kurosegawa (Middle Chichibu), and Southern Chichibu terranes from north tosouth. The Torinosu Group occupies the Southern Chichibu and Kurosegawa
terranes. In the type locality of the Torinosu Group (Sakawa area in central Shikoku), this group unconformably covers the Togano Group [3] [4] of Jurassic
accretionary complex or the Naradani Formation of trench slope sediments. The
basal part of the Torinosu Group is the Tsukadani Formation composed mainlyof chert clasts. They are regarded to have been derived from the Togano Groupbecause the group is the basement of the Torinosu Group and contains a large
amount of chert sequences. No microfossils, however, have been obtained fromthe chert clasts due to recrystallization.

2.2. Tetori GroupThe Tetori Group ranging in age from the Middle Jurassic to Cretaceous is distributed over the Hokuriku District in central Japan. Most parts of the Tetori
Group overly unconformably constituent geologic units of the Hida and Hida-Gaien terranes. These units do not include mid-Mesozoic accretionary complexes. This group is divided into the Kuzuryu, Itoshiro, and Akaiwa subgroups
in ascending order and interbeds conglomerate layers. Permian, Triassic, andJurassic microfossils were obtained from siliceous and muddy rock clasts in theconglomerates. Based on fossil dating and lithological characteristics, most ofthese clasts were presumably derived from the mid-Mesozoic accretionary complexes in East Asia [5] [6].

3. Discussion and Conclusion
As mentioned above, the Torinosu Group and Tetori Group are good examples
for chert clast-bearing epi-continental neritic-terrestrial Jurassic and Cretaceoussequences in southwest Japan. These chert clasts must be derived from mid
Mesozoic accretionary complexes formed in the eastern margin of Asia. Ito et al.
[7] discussed denudation stages of mid Mesozoic accretionary complexes basedon the dating of chert clasts by means of radiolarian fossils not only from the
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Japanese Islands but also the Korean Peninsula.
Highly resistant nature of chert clast suggests certain sedimentary environments. Chert clast-dominated conglomerate could be a good marker indicativeof high energy sedimentary environment such as marine beach. The Tsukadani
Formation in the Torinosu Group is considered to be beach sediment resting on
mid Mesozoic accretinary complex or slope sediments directly covering the accretionary complex. Chert clast-dominated conglomerate within the upper partof the Itoshiro Subgroup in the Tetori Group is possibly marine beach origin.
Chert clast-dominated conglomerate can be used for identifying marine beds
within terrestrial sequences.

Acknowledgements
This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910039[1]

Kojima, S. and Kametaka, M. (2000) Jurassic Accretionary Complexes in East Asia.
Memoir of Geological Society of Japan, No. 55, 61-72. (In Japanese with English
Abstract)[2]

Wakita, K. and Metcalfe, I. (2005) Ocean Plate Stratigraphy in East and Southeast
Asia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 24, 679-702.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.04.004[3]Matsuoka, A. (1984) Togano Group of the Southern Chichibu Terrane in the Western Part of Kochi Prefecture, Southwest Japan. Journal of Geological Society of Japan, 90, 455-477. (In Japanese with English Abstract)[4]

Matsuoka, A. (1992). Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Tectonic Evolution of the Southern
Chichibu Terrane, Southwest Japan. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 96, 71-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(92)90060-I[5]

Ito, T., Sakai, Y., Ibaraki, Y., Yoshino, K., Ishida, N., Umetsu, T., Nakada, K., Matsumoto, A., Hinohara, T., Matsumoto, K. and Matsuoka, A. (2012) Radiolarian Fossils from Siliceous Rock Pebbles within Conglomerates in the Mizukamidani Formation of the Tetori Group in the Itoigawa Area, Niigata Prefecture, Central Japan.
Bulletin of Itoigawa City Museum, No. 3, 13-25. (In Japanese with English Abstract)[6]

Ito, T., Sakai, Y., Feng, Q. and Matsuoka, A. (2015) Middle Jurassic Radiolarians
from Chert Clasts within Conglomerates of the Itsuki Formation of the Itoshiro
Subgroup (Tetori Group) in the Taniyamadani Valley, Fukui Prefecture, Central
Japan. Science Reports of Niigata University (Geology), No. 30, 1-13.

[7]Ito, T., Sakai, Y., Feng, Q. and Matsuoka, A. (2017) Review of Microfossil-Bearing
Clasts within Late Mesozoic Strata in East Asia: Staged Denudation of Mid-Mesozoic
Accretionary Complexes. Ofioliti, 42, 39-54.

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ISSN Print: 2161-7570

New Data on the Litho- and Biostratigraphy of
the J/K Boundary Interval of the Lower Reachesof the Lena River (Eastern Siberia)
Igor N. Kosenko1,2*, Olga S. Urman2, Egor K. Metelkin2,3, Boris N. Shurygin2,3,Alexander E. Igolnikov2,3
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology CAS, Nanjing, China
Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia
3
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
1
2

How to cite this paper: Kosenko, I.N.,
Urman, O.S., Metelkin, E.K., Shurygin,
B.N. and Igolnikov, A.E. (2019) New Dataon the Litho- and Biostratigraphy of the J/K
Boundary Interval of the Lower Reaches of
the Lena River (Eastern Siberia). Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 554-557.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910040
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
New data on the litho- and biostratigraphy of the Jurassic/Cretaceous (J/K)
boundary interval of the lower reaches of the Lena river, at the Cape Chekurovka and Cape Chucha, are presented. Volgian-Valanginian interval of
the Chekurovka section is represented by Buolkalakh and Kigilyakh formations and corresponds to beds with Buchia fisheriana, beds with B.
unschensis, beds with B. okensis and B. volgensis, beds with B. volgensis,
beds with B. volgensis and B. tolmatschowi and beds with B. keyserlingi. Volgian-Valanginian interval of the Chucha section is represented by Chonoko,
Khairgass and Kigilyakh formations and corresponds to beds with B.
unschensis, beds with B. volgensis and B. okensis, beds with B. volgensis and
B. tolmatschowi and beds with B. keyserlingi.

Keywords
Stratigraphy, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Siberia, Lena River

In the summer 2018 expedition group of IPGG SB RAS has studied the J/Kboundary interval in the sections of Chekurovka and Chucha located in the lower reaches of the Lena river (Figure 1). As a result, bio- and lithostratigraphy
have been clarified.
On the Cape Chekurovka Volgian-Valanginian deposits with stratigraphic
unconformity overlie condensated Oxfordian sandstones (Figure 1). Volgian-Ryazanian part of the section belongs to the Buolkalakh Formation andconsists of alternated greenish-grey and grey siltstones and light-grey sandstones
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I. N. Kosenko et al.

Figure 1. Litho- and biostratigraphy of the Chekurovka section and map with locations of the Chekurovka
and the Chucha sections. Numeration of beds and members is given after [1]. Legend: 1: coarse sandstone,
2: medium-grained sandstone, 3: fine-grained sandstone, 4: siltstone, 5: clayey siltstone, 6: silty argillite andargillite, 7: carbonate nodules, 8: oblique lamination, 9: carbonized plant detritus, 10: bioturbation, 11: erosional surface, 12: finding of ammonites.
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with black and dark-grey argillites and siltstones in the lower part. The total
thickness of the formation is more than 220 m. The Valanginian Kigilyakh Formation which overlies the Buolkalakh Formation consists of sandstones with
breccias and silty argillites in the upper part. The boundary between Buolkalakh
and Kigilyakh formations is marked by an erosional surface. The total thicknessof the Kigilyakh Formation is more than 180 m.
Succession of Buchia, typical for the Boreal Scale, has been identified in the
Chekurovka section: beds with B. fisheriana, beds with B. unschensis, beds with

B. okensis and B. volgensis, beds with B. volgensis, beds with B. volgensis and B.
tolmatschowi, and beds with B. keyserlingi (Figure 1). Beds with B. fisheriana
comprise also B. terebratuloides in the upper part. Based on ammonite Praechetaites sp. nov. this interval previously has been correlated with uppermost Middle Volgian [1]. Beds with B. unschensis comprise B. terebratuloides in the lower
part. Beds with B. okensis contain single B. cf. yazikovi. Beds with B. volgensis
and B. tolmatschowi also contain B. inflata in the upper part. The Ryazanian/Valanginian boundary is conventionally marked on the erosional surface
between members 39 and 40 [1]. The Valanginian part of the section corresponds to beds with B. keyserlingi.
Section on the Cape Chucha is located approximately 20 km south of the
Chekurovka section. It differs from the Chekurovka section by its lithostratigraphic construction. This is linked with its position near the boundary of Olenek and Lower Lena facial regions where sedimentation occurred in shallower
part of sea compared to Chekurovka [2]. Volgian part of the Chucha section
with stratigraphic unconformity overlies Oxfordian sediments and consists ofsandstones and siltstones of the Chonoko Formation. The Ryazanian Khairgass
Formation mainly consists of whitish-grey sandstones alternated with greenish-grey and grey siltstones. It is conformable overlaid by the Kigilyakh Formation represented here by rhythmic alternating of fine-grained sandstones andsiltstones with beds of sandstones and silty argillites. The total thickness of Volgian-Valanginian deposits is more than 300 m. The following succession of beds
with Buchia is identified in the Chucha section: beds with B. unschensis, beds
with B. volgensis and B. okensis, beds with B. volgensis and B. tolmatschowi, andbeds with B. keyserlingi.

Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences(DD20190009), National Natural Science Foundation of China (41730317),
RFBR (18-05-70074) and RSF (18-17-00038). This is a contribution to
UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Projects 632 and 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910040[1]

Rogov, M.A., Zakharov, V.A. and Ershova, V.B. (2011) Detailed Stratigraphy of theJurassic-Cretaceous Boundary Beds of the Lena River Lower Reached Based on
Ammonites and Buchiids. Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, 19, 641-662.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0869593811060050[2]Bidzhiev, R.A. (1973) Volzhskii yarus na severe Priverkhoyanskogo progiba (vnutrennyaya zona). Byull. Mosk. O-va Ispyt. Prir., Otd. Geol., 48, 61-71.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 558-561
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Macrofossil Assemblages in the RyazanianStage (Lower Cretaceous) of the Stratotype
RegionOlga S. Urman1*, Boris N. Shurygin1,2, Oksana S. Dzyuba1
12

Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
Novosibirsk National Research State University, Novosibirsk, Russia

How to cite this paper: Urman, O.S., Shurygin, B.N. and Dzyuba, O.S. (2019) Macrofossil Assemblages in the Ryazanian Stage(Lower Cretaceous) of the Stratotype Region.
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 558-561.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910041
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
The stratotype region of the Ryazanian stage is located in the Oka River Basin near Ryazan, Central Russia. Since ammonites are very well studied
here, we investigated other groups of macrofossils. We report a large number of bivalve genera: Arctica, Astarte, Buchia, Camptonectes, Chlamys,
Ctenostreon, Entolium, Gomomya, Gresslya, Hartwellia, Lima, Meleagrinella, Modiolus, Oxytoma, and Pleuromya. The belemnites are represented
by two cylindroteuthidid genera, Acroteuthis and Liobelus. In addition, brachiopods (Rhynchonellidae and Terebratulidae) and unidentifiable gastropod
fragments have been revealed. The highest taxonomic diversity of macrofauna is observed in the Surites spasskensis ammonite Zone.

Keywords
Fossil Mollusks, Brachiopods, Ryazanian, Central Russia

1. Introduction
The problem of correlation of the Volgian and Ryazanian stages with the standard Tithonian and Berriasian stages has not yet been unambiguously solved,
but it has been proven that the upper part of the Upper Volgian substage belongs
to the Cretaceous System. Nevertheless, it is still justified to recognize the Volgian and Ryazanian in the vast Boreal palaeobasins, because these regional stages
reflect two different periods of geologic history, primarily that of palaeobasin in
the East European Platform [1]. To some extent, this is also a tribute to the traditions, according to which most of the geological documents for Boreal regions
were compiled in the XX-early XXI centuries. And the Volgian-Ryazanian
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boundary is characterized by reliable bioevent markers in Boreal sections. However, it is hardly correct to treat the Volgian-Ryazanian boundary as the Jurassic-Cretaceous (J-K) boundary. The definition of the Ryazanian stage and its
base largely depends on the detailed study of the stratotype region located in the
Oka River Basin near Ryazan, Central Russia.

2. A Review of New Data
The precise stratigraphic position of fossil finds in the Ryazanian of the stratotype region is usually difficult to determine due to the highly condensed J-K
boundary sections in Central Russia, their small thicknesses and numerous sedimentation interruptions. Therefore, the stratigraphic position of the lower horizons of the Ryazanian in Central Russia is still under discussion.
The Ryazanian deposits in the Oka River Basin contain numerous shells ofmollusks, especially those of bivalves, but ammonites are the best studied groupin the stratotype region [2] [3]. Following Mitta [3], we recognize three ammonite zones within the Ryazanian in the Oka River Basin, namely the Riasanites
rjasanensis, Surites spasskensis and Surites tzikwinianus zones. Bivalves, belemnites, gastropods as well as brachiopods are the main objects of our research.
Representatives of the genus Buchia are most abundant among bivalves. It isnoteworthy that Boreal zonal scales based on Buchiidae are successfully used forthe subdivision and correlation of the J-K boundary beds in Boreal regions [4].
In addition to the beds with Buchia fischeriana, a sequence of mixed assemblages
from different Buchia zones is observed in the Ryazanian stage for the Oka River
sections [5]. These are beds with Buchia volgensis + Buchia okensis + Buchia

jasikovi, and beds with B. volgensis + B. jasikovi + Buchia tolmatschowi. In thestandard Boreal biostratigraphic scale, the B. okensis Zone, the B. jasikovi Zone
and the B. tolmatschowi Zone have been distinguished as a series of zones parallel to the B. volgensis Zone [4] [6] [7]. Other bivalve taxa identified from the
Ryazanian on the Oka River are members of the genera Hartwellia, Lima, Pleu-

romya (in the Riasanites rjasanensis Zone), Arctica, Astarte, Camptonectes,
Chlamys, Ctenostreon, Entolium, Gomomya, Gresslya, Hartwellia, Meleagrinella, Modiolus, Oxytoma, and Pleuromya (in the Surites spasskensis Zone).
In all studied sections, belemnites are represented by two genera, Acroteuthis
and Liobelus (Cylindroteuthididae). Cylindroteuthidid belemnites are a relatively new tool for pan-Boreal correlation of the J-K boundary beds [8] [9]. Two belemnite beds can be recognized in the Ryazanian on the Oka River: an upper
part of the regional beds with Liobelus russiensis and Acroteuthis mosquensis,
and the beds with Acroteuthis explanatoides [5]. Belemnites are rather frequent
here, especially Acroteuthis. A certain sequence in the appearance of species
from the genus Acroteuthis is observed upward in the section: A. mosquensis -A. arctica - A. subquadratoides - A. explanatoides.
In addition to cephalopods and bivalves, we found brachiopods (Rhynchonellidae and Terebratulidae) and unidentifiable gastropod fragments, all in the
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Surites spasskensis ammonite Zone. This zone is characterized by the highest
taxonomic diversity of macrofauna.

3. Conclusion
In the Ryazanian stage of the stratotype region, the richest assemblage of macrofossils is recorded from the Subboreal Surites spasskensis ammonite Zone,
which corresponds to the middle part of the Hectoroceras kochi Zone - Surites

analogus Zone in the Boreal ammonite scale.

Acknowledgements
This is a contribution to the Russian PFSI (0331-2019-0004) and UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910041[1]

Shurygin, B.N. and Dzyuba, O.S. (2015) The Jurassic/Cretaceous Boundary inNorthern Siberia and Boreal-Tethyan Correlation of the Boundary Beds. RussianGeology and Geophysics, 56, 652-662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rgg.2015.03.013[2]Mitta, V.V. (2007) Ammonite Assemblages from Basal Layers of the RyazanianStage (Lower Cretaceous) of Central Russia. Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, 15, 193-205. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0869593807020050[3]

Mitta, V.V. (2017) The Ryazanian (Basal Lower Cretaceous) Standard Zonation:
State of Knowledge and Potential for Correlation with the Berriasian Primary Standard. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie-Abhandlungen, 286, 141-157.
https://doi.org/10.1127/njgpa/2017/0691[4]

Zakharov, V.A. (1987) The Bivalve Buchia and the Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary in
the Boreal Province. Cretaceous Research, 8, 141-153.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0195-6671(87)90018-8[5]Urman, O.S., Shurygin, B.N. and Dzyuba, O.S. New Paleontological and Stratigraphic Data on the Ryazanian Regional Stage in the Oka River Sections (Central
Russia). Izvestiya of Saratov University. New Series. Series: Earth Sciences. In Press.

[6]

Zakharov, V.A., Bogomolov, Yu.I., Ilyina, V.I., Konstantinov, A.G., Kurushin, N.I.,
Lebedeva, N.K., Meledina, S.V., Nikitenko, B.L., Sobolev, E.S. and Shurygin, B.N.
(1997) Boreal Zonal Standard and Biostratigraphy of the Siberian Mesozoic. RussianGeology and Geophysics, 38, 965-993.

[7]

Urman, O.S., Dzyuba, O.S., Kirillova, G.L. and Shurygin, B.N. (2014) Buchia Faunasand Biostratigraphy of the Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary Deposits in the Komsomolsk Section (Russian Far East). Russian Journal of Pacific Geology, 8, 346-359.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S1819714014050066[8]

Dzyuba, O.S. (2012) Belemnites and Biostratigraphy of the Jurassic-Cretaceous
Boundary Deposits of Northern East Siberia: New Data on the Nordvik Peninsula.
Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, 20, 53-72.
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O. S. Urman et al.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0869593811060037[9]

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Dzyuba, O.S. (2013) Belemnites in the Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary Interval of theMauryn’ya and Yatriya River Sections, Western Siberia: Biostratigraphic Significance and Dynamics of Taxonomic Diversity. Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, 21, 189-214. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0869593813020020

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 562-565
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Biradiolites from the Yigeziya Formation of theSouthwestern Tarim Basin
Xin RaoState Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and the Center
for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China

How to cite this paper: Rao, X. (2019)
Biradiolites from the Yigeziya Formation of
the Southwestern Tarim Basin. Open Journal of Geology, 9, 562-565.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910042
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Two Biradiolites species described from the Yigeziya Formation of thesouthwestern Tarim Basin are revised. The Maastrichtian Biradiolites
boldjuanensis is small and pipe-like species that is usually preserved as clusters or bouquets. Although it was considered to be endemic to Central Asia,
similar specimens are abundant in Maastrichtian of other Tethyan regions.
Biradiolites minor specimens have no relationship with the genus Biradiolites because their ventral and posterior bands are protruding ridges andinterband is depressed broad groove. This species is comparable with theCampanian-Maastrichtian eastern Arabian species Glabrobournonia arabica,by the character of smooth outer shell layer in right valve, and simple radial
bands and ridges on margin of each shell flank, but it differs from the latter
species in size and the shape of left valve. This study will be a supportive tool
for the establishment and reconstruction of the palaeogeographic connection
between Central Asia and other Tethyan regions.

Keywords
Tarim Basin, Cretaceous, Rudist, Biradiolites

1. Introduction
Biradiolites d’Orbigny 1850 is radiolitid which is characterized by the protrudinginterband and relatively depressed ventral and posterior bands, as well as theabsence of the ligament infolding and central tooth in right valve. It has a cosmopolitan distribution with the age ranging from Turonian to Maastrichtian.
Two Biradiolites species, Biradiolites boldjuanensis Bobkova 1960 and Biradi-

olites minor Pojarkova 1955, had been described by Lan and Wei (1995) fromthe Yigeziya Formation of the southwestern Tarim Basin. Both of them were
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X. Raoconsidered as endemic species that are restricted to the southeast Central Asia
including Tajik, Fergana and Tarim Basin. As similar specimens have been recorded from other Tethyan regions like eastern Arabia [1], the taxonomic position and distribution of these two species need to be revised.

2. Geological Setting
The SW Tarim Basin in Xinjiang Ugur Autonomous Region is one of the mainareas in China where the marine Cretaceous is well developed [2]. The Upper
Cretaceous deposits crop out as a narrow belt along the southwest border of thisbasin and are represented mainly by sediments of littoral, near-shore neritic andestuarine facies divided in ascending order into the Kukebai, Wuyitake, Yigeziya
and Tuyiluoke formations [3]. Ygeziya Formation distributed as a narrow NNW
belt encompassing Kashgar, Wuqia, Aketo, Yengisar, Kargant and Yechengcounties, with its thickness thins gradually from west to east, changing from 125
m to 10 m [4].

3. Revision of Biradiolites Species from the Yigeziya
Formation
Biradiolites boldjuanensis was recorded in the upper part of the Yigeziya Formation. Lan and Wei’ specimens are small in size, with the commissural diameter
ranging from 3 mm to 7 mm, and mostly preserved as clusters or bouquets. The
right valve is elongate cylindrical, has about 6 to 10 radial ribs. As the dental andmyophoral structures are not preserved, it is difficult to identify the position of
the radial bands. Lan and Wei [4] defined the most protruding rib as the interband. The outer shell layer develops coarse cellular structure. This species is abundant in the Maastrichtian of Southeast Central Asia including SW Tarim Basin, east Tajik Basin and SW Darwasi [5]. Although it was considered as an endemic species that restricted to Central Asia, similar specimens that usually preserved as clusters are abundant in Maastrichtian of other Tethyan regions [6],detailed study on the relationship of B. boldjuanensis with other contemporaneous Biradiolites species like B. mooretownensis need to be carried out in the
future.

Biradiolites minor was described from the middle part of the Yigeziya Formation. Most Tarim specimens were preserved as small individuals, the height ofright valve ranging from 20 mm to 35 mm. Left valve is operculiform, right valve
is conical, with four acute ridges on the margin of dorsal, posterior, ventral andanterior flanks. The ridge located on the anterior margin of the ventral flank isventral band, and the adjacent one on the posterior margin is posterior band.
The outer shell layer of right valve is thin and smooth, without longitudinal ornamentations on the surface. Except for Tarim Basin, it has also been reported
from the Campanian-Maastrichtian of Fergana Basin and Alai. This species has
no relationship with the genus Biradiolites because their ventral and posterior
bands are protruding ridges and the interband is depressed broad groove. They
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X. Raoshow typical characteristics of the genus Glabrobournonia Morris and Skelton,
1995, including the smooth outer shell layer of right valve, simple radial bands
and ridges on the margin of each flank, but differ from the eastern Arabian typespecies G. arabica in size and the shape of the left valve.

4. Conclusion
Biradiolites boldjuanensis is small radiolitid which is usually preserved as clusters or bouquets. Although it was considered to be endemic to Central Asia, similar specimens are abundant in Maastrichtian of other Tethyan regions. Biradi-

olites minor specimens from the SW Tarim Basin have no relationship with thegenus Biradiolites because their ventral and posterior bands are protruding
ridges and interband is depressed broad groove. This species is comparable with
the Campanian-Maastrichtian eastern Arabian species G. arabica, but differsfrom the latter in size and the shape of left valve. The rudist taxa discussed herein, probably have a relatively cosmopolitan Tethyan distribution; this finding
could be a supportive tool for the reconstruction of the palaeogeographic connection between Central Asia and other Tethyan regions.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(grant numbers 41702014, 41730317), the State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology
and Stratigraphy (grant number 20162110), the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant number XDB26000000). This isa contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910042[1]

Morris, N.J. and Skelton, P.W. (1995) Late Campanian-Maastrichtian Rudists fromthe United Arab Emirates—Oman Border Region. Bulletin of the British Museum(Natural History), Geology Series, 51, 277-305.

[2]

Hao, Y.C., Guo, X.P., Ye, L.S., Yao, P.Y., Fu, D.R., Li, H.M., Ruan, P.H. and Wang,
D.N. (2001) The Boundary between the Marine Cretaceous and Tertiary in theSouthwest Tarim Basin. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 108 p. (In Chinese)[3]

Xi, D.P., Cao, W.X., Cheng, Y., Tiang, T., Jia, J.Z., Li, Y.H. and Wan, X.Q. (2016)
Late Cretaceous Biostratigraphy and Sea-Level Change in the Southwest Tarim Basin. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 441, 516-527.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.045[4]Lan, X. and Wei, J. (1995) Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary Marine Bivalve Fauna
from the Western Tarim Basin. Science Press, Beijing. (In Chinese)[5]

Bobkova, N.N. (1961) Stratigraphy and Mollusc Lamellibranchiata of the Upper
Cretaceous in the Tajik Depression. Trudy vsesojuznogo nauchno-issledovatel’skogo
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X. Raogeologicheskogo Instituta (VSEGEI), 54, 1-190. (In Russian)[6]

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910042

Mitchell, S.F., Gunter, G. and Ramsook, R. (2007) Palaeoecology of the Maastrichtian Rudist Biradiolites in Jamaica. In: Scott, R.W. Ed., Cretaceous Rudists andCarbonate Platforms: Environmental Feedback, SEPM Special Publication, Vol. 87,
Society for Sedimentary Geology, Tulsa, 81-94.
https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.07.87.0081

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 566-568
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

First Report of Redeposited CretaceousRadiolarians in the Eocene Sand-Shale Memberof Zhepure Formation, Tüna, Yadong, Tibet
Xinfa Li1,2, Guobiao Li1,2
12State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geology and Biogeology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

How to cite this paper: Li, X.F. and Li,
G.B. (2019) First Report of Redeposited
Cretaceous Radiolarians in the Eocene
Sand-Shale Member of Zhepure Formation,
Tüna, Yadong, Tibet. Open Journal of Geology, 9, 566-568.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910043
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 17, 2019
Published: September 20, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
Cretaceous radiolarians were firstly reported from the Eocene Sand-Shale
Member of Zhepure Formation in the Gulupu section, Tüna, Yadong, Tibet. In spite of poor preservation, 24 species of 14 radiolarian genera havestill been identified, clearly indicating an age, ranging from early Aptian–Maastrichtian, and therefore should have occurred in the Eocene as aresult of redeposition. The study of the stratigraphic origin of these radiolarians will shed light on the paleoenvironment and late evolutionary history of
the Tibet-Tethys.

Keywords
Cretaceous, Redeposited Radiolarians, Eocene, Zhepure Formation,
Paleoenvironment, Yadong

Open AccessRadiolarian Biostratigraphy
A certain number of radiolarians were obtained in the Eocene strata of Gulupu
section, based on the previous studies on Cretaceous radiolarians in Tibet [1] [2][3] [4], and other areas [5] [6], 24 species of 14 genera were identified, which
provides an age of middle to late Cretaceous. The important elements (Figure1) include Turbocapsula fugitive O’Dogherty, early Aptian to early Albian;
Cryptamphorella conara (Foreman), Albian to late Maastrichtian; Pessagnobrachia irregularis (Squinabol), middle Albian to middle Cenomanian; Acaeniotyle umbilicate (Rust), late Campanian; Holocryptocanium tuberculatum
Dumitrica, late Cenomanian; Xitus spicularius (Aliev), middle Albian; Stichomitra compsa Foreman, Maastrichtian; Pseudodictyomitra carpatica (Lozyniak),
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Figure 1. Scanning electron micrographs of reworked radiolarians in the Gulupu section.
1. Turbocapsula costata (Wu); 2. T. fugitive O’Dogherty; 3. Cryptamphorella conara(Foreman); 4. C. sphaerica (White); 5. Pessagnobrachia irregularis (Squinabol); 6. Acaeniotyle umbilicate (Rust); 7. Holocryptocanium tuberculatum Dumitrica; 8. H. sp.; 9.
Xitus spicularius (Aliev); 10. Stichomitra compsa Foreman; 11. Pseudodictyomitra
carpatica (Lozyniak); 12. P. hornatissima (Squinabol); 13. P. nuda (Schaaf); 14. P.
pachicostata (Wu and Li); 15. Dictyomitra communis (Squinabol); 16. D. montisserei(Squinabol); 17. D. multicostata Zittel; 8. Thanarla brouweri (Tan); 19. T. conica (Squinabol); 20. T. veneta (Squinabol); 21. Distylocapsa veneta (Squinabol); 22. Lithostrobus
litus Forman; 23. Amphipyndax stockii (Campbell and Clark); 24. Praeconocaryomma
californiaensis Pessagno.

early Aptian; P. nuda (Schaaf), early Aptian; P. pachicostata (Wu and Li), Turonian; Dictyomitra communis (Squinabol), late Aptian; middle Albian; D. multicostata Zittel, early Turonian; Lithostrobus litus Forman, late Cretaceous; Thanarla conica (Squinabol), Middle Albian; T. veneta (Squinabol), late Albian toTuronian; Amphipyndax stockii (Campbell and Clark), Campanian; Distylocapsa veneta (Squinabol), late Albian to middle Cenomanian and Praeconocaryomma californiaensis Pessagno, Coniacian-Santonian.
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During Eocene, there was a residual basin in Yadong area [7]. According to
the plate tectonic background and stratigraphic characteristics of Yadong andadjacent areas, it is inferred that the redeposited radiolarian should come fromthe underlying Cretaceous strata in the study area and adjacent areas, which redeposited in Eocene residual sea basin after weathering, erosion and transportation.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(41272030), UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 and 608, and the National Basic Research Program of China (2012CB822001).

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910043[1]

Li, G.B., Wan, X.Q., Liu, W.C., Bucher, H., Li, H.S. and Goudemand, N. (2009) A
New Cretaceous Age for the Saiqu “Mélange,” Southern Tibet: Evidence from Radiolaria. Cretaceous Research, 30, 35-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2008.03.001[2]Li, G.B., Xie, D., Wan, X.Q., Han, H.D. and Chen, P.L. (2009) Discovery of Radiolaria from the Zongzhuo Formation in Tianba, Kangmar, Tibet and Its Age Implication. Acta Geologica Sinica, 83, 853-859.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6724.2009.00123.x[3]

Wang, T.Y., Li, G.B., Li, X.F., Niu, X.L., Zhang, J.B. and Xue, S. (2016) Radiolarian
Assemblage from the Mélange in the Southern Margin to Yarlung-Zangbo Sutureand its Geological Significance. Geoscience, 30, 445-453.

[4]

Liang, Y.P. (2012) Cretaceous-Paleocene Radiolarian Fauna in Saga-Zhongba,
Southwestern Tibet: Implications for the Evolution of Neo-Tethys. Ph.D. Thesis,
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan.

[5]

O’Dogherty, L. (1994) Biochronology and Paleontology of Mid-Cretaceous Radiolarians from Northern Apennines (Italy) and Betic Cordillera (Spain). Section dessciences de la terre, Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Suisse.

[6]

Bak, M. (1995) Mid Cretaceous Radiolaria from the Pieniny Klippen Belt, Carpathians, Poland. Cretaceous Research, 16, 1-23.
https://doi.org/10.1006/cres.1995.1001[7]

Li, X.F. and Li, G.B. (2019) The Discovery of Eocene Radiolarian Fauna from Tüna,
Yadong, Southern Tibet, China. Acta Geologica Sinica, 93, 265-267.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.14158

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Hauterivian-Barremian Bivalves from the
Boulouha Formation of the Dahar Escarpment,
Southern Tunisia: Stratigraphy and Regional
Correlation
Boukhalfa Kamel1*, Jingeng Sha2, Soussi Mohamed3, Gang Li2, Ben Ali Walid3, Ouaja Mohamed4
Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Jarzouna, Tunisia
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Nanjing, China
3
Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
4
Faculty of Sciences of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
1
2

How to cite this paper: Kamel, B., Sha, J.,
Mohamed, S., Li, G., Walid, B.A. and Mohamed, O. (2019) Hauterivian-BarremianBivalves from the Boulouha Formation of
the Dahar Escarpment, Southern Tunisia:
Stratigraphy and Regional Correlation.
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 569-572.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910044
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
The Lower Cretaceous mixed siliciclastic-carbonate successions of the Boulouha Formation at the type locality in the Dahar escarpment of southern
Tunisia have yielded a new discovered assemblage of bivalves which contains
Anomia laevigata (Sowerby); Modiolus sp. cf. M. dahuashuensis (Yu et Li);
Astarte sp.; and ?Mytilus sp.. The temporal distribution of the Anomia laevigata (Sowerby) and Modiolus sp. cf. M. dahuashuensis (Yu et Li) is limited to
the Aptian formations of northeastern China, Japan and Korea, thus we suggest a Hauterivian-Barremian age for the Boulouha Formation. Henceforth,the new biostratigraphic data are used to improve a regional chronostratigraphic correlation between the lower Cretaceous strata of the Saharan Platform domain and those coeval from the Chotts domain.

Keywords
Bivalves, Hauterivian-Barremian, Boulouha Fm., Dahar Escarpment, Tunisia

Open Access1. Introduction
The Saharan Platform domain of southern Tunisia has recorded very thick Mesozoic successions that developed during the syn- and post-rifting stages in the
Tataouine basin. These strata hosted a huge number of faunal and floral fossils
that widely contribute to providing the necessary chronostratigraphic data forthe establishment of the southern Tunisian stratigraphic chart. However, the
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lower Cretaceous deposits cropping out along the Dahar escarpment are worldwide known from the numerous biota sites discovered over the past twenty years
which yield macro- and microfossil vertebrate remains [1] [2] as well as very
well preserved fossil plants [2]. The present work provides new biostratigraphic
data based on fossil bivalves and aims to: 1) refine the age of the Lower Cretaceous succession of the Tataouine basin and 2) correlate these lower Cretaceous
strata with those of the Chotts basin.

2. Study Area
The Lower Cretaceous deposits are widely exposed in the Saharan Platform domain along the Dahar escarpment which runs for about 300 km in a roughly N-S
direction along the northeastern margin of the Tataouine basin (Figure 1(a)). At
the type locality, the Late Jurassic (Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian)-Early Cretaceous(Aptian) Merbah el Asfer Group, siliciclastic dominated succession, is divided
into three formations which are from the base to top: Bir Miteur, Boulouha, andDouiret [2] (Figure 1(b)). The deposits of Bir Miteur and Douiret formations
encompassed several fossiliferous beds which have yielded faunal and floral assemblages characterizing the Kimmeridgian and the Early Aptian respectively.
However, the Boulouha Formation is attributed to different ages including theBarremian-Aptian [1] [2] and the Hauterivian (Figure 1(b)). Each Formation isbounded by erosional surfaces of regional extent called D1-D4 [2]. The Fossil
bivalves assemblage recently discovered from the Boulouha Fm. allowed giving
new insights on its age.

3. Results
The Boulouha Formation consists of approximately 80 meters of interbedded
sandstones and greenish clays with frequent intercalation of dolomitic beds characterizing a siliciclastic/carbonate tidal flat setting [2] (Figure 1(b)). The
greenish clay horizons have previously yielded fossil plants [2] and for the firsttime well preserved bivalve specimens were collected from a claystone bearing
horizon situated at about 10 m above the Kimmeridgian carbonate marker bed(Figure 1(b)). This horizon contains the following bivalve species, Anomia laevigata (Sowerby); Modiolus sp. cf. M. dahuashuensis (Yu et Li); Astarte sp.;and ?Mytilus sp.. This bivalve association indicates a Hauterivian-Barremianage. The temporal distribution of the Anomia laevigata (Sowerby) and Modiolus
sp. cf. M. dahuashuensis (Yu et Li) is limited to the Aptian formations of England, northeastern China, Japan and Korea [3].
Henceforth, the Hauterivian-Barremian Boulouha Formation of the Saharandomain constitutes coeval strata of the Hauterivian-Barremian Bouhedma Formation of the Chotts domain.

4. Conclusion
The Hauterivian-Barremian age is for the first time attributed to the Boulouha
Formation of the Dahar escarpment, Saharan Platform domain, based on well
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Figure 1. (a) Location of the study area; (b) Lithostratigraphy and key fossiliferous beds; (c) Stratigraphic ranges updates of thestudied area at the prominent Jeffara Escarpment.

preserved bivalve assemblages. This new direct dating of the lowermost strata of
the Boulouha Formation (=Bouhedma Formation of the Chotts basin), just few
meters above the D2 which in turn is capping the widespread Kimmeridgiancarbonate marker bed, corroborates the hypothesis [2] suggesting the presenceof a major gap (20 Ma) between the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous in the Sahara Platform domain.

Acknowledgements
This work is supported by MESRS of Tunisia, and is a contribution to
UNESCO-IUGS IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References[1]
DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910044

Bodin, S., Petitpierre, L., Wood, J., Elkanouni, I. and Redfern J. (2010) Timing of
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B. Kamel et al.
Early to Mid-Cretaceous Tectonic Phases along North Africa: New Insights fromthe Jeffara Escarpment (Libya-Tunisia). Journal of African Earth Sciences, 58,
489-506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2010.04.010

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910044[2]

Ouaja, M. (2003) Etude sédimentologique et paléobotanique du Jurassiquemoyen-Crétacé Inférieur du bassin de Tataouine (Sud-Est de la Tunisie). Ph.D
Thesis, Claude-Bernard University, Lyon.

[3]

Robin, N., Charbonnier, S., Merle, D., Simpson, M.I., Petit, G. and Fernandez, S.
(2016) Bivalves on Mecochirid Lobsters from the Aptian of the Isle of Wight: Snapshot on an Early Cretaceous palaeosymbiosis. Palaeo3, 453, 10-19.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.03.025

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 573-576
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Kimmeridgian Foraminiferal Faunas ofNorthern Eurasia: Significance forInterregional Correlations andPalaeobiogeography
Clémentine Peggy Anne-Marie Colpaert1,2, Boris Leonidovich Nikitenko1,3
Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk,
Russia2State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Environment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
3
Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
1

How to cite this paper: Colpaert, C.P.A.-M.
and Nikitenko, B.L. (2019) Kimmeridgian
Foraminiferal Faunas of Northern Eurasia:
Significance for Interregional Correlations
and Palaeobiogeography. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 573-576.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910045
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Foraminifer is a very useful microorganism to perform biostratigraphical zonation of the Upper Jurassic. Foraminiferal biozones are calibrated by theammonite standard zones and can be used for intra- and interregional correlations. Furthermore, the fossil record of foraminiferal faunas is well known
among basins of the Northern Eurasia and is also used for accurate palaeoenvironmental, palaeobiogeographical, or biofacial reconstructions. It allows
identifying a complex set of biotic and abiotic events which may be used topropose a more general palaeoecoloecological and palaeoceanographicalreconstruction of the Subboreal, Boreal, and Arctic seas. Then, the late
Kimmeridgian Northern Eurasian seas formed a network of well-connectedpalaeobasins during the sea-level rise and resulted in rather similar palaeoenvironmental conditions.

Keywords
Late Jurassic, Foraminifers, Palaeoceanography, Northern Eurasia
The study of the Upper Jurassic of the western part of Northern Asia and Europe dates back to the end of the 19th century. The biostratigraphical analyses
were performed near the end of the 20th century. At that time, most of the
micropalaeontological investigations across different regions of Europe andWestern Siberia were performed separately. Various interpretations on the ob-

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served taxa by different authors resulted in problematic interregional correlations. The first generalized micropalaeontological investigation was performed
by Kuznetsova [1], based on foraminiferal assemblages from different regionsof western, eastern and northern Europe, as well as Siberia and Arctic Canada.
This work introduces the occurrence of widely spread marker-species of theKimmeridgian foraminiferal zone, which may be used for interregional correlations. In this way, recent studies based on foraminiferal assemblages from different regions of Northern Eurasia (Figure 1(a)) have shown that many of thepreviously described foraminifer species could be assigned to several single species, characterized by wide intraspecific variabilities [2] [3].
Then, the Kimmeridgian representatives of the genus Pseudolamarckina haveshown that the East-European index-species Pseudolamarckina pseudorjasanensis
was characterized by wide intraspecific variabilities and may encompass various
previously described Kimmeridgian species of pseudolamarckiniids. The first
appearance of P. pseudorjasanensis is recorded from the latest early Kimmeridgian of sub-Mediterranean and peri-Tethyan to Arctic regions [4] [5] (Figure1(b)). Furthermore, it is recorded during the late Kimmeridgian together with ahigh number of widely distributed species. The Kimmeridgian foraminiferal P.

pseudorjasanensis Zone appears to be an important interregional marker, which
is used for the correlation of various widespread sections across Subboreal, Boreal and Arctic basins.
The composition of the upper Kimmeridgian foraminiferal associations ofNorthern Eurasia underlines the occurrence of two rather different assemblages

Figure 1. a. Geographical location of the studied regions of interest; b.
Palaeobiogeographical and palaeoceanographical reconstructions of
the Late Kimmeridgian North Eurasian seas.
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that respectively belong to the Boreal-Atlantic and the Arctic realms [6] (Figure1(b)). Furthermore, some rare species of nodosariids, ceratobuliminiids andlituoliids are significant for biostratigraphical correlations, and are recorded
from the Arctic to peri-Tethyan regions. This indicates good connections between the Kimmeridgian palaeobasins. During the Late Jurassic, the Subboreal
to Boreal and southern Arctic regions were covered by shallow epeiric surface
water, influenced by terrestrial inputs and restricted in seawater circulation [6].
The occurrence of common foraminiferal associations between regions of Western Europe and Western Siberia, as well as across the Greenland-Norwegianseaway indicates the periodic connections probably associated with changes ofsea-level and palaeoceanographical conditions (Figure 1(b)). The Subboreal
Western European Sea was probably affected during the Late Jurassic by northern cold-water inputs, interpreted to have flowed southward through the western side of the Greenland-Norwegian Seaway along the coast of the Greenland
and Canada territories. On the other hand, a warm water current was characterized by southwest to northeast orientation and probably favored the migrationof typical taxa of the Boreal-Atlantic Realm [3] [4] [5] [6] [7].

Acknowledgements
Financial support from the Russian Science Foundation (18-17-00038), the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDB26000000),and by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41572006, 41688103,
41972007). This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910045[1]

Kuznetsova, K.I. (1979) Late Jurassic Stratigraphy and Palaeobiogeography of the
Boreal Realm Based on Foraminifers (Stratigrafiya i paleobiogeografiya pozdney
yury Boreal'nogo poyasa po foraminiferam). NAUKA, Moscow. (In Russian)[2]

Nikitenko, B.L. (2009) Stratigraphy, Paleobiogeography and Biofacies of the Jurassicof Siberia Based on Microfaunas (Foraminifera and Ostracods) [Stratigrafiya,
paleobiogeografiya i biofatsii yury Sibiri po mikrofaune (foraminifery i ostrakody)].
Parallel, Novosibirsk, 675. (In Russian with Extended English Summary)[3]

Colpaert, C.P.A.-M. and Nikitenko, B.L. (2019) Pseudolamarckina pseudorjasanensis Dain, 1967 (Foraminifera) as a Kimmeridgian Marker Species and Its Significance to Biostratigraphy, Palaeoecology, and Palaeobiogeography. Polar Research,
38, 3461. https://doi.org/10.33265/polar.v38.3461[4]

Hedinger, A. (1993) Upper Jurassic (Oxfordian-Volgian) Foraminifera from theKusky Formation, Aklavik Range, District of MacKenzie, Northwest Territories.
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Nikitenko, B.L., Knyazev, V.G., Pestchevitskaya, E.B. and Glinskikh, L.A. (2015)
The Upper Jurassic of the Laptev Sea: Interregional Correlations and Paleoenvi575

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C. P. A.-M. Colpaert, B. L. Nikitenkoronments. Russian Geology and Geophysics, 56, 1173-1193.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rgg.2015.07.008

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Holmden, C., Creaser, RA., Muehlenbachs, K.I.S.A., Leslie, S.A. and Bergström,
S.M. (1998) Isotopic Evidence for Geochemical Decoupling between Ancient Epeiric Seas and Bordering Oceans: Implications for Secular Curves. Geology, 26,
567-570. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0567:IEFGDB>2.3.CO;2[7]

Colpaert, C., Pestchevitskaya, E.B. and Nikitenko, B.L. (2017) Upper Jurassic Foraminifera, Dinoflagellates and Terrestrial Sporomorphs from the Gorodishche Section (Ul’yanovsk Region, East European Platform, Russia): Biostratigraphic, Palaeoenvironmental and Palaeobiogeographical Implications. Revue de Micropaléontologie, 60, 549-572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revmic.2017.10.001

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Origin of Angiosperms and Their
Diversification in the Cretaceous
Xin Wang
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for
Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China

How to cite this paper: Wang, X. (2019)
Origin of Angiosperms and Their Diversification in the Cretaceous. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 577-580.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910046
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
The dominating hypothesis stated that angiosperms originated in the Early
Cretaceous, there were no pre-Cretaceous angiosperms, and carpels (the basic
units of gynoecium) were derived from former megasporophylls bearing
ovules/seeds along their margins through longitudinally folding and enrolling. However, there are increasing evidences of pre-Cretaceous angiosperms,
the assumed megasporophyll actually does not exist, and the Cretaceous-only
history of angiosperms appears much shorter than suggested by molecular
clocks. Here I will integrate new knowledge of living and fossil plants to givea plausible explanation for the origin and early evolution of angiosperms.
Several lines of evidence indicate that the ancestor of angiosperms may wellhave been present in the Triassic. The former gap between angiosperms andgymnosperms is artificial. Some Triassic fossils playing a role intermediate
between angiosperms and gymnosperms seem to favor the Unifying Theory.

Keywords
Jurassic, Triassic, Angiosperms, Origin, Evolution, Fossils, Unifying Theory

1. Introduction
Under the light of the newly discovered Bennettitalean fossils with bisexual organs [1], the Traditional Theory advanced by Arber and Parkin [2] thought that
Magnoliaceae was the basalmost group in angiosperms, and their conduplicate
carpels were derived from former megasporophylls bearing ovules along their
margins. Surprisingly and embarrassingly, today many botanists have to admitthat they have no idea on the homology of carpels. The history of angiosperms
was thought no earlier than the Cretaceous [3], although molecular clocks suggested that the origin of angiosperms must be much older [4]. Therefore, this
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mainstream thought becomes shaky in front of recent progress made inpalaeobotany as well as botany.

2. Fossil Record of Early Angiosperms
Needless to say, there are abundant angiosperms in the Early Cretaceous, including Chaoyangia, Archaefructus, Sinocarpus, Callianthus, Baicarpus, Liao-ningfructus, Nothodichocarpum from the Yixian Formation [5]. Slightly younger macrofossils from South America [6] demonstrate notable diversity of angiosperms. Mesofossils from Europe and North America embody the diversification of angiosperms in the early-middle Cretaceous [3]. At the beginning of theLate Cretaceous, Eudicots (accounting for 70% species diversity in living angiosperms) started playing a major and increasingly important role in the ecosystem [7]. This rapid diversification was erroneously called an “abominable
mystery” by Darwin.
So far angiosperms in the Jurassic include Schmeissneira, Xingxueanthus, So-laranthus, Euanthus, Yuhania, Juraherba, and Nanjinganthus [5] [8]. Nanjinganthus with more than two hundred specimens convincingly suggest 1) flowers
have occurred in the Early Jurassic, 2) some angiosperms may have flourished incertain niches although still rare and ecologically minor in the vegetation.
Currently there are little traces of bona fide angiosperms in the Triassic.
However, Nubilora from the Upper Triassic of Yunnan [5], although not a bonafide angiosperm, demonstrate a great resemblance to angiosperms, in term ofovule-enclosing. Pollen grains from the Middle Triassic [9] are hard to be distinguished from those of angiosperms.

3. Bridging the Gap between Angiosperms andGymnosperms
More than two decades ago, studies on functions genes have suggested that theovules are parts independent from others [10]. Studies on the assumed ancestral
Magnoliaceae revealed that each of their carpels comprises an ovuliferous
branch and a subtending leaf [11] [12]. Given this Bau-plan of carpels, it is easy
to see that lateral appendages in some former controversial Mesozoic “conifers”(such as Palissya, Metridiostrobus, Stachyotaxus [13] [14] [15]) and some living
conifers (e.g. Juniperus) seem to stand between typical conifers and Magnoliaceae: all are characterized by subtending bract/leaf with an axillary branch bearing ovules. Given the new knowledge of magnoliaceous carpels [11] [12] andtheir resemblance to these Mesozoic fossil taxa, it requires little imagination thatcarpels characteristic of angiosperms may come into existence when the subtending leaf fully encloses the ovules in its axil.

4. Conclusion
Increasing fossil evidence suggests that angiosperms originated earlier than assumed, mostly likely in the Triassic (>200 Ma), a conclusion in line with moleDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910046

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cular clocks. Angiosperms have undergone a long time of little-understood development and extinction in the Jurassic. They underwent two episodes of diversification in the Cretaceous.

Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program (B) of
Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB26000000), National basic Research Program of China (973 Program 2012CB821901), and National Natural
Science Foundation of China (41688103, 91514302, 41572046). This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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X. Wang[11] Liu, W.Z., Hilu, K. and Wang, Y.L. (2014) From Leaf and Branch into a Flower:
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Bedeutung fuer die Phylogenie der Koniferen. Paläontographica B, 113, 1-29.
[14] Pattemore, G.A., Rigby, J.F. and Playford, G. (2014) Palissya: A Global Review andReassessment of Eastern Gondwanan Material. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 210, 50-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2014.08.002[15] Wang, Z. (2012) A Bizarre Palissya Ovulate Organ from Upper Triassic Strata of the
Zixing Coal Field, Hunan Province, China. Chinese Science Bulletin, 57, 1169-1177.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-012-4975-8

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 581-584
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Preliminary Study of Flora from the Upper
Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formation in
Luozigou Basin, Wangqing, Jilin Province,
Northeast China
Qing Xu1,2, Xiaoju Yang1*
1
2

Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
Dongshahu School of Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, China

How to cite this paper: Xu, Q. and Yang,
X.J. (2019) Preliminary Study of Flora fromthe Upper Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formation in Luozigou Basin, Wangqing, Jilin
Province, Northeast China. Open Journalof Geology, 9, 581-584.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910047
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
In the middle Cretaceous vegetation changed rapidly for the diversification ofangiosperms, there are few extensive analyses of the plant fossils (including
leaves, fruits, seeds and woods) from this period in China. New abundant fossil plants collected from the upper Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formation in the
Luozigou Basin, Wangqing, Jilin Province were studied and 25 species belonging to 17 genera were recognized. Up to date totally 39 species belonging
to 25 genera were discovered in the Luozigou Basin. The assemblage is composed mainly of conifers (47.5%) and early angiosperms (30%) and indicatesthat the vegetation was a transitional flora between the Early Cretaceous
fern-gymnosperm flora and the Late Cretaceous angiosperm flora. The flora
was a Pseudofrenelopsis-angiosperm assemblage in succession of Early Cretaceous flora and the late Early Cretaceous, probable Albian in age. During
the late Early Cretaceous, the Luozigou Basin was dominated by hot and arid
climate and sometimes probably interrupted by wet climate.

Keywords
Dalazi Formation, Early Cretaceous, Flora, Jilin

1. Introduction
Analyses of the plant fossil record have provided clear evidence for the rapid
diversification of angiosperms from the Early Cretaceous onwards [1] [2]. The
Cretaceous represents an intriguing interval to examine how changes in vegetation and environment. The plant-bearing strata in the Luozigou Basin of
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Wangqing, Jilin Province, have been considered to belong to the Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formation which is well developed in Dalazi, Zhixin Town, Longjing County in Yanji Basin, Jilin Province [3] [4] [5]. Fossil plants from the Luozigou Basin were firstly recognized by Japanese palaeobotanist Oishi [6] and thefollowing collections of fossil plants yet no detailed study except for some additions to the plant list [2] [5]. In recent years some studies have been carried on
cheirolepidiaceous conifers [7] [8] and abundant plant fossils are collected fromthe Luozigou Basin. The new collection provides more detailed morphologicaland taxonomic information of this flora. The characteristics of this flora give a
new interpretation of palaeovegetation and ecological environment in this area
during the late Early Cretaceous.

2. Materials and Methods
The fossil plant specimens with well-preserved cuticle were collected from theDalazi Formation in the Luozigou Basin. All specimens are deposited in the
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeotology, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

3. Results and Discussion
Based on the new collection 25 species belong to 17 genera of fossil plants wereidentified. There are a number of fossil plants listed and reported previously
from the Dalazi Formation in the Luozigou Basin of Wangqing. Combined withprevious studies totally 39 species belonging to 25 genera were discovered in the
Luozigou Basin. The plant assemblage from the Dalazi Formation consists of Se-

laginellites cf. fausta, Ruffordia goepperti, Gleichenites nipponensis, Coniopteris
saportana, Onychiopsis elongate, Cladophlebis exiliformis, C. sp., Otozamites
anglica, O. sp., Pityocladus iwaiana, P. sp., Pityocladus? sp, Pityolepis sp., Elatides curvifolia, Cupressinocladus elegans, C. gracilis, C. sp., Pseudofrenelopsis
gansuensis, Frenelopsis? sp., Suturovagina intermedia, Brachyphyllum crassum,
B. ningshiaense, B. sp.1, B.? sp.1, Elatocladus cf. manchuria, Pagiophyllum sp.,
Conites spp., Sassafras? sp., Paliurus? sp., cf. “Andromeda” parlatorii, Eucalyptophyllum oligonerve, Rogersia longifolia, “Sassafras” bilobatum, Sterculaephyllum eleganum, Ulmiphyllum brookense, Dicotylophyllum spp and Monocotylophyllum? sp. (detailed description and discussion will be in another paper).
There is only one species of Selaginellales in the assemblage; six species of fivegenera belong to ferns; Bennettitales are rare with only two species of one genera; Ginkgoales is absent; conifers are composed of 19 species of 10 genera which
accounting 47.5% in the assemblage and early angiosperms are composed of 12
species of 8 genera accounting about 30% in the assemblage. It is noted that Se-

laginellites fausta was firstly reported from the Dalazi Formation in the Luozigou
Basin which represents the latest fossil record of Selaginellites in China so far.
Moreover, conifers are mainly represented by scale leafy shoots including Cupressinocladus Brachyphyllum and Pseudofrenelopsis, cuticles of them arepreserved well, and angiosperms in this assemblage are all dicotyledons and their
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venations show a certain extent development. The abundant conifers and theconsiderable diversity of angiosperms show that this flora was a Pseudofrenelop-

sis-angiosperm assemblage in succession of Early Cretaceous flora.

4. Conclusion
Based on preliminary analysis totally 39 species belonging to 25 genera wererecognized from the Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formation in the Luozigou Basin.
The result shows that the assemblage is composed mainly of conifers (47.5%)
and early angiosperms (30%), accounting 77% totally. Bennettitales and Ginkgoales are few or absent. The characters of this assemblage from the Dalazi Formation indicate a late Early Cretaceous age, probable Albian. The vegetation wasa transitional flora between the Early Cretaceous fern-gymnosperm flora and theLate Cretaceous angiosperm flora. The features of the assemblage indicate that
the Louzigou region of Wangqing in the late Early Cretaceous was dominated by
hot and arid climate and sometimes probably interrupted by wet climate.

Acknowledgements
The study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(41472011, 41688103, 41790454), and the Strategic Priority Research Program(B) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB1800000). This is acontribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

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Sun, G., Cao, Z.Y., Li, H.M. and Wang, X.F. (1995) Cretaceous Floras. In: Li, X.X.,
Ed., Fossil Floras of China through the Geological Ages, Guangdong Science andTechnology Press, Guangzhou, 411-454.

[2]

Tao, J.R. (2000) Fossil Plants of the Early Cretaceous in Northeast China. In: Tao,
J.R., Ed., The Evolution of the Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic Floras in China, Science
Press, Beijing, 6-11, 282 p. (In Chinese)[3]

Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Jilin Province (1997) Stratigraphy (Lithostratic) of Jilin Province. China University of Geosciences Press, Wuhan, 324 p.

[4]

Li, G., Ohta, T., Batten, D. J., Sakai, T. and Kozai, T. (2016) Morphology andPhylogenetic Origin of the Spinicaudatan Neodiestheria from the Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formation, Yanji Basin, North-Eastern China. Cretaceous Research,
62, 183-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2015.09.019[5]Zhou, Z.Y., Chen, P.J., Li, B.X., Li, W.B., Wen, S.X., Zhang, L.J., Ye, M.N., Liu, Z.S.,
Li, Z.P. and Yang, X.L. (1980) Younger Mesozoic Non-Marine Deposits of the Yanbian Area, Eastern Jilin. Bulletin of Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology,
Academia Sinica, 1, 1-21. (In Chinese)[6]

Oishi, S. (1941) Note on Some Mesozoic Plants from Lo-Tzu-Kou, Province Chientao, “Manchoukuo”. Journal of Faculty of Science of Hokkaido Imperial University,
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4, 167-176.

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910047[7]

Yang, X.J. and Deng, S.H. (2007) Discovery of Pseudofrenelopsis gansuensis fromthe Lower Cretaceous of Wangqing, Jilin Province, and Its Significance in Correlation of Cretaceous Red Beds in China. Acta Geologica Sinica, 81, 905-911.
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Yang, X.J., Guignard, G., Zhou, Z.Y. and Xu, Q. (2018) Suturovagina intermedia(Cheirolepidiaceae) from the Lower Cretaceous Dalazi Formation of Wangqing,
Northeast China: Cuticle Ultrastructure and Palaeoenvironmental Insights. Cretaceous Research, 91, 80-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2018.05.005

584Open Journal of Geology

Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 585-588
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Phototropism of Petrified Wood and Its
Relation with the Rotation of Different Blocks
in China and the Possibility of Application in
the World
Zikun Jiang1,2*, Benpei Liu3, Yongdong Wang2, Min Huang1, Tom Kapitany4, Ning Tian5,
Yong Cao6, Yuanzheng Lu7, Shenghui Deng7
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, and Center for
Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
3
China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
4
The National Dinosaur Museum, Canberra ACT, Australia
5
College of Palaeontology, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, China
6
Key Laboratory of Palaeomagnetism and Tectonic Reconstruction of Ministry of Land and Resources, Institute of Geomechanics,
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
7
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina, Beijing, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Jiang, Z.K., Liu,
B.P., Wang, Y.D., Huang, M., Kapitany, T.,
Tian, N., Cao, Y., Lu, Y.Z. and Deng, S.H.
(2019) Phototropism of Petrified Woodand Its Relation with the Rotation of Different Blocks in China and the Possibilityof Application in the World. Open Journalof Geology, 9, 585-588.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910048
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Normally, trees on the side directly exposed to sunlight will grow faster thanthe opposing side. This phenomenon is termed plant phototropism. Moreover, palaeomagnetists have revealed that the Junnar Block has never rotatedsince the Mesozoic. The petrified woods in the Jiangjunmiao area of Qitai
County show the positive phototropism direction of SSW220. By comparedwith the modern normal growth stumps in plain area, which have positive
phototropism direction of SSW 219 ± 5, this observation supports the conclusion of palaeomagnetic researchers: the Junggar basin has never rotatedsince the Late Jurassic.

Keywords
Jurassic Petrified Wood, Phototropism, Plate Rotation, Palaeogeography

1. Introduction
It is common knowledge that phototropism refers to the direction of plant
growth in relation to a light source. Positive phototropism relates to plant

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growth towards a light source and includes most plant parts, such as leaves andstems. In general, phototropism is easy to observe in crown and the trunk nearroots. The definition intensity of plant phototropism varies regularly along withlatitudinal change as “strong to weak to disappeared” ranges from high to low.
This phototropism phenomenon exists also in the well-protected in situ petrified
wood formed in geological ages. Therefore, we can obtain important first-handinformation of important geological significance through the investigation into
the shape and rings of the in situ fossil tree trunks [1].

2. Relationship between Tree Ring Eccentricity and theLatitude
The link between the tree ring eccentricity and the latitude can be proved in thearbors in the Northern Hemisphere. It seems that the lowest latitude of identifiable phototropism phenomenon of trees is possibly at least to the Tropic ofCancer (N23˚26'), but the further south line still needs more data of the extant
trees to further confirmation.
What should be pointed out is that according to the practical experience ofsome present-day foresters, gravitropism plays a more important role during the
growth of trees [2]. In contrast, other foresters believe that the comprehensive
factors of sunshine, gravity, wind direction and other disturbing elements influence the growth of trees [3]. However, the in situ silicified wood was usuallypreserved in relatively open and flat environments, and sunshine should be themajor element influencing the growth of trees.
The shape of rings of silicified wood preserved in strata can also reflect theancient latitudes. The Middle Jurassic silicified wood from the Chaoyang District, western Liaoning Province, had an obvious phototropism feature; but the
Early Cretaceous silicified wood from the Huolinhe basin, eastern Inner Mongolia, showed a little eccentricity according to the sketches by Deng [4] (Figure 1).
If there were more definite materials to confirm the above comparison, it possibly implicated that the ancient latitude of the North China Plate and the eastpart of Inner Mongolia moved slightly toward the direction of south from theJurassic to Cretaceous, and therefore the previous conclusion that the North
China Plate largely moved northwards is incorrect.

3. Orientation of the in Situ Preserved Silicified Trunk andRotation of the Junggar Block
The Upper Jurassic Shishugou Group of the Jiangjunmiao area, Qitai County,
North Xinjiang (Junggar basin) is rich in petrified wood [5]. The first author ofthis paper found that the tree rings of the in situ preserved silicified trunks areclear and characterized by the obvious asymmetry in the SW 220 sides. Compared with the living trees phototropism [6], the result is almost the same. Thismeans that the positive phototropism the trees are in accordance with thepresent ones, and possibly indicating that the Junggar basin has never rotatedsince the Late Jurassic.
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Figure 1. Comparison between the Middle Jurassic silicified wood in Chaoyang, western
Liaoning Province and the Early Cretaceous silicified wood from the Huolinhe Basin,eastern Inner Mongolia.

4. Significances of Palaeogeography
How to release the relationship and interaction among the different spheres of
the Earth system during the Jurassic to Cretaceous transition in a reasonable way
on the base of new results of comprehensive and multidisciplinary studies has
become a new challenge to scientists all over the world.
Hence, a deep and multiple-dimension investigation of the silicified wood interms of systematic earth science has a priority and is promising in the world.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Sciences Foundation of China(41772023, 41709545, 41688103, 41402004, 41302004), the Strategic Priority
Program (B) of CAS (XDB 18000000 and 2600000), the State Key Program for
Basic Research & Development of Ministry of Science & Technology of China(2016YSC0600406) and the State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy (Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, CAS) (173113). This isa contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

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Liu, B.P. (2012) Problem of Tectonics Research on the Integrate Multe-Desciplineand Mutual Verification. In: 5th National Symposium on Structural Geology &Geodynamics, Abstracts, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 26-27. (In Chinese)[2]

Melanie, J.C. and John, Z.K. (2000) Interactions between Gravitropism and Phototropism in Plants. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 21, 89-101.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s003440010056[3]

Dong, G. (2010) The Research of Integrated Mechanical Model Rendering on
Simulating Tree Growth. A Dissertation Submitted to Liaoning Teachers College
for Master Degree, Dalian.

[4]

Deng, S.H. (1995) Early Cretaceous Flora of Huolinhe Basin, Inner Mongolia,
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Northeast China. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 91-92. (In Chinese)

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910048[5]

Li, C.L. and Sun, B.S. (2011) Geoheritage Evaluation and Integration Developmentof the Qitai Silicified Wood-Dinosaur National Geopark in Xinjiang. Acta Geoscientica Sinica, 32, 233-240. (In Chinese)[6]

Jiang, Z.K., Liu, B.P., Huang, M., Deng, S.H., Lu, Y.Z., Liu, L., Li, M.M., Dong, S.W.
and Wang, Y.D. (2014) The Phototropism of Jurassic Petrifed Wood in North
China Plate. Acta Geological Sinica, 88, 1352-1355.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.12302

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 589-592
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Pollen and Spores from the Lower Cretaceousof Central Mongolia and Their Paleoclimatic
SignificanceNyamsambuu Odgerel1*, Niiden Ichinnorov2, Adiya Eviikhuu3, Batsuren Tegshbayar4
Department of Geology and Geophysics, National University of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Institute of Paleontology and Geology, Mongolian Academy of Science, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
3
Uyan Geo Resource LLC, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
4
Sudalt Mana LLC, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
1
2

How to cite this paper: Odgerel, N.,
Ichinnorov, N., Eviikhuu, A. and Tegshbayar, B. (2019) Pollen and Spores from theLower Cretaceous of Central Mongolia andTheir Paleoclimatic Significance. Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 589-592.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910049
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
The present study focuses on the Lower Cretaceous Khukhteeg Formation(Central Mongolia), which yields palynological assemblage that is used tounderstand the paleoclimate. Palynology samples from the Khovil opencast
mine Choir-Nyalga Basin in the Central Mongolia have been analyzed forpalynomorphs with SEM. The assemblage is dominated by pollen to conifers,
such as Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae and Taxodiaceae, indicating the vegetation ofconifer forests. The assemblage contains abundant spores Schizaeaceae, Cyatheaceae, which are generally associated with wet habitats. According to thedetailed analyses, the plant community indicates that warm and humid subtropical paleoclimate controlled the study area during the Early Cretaceous.

Keywords
Khovil Opencast Mine, Lower Cretaceous, Khukhteeg Formation, Spore,
Pollen, Mongolia

1. Introduction
Coal-bearing strata from Central Mongolia (Khukhteeg Formation) of Aptian toAlbian age contain next to dominating Pinaceae, Cupressaceae pollen [1]-[5]. The
Khovil opencast mine is located in Central Mongolia southeast of Ulaanbaatar in
the Choir-Nyalga Basin. The Choir-Nyalga Basin is the result of extensional tectonics that was prevalent during the Lower Cretaceous north-south trending fold
and thrust belt in the central of Mongolia [6] [7]. The sediments of the Khovil
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opencast mine belong to the lithostratigraphic unit of the coal-bearing Khukhteeg Formation which is, part of the Zuunbayan Group. The Khukhteeg Formation includes conglomerates, gravels, sandstones, and thick lignite coal [7].

2. Material and Methods
A total of 25 samples collected from Khovil opencast mine. The samples weretreated with HCl and HF using standard palynological procedures then fossil
pollen grains were investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM). In
Figure 1, SEM photos are presented.

3. Results and Conclusion
Palynological assemblage is characterized by the abundant of fern spores Cyathaceae and Schizaeaceae, Selaginellaceae, Lycopodiaceae and pollen Pinaceae,
Podocarpaceae (Figure 1). In this assemblage, not observed spores Appendicisporites, very rare pollen Cedripites, contain chlorantahaceous angiosperms Clavatipollenites and unknown angiosperm pollen Retimonocolpites, Liliacidites-like, Platanus-like.

Figure 1. Spores and pollen from Khukhteeg Formation: (1)Taurocusporites reduncus,
5453×, 2 µm (2) Taxodiaceaepollenites sp., 8830×, 10 µm (3) Lycopodiumsporites marginatus, 6829×, 10 µm (4) Cicatricosisporites dorogensis, 5907×, 20 µm (5) Aequitriradites
spinulosus, 4293×, 30 µm (6) Schizosporis sp., 5907×, 50 µm (7) Pilosisporites notensis,
5907×, 30 µm (8) Pilosisporites sp., 5907×, 30 µm (10) Lycopodium sp., 6829×, 10 µm(10) Podocarpites luteus 3566×, 10 µm (11) Podocarpites multisinus 3701×, 10 µm (12)Piceapollenites sp., 2313×, 50 µm.
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This palynological assemblage is important for inferring paleoecological and paleoclimatic conditions of the region during the Early Cretaceous. The assemblage
is dominated by pollen of conifers, such as Pinaceae, Taxodiaceae, indicating thevegetation of conifer forests. The assemblage contains abundant above mentioned
pollen taxa, which are generally associated with wet habitats. The conifer plants
grew on foothills at different distances from the lake, but Filicopsida dominatedthe lake shore. Clavatipollenites is also khown from lower latitudinal fossil localities (Spain, Portugal, Brazil, USA) and their presence in Mongolia might beevidence for the admixture of temperate and subtropical floras [8]. The
Choir-Nyalga basin, which was a periodically ever-wet (presence of algal cysts,
Botryococcus and liverworts Aequitriradites), low diverse peat producing environment situated in a more northern position at higher latitudes, where newcomers arrived later than at the lower latitudes.

Acknowledgements
We want to express our deep gratitude to Christa-Ch Hofmann (University of
Vienna), Freddy Grimsson (University of Vienna) for improving the manuscript. Special thanks go to Altanzul Chikalov, Munkhnasan Otgon for outstanding fieldwork. This research has been supported by Ernst Mach Grant fromthe Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research (BMBWF).
This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

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Bratseva, G.M., Novodvorskaya, I.M. (1975) Spores and Pollen from the Lower
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Fossil Fauna and Flora of Mongolia. Trudy Sovmestnaya Sovetsko-Mongolskaya
Paleontologicheskaya, 2, 205-209.

[2]

Matsukawa, M., Nagata, H., Taketani, Y., Khanda, Y., Khosbayar, P., Badamgarav,
D. and Obata, I. (1997) Dinosaur Bearing Lower Cretaceous Deposits in the Choir
Basin, S.E. Mongolia Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Environments. Journal of theGeological Society of the Philippines, 52, 99-114.

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Nichols, D.J., Matsukawa, M. and Ito, M. (2006) Palynology and Age of Some Cretaceous Nonmarine Deposits in Mongolia and China. Cretaceous Research, 27,
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Saiki, K. and Okubo, A. (2006) Lower Cretaceous Flora of the Choyr Basin, Mongolia. Cretaceous Research, 27, 252-261.

[5]Shi, G.L., Leslie, A.B., Herendeen, P.S., Chinnorov, N., Takahashi, M., Knopf, P. andCrane, P.R. (2014) Whole Plant Reconstruction and Phylogenetic Relationships ofElatides zhoui sp. nov. (Cupresseaceae) from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 175, 911-930. https://doi.org/10.1086/677651[6]

Ito, M., Matsukawa, M., Saito, T. and Nichols, D.J. (2006) Facies Architecture and591

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Paleohydrology of a Synrift Succession in the Early Cretaceous Choyr Basin Mongolia. Cretaceous Research, 27, 226-240.

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Erdenetsogt, B., Lee, I., Bat-Erdene, D. and Jargal, L. (2009) Mongolian Coal-Bearing
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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 593-596
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ISSN Print: 2161-7570

The Origin and Diversification of Plant Family
Dipterocarpaceae
Mahi Bansal1, Shivaprakash K. Nagaraju2,3, Vandana Prasad1*
Terminal Cretaceous-Cenozoic Ecosystem Laboratory, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, India
Centre for Structural and Functional Genomics, Biology Department, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
3
The Nature Conservancy Centre India (TNCIndia), New Delhi, Delhi, India
1
2

How to cite this paper: Bansal, M., Nagaraju, S.K. and Prasad, V. (2019) The Origin
and Diversification of Plant Family Dipterocarpaceae. Open Journal of Geology, 9,593-596.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910050
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
The Dipterocarpaceae plant family, that shows a disjunct distribution in
Gondwanan continents and Southeast Asia, is a dominant constituent of thetropical rain forests of Southeast Asia. The high species diversity of Dipterocarpaceae in SE Asian rain forests suggests its origin from SE Asia. However,its fossil history is much younger, from Oligocene, from the region. Based on
the pollen fossil records from the late Cretaceous-early Paleogene sedimentary sequences of Indian subcontinent and the contemporaneous distributionof its extant taxa, evolutionary history of Dipterocarpaceae has been traced.
The study suggests a West Gondwanan origin for this family. Present study
also provides first evidence of Dipterocarpaceae genus Vateriopsis (endemic
in Seychelles) type fossil pollen record from the late Cretaceous and early Palaeogene sedimentary sequences of western Indian margin.

Keywords
Fossil, Vateriospis, Pollen, Cretaceous, Dipterocarpaceae

1. Introduction
Dipterocarpaceae, an economically important arborescent family distributed in
SE Asian tropical regions, is important for the production of timber, camphor
and resins. There exist a lot of opinions about its systematic classification [1].
The family is subdivided into three subfamilies: 1) Monotoideae, restricted to
Africa, Madagascar and South America; 2) Pakaraimoideae, endemic to SouthAmerica; 3) Dipterocarpoideae, distributed in SE Asia [2]. Except the two genera, Pseudomonotes and Marquesia, the representatives of Monotoideae distributed across Africa and Madagascar cultivate in seasonally dry forests. Whereas
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members of Pakaraimoideae and Dipterocarpoideae subfamilies prefer lowland
rain forest. It has been found that various species of Dipterocarpoideae have theadaptability to seasonally wet and aseasonal perhumid tropical regions of SE
Asia [1]. Due to more plasticity in the climatic adaptive nature, members ofDipterocarpoideae exhibit greater species diversity compared to the other two
subfamilies. The family is disseminated across continents following a strict disjunct distribution pattern which raises a question of its place and time of origin.
Dipterocarpoideae clade dominates in SE Asia and almost 80% of its diversity
has been found to occur in wet forest of SE Asia particularly in Western Malaysia (Borneo), and hence SE Asia was considered to be its centre of origin [3].
There are two plausible hypotheses proposed for the evolutionary history andbiogeography of the family Dipterocarpaceae. One hypothesis supports a SE
Asian origin (Into India hypothesis). The other suggests a Gondwanan origin(Out of India hypothesis) [3]. In the present study, we are trying to assess bothbiogeographic hypotheses based on fossil data.

2. Material and Method
Studied samples were collected from three sites: 1) Late Cretaceous
infratrappean bore core samples from Yeotmal region, Maharashtra; 2) Late
Cretaceous intertrappean samples from Gowmukh area, Madhya Pradesh; 3)
Early Palaeogene (Danian) samples from Gurha lignite mine, Bikaner region,
Rajasthan. For comparison purposes, extant flower buds of Vateriopsis collectedfrom Seychelles were acetolysed for pollen study and the extant pollen werecompared with the fossil palynomorphs.

3. Results
The current study finds the presence of Vateriopsis type pollen fossil from theUpper Cretaceaous and Lower Palaeogene deposits of intertrappeans of central
India and Bikaner Basin, Rajasthan, India, respectively. This study also documents the variety of Dipterocarpus type pollen fossils from the Upper Cretaceous of infratrappeans and intertrappeans of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, central India, and the Lower Paleogene of Bikaner Basin, Rajasthan, western India.

4. Discussion and Conclusion
The Late Cretaceous Vateriopsis and Dipterocarpus type fossil pollen records
suggest the Out of India hypothesis. Dipterocarpus type fossil pollen is recoveredfrom the Indian Upper Cretaceous, the time when Indo-Seychelles plate was insurficial contact with Africa [4]. The distance between Asia and India during theLate Cretaceous was too large and could not facilitate the dispersal of the family.
The presence of Vateriopsis type fossil pollen in Indian Lower Paleogene is thetime just before the separation of Indo-Greater Somalaria from Seychelles [4].
The present distribution of Vateriopsis in Seychelles suggests its migration from
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India. Moreover, the presence of possible Dipterocarpus fossils from Africa [1][5], a continent where only Monotes is found in the present day, also strongly
indicates the diversification of the family on Gondwanan landmass. Our consent
of Out of India hypothesis for Dipterocarpaceae dispersal in SE Asia is much
more strengthened by the presence of polycadinene resin in the Upper Eocene of
Mayanmar which was a part of Indian plate before its collision to Asia [6]. Thissuggests that the family might have migrated to Asia after the contact between
India and Asia was established.
Furthermore the sharing of ectomycorrhizal symbiotic relation between Dipterocarpaceae and Sarcolaenaceae, a family endemic to Madagascar in present
time, signifies that both families share a common ancestor [7]. The previously
stated fact and the only Miocene fossil record of Sarcolaenaceae from Africa [8]imply that the diversification of the families should have occurred on the
Gondwana landmass before the separation of Madagascar from India-Seychelles
block.

Acknowledgements
The study is supported by the project MoES/P.O.(GeoSci.)/36/2014. This is acontribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910050[1]

Maury-Lechon, G. and Curtet, L. (1998) Biogeography and Evolutionary Systematics of Dipterocarpaceae. In: Appanah, S. and Turnbull, J.M., Eds., A Review of Dipterocarps: Taxonomy, Ecology and Silviculture, Center for International Forestry
Research, Indonesia, 5-44.

[2]

Maguire, B., Ashton, P.S., De Zeeuw, C., Giannasi, D.E. and Niklas, K.J. (1977) Pakaraimoideae, Dipterocarpaceae of the Western Hemisphere. Taxon, 26, 341-385.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1996-8175.1977.tb04186.x[3]

Kundu, S. (2008) A Synopsis of Dipterocarpaceae in Indian Subcontinent: Its Distribution and Endemism. Acta Botanica Hungarica, 50, 125-142.
https://doi.org/10.1556/ABot.50.2008.1-2.9[4]

Chatterjee, S. and Scotese, C.R. (1999) The Breakup of Gondwana and the Evolution
and Biogeography of the Indian Plate. Proceedings of Indian National Science
Academy Part A, 65, 397-426.

[5]

Shukla, A., Mehrotra, R.C. and Guleria, J.S. (2013) Emergence and Extinction ofDipterocarpaceae in Western India with Reference to Climate Change: Fossil Wood
Evidences. Journal of Earth System Science, 122, 1373-1386.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-013-0341-8[6]Suryendu, D., et al. (2011) Eocene Out-of-India Dispersal of Asian Dipterocarps.
Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 166, 63-68.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2011.05.002

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DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910050[7]

Ducousso, M., et al. (2004) The Last Common Ancestor of Sarcolaenaceae andAsian Dipterocarp Trees Was Ectomycorrhizal before the India-Madagascar Separation, about 88 Million Years Ago. Molecular Ecology, 13, 231-236.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.02032.x[8]

Nilsson, S., Coetzee, J. and Grafström, E. (1996) On the Origin of the Sarcolaenaceae with Reference to Pollen Morphological Evidence. Grana, 35, 321-334.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00173139609429091

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 597-600
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

The Stratigraphic, Palaeobiogeographic andPhylogenetic Significance of Aquilapollenites
Shreya Mishra1*, Shiva Prakash Kadukothanahalli Nagaraju2,3, Mahi Bansal1, Vandana Prasad1
Terminal Cretaceous-Cenozoic Ecosystem Laboratory, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, India
Centre for Structural and Functional Genomics, Biology Department, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
3
The Nature Conservancy Centre India, New Delhi, Delhi, India
1
2

How to cite this paper: Mishra, S., Kadukothanahalli Nagaraju, S.P., Bansal, M. andPrasad, V. (2019) The Stratigraphic, Palaeobiogeographic and Phylogenetic Significance of Aquilapollenites. Open Journalof Geology, 9, 597-600.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910051
Received: August 15, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Angiosperm evolved and diversified during Cretaceous. During this course ofevolution and radiation, various pollen of uncertain origin had evolved.
Aquilapollenites represents the early stock of angiosperms attaining its acme
with respect to diversity and dominance during Campanian and Maastrichtian age. It was globally present (except Antarctica) however more dominant
in northern hemisphere (Canada, North America, Sakhlain Oblast and China). In India, the Aquilapollenites sp. is present in Maastrichtian aged deposits. The pollen affinity has been associated with Loranthaceae and Santalaceae plant families. Here, a comparative description of all the Aquilapollenites
sp. comprising a wide range of morphological diversity has been discussed.
The wider morphological diversity and ecological adaptability of Aquilapollenites sp. infer that it is globally significant and warrants a more detailed
study.

Keywords
Triprojectate Pollens, Late Cretaceous, Maastrichtian, Paleocene

1. Introduction
Aquilapollenites sp. [1] was amended with the advancement in the field of microscopy [2] [3]. Aquilapollenites sp. belongs to a group of Triprojectacites [4].
This group includes angiosperm pollen with three equatorial projections and apolar projection on each side. Aquilapollenites sp. attained its maximum abundance and diversity during Campanian and Maastrichtian [5]. It is believed to
evolve during the Turonian [6]; there are several pre-Turonian records from
northern and southern hemisphere. Records of this pollen extend up to Eocene
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but most are reworked [7].
There is a total of 180 species of Aquilapollenites sp. out of which only twelve
occur in Indian sub-continent, restricted to Maastrichtian aged deposits [8]. The
pollen is morphologically very diverse and consists of a wide variety of features.
The pollen affinity has been discussed in detail by Jarzen [9] and assigned to Loranthaceae and Santalaceae plant family with uncertainty. Here we present thecomparative description of morphological variation in the Aquilapollenites sp.
along with its stratigraphic, palaeobiogeographic and phylogenetic significance.

2. Comparative Morphological Descriptionof Aquilapollenites sp.
Aquilapollenites sp. bears a unique morphology with three equatorial protrusion
and one polar protrusion on each side. It constitutes heteropolar, subisopolar toisopolar pollen forms. The size of the polar protrusion varies considerably. Pollen which either have one very small polar projection (less than half of the developed polar projections) or bear only one polar projection have been transferred to the genus Mancicorpus [3]. The number of equatorial projections is 3 4, oriented either equatorially or meridional. The shape of equatorial protrusion
ranges from cylindrical, auriculate to conical. There is a wide difference between
the ratio of polar and equatorial protrusion. In few species both protrusions arewell developed while in others either of the two is well-developed. In Indian

Aquilapollenites sp. forms, polar protrusion is well developed while equatorial
protrusions are very small peg like structure [8]. The apertures are 3 to 4 innumber and situated either equatorially or meridionally. The most common
aperture type of Aquilapollenites sp. is colpi, rarely demicolpi (common in Indian species) and only one species of tricolporate pollen (A. amicus).
There is a wide variety of morphological diversity in the exine ornamentation,
supratectal elements and their distribution. Pollen mostly bear reticulate andstriatoreticulate ornamentation. However, psilate, punctate, foveolate, retipilate,infrareticulate and granulate also occur in some species. The supratetcal elements mostly consist of acuminate spines with few species having pila, scale or
crystal shaped spines. Most of the Indian Aquilapollenites sp. bear striatoreticulate ornamentation and are devoid of supratectal elements. In few species, dimorphism is very common in Aquilapollenites sp. showing different ornamentation on equatorial, polar and central region of the pollen. Sometimes spines only
occur at the borders of the colpi extending from one end to the other forming a“Dragon Comb” like structure [10].

3. Stratigraphic, Palaeobiogeographic and Phylogenetic
Significance of Aquilapollenites sp.
Aquilapollenites sp. represents the early stock of angiosperm. It originated during the Early Cretaceous when the world was represented by one phytogeographical province [11]. The increased tectonic activity during the late CretaDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910051

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ceous resulted in the formation of new continental assembly and changing global
precipitation pattern and climate [12]. The angiosperms diversified during thistime gave rise to nine phytogeographical provinces [13]. The Aquilapollenites
phytogeographical province was majorly restricted to northern hemisphere due
to its higher abundance and diversity in this region. However, Aquilapollenites
sp. was globally present in the late Cretaceous palynoassemblages except Antarctica. Its affinity has been related to parasitic plants of Loranthaceae and Santalaceae families with uncertainty [9]. Thus, Aquilapollenites sp. holds an interesting
history of angiosperm diversification and adaptation which warrants more detailed study. The vast array of data regarding Aquilapollenites sp. needs to becompiled and analyzed using phylogenetic approach to identify its affinity, contribution in angiosperm evolution and palaeobiogeographic distribution.

Acknowledgements
I (S.M.) gratefully acknowledge Dr. Vandana Prasad, Director, BSIP, Lucknow
for permitting us to publish. I am also thankful to Prof. Gang Li and the organizing committee of UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 2019 for their help and travel
support.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

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Rouse, G.E. (1957) The Application of a New Nomenclatural Approach to Upper
Cretaceous Plant Microfossils from Western Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany,
35, 349-375. https://doi.org/10.1139/b57-032[2]

Funkhouser, W. (1961) Pollen of the Genus Aquilapollenites. Micropaleontology, 7,
193-198. https://doi.org/10.2307/1484278[3]

Srivastava, K. and Rouse, G.E. (1970) Systematic Revision of Aquilapollenites Rouse
1957. Canadian Journal of Botany, 48, 1591-1601. https://doi.org/10.1139/b70-235[4]

Mtchedlishvili, N.D. (1961) Triprojectacites. In: Samoilovitch, S.R. and Mtchedlishvili, N.D., Eds., Pollen and Spores from Western Siberia, Jurassic-Paleocene. Trudy.
Vsesojuzn. Neft. Issl. Geological Rass. Institute, 203-299.

[5]

Nichols, D.J. (2003) Biodiversity Changes in Cretaceous Palynofloras of Eastern
Asia and Western North America. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 21, 823-833.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00091-3[6]Zhou, S.F. and Wang, L.Y. (1983) Pollen of Aquilapolles from Rutung of Northern
Jiangsu. Acta Paleontologia Sinica, 22, 531-540.

[7]

Khan, A.M. and Srivastava, S.K. (2006) The Palaeogeographic Significance of Aquilapollenites Occurrence in Pakistan. Journal of Earth Science, 28, 251-258.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2005.09.011[8]Samant, B., Mohabey, D.M. and Paudayal, K.N. (2013) Aquilapollenites and Other
Triprojectate Pollen from the Late Cretaceous to Early Paleocene Deccan Intertrappean Deposits of India. Palynology, 37, 298-315.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2013.787125[9]Jarzen, D.M. (1977) Aquilapollenites and Some Santalean Genera. Grana, 16, 29-39.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00173134.1977.11864637[10] Hoffmann, C. and Zetter, R. (2007) Upper Cretaceous Pollen Flora from the Vilui
Basin, Siberia: Circumpolar and Endemic Aquilapollenites, Mancicorpus and Azonia Species. Grana, 46, 227-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/00173130701763142[11] Herngreen, G.F.W., Kedves, M., Rovnina, L.V. and Smirnova, A.S.B. (1996) Cretaceous Palynofloral Provinces: A Review. In: Jansonius, J. and McGregor, D.C., Eds.,
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[12] Chaboureau, A.C., Pierre, S., Donnadieu, Y. and Franc, A. (2014) Tectonic-Driven
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.07.014

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ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Advances in the Study of the Non-Marine
Ostracods in Luanping Basin, Northern Hebei(North China): A Preliminary Result
Zuohuan Qin1,2, Dangpeng Xi1*, Benjamin Sames2, Qiqing Pang3, Xiaoqiao Wan1
State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
Department of Geodynamics and Sedimentology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
3
Hebei GEO University, Shijiazhuang, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Qin, Z.H., Xi, D.P.,
Sames, B., Pang, Q.Q. and Wan, X.Q.
(2019) Advances in the Study of the
Non-Marine Ostracods in Luanping Basin,
Northern Hebei (North China): A Preliminary Result. Open Journal of Geology, 9,601-604.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910052
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
The Luanping Basin of northern Hebei, North China, is well known for its
continuous nonmarine Lower Cretaceous deposits and the preservation of theJehol Biota. However, there are still some controversies about the stratigraphic correlation in these regions. Here we report some advances on the
study of the nonmarine ostracods of Luanping, focusing on its biostratigraphical utility. Preliminary results indicate that the nonmarine ostracods
from Luanping Basin consist of 17 genera and around 44 species. The ostracod assemblages of the Dabeigou, Dadianzi and Xiguayuan formations of thisBasin can be assigned to the Luanpingella-Ocrocypris-Eoparacypris (Late
Valanginian-Early Hauterivian age), Cypridea-Timiriasevia-Daurina (Late
Huaterivian-Barremian age) and Cypridea-Limnocypridea-Lycopterocypris(Aptian stage) zones, respectively. This temporary framework can be served
as a stratigraphic correlation tool in northern Hebei, as well as contributed toa better understanding of the evolution of the Jehol Biota.

Keywords
Ostracoda, Biostratigraphy, Luanping Basin, Early Cretaceous, Jehol Biota

1. Introduction
The Jehol Biota represented a diverse ecosystem in the Cretaceous world, particularly with respect to the high diversity and abundance of fossil species [1]. The
study of the Jehol Biota has mainly focused on the Yixian and Jiufotang formations of Western Liaoning, China, which represent the middle and late stage ofthis biota [2]. The early Jehol Biota and its relevant strata, however, remain to be
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studied further [3]. The Luanping Basin and other basins in the northern Hebei
Province, China, preserve abundant fossils of the early Jehol Biota, including
non-marine ostracods [2]. Detailed fieldwork on representative sections of theLower Cretaceous Dabeigou, Dadianzi and Xiguayuan formations of the Luanping Basin have revealed a diverse ostracod fauna with ostracods occurring frequently in the sections and in high abundance [4] [5] [6] [7]. Previous taxonomical and biostratigraphical analyses of the ostracods contribute to the improved
age assignment and correlation of respective formations, the correlation with therelevant stage of the Jehol Biota, and on the controversy on the position of theJ-K boundary in the Luanping basin and adjacent basins [8]. These studies
demonstrated the need for more detailed work and thorough taxonomical revision of the ostracod fauna and its biostratigraphical and paleoenvironmental
utility.

2. Materials and Methods
In an ongoing PhD project, detailed studies on relevant sections of the Dabeigou(Yushuxia section), Dadianzi (Shangying-Xiaying section), and Dadianzi or Xiguayuan (Liying section) formations of the Luanping Basin are carried out, including high-resolution measuring and sampling for microfossils as well as detailed sedimentological descriptions to establish the lithostratigraphic framework.

3. Results and Discussion
Preliminary taxonomic analysis of non-marine ostracods from the Lower Cretaceous interval of Luanping Basin revealed (depending on sections and formations) 7 - 17 genera, including Cypridea, Yumenia, Luanpingella, Pseudoparacy-

pridopsis, Daurina, Yanshanina, Ocrocypris, Eoparacypris, Limnocypridea,
Djungarica, Darwinula, Alicenula, Rhinocypris, Timiriasevia, Damonella, Lycopterocypris and Mongolianella, and around 44 species (Detailed discussion
will be on another paper). Fieldwork on the Lower Cretaceous interval of the
Liying section, the stratigraphical assignment of which either to the Dadianzi or
the Xiguayuan Formation is still debated, revealed abundant fossils of gastropods, bivalves, ostracods, spinicaudatans, fishes, shrimps and plants. The ostracod biostratigraphy of the Dabeigou, Dadianzi and Xiguayuan formations can berecognized as the

Luanpingella-Ocrocypris-Eoparacypris (Late Valangi-

nian-Early Hauterivian age), Cypridea-Timiriasevia-Daurina (Late Huaterivian-Barremian age) and Cypridea-Limnocypridea-Lycopterocypris (Aptian
stage) assemblage zones, respectively. In addition, the ostracod assemblage zoneof the Dadianzi Formation can be subdivided into the Cypridea stenolonga, C.

luanpingensis, C. sulcata, and C. pangi subzones, which mainly distributed atmembers 1 - 4 of this formation, respectively. Based on biostratigraphic correlations of the Dadianzi Formation to stratigraphically equivalent formations ofadjacent basins, it is concluded that the earliest occurrence of Cypridea-species
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in the northern Hebei-western Liaoning area, North China, is ~130 Ma (lowermost Barremian).

4. Conclusions
Based on preliminary analysis, 17 genera and around 44 species of the nonmarine ostracods from the Lower Cretaceous interval of Luanping Basin have beenrecognized.
The ostracod assemblages of the Dabeigou, Dadianzi and Xiguayuan formations of Luanping Basin have been temporarily proposed as the Luanpingel-la-Ocrocypris-Eoparacypris (Late Valanginian-Early Hauterivian age), Cypridea-Timiriasevia-Daurina (Late Huaterivian-Barremian age) and Cypridea-Limnocypridea-Lycopterocypris (Aptian stage) zones, respectively.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(41688103, 41790452, 41302008, 41172037), the Program of China Geological
Survey (DD20190009, DD20160207), as well as the Austrian Science Fund(FWF) project P 27687-N29 (to BS). Zuohuan Qin was also supported by the
Chinese Scholarship Council. The authors have benefitted greatly from the discussions with Yaqiong Wang, Chunlin Sun, Shaowu Niu, Xiaomin Fang and Xuri Wang. We also sincerely thank Yankang Xu, Feng Wei, Xinhua Li, Xuetang Li,
Fei Xu, Junjie Zhou, Cong Ding, Zhiqiang Yu, Qian Zhang, Guannan Wang,
Anqi Gu, Xin Xiong, Baoxu Wu, Yunqi Ye, Xuejiao Wang, Muhammad Kamran,Jizhe Du, Daben Deng and Jialiang Dai for their help in the field. This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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Late Turonian Microfossils and Paleoclimate in
the Songliao Basin, NE China
Ying Cui1,2, Dangpeng Xi2*, Zuohuan Qin2, Xiaoqiao Wan2
Normal College, Shenyang University, Shenyang, China
State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

1
2

How to cite this paper: Cui, Y., Xi, D.P.,
Qin, Z.H. and Wan, X.Q. (2019) Late Turonian Microfossils and Paleoclimate in the
Songliao Basin, NE China. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 605-608.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910053
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Although the paleoclimate of the marine Cretaceous has been well studied,the paleoclimate of the non-marine is still not well understood. The Songliao
Basin was one of the largest non-marine rift basins during Cretaceous. The
Well-preserved Cretaceous lacustrine deposits in this basin provide a unique
opportunity to study terrestrial paleoenvironments and paleoclimate during
the Late Cretaceous. Here, the microfossils from the Late Turonian Qingshankou Formation of the Songliao Basin were used to investigate the paleoenvironments and paleoclimate of east Asia. There are two spore and pollen assemblages recognized: a Cedripites-Cyathidites-Classopollis assemblage
from Upper Member 1, and a Cedripites-Cyathidites-Classopollis assemblage
from Lower Member 2 of the Qingshankou Formation, respectively. Besides,
relatively abundant ostracods have been identified. In the Songliao Basin, theclimate was relatively warm and wet during Late Turonian, with good sourcerock deposited in the Songliao lake.

Keywords
Cretaceous, Songliao Basin, Spore and Pollen, Paleoclimate

1. Introduction
The Songliao Basin was one of the largest non-marine rift basins during Cretaceous [1]. Widespread deposits in the basin are mainly composed of clastic sediments which contain abundant fossils, such as spore and pollen, clam shrimps,
ostracods, gastropod, bivalves and vertebrates. These spore and pollen fossils
provide us valuable information about Cretaceous climate changes and biotic
responses in a greenhouse environment. Although the paleoclimate of the marine Cretaceous has been well studied [2] [3], the paleoclimate of the non-marine is
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still not well understood. The Well-preserved Cretaceous lacustrine deposits inthis basin provide a unique opportunity to study terrestrial paleoenvironments
and paleoclimate during the Late Cretaceous [4] [5]. Here, the microfossils fromthe Late Turonian Qingshankou Formation of the Songliao Basin were used to
study the paleoenvironments and paleoclimate of East Asia.

2. Materials and Methods
The samples were collected from Upper Member 1 to Lower Member 2 of the
Qingshankou Formation of the Lijiatuozi section in the Songliao Basin. Analysesof spore and pollen and ostracod samples were carried out in the microfossil laboratory. The organic residues recovered were sieved through a 10 μm meshscreen, after which they were boiled in potassium hydroxide solution (KOH,10%) for 10 min to remove soluble humic substances. The sieved residues werestrewn mounted on glass slides using epoxy. The slide numbers were prefixed‘mg’ for Well Mao-206 which is another name of SK1(S). In case of less productive samples, we prepared another four slides to scan and count.

3. Results and Discussion
Preliminary analysis of spore and pollens, as well as ostracods from the Upper Member 1 to Lower Member 2 of the Qingshankou Formation has beentaken. Two spore and pollen assemblages have been recognized. Cedripites-Cyathidites-Classopollis assemblage is belong to Upper Member 1 of the
Qingshankou Formation, including Cyathidites, Schizaeoisporites, Cicatricososporites, Lygodioisporites, Balmeisporites, Cedripites, Podocarpidites, Classopollis, Pinuspollenites, Abiespollenites, Piceaepollenites, Quercoidites, Chenopodipollis and a few other taxa. Cedripites-Cyathidites-Classopollis assemblage is belong to Lower Member 2 of the Qingshankou Formation, including

Schizaeoisporites, Foraminisporis, Cedripites, Classopollis, Taxodiaceaepollenites, Rugubivesiculites, Psophosphaera, Cycadopites, Quercoidites, Callistopollenites, Salixipollenites, Beaupreaidites, Tricolporopollenites, and a few othertaxa. The spore and pollen fossils suggest that the climate was relatively warm
and wet during this period (Late Turonian), but a little dry during sedimentationof the Lower Member 2 of the Qingshankou Formation. Beside the spore andpollens, the ostracods fossils have been identified, including Cypridea dekhoi-

nensis, C. gibbosa, C. bistyloformis, C. tuberculata, C. adumbrata, C. aff. adumbrata, C. nota, C. fuyuensis, Triangulicypris tosuosus var. nota, T. virgate, T.
torsuosus, T. fertilis, T. similis and Limnocypridea, suggesting a fresh to slightly
brackish water environment.
The Upper Member 1 to Lower Member 2 of the Qingshankou Formation has
been dating as Late Turonian [6] [7] [8] [9]. The global paleoclimate was suggested to hot during this period [2]. Based on the core of SK1(s) from the Songliao Basin, a detailed study of spore and pollen suggested a relatively warm andwet climate during Late Turonian [5], which is consistent with our results. DurDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910053

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Y. Cui et al.

ing Late Turonian (Upper Member 1 to Lower Member 2 of the Qingshankou
Formation), the Songliao lake was deep in central part, but relatively shallow in
marginal part, with good source rock deposited in the central part of this large
lake. The spore and pollens suggested that a relatively warm and wet paleoclimate in East Asia during Late Cretaceous.

4. Conclusion
Relatively abundant spore and pollen, as well as ostracods have been discoveredin the Lijiatuozi section of the Upper Member 1 to Lower Member 2 of the
Qingshankou Formation, including two spore and pollen assemblages and one
ostracod assemblage. In the Songliao Basin, the climate was relatively warm andwet during Late Turonian, with good source rock deposited in the central part of
the Songliao lake.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Key Project of Natural Science Foundation of
Liaoning Province (20170520304), the National Natural Science Foundation ofChina (41688103, 41790452), the Program of China Geological Survey(DD20190009, DD20160207). This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP
Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

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Feng, Z., Jia, C., Xie, X., Zhang, S., Feng, Z. and Cross, T. (2010) Tectonostratigraphic Units and Stratigraphic Sequences of the Nonmarine Songliao Basin,
Northeast China. Basin Research, 22, 79-95.
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Huber, B., Norris, R. and Macleod, K. (2002) Deep-Sea Paleotemperature Record of
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Sketon, P.W., Spicer, R.A., Kelly, S.P. and Gilmour, I. (2003) The CretaceousWorld. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 360 p.

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Palaeoecology, 385, 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.01.030[5]Zhao. J., Wan, X.Q., Xi, D.P., Jing, X., Li, W., Huang, Q.H. and Zhang, J.Y. (2014)
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608Open Journal of Geology

Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 609-612
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

A Hope for an Integrated Taxonomy of Fossil
and Extant Clam Shrimps
Gang Li1*, Xiao Teng2,3State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Nanjing, China
2
CAS Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center
for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
3
University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
1

How to cite this paper: Li, G. and Teng, X.
(2019) A Hope for an Integrated Taxonomy
of Fossil and Extant Clam Shrimps. Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 609-612.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910054
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Clam shrimps are large bivalved branchiopod crustacean. They first occurredin the Devonian, and flourished during the Mesozoic in Asia. Fossil clam
shrimps play an important role in the subdivision and correlation of
non-marine fossil-bearing strata. The phosphatized carapaces or carapace external/internal moulds are the main objects for taxonomical studies. The
delicate ornament and the ontogenetically developing morphological patternson the growth bands of carapaces are the main fossil taxonomic criteria.
While modern clam shrimp taxonomy is based on soft body morphologicalfeatures and molecular data, which could not be found in the fossil records.
This makes it difficult to discuss the fossil and modern clam shrimp phylogenetic relationship. Nowadays scanning electron microscopes are widely
available, and can play an important role in investigating clam shrimp carapace morphology which could be common language to integrate fossil andmodern taxonomy.

Keywords
Clam Shrimps, Fossil, Extant, Taxonomy

1. Introduction
Clam shrimps are large branchiopod crustaceans. They have laterally compressed shrimp-like bodies which are enclosed in chitinous bivalved carapace.
This is the reason why they are called clam shrimps. Extant clam shrimps arewidely distributed on all continents except for Antarctica, but fossil clam
shrimps are widely distributed, and they were also found in Antarctica. AccordDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910054 Sep. 23, 2019

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G. Li, X. Tenging to the fossil records, clam shrimps extend back to the Devonian Period. The
evolution of clam shrimps was initially centred on Europe, but in Mesozoic they
diversified more rapidly in Asia [1]. During the Cenozoic they gradually declined with very scarce fossil records [2], and resulted in both low abundanceand diversity. Nowadays only fourteen genera in five families remain [1].

2. Living Environment of Clam Shrimps
Clam shrimps inhabit seasonally astatic wetlands such as playas, vernal (rain andsnow-melt) pools, rice field or fishless lakes [3]. This living environment is consistent with their relatively short life cycles. Their resting eggs are able to survive
dormant for several years under dry conditions. All these special features makeclam shrimps the very successful colonizers of ephemeral freshwater ecosystems[4] under a wet and dry alternating climate setting in the earth history [5]. This
results in very abundant fossil records worldwide in the Mesozoic fine lacustrine
deposits [6]-[11].

3. Taxonomy of Fossil and Extant Clam Shrimps
Clam shrimp fossil records demonstrate that their fossilized soft parts are very
rare. Most common cases are that they are preserved as phosphatized carapaces[12], or the external or internal moulds of carapaces. Thus, the classification andtaxonomy of fossil clam shrimps are mainly based on the morphological characters of their carapaces, such as the carapace outline, structure and the fine ornamentation patterns on growth bands [5]. While extant clam shrimps are classified based on the soft body morphological characters and molecular data. In order to solve this dilemma, a common language should be found for an integrated
classification for fossil and extant clam shrimps [13]. During The Crustacean
Society Mid-Year Meeting (May 2019 Hong Kong), fossil and extant clam
shrimp specialists have carried out detailed discussion about the future research
on clam shrimp taxonomy. Most participants agreed that clam shrimp carapaces
could be the main object for searching for morphological features to discuss therelationship between fossil and modern clam shrimps.
Nowadays scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) are widely available andplay a more important role in taxonomy of fossil clam shrimps [14]. The previous studies of fossil clam shrimps, mainly based on the observation under alight microscope, made un-precise descriptions of carapace ornamentation features, and thus taxonomic relationships cannot be determined clearly. A new
SEM imaging of the type material of Neodiestheria dalaziensis from the Albian
Dalazi Formation in northern China has revealed ontogenetically developing
morphological patterns on growth bands of the juvenile stage of the carapace,which indicate that Neodiestheria is closely related phylogenetically to Triglypta[15]. This shows us that further investigation on the fossil and extant clam
shrimp carapaces by the help of SEM could get more fruitful results to discuss
their phylogenetic relationship.
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G. Li, X. TengAcknowledgements
The study was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDB26000000) and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (41572006, 41688103, 41972007). This is a contribution to
UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References[1]

Chen, P.J., Li, G. and Batten, D.J. (2007) Evolution, Migration and Radiation of Late
Mesozoic Conchostracans in East Asia. Geological Journal, 42, 391-413.
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Shen, Y.B., Gallego, O.F., Buchheim, H.P. and Biaggi, R.E. (2006) Eocene Conchostracans from the Laney Member of the Green River Formation, Wyoming,
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Guériau, P., Robet, N., Clément, G, Lagebro, L., Vannier, J., Briggs, D.E.G., Charbonnier, S., Olive, S. and Béthoux, O. (2016) A 365-Million-Year-Old FreshwaterCommunity Reveals Morphological and Ecological Stasis in Branchiopod Crustaceans. Current Biology, 26, 383-390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.039[5]Li, G. (2017) Revision of Fossil Clam Shrimp Taxonomy and a Case Study on
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Li, G. and Matsuoka, A. (2015) Searching for a Non-Marine Jurassic/Cretaceous
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Boukhalfa, K., Li, G., Ben Ali, W. and Soussi, M. (2015) Early Cretaceous Spinicaudatans (“Conchostracans”) from Lacustrine Strata of the Sidi Aïch Formation in the
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Special Publications, 450, 450-456. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP450.6[11] Scholze, F., Golubev, V.K., Niedźwiedzki, G., Sennikov, A.G., Schneider, J.W. andSilantiev, V.V. (2015) Early Triassic Conchostracans (Crustacea: Branchiopoda)
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G. Li, X. Tengfrom the Terrestrial Permian-Triassic Boundary Sections in the Moscow Syncline.
Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 429, 22-40.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.04.002[12] Stigall, A.L., Babcock, L.E., Briggs, D.E.G. and Leslie, S.A. (2008) Taphonomy of
Lacustrine Interbeds in the Kirkpatrick Basalt (Jurassic), Antarctica. Palaios, 23,344-355. https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2007.p07-029r[13] Astrop, T.I. and Hegna, T.A. (2015) Phylogenetic Relationships between Living andFossil Spinicaudatan Taxa (Branchiopoda Spinicaudata): Reconsidering the Evidence. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 35, 339-354.
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Dalazi Formation, Yanji Basin, North-Eastern China. Cretaceous Research, 62,
183-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2015.09.019

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 613-615
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

SEM Morphological Study of the Paratype of theSpinicaudatan Feiyunella zhedongensis (Chenand Shen, 1977) from Cretaceous of Linhai,
Zhejiang, South-East China
Xiao Teng1,2, Gang Li3*
CAS Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center
for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
2
University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
3
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for
Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
1

How to cite this paper: Teng, X. and Li, G.
(2019) SEM Morphological Study of theParatype of the Spinicaudatan Feiyunellazhedongensis (Chen and Shen, 1977) from
Cretaceous of Linhai, Zhejiang, South-East
China. Open Journal of Geology, 9,613-615.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910055
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
Spinicaudatans, a suborder of the abandoned taxonomic group “Conchostraca”, are very useful for biostratigraphic subdivision and correlation of thenon-marine successions, remarkably in otherwise fossil-scarce red beds.
Feiyunella, a monospecies spinicaudatan genus, was established based on
specimens from sediments of Upper Cretaceous red beds in different localities of Zhejiang Province. The morphological examination under a scanningelectron microscope of the type specimens of Feiyunella zhedongensis (Chenand Shen, 1977) has found that the paratype from the Fangyan Formation at
Xiaoling of Linhai City, Zhejiang Province, is not Feiyunella, but a younger
individual of Linhaiella.

Keywords
Spinicaudatan, Feiyunella, Linhaiella, Taxonomy, Cretaceous, South-East China

Open Access1. Introduction
Debate continues about the stratigraphic correlation of the widely distributed
non-marine red beds in south-east China. The spinicaudatans are one of theimportant groups for biostratigraphic correlation of the fossil-poor red beds [1][2]. The Linhaiella fauna was established from the Cretaceous strata whichpertain to the Fangyan Formation at the Xiaoling Section in Linhai, Zhejiang
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X. Teng, G. Li

Province [3]. The fauna was subsequently discovered in Anxi of Fujian, Gaohe ofGuangdong, China, and Kiwado of Yamaguchi, Japan. The diversity of this fauna is extremely low, only several species in two genera, Linhaiella and Feiyunella
are contained [4]. A recent morphological restudy of the type specimens of

Feiyunella has revealed that the Feiyunella paratype from the Xiaoling Section is
Linhaiella, totally different from the holotype which was collected from the Cretaceous strata at the Konglong Section in the Zhengwan village, Wencheng, Zhejiang Province.

2. Material and Method
The examined specimen is a paratype (NIGPCAS 42283) of Feiyunellazhedongensis [5], which is deposited in the collection of the Nanjing Institute ofGeology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (NIGPCAS). The
current study examined the specimens by a HITACHI SU3500 scanning electron
microscope (SEM).

3. Results and Conclusion
The examination indicates that the paratype of Feiyunella zhedongensis(NIGPCAS 42283) is a younger individual of Linhaiella longiformis [6]: most ofits growth bands are ornamented by relatively widely spaced and slender radiallirae, lirae branch to form reticulations, on external mould appearing as lender,
branched grooves with intercalated fine nodules (Figure 1(b), Figure 1(c));
mesh walls are thin, mesh cell diameter ca. 5 - 10 µm; radial lirae on the distal

Figure 1. Linhaiella longiformis Chen and Shen, 1982, the paratype of ‘Feiyunella’(NIGPCAS 42283) from the Fangyan Formation at the Xiaoling Section of Linhai, eastern
Zhejiang Province. (a) External mould of a left valve; (b) (c) External mould of branchedslender radial lirae on growth bands, appearing as lender, branched grooves with intercalated fine nodules; (d) External mould of ornamentation on the marginal area of the carapace. Scale bar = 1 mm in A, 50 µm in (b)-(d).
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most three growth bands are almost disappeared, especially on the upper part ofeach growth band; meshes change to evenly distributed puncta; and near themargin of each growth band, 2 - 3 rows of puncta are relatively deeper than others on the same growth band; on external mould, puncta appear as linearly arranged nodules on the lower part of each growth bands (Figure 1(d)). In contrast, growth bands in the lower part of the true Feiyunella carapace are ornamented by long and straight lirae, the lirae is stouter than that in Linhaiella. It
was usually reported that Feiyunella co-occurred with Linhaiella; however, typespecimens of the referred species are poorly preserved to identify. A further
study with more focus on more taxonomic features of the true Feiyunella istherefore suggested; it would be helpful for biostratigraphic correlation of theCretaceous non-marine red beds in south-east China.

Acknowledgements
The study is supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDB26000000) and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (41572006, 41688103, 41972007). This is a contribution to
UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910055[1]

Li, G., Hirano, H., Batten, D.J., Wan, X.Q., Willems, H. and Zhang, X.Q. (2010) Biostratigraphic Significance of Spinicaudatans from the Upper Cretaceous Nanxiong
Group in Guangdong, South China. Cretaceous Research, 31, 387-395.
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and Biostratigraphic Significance for the Age of Dinosaur Eggs in the Upper Cretaceous Majiacun Formation, Xixia Basin, Henan Province, China. Cretaceous Research, 30, 477-482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2008.09.002[3]Chen, P.J. and Shen, Y.B. (1982) Late Mesozoic Conchostracans from Zhejiang,
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Chen, P.J., Li, G. and Batten, D.J. (2007) Evolution, Migration and Radiation of Late
Mesozoic Conchostracans in East Asia. Geological Journal, 42, 391-413.
https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.1064[5]Chen, P.J. and Shen, Y.B. (1977) On the Discovery of Afrograptidae (Conchostraca)
in Zhejiang with Its Significance. Acta Palaeontologica Sinica, 16, 81-94.

[6]Teng, X. and Li, G. (2018) Morphological Study of Linhaiella (Spinicaudata) fromthe Upper Cretaceous in Zhejiang, South-East China. Cretaceous Research, 92,
184-194.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 616-618
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570“Conchostracan” Records from Western
Gondwana Related to Cretaceous
Palaeoclimatic Features
Oscar Gallego1*, Nora Cabaleri2, Claudia Armella2, Mateo Monferran1, Victoria Jiménez1,
Iracema Zacarías1, Diego Silva Nieto3
Centro de Ecología Aplicada del Litoral (CECOAL-CONICET-UNNE), Corrientes, Argentina
Instituto de Geocronología y Geología Isotópica (INGEIS-CONICET-UBA), Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
3Servicio Geológico Minero Argentino, Buenos Aires, Argentina
1
2

How to cite this paper: Gallego, O., Cabaleri, N., Armella, C., Monferran, M., Jiménez,V., Zacarías, I. and Nieto, D.S. (2019) “Conchostracan” Records from Western Gondwana Related to Cretaceous Palaeoclimatic
Features. Open Journal of Geology, 9,616-618.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910056
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 20, 2019
Published: September 23, 2019

Abstract
Cretaceous System is widely represented in South America. “Conchostracans”
are best represented with 47 early Cretaceous species and only 5 Late Cretaceous ones. Its warm climate with rainfall and marked seasonality allowed thedevelopment of the “conchostracan” populations. This information showsthat more detailed analysis between climate and “conchostracan” records isneeded to reconstruct environments in the Cretaceous times.

Keywords“Conchostraca”, Cretaceous, Climate, Fossil Record, South America
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
1. Introduction
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

The Cretaceous System is widely represented in South America, but its geographical outcrop spread is not related to “conchostracan” records, the best
represented group among the continental invertebrates [1]. “Conchostracan”
first report came from northeast Brazil [2], where the highest diversity record(42 spp. described) was reported, followed by Argentina (6 spp.) and Uruguay (4spp.) [3] [4]. In Brazil, 37 species came from the early Cretaceous and only 5 to
the Late Cretaceous. Ten species from Argentina and Uruguay were found in
Lower Cretaceous sequences [3] [4] [5]. The integration of geological and paleontological data will allow inferring the Cretaceous paleoclimate for thesouthwest Gondwana.

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2. Cretaceous Climate
The arid climate, with heavy rainfall, generated favorable seasonal conditions forthe development of a diverse “conchostracan” fauna [3] [4] [5]. The diversity of
the northeastern Brazil faunas [4] was influenced by the weather. However, it isinferred that, the scarce record in southern South America (e.g. Argentina and
Uruguay) is mainly related to collection biases [3] [5]. However, during the Jurassic-Cretaceous periods, marine transgressions and other events (such as
magmatism of Serra Geral and Botucatú erg-desert) conditioned the dispersion(marked endemism) and the establishment of continental microfossils (ostracods and charophytes) in Patagonia Argentina and the rest of South America[6]. Subsequently, in [6] analyzed the [4] postulates and applied them to the“conchostracan” faunas found in other sequences, incorporating into this analysis the large South American river drainage networks (Paraná-Uruguay andOrinoco-Amazonas). The climate defined for mid-Cretaceous, maintained favorable characteristics (seasonality) for the development of “conchostracan”
faunas. During the late Cretaceous warm weather prevailed with greenhouse periods, globally average temperatures higher than today are recorded. Scarce“conchostracan” records in Brazil, where only 5 species were found, restricts thepossibilities of making considerations about the characteristics of the climate
and its relationship with the “conchostracan” populations.

3. Cretaceous Geological Units Bearing “Conchostracan”
FaunasThe main Cretaceous units with “conchostracan” of Argentina are the La Amarga, Lagarcito and Cañadon Calcáreo formations, while of Uruguay only the Tacuarembó and Castellanos formations have been reported, and numerous Brazilian ones [3] [4] [5]. The Cañadón Calcáreo Formation (Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous) with subtropical seasonal dry and warm climatic conditions allowed the establishment of a rich and diverse conchostracan fauna [7]. The Botucatú Formation (paleoerg, Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous, Brazil) and its
equivalent shares 12 species, 3 of them, were referred to another 6 equivalentgeological units from the northeast Brazil. The Santana Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Northeast Brazil) with a tropical climate with strong seasonal periods
represents favourable conditions to stablish “conchostracan” populations [3].
The Bauru Basin (Upper Cretaceous, Southeast Brasil) was characterized by hot,arid and desert conditions. The scarce “conchostracan” records from the Upper
Cretaceous are insufficient to assess to the influence of climate on the “conchostracan” faunas.

4. Conclusion
Finally, the still biased and not very diverse record of the South American Cretaceous “conchostracan” faunas prevents us from providing definitive conclusions about the impact of the Cretaceous climate on them. Also, considering that
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South American has a large number of geological units and different environmental conditions and also the paleogeographical context of the southwest
Gondwana. However, the climatic characterization for the Cretaceous of SouthAmerica summarized as a warm climate with rainfall and marked seasonality is
characteristics that allowed the development of the “conchostracan” populations. This information shows that we need a more detailed and in-depth analysis of the relationship between the climate and the “conchostracans”.

Acknowledgements
Authors thank Dr. Gang Li for the invitation to IGCP 679 and its first international symposium. Our research was supported by PIP-11220150100117CO(CONICET) and PI-18Q005 (SEGCyT-UNNE). This is a contribution to
UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910056[1]

Tasch, P. (1987) Fossil Conchostraca of the Southern Hemisphere and Continental
Drift. Paleontology, Biostratigraphy and Dispersal. Geological Society of America,
Memoir, 165, 290. https://doi.org/10.1130/MEM165-p1[2]

Jones, R.T. (1897) On some Fossil Entomostraca from South American. Geological
Magazine, 4, 259-265. https://doi.org/10.1017/S001675680018611X[3]Rohn, R. and Cavalheiro, M.C.T. (1996) Conchostráceos Cretácicos da Bacia deTucano (Bahia) e avaliação do potencial cronoestratigráfico destes crustáceos no
Mesozóico do Brasil. 4º Simpósio sobre o Cretáceo do Brasil, Boletim, 157-167.

[4]

Musacchio, E.A. (2001) Relaciones Paleobiogeográficas de los Ostrácodos no Marinos del Jurásico y el Cretácico de Patagonia. Acta Geologica Leopoldensia, 24,
293-310.

[5]Gallego, O.F. (2001) Conchostracofauna Sudamericana del Paleozoico y Mesozoico:
estado actual del conocimiento. Parte I: Argentina y Chile and Parte II: Sur de Brasily Uruguay. Acta Geológica Leopoldensia, 24, 311-337.

[6]

Gallego, O.F. and Rinaldi, S. (2004) Grandes Sistemas Fluviales y Paleovientos Alisios. Posibles Vías de Dispersión para las Conchostracofaunas jurásico-cretácicas
sudamericanas. Reunión de Comunicaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Resúmenes
B-050.

[7]

Volkheimer, W., Gallego, O., Cabaleri, N.G., Armella, C., Narváez, P., Silva Nieto,D. and Paez, M. (2009) Stratigraphy, Palynology, and Conchostracans of a Lower
Cretaceous Sequence at the Cañadón Calcáreo Locality, Extra-Andean Central
Patagonia: Age and Palaeoenvironmental Significance. Cretaceous Research, 30,
270-282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2008.07.010

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 619-622
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

New Vertebrate Fossil Site from the Early
Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation, Sakon Nakhon
Province, Northeastern Thailand
Phornphen Chanthasit1*, Suravech Suteethorn2,3, Wilailak Naksri4, Haiyan Tong2,
Kamonlak Wongko5, Teppei Sonoda6
Sirindhorn Museum, Department of Mineral Resources, Sahatsakhan, Kalasin, Thailand
Palaeontological Research and Education Centre, Mahasarakham University, Kantarawichai, Mahasarakham, Thailand
3
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham, Thailand
4
Northeastern Research Institute of Petrified Wood and Mineral Resources, Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University, Nakhon
Ratchasima, Thailand
5
Phu Wiang Fossil Research Center and Dinosaur Museum, Department of Mineral Resources, Khon Kaen, Thailand
6
Fukui Prefectural Dinosaur Museum, Fukui, Japan1
2

How to cite this paper: Chanthasit, P., Suteethorn, S., Naksri, W., Tong, H.Y., Wongko, K. and Sonoda, T. (2019) New Vertebrate
Fossil Site from the Early Cretaceous Sao
Khua Formation, Sakon Nakhon Province,
Northeastern Thailand. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 619-622.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910057
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
A new vertebrate fossil site, “Phu Sung” in Sakon Nakhon Province was discovered. Various vertebrate fossils belonging to fresh water shark, bony fish,
turtle, crocodile and dinosaur were found in reddish silty mudstone of the
Early Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation of the Khorat Group. Crocodilian remains including a complete skull and partial articulated skeleton are very wellpreserved associated with turtle remains. Moreover, well preserved 19 turtle
shells were found accumulated together. These discoveries will certainly fulfill
our knowledge about these aquatic taxa from the Early Cretaceous Sao Khua
Formation. The exceptional preservation of Phu Sung fossils could probably
relate to the paleoenvironment in the Early Cretaceous of Thailand.

Keywords
Vertebrate, Sao Khua Formation, Early Cretaceous, Northeastern Thailand

Open Access1. Introduction
The Lower Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation of the Khorat Group mainly distributed in northeastern Thailand (Figure 1), is well known for the rich fossils
especially for dinosaurs. Some Sao Khua fossil sites in Sakon Nakon were previously mentioned about the discoveries of vertebrate remains including fresh
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Figure 1. Distribution of Sao Khua Formation and Phu Sung locality showing in red star.

water shark, bony fish, turtles, crocodiles, pterosaurs, dinosaurs and lizard eggs,
however, most of them are fragmentary and rarely articulated. One interestingsite of Sakon Nakhon, Phu Din Daeng, found in 2012 has been reported with a
new adocid turtle [1]. Most recently, a new vertebrate fossil site “Phu Sung” wasfirstly found by a forest ranger in the National Reserved Forest of Phu Lom Khaoand Phu Peg area. Several vertebrate fragments, such as dinosaur, crocodile andturtle were found on the surface obviously in the intermittent rills. In December
2018, the excavation was proceeded and found the exceptionally preserved articulated crocodile and turtles remains which kind of preservation has rarely reported from the Lower Cretaceous of Thailand.

2. Geological Setting
Phu Sung is located at the eastern side of Phu Phan Range in Muang Sakon
Nakhon District, Sakon Nakhon Province (Figure 1). Fossils found in situ fromreddish silty mudstone which is underlain and overlain by sandstone beds. The
site is mapped in the Barremian Sao Khua Formation of the Khorat Group [2].

3. Fossil Assemblage
Phu Sung fossil site yields various vertebrate taxa. Many remains were collectedfrom the erosional surface including a tooth of Chondrichthyes possibly belonging to Heteroptychodus sp., a maxilla of a bony fish sinamiid possibly Siamamia and dinosaurs. The dinosaur material consists of a large isolated toothwith serration and manual claws of indeterminate theropods, a conical tooth
fragment of a spinosaurid, a peg-like tooth of a sauropod similar to one of Phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae and large bone fragments of indeterminate taxon.
Surprisingly in the mudstone layer, crocodilian remains including a complete skull
and partial articulated skeleton are found associated with turtle shell and bones(Figure 2). This crocodile skull is the most complete skull ever found from theSao Khua Formation. It is probably referred to a goniopholidid and interesting
to compare with Siamosuchus phuphokensis which found from another Early
Cretaceous site of Sakon Nakhon Province [3] and Goniopholis phuwiangensis
from Phuwiang, Khon Kaen Province [4]. These two Thai goniopholidid
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Figure 2. Crocodilian remains including a nearly complete skull (a) in dorsal and (b) inleft lateral views, (c) partial articulated vertebrae and (d) articulated osteoderms.

Figure 3. Nineteen adocid turtles accumulated together in reddish silty mudstone.

species lack of common specimens. Thus, this new Phu Sung goniopholidid canclarify the diversity of the Early Cretaceous crocodilian in Thailand. Moreover,few meters from where the crocodile remains were found, well preserved accumulated 19 turtle shells were discovered (Figure 3). These turtles belong to anadocid and are comparable to Isanemys srisuki. However, the turtles are still in
the plaster jacket and need more preparation in another side for more information.
Although, the fossil assemblage from Phu Sung is quite similar to several sites
from the Sao Khua Formation, the fossils from Phu Sung site such as crocodile
and turtles are very complete with the exceptional preservation. These discoveries will certainly fulfill our knowledge about these aquatic taxa from the Lower
Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation. The taphonomy and the extraordinary preservation of Phu Sung fossils could probably relate to the paleoenvironment and the
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paleoclimate changes in the Early Creataceous of Thailand. The further excavations and geological studies will help us to better understand the geology andpaleontology of this site.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Mr. Woravit Tongsiri who informed us about this new site
and all the support from the staffs of the National Reserved Forest of Phu Lom
Khao and Phu Peg. We thank all the colleagues who took part in this work andstrong support from the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand. This is acontribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910057[1]

Tong, H., Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V., Suteethorn, S., Cuny, G., Cavin, L., Deesri,U., Martin, J.E., Wongko, K., Naksri, W. and Claude, J. (2019) Phu Din Daeng, a
New Early Cretaceous Vertebrate Locality on the Khorat Plateau, NE Thailand.
Annales de Paléontologie. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annpal.2019.04.004[2]

Racey, A. and Goodall, J.G. (2009) Palynology and Stratigraphy of the Mesozoic
Khorat Group Red Bed Sequences from Thailand. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 315, 69-83. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP315.6[3]

Lauprasert, K., Cuny, G., Buffetaut, E., Suteethorn, V. and Thirakhupt, K. (2007)
Siamosuchus phuphokensis, a New Goniopholidid from the Early Cretaceous(Ante-Aptian) of Northeastern Thailand. Bulletin de la Société Géologique deFrance, 178, 201-216. https://doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.178.3.201[4]Buffetaut, E. and Ingavat, R. (1983) Goniopholis phuwiangensis nov. sp., a New
Mesosuchian Crocodilian from the Mesozoic of Northeastern Thailiand. Géobios,
16, 79-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-6995(83)80048-5

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 623-626
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Induszalim bala Mesoeucrocodile from
Pakistan
Muhammad Sadiq Malkani
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

How to cite this paper: Malkani, M.S.
(2019) Induszalim bala Mesoeucrocodile
from Pakistan. Open Journal of Geology, 9,623-626.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910058
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Induszalim bala is the first diagnostic mesoeucrocodile from Indo-Pakistan subcontinent having rostrum articulated with dentary symphysis and associated vertebrae and limb bones and provides facility forcomparison with other mesoeucrocodiles. Induszalim is a medium to large
sized mesoeucrocodile found in the latest Maastrichtian Vitakri Lameta
Formation of Fort Munro Group just below Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary line. Induszalim has sufficient skeletal elements and can be used forphylogenetic studies. Induszalim shows Gondwanan paleobiogeographic affinity with some endemic elements.

Keywords
Mesoeucrocodile, Induszalim bala, Latest Maastrichtian, Indo-Pakistan
Subcontinent

1. Introduction
Induszalim bala mesoeucrocodile as the new genus and new species was first reported by [1] and formally published by [2]. Here Induszalim is being describedfor evolutionary study.

2. Induszalim bala Mesoeucrocodile from Pakistan
Systematic paleontology of Induszalim bala is as follows: Crocodyliformes,
Mesoeucrocodylia, Induszalimidae [1], Induszalim [1] [2], Induszalim bala[1] [2] (Figure 1). Induszalim bala holotypic rostrum and lectotypic caudal
vertebrae, proximal humerus and distal femur (Figure 1) from Alam 19 type
locality found in latest Maastrichtian Vitakri Lameta Formation of Fort Munro Group, Barkhan District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Induszalim bala referred
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Figure 1. Induszalim bala fossils. Row 1, holotypic rostrum MSM-155-19c in poaterior
and left lateral views. Row 2, holotypic rostrum MSM-155-19c in anterior view, lectotypiccaudal vertebrae un-number and MSM-65-19 in one view. Row 3, lectotypic caudal vertebra MSM-65-19 in one view, proximal humerus in one view, and distal femur MSM-66-19
in 2 views. Row 4, referred dorsal vertebra MSM-64-15 in 2 views, dentary MSM-63-4 in 4
view and proximal humerus in one view. Scale, each black or white digit is 1 cm.

dorsal vertebra from the Mari Bohri 15, dentary andhumerus from the Kinwa 4localities found also in the latest Maastrichtian (67-66 Million years ago) Vitakri
Lameta Formation of Fort Munro Group, Barkhan District, Balochistan, central
Pakistan. These fossils are housed in the museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta. Genus Induszalim name is after Indus River of Pakistan and Zalim(Urdu and Saraiki word) meaning cruel, and species named Induszalim bala isafter Saraiki word bala meaning big terrible animal.

2.1. Diagnosis of Induszalim bala
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zalimidae is based on Induszalim bala genus and species. Induszalim bony secondary plate is formed by premaxilla, maxilla and palatine while Pabwehshi
secondary plate is formed by premaxilla and maxilla only; external nare subterminal (while vertical in Pabwehshi); anterior rostrum moderately inclined(while vertical in Pabwehshi); narial fossa anteriorly has stepped premaxilla
strip (while Pabwehshi has no step); Induszalim has twice deep palatal cavity
than Pabwehshi; in Induszalim the suture of nasal with premaxilla and maxilla
is generally straight line with fine zigzag butt suture; splenial and dentary are
united as concavo-convexo style with axis in mid while its axis is shifted ventrally in Pabwehshi; in Induszalim, the diverticulum in wall of internal naris isnegligible while diverticulum is well developed in Pabwehshi; tooth bearing
maxillary ramus is twice away from internal naris cavity in Induszalim than

Pabwehshi; dorsoventrally oriented elongated large pneumatopores in maxilla;
Dentary is thick with large pneumatopores in Induszalim while small pneumatopores in Pabwehshi dentary; Induszalim has relatively small internal naris
cavity than Pabwehshi; large and deep palatal cavity than Pabwehshi; partial
roof over the external naris; in Induszalim the palatine ramus shows elongatedcontact with maxilla while not found in Pabwehshi; first and second tooth of
Dentary are small in diameter than Pabwehshi, while third is more but fourth
is maximum in diameter of Induszalim than Pabwehshi; Neurocentrally straightsuture opens in dorsal centrum; Caudal centra are strongly waisted.

2.2. Description of Fossils of Induszalim bala
Induszalim bala shows anterodorsally directed external nares, high or deepand narrow rostrum, the ziphodont type laterally compressed teeth (symmetric to asymmetric oval to asymmetric D shaped, subcircular and heterodont
in size), and thick rostral elements. Deep D-shaped rostrum is ornamented
with pitted and sculptured lines or grooves and ridges. Height of the rostrumis ¾ to its width like Pabwehshi. In Induszalim the external nares are subterminal while it is terminal in Pabwehshi. External narial fossa face anterolaterally and laterodorsally. Rostrum has many small and large internal pneumatic cavities (Figure 1). Premaxilla is sub-quadrangular in lateral views. It
contacts with nasal posterodorsally and the maxilla posteriorly. Premaxilla
and nasal enclose the external nares. Laterally the suture of maxilla and premaxilla is a butt joint. Dorsally the premaxillae contact with each other toform the midline contact and form the lip. Premaxillary lip forms more than
3/5 of anteroposterior length of dorsal roof of external nares. Ventrally, thepremaxillae may contact one another at the midline to form the anterior portion of the secondary palate. A diastema is found on the contact of maxilla
and premaxilla (Figure 1).
Maxilla and premaxilla form side wall of rostrum, while palatines are separated bones. In Induszalim the palatine lateral torus has elongated contact withthe maxilla while this contact is not found in Pabwehshi. It represents that
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secondary palate formed by separate bones. Dorsally the maxilla meets withnasal forming contact subparallel to midline (with fine zigzag fine tuning).
Maxilla, nasal and palatine bones enclose the internal naris. Nasal forms thedorsal and some dorsolateral margin of internal naris. Upper half of internalnaris is bounded by maxilla while lower half of internal naris is bounded bypalatine. A prominent and exceptionally very large elongated internal coel(dorsoventrally elongated) is found in maxilla (Figure 1). Nasal forms the roofof rostrum. Lower portion of bilaminae internarial bar is clearly formed bypalatine while dorsal portion is damaged (Figure 1).
Holotypic dentary symphysis is preserved in interlocking with maxilla andpremaxilla (Figure 1). Further both rami of dentary also articulated with therelevant splenial. Pitted structures on dentary are aligned anteroposteriorly withsome random rough contouring. Dentary is pneumatic. Splenial joined with relevant dentary is concave-convex which axis found in the dorsoventrally centre ofbones, while shifted ventrally in Pabwehshi. Induszalim referred mandible is
D-shaped. Two diverse mandibles are found fragmentary, one belongs to Pabwehshi and other assigned to Induszalim. First and second tooth of dentary aresmall in diameter than Pabwehshi, while third is relatively more but the fourth
is maximum in diameter of Induszalim than Pabwehshi, the fourth dentary
tooth is large and shows a marked heterodonty in size and is more transversely
compressed of Induszalim than Pabwehshi. A diastema is also found in thedentary at the level of dentary tooth 4. Splenial at cross section is thick robust
four limbs X shaped or four rayed star shaped. Palatine meets on midline
formed secondary plate. Dorsal centrum is amphicoelous, big in size thancaudal vertebrae. Dorsal centrum is long, slightly tall and slightly waisted.
Neurocentral suture open in dorsal vertebra. Caudal vertebrae are amphicoelous, long, strongly waisted and formed arced. Proximal humerus is broad.
Femur tibial condyle is greater than fibular condyle, elliptical shaft is curved.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910058[1]

Malkani, M.S. (2014) Theropod Dinosaurs and Mesoeucrocodiles from the Terminal Cretaceous of Pakistan. In Abstract Volume of 2nd Symp. International Geoscience Program (IGCP 608) “Cretaceous Ecosystem of Asia and Pacific”, Tokyo, 4-6
September 2014, 169-172.

[2]

Malkani, M.S. (2015) Dinosaurs, Mesoeucrocodiles, Pterosaurs, New Fauna andFlora from Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information Release No. 823,
1-32.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 627-630
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Smallest Titanosaur from Indo-Pakistan
Landmass
Muhammad Sadiq Malkani
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

How to cite this paper: Malkani, M.S.
(2019) Smallest Titanosaur from Indo-Pakistan Landmass. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 627-630.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910059
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Almost complete skulls of most derived titanosaurs which provide complete
teeth row are rare. Saraikimasoom vitakri is the smallest sized, the most derived titanosaurian sauropod based on very small sized 15 - 18 cm long and7 - 9 cm high partial skull. Dorsal profile of skull inclined 40˚ anteriorly. It
provides full teeth row with dental formula 4, 13/9-13. Saraikimasoom isthe smallest titanosaur so far found from Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Its
height is about 2 meter, length 8 - 10 meter and weight about 5 tons. Saraikimasoom vitakri shows Gondwanan paleobiogeographic link with someendemic elements.

Keywords
Smallest Titanosaur, Latest Maastrichtian, Vitakri Lameta Formation,
Indo-Pakistan

1. Introduction
Out of 15 taxa, only four titanosaur taxa like Pakisaurus and Isisaurus ofpakisaurids and Gspsaurus and Saraikimasoom of gspsaurids were recognizedon diverse teeth, skulls, braincases, vertebral (especially caudal vertebrae), appendicular (especially tibiae, femora, humerei and scapulae) skeletons collectedfrom Indo-Pakistan especially from Pakistan. Saraikimasoom vitakri as a new
genus and new species was reported by [1] and formally published by [2]. This isbeing described here which can be used for phylogeny.

2. Saraikimasoom vitakri Smallest Titanosaur fromIndo-Pakistan
Systematic paleontology of Saraikimasoom vitakri is as follows: Dinosauria, SauDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910059

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rischia, Sauropoda, Titanosauria, Gspsauridae [2], Saraikimasoominae [2], Saraikimasoom [1] [2], Gspsaurus pakistani [1] [2] (Figure 1). Saraikimasoom
vitakri as a new genus and new species was first described by [1] and later onformally published by [2]. Saraikimasoom vitakri holotypic had very small
skull (Figure 1) from South Kinwa 4 holotypic locality, and referred associatedcranial, vertebral and appendicular elements from North Kinwa 4n, and somefossils from Mari Bohri 15, Top Kinwa 16, South Kinwa 4, mid Kinwa 4 m,
South Zubra 7, mid Bor 2 (to be examine key tibia), Grut Gambrak 8 and
Shalghara 3 localities found in latest Maastrichtian Vitakri Lameta Formationof Fort Munro Group, Barkhan District, Balochistan, central Pakistan. Thesefossils are housed in the museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta.
Some fossils from Vitakri Lameta Formation of India are also referred. Genus
Saraikimasoom honors Saraiki language of the area while masoom is Urdu andSaraiki word meaning innocent. Species name S. vitakri named after the hostVitakri area and Vitakri Lameta Formation, Barkhan District, Balochistan, Pakistan.

2.1. Diagnosis of Saraikimasoom vitakri Smallest Titanosaur
Saraikimasoom vitakri is a very small sized stocky sauropod sharing with Titanosauria as procoelous caudals (except first biconvex caudal); forward insertionof neural arches on caudals, prominent olecranon process on ulna and vertebrae
lacking hyposphene-hypantrum articulations. Saraikimasoom vitakri autapomorphies are very small sized spongy skull dorsal profile inclined moderately or
40˚ from horizontal; skull without anterior step; low angle palatine; premaxillary canal is reversely triangular and high angled V shaped; conical teeth converge and taper gradually from base of crown to tip; teeth are small, circularand slightly recurved: upper and lower U shaped teeth rows; dentary ramus
anterior depth is slightly more than dentary at mid length: dentary with narrowanteroposteriorly symphyses; anterior dentary rounded (no chin or very smallchin); dentary symphysis, perpendicular to axis of jaw ramus; dental formula 4,
13/9-13?; small braincase with sub rectangle shaped basioccipital condyles angles
120˚ (from skull roof) toward posteroventrally; Braincase has a prominent supraoccipital wedge and proatlantal facets; ventrally reduced broad caudals;
trispinous distal caudals; and subcircular proximal tibia with equal anteroposterior and transverse width.

2.2. Description of Saraikimasoom vitakri Smallest Titanosaur
Very small sized skull interlocked with dentary is highly spongy. Its upper profile inclination is 40˚ from horizontal. It preserved cross section which shows
ventral and dorsal palatal processes. Lower and upper teeth row anteriorly
formed U-shaped (unlike Gspsaurus which have lower teeth row V-shaped).
Teeth are circular to subcircular, relatively small, slightly recurved and conical-taper gradually from base to tip and tooth slenderness indices vary from 3 - 5.
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Figure 1. Saraikimasoom vitakri fossils. Row 1, Map of Pakistan (black circle show Kinwa
type locality), holotypic skull MSM-142-4 in anterior and ventral views. Row 2, holotypicskull in left and right laterals and posterior views. Row 3, 4, Referred associated cranialand postcranial elements from north Kinwa. Row 5, Referred proximal and distal tibia,
proximal and distal humerus, proximal ulna and astragalous. Row 6, Referred first biconvex caudal, mid and posterior caudals, distalmost trispinous caudal in anterior andposterior views, sternal, large oval armour (or ungual) and jaw type with spine osteoderm. Scale, each black digit is 1 cm.

Rostrum dorsal profile dorsoanteriorly inclined moderately 40˚. Skull is verysmall sized and highly spongy. Rostrum has no anterior step on premaxilla.
Teeth are inserted on anterior and lateral rostrum (unlike diplodocoids). Low
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angle, broad reversed V-shaped palatal, and V-shaped dorsal palatal hook, eachlimb attached on the contact of maxilla and premaxilla. Palatal maxillary andpremaxillary canals occurred. Dentary ramus anterior depth is slightly morethan dentary at mid length. Dentary has short or narrow anteroposteriorly
symphyses. Dentary symphysis angled 70˚ or more anteriorly to axis of jaw ramus. Anterior Dentary rounded (feeble chin or no chin). External nares retracted posteriorly. Eye situated posteroventrally to the external nares. Premaxillary mid line contact is prominent. Small braincase with sub rectangle shaped(unlike Indian braincases) basioccipital condyle. Cervical centra are broad. Cervical and dorsal centra are opisthocoelous. One dorsal centrum has bony septa
in pleurocoel and pleurocoel is divided, while others have no bony septa(Gspsaurus have bony septa in axis centrum pleurocoel). Long dorsal centrum
has deep pleurocoel with thick lip. Sacral centra are short, broad, pneumatic andhave a ventral keel. All caudal centra are procoelous except first caudal. First
caudal is biconvex, broad and long (while Gspsaurus has ball like). Anteriorcaudal centra are broad and have separated transverse process and did not extend to neural arch (except first caudal). Middle caudal centra ventrally reduced.
Posterior ball of distal caudal centra is not restricted (unlike Gspsaurus restricted
posterior ball). Trispinous distalmost caudal centrum, two oval shaped spines
extend posteroventrally or posterodorsally and one spine upward or downward.
Proximal humerus lateral limb is longer than medial limb. Distal Humerus hasanteriorly expanded radial condyle. Pubis has small articular surface for ilium
peduncle and large acetabular glenoid. Ischium has low and not expanded articular surface for ilium peduncle, followed by long glenoid and then area for pubis attachment. Ischium is thin and plate. Proximal femur is non-deflected. Distal condyles are strongly expanded with rugosities extended on medial and lateral sides. Subcircular proximal tibia has equal anteroposterior and transverse
width. Astragalus, a synclinal fold type with both limbs and central depression.
First mosaic type armour bone and second false jaw ramus type with embedded
teeth type spikes as osteoderms and third large oval plate may be osteoderm or
ungual.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910059[1]

Malkani, M.S. (2014). Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaurs from Latest Cretaceous ofPakistan. 2nd symposium of IGCP 608 “Cretaceous of Asia”, Tokyo, Japan, 4-6 September 2014, 108-111.

[2]

Malkani, M.S. (2015) Dinosaurs, Mesoeucrocodiles, Pterosaurs, New Fauna andFlora from Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information Release No. 823,
1-32.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 631-634
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Medium Sized Stocky Titanosaur from South
Asia
Muhammad Sadiq Malkani
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

How to cite this paper: Malkani, M.S.
(2019) Medium Sized Stocky Titanosaur
from South Asia. Open Journal of Geology,
9, 631-634.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910060
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Recently, four coexisted titanosaurs from latest Maastrichtian Vitakri
Lameta Formation of Indo-Pakistan are recognized as Isisaurus and Pakisaurus of large-sized slender pakisaurids, Saraikimasoom and Gspsaurus of
the smallest and medium sized transversely stocky gspsaurids. Gspsaurus
pakistani based on associated skull (with conical teeth tapering graduallyfrom base to tip), vertebral and appendicular elements found from Alam 19
locality of Vitakri area, Barkhan district, Balochistan, Pakistan, South Asia.
Gspsaurus bears sufficient skeletal elements and can be used for evolutionary studies.

Keywords
Medium Sized Stocky Titanosaur, Associated Skeleton, Latest Maastrichtian,South Asia

1. Introduction
Gspsaurus pakistani medium sized stocky titanosaur as a new genus and new
species was reported by [1] and formally published by [2]. For phylogeny, this isbeing described here.

2. Gspsaurus pakistani Medium Sized Titanosaur of
Indo-Pakistan
Systematic paleontology of Gspsaurus pakistani is as follows. Dinosauria, Saurischia, Sauropoda, Titanosauria, Gspsauridae [2], Gspsaurinae [2], Gspsaurus [1][2], Gspsaurus pakistani [1] [2] (Figure 1). Gspsaurus pakistani as a new genus
and new species was first described by [1] and later on formally published by [2].

Gspsaurus pakistani holotypic skull and lectotypic braincase, vertebrae and
DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910060

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Figure 1. Gspsaurus pakistani fossils. Row 1, holotypic skull MSM-79-19 and MSM-80-19
from Alam locality in ventral and posterior views. Row 2, photo 1, Map of Pakistan (black
circle represent Alam type locality); photo 2-7, lectotypic fossils from Alam. Row 3, lectotypic fossils from Alam locality. Row 4, referred fossils, proximal tibia in 2 views,
proximal and distal femur. Row 5, distal expanded scapula, pubis, and atlas-axis in 2
views. Row 6, mid caudal, trispinous distal caudal in 2 views, armour mosaic plate, large
oval two plates (armour or ungual). Scale each black digit is 1 cm. Last photo represents
model of Gspsaurus vitakri (fossil based) or Pashtosaurus zhobi (track based model managed by Mr. Nicholas Allen British Journalist and prepared by Dr. Dmitry Bogdanov).
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appendicular elements (Figure 1) from Alam 19 type locality, and referred postcranial fossils from Top Kinwa 16, South Kinwa 4, Mari Bohri 15, Rahi Wali 10
and Darwaza 8 localities found in latest Maastrichtian Vitakri Lameta Formationof Fort Munro Group, Barkhan District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Some fossils from
Vitakri Lameta Formation of India are also referred. These fossils are housed in
the museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta. Genus Gspsaurus honors
the Geological Survey of Pakistan, and saurus means lizard. The species name G.

pakistani honors the country of origin Pakistan. The pronunciation of Gspsaurus is G. S. P. saurus.

2.1. Diagnosis of Gspsaurus pakistani Medium Sized Stocky
Titanosaur
Gspsaurus pakistani medium sized sauropod shares with the Titanosauria asvertebrae lacking hyposphene-hypantrum articulations; procoelous caudals (except the first caudal); forward insertion of neural arches on caudals; and prominent olecranon process. Gspsaurus pakistani autapomorphies are as small sized
spongy skull; teeth circular to subcircular, slender, slightly recurved and conical.
The thickness of diameter decreases gradually from base to tip; palatal shelf between the ventral palatal process and dorsal palatal process forms left and rightmaxillary canals; dorsal palatal shelf just below the left and right premaxillae andbetween the dorsal palatal processes forms reverse triangular premaxillary canal;some teeth cone blunted showing wear facet, broad U shaped upper teeth row
and V shaped lower teeth row. Reversed V-shaped ventral palatal processes withoval shaped rod contacted week with maxilla; V-shaped small dorsal palatal
processes attached on the contact of maxilla and premaxilla. Dentary ramus anterior depth is slightly less than mid length, dentary with long anteroposterior
symphyses, angled 15˚ or more anteriorly to axis of jaw ramus, transversely thick
and anteroposteriorly lense shaped proximal tibia and transversely oval shaped
distal tibia.

2.2. Description of Gspsaurus pakistani Medium Sized Stocky
Titanosaur
Skull is small sized and spongy. Teeth are circular to subcircular, slender, slightly
recurved and conical-taper gradually from base to tip. Premaxilla is without anterior step. Ventral palatal shelf forms left and right maxillary canals. Dorsal palatal shelf forms one premaxillary canal. Premaxillary canal is enclosed dorsallyby both fellow of premaxillae, ventrally and laterally by dorsal palatal processes.
Premaxillary canal is high angled V shaped. Upper teeth row as broad U shaped
and lower teeth row as V-shaped. Dentary ramus is thick, tall and pneumatic.
Dentary ramus anterior depth is slightly less than dentary at mid length. Dentary
has long anteroposteriorly symphyses. Dentary symphysis, angled 15˚ or moreanteriorly to jaw axis. Reversed V-shaped palatal with long limb, and V-shaped
dorsal palatal hook with short limbs attached on the contact of maxilla and preDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910060

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maxilla. Braincase is large size with quadrangle shaped basioccipital condyles
with median cut on dorsal and ventral views. Basioccipital condyle is constricted
dorsoventrally in the middle; Lateral side of basioccipital condyle is generally
straight (unlike Indian braincases). Basal tubera have high angle unlike Indiantitanosaur braincases (similar to Rapetosaurus braincase from Madagascar). Atlas-axis is very broad, pneumatic and have many pleurocoels on lateral andposterior views. Axis centrum is about twice broad than height. Axis parapophysis is rectangular located posteriorly on ventral aspect of centrum. Axis diapophysis is thick and located posteriorly on the lateral sides of centrum just posterior of the pleurocoel. Axis pleurocoel has inclined thin bony septa in mid. Anterior cervical is small and broad, and mid cervical is very broad and large. Parapophysis is changed from rectangular (in anterior cervical) to oval (in middle
and posterior cervicals. Neural spine is not bifid. Cervical and dorsal centra areopisthocoelous. First caudal centrum is ball like and has anterior and posterior
articular balls (biconvex). Full middle caudal series is heavy and slightly talland at the end squarish with ventral view slightly compressed than dorsal viewof centrum. Distal caudal is cylindrical with restricted ball. Distalmost caudal
centrum forming caudal cap have anterior well developed concavity while
posterior ball is trispinous, two spines directing downward and one spine directing upward or vice versa. Chevron is simple. Chevron arch and chevronspine anteroposteriorly compressed. Distal scapula is expanded well. Medial
extrusion of proximal humerus prominent. Medially non-deflected proximal
femur is like Saraikimasoom (and unlike Pakisaurus and Isisaurus). Distal femur
has maximum expansion. Femur distal condyles have rugosities on ventral surfaces which extended on laterally and medially. Transversely thick and anteroposteriorly lense shaped proximal tibia. Proximal condyle of stocky tibia has
broad groove or depression on dorsal view. Lateral fibular condyle of proximal
tibia is symmetric (while tilted in Pakisaurus). Distal tibia transversely oval
shaped. Tibia and fibula closely articulated. Dorsoventrally compressed large
oval plate may be osteoderms (or ungual which provide the best support for
stocky body (and also fit by footprints of basal and most advanced titanosaurs
from Pakistan.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910060[1]

Malkani, M.S. (2014) Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaurs from Latest Cretaceous ofPakistan. 2nd Symposium of IGCP 608 “Cretaceous of Asia”, Tokyo, Japan, 4-6 September 2014, 108-111.

[2]

Malkani, M.S. (2015) Dinosaurs, Mesoeucrocodiles, Pterosaurs, New Fauna andFlora from Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Information Release No. 823,
1-32.
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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 635-638
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Large Titanosaur from Indo-Pakistan Peninsula
Muhammad Sadiq Malkani
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan

How to cite this paper: Malkani, M.S.
(2019) Large Titanosaur from Indo-Pakistan
Peninsula. Open Journal of Geology, 9,635-638.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910061
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is lucky to host the smallest, medium and large
sized titanosaurian sauropod dinosaurs. Saraikimasoom is the smallest sized,
and Gspsaurus is the medium sized transversely stocky, Pakisaurus and Isisaurus are the large sized titanosaurs of South Asia. Pakisaurus balochistani isa slender type of pakisaurid titanosaurian based on associated vertebral andappendicular skeletons. Pakisaurus balochistani includes key elements liketransversely thin or narrow tibia and ventrally not reduced tall caudal vertebrae, along with other elements which are significant for cladistic analysis.

Keywords
Large Titanosaur, Latest Maastrichtian, Vitakri Lameta Formation,
Indo-Pakistan

1. Introduction
Pakisaurus is included among four recently recognised titanosaurian sauropods
from South Asia. Pakisaurus balochistani is described here and significant forcomparisons, Gondwanan paleobiogeography and evolutionary studies.

2. Pakisaurus balochistani Large Titanosaur fromIndo-Pakistan
Systematic paleontology of Pakisaurus balochistani is as follows. Dinosauria,
Saurischia, Sauropoda, Titanosauria, Pakisauridae [1], Pakisaurus [1], and Pakisaurus balochistani [1] (Figure 1). Pakisaurus balochistani as a new genus andnew species was formally published by Malkani [1]. Pakisaurus balochistani holotypic caudal vertebrae [1] and lectotypic vertebral and appendicular elementsfrom South Kinwa 4 holotypic and lectotypic locality (Figure 1), and referred fossils from West Bor 2, northern Top Kinwa 16, North Alam 19n, Shalghara 3, Mari
Bohri 15, Darwaza 8 and Grut 9 localities are found in the latest Maastrichtian
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Figure 1. Pakisaurus balochistani fossils. Row 1, Map of Pakistan (black circle) show
Kinwa type locality, holotypic caudal vertebrae from Kinwa. Row 2, 3, 4, 5, lectotypicvertebral and appendicular elements from Kinwa. Row 6, referred associated tibia andhumerus (photo 1/p 1) and femur (p 2) from west Bor or lower Bor; chevron 2 views (p 3
- p 4). Row 7, referred coracoid (p 1), proximal radius (p 2), ungual (p 3) and osteoderms
jaw ramus with diastema type embedded spikes (p 4 - p 5) and dentary symphysis typewith teeth like spikes (p 6). Scale, each black or white digit is 1 cm.

(67 - 66 Ma ago) Vitakri Lameta Formation of Fort Munro Group, Barkhan District, Balochistan, central Pakistan. These fossils are housed in the museum of
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Quetta. Some fossils from Vitakri Lameta Formation of India are also referred. Genus Pakisaurus honour the host country PakisDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910061

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M. S. Malkanitan, saurus mean lizard. Species named P. balochistani honour the host province
Balochistan.

2.1. Diagnosis of Pakisaurus balochistani Large Titanosaur
Pakisaurus balochistani sharing with Titanosauria as procoelous caudals; forward insertion of neural arches on caudals; prominent olecranon process on ulna and vertebrae lacking hyposphene-hypantrum articulations Pakisauridae
characters are same as genus and species. Pakisaurus balochistani is recognised
as more derived lithostrotian titanosaur based on procoelous anterior and middle caudal vertebrae. Pakisaurus balochistani is recognised as most derived Poripuch lithostrotian titanosaur based on procoelous anterior, middle and posterior caudal vertebrae. Pakisaurus balochistani is characterised by long slenderlegs and tall tail; narrow, long and recurved teeth with constant thickness frombase to tip (except tip); large sized braincase with D-shaped occipital condyle;basal tubera breadth narrower than occipital condyle; caudals are tall quadrangular shape except a few anteriormost caudals which are broad; distal mostcaudal centrum anterior articular face shape procoelous while posterior face ballis biconvex cone with a horizontal transverse groove in the middle; distal scapula
relatively less expanded than Gspsaurus; distal scapula with relatively anteroposteriorly long glenoid; distal scapular articular length for coracoid is relatively
small (unlike Isisaurus); acromian process is narrow; expanded radial condyle
exposed on the anterior aspect of distal humerus (unlike Isisaurus); femoral
shaft, lateral margin shape, proximal one-third deflected medially with wavy
style (and not straight as in Isisaurus); transversely narrow proximal Tibia witharc shaped lateral fibular condylar ridge ended just below cnemial crest; and osteoderms spikes on ramus.

2.2. Description of Pakisaurus balochistani Large Titanosaur
Teeth are narrow, long and recurved with constant thickness from base to tip(except tip). Braincase is large sized. Occipital condyle is large and broad andgreater part of its convexity faces downward. Thick occipital condyle has broad
flat upper surface. Basal tubera breadth is narrower than occipital condyle. Occipital region of skull is flat and distally recurved. Paroccipital processes oriented
transversely. Basal tubera are long process, diverging laterally with relatively
lower angle than Gspsaurus who have high angle basal tubera. Basal tubera directed slightly backwards. Basipterygoid processes diverge somewhat anteriorly
and much longer than the basal tubera. Caudals are tall quadrangular shape
except a few anteriormost caudals which are broad. Anteriormost caudals neuralspine is vertical. Distalmost caudal centrum anterior articular face shape procoelous while posterior ball face is biconvex cone with a horizontal transverse
groove in mid. Distal scapula relatively less expanded than Gspsaurus. Distal
scapula has relatively anteroposterior long glenoid. Articular length for coracoid
is relatively small (unlike Isisaurus). Acromian process of scapula is narrow.
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Proximal humerus has prominent lateral process than medial process. Expandedradial condyle exposed on the anterior aspect of distal humerus (unlike Isisaurus). Proximal ulna with tri-limbs has prominent olecranon process. Femoral
shaft, proximal one-third deflected medially with wavy style (and not straight as
in Isisaurus). Proximal Tibia is transversely thin bone or narrow (unlike thicklense shape of Gspsaurus and thick subcircular shape of Saraikimasoom) witharc shaped fibular condylar ridge ending just below the cnemial crest. Posterior
process of proximal tibia is about half of total anteroposterior width in Pakisaurus, while posterior process is about three quarter 3/4 of the total anteroposterior
proximal width of Isisaurus tibia. Ratio of anteroposterior width of distal end toanteroposterior width of proximal end is 0.80 in Pakisaurus while the ratio of
anteroposterior width of distal end to anteroposterior width of proximal end is
as low as 0.64 in Isisaurus. Osteoderms present, arced ramus with diastema having random false teeth like spikes on ramus and also on base skin which forms
diastema on arced ramus and false dentary type symphysis with spikes/spines;
and Pedal ungual sickle-shaped, much deeper dorsoventrally than broad transversely.

Acknowledgements
This work is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References[1]

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910061

Malkani, M.S. (2006) Biodiversity of Saurischian Dinosaurs from the Latest Cretaceous Park of Pakistan. Journal of Applied and Emerging Sciences, 1, 8-140.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 639-642
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Cretaceous-Paleogene Transition of Reptilian
Tetrapods across Deccan Volcanism in India
Dhananjay M. Mohabey*, Bandana Samant
Department of Geology, RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur, India

How to cite this paper: Mohabey, D.M. andSamant, B. (2019) Cretaceous-Paleogene
Transition of Reptilian Tetrapods acrossDeccan Volcanism in India. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 639-642.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910062
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Eruptions of lava flows of Deccan large igneous province straddled the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary (K-Pg). Sediments associated at different stratigraphic levels within the lava piles of Deccan volcanic sequences (DVS) aremainly terrestrial. We studied the sediments of Eastern and Central Deccan
Volcanic Province, and the Malwa Plateau for tracking changes in reptilian
tetrapods across the volcanism. The reptiles are mainly represented by abelisaurid-titanosaurid dinosaurs, Alethinophidia madtsoiia snakes, Notosuchiancrocodylomorph Simosuchus, bothremydid Kurmademydinae turtles andAnguimorph and Scincomorphs lizards. The evidences suggest that the
non-avian dinosaurs were adversely affected by the arrival of the first volcanic
flows locally in the province either within C30N or C29R Maastrichtian. The
abelisaurid theropods became extinct whereas a single or two species oftitanosauriforme dinosaurs survived but eventually became extinct at least
350 ky before the K-Pg boundary with increasing volcanism. The madtsooid
snakes and crocodylimorphs were also adversely affected with decline in theirdiversity and abundance, whereas the Bothremydid turtles survived the initialonslaught of Deccan volcanism and continued across the K-Pg boundary.

Keywords
Deccan Volcanism, Maastrichtian-Paleocene, Reptiles, Extinction

1. Introduction
Deccan Large Igneous Province (DLIP) is designated [1] as Western Deccan
Volcanic Province (WDVP), Central Deccan Volcanic Province (CDVP), Eastern Deccan Volcanic Province (EDVP), Malwa Plateau and undesignated sequences of Saurastra and Kutch (Figure 1). The different provinces have separate sites, source, timing and duration of eruptions [2]. Erupting in at least three
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D. M. Mohabey, B. SamantFigure 1. Map showing Deccan Volcanic Provinces in India [4]. 1-6, Lameta (Maastrichtian) inland basins. 1, Balasinor-Jhabua. 2, Sagar. 3, Jabalpur. 4, Ambikapur-Amarkantak.
5, Salburdi. 6, Nand-Dongargaon.

phases across the K-Pg boundary the total duration of Deccan volcanism is debatable [3] but currently considered to have spanned between 68 - 62.5 Ma ago.
The study of lava piles associated with multiple sedimentary deposits is critical
for tracking biotic and environmental changes across the volcanism.

2. Geological Setting
Deposits associated with Deccan volcanic sequences are designated as “Lameta
Formation or infratrappean” deposited before the first lava flows and as“intertrappean” deposited between lava flows during the period of quiescence.
Deposited in different inland basins [4] (Figure 1) under alluvial-limnic environments under semi-arid conditions the sediments are main fossiliferous horizons for the Maastrichtian reptiles. The Lameta Formation is of C30N-C29R
Maastrichtian age. The intertrappean lake deposits are developed over the freshlava surface at multiple stratigraphic levels under fluctuating climatic conditions
from semi-arid to humid during Deccan transition. Relatively, reptilian fauna inintertrappean sediments is less commonly recorded.

3. Reptilian Fauna from Indian Maastrichtian-Paleocene
The reptilian fauna includes two sauropods (Isisaurus colberti and Jainosaurus
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septentrionalis), four medium to large bodied abelisaurid theropods (Indosuchus raptorius, lndosaurus matleyi, Rajasaurus narmadensis, Rahiolisaurus
gujaratensis) and three small bodied theropods (Laevisuchus indicus, Jubbulpuria tenius, Composuchus solus). A large number of nest-sites of titanosuriforme
dinosaurs with megaloolithid eggs and of abelisaurid theropods withelongatoolithid eggs are known from the Lameta sediments. The dinosaur eggshells are only recovered as small fragments on wet-screening of the sediments,
excepting a latest sole find of a single Megaloolithus egg from Teegaon in Madhya Pradesh on Nagpur-Betul road.
The non-dinosaurian reptiles are mainly represented by associated bones of 1)
turtles-Shweboemys/Bothremydid/Kurmademydinae (Sankuchemys and Kura-mademys). 2) Notosuchian crocodylomorph Simosuchus. (3) Althenophidian
madtsoiid snakes-Sanajeh indicus, Madtsoiia pisdurensis [5] [6] from Lameta
sediments. The Scincomorph and Anguimorph lizards are recorded mainly fromintertrappean sediments of both C30N and C29R Maastrichtian.

4. Conclusion
The impact of Deccan volcanism on terrestrial reptiles and plants preceded theK-Pg boundary. The titanosaurid and abelisaurid dinosaurs became extinct atleast 350 ky before the global K-Pg mass extinction and the abelisaurids were thefirst to disappear from the Greater India. Titanosaurid and abelisaurid dinosaurs, turtles, Alethinophidia madtsoiia snakes and crocodylomorph Simosuchus
were diversified and well established during C30N-C29R before the first Deccan
flows. A change in dinosaur fauna from C30N was found in Kheda region inwestern India, N-D basin in Central India and Malwa Plateau to C29R in the Jabalpur region. The diversity and abundance rapidly declined with the arrival of
the first volcanic flows in the region and only titanosaurids with decreased diversity and much reduced abundance could survive the initial onslaught of the
volcanism. Anguimorph and Scincomorphs lizards are indicated to have betterflourished after the initiation of Deccan eruptions during Maastrichtian(C30N-C29R). The record of reptiles from the Indian Paleocene sediments associated with DVA is almost absent but it could be owing to inadequate sampling.

Acknowledgements
Authors express thank to Geological Survey of India for facilitating research workand to Anup Dhabale and Deepesh Kumar of RTM Nagpur University for field assistance and to Ministry of Earth Sciences (Grant MoES/PO(GEOSCI)/49/2015).
This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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References

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Deshmukh, S.S., Sano, T., Fuji, T., Nair, K.K.K., Yedekar, D.B., Umino, S., Iwamori,H. and Aramaki, S. (1996) Chemical Stratigraphy and Geochemistry of the Basalt
Flows from the Central and Eastern Parts of Deccan Volcanic Province of India.
Gondwana Geological Magazine, Special Publication, 2, 145-170.

[2]

Mohabey, D.M. and Samant, B. (2013) Deccan Continental Flood Basalt Eruption
Terminated Indian Dinosaurs before the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary. Geological Society of India, Special Publication, 1, 260-267.

[3]

Sprain, C.J., Renne, P.R., Vanderkluysen, L., Pande, K., Self, S. and Mittal, T. (2019)
The Eruptive Tempo of Deccan Volcanism in Relation to the Cretaceous-Paleogene
Boundary. Science, 363, 866-870. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav1446[4]

Mohabey, D.M. (1996) Nand-Dongargaon Inland Basin, Maharashtra: The Fossil
and Lithological Evidences. Memoir Geological Society of India, 37, 363-386.

[5]

Wilson, J.A., Mohabey, D.M., Peter, S.E. and Head, J.J. (2010) Predation upon
Hatchling Dinosaurs by a New Snake from the Late Cretaceous of India. PLoS Biology, 8, e1000322. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000322[6]

Mohabey, D.M., Head, J.J. and Wilson, J.A. (2011) A New Species of the Snake
Madtsoia from the Upper Cretaceous of India and Its Paleobiogeographic Implications. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 31, 588-595.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2011.560220

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 643-645
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Vitakrisaurus saraiki Theropod from South Asia
Muhammad Sadiq Malkani
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

How to cite this paper: Malkani, M.S.
(2019) Vitakrisaurus saraiki Theropod
from South Asia. Open Journal of Geology,
9, 643-645.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910063
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Vitakrisaurus saraiki abelisauroid theropod dinosaurs reported from Pakistan
and extended distribution into India. Vitakrisaurus saraiki is medium to large

sized theropod which is represented by associated vertebral and limb elements and especially hand elements. Out of 14 small to large bodied theropods from Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, only less than half of these are restricted to some common elements. Vitakrisaurus saraiki theropod of Pakistan
is based on associated vertebral and limb elements especially hand including articulated carpals, metacarpals, phalanges and claws which are significant for
Gondwanan paleobiogeographic link, comparisons and systematic.

Keywords
Theropod, Maastrichtian, Vitakri Lameta Formation, Pakistan

1. Introduction
Two theropod dinosaurs were known from Pakistan. Vitakrisaurus saraiki is amedium sized theropod, which is significant for systematic and comparisons.

2. Vitakrisaurus saraiki Medium Sized Theropod of South
Asia
Systematic paleontology of Vitakrisaurus saraiki is as follows: Dinosauria, Saurischia, Theropoda, Abelisauroidea, Vitakrisauridae [1], Vitakrisaurus [1], Vita-

krisaurus saraiki [1] (Figure 1). Holotype and lectotype specimens were collected from the mid Bor 2 locality and referred specimens (Figure 1) were collected from the Shalghara 3 locality found in the uppermost Maastrichtian (67 66 Ma ago) Vitakri Lameta Formation of the Fort Munro Group, Barkhan
district, Balochistan, Sulaiman or middle Indus basin, central Pakistan. Genus

Vitakrisaurus honors the Vitakri host locality; saurus means lizard. Species nameis in honor of the Saraiki language of locals of Sulaiman Range. These fossils are
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Figure 1. Vitakrisaurus saraiki theropod fossils. Row 1, Map of Pakistan (black circle)
show mid Bor 2 type locality, holotypic hand/manus. Row 2, lectotypic vertebral and limb
fossils from mid Bor 2. Row 3, referred fossils from Pakistan (p 1 - 3) and India (p 4).
Each black digit is 1 cm.

hosted in the Quetta museum of Geological Survey of Pakistan. Amphicoelous
caudal vertebra with two chevrons from India [2] was referred to Vitakrisaurus

saraiki.

2.1. Diagnosis of Vitakrisaurus saraiki Theropod from South Asia
Vitakrisaurus saraiki has circular elongated cylinder type dorsal centrum jointed
on all dorsal length with neural arch (while dorsal centra of Vitakridrinda is rectangular and elongated while the dorsal centrum of Rajasaurus is tall); Vitakrisaurus has transverse process on upper part of caudal centrum and extends into
neural arch like Rajasaurus while Vitakridrinda has oval shaped transverse
process which did not contact with neural arch and located on upper part ofposterior articular ring on anterior caudal centrum. Neural arch on anteriorcaudal is forwardly inserted while in Rajasaurus the neural arch covers all along
the dorsal surface of centrum. Vitakrisaurus did not have ventral keel in dorsal
and caudal centra while Rajasaurus and Rahiolisaurus had ventral keel. Vitakri-saurus neural canal is dorsoventrally compressed while Rajasaurus it is circularshaped; Vitakrisaurus has well developed chevron facets in anterior/mid caudals
while Rajasaurus has no chevron facets. Vitakrisaurus anterior and midcaudal
vertebrae have posterior yard on posterior uncover part of dorsal aspect of centrum surrounded by laterally and posteriorly thin boundary wall while this yard
is not found in Rajasaurus thick bones of manus/hand; Metacarpal I is short andthick, metacarpal II and metacarpal III are thick, long and subequal; manualphalanges are thick; and manual ungual/claw I is thick and slightly recurved
downward.
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2.2. Description of Vitakrisaurus saraiki Theropod from South
Asia
Vitakrisaurus saraiki has dorsal centrum which is circular, amphicoelous,slightly waisted with lateral feeble fossa. Vitakridrinda has rectangular and elongated dorsal centrum, while Rajasaurus has tall dorsal centrum. The dorsal centrum in Vitakridrinda and Vitakrisaurus has no ventral keel. In Rajasaurus, Rahiolisaurus and Nhandumirim, a longitudinal keel is present on ventral surfaceof centrum. The dorsal centrum in Rajasaurus is spool-shaped, with its articularfaces deeper than broad. Vitakrisaurus has circular elongated cylinder type dorsal centrum jointed on all dorsal length with neural arch. Vitakrisaurus has
transverse process on upper part of caudal centrum and extended into neuralarch as Rajasaurus, while Vitakridrinda has oval shaped transverse process, notcontacted with neural arch and located on upper part of posterior articular ringon anterior caudal centrum. Neural arch on anterior caudal is forwardly inserted
while in Rajasaurus the neural arch cover all along the dorsal surface of centrum.
Vitakrisaurus have well developed chevron facets in anterior/mid caudals. Rajasaurus has no chevron facets. In Vitakrisaurus neural canal is dorsoventrallycompressed, transversely oval shaped in anterior and middle caudal vertebrae. In
Rajasaurus neural canal is circular shaped. In Vitakrisaurus anterior andmidcaudal vertebrae have posterior yard on the posterior vacant/uncover part of
dorsal aspect of centrum. This yard is surrounded laterally and posteriorly bythin boundary wall. Vitakrisaurus have leg bones with thin peripheral bone on
the central hollow cavity. Vitakridrinda has thick peripheral bones on central
hollow cavity. The hand/manus has three preserved digits. The metacarpal I is
the smallest while Metacarpal II is largest and metacarpal III is relatively intermediate. The metacarpal I is expanded at proximal and distal ends, while in the
middle constricted. The metacarpal II is the longest and also thickest. The metacarpal III is intermediate in length, thicker than metacarpal I and metacarpal II.
The metacarpal I (7 mm wide, 21 mm long) is short and thick, metacarpal II andmetacarpal III are thick, long and subequal. Manual phalanx I is thick and longwhile reducing length and increasing count from digit I to digit II and then to
digit III. Manual ungual/claw I is thick and slightly recurved downward.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910063[1]

Malkani, M.S. (2010) Updated Stratigraphy and Mineral Potential of Sulaiman(Middle Indus) Basin, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series),42, 39-66.

[2]

Huene, F.V. and Matley, C.A. (1933) Cretaceous Saurischia and Ornithischia of theCentral Provinces of India. Paleontologia Indica, No. 21, 1-74.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 646-649
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

The Cretaceous of Shandong Province
Yongqing Liu1*, Hongwei Kuang1, Kemin Xu2, Zhenguo Ning2, Nan Peng1, Shengxian Du3,
Jun Chen3
Geology Institute, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
Shandong Institute of Geological Survey, Shandong, China
3
Shandong Institute of Geological Sciences, Shandong, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Liu, Y.Q., Kuang,
H.W., Xu, K.M., Ning, Z.G., Peng, N., Du,
S.X. and Chen, J. (2019) The Cretaceous of
Shandong Province. Open Journal of Geology, 9, 646-649.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910064
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
A well preserved terrestrial Cretaceous succession outcrops in Shandong
Province. Although previous studies have conducted much work on thegeochronology, subdivision of stratigraphic units, regional correlation andpaleontology, high controversies remain about geochronology, subdivisionof stratigraphic units and sedimentology. Here, we report a synthesized
study of the Cretaceous successions and stratigraphy in Shandong based on
the new results. Accordingly, reconstruction of framework of the Cretaceous
stratigraphy in Shandong is summarized as, in descending order, the Mengyin Group of the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition, the Lower Cretaceous
Laiyang Group, Qingshan Group, Dasheng Group and the Upper Cretaceous
Wangshi Group.

Keywords
Terrestrial, Cretaceous, Shandong Province, China
Terrestrial Cretaceous in Shandong Province is, in ascending order, the Mengyin
Group of the Jurassic/Cretaceous transition, the Lower Cretaceous Laiyang,
Qingshan, Dasheng groups and the Upper Cretaceous Wangshi Group. The
Mengyin Group consists of the lower Santai Fm and the upper Fenshuiling Fm.
The former is mainly eolian deposits of the purple red sandstone with giant inclined beddings and interbedded interdune fluvial conglomerates [1], whichyields the youngest detrital zircons of 164 - 146 Ma [2], suggesting its age of theearliest Cretaceous. The Fenshuiling Fm is chiefly composed of calcareous siltstone with intercalations of tuffs or tuffaceous siltstones and sandstones. Sauropoda dinosaur tracks are present within the Santai Fm [3] and particularly bothskeleton fossils and foot prints of Euhelopus zdanski [4] are well preserved in theFenshuiling Fm. The Lower Cretaceous Laiyang Group, being estimated of an

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age interval of 132 - 124 Ma dated by interbedded tuffs and volcanics, is composed of the fluvial conglomerates on the bottom with an unconformity separating the underlying Precambrian basement, the middle lacustrine siltstone andshale, indicating vast lacustrine expanding and fluvial sandstones and conglomerates in the top, implying the evolution end of lacustrine basin of the Laiyang
Group age. A spectacularly soft sediment deformation occurred within the middle Laiyang Group in Lingshan island, Qingdao. It is very important yet thatvertebrate tracks including dinosaur, bird, turtle and pterosaur and invertebrate
traces are very common in the middle-upper Laiyang Group [1] [5] [6] except
for plenty of fish and insect fossils in lacustrine sediments of the Shuinan Fm in
the middle Laiyang Group. One of the quarries of the middle-upper Laiyang
Group displays spectacular dinosaur tracks, including tens of giant Sauropoda
tracks and thousands of Theropoda foot prints and tracks [7] [8], indicating afavorable palaeoecology environment at that time. The Qingshan Group with anage interval of 124 - 118 Ma is located between the underlying Laiyang Groupand the overlying Dasheng Group and a series of intermediate and acid volcanicinterbedded fluvial sediments formed in rift basins. The Dasheng Group withthe oldest age of 118 Ma and the youngest age estimated as 99.5 Ma is the terminal units of the Lower Cretaceous and dominantly calcareous mudstone andthe fluvial sandstones and conglomerates in the bottom. There are a lot of sedimentary structures formed in arid, hot and shallow lacustrine environment as
ripples, cracks, salt and gypsum pseudos casts in the Dasheng Group. In addition, a lot of vertebrate tracks of giant Sauropoda and Theropoda, particularly
well-preserved bird footprints are widely and well preserved in lacustrine sediments of the Dasheng Group [3] [5] [9]. The Wangshi Group consists of thelower Hongtuya Fm of the Upper Cretaceous and the upper Jiaozhou Fm of a
K/T transition age. The former consists mainly of purple red and cyclic deposits
of fluvial sandstone and conglomerates, indicating a warmer and arid
palaeoclimate environment. The Jiaozhou Fm consists chiefly of gray-green
fluvial and shallow lacustrine deposits implying a reduced arid and hot setting. A
diabase sill of (Ar-Ar) 73.2 Ma age [10] separates the lower and middle of the
Hongtuya Fm. In addition the Jiaozhou Fm shows signs of the potential K/Tboundary in term of positive gammar anomaly [11] and possible impact glassballs (Master dissertation, Ding Chong, 2016), there are at least three horizons ofmass death of dinosaurs on the bottom of the Hongtuya Fm, e.g., one of thequarries of dinosaur fossils in Zhucheng displays ten thousands of dinosaurbone fossils in the bottom bonebed [1]. In the meantime, five horizons withmass burials of both dinosaur bones and egg fossils were present within the upper Hongtuya Fm [12], which records a co-evolution between dinosaur extinction and environmental change. In perspective of palaeoclimate, all palynological assemblages within the Cretaceous successions show that palaeoclimatechanged periodically from hot and arid to subarid and semihumid in tropical tosubtropical zones. But an extreme drought and hot palaeoclimate in the Late
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Cretaceous supposed by palynological assemblages may be responsible for theextinction event on the K/T boundary [13].

Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation ofChina (41688103, 41672111, 41272021, 41372109), China Geology Survey(DD20190005), the National Key Research and Development Program of China(2018YFC0604201). This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Porject 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910064[1]

Liu, Y.Q., Kuang H.W., Ji, S.A., Lv, J.C., Liu, Y.X., Jiang, X.J., Peng, N., Chen, M.P.
and Li, J.H. (2009) The Biotic and Environmental Response to the Geological Eventon the Earth during the Late Mesozoic. Earth Science Frontiers, 16, 37-47.

[2]

Yang, D.B., Xu, W.L., Xu, Y.G., Pei, F.P. and Wang, F. (2013) Provenance of Sediments from Mesozoic Basins in Western Shandong: Implications for the Evolutionof the Eastern North China Block. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 76, 12-29.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.07.027[3]

Li, R.H., Liu, M.W. and Matsukawa, M. (2002) Discovery of Fossilized Tracks ofJurassic Dinosaur in Shandong. Geological Bulletin of China, 21, 596-597. (In Chinese)[4]

Wilson, J.A. and Upchurch, P. (2009) Redescription and Reassessment of the Phylogenetic Affinities of Euhelopus zdanskyi (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Early
Cretaceous of China. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 7, 199-239.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1477201908002691[5]Kuang, H.W., Liu, Y.Q., Wu, Q.Z., Cheng, G.S., Xu, K.M., Liu, H., Peng, N., Xu, H.,
Chen, J., Wang, B.H., Xu, J.L., Wang, M.W. and Zhang, P. (2013) Dinosaur Track
Sites and Palaeogeography of the Late Early Cretaceous in Shuhe Rifting Zone of
Shandong Province. Journal of Palaeogeography, 15, 435-453.

[6]

Xing, L.D., Marty, D., Wang, K.B., Lockley, M.G., Chen, S.Q., Xu, X., Liu, Y.Q.,
Kuang, H.W, Zhang, J.P., Ran, H. and Persons, V.W.S. (2015) An Unusual Sauropod Turning Trackway from the Early Cretaceous of Shandong Province, China.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 437, 74-84.
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Chen, J., Wang, M.W. and Wang, B.H. (2013) Middle Early Cretaceous Super-Large
Scale Dinosaur Tracks in Zhucheng Area, Shandong Province, and Their Palaeogeography and Palaeoeocology. Journal of Palaeogeography, 15, 467-488. (In Chinese)[8]

Lockley, M.J., Li, R.H., Matsukawa, M., Xing, L.D., Li, J.J., Liu, M.W. and Xu, X.
(2015) Tracking the Yellow Dragon: Implications of China’s Largest Dinosaur
Tracksite (Cretaceous of the Zhucheng Area, Shandong Province, China). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 423, 62-79.
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Li, R.H., Lockley, M.G., Matsukawa, M. and Liu, M.W. (2015) Important Dinosaur-Dominated Footprint Assemblages from the Lower Cretaceous Tianjialou
Formation at the Houzuoshan Dinosaur Park, Junan County, Shandong Province,
China. Cretaceous Research, 52, 83-100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2014.08.004[10] Qin, H.F., Pan, Y.X., He, H.Y., Yang, L.K. and Zhu, R.K. (2016) Paleomagnetism of
Early Cretaceous Volcanic Rocks at Huangya Section in Jiaodong Peninsula and
Implications for Tectonics. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 32, 3205-3213.
[11] Xu, K.M, Kuang, H.W, Qin, J., Wang, Y.P, Peng, N., Ning, Z.G, Zhang, F.Z. andLiu, Y.Q. (2017) New Discovery of Terrestrial K-Pg Boundary from Jiaolai Basin of
Shandong Province. Geology in China, 44, 94-195.
[12] Wang, X.L, Wang, Q., Jiang, S.X., Cheng, X., Zhang, J.L., Zhao, Z.K. and Jiang, Y.G.
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and Their Stratigraphical Significance. Journal of Stratigraphy, 36, 401-416.
[13] Kuang, H.W., Liu, Y.Q., Dong, C., Peng, N., Wang, B.H., Zhang, P., Wang, K.B.,
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1353-1371. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.12269_19

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 650-653
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Paleoenvironment
and Terrestrial Biota in Shandong Province
Hongwei Kuang1*, Yongqing Liu1, Kemin Xu2, Zhenguo Ning2, Nan Peng1
Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
Shandong Institute of Geological Survey, Jinan, China

1
2

How to cite this paper: Kuang, H.W., Liu,
Y.Q., Xu, K.M., Ning, Z.G. and Peng, N.
(2019) Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Paleoenvironment and Terrestrial Biota in Shandong
Province. Open Journal of Geology, 9,650-653.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910065
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
The terrestrial upper Jurassic-Cretaceous (upper and lower)-Cenozoic stratigraphic succession developed continuously in Shandong province. There areintact and continuous terrestrial paleoecosystems dominated by dinosaurs,
including five vertebrate fauna (bone fossil assemblages) beds from the bottom to top in the Cretaceous successions of Shandong Province. There are
multiple vertebrate footprints (group) bearing beds in the transition period
between Jurassic-Cretaceous and Early Cretaceous, and multiple large-scaledinosaur burial bone beds in Late Cretaceous. In recent years, it has also beenfound that extraterrestrial impact geological event may occur in the K/Pg
transition over a hundred meters (siliceous pellet and gamma element anomalies, etc.). Shandong has a well-developed terrestrial Cretaceous succession
with perfect information on paleoenvironment and paleoecology, which is an
ideal area to explore the co-evolutionary relationship between terrestrial biota
and paleoenvironment.

Keywords
Cretaceous, Paleoenvironment, Terrestrial Biota, Shandong Province

1. Shandong Province Developed the Most Systematic andComplete Continental Cretaceous Stratigraphic
Succession
In recent 10 years, on the basis of predecessors’ researchers, our team not only
systematically set and updated the Cretaceous succession of Shandong Province,
but also further divided it into the J3- K11 (Mengyin Group between transitional
Jurassic-Cretaceous), K12 (Lower Cretaceous Laiyang Group), K13 (Lower
Cretaceous Qingshan Group/Dasheng Group), K12 (the lower part of Hongtuya
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Formation of the Upper Cretaceous Wangshi Group) and K 22 (the upper part of
Hongtuya Formation of the Upper Cretaceous Wangshi Group). Especially combined with a large number of measured chronological data, we established a comprehensive Cretaceous litho-chronostratigraphic framework with high-precision,and preliminarily summarized the paleogeographic evolution model of Cretaceous sedimentary basin [1] [2] [3] [4].

2. It Contains Cretaceous Paleogeographic Evolution
Information
The Cretaceous basin is only developed in western Shandong, which is a fluvial-lacustrine environment with no strong volcanic activities in J/ K11 transitional
period (~145 - 132 Ma). The basin extends to eastern Shandong during K12(~132 - 125 Ma) [3] [4], which was dominated by extensive lacustrine environment. Magma intrusion and volcanic eruption (Qingshan Group) occurred
briefly but strongly, and intermittent alluvial-fluvial-lacustrine facies environment existed in the early K13 (~125 - 120 Ma). Rift basin was mainly developed
along the Yishu Fault zone, dominated by wide-shallow lake environment in thelate K13 period (~120 - 100 Ma) [2]. An extremely hot and arid climate prevailed
during the K21 - K22 deposited. Braided rivers dominated in the northern Jiaolai
Basin and western Shandong while alluvial fan-fluvial and lacustrine environments co-existed in the central and southern part of Jiaolai Basin [5].

3. It Develops Well-Preserved Terrestrial Ecosystem
Cretaceous in Shandong Province not only outcrops continuously, but also develops 5 sets of vertebrate fossil assemblages dominated by dinosaurs from Earlyto Late Cretaceous. They are:1) The Euhelopus zdanskyi, the largest sauropod ever described in China developed in J/K11 in western Shandong Provinces. 2) Psittacosaurus of the Linjiazhuang Formation in Jiaolai Basin in K13. 3) Ornithopoda duck-billed dinosaur Shantungosaurus assemblage in K21, including Shantungosaurus, Zhu-

chengosaurus maximus Zhao et al. and Giant cathaysian, Accompanying ceratosaurs, such as Sinoceratops zhuchengensis gen. et sp. nov, theropod Zhuchengtyrannosaurus rex, Zhuchengtyrannus magnus, as well as a few ankylosaur, coelurosauria scattered bones. 4) Taniussinensis assemblage, accompanied by anumber of other dinosaur bone fossils, and a large number of dinosaur egg fossils in K22 in Jiaolai basin. 5) The ornithopoda assemblage represented by Tsin-taosaurusspinorhinus is also symbiosis with fossil dinosaur eggs in K22 in Jiaolai
Basin [5].
The assemblage and buried situation of dinosaur fauna not only reveal thedifferences of living and buried environment among different dinosaur faunas,
but also directly relate to the evolution of Cretaceous paleogeography and paleoclimate. At the same time, the Lower Cretaceous in Shandong Province also
has abundant and diverse vertebrate relics dominated by dinosaurs and birds
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with a very high distribution density, which reflects the habitats of diverse vertebrate fauna and their systematic evolution characteristics [2]. The dinosaur
footprints of theropods, sauropods, ornithopods and other different species [2],pterosaur footprints were developed in the Early Cretaceous and J/K transition
period.

4. K/Pg Boundary Recorded Extraterrestrial Impact Event
Several vitreous spherulite layers more than 100 meters thick found on top of K2[6] and abnormal combination of Ir and Pt elements at K/Pg transition site [7]may indicate the occurrence of extraterrestrial impact events.
Therefore, successions in Shandong Province not only developed complete
terrestrial cretaceous stratigraphic sequence, but also bored abundant and diverse information of paleoenvironment (sedimentary basin, paleogeography,
paleoclimate and geological events, etc.), evolution and replacement. Especially,it also preserved continuous and perfect ecological system information (floraand fauna and fossil assemblage), and together constituted a complete Cretaceous record of environment evolution, different biome initiation, radiation, replacement or dying or even extinction.

Acknowledgements
This research is co-supported by the National Key Research and Development
Program of China (No. 2018YFC0604201), NFSC (No. 41272021, 41672111 and
41372109), the Central Project of NFSC (No. 41688103) and Geological Surveyof China (DD20190005). This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679
project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910065[1]

Liu, Y.Q., Kuang, H.W., Ji, S.A., Lv, J.C., Liu, Y.X., Jiang, X.J., et al. (2009) The Biotic and Environmental Response to the Geological Event on the Earth during theLate Mesozoic. Earth Science Frontiers, 16, 37-47.

[2]Kuang, H.W., Liu, Y.Q., Wu, Q.Z., Cheng, G.S., Xu, K.M., Liu, H., et al. (2013) Dinosaur Track Sites and Palaeogeography of the Late Early Cretaceous in Shuhe
Rifting Zone of Shandong Province. Journal of Palaeogeography, 15, 435-453.

[3]Peng, N., Liu, Y.Q., Kuang, H.W., Xu. H., Zhang, P., Chen, J., et al. (2015) Provenance of Early Cretaceous Laiyang Group in Jiaolai Basin and Its Significance. Geology in China, 42, 1793-1810.

[4]

Zhang, P., Kuang, H., Liu, Y., Meng, Z., Peng, N. and Xu, H. (2018) Sedimentary
Characteristics and Provenance of the Basal Conglomerate of the Late Jurassic-Early
Cretaceous Jiaolai Basin, Eastern China and Their Implications for the Uplift of the
Sulu Orogenic Belt. International Geology Review, 61, 521-538.

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https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2018.1437786

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Research on Taphonomy of Late Cretaceous Dinosaurs in Zhucheng, Eastern
Shandong, China. Acta Geologica Sinica, 88, 1353-1371.

[6]

Xu, K.M., Kuang, H.W., Qin, J., Wang, Y.P., Peng, N., Ning, Z.G., et al. (2017) New
Discovery of Terrestrial K-Pg Boundary from Jiaolai Basin of Shandong Province.
Geology in China, 44, 94-195.

[7]

Ding, C. (2016) The Ostracod Biostratigraphy and the K/Pg Boundary Discussion
an Lk1 Core, Jiaolai Basin. China University of Geosciences, Beijing.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 654-657
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Comparison of the Palaeomagnetic Parametersof Non-Marine Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary
Sediments in Dorset (SW England), Hebei and
Liaoning (NE China)—A Preliminary Study
Petr Schnabl1*, Gang Li2, Šimon Kdýr1, Gunther Kletetschka1, Petr Skupien3, Andrea Svobodová1,
Karolína Hladíková1, Meizhen Cao2, William A. P. Wimbledon4
Institute of Geology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech RepublicState Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Environment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
3
Faculty of Mining and Geology, VSB Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
4
School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
1
2

How to cite this paper: Schnabl, P., Li, G.,Kdýr, Š., Kletetschka, G., Skupien, P., Svobodová, A., Hladíková, K., Cao, M. and Wimbledon, W.A.P. (2019) Comparison of the
Palaeomagnetic Parameters of Non-Marine
Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary Sediments in
Dorset (SW England), Hebei and Liaoning(NE China)—A Preliminary Study. Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 654-657.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910066
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
The Purbeck beds in Dorset, the Tuchengzi Formation in western Liaoning
Liaoning Province or the Houcheng Formation in northern Hebei Province
are non-marine Jurassic/Cretaceous (J/K) boundary sequences. A
Czech-China Inter-Governmental S&T Cooperation Project has been carriedout to search for the non-marine J/K boundary in northern China and making international correlation with the Purbeck beds in southern England. The
combination of palaeomagnetism and biostratigraphy in northern China andsouthern England localities proves that these distant places had similar climatic conditions and the same fauna during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. A preliminary joint research has shown a fruitful result in searchingfor the non-marine J/K boundary in northern China.

Keywords
Jurassic-Cretaceous Boundary, Dorset, Northern Hebe, Western Liaoning,
Palaeomagnetism, Biostratigraphy

Open Access1. Introduction
A joint study of the Jurassic/Cretaceous (J/K) boundary sections in northern
China [1] and Dorset, southwestern England [2] [3] began in the year 2017. In
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northern China the well-developed non-marine Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous sequences are widely distributed, which straddle the J/K boundary, andsuitable for the study of the J/K boundary magnetostratigraphy [4] [5].
In recent years, more and more precise radiometric dating data indicate that
the Tuchengzi Formation in western Liaoning and the contemporaneous Hocheng Formation in northern Hebei straddle the J/K boundary [6] [7]. Palaeomagnetic and magnetostratigraphic research clarifies and constrains interpretations of the J/K boundary interval.
The studied Dorset sites are on the Isle of Portland and at Swanage. The first,
the older, is Jurassic in age. It consists of six successive sequences. Layered marine cherty limestones are below and homogeneous Portland “freestone” carbonates being above, with the non-marine Purbeck beds overlying. The other section is the major cliff profile at Swanage, entirely in continental Purbeck sediments, of Tithonian to Berriasian age.

2. Methods
Palaeomagnetic methods used differ between the carbonate rocks and clastics.
Thermal demagnetisation dominated for the Portland Stone limestone and thesediments in the upper part of the Swanage section. Alternate field demagnetization was performed on the more clastic sediments in the lower part of the Swanage Purbeck section and on all the Chinese samples. The main carriers of magnetization were investigated using analysis of the isothermal remanent magnetization curve following Kruiver et al. [8].

3. Results
We show that in Hebei and Liaoning the sedimentation rate was so rapid that
individual studied profiles contain only one magnetozone, which is an advantage
for magnetostratigraphy when it is used as an aid for the J/K boundary determination. Specifically, we have found that both measured profiles of the Houcheng
Formation in northern Hebei have a normal polarity, whereas the measured
profile of the Tuchengzi Formation displays a reverse polarity. The individual
profiles are to be stratigraphically linked.
The preliminary results on the Portland sediments prove only one normal polarity zone with one subzone. The first result from pilot sampling in the Purbeck
beds at Swanage shows at least three normal and two reverse polarity zones.
Additionally, we have identified fossils of the clam shrimps (Diplostraca) [9][10] and ostracods (Ostracoda) and combined them with magnetostratigraphy.
This allowed correlations of sites in northern China with southern England.

4. Discussion
More magnetozones might be still recognized in both areas. The sampling in
northern China has to continue above and below the sampled profiles, and thesection at Swanage has to be sampled more densely. Measurement of previously
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sampled specimens still continues. Bed-by-bed correlation of the results between
the studied part of the Swanage section and the results of Ogg et al. [11] is apriority.

Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by Mobility project of Czech Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports and Ministry of Science and Technology of thePeople’s Republic of China (8H17050), institutional support of Inst. Geol. Czech
Acad. Sci. (RVO67985831), the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese
Academy of Sciences (XDB26000000), China-Czech 42th Inter-Governmental
S&T Cooperation Project (42-3), the National Natural Science Foundation ofChina (41572006, 41688103, 41972007) and UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910066[1]

Wang, W.L., Zhang, H., Zhang, L.J., Zheng, S.L., Yang, F.L., Li, Z.T., Zheng, Y.J.
and Ding, Q.H. (2004) Standard Sections of Tuchengzi Stage and Yixian Stage andTheir Stratigraphy, Palaeontology and Tectonic-Volcanic Actions. Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 514 p. (In Chinese)[2]

Wimbledon, W.A.P., Casellato, C.E., Reháková, D., Bulot, L.G., Erba, E., Gardin, S.,
Verreussel, R., Munsterman, E.K. and Hunt, C.O. (2011) Fixing a Basal Berriasianand Jurassic/Cretaceous (J/k) Boundary—Is There Perhaps Some Light at the Endof the Tunnel. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia, 117, 295-307.

[3]

Horne, D.J. (2002) Ostracod Biostratigraphy and Palaeoecology of the Purbeck Limestone Group in Southern England. Special Papers in Palaeontology, 68, 53-70.

[4]Li, G. and Matsuoka, A. (2015) Searching for a Non-Marine Jurassic/Cretaceous
Boundary in Northeastern China. Journal of Geological Society of Japan, 121,
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and Timescale of China. Science China Earth Sciences, 62, 256-286.
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Terrestrial Transition Red Beds in Northern North China and Their Implication on
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Kruiver, P.P., Dekkers, M.J. and Heslop, D. (2001) Quantification of Magnetic
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[9]Li, G. and Matsuoka, A. (2012) Jurassic Clam Shrimp (“Conchostracan”) Faunas in
China. Science Report of Niigata University (Geology), 27, 73-88.

[10] Wang, S.E. and Li, G. (2008) New Fossil Clam Shrimps from the Tuchengzi Formation of Northern Hebei and Western Liaoning. Acta Palaeontologica Sinica, 47,
319-325.
[11] Ogg, J.G., Hasenyager, R.W. and Wimbledon, W.A. (1994) Jurassic-Cretaceous
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https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-6995(94)80217-3

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 658-660
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

A New Understanding of the Lower Cretaceous
Jiufotang Formation in Western Liaoning
Zijie Wu1,2, Longwei Qiu1, Haipeng Wang2
12

School of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Qingdao, China
Liaoning Provincial Institute of Geological Exploration Co., Ltd., Dalian, China

How to cite this paper: Wu, Z.J., Qiu,
L.W. and Wang, H.P. (2019) A New Understanding of the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation in Western Liaoning. Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 658-660.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910067
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
The Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation in western Liaoning is the mostimportant fossil production horizon of the Jehol Biota, which is widely distributed in the Mesozoic basins of western Liaoning. Due to the influence ofhistorical data, previous scholars believed that there was no volcanic activity
in the Jiufotang Formation in western Liaoning. In a field investigation inwestern Liaoning, the authors discovered basalt and andesite in the Hujiayingzi bed. In addition, a conformable boundary was found between the
Yixian and the Jiufotang formations. It indicates that both the Jiufotang Formation and the Yixian Formation are strata containing volcanic-sedimentaryrocks, only differing in strength of volcanic activity.

Keywords
Western Liaoning, Lower Cretaceous, Jiufotang Formation, Volcanic Rocks,
New Discoveries

1. Introduction
Because the Jiufotang Formation is the most significant producer of fossils fromthe Jehol Biota, it is favored by paleontologists. It produces birds, dinosaurs,
pterosaurs, turtles, mammals, fish and many other fossils like clam shrimps. The
fossils from the Jiufotang Formation are complete and numerous, thus, they
make them rare treasures in the world of paleontology. As a lithologic unit, theJiufotang Formation is defined as a set of layers of ash, which is widely distributed in various Mesozoic basins in western Liaoning, above the Yixian Formation, under the Fuxin Formation, or under the Binggou Formation. It contains
typical Jehol Biota fossils amongst yellow-green siltstone, shale, sandstone, andcombinations of conglomerate and oil shale [1].
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2. Discussion
Scholars often correlated the Jiufotang Formation in western Liaoning with the
Longjiang Formation, the Guanghua Formation in the Daxinganling or the
Xiaoling Formation and the Lishugou Formation in eastern Liaoning [2]. However, it was previously believed that there was no volcanic activity during thedeposition period of the Jiufotang Formation in western Liaoning. According to
the regional geological records of Liaoning Province, the Jiufotang Formation
does not contain volcanic rocks, and is thus distinguishable from the Yixian
Formation. However, the Jiufotang Formation has been found to contain a large
amount of tuff components (tuff, siltstone, etc.). Previous reports have interpreted this volcanic ash as evidence of volcanic activity from the northern Hebei
or Daxinganling area. Because they are adjacent to the south of the Pingzhuang
Basin in western Liaoning, the Jiufotang Formation in the Kailu Basin and the
Guanghua Formation in the Xing’anling area possess andesite, basalt, and volcaniclastic rocks. The authors have reported that gray-black basalt and gray andesite were found in the Hujiayingzi area in Dapingfang-Meileyingzi Basin, but
due to the established viewpoint, the previous researchers put this volcanic rockcombined in the Daxingzhuang Formation [3]. According to the authors' investigation, this set of volcanic rocks is integrated with the sedimentary rocks of the
Jiufotang Formation and should belong to the Jiufotang Formation. At the sametime, some people think that the rhyolite and basalt found in the Xintaimen areaof Huludao belong to the Jiufotang Formation [4]. Therefore, it has been proventhat there are lavates such as andesite, rhyolite, and basalt in the Jiufotang Formation in western Liaoning.
Since the andesite is also present in the Jiufotang Formation, the boundary
between the Jiufotang Formation and the Yixian Formation is questionable. The
authors find that the previous definition of the Jiufotang Formation was not accurate according to our aforementioned field investigation. Therefore, the authors speculate that the Jiufotang Formation and the Yixian Formation are combinations of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, and there is no obvious unconformity boundary between the two formations.

3. Conclusion
Based on the above data, the authors believe that the Jiufotang Formation andthe Yixian Formation are lithologic formations of a set of volcanic-sedimentary
rhythmic interbeds and affected by volcanic activities from different regions.
And the boundary between the two should be a conformable interface.

Acknowledgements
The study is supported by the Liaoning Provincial Fossil Resources Conservation
Administration (grant No. LNZC20141000734). Thanks are given to referee forproviding constructive comments and suggestions. Contribution to IGCP 679.
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Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

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Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resource of Liaoning Province (1989) Regional Geology of Liaoning Province.

[2]

Wu, Z.J., Gao, F.L., Pan, Y.Q. and Wang, X. (2018) Division and Correlation of the
Jiufotang Formation and Their Rare Fossil Bearing Beds in Western Liaoning, China. Geoscience, 32, 758-765.

[3]Wu, Z.J., Wang, H.P., Gao, F.L., Zhang, G.R., Wang, M.C. and Luo, N.G. (2019)
The First Discovery of Eosestheria in Eastern Liaoning, China. Acta Geologica Sinica (English Edition), 93, 479-480. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-6724.13783[4]

Sun, R.S., Ji, J.Q., Gao, K.Q., Zhang, Y., Zhou, J., Ma, F. and Xu, Q.Q. (2010)40
Ar/39Ar Dating of Volcanic Rocks and Constraints for Xintaimen Area in Western
Liaoning. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 26, 3397-3410.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 661-664
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

A Research of the Cretaceous-Paleogene
Boundary in the Pingyi Basin, Shandong
Province
Jun Chen1,2,3*, Shengxian Du1,2,3, Cheng Chen1,2,3, Fengchen Liu1,2,3, Zhengguo Ning4,
Xiangsuo Song1,2,3, Shucai Liu1,2,3, Huinan Lu5, Yongqing Liu6, Hongwei Kuang6
Shandong Institute of Geological Sciences, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Gold Mineralization Processes and Resources Utilization Subordinated to the Ministry of Land and Resources,
Jinan, China
3
Key Laboratory of Metallogenic Geological Process and Resources Utilization in Shandong Province, Jinan, China
4
Shandong Institute of Geological Survey, Jinan, China
5
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China
6
Insititute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Chen, J., Du, S.X.,
Chen, C., Liu, F.C., Ning, Z.G., Song, X.S.,
Liu, S.C., Lu, H.N., Liu, Y.Q. and Kuang,
H.W. (2019) A Research of the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary in the Pingyi
Basin, Shandong Province. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 661-664.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910068
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
The Bianqiao Formation (in the Pingyi Basin, Shandong Province, China) is atypical set of continuous lacustrine carbonate deposits during the Cretaceous-Paleogene period, which is considered as an ideal stratigraphic unit for
KPB research. This study is based on the borehole PYZK01, which is located at
Tongjiazhuang village in Bianqiao Town of Pingyi country. According to biostratigraphy research, the Bianqiao Formtion establishes one charophyte assemblage:
Porocharaanluensis-Charayuntaishanensis var. acuta-Turbocharaspecialis, andone sporopollen assemblage: Deltoidosporaadriensis-RugubivesiculitesSchizaeoisporites. This result indicates that the stratigraphic age during 0 12.25 m is the Paleogene, 37.8 m - 60 m is the Late Cretaceous, and 12.25 37.8 m is a transition stage from the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene. Bygeochemical study, it was established carbon and oxygen isotopic strata in the
drill. Through the magnetostratigraphy research, we find eight positive polarity zones and seven reversed polarity zones, build the magnetic polarity sequences of the borehole, and propose a contrast scheme with the international standard magnetic polarity time column. After comprehensive discussion,
it is preliminarily believed that the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary is locatedat the depth of 31.98 m in PYZK01, namely, in the first section of the
Bianqiao Fm.

Keywords
Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary, Biostratigraphy, Isotopic Stratigraphy,

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Magnetostratigraphy, Pingyi BasinAt the turn of the Cretaceous and the Paleogene, major events occurred all over
the world, such as the mass extinction of dinosaur and the rise of mammals, andthe research of the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary has become a hotspot. Although the research of KPB has made important progress, many important
problems still have not been solved in non-marine stratigraphy [1] [2] [3] [4]. So
the establishment of the non-marine Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary stratigraphy is necessary. The Bianqiao Fm of the Guanzhuang Group in the Pingyi Basinof Shandong Province is a typical set of fluvial and lacustrine deposits, mainly
consisted of carbonate rocks and gypsum ore beds, near the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
boundary in China. Besides, it is also one of the strata units with the largest
thickness of continuous sedimentary limestone in continental lacustrine basinsin the same period in our country, which contains very important geological information, such as biological, sedimentary, and terrestrial carbonate lake basin
evolution. Much great progress has been made in KPB [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]. Basedon previous work, we conduct a comprehensive study on biostratigraphy, isotopic stratigraphy, and magnetic stratigraphy of PYZK01, which is the first timein the region.
In terms of petrostratigraphy, it is continuous that the whole lithology shows a
set of sedimentary characteristics with alternating shore-shallow lacustrine facies
and shallow lacustrine facies. From the perspective of sedimentary environment,
the lithology mainly consists of gray, purple and flesh-red limestone and marl,indicating the dry and hot palaeoclimate environment. However, reductive environmental strata represented by dark sediments no longer appeared above
31.57 m, showing obvious rapid changes or abrupt events of sedimentary environment and paleocaterium, which may be related to geological events at theturn of the Cretaceous to the Paleogene.
In terms of biostratigraphy, we obtain abundant fossils of chardonophytes,
palynophytes, metamorphoses and gastropods. Among them, Sphaerochara cf.
chinensis (Huang et Xu) was found at 12.25 m, indicating that the strata shallower than 12.25 m are not earlier than the Paleogene. The charophyte assemblageof Porocharaanluensis-Charayuntaishanensis var. acuta-Turbocharaspecialis indicates that the stratigraphic age deeper than 40.03 m was determined as the late
Late Cretaceous, and it is also further confirmed by the palynological assemblageof Deltoidosporaadriensis-Rugubivesiculites-Schizaeoisporites from 37.8 m to40.3 m and the gastropod fossils from 37.8 m to 57.5 m. Thus, the KPB is limitedof 12.25 m to 37.8 m by biostratigraphy.
In terms of magnetostratigraphy, we find eight positive polarity zones andseven reversed polarity zones, build the magnetic polarity sequences of the borehole, and propose a contrast scheme with the international standard magnetic
polarity time column. The KPB was further restricted to the third reverse polarity zone which is from 25.7 m to 37.6 m, and a significant negative drift of the
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susceptibility curve occurred at the depth of 31.98 m.
In terms of isotopic strata, carbon and oxygen isotopic strata were established,
and an obvious phenomenon of oxygen isotopic curve positive drift and carbon
isotopic curve negative drift also appeared at 31.98 m.
Based on the above results, the Bianqiao Fm in the Pingyi Basin has the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, and its location is basically confirmed to 31.98 m
deep in PYZK01, namely, in the first section of the Bianqiao Fm.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the China Geological Survey Project “Study on
Shandong Paleogene Stratigraphic Division Comparative” (1212011120146) and
Major Innovative Project of Shandong Province “Exploration and Exploitationof Deep Earth Resources” and “Study on oil and gas occurrence conditions in
the Riqingwei Basin in east sea of Shandong province” (2017CXGC1608), “Deepstructure of Yishu fault zone and its impact on resources and environment”(2017CXGC1602). This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

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Zhang, X.Q. and Li, G. (2008) Ostracod Faunas from the Luofozhai Group in the
Nanxiongbasin of Guangdong Province, China. Acta Micropalaeontologica Sinica,
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Sun, G., Quan, C., Sun, C.L., Sun, Y.W., Luo, K.L. and Lv, J.S. (2005) Some New
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China. Journal of Jilin University (Earth Science Edition), 35, 137-142.

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Chen, P.J., Wan, X.Q., Liu, G.W., Cao, M.Z., Wang, Q.F., Cao, L., Li, G. and Wang,
Y.Q. (2012) On the Geological Age of the Furaoan Stage. Journal of Stratigraphy,
36, 755-772.

[4]

Wan, X.Q., Zhao, J., Scott, R.W., Wan, P.J., Feng, Z.H., Huang, Q.H. and Xi, D.P.
(2013) Late Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Songliao Basin, NE China: SK1 Cores. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 385, 31-43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.10.024[5]

Li, S.J., Zheng, D.S., Cai, J.G., Yang, Y.H., Sun, X.W. and Yang, P.R. (2003) Sedimentary Chaiacteritics and Controlling Factors of Basins in the North Shandong
and Southwest Shandong in Paleogene. Geological Review, 49, 225-232.

[6]

Du, S.X., Liu, F.C., Chen, J., Gao, L.M., Song, X.S., Chen, C., Tian, X.L., Zhang, Z.Q.
and Liu, S.C. (2019) The Cretaceous-Paleocene Biostratigraphy and Boundary in the
Pingyi Basin, Shandong Province. Acta Geologica Sinica, 93, 1831-1848.

[7]

Yu, X.F., Du, S.X., Wang, Q.F., Liu, S.C., Zhou, L., Liu, F.C., Lu, H.N. and Chen, C.
(2014) Late Cretaceous Ostracods from the Pingyi Basin, Shandong Province, China. Acta Micropalaeontogical Sinica, 31, 387-404.

[8]

Zhang, Z.Q., Du, S.X., Zhang, S.K., Lu, H.N., Liu, S.C., Gao, L.M., Song, X.S., Yang,

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N., Liu, F.C., Zhou, L., Chen, C. and Chen, J. (2014) Reassessment of the Guanzhuang Group in the Pingyi Basin, Shandong. Journal of Stratigraphy, 38, 8-24.
[9]

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Li, S., Wang, Q.F., Zhang, H.C., Lu, H.N. and Closas, C.M. (2016) Charophytes
from the Cretaceous-Paleogene Transition in the Pingyi Basin (Eastern China) and
Their Eurasian Correlation. Cretaceous Research, 59, 179-200.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2015.10.022

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 665-667
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Magnetic Susceptibilities in the
Cretaceous-Paleogene Section in Uzgruň,Czech Republic
Tiiu Elbra1, Petr Schnabl1*, Šimon Kdýr1, Miroslav Bubík2
Institute of Geology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech RepublicCzech Geological Survey, Brno, Czech Republic

1
2

How to cite this paper: Elbra, T., Schnabl,
P., Kdýr, Š. and Bubík, M. (2019) Magnetic
Susceptibilities in the Cretaceous-Paleogene
Section in Uzgruň, Czech Republic. Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 665-667.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910069
Received: August 16, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
A new multidisciplinary study is being carried out in several localities fromOuter Carpathians of Central Europe. Outer Carpathians allow studying theCretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) interval of the oceanic facies, including lower
bathyal-abyssal sub-CCD turbidites. Preliminary results of field-measured
magnetic susceptibilities from Uzgruň K-Pg section in the Czech Republic arepresented.

Keywords
Cretaceous-Paleogene, Outer Carpathians, Magnetic Susceptibilities

1. Introduction
The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary marks the limit between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods and coincides with one of the five large mass extinctions in Earth’s history. A new research project “Cretaceous-Paleogene
boundary in the Carpathians—multidisciplinary search for local variations in
global cataclysm event” was launched at the beginning of 2019. The project comprises of magnetic, biostratigraphic, sedimentological and geochemical investigations of several Central European Carpathian sections in order to characterize
the K-Pg transition sequence in deep-sea sub-CCD facies, to provide paleoenvironmental information and study its impact to magnetic and biotic changes.
One of the key locations of this research is Uzgruň, Czech Republic (Figure 1).

2. Uzgruň Section
The Uzgruň section is situated near Velké Karlovice village and represents a
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T. Elbra et al.

Figure 1. Left: Schematic map of the Uzgruň section location. Right: Magnetic susceptibility of UZ 19 subsection.

continuous composite section. The section belongs to the Soláň Formation of
the Rača Unit and is predominantly built up by turbiditic sequences of calcareous and non-calcareous claystones with thin siltstone intercalations as well as
occasional sandstones and marlstones [1]. The composite section comprises
three subsections in different tectonic slices that are correlated using
characteristic sequence of marker turbidite layers. Fossil record of Uzgruň includes benthic agglutinated foraminifers, nannofossils, radiolarians and organic-walled dinocysts. A biostratigraphic study was carried out at the end of
1990’s-early 2000’s and resulting integrated biostratigraphy is summarized by
Bubík et al. [2]. The base of the Danian is indicated by the lowest occurrence of
dinocyst Carpatella cornuta and supported by typical sequence of dinocysts, radiolarians and benthic foraminifers. More recently, the entire Micula prinsii
zone of the topmost Maastrichtian was confirmed in the section.

3. Sampling and Results
A new sampling of the Uzgruň locality was carried out during summer 2019 tomagnetically characterize the local K-Pg as well as revise and extend the fossil
and geochemical record and, thus, gain insights to local variations of paleoenvironment. To assist with sample selection for rock- and paleomagnetic laboratory
study, and provide the first outline of magnetic properties, the magnetic susceptibility of the composite section was measured in the field using portable susceptibility meter KT-10.
The preliminary results of field measurements of magnetic susceptibility indicate mostly paramagnetic behavior (Figure 1). Several slightly higher magnetic
intervals were identified and, for the most part, seem to correspond to sandstonelayers. The field measurements don’t appear to display a higher magnetic susceptibility zone at suggested K-Pg boundary; however, more detailed laboratory
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measurements are needed to verify the presence or absence of any distinct magnetic signatures at the K-Pg boundary in Uzgruň.

Acknowledgements
The study is funded by Czech Science Foundation project no. 19-07516S and isin accordance of research plan no. RVO67985831. This is a contribution to
UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910069[1]

Bubík, M., Bąk, M. and Švábenická, L. (1999) Biostratigraphy of the Maastrichtian
to Paleocene Distal Flysch Sediments of the Rača Unit in the Uzgruň Section (Magura Group of Nappes, Czech Republic). Geologica Carpathica, 50, 33-48.

[2]

Bubík, M., Adamová, M., Bąk, M., Franců, E., Franců, J., Gedl, P., Mikuláš, R.,Švábenická, L. and Uchman, A. (2002) Results of the Investigations at the Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary in the Magura Flysch near Uzgruň. Get this from a library!
Geologické výzkumy na Moravě a ve Slezsku v roce, Brno, 18-22. (In Czech)
https://doi.org/10.5817/gvms2014-1-2-10

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 668-670
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ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Jurassic-Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Malaysia
Mat Niza Bin Abdul Rahman
Technical Services Division, Department of Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia, Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia

How to cite this paper: Rahman, M.N.B.A.
(2019) Jurassic-Cretaceous Stratigraphy of
Malaysia. Open Journal of Geology, 9,668-670.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910070
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
In Peninsular Malaysia, the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences are represented bycontinental deposits in several isolated basins. Generally, the sequences arecharacterised by the fining upward sequences, comprising reddish brown to
red siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate often interpreted as molasse sequences. In Sabah and Sarawak, the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences are
represented by the marine deposits comprising argillaceous, some arenaceousand calcareous rocks and associated chert, lava, and pyroclastics.

Keywords
Jurassic-Cretaceous, Peninsular Malaysia, Continental Deposits, Sabah andSarawak, Marine Deposits

Open Access1. Introduction
In Peninsular Malaysia, the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences are represented by thecontinental deposits that were deposited in several isolated basins throughout
the country. Generally, the sequences are characterised by the fining upward sequences comprising reddish brown to red siltstone, sandstone and conglomerateoften interpreted as molasse sequences.
The Jurassic-Cretaceous continental sequences distributed in Peninsular Malaysia are Saiong Formation, Kayu Hitam Formation, Berapit Formation, Tan
Hain Formaton, Panau Formation, Koh Formation, Tembeling Group, Gagau
Group, Gerek Sandstone, Bertangga Sandstone, Ma’okil Formation, Paloh formation, Lesong Sandstone, Ulu Endau Beds, Tebak Formation and Panti Formation. The sequences are distributed in the Western, Central and Eastern Belts ofPeninsular Malaysia. Most of the sequences are exposed in the Central Belt,
whilst only the Saiong Formation is exposed in the Western Belt and extends
northwardly into southern Thailand. In the Eastern Belts, the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences are in the southeastern part of the Peninsular. Fossil
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M. N. B. A. Rahman

gastropods, bivalves and plants as well as palynomorphs were discovered withinthose rock units. Dinosaur teeth and footprints were discovered in the Lotong
Sandstone of the Gagau Group in Hulu Terengganu. The dinosaur teeth also
were reported in the Cretaceous rocks in Pahang.
In Sabah and Sarawak, the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequence is represented by themarine deposits comprising argillaceous, some arenaceous and calcareous rocks,
and associated chert, lava, and pyroclastics. Among the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences in Sabah is the Madai-Baturong Formation, whilst in Sarawak it isrepresented by the Kedadom Formation, Sejingkat Formation, Pedawan Formation, Serabang Formation, Bau Limestone and Sebangan Hornstone. Most ofthem are shallow marine shelf deposits except for the chert dominant Sejingkat
Formation and part of the Serabang Formation and the Sebangan Hornstonewhich might be deposited in a deeper marine condition.

2. Stratigraphy
The Jurassic-Cretaceous continental sequences distributed in Peninsular Malaysia are shown in Table 1.
In Sabah and Sarawak, the Jurassic-Cretaceous shallow to deep marine deposits are shown in Table 2.

3. Correlation
Based on lithological characteristics and fossil contents, the Jurassic-Cretaceoussequences in Peninsular Malaysia have the same relative stratigraphic position
but are not necessarily contemporaneous. The Mangking Sandstone of theTembeling Group is possible to be correlated with the Lotong Sandstone of the
Gagau Group. Generally, the other predominantly arenaceous sequences namely
the Ulu Endau Beds, Tebak Formation, Panti Formation, Bertangga Sandstone,
Koh formation, Lesong Sandstone, Tebak Formation and Gerek Formation are
also possible to be correlated with the Mangking Sandstone. The Paloh Formation is partly lateral equivalent of the Ma’Okil Formation [1].
In Sarawak, the upper part of the Kedadom Formation is interfingered withthe lower part of the Bau Limestone. The Sejingkat Formation is interfingeredwith the Serabang Formation and the lower Kedadom Formation and the Bau
Limestone. The Pedawan Formation is also laterally equivalent to the Bau Limestone [1].
Table 1. List of the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences within the Western-Central-Eastern Belts in Peninsular Malaysia.
Western Belt

Age

JurassicCretaceous

Kedah-Perak
SaiongFormation
Kayu Hitam
Formation

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Berapit Formation
Tan Hain Formation

Central Belt - Eastern Belt
Kelantan

Pahang-Terengganu

Johor

Panau Formation
Koh Formation

Gagau Group
Tembeling Group
Gerek Sandstone
Bertangga Sandstone

Ma’Okil Formation
Paloh Formation
Lesong Sandstone
Ulu Endau Beds
Tebak Formation
Panti Formation

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M. N. B. A. Rahman
Table 2. List of the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences in Sabah and Sarawak.
Age

Jurassic-Cretaceous

Sabah

Sarawak

Madai-Baturong Formation

Kedadom Formation
Sejingkat Formation
Pedawan Formation
Serabang Formation
Bau Limestone
Sebangan Hornstone

4. Conclusion
In Peninsular Malaysia, the Jurassic-Cretaceous rocks are mostly of continental
deposits, generally reddish in colour with grey varieties in parts. Only the PalohFormation was deposited in the transition from shallow marine to continental
environment. Dinosaur teeth and footprint had been discovered within the Lotong Sandstone of the Gagau Group in Hulu Terengganu. Dinosaur teeth had
also been reported in Pahang. Detail study needs to be done on the continental
deposits to determine another potential dinosaur site in Malaysia. In Sabah andSarawak, the Jurassic-Cretaceous sequences were deposited in a shallow to deep
marine environment.

Acknowledgements
This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References[1]

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910070

Lee, C.P., Leman, M.D., Hassan, K., Nasib, B.M. and Karim, R. (2004) Stratigraphic
Lexicon of Malaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia, 162 p.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 671-673
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Pakistan
Muhammad Sadiq Malkani
Geological Survey of Pakistan, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

How to cite this paper: Malkani, M.S.
(2019) Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Pakistan.
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 671-673.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910071
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 21, 2019
Published: September 24, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
Cretaceous strata of Pakistan yielded many significant fossils of terrestrial
ecosystems like poripuch (all caudals are procoelous) lithostrotian titanosaurian sauropods, abelisauroids theropods, mesoeucrocodiles, pterosaurs andgymnosperm stem wood. Both marine and non-marine strata well exposed
through the Cretaceous, Jurassic-Cretaceous and Cretaceous-Paleogene
boundaries found in Pakistan especially in Indus Basin. Indus Basin
represents strata from Precambrian to Recent. Here a glimpse of Cretaceous
Stratigraphy of Pakistan is being presented.

Keywords
Terrestrial, Marine, Stratigraphy, Cretaceous, Pakistan

1. Introduction
Pakistan is lucky to host the Gondwanan, Eurasian and Tethyan heritage.
Gondwanan heritage is represented by Indus Basin of Pakistan located in thecentre, south and eastern Pakistan. The Eurasian heritage is represented byHindukush-Karakoran basin located in northernmost Pakistan. The Tethyan
heritage is represented by Balochistan magmatic arc and basin in western Pakistan, and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatic arc located in northern Pakistan. Cretaceous rocks are exposed in all these basins but only Indus basin yields Cretaceous fauna [1] so far. So here Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Indus basin is being
presented.

2. Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Indus Basin of Pakistan
Cretaceous deposits (Figure 1) are more than 3000 meters thick in the Indus basin. The Cretaceous of upper Indus (Kohat-Potwar) Basin shows marine Chichali, (glauconitic muds), marginal marine Lumshiwal (quartzose sandstone withsubordinate shale) and Kawagarh (limestone) and terrestrial to deltaic Indus(coal, laterite, carbonaceous shale = Vitakri Lameta sediments) formations
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M. S. Malkani
Age

Formation

Paleocene
LatestLithologic log

Dungan Formation
Rakhi Gaj Formation
Sangiali formation
Vitakri Lameta Formation

Mainly Limestone with some shale.
Grey green Sandstone and shale.
Shale/Sands./limestone with bivalves.
Mud, sandstone and limestone hosting

Pab Sandstonetitanosaurs and theropod dinosaurs,
mesoeucrocodiles and pterosaurs.
Quartzose sandstone, negligible shale.

Fort Munro Limestone
Mughal Kot Formation

Mainly Limestones
Shale, sandstone/limestone

Parh Limestone

White Limestone

Goru Formation

Marl, shale and limestone

Mekhtar Sandstone(lower Goru sandstone)
Sembar shale

Quartzose Sandstone

Dilband Formation
Chiltan Limestone

Ironstone. ferruginous shale/sandstone.
Limestone with negligible marl/shale.

Cretaceous

Lower
Cretaceous
Jurassic

Descriptions

Shale/mud

Sandstone

Mainly shale

Limestone

Marl

Shale/sandstone with bivalves

Figure 1. Cretaceous stratigraphic sequence of Indus basin of Pakistan.

followed by the Lower Paleocene deltaic Hangu Formation (coal, sandstone andshale). Middle Indus (Sulaiman) and lower Indus (Kirthar) basins represent theLower Cretaceous fine pelagic, shallow marine and deltaic Parh Group (Sembar,
Goru, Parh formations; belemnite bearing shale, marl and limestone), and theUpper Cretaceous was emerged by a regression of sea which shows the Mughal
Kot (shale and sandstone with minor limestone), Fort Munro (limestone), Pab(mainly sandstone with negligible shale) and Vitakri Lameta (terrestrial alternating red muds and sandstone, at places limestone) formations of Fort Munro
Group, deposited under muddy to sandy shelf, distal deltaic and fluviatile environments. At early Paleocene the transgression of sea emerged, which depositedthe marine Sangiali (bivalves, nautiloids and gastropods bearing limestone andshale with some Deccan volcanic dust), Rakhi Gaj (sandstone and shale with
Deccan volcanic dust observed in Rakhi Gaj section of Dera Ghazi Khan, central
Pakistan) and Dungan Limestone of Sangiali Group. Eocene was mostly marine,deltaic and partly terrestrial. In the Oligocene and onward the mollase alluvial
environments became dominant.
The contact of the Cretaceous Sembar shale and marl with the Jurassic Dilband Formation (disconformity) and or Chiltan limestone represents the Jurassic-Cretaceous J/K boundary which consists of light brown to grey shale andmarl in the central and southern Kirthar basin, while the red iron stone beds
(Dilband iron deposits) in the northern Kirthar basin. Further the poorly preserved and poorly recognized fossils of Brohisaurus kirthari were also foundfrom the northern Kirthar basin. The contact of Cretaceous Sembar shale andmarl with the Jurassic Loralai limestone in the Sulaiman basin, and the contact
of Chichali glauconitic shale and sandstone with the Jurassic Samanasuk limestone and shale in the upper Indus (Kohat and Potwar) basin represent the JurasDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910071

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sic Cretaceous J/K boundary which consists of light brown to grey shale/marl.
The Cretaceous-Paleogene K-Pg boundary sharing formations in the Lower
Indus (Kirthar) and Middle Indus (Sulaiman) basins are the latest Cretaceous
Vitakri Lameta Formation (two red, maroon, grey green clay horizons alternatedwith two sandstone horizons, limestone at places) and Early Paleocene Khadro
and Bara formations (Lower Indus) and Sangiali and Rakhi Gaj formations(Middle Indus). The Vitakri Lameta Formation belongs to only upper part (upto 35 m thick) of Previous Pab Formation (up to 800 m thick) in Indus Basin. In
Western Sulaiman Basin, the K/T boundary is represented by Ziarat laterite of
Vitakri Formation which is contacted by Cretaceous Parh limestone (porcelaneous belemnite bearing) and Paleocene Dungan limestone (autoclstic marine
invertebrates bearing). The K/T boundary in Upper Indus are Cretaceous Chichali (ammonite bearing glauconitic shale and sandstone), or Lumshiwal (quartzose sanstone) or Kawagarh (NW of Upper Indus; limestones) and Latest Cretaceous Indus Formation (laterite, carbonaceous shale; = Vitakri Lameta Formation; lower Hangu). At places the K/T boundary is represented as infra tertiaryboundary between the varying Tertiary rocks with also varying older rocks suchas Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic units.
Until now the latest Cretaceous dinosaurs (and other archosaurs) from Sulaiman basin are reported from the Vitakri Lameta Formation [1], which
represents fluvial meandering river and over bank system. The K/T boundary ismarked on the top of fluvial sandstone (white, thin to thick bedded, slightly calcareous to non calcareous, poorly sorted and have ferruginous nodules and rusty
brown weathering on bivalve fossils) unit of Vitakri Lameta Formation which iscapped by the shallow marine bivalves bearing green shale, sandstone and yellow
brown limestone of Early Paleocene Sangiali Formation. The Vitakri Lameta
Formation thickness varying from 15 to 35 m is increasing toward WSW anddecreasing ENE directions.
The J/K and K/T boundaries in Pakistan represent wide exposures of marine
as well as continental condition. Indus Basin of Pakistan holds a large number ofsection sites for lateral and vertical rapid environmental/climate change in the
Cretaceous greenhouse world.

Acknowledgements
This work is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References[1]

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910071

Malkani, M.S. (2006) Lithofacies and Lateral Extension of Latest Cretaceous Dinosaur Beds from Sulaiman Foldbelt, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal(Science Series), 38, 1-32.
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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 674-676
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

The Difference between Jurassic andCretaceous Cherts in Central Europe and Its
Heat Treatment before Stone Chip-Ping(Pilot Study)
Petr Schnabl1, Martin Monik2, Zdenka Nerudova3, David Milde4, Simon Kdyr1
Institute of Geology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
3
Centre for Cultural Anthropology, Moravian Museum, Brno, Czech Republic
4
Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
1
2

How to cite this paper: Schnabl, P., Monik, M., Nerudova, Z., Milde, D. and Kdyr,
S. (2019) The Difference between Jurassic
and Cretaceous Cherts in Central Europe
and Its Heat Treatment before Stone
Chip-Ping (Pilot Study). Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 674-676.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910072
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019

Abstract
Rock-magnetic methods prove that the cultures in Moravia (Europe) 15,000 11,500 years ago might know the technique how to enhance knapping properties of Jurassic chert and Cretaceous flint in order to make stone tools.

Keywords
Jurassic, Cretaceous, Magdalenian, Chert, Flint Artifacts, IRM Aquistion

1. Introduction
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
The Olomučany chert outcrops are located NNE of Brno in a relic of Jurassic seThis work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
diments in the vicinity of Olomučany village. The layered chert intercalates inLicense (CC BY 4.0).
Callovian-Kimmeridgian limestones [1]. The chert has dark grey color and mihttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Accesscroscopically is formed by microfossils and opaque material partly by organic

origin. The opaque material is colored rusty-brown due to the presence of ironoxides. Sponge spicules and bryozoans dominate the microfossils. The transparent material is formed by chalcedony and scarce crystals of macro quartz. The
chalcedony forms the 0.2 mm spherulites and cryptocrystalline matrix. The
spherulites are probably replaced microfossils [2]. The coarser grain size is typical for Olomučany chert that helps to macroscopically recognize from erratic
flints encountered in Silesian and North-Moravian territory. A rare componentof the Olomučany chert is glauconitic grains. A healed fissure acts as planes of

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weakness during flint-knapping of the chert. However, a heat-treatment of therock improves the flaking properties.
The majority of flintstone sources at the North Moravia lies north of NovýJičín towards the border of the Czech Republic and continues to Poland. The
southernmost sediments that were probably used in Magdalenian era weretransported during the Saale glaciation [3]. The flint is derived from Scandinavian chalk sediments of Maastrichtian to Danian age. The Campanian flints were
not detected in the area. The macroscopic observation shows milky-white, yellow, brown, reddish-brown or grey colors with glossy luster. The microscopic
investigation proves mostly pelagic origin with micritic primary texture. The
Daanian flints are rich in Briozoas, while Mastrichtian flints are richer in remnants of shells, brachiopods and echinoderms [4].
Heat-treatment of cherts and flints expands flaking quality and edge sharpness. This technique was used by prehistoric people throughout the world. Its
oldest evidence in Europe comes from 24 to 17 thousand years old Solutreanarchaeological sites at France and Iberian Peninsula. The following gap in using
the technique took more than 6 thousand years before it was used in the Mesolithic around 9 500 years BP.

2. Methods
Similar technique could be identified in the Magdalenian (15,000 - 11,500 uncal
BP) of Moravia (Czech Republic) where local Jurassic chert (Olomučany type)was used. Combination the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR),
mass magnetic susceptibility (MSmass) and measurement of isothermal remanent magnetism (IRM). FTIR is suitable to identify heat-treated chert above
300˚C. However, temperatures around 250˚C, are usually sufficient to improve
flaking qualities of fine-grained quarzitic materials [5] [6].

3. Results
The magnetic properties of flint in natural state are caused predominantly bymagnetite, that is hydrated and oxidized during heat treatment. Majority of flints
in the cave Balcarka contain also mainly magnetite, and only one contains also
mineral with higher coercivity according to the Kruiver et al. [7] method is
Goethite.
The iron oxide content of Olomucany chert is much more heterogeneous. The
magnetic properties show mixture of magnetite and hematite. The pilot measurement shows that hematite is during heating transformed to a mixture ofmagnetite and goethite.

4. Discussion
The results imply that the majority of flint artifacts were not heat-treated before
clipping. Olomucany chert artifacts contain more magnetite than the control
rock-samples, which could be interpreted as a heat treatment before the knapDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910072

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ping, later non-intentional heating or quarrying different layers for tool making
than are exposed today. The pilot results show that the heat treatment method
was not used in the Moravian Magdalenian regularly, the method was not absolutely unknown.
FTIR and MS mass methods generally agree with the IRM acquisition method.
Magnetic methods are therefore recommended to be applied in order to identify
intentional and unintentional past heat-treatment of cherts and flints.

Acknowledgements
The research was founded by Czech Science Foundation project “Non-destructive
determination of heated artifacts in Upper Palaeolithic assemblages”, number:
18-02606S. This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910072[1]

Kalášek, J. (1963) Legend to Geological Map 1:200 000, M-33-XXIX Brno. Praha (InCzech)[2]Přichystal, A. (2013) Lithic raw materials in prehistoric times. Brno.

[3]

Macoun, J., Šibrava, V., Tyráček, J. and Kneblová-Vodičková, V. (1965) Kvartér Ostravska a Moravské brány. Ústředníústav geologický, Praha, 1-419.

[4]

Brandl, M., Martinez, M.M., Hauzenberger, C., Filzmoser, P., Nymoen, P. andMehler, N. (2018) A Multi-Technique Analytical Approach to Sourcing Scandinavian Flint: Provenance of Ballast Flint from the Shipwreck “Leirvigen 1”, Norway.
PLoS ONE, 13, e0200647. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200647[5]

Crabtree, D. and Butler, B. (1964) Notes on Experiments in Flintknapping: 1. Heat
Treatment of Silica Materials. Tebiwa, 7, 1-6.

[6]Schmidt, P., Masse, S., Laurent, G., Slodczyk, A., Le Bourhis, E., Perrenoud, C., Livage, J. and Fröhlich, F. (2012) Crystallographic and Structural Transformations of
Sedimentary Chalcedony in Flint upon Heat Treatment. Journal of Archaeological
Science, 39, 135-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.09.012[7]

Kruiver, P.P., Dekkers, M.J. and Heslop, D. (2001) Quantification of Magnetic
Coercivity Components by the Analysis of Acquisition Curves of Isothermal Remanent Magnetisation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 189, 269-276.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00367-3

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 677-679
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ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Reconciliation of the Early Slip History of the
Altyn Tagh Fault, Northern Tibetan
Fan Lv1, Bo Ran1*, Chengshan Wang2, Lidong Zhu1, Zijian Wang1, Yuyue Han1
State Key Laboratory of Oil and Gas Reservoir Geology and Exploitation, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China
State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, School of Earth Sciences and Resources, Research Center for
Tibetan Plateau Geology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Lv, F., Ran, B.,
Wang, C.S., Zhu, L.D., Wang, Z.J. and Han,
Y.Y. (2019) Reconciliation of the Early SlipHistory of the Altyn Tagh Fault, Northern
Tibetan. Open Journal of Geology, 9,677-679.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910073
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Whether the Altyn Tagh fault (ATF) had been extended beyond its current
northeastern tip and linked with strike-slip faults in East Asia is a key to understanding the timing and mechanisms of crustal deformation in the northern Tibetan Plateau. We present Late Cretaceous dextral movement affectedby Okhotomorsk Block-East Asia collision and a larger sinistral offset sinceLate Eocene along the ATF based on the provenance analysis of western Jiuxi
Basin. Moreover, currently available estimates of offset based on displaced
Paleozoic and Jurassic rocks could not represent the maximum offset due tolate Cretaceous dextral offset.

Keywords
Altyn Tagh Fault, Jiuxi Basin, Basin Inversion, Cross-Fault Sediment/Source
Match, Dextral Strike-Slip

1. Introduction
Large scale displacement and associated crustal thickening along the Altyn Taghfault (ATF) have exerted a crucial influence on the geology and geography ofTibetan plateau. Although the modern ATF terminates near the Jiuxi Basin, its
eastward extension in early slip history is the debate focus [1] [2], which is a key
to understanding the timing and mechanisms of crustal deformation in thenorthern Tibetan plateau.
Furthermore, sedimentary basins adjacent to the ATF have been subjected to
Early Cretaceous widespread extension and early Late Cretaceous significant inversion, and Late Cretaceous sequence is missing. Similarly, rift basins experienced analogical inversion in East Asia affected by Paleo-Pacific tectonism
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during the early Late Cretaceous, such as Yin-Er Basin, East Gobi Basin, Erlian
Basin and Songliao Basin, etc. Yang [3] proposed a dextral strike-slip fault system in North China due to the collision of the Okhotomorsk Block with East
Asia. In addition, right-lateral movement has been recognized after tectonic inversion in East Gobi Fault Zone [4]. If ATF could extend beyond the Tibetan
Plateau and link with strike-slip faults in East Asia, its nature in late Cretaceous
will be redefined.

2. Approach and Result
In this study, we investigated sediment source variation in western Jiuxi Basinbefore and after tectonic inversion. Paleocurrent directions towards the SE-SW
in the field, indicating evince sediment main derivation from the opposing sideof the ATF. So considering possible strike-slip displacement, potential sedimentsources are mountains on the north side of ATF, including Beishan, Dunhuang
and Altyn Blocks. Besides, Qilian shan is usually regarded as one of the mostimportant provenance of the Jiuxi Basin.
In terms of Early Cretaceous Samples from the Hongliuxia area, detrital garnet and rutile composition both indicate middle and high grade metamorphic
rocks exposed in the provenance. Moreover, a single U-Pb peak age of detritalmonazite is at ca. 375 - 440 Ma and 20 - 40 Ma younger than the early Paleozoic
peaks of detrital zircon, matching with the timing of metamorphic events in the
Dunhuang Block [5].
Late Eocene detrital zircon separated from Hongliuxia and Huoshaogou area
are characterized by the absence of Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages, these materials
are mainly derived from the Neoproterozoic basement in southern margin upliftof the Xorkol Basin and eastern tectonic melange zone of North Altyn Area [6][7].

3. Tectonic Implications
1) The results of provenance analysis show Late Cretaceous dextral movement
and >450 km sinistral offset since Late Eocene along the eastern ATF near Jiuxi
Basin. Relatively, larger sinistral offset along the middle part of ATF means thatcurrently available estimates of offset based on displaced Paleozoic and Jurassic
rocks could not represent maximum offset which weakened by late Cretaceous
dextral offset.
2) Early Late Cretaceous basins inversion and Late Cretaceous dextral movement along ATF are dominated by the far-field effects of Okhotomorsk
Block-East Asia collision during ca 100 - 80 Ma.

Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No. 41102064). This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.
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Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910073[1]

Webb, L.E. and Johnson, C.L. (2006) Tertiary Strike-Slip Faulting in Southeastern
Mongolia and Implications for Asian Tectonics. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 241, 323-335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2005.10.033[2]Cheng, F., Garzione, C., Jolivet, M., Wang, W., Dong, J., Richter, F. and Guo, Z.
(2019) Provenance Analysis of the Yumen Basin and Northern Qilian Shan: Implications for the Pre-Collisional Paleogeography in the NE Tibetan Plateau and Eastern Termination of Altyn Tagh Fault. Gondwana Research, 65, 156-171.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2018.08.009[3]Yang, Y.T. (2013) An Unrecognized Major Collision of the Okhotomorsk Blockwith East Asia during the Late Cretaceous, Constraints on the Plate Reorganizationof the Northwest Pacific. Earth-Science Reviews, 126, 96-115.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.07.010[4]

Prost, G.L. (2004) Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Systems of the East Gobi Basin,
Mongolia. AAPG bulletin, 88, 483-513. https://doi.org/10.1306/11150303042[5]

Wang, H.Y., Chen, H.X., Zhang, Q.W., Shi, M.Y., Yan, Q.R., Hou, Q.L., et al. (2017)
Tectonic Mélange Records the Silurian-Devonian Subduction-Metamorphic Processof the Southern Dunhuang Terrane, Southernmost Central Asian Orogenic Belt.
Geology, 45, 427-430. https://doi.org/10.1130/G38834.1[6]

Gehrels, G.E., Yin, A. and Wang, X.F. (2003) Detrital-Zircon Geochronology of theNortheastern Tibetan Plateau. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 115, 881-896.
https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(2003)115<0881:DGOTNT>2.0.CO;2[7]

Li, P.Q. (2017) The Study on the Material Composition, Tectonic Deformation and
Metallogenic Characteristics of Ophiolitic Tectonic Mélange Belt in Annan Dam
Area, Altyn. MA Eng. Thesis, China University of Geosciences, Beijing.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 680-683
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ISSN Print: 2161-7570

The Cretaceous Tectono-Stratigraphic
Complexes of Priamurye (Far East of Russia)
Galina L. Kirillova
Institute of Tectonics and Geophysics of the Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Khabarovsk, Russia

How to cite this paper: Kirillova, G.L.
(2019) The Cretaceous Tectono-Stratigraphic
Complexes of Priamurye (Far East of Russia).
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 680-683.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910074
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019

Abstract
Complicated structure of Priamurye is described as series of repeated tectonic plates. Fragments of these plates are presented in the Gorin and Lower
Amurian zones. It is typical accretionary complexes. Three main tectono
stratigraphic systems can be distinguished: a system of oceanic plate, a systemof oceanic plate cover during its approach to the subduction zone (siliceous
mudstone), and the overlying terrigenous formations.

Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Keywords

Open Access1. Introduction

Tectonic Plates, Cretaceous, Priamurye, Russia

The structure of Priamyrye was described as synclinal and anticlinal structureson previous geological maps, because of lacking the faunal evidence. Since thedetermination of microfaunas (like radiolarians), the structure of Priamyrye became clear. It consists of a series of small plates, and presents a giant accretionary system at the East Asian continental margin.

2. Study Area
Studied area is shown in Figure 1.

3. Data and Method
The main Method is geological mapping scale 1:50,000 and 1:200,000.

4. Results
East Asian continental margin (EACM) presents a giant accretionary systemstretching for 5000 km and gradually increasing to the east for the last 450
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Figure 1. Geologic map of the Amur-Gorin fragment of Late Mesozoicc East Asian margin [1] [2]: Gorin SFZ and Lower Amurian SFZ (Limuri and Chayatyn SFSZ). 1, Quaternary deposits. 2, Boktor unit. 3, Kholvasi unit. 4, Gorin Formation. 5, Pioneer
Formation. 6, Limuri unit. 7, Zhormin unit. 8, Kiselevka Formation. 9, Lower Silasinsky subformation. 10, Upper Silasinsky
subformation. 11, Utitsky Formation. 12, Uktur Formation. 13 - 15, Upper Cretaceous: 13, Granitoids; 14, Medium volcanites; 15,
Acid volcanites. 16, Neogene-Quaternary basalts. 17, Stratone boundary. 18, Faults: a) Major, b) Subordinate. 19. Faunal foundings. 20, Floral foundings.
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G. L. Kirillova

Figure 2. Zonal correlation scheme of lithostratigraphic units. 1, Sandstones. 2, Tufaceous sandstones. 3, Conglomerates. 4, Sedimentation breccia. 5, Siltstones. 6, Clayey
shales and aleuropelites. 7, Siliceous-clayey shales. 8, Clayey cherts. 9, Jasper and cherts.
10, Tuff and basic hyaloclastites. 11, Basic lavas. 12, Limestones. 13, Bivalves. 14, Radiolarian. 15, Conodonts. 16, Flora.

million years by accretionary complexes. In Mesozoic, within the boundaries of
EACM 6 main periods of accretion are established: T2; J1; J2; J3; J3-K1 and K12 ,that were previously discussed in general terms. Accretionary complexes are divided into belts or zones (SFZ) as shown in Figure 1.
In Priamurye, three main tectono-stratigraphic systems can be distinguished:a system of oceanic plate, composed of laminar chert, rare volcanites, a system ofoceanic plate cover during its approach to the subduction zone (siliceous mudstone), and the overlying terrigenous formations. Fragments of these systems arepresented as shown in Figure 2.

Acknowledgements
This work was fulfilled supported by the project of the Russian Foundation for
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G. L. Kirillova

Basic Research (No. 19-05-000 97/19) and in part by the State task for Y.A. Kosygin of the Institute of Tectonics and Geophysics of the Far Eastern Branch,
Russian Academy of Sciences. This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP
Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910074[1]

Anoikin, V.I., Kirillova, G.L. and Eikhwald, L.P. (2007) New Notions about Composition, Structure, and Age of the Lower Amurian Fragment of the Late Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous Accretionary Prism, Far East. Journal Tikhookeanskaya Geology,
26, 60-77. (In Russian with English abstract)[2]

Kirillova, G.L. and Anoikin, V.I. (2011) Structure of the Amur-Gorin Fragment of
the Lower Mesozoic East Asian Accretionary System. Doklady Earth Sciences, 436,
1-5. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X1090112X

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 684-687
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Phu Sung
Fossil Site of the Lower Cretaceous Sao Khua
Formation, Sakon Nakhon Province,
Northeastern Thailand
Pitaksit Ditbanjong1*, Phornphen Chanthasit2, Kamonlak Wongko3
Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
Sirindhorn Museum, Department of Mineral Resources, Sahatsakhan, Kalasin, Thailand
3
Phu Wiang Fossil Research Center and Dinosaur Museum, Department of Mineral Resources, Khon Kaen, Thailand
1
2

How to cite this paper: Ditbanjong, P.,
Chanthasit, P. and Wongko, K. (2019) Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of Phu Sung
Fossil Site of the Lower Cretaceous Sao Khua
Formation, Sakon Nakhon Province, Northeastern Thailand. Open Journal of Geology, 9, 684-687.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910075
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract“Phu Sung”, a new fossil site in Sakon Nakhon Province was recently reported. Phu Sung fossils are very complete and in very well-preserved condition. They were found in reddish micaceous silty mudstone. The stratigraphy
and sedimentology show that Phu Sung succession is a continental deposit in
the fluvial system and it is in the Early Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation of the
Khorat Group. According to lithology, fossils were deposited in a quiet
environment, such as overbank deposit, small pond or oxbow lake margin.
Sedimentary structures such as desiccation crack and calcrete indicate
semi-arid to arid paleoclimate condition which probably corresponds to thetaphonomy or preservation of the fossils.

Keywords
Fluvial Deposits, Sao Khua Formation, Lower Cretaceous, Northeastern
Thailand1. Introduction
The Khorat Group is the Mesozoic non-marine deposit. It is dominated by reddish classic sedimentary rocks including mudstone, siltstone, sandstone andconglomerate [1]. The Lower Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation of the Khorat
Group is well exposed in northeastern Thailand (Figure 1) and has yielded various vertebrate remains. Stratigraphy and palynology indicate that the Sao Khua
Formation is Early Cretaceous in age (Barremian) [2] [3]. Some Sao Khua
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Figure 1. Study area, (a) distribution of the Lower Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation (Ksk), (b) the Phu Sung fossil site, showing in
red star and (c) the cross section (line A-B) shows Ksk is underlain by white quartzitic sandstone of Kpw and it is overlain by thesandstone dominated Kpp (Modified from [4]).

vertebrate fossil sites in Sakon Nakon were previously revealed, however, mostof the fossils such as fresh water shark, bony fish, turtles, crocodiles, pterosaurs,
dinosaurs and lizard eggs were fragmentary. Most recently, a new vertebrate fossil site “Phu Sung” with a good fossil preservation was found near Muang Sakon
Nakhon District, Sakon Nakhon Province (Figure 1). In this work, we are interested in the sedimentology and stratigraphy of the site to interpret the paleoenvironment of the Phu Sung fossil site.

2. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy
The Phu Sung section is more than 80 meters thick, dominated by reddish micaceous siltstone/mudstone, calcrete horizon and intercalation with sandstone
and conglomerate (Figure 2). In general, sedimentary strata is NNW-SSE striking (330˚ - 355˚) with gentle dipping (5˚ - 10˚) to NE direction. Although outcrops are not very well exposed, the section seems to be complete and continuous. The Phu Sung section can subdivided into 3 main parts. 1) The lower
part (Log1) consists of medium- to thick-bedded sandstone with cross bedding.
Sandstones are thinning upward and passing to siltstone dominated at the top.
Some individual sandstone bed shows sharp erosive base with mud clast at the
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Figure 2. Geological cross section with NE-SW direction and sedimentary logs of the Phu Sung fossil site.

bottom. Vertical bioturbation and desiccation crack can be found. Reddish micaceous siltstone/mudstone with greenish grey to pale grey mottling and rhizoliths present at the top of section. 2) The middle part of the section (Log2),
where fossils were found, starts with thin to medium bedded fine-grained sandstone. It is overlain by reddish micaceous siltstone/mudstone. Calcrete nodules
are commonly found on recent erosional surface. About 1 meter above a sandstone bed, fossils were found in reddish siltstone. Stratigraphically, fossil-bearing
bed is situated approximately 80 - 100 meters below quartzitic sandstone andconglomerate of the Phu Phan Formation. 3) The upper part (Log3) forms as asmall cliff of medium- to thick-bedded sandstone. Cross-bedding and planar
bedding are commonly found within sandstone. Some lenticular conglomerates
present at the base of sandstone. This cross-bedding sandstone is capped atop byreddish siltstone, calcrete horizon and lime-nodule conglomeratic layer. Medium to thick bedded with cross bedding sandstone sets from the lower and theupper part of the Phu Sung succession is interpreted as main channel-filled withhigh energy environments. While the middle part, where fossils were found in
reddish micaceous silty mudstone, is interpreted as overbank deposit swith low
energy environments.

3. Conclusion
The Phu Sung succession is a continental deposit in the fluvial system. Fossils
were found in reddish silty mudstone, indicating low energy quiet environment(overbank, small pond or oxbow lake margin). Sedimentary structures such as
desiccation crack and calcrete indicate arid and semi-arid paleoclimate condition. The taphonomy and the extraordinary preservation of Phu Sung fossils
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could probably relate to the paleoenvironment and the paleoclimate in the Early
Cretaceous.

Acknowledgements
We are thankful for all supports from staffs of the National Reserved Forest of Phu
Lom Khao and Phu Peg. We express our gratitude to our institutes, CMU andDMR for the strong supports. This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679
porject.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910075[1]

Ward, D.E. and Bunnag, D. (1964) Stratigraphy of the Mesozoic Khorat Group in
Northeastern Thailand. No. 6. Department of Mineral Resources.

[2]

Meesook, A. (2001) Jurassic-Cretaceous Environment of the Northeastern Thailand:
Geological Survey Division, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 43 p.

[3]

Racey, A. and Goodall, J.G. (2009) Palynology and Stratigraphy of the Mesozoic
Khorat Group Red Bed Sequences from Thailand. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 315, 69-83. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP315.6[4]

Boonkanpai, N., Yamansabedean, N. and Wongsahai, S. (2008) Geological Map ofThailand 1:50,000, F5843 3 (Sheet 5843 III), Changwat Sakon Nakhon. Departmentof Mineral Resources, Bangkok.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 688-691
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Overview of Cretaceous Non-Marine Deposits
and Their Palaeoclimatic Characteristics in the
North of Vietnam
Nguyen Xuan Khien1, Nguyen Thi Minh Ngoc2
12

Vietnam Union of Geological Sciences (VUGS), Hanoi, Vietnam
Faculty of Technology & Information Security, PSA, Hanoi, Vietnam

How to cite this paper: Khien, N.X. andNgoc, N.T.M. (2019) Overview of Cretaceous Non-Marine Deposits and Their
Palaeoclimatic Characteristics in the Northof Vietnam. Open Journal of Geology, 9,688-691.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910076
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
The Cretaceous non-marine deposits play an important role in the history offormation and evolution of Earth’s crust in northern territory of Vietnam.
According to analyzing results of material composition and depositional environments, these deposits can be divided into three lithofacies assemblages,
such as proluvial-deluvial, fluviatile and lacustrine lithofacies. These Cretaceous non-marine sequences in the North of Vietnam indicate a typicallycontinental hot and dry palaeoclimatic regime.

Keywords
Cretaceous, Non-Marine, Lithofacies, Palaeoclimate, Ripple-Marks,
Shrinkage Cracks, North of Vietnam

Open Access1. Introduction
The Cretaceous non-marine sequences are all located in almost structural zones
in northern territory of Vietnam in the various forms, depending on the influence of regional tectonic and erosional regimes. Stratigraphically, in accordancewith the differentiation of material composition and the conditions of depositional environments, these sequences can be divided into four stratigraphicalunits [1]: i.e. the Ban Hang Formation (K1bh) in Northeastern area, the Nam Ma
Formation (Knm) in Muong Te zone, the Yen Chau Formation (K2yc) in
Northwestern area and the Phu Co Pi Formation (K1pc) in North Central Vietnam. Three lithofacies assemblages were distinguished and many palaeoclimatic
signals can be reflected.
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N. X. Khien, N. T. M. Ngoc

2. Geological Setting
Although with a stratigraphical discontinuity, the Cretaceous non-marine deposits (350 - 1400 m) in northern Vietnam are characterized by two types of sections:1) They unconformably overlie on the Lower and Middle Jurassic. In fact, theyoccur in every geological structure units (the Ban Hang Formation, the Nam Ma
Formation and the Phu Co Pi Formation).
2) They unconformably overlie on other older rocks (the Yen Chau Formation).

3. Lithofacies and Depositional Environment Characteristics
Based on material composition and forming conditions, the non-marine Cretaceous of northern Vietnam can be included into the following lithofacies assemblages [2]:1) Assemblage of proluvial, proluvial-deluvial lithofacies, consisting mainly of
breccia-conglomerate, gravel-bearing conglomerate. The rocks of this lithofacies
association were formed during the early stage of the sedimentary basin.
2) Assemblage of fluviatile lithofacies, consisting of:a) Channel facies, composed mainly of poorly to moderately sorted, moderately to poorly rounded polymictic gravelstone, with lenses of gravel-bearing
coarse grained sandstone, at some places interbedded with sandstone and sandy
siltstone of aluvial lithofacies. The main structure is unclear bedding and monoclinal cross-bedding.
b) Aluvial facies, composed mainly of medium to fine grained sandstone withhorizontal ripple-mark bedding structure or monoclinal cross-bedding, directly
overlying the rocks of channel lithofacies.
3) Assemblage of lacustrine lithofacies composed of well rounded and wellsorted, fine grained sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, gypsum/salt. Their structure
is gentle or nearly horizontal, with ripple-marks at some places.

4. Palaeoclimatic Characteristics
Generally, typical Cretaceous non-marine sequences in northern Vietnam are all
characterized by multi-provenance terrigenous sediments, from coarse-grained
to fine-grained, reddish brown, brownish red in colour, uneven bedded structure. The palaeoclimatic analyses show that they contain many signals indicatinga typically continental hot and dry palaeoclimatic regime [3] [4]. The evidence is
as follows:
1) The primary red, reddish brown, brownish red colors are by the presence ofhematite, goethite, limonite and lepidocrocite which are unevenly scattered in
the sediments. Fe2O3 content tends to increase in accordance with the decreaseof sediment’s grainsize;2) The presence of gypsium/anhydrite and salty trace, is especially in northwestern areas and Muong Te zone. Gypsium/anhydrite exists in these sedimentary
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N. X. Khien, N. T. M. Ngoc

rocks in 3 forms:a) Thin layers (thickness is ranging from 1 to 14 cm), synsedimentation.
b) Unevenly disseminated, authigenical existence in component of different
rocks, such as claystones, silstones, sandstones with content ranging from 3% 5% to 10% - 15%, significantly to 30% - 35%.
c) Secondary vein/nest type filled in rock fissure systems.
3) Polygonal sand-filled shrinkage cracks on the surface of claystone layers.
4) The Cretaceous non-marine sediments are always very poor in organic material caused by dry and hot continental paleoclimate. The pelecypod fauna consists of species living in fresh and brackish water environment, such as Hoffetri-gonia kobayashi, Unio sp., Trigonioides sp., Cardinioides sp. [5]. Plant fossils
have leaf-shape with entire margins which are as a reflection of droughty palaeoclimate [2].
5) Trace element analysis of 26 samples gives the following values (%): Fe(1.26 - 9.21), Al (1.02 - 11.13), Ti (0.32 - 0.47), Ca (0.42 - 7.43), P (0.045 - 0.080),
Co (10 - 21 g/t), Ni (10 - 44 g/t), Cr (40 - 128 g/t), Ba (71 - 869 g/t) and Zr (15 420 g/t) [3].
The rare earth element (REE) composition in Cretaceous sedimentary rocks ofdifferent sedimentary basins of northern Vietnam as shown in chondride-normalized spider diagram does not display any considerable differentiation. Furthermore, ratio between Ce/La content is always <1.5 (the average ratio
based on 43 samples is 1.48) which is characterized for rich of oxygen in continental sedimentation environment.
Clearly, with such signs as mentioned above, the Cretaceous non-marine sedimentary rocks in northern Vietnam are formed under a typical hot and dry
palaeoclimatic regime.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Prof. Phan Cu Tien (Vietnam Institute of Geosciences
and Mineral Resources) and to Prof. Jingeng Sha (Nanjing Institute of Geology
and Palaeontology) for their encouragement as well as the constructive suggestions. This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910076[1]

Khien, N.X. (2005) Stratigraphy of Cretaceous Non-Marine Red-Beds in the North
Vietnam. Journal of Earth Sciences, 1, 82-88.

[2]

Miall, A.D. (2000) Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis. Springer, Berlin.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03999-1[3]Huu, L.T., et al. (2004) Some Characteristics of Non-Marine Gypsum-Bearing Se690

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N. X. Khien, N. T. M. Ngoc
diments in Yen Chau Formation. The Geology and Minerals of Vietnam. The
Northern Mapping Department, Gen. Dep. Geol. & Min. of Vietnam. Hanoi.

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910076[4]

Khien, N.X. (ed.) (2003) Sedimentology and Paleogeography of the Cretaceous-Jurassic Red-Beds and Related Mineral Resources in North Vietnam. Dept. ofGeology & Minerals of Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam.

[5]Sha, J.-G., Meesook, A. and Khien, N.X. (2012) Non-Marine Cretaceous Bivalve Biostratigraphy of Thailand, Southern Lao PDR and Central Vietnam. Journal of Stratigraphy, 36, 383-400.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 692-695
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Late Cretaceous Climate of the Indian
Subcontinent
Vandana Prasad
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, India

How to cite this paper: Prasad, V. (2019)
Late Cretaceous Climate of the Indian
Subcontinent. Open Journal of Geology, 9,692-695.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910077
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access

Abstract
The Deccan Volcanism during the Late Cretaceous was a globally significant
geological event, coinciding with the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary. The
magma outpouring occurred in three phases. The flora that got preserved
during the first phase (30N) was a mixed gymnosperm and angiosperm flora
ranging from dry to moist forest vegetation. The second phase (29R) flora ismostly represented by pteridophytes and tropical to sub-tropical angiosperm
plant families. The palynofloral records from the third phase (29N) are mostly tropical angiosperms. This floral turn-over is driven by latitudinal shiftingof the Indian plate from sub-tropical to tropical zone. It is surmised that thelatitudinal shifting of Indian plate during the span of 4 Ma during the Late
Maastrichtian led to the development of new ecological conditions favoring
successful dominance of angiosperms over gymnosperms.

Keywords
Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP), Pollen, Spores, Plant Mega Fossils,
Paleoecology

1. Introduction
The late Cretaceous deposits of India preserves the most important Large Igneous Provinces in the world, covering an area of about 512,000 km2 in the westernand central parts of India. The sediments associated with the Deccan Volcanic
Province (DVP) are represented by the infratrappean (Lameta Formation) andintertrappean beds. The magmatic outpouring occurred in three main phaseswith 6% of the total Deccan volume in phase-1 (base C30n), 80% in phase-2(C29r), and 14% in phase-3 (C29n) [1]. The duration of intermittent volcanic
activity spanned about 4 Ma across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary [2]. The
palynofloral records from infra and intertrap deposits from most of the areas are
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V. Prasadpoor due to lack of good preservation conditions. Globally, the Late Cretaceoustime witnessed the radiation of angiosperm forming nine phytogeographic
provinces [3], out of which three lie in India. However, the assessment of their
spatial and temporal distribution is difficult due to the paucity of continuous
fossil records. Poor preservation conditions hamper the establishment of biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental reconstruction of DVP associated sediments. However, we attempt to summarize the available mega and micro plantfossil data to infer floral transition and palaeoecological reconstruction during
the Late Cretaceous in central India.

2. Palynofloral Assemblages
The igneous basalt flow occurred in three phases. The sedimentary deposits
within the first phase mostly comprised of pteridophytic spores and pollens of
Gymnosperm families like, Araucareaceae, Podocarpaceae, Corystospermaceae,
Cheirolepidaceae and Ginkgoaceae while the angiosperm plant families consistof monosulcate pollen of Arecaceae family. Aquilapollenites sp., an angiosperm
pollen is an age marker and common pollen of Maastrichtian deposits. There arealso few angiosperm tricolpate pollens of uncertain origin.
The second phase witnessed an increase in the angiosperm diversity alongwith the already existing forms of pteridophytes and gymnosperms. The angiosperm families which make their appearance in this phase are Asteraceae, Caryophylaceae, Normapolles Group pollens and few other pollens such as Sca-

brastephanocolpites spp., Scollardiaconferta, Triporopollenites cracentis of unknown affinity [4]. The megafloral record of this phase is richer in comparison
to microfossil record and represented by Flacourtiaceae, Icacinaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Capparidaceae, Boraginaceae and Sapindaceae [5] [6]. There are very
few records of the third phase deposits like, Lalitpur intertrappean of Uttar Pradesh, and Mumbai intertrappean deposits. The deposits at Lalitpur yielded poor
pollen assemblage of Dandotiaspora spp., Spinizonocolpites echinatus, Mata-

nomadhiasulcites sp. and Lakiapollis ovatus [7] while deposits at Mumbai arecompletely devoid of plant fossils [8].

3. Paleoclimate Reconstruction
The first (30N) and second phase (29R) of basalt flow occurred during Maastrichtian and the third (29N) and final phase marked its presence in Paleocene[1]. The second phase of extensive basalt flow of Deccan Traps comprises 80% of
the total basalt flow that coincides with the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary(K-Pg). Fossil flora associated with the DVP consists of mega and micro fossil
records of pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. The pteridophytes
mostly grew in waterlogged, swampy and marshy conditions. The gymnosperm
fossils recovered from the DVP were from the Lameta Formation below the 30N
trap deposits. They mostly belonged to mixed ecological conditions from evergreen (Araucareaceae, Podocarpaceae, Corystospermaceae) to dry land vegetaDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910077

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V. Prasadtion (Cheirolepidaceae). As far as angiosperms are concerned, the major part of
the assemblage was covered by brackish mangrove Nypa and Aquilapollenites
pollen. The other plant fossils from the intertrappean localities associated withthe latest Maastrichtian and Danian sequences show dominance of subtropical-tropical angiosperm plant families (Flacourtiaceae, Icacinaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Capparidaceae, Boraginaceae and Sapindaceae, Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Annonaceae, Vitaceae) while some of the pollens belonging to the Asteraceae, Caryophylaceae suggest cool climatic conditions [9]. The transition from gymnosperm-dominated to angiosperm-rich palaeovegetation during Maastrichtian is asignificant floral turnover and can be due to climatic changes as a result of shifting of the Indian plate from the subtropical to tropical zone.

Acknowledgements
I am thankful to Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, India for facilities. This is a contribution to UNESCI-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910077[1]

Chenet, A.L., Courtillot, V., Fluteau, F., Gerard, M., Quidelleur, X., Khadri, S.F.R.,
Subbarao, K.V. and Thordarson, T. (2009) Determination of Rapid Deccan Eruptions across the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Using Palaeomagnetic Secular Variation: 2. Constraints from Analysis of Eight New Sections and Synthesis for a 3500
m Thick Composite Section. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114, B06103.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JB005644[2]

Jerram, D.A. and Widdowson, M. (2005) The Anatomy of Continental Flood Basalt
Provinces: Geological Constraints on the Processes and Products of Flood Volcanism. Lithos, 79, 385-405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2004.09.009[3]

Vajda, V. and Bercovici, A. (2014) The Global Vegetation Pattern across the Cretaceous-Paleogene Mass Extinction Interval: A Template for Other Extinction Events.
Global and Planetary Change, 122, 29-49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.07.014[4]Samant, B. and Mohabey, D.M. (2014) Deccan Volcanic Eruptions and Their Impact on Flora: Palynological Evidence. Geological Society of America Special Papers,
505, 171-191. https://doi.org/10.1130/2014.2505(08)[5]Bonde, S.D. and Biradar, N.V. (1981) On Two Palm Woods from the Deccan Intertrappean Beds of Dongargaon District, Chandrapur, Maharashtra (India). Journalof University of Poona, 54, 247-257.

[6]

Kar, R.K., Mohabey, D.M. and Shrivastava, R. (2004) First Occurrence of Angiospermous (Dicot) Fossil Woods from the Lameta Formation (Maastrichtian), Maharashtra, India. Geophytology, 33, 21-27.

[7]

Singh, R.S. and Kar, R. (2002) Paleocene Palynofossils from the Lalitpur Intertrappean Beds, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 60, 213-216.

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V. Prasad

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Cripps, J.A., Widdowson, M., Spicer, R.A. and Jolley, D.W. (2005) Coastal Ecosystem Response to Late Stage Deccan Trap Volcanism: The Post K-T Boundary(Danian) Palynofacies of Mumbai (Bombay), West India. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology, 216, 303-332.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.11.007[9]

Prasad, V., Farooqui, A., Murthy, S., Sarate, O.S. and Bajpai, S. (2018) Palynological
Assemblage from the Deccan Volcanic Province, Central India Provides Insights
into Early History of Angiosperms and the Terminal Cretaceous Palaeogeographyof Peninsular India. Cretaceous Research, 86, 186-198.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2018.03.004695Open Journal of Geology

Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 696-699
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Evaluation of Cretaceous Hinterland
Weathering and Climate in the Sichuan Basin,
SW China
Tenichi Cho1*, Hideaki Mantani1, Tohru Ohta1,2, Gang Li3
Graduate School of Creative Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
Faculty of Education and Integrated Arts and Sciences, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
3
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratgraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Environment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Science, Nanjing, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Cho, T., Mantani,
H., Ohta, T. and Li, G. (2019) Evaluation ofCretaceous Hinterland Weathering andClimate in the Sichuan Basin, SW China.
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 696-699.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910078
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Cretaceous is characterized by high atmospheric CO2 concentration and a
resultantly high temperature. Thus, the Earth system, which operated during
the greenhouse condition, can be deduced by the investigation of the paleoclimate during the Cretaceous. However, information of paleoclimate fromcontinental inland-basins is scarce compared to that from continental margin
marine-basins. In this research, the changes of weathering condition throughthe whole Cretaceous Period were reconstructed by analyzing the whole-rockchemical composition and clay mineral composition of mudstone samples
collected in the Sichuan Basin, SW China. The reconstructed paleoweathering
intensity positively correlates with paleotemperature estimate, indicating that
Cenomanian-Turonian stages were climatic optimum in the Sichuan Basin as
well. Furthermore, the result suggests a Cenomanian-Turonian extremely
high amplitude humidity fluctuation.

Keywords
Cretaceous, Continental Weathering, Fluvial Deposits, Desert Deposits, XRF,
XRD, W Index

1. Introduction
Reconstruction of the Cretaceous paleoclimate is important for the understanding of the Earth operating system during the greenhouse conditions. However,
paleoclimatic information from continental inland-basins is scarce compared to

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T. Cho et al.

that from continental margin marine-basins. This situation is also true in the
Asian continent; Cretaceous ecosystem and paleoclimate data are accumulatingin the Pacific side, while those of the Asian continental side are lacking [1]. Paleoclimate conditions in Asian inland basins are considered to be equally important in order to elucidate the land-ocean climate operating system during theCretaceous.
In this regard, we investigated the geochemistry and clay mineralogy of theCretaceous mudstones from the Sichuan Basin, southwestern China, for the aimof paleoclimate evaluation.

2. Geological Setting and Sampling
The Sichuan Basin is located in the western South China Block, where the Cretaceous strata are widely distributed [2]. The depositional age of studied strata
ranges from Berriasian to Maastrichtian. Sediments are mostly fluvial tolacustrine origin, however, a broad distribution of aeolian dune sandstones was
identified from the Cenomanian to Turonian interval [2]. 50 mudstone samples
were collected from the five Cretaceous formations in the Sichuan Basin, covering the Berriasian to Maastrichtian stages. We exclusively sampled fine-grained
massive mudstones in order to exclude compositional changes due to thegrain-size effect.

3. Analytical Methods
Samples were pulverized using agate motor mill and fused beads were prepared
for XRF analysis (ZSX Primus 2; Rigaku, Tokyo, Japan). The whole-rock major
element composition acquired by XRF was used to calculate the W index [3] inorder to evaluate the hinterland paleoweathering condition. Clay-mineral composition and illite crystallinity were obtained by XRD (SmartLab XRD, Rigaku,
Tokyo, Japan). Oriented glass slides of clay minerals finer than 2 μm fraction
were prepared for the XRD measurement.

4. Result and Discussion
Geochemical weathering indices (e.g., W value; [3]) demonstrate a significant
increase in hinterland paleoweathering from Berriasian (W = 70) to Cenomanian – Turonian (W = 95), and then slightly decrease towards the Maastrichtian(W = 80). This fluctuation pattern of the weathering indices is concordant with
the Cretaceous paleotemperature reconstruction curve [4]. Therefore, thepresent result suggests that the hinterland paleoweathering rate in the Sichuan
Basin was governed by global temperature changes. The weathering index
reached the maximum value of 95 in Cenomanian-Turonian interval. Furthermore, sediments of Cenomanian-Turonian horizons contained abundant kaolinite mineral, which is a product of hydrolysis decomposition of rock-forming
minerals. Both lines of evidence suggest that the Sichuan Basin was under thetropical and pluvious climate during the Cenomanian-Turonian. Note that
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previous study elucidated an arid climate from amalgamated sandstone facies[2], while the present pluvious climate interpretation is derived from the analysis
of intervening piled mudstone facies. When these lines of geological evidence
are integrated together, it is reasonable to suggest the development of an alternating pluvious and arid paleoclimate during the Cenomanian-Turonian.
The nature and trigger of this extremely oscillating pluvious/arid climate cannot be deduced solely from the present study. However, the timing of this renewed climate system matches with the Cretaceous greenhouse optimum(Cenomanian-Turonian). The development of monsoon-like pluvious/arid
paleoclimate in the Sichuan Basin is possibly related to the mid-Cretaceous
re-configuration in the global climate system.

5. Conclusion
In this study, the hinterland paleoweathering conditions in Sichuan Basinthrough the whole Cretaceous were reconstructed. We found that the fluctuationin hinterland paleoweathering intensity is highly positively correlated with theestimated global temperature trend. Therefore, the paleoweathering rate might
be controlled by the global temperature. Furthermore, the present result suggeststhat mudstone facies intercalated in the aeolian sandstone facies record highrates of hinterland weathering intensity. The alternating mudstone and sandstone facies imply the oscillating pluvious/arid paleoclimate during the Cenomanian-Turonian greenhouse optimum.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by JSPS (18K03787; T. Ohta), Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDB26000000) and NSFC
(41572006, 41688103, 41972007). Thanks go to Prof. Y. Ogasawara of Waseda
University and Mr. S. Yasutake for their help. This is a contribution to
UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910078[1]

Hasegawa, H., Tada, R., Jiang, X., Suganuma, Y., Imsamut, S., Charusiri, P., Ichinnorov, N. and Khand, Y. (2012) Drastic Shrinking of the Hadley Circulation during
the Mid-Cretaceous Supergreenhouse. Climate of the Past, 8, 1323-1337.
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-8-1323-2012[2]

Li, Y., Li, C., He, D., Chen, L., Mei, Q. and Zhang, L. (2016) Cretaceous Sedimentary Basins in Sichuan, SW China: Restoration of Tectonic and Depositional Environments. Cretaceous Research, 57, 50-65.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2015.07.013[3]

Ohta, T. and Arai, H. (2007) Statistical Empirical Index of Chemical Weathering in
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T. Cho et al.
Igneous Rocks: A New Tool for Evaluating the Degree of Weathering. Chemical
Geology, 240, 280-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.02.017[4]

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910078

O’Brien, C.L., Robinson, S.A., Pancost, R.D., Sinninghe Damsté, J.S., Schouten, S.,
Lunt, D.J., Alsenz, H., Bornemann, A., Bottini, C., Brassell, S.C., Farnsworth, A.,
Forster, A., Huber, B.T., Inglis, G.N., Jenkyns, H.C., Linnert, C., Littler, K., Markwick, P., McAnena, A., Mutterlose, J., Naafs, B.D.A., Püttmann, W., Sluijs, A., vanHelmond, N.A.G.M., Vellekoop, J., Wagner, T. and Wrobel, N.E. (2017) Cretaceous
Sea-Surface Temperature Evolution: Constraints from TEX86 and Planktonic Foraminiferal Oxygen Isotopes. Earth-Science Reviews, 172, 224-247.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.012

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 700-703
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Erg Deposits in
the Mengyin Basin, Western Shandong Province,
China: Inferences about the Wind Regime andPaleogeography
Huan Xu1, Yongqing Liu2, Hongwei Kuang2, Nan Peng2, Kemin Xu3, Jun Chen4
Research Center for Earth System Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
3
Institute of Geology, Shandong Institute of Geological Survey, Jinan, China
4
Shandong Institute of Geological Sciences, Jinan, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Xu, H., Liu, Y.Q.,
Kuang, H.W., Peng, N., Xu, K.M. andChen, J. (2019) Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Erg Deposits in the Mengyin Basin,
Western Shandong Province, China: Inferences about the Wind Regime and Paleogeography. Open Journal of Geology, 9,
700-703.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910079
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
The Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Santai Formation, sporadically distributed
in western Shandong Province, comprises terrestrial alluvial-eolian successions, which records regional wind patterns and paleogeography in eastern
North China. This paper conducts an analysis of eolian stratification, bounding surfaces, facies architecture and paleowind direction of the Santai Formation in the east of the Mengyin Basin, western Shandong Province. Three basic types of eolian stratification are recognized in the Santai Formation, including grainflow strata, wind ripple strata and adhesion strata, and havebeen grouped into eolian dune and interdune facies associations. The occurrences of reactivation surfaces and superimposition surfaces within eolian
dune deposits indicate active compound dunes or draas. The association ofadhesion strata with grainflow or windripple strata is the development of a
wet eolian system. Cross-strata dip direction indicates different paleowind
directions from the lower to the upper part of the Santai paleoerg. The lower
part of the paleoerg was characterized by paleowinds blowing from northwest
to northeast, whereas the upper part was under the influence of paleowinds
consistently towards east to northeast. The identified changes in wind directions possibly suggest wind regime shifts from monsoon circulation to
westlies of planetary wind system, which may be related with the collapse of
the East China Plateau during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.

Keywords
Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous, Santai Formation, Western Shandong
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Province, Eolian Succession, Wind Regime, East China Plateau

1. Introduction
The sedimentary record of eolian system, extending from the Archean to the
Quaternary, is widespread on earth [1]. It not only contains a large amount of
information on paleogeography, paleoclimate and wind regime, but also provides clues on the geological evolution of desert basins and the relative role ofallocyclic controls as tectonic and orbital forcing and its effects on preservation[2] [3] [4].
Previous workers have conducted extensive studies on the Precambrian to
Cenozoic eolian deposits widely distributed at North America, South America,
Africa and western Europe, including macro-micro identification of eolian deposits, bedform reconstruction and modeling, dry/wet/stabilized eolian systemreconstruction, atmospheric circulation, and orbital-driven climatic fluctuations[1], and reference therein. In contrast, the studies of eolian deposits in China
mainly focus on the Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary, especially the
pre-Cenozoic eolian deposits have been poorly studied [4]. The Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous erg deposits present in the Mengyin Basin would provide
an excellent opportunity to analyze the eolian stratigraphic architecture, regional
paleogeography and wind regime.

2. Geological Setting
The Mengyin Basin is located at the east of North China Craton as well as western Shandong Province. The Jurassic-Cretaceous fill of the basin, in ascendingorder, can be subdivided into the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Santai Formation, the Early Cretaceous Laiyang Group and Qingshan Group. The Santai
Formation rests unconformably on the mudstone and carbonate rocks of theLate Carboniferous Benxi Formation or Early Permian Taiyuan Formation andis unconformably overlain by conglomerate of the Paleogene Changlu Formation or mudstone of the Early Cretaceous Laiyang Group. It consists of alluvial
successions in the southeast of the basin, whereas the eolian sandstone dominantly occurs at the northwest of the basin. Some theropod dinosaur footprints
Grallator have been found within the alluvial deposits.

3. Eolian Stratification and Sedimentology
Three basic types of stratification have been identified, including grainflow strata, wind ripple strata and adhesion strata, which are arranged into trough andplanar cross-bedding and parallel bedding. Grainflow strata, 0.8 - 10 cm thick,commonly present at the upper part of the cross-beds pinch out downward andare characterized by internally structureless or inverse grading. Wind ripple
strata occurring at the cross-beddings or parallel beddings, consist of 0.1 - 0.6
cm thick, low angle and horizontal laminations, and usually alternate or merge
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with grainflow strata. Adhesion strata characterized by adhesion ripples and adhesion wars are 0.2 - 2 cm in thickness and occur at the base of thecross-bedding and parallel bedding. These stratifications have been grouped into
eolian dune and interdune facies associations. Eolian dune deposits composed ofgrainflow, wind ripple and adhesion strata are internally bounded by reactivation surface and superimposition surface, suggesting active compound dunes ordraas. Interdune deposits separated from eolian dune deposits with interdune
surfaces consists dominantly of wind ripple strata and adhesion strata. The occurrence of adhesion strata in eolian dune and interdune deposits not only indicate high water table level, but also suggest wet eolian system [3].

4. Discussion and Conclusions
The combined analysis of cross-strata dip directions and bedform types indicatesvarious paleowind directions across the outcrop area of the Santai paleoerg. The
lower part of the eolian succession was characterized by paleowind blowing from
northwest to northeast. Combined with eolian cyclic cross-bedding composed ofa regular interaction of grainflow and wind ripple packages, suggesting monsoonal wind regime, similar as the reports from the Upper Jurassic Sergi Formation in Brazil [5]. In contrast, the paleowind direction of the upper part of theeolian succession consistently towards east to northeast, possibly implies westerlies circulation wind regime, consistent with the atmospheric circulation of the
middle paleolatitude regions in the Early Cretaceous [6]. The change frommonsoon circulation to westlies of planetary wind system indicates northward
movement of North China from low to middle paleolatitude regions in the Late
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (coupling with paleomagnetism data from Yi et al.,2019, in press) and the breakup of monsoon wind region prevailed in Pangea
supercontinent during the Triassic-Latest Jurassic [7]. The collapse of the East
China Plateau in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous may be a paleogeographic
factor controlling the erg evolution and atmospheric circulation. The subsequent
Early Cretaceous thick fillings of the Jiaolai Basin in the eastern Shandong Province are a sedimentary response to the post-collapse of the East China Plateau.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(grant Nos. 41802009, 41672111, 41688103, 41272021) and the China Geological
Survey (grant No. DD20190005). This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP
Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References[1]
DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910079

Rodríguez-López, J.P., Clemmensen, L., Lancaster, N., Mountney, N.P. and Veiga,
702

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H. Xu et al.
G. (2014) Archean to Recent Aeolian sand Systems and Their Preserved Successions: Current Understanding and Future Prospects. Sedimentology, 61, 1487-1534.
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Loope, D.B., Rowe, C.M. and Matthew Joeckel, R. (2001) Annual Monsoon Rains
Recorded by Jurassic Dunes. Nature, 412, 64-66. https://doi.org/10.1038/35083554[3]

Mountney, N.P. (2006) Eolian Facies Models. In: Posamentier, H.W. and Walker,
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https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.06.84.0019[4]Xu, H., Liu, Y.Q., Kuang, H.W. and Peng, N. (2019) Late Jurassic Fluvial-Eolian
Deposits from the Tianchihe Formation, Ningwu-Jingle Basin, Shanxi Province,
China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 174, 245-262.
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Scherer, C.M.S. and Goldberg, K. (2010) Cyclic Cross-Bedding in the Eolian Dunesof the Sergi Formation (Upper Jurassic), Recôncavo Basin: Inferences about theWind Regime. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 296, 103-110.
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the Kimmeridgian/Tithonian (Late Jurassic) World: II. Sensitivity Tests Comparing
Three Different Paleotopographic Settings. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, 95, 229-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(92)90143-S[7]

Parrish, J.T. and Peterson, F. (1988) Wind Directions Predicted from Global Circulation Models and Wind Directions Determined from Eolian Sandstones of theWestern United States—A Comparison. Sedimentary Geology, 56, 261-282.
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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 704-706
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

The Cretaceous Period of Weather Similar to
the Present One and Its Diverse “Conchostracan”
Fauna
Oscar F. Gallego1*, Mateo D. Monferran1, Victoria C. Jiménez1, Iracema A. Zacarías1,Claudia Armella2, Diego Silva Nieto3, Nora G. Cabaleri2
Centro de Ecología Aplicada del Litoral (CECOAL-CONICET-UNNE) and Área Ciencias de la Tierra, Departamento de Biología,
Corrientes, Argentina
2Instituto de Geocronología y Geología Isotópica (INGEIS-CONICET-UBA), Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
3Servicio Geológico Minero Argentino, Buenos Aires, Argentina
1

How to cite this paper: Gallego, O.F.,
Monferran, M.D., Jiménez, V.C., Zacarías,
I.A., Armella, C., Nieto, D.S. and Cabaleri,
N.G. (2019) The Cretaceous Period of
Weather Similar to the Present One and Its
Diverse “Conchostracan” Fauna. Open
Journal of Geology, 9, 704-706.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910080
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019

Abstract
Cretaceous System is widely represented in South America from northeast
Brazil to southern Patagonia Argentina. It is characterized by having been a
relatively warm climate, with rainfall and marked seasonality which allowed
the development of the “conchostracan” populations.

Keywords
Cretaceous, Climate, Fossil Record, South America

Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
1. Introduction
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
The Cretaceous Period was a period with warm climate [1], with increasingly
License (CC BY 4.0).
high sea levels in the epicontinental seas. The average global temperature was
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Accessnear to 18˚C [2]. Despite the greenhouse character of the period, the cooling

trend towards the Maastrichtian and the 116 Ma “cold snap” triggered the interest in possible continental Cretaceous glaciations [3].

2. Cretaceous Climate and Bearing “Conchostracan” Faunas
In the Lower Cretaceous, the monsoon circulation of the Pangea culminated,
due to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean [4]. The cool interval in the Early Cretaceous is followed by warming lasting until the late Albian [5]. In the continental regions there were changes in atmospheric circulation. Wetter conditions
developed and paleoprecipitations increased in tropical areas [6]. Oceanic and
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O. F. Gallego et al.

continental data suggest equatorial paleotemperatures similar to the present-day[7]. This time was characterized by the presence of areas with prevailing microclimates. In intracratonic basins (e.g. northeast Brazil), the climate was arid withwarm-hot temperatures. This type of arid climate, with heavy rainfall, generated
favorable seasonal conditions for the development of a diverse “conchostracan”
fauna. Wind patterns shew seasonality leading to more extreme climates overthe continents. During the Upper Cretaceous warm weather prevailed, withgreenhouse periods, globally averaged temperatures were 6˚C - 14˚C higher than
today [8]. The paleoprecipitations increased as a result of the end of the monsoon circulation [9]. In Argentina, the conchostracan bearing units as the Lagarcito Fm. (Lower Cretaceous) was interpreted as a deposit of a shallow and perennial freshwater lake in a semi-arid climate [10]. The Cañadón Calcáreo Fm.
(Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous) was referred by [11] to sequences
represented swampy areas, with a rich and diverse conchostracan fauna in subtropical seasonal dry climate. In Brazil-Uruguay the units are, the Botucatu Fm =Tacuarembó Fm (Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous), indicating desert climate[12]. The Santana Fm. (Lower Cretaceous) represent tropical climate with highly
dependent on the rainfall in the mating epoch [13] was, favorable to establish“conchostracan” populations. The Bauru Basin (San Carlos Fm) the climate was
hot and arid [14]. The climate was warm and very dry, probably desert [14].

3. Conclusion
Finally, the climatic characterization for the Cretaceous of South America,summarized as a warm climate with rainfall and marked seasonality, allowed thedevelopment of the “conchostracan” populations so far recorded.

Acknowledgements
This is a contribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910080[1]

Wang, C., Feng, Z., Zhang, L., Huang, Y., Cao, K., Wang, P. and Zhao, B. (2013)
Cretaceous Paleogeography and Paleoclimate and the Setting of SKI Borehole Sites
in Songliao Basin, Northeast China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 385, 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.01.030[2]Campbell, I.H. and Allen, C.M. (2008) Formation of Supercontinents Linked to Increases In: Atmospheric Oxygen. Nature Geoscience, 1, 554-558.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo259[3]Holz, M. (2015) Mesozoic Paleogeography and Paleoclimates—A Discussion of theDiverse Greenhouse and Hothouse Conditions of an Alien World. Journal of SouthAmerican Earth Sciences, 61, 91-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2015.01.001[4]

Parrish, J.T. (1993) Climate of the Supercontinent Pangaea. The Journal of Geology,
101, 215-233. https://doi.org/10.1086/648217
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[5]

Carvalho, I.S., Gasparini, Z.B., Salgado, L., de Vasconcellos, F.M. and da Silva Marinho, T. (2010) Climate’s Role in the Distribution of the Cretaceous Terrestrial
Crocodyliformes throughout Gondwana. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 297, 252-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.08.003[6]Iglesias, A., Artabe, A.E. and Morel, E.M. (2011) The Evolution of Patagonian Climate and Vegetation from the Mesozoic to the Present. Biological Journal of theLinnean Society, 103, 409-422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01657.x[7]

Pierazzo E. (2009) Cretaceous/Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Impact, Climate Effects. In:
Gornitz V., Ed., Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, Springer, Dordrecht, 3-52.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_52[8]Compagnucci, R.H. (2011) Atmospheric Circulation over Patagonia from the Jurassic to Present: A Review through Proxy Data and Climatic Modelling Scenarios. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 103, 229-249.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01655.x[9]Parrish, J.T. (1987) Global Palaeogeography and Palaeoclimate of the Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary. In: Friis, E.M., Chaloner, W.G. and Crane, P.R., Eds., The
Origin of Angiosperms and Their Ecological Consequences, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 51-73.

[10] Prámparo, M., Ballent, S., Gallego, O.F. and Milana, J.P. (2005) Paleontología de laFormación Lagarcito (Cretácico Inferior alto), provincia de San Juan, Argentina.
Ameghiniana, 42, 93-114.
[11] Volkheimer, W., Quatroccio, M., Cabaleri, N.G., Narváes, P., Scafati, L. and Melendi, D. (2015) Environmental and Climatic Proxies for the Cañadón Asfalto and
Neuquén Basins (Patagonia, Argentina). Review of Middle to Upper Jurassic Continental and Near Coastal Sequences. Revista Brasileira de Paleontología, 18, 71-82.
https://doi.org/10.4072/rbp.2015.1.04[12] do Amarante, F.B., Scherer, C.M., Aguilar, C.A.G., dos Reis, A.D., Mesa, V. and Soto, M. (2019) Fluvial-Eolian Deposits of the Tacuarembó Formation (Norte Basin-Uruguay): Depositional Models and Stratigraphic Succession. Journal of SouthAmerican Earth Sciences, 90, 355-376.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2018.12.024[13] Martins-Neto, R.G., Ribeiro-Júnior, C. and Prezoto, F. (2005) New Fossils (Isoptera:
Hodotermitidae), from the Santana Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Araripe Basin,
Northeast Brazil), with Descriptions of New Taxa Including a New Subfamily. Sociobiology, 47, 1-10.
[14] Suguio, K. and Barcelos, H. (1983) Calcretes of the Bauru Group (Cretaceous), Brazil: Petrology and Geological Significance. Boletim IG, 14, 31-47.
https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2316-8978.v14i0p31-47

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 707-710
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Formation Mechanism of Reduction Spheroids
with Dark Cores in Cretaceous Red Beds in
Jiaolai Basin, China
Yu Yang1, Wenzhao Fu1*, Jifeng Yu2, Zhenguo Ning3, Jianjun Cui4,5, Qing Li6, Xuelei Wang1,
Xizhun Zhuo1
Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin, China
Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
3
Shandong Institute of Geological Survey, Jinan, China
4
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
5
Laboratory of Paleomagnetism and Tectonic Reconstruction of Ministry of Natural Resources, Institute of Geomechanics,
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China
6
Bureau of Geophysical Prospecting INC., China National Petroleum Corporation, Zhuozhou, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Yang, Y., Fu, W.Z.,
Yu, J.F., Ning, Z.G., Cui, J.J., Li, Q., Wang,
X.L. and Zhuo, X.Z. (2019) Formation
Mechanism of Reduction Spheroids with
Dark Cores in Cretaceous Red Beds in
Jiaolai Basin, China. Open Journal of Geology, 9, 707-710.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910081
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
Red beds are not entirely red sometimes, in which grey-green spheroids orirregular spots can be found. However, the formation mechanism ofgrey-green spheroids or irregular spots in red beds is not clear so far. Samples
taken from well JK1 in Jiaozhou area of Jiaolai Basin displayed that the reduction spheroids have more Vanadium (V) element, less TFe3O4 and Lead (Pb)element, almost the same content of other elements such as FeO and so on,comparing the red parts of the samples. The existence of organisms can explain the existence of green reductive spheres in the red beds formed under
the oxidation environment.

Keywords
Red Beds, Reduction Spheroids, Formation Mechanism, Jiaolai Basin, Eastern
China

Open Access1. Introduction
Color is one of the most important physical indicators of sedimentary rocks,
which can be used for dividing rock types, stratigraphic division, analyzing palaeogeographic climate and sedimentary redox state and so on. It also has highlandscape values. Red beds have attracted many scholars’ attention for the brightcolor.
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Y. Yang et al.

Red beds are not entirely red sometimes, in which grey-green spheroids or irregular spots can be found. Green reduction spheroids with dark cores containing enrichments of tellurium (Te) and selemium are found in red beds sediments from Mesoproterozoic successions [1]. There are similar geological phenomena in the Baikouquan Formation of the Mahu depression [2], the Lower
Cretaceous Liwaxia Formation in Liupanshan [3], the Cretaceous Heshangpu
Formation in Kongtongshan [4], and the Hongtuya Formation of Jiaolai Basin in
China. Although the different explanations are given by the researchers, there isa conclusion that red represents the oxidizing environment while green
represents the reducing environment. Samples from red beds in Jiaolai Basin
were studied in order to ascertain formation mechanism of reduction spheroids
in red beds.

2. Materials and Methods
Samples were taken from well JK1 in Jiaozhou area of Jiaolai Basin, which isscientific drilling with 664.7 m depth carried out by Shandong Institute of Geological Survey and Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological
Sciences. K/Pg boundary has been emphatically studied and was determined at537.4 m depth in JK1 [5]. One sample in red beds with 593.2 m depth has reduction spheroids with dark core clearly (Figure 1). The samples are observed under stereoscope and polarizing microscope, and analyzed the content of major
and trace element in Analytical Laboratory Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology.

3. Result
Either red or green of the samples contacting mutative with no transitional color
are original color instead of secondary color under the microscope, because thechromogenic minerals exist in the form of cements. The debris grains are mainly
quartz. The red parts of the sample have almost same minerals with the reduction spheroids except the chromogenic minerals, which are confirmed by the
microscopic photographs and XRD analysis results. The reduction spheroids
have more Vanadium (V) element, less TFe3O4 and Lead (Pb) element, almost
the same content of other elements such as FeO and so on, comparing the redparts of the samples, according to the analysis results of principal and trace elements. Further, the dark cores have obvious abundant V element comparing therest area of reduction spheroids due to the electron probe analysis.

Figure 1. Different scale pictures of sample with 593.2 m depth from well JK1.
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4. Discussion
Oxygen penetration into the subsurface, where spheroids develop, would havebeen relatively shallow, promoting redox boundaries [1]. Formation mechanismof reduction spheroids in red beds from the Baikouquan Formation of Mahu
depression is that iron oxide is reduced by osmotic water, leaving a faded lightgreen-gray spot after reduction [2]. Green interbeds in red beds from the Liwaxia Formation of Liupanshan called zebra mudstones, reflect the changes of redox
environment. Taken together, reduction spheroids in red beds reflect the limited
reduction in oxidizing environment. What is most important is that whether
reduction or oxidization happened first.
The samples from red beds of Jiaolai Basin indicated that the distribution of
reducing spheres in red beds is irregular, which illustrated that osmotic water
generating green reduction spheroids is small probability event. Oxygen penetration into the subsurface, where spheroids develop, can’t explain the large
scales of red beds (>2000 m thick). However, abundant Vanadium which was anelement of atypical biological significance has been found in sea water, sea urchins and other marine organisms, magnetite, asphalt minerals and coal ash [6][7] [8]. In this way, it was inferred that reduction spheroids with dark cores in
red beds are symbols of biological remains or activities, in other words, the darkcores may be fossils. However, we can’t decide the biological species so far.

Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by the Liaoning Provincial Departmentof Education Youth Foundation (LJ2017QL027), National Science Foundation ofChina (41472092). We sincerely appreciate Engineer XU Kemin who is in
Shandong Institute of Geological Survey for field sampling. This is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910081[1]

Parnell, J., Spinks, S. and Brolly, C. (2018) Tellurium and Selenium in Mesoproterozoic Red Beds. Precambrian Research, 305, 145-150.

[2]

Ding, Y. and Zhang, C.M. (2015) The Relationship between the Color of Sedimentary Rocks and Diagenesis—Taking Baikouquan Formation in Mahu Depression as
an Example. Summary of Sedimentology and Non-Conventional Resources Papersof the National Sedimentology Congress.

[3]

Zhang, W.F., Dai, S. and Liu, H.J. (2012) The Geochemistry of the Early Cretaceous
Red and Green Mudstones, Liupanshan Group, Liupanshan Area and Its Implications on the Climate. Advances in Earth Science, 27, 1236-1244.

[4]

Tan, Z.D., Liang, S.Y. and Zhou, Z.Q. (2018) Relationship of Mudstone Color andFractal Dimension Based on SEM Image: A Case Stuty of the Cretaceous Zebra
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Y. Yang et al.
Mudstone in Kongtong Mountain National Geopark. Geological Survey and Research, 41, 153-160

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910081[5]

Xu, K.M., Kuang, H.W. and Qin, J. (2017) New Discovery of Terrestrial K-Pg
Boundary from Jiaolai Basin of Shandong Province. Geology in China, 44, 194-195.

[6]

Wever, R., de Boer, E., Plat, H. and Krenn, B.E. (1987) Vanadium—An Element
Involved in the Biosynthesis of Halogenated Compounds and Nitrogen Fixation.
FEBS Letters, 216, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-5793(87)80744-5[7]Mukherjee, B., Patra, B. and Mahapatra, S. (2004) Vanadium—An Element ofAtypical Biological Significance. Toxicology Letters, 150, 135-143.

[8]

Aihemati, A., Jiang, J. and Gao, Y. (2019) The Effect of Vanadium on Essential Element Uptake of Setaria viridis’ Seedlings. Journal of Environmental Management,
237, 399-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.054710Open Journal of Geology

Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 711-713
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Lithostratigraphy of the Late Cretaceous Khao
Ya Puk Formation in Nakhon Thai Region,
Thailand: Implication for Depositional
Environment
Pradit Nulay1*, Parinthon Intharajak2
Office of Mineral Resources Region 2, Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Khon
Kaen, Thailand
2
Department of Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
1

How to cite this paper: Nulay, P. andIntharajak, P. (2019) Lithostratigraphy of
the Late Cretaceous Khao Ya Puk Formation in Nakhon Thai Region, Thailand:
Implication for Depositional Environment.
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 711-713.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910082
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
The Khao Ya Puk Formation (>400 m thick) is well exposed in the Nakhon
Thai Region, and is subdivided into three members. The Khao Ya Puk Formation overlies conformably on top of the anhydrite layer of the upper rocksalt Maha Sarakham Formation. In turn, it is overlain unconformably by the
Phu Khat Formation. The Khao Ya Puk Formation is interpreted to havebeen deposited by freshwater lake area in arid climate inland subkha in the
Late Cretaceous. Lithostatigraphically, Khao Ya Puk Formation can be correlated with the Phu Tok Formation that has been deposited in the Khorat-Ubon basin and Udon-Sakon basin of the Khorat Plateau.

Keywords
Khao Ya Puk Formation, Nakhon Thai Region, Lithostratigraphy

Open Access1. Introduction
The stratigraphy of the non-marine Khorat Group in the Khorat Plateau has
long been studied by many geoscientists. The sequence of the Khorat Group extends beyond the rim of Khorat Plateau to the Nakhon Thai region [1]. The tworegions are separated by pre-Cretaceous rocks in the Loei-Phetchabun Fold Belt.
The stratigraphy of the upper most part of the red beds is mentioned in Nakhon
Thai region, namely, as the Khao Ya Puk Formation. Nonetheless, the detailed
lithostratigraphy of the formation is still ambiguous. Therefore, the main objecDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910082

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tive of this study is focusing on its lithostratigraphy according to three reference
sections.

2. Stratigraphy
2.1. Definition and Type Section
The Khao Ya Puk Formation was named by Kosuwan [2] in geological map inscale of 1:50,000 on Thai Royal Survey Department topographic map series
L7018 sheet 5143 I & II of Ban Nam Khum and Amphoe Nakhon Thai. The
formation thickness is 200-350 meters. The designated type section is broadly
located on a local road from Na Khon Thai to Ban Nam Khum, but the detailed
lithology was not described. In this study, three reference localities are designated and measured including Khao Kadai Ma temple section, Route No_2195 Na
Haeo District-Ban Pak Man section, and Route No_2113 Dan Sai District-Ban
Nongsim section.

2.2. Contact
Lower contact: A ground water drill well at Ban Nam Lat, NaKhon Thai District, has proved that the Khao Ya Puk Formation is underlain conformably by
the Maha Sarakham Formation [3].
Upper contact: The Khao Ya Puk Formation is overlain unconformably by
the Phu Khat Formation [4]. The abrupt facies change between the two formations together with the contrasting detrital zircon age support the interpretation.

2.3. Lithology and Extend
The lower Khao Ya Puk Member is composed of thick bedded reddish brown
mudstone, yielding obvious calcrete nodules in the upper part. The middle
Khao Ya Puk Member consists of reddish brown sandstone interbedded withshale and siltstone. Giant mud cracks and calcrete nodules occurred in shale
beds. Sandstone moderate- to very fine-grained, well sorted, sub rounded towell rounded with cross bedding, sole marks, and mud drape are present. The
upper Khao Ya Puk Member is characterized by thick bedded reddish brownsandstone. It is moderate- to fine-grained, well sorted and well rounded with alarge cross-bedding and high angle foresets.
The Khao Ya Puk Formation is presented throughout the area of this paperand extends somewhat northeast to north into Uttaradit province and beyond
the Thailand border into the Ken Thao area in Laos. In the study area, the formation exposes in Chat Trakan and Nakhon Thai district of Phitsanulok province and Na Haeo and Dan Sai district of Loei province. The thickness throughout the formation is not less than 400 meters.

2.4. Age and Correlation
As the formation is underlain conformably by the mid-Cetaceous rock salt Maha
Sarakham Formation [5] and covered by the latest Cetaceous Phu Khat Formation [4], therefore the formation is assigned to the Late Cretaceous. LithostatiDOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910082

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P. Nulay, P. Intharajakgraphically, the Khao Ya Puk Formation can be correlated with the Phu Tok
Formation. The rock sequence contains in both formations which have similarlithology showing a coarsening and thickening upward sequence.

2.5. Depositional Environment
The Khao Ya Puk Formation is interpreted to have been deposited by freshwaterlake area in arid climate inland subkha in the Late Cretaceous. The lower member is interpreted to be deposited at center of the lake as it is characterized by the
thick bedded reddish brown mudstone. The middle member is marginal of thelake as it presents the reddish brown sandstone interbedded with shale and siltstone with the giant mud crack. The upper member is interpreted to be of anaeolian dune and inter-dune environment of the last stage of deposition as it ischaracterized by well sorted and well rounded sandstone with large scalecross-bedding and high angle foresets with an inverse grade.

3. Conclusion
The 400 m thick Khao Ya Puk Formation can be subdivided into three members.
It can be correlated with the Phu Tok Formation in the Khorat Plateau, conformably overlies the Maha Sarakham Formation, and is overlain unconformably by the Phu Khat Formation. It was deposited by freshwater lake area in arid
climate inland subkha in the Late Cretaceous.

Acknowledgements
This work is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910082[1]

Sha, J.G., Meesook, A. and Nguyen, X.K. (2012) Non Marine Cretaceous Bivalve
Biostratigraphy of Thailand, Southern Lao PDR and Central Vietnam. Journal ofStratigraphy, 36, 382-399.

[2]

Kosuwan, S. (1990) Geology of Nakhon Thai District and Ban Nam Kum; in Scale
1:50000. Bangkok, Thailand. Department of Mineral Resources. (in Thai)[3]

Meesook, A. (2011) Cretaceous. In: Ridd, M.F., Barber, A.J. and Crow, M.J., Eds.,
The Geology of Thailand, The Geological Society of London, United Kingdom.

[4]

Nulay, P. (2014) Facies Characteristic of the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene Sediments(Phu Khat Formation) in the Nakhon Thai Region: Implications for Tectonic Evolution. Dissertation, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima.

[5]

Hansen, B.T., Wemmer, K., Pawlig, S., Klaus, J., Assavapatchara, S., Nontaso, M.
and Putthapiban, P. (2002) Isotopic Evidence for a Late Cretaceous Age of the Potash and Rock Salt Deposit at Bamnet Narong, NE Thailand. In: The Symposium on
Geology of Thailand, 26-31.

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 714-717
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Landslide Hazard Zoning in Na Heaw District,
Loei Province, Northeastern Thailand
Namphon Khampilang*, Pradit Nulay
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand

How to cite this paper: Khampilang, N.
and Nulay, P. (2019) Landslide Hazard
Zoning in Na Heaw District, Loei Province,
Northeastern Thailand. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 714-717.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910083
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Nahaew District in northeastern Thailand, where crops out the Cretaceous
Khorat Group, is a priority area for landslide hazard assessment throughlandslide susceptibility and hazard zoning. Through an interpretation of
Google Earth imagery, several landslides were mapped to create landslide inventory map. Parameter maps were constructed and compiled into a databasewith the landslide inventory. The bivariate (frequency ratio) statistical analysis was used to establish landslide susceptibility maps, which were classified
into five susceptibility classes. Another approach was landslide hazard zonation. Urban and rural planning and engineering construction need especiallyhazard zonation map in medium and local scale. GIS and remote sensing
techniques have many advantages in the preparation of the map including regional, medium and local scales. In this study, landslide zonation map was
prepared using runout model by assigning engineering properties and Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) as well as rainfall data. The result was landslide hazard zonation of the area and can be used for urban planning. The report andrecommendation have contributed to local authority.

Keywords
Landslide Assessment, Slope Stability, Hazard Zoning

1. Introduction
Landslide, a significant natural hazard in the high mountain area, has drawn
worldwide attention due to increasing awareness of its socioeconomic impacts,
as well as, the increasing pressure of urbanization on the mountain environment[1]. Landslide study establishes a significant constraint to development and urban planning. Landslide susceptibility mapping can be the preliminary step in
mitigating the damages [2]. Moreover, landslide susceptibility assessment is an
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N. Khampilang, P. Nulay

important process for prediction and management of natural disasters. It is alsoa necessary step for integrated watershed management, hazard mitigation, andurban planning in government policies [3] [4]. A landslide susceptibility or hazard map depicts areas likely to have landslides in the future by correlating someof the principal factors that contribute to landslides with the past distribution ofslope failures. Recently, DMR has been assigned to study about landslide hazard
zonation in Na Haew District, Loei Province, NE Thailand.

2. Study Area
The Na Haew District is located between 17˚16'43'' and 17˚35'43''N latitudes and100˚49'50'' and 101˚107'36''E longitudes. It covers a total area of approximately
625 km2. The study area is represented by the rocks of Phu Khat and Khao Ya
Puk Formations.

3. Data and Method
In current study, a landslide inventory map was prepared using field surveys,
local information, and satellite interpretation obtained from Google Earth software. The landslide scars found in Na Haew District were shown in Figure 1(a).
In this study, nine independent factors were chosen as potentially contributing to landslide susceptibility, slope, elevation, aspect, lithology, distance fromdrainage, distance from lineaments, NDVI, SPI and land-use. The availability ofthematic data varies widely, depending on the type, scale, and method of dataacquisition.
For landslide susceptibility mapping within Na Haew we choose statistical
approach and frequency ratio methods. The landslide inventory map was compared with the various factor maps using a selected statistical method. By using
statistical analysis, the factor and/or combination of factors that have resulted inslope instability in the past are determined. Quantitative predictions can then be
made for areas where no landslides are currently present, but which have similar

Figure 1. Landslide inventory map (a) and landslide susceptibility map (b) of Na Haew District.
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conditions to those where landslides exist. In frequency ratio ananysis the Frequency Ratio value (Fr) for each factor’s range was calculated by dividing thelandslide occurrence ratio by the area ratio. Then, the frequency ratios weresummed to calculate the landslide susceptibility index (LSI) as shown in Equation (1).

LSI = ∑ Frn(1)

4. Results
Once a landslide susceptibility map is created, it is necessary to divide this map
into different susceptibility classes. The simplest method is to assign the categories using expert opinion as done by [5]. The most common method for thispurpose depends on the optimum bandwidth classification of the histograms ofvarious parameters [6]. However, this is not straight forward as there are no statistical rules which can categorize continuous data automatically [7]. Recently,
mathematical methods for data classification have become available in GIS software. In literature, there are many methods used [6] [7] [8]. These are based on
manual or natural breaks, equal intervals, or statistical consideration, and can be
described as follows. For the susceptibility classification for this study, the natural break method was used, and the susceptibility classes were divided into 5classes (very low, low, moderate, high, very high) as shown in Figure 1(b).

Acknoledgements
This work is supported by DMR of Thailand and is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679 project.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910083[1]

Aleotti, P. and Chowdhury, R. (1991) Landslide Hazard Assessment: Summary Review and New Perspectives. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment,
58, 21-43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s100640050066[2]

Regm,i A.D., Chandra, D.K, Yoshida, K., Pradhan, B., Pourghasemi, H.R., Kumamoto, T. and Akgun, A. (2014) Application of Frequency Ratio, Statistical Index,
and Weights-of-Evidence Models and Their Comparison in Landslide Susceptibility
Mapping in Central Nepal Himalaya. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7, 725-742.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-012-0807-z[3]Carrara, A., Giovanni, C. and Frattini, P. (2003) Geomorphological and Historical
Data in Assessing Landslide Hazard. Earth Surface Process and Landforms, 28,1125-1142.

[4]Dahal, R.K., Hasegawa, S., Nonomura, S., Yamanaka, M., Masuda, T. and Nishino,
K. (2008) GIS-Based Weights-of-Evidence Modelling of Rainfallinduced Landslides
in Small Catchments for Landslide Susceptibility Mapping. Environmental Geology,
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N. Khampilang, P. Nulay
54, 311-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0818-3

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910083[5]Dai, F.C. and Lee, C.F. (2001) Terrain-Based Mapping of Landslide Susceptibility
Using a Geographical Information System: A Case Study. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 38, 911-923. https://doi.org/10.1139/t01-021[6]

Akgün, A. and Bulut, F. (2007) GIS-Based Landslide Susceptibility for Arsin-Yomra(Trabzon, North Turkey) Region. Environmental Geology, 51, 1377-1387.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0435-6[7]

Ayalew, L., Yamagishi, H. and Ugawa, N. (2004) Landslide Susceptibility Mapping
Using GIS-Based Weighted Linear Combination, the Case in Tsugawa Area ofAgano River, Niigata Prefecture, Japan. Landslides, 1, 73-81.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-003-0006-9[8]

Ayalew, L. and Yamagishi, H. (2005) The Application of GIS-Based Logistic Regression for Landslide Susceptibility Mapping in the Kakuda-Yahiko Mountains, Central Japan. Geomorphology, 65, 15-31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.06.010

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 718-721
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Study of Rock Mechanic Property andMineralogy Relationship of the Huai Hin Lat
Formation, Sap Phlu Basin, Northeastern
Thailand: Implications for Understanding of
Shale Gas Reservoir Rock
Boonnarong Arsairai1*, Nawarak Ruenmai1, Qinglai Feng2, Chongpan Chonglakmani1
12School of Geotechnology, Institute of Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China

How to cite this paper: Arsairai, B., Ruenmai, N., Feng, Q.L. and Chonglakmani,
C. (2019) Study of Rock Mechanic Property
and Mineralogy Relationship of the Huai
Hin Lat Formation, Sap Phlu Basin, Northeastern Thailand: Implications for Understanding of Shale Gas Reservoir Rock.
Open Journal of Geology, 9, 718-721.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910084
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
Thailand is lacked of gas that more information of probable (P2) and possible(P3) reserve data including shale gas can be acceptable to prove (P1) reserve
data for new gas field. This research had implicated for understanding of unconventional reservoir rock by rock mechanical, micro-CT, and geochemistry
analysis of the Huai Hin Lat Formation. The rock mechanical analysis iscomposed of average young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and compressive
strength of 1933.79 MPa, 0.1472, and 52.56 MPa. The average porosity of
6.89% consists of 5.41% and 1.48% of closed and open porosities. The averagemineralogical results consist mainly of 57.60% and 42.40% of brittle and ductile minerals indicating more elasticity except Bed 6. The Bed 6 is significantly
higher quartz (15%) and brittle minerals (64%) indicating to easier fracture
are, therefore, lower compressive strength (25.93 MPa), young’s modulus(1729.10 MPa) and Poisson’s ratio (0.0705). The Beds 3B is slightly higher
clay containing slightly higher closed porosity (5.46%) but the Bed 14 isslightly higher brittle mineral indicating to slightly higher open porosity.

Keywords
Compressive Strength, Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s Ratio, Brittle Mineral,
Porosity

1. Introduction
Since 2014, there were 3 gas fields in the Khorat Plateau that only two former gas
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B. Arsairai et al.

fields are commercial [1]. Another gas field is the Dong Mun that was newly
discovered. It is absolutely proved that a proved (P1) reserve data will belong toa probable (P2) and possible (P3) reserve data by more studying. Some researchers are interested in unconventional gas field especially shale gas. The
Huai Hin Lat Formation is one among others that are tried to develop a newshale gas field. Source rock potential is successful by former researchers. Therefore, more understanding rock mechanic properties are key control evaluation of
unconventional reservoir rock.

2. Materials and Methods
The Beds 2, 3B, 6, 9, and 14 are suitable to be measured and described based onrocks cropping out in the Ban Nong Sai section, which are composed mainly of
shale, mudstone, marl, and limestone [2]. All samples were tested for assessing
unconventional reservoir potential with methods as follow. A uniaxial compressive machine was used for measuring compressive strength, Poisson’s ratio,
young's modulus, and failure mode. A micro computed tomography (Micro-CT)
method can be used to analyze the porosity by using Skyscan 1172 from scanned
datasets. A Geochemical method can identify minerals by using an X’Pert PRO
Dy 2198 basing on X-ray diffraction analysis.

3. Results and Discussion
The compressive strength, Poisson’s ratio, and young modulus are shown in Table 1 with compressive longitudinal splitting [3]. The young’s modulus of theBeds 6 and 9 is the lowest and highest, respectively. The high young’s modulus isthat a rock extremely expands conforming to positive relationship (R2 = 0.3849)
as well as compressive strength and young’s modulus relationship (R2 = 0.3398).
The compressive strength of the Beds 6, 2 and 9 is increasing which suggests a
relatively higher ductile property. Moreover, relationship between compressive
strength and Poisson’s ratio shows positive covariation (R2 = 0.9978), which isvery interrelated. It indicates that higher compressive strength relates to higher
lateral expansion of sample under loading.
Results of mineralogical analysis are shown in Table 1 with higher content ofclay. Matrixes contain clays of ductile minerals may lead to higher elasticity.
Contrastingly, cracks are generated as easier under formation of higher brittle
minerals. Clay of the Bed 6 is lower than the Beds 2 and 9 though quartz andfeldspar are higher. Therefore, the Bed 6 is easily fractured with lower compressive strength of 25.93 MPa. The Poisson’s ratio and young's modulus of the Bed
6 are conformable to compressive strength due to effects of lower elasticity. The
ductile mineral of the Bed 2 is remarkably higher than the Bed 6. Conformably,higher elasticity affects the Bed 2 that compressive strength is higher as well as
the Bed 9 is the highest.
According to all beds, only the Beds 3B and 14 were scanned for porosity as
shown in Table 1. The value of clay in Bed 3B is higher than that of the Bed 14.
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B. Arsairai et al.
Table 1. Mineralogic fraction XRD, rock mechanic properties, and porosity data of the Ban Nong Sai section.
Beds

Total minerals (%)

Rock mechanic properties

Porosity (%)

ZeoliteQuartzFeldsparCalciteDolomiteClayσc (MPa)ν

E (MPa)Closed

Open

Total

14

3.00

7.00

20.00

21.00

5.00

44.00

-

-

-

5.35

1.68

7.03

9

2.00

9.00

8.00

31.00

6.00

44.00

66.28

0.18982292.73

-

-

-

6

3.00

15.00

10.00

32.00

4.00

36.00

25.93

0.07051729.10

-

-

-

3B

2.00

8.00

15.00

21.00

7.00

47.00

-

-

-

5.46

1.28

6.74

2

2.00

6.00

18.00

25.00

8.00

41.00

65.46

0.18121779.54---

Average

2.40

9.00

14.20

26.00

6.00

42.40

52.56

0.1472

1933.79

5.41

1.48

6.89

Remark: σc is compressive strength, ν is Poisson’s ratio, and E is young’s modulus.

The higher quantitation of clay is conformed to gradually increase of their porosity. Loucks et al. [4] suggest that micropores can be generated throughfine-grained rocks which are commonly slot-like or interspersed between curved
clay plates by shrinkage from higher thermal alteration. Both beds containing
closed porosity are slightly similar in quantitation due to effect as is known asclay. Moreover, open porosity of the Bed 14 is higher than another that is associated with higher brittle mineral. It can be fractured as naturally depending on
brittle characteristics that affecting to slightly higher open porosity. The porosityof Beds 2 and 9 is similar to that of the Bed 14. Contrastingly, the Bed 6 may besignificantly different from others.

4. Conclusions
Average mineralogical results consist mainly of 57.60% brittle mineral and
42.40% ductile mineral (clay) indicating more elasticity except Bed 6. The Bed 6
is of significantly higher percentage of brittle mineral (64%) referring to easier
fracture.
The Bed 6 is easily fractured with lower compressive strength of 25.93 MPa as
well as young’s modulus (1729.10 MPa) and Poisson’s ratio (0.0705) due to effects of lower elasticity. The young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of 2292.73
MPa and 0.1898 of the Bed 9, significantly higher than those of the Beds 2(1779.54 MPa and 0.1812), are remarkably higher than those of the Bed 6. Conformably, higher elasticity affects the Beds 2 and 9 that are of higher values ofcompressive strength (1779.54 MPa and 2292.73 MPa). The Beds 3B and 14 were
scanned for porosity of 6.74% and 7.03%, respectively.

Acknowledgements
This study is supported by the Royal Golden Jubilee Program, the Thailand Research Fund (RGJ-TRF), NSFC (41172202), the China Geological Survey Program (1212011121256). Many thanks are conveyed to officials at China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) and Geomechanics Research Unit, the Center for
Scientific and Technology Equipment, Suranaree University of Technology. This
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is a contribution to UNESCO/IUGS/IGCP 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910084[1]

D.M.F. (2014) Tan Tawan Gas Field.
http://www.dmf.go.th/index.php?act=epsummary&sec=concession[2]

Arsairai, B., Wannakomal, A., Feng, Q. and Chonglakmani, C. (2016) Paleoproductivity and Paleoredox Condition of the Huai Hin Lat Formation in Northeastern
Thailand. Journal of Earth Science, 27, 350-364.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-016-0666-8[3]

Hudson, J.A. and Harrison, J.P. (1997) Engineering Rock Mechanics: An Introduction to the Principles. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

[4]

Loucks, R.G., Reed, R.M., Ruppel, S.C. and Hammes, U. (2012) Spectrum of Pore
Types and Networks in Mudrocks and a Descriptive Classification for Matrix-Related Mudrock Pores. AAPG Bulletin, 96, 1071-1098.
https://doi.org/10.1306/08171111061

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 722-725
https://www.scirp.org/journal/ojg
ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Field Excursion Introduction for IGCP 679 1stInternational Symposium: Progress in
Cretaceous Geology in Shandong Province,
China
Kemin Xu1, Gang Li2*, Zhenguo Ning1, Youping Wang1, Jie Qin1, Fuzhong Zhang1, Xiuzhang Li1,
Xueqiang Zhu1
Institute of Geology, Shandong Institute of Geological Survey, Jinan, China
State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Nanjing, China
1
2

How to cite this paper: Xu, K.M., Li, G.,
Ning, Z.G., Wang, Y.P., Qin, J., Zhang,
F.Z., Li, X.Z. and Zhu, X.Q. (2019) Field
Excursion Introduction for IGCP 679 1stInternational Symposium: Progress in Cretaceous Geology in Shandong Province,
China. Open Journal of Geology, 9, 722-725.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910085
Received: August 17, 2019
Accepted: September 22, 2019
Published: September 25, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

Abstract
The non-marine Cretaceous sequences are well developed in the relict basins,
i.e. the Luxi basin in the west, and the Jiaolai basin in the east of Shandong
Province. The Lower Cretaceous Santai Formation (140 - 136 Ma) in the Luxi
basin contains aeolian dune deposits, which were formed under the control
by westerly. The Cretaceous strata of the Jiaolai basin are divided into threegroups: i.e. in ascending order, the Laiyang, Qingshan and Wangshi groups.
New SHRIMP zircon U-Pb radiometric dating data demonstrated six Cretaceous volcanism episodes. The lower part of the Wangshi Group should be
assigned to the upper Lower Cretaceous. An Ir anomaly recovered in thelower Jiaozhou Formation suggests that the Cretaceous/Palaeogene boundary
would be in the interval between 537.3 - 537.4 m in the borehole JK1. At last
the detailed information about the pre-symposium field excursion was introduced.

Keywords
Cretaceous, Lithostratigrphy, Chronostratigraphy, Shandong Province, China

1. Introduction
The study of Cretaceous geology in Shandong began in the early 1920s. The
non-marine Cretaceous strata were originally subdivided into the Santai Serie,
Mengyin Serie (including the Laiyang beds, Qingshan beds) and Wangshi Serie,
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K. M. Xu et al.

and were assigned a Jurassic-Cretaceous age. Since then palaeontologists begun
to find in the Cretaceous strata abundant fossils, like megaplants, bivalves, gastropods, ostrocods, clam shrimps, insects, fish and dinosaurs.. Nowadays, theCretaceous is divided into the Santai Formation, the Laiyang, Qingshan andWangshi groups. In recent years, Shandong Province has become a hot researcharea because of its extremely special geotectonic position. Research interests focus on paleogeography, paleoclimate, paleoecological evolution of the Cretaceous basins, basin forming mechanism, deep dynamic background, subductionof the palaeo-Pacific plate, North China Craton destruction, uplift of the Sulu
orogenic belt and tectonic evolution of the Tanlu fault zone [1]. In this paper, we
would like to summarise new progress in Cretaceous research in Shandong
Province, and to introduce the pre-symposium field excursion.

2. Geological Setting
Shandong Province is located in the east Eurasia and neighbouring the Pacificplate. The Cretaceous continental volcanic-sedimentary relict basins (Luxi basinin the west, Jiaolai basin in the east) straddle the southeast margin of the North
China plate, the Tanlu fault zone and the Sulu orogenic belt (Figure 1). The
Cretaceous strata in the area are continuous, and in contact with the underlain
Middle Jurassic and the overlying Eocene with unconformities. They are divided
into 22 formations in three groups (Figure 2).

3. New Results
The Lower Cretacous Santai Formation in western Shandong is dated as 140 136 Ma, and contains Aeolian dune deposits (similar to that recovered in the

Figure 1. Geotectonic location map of Shandong Province. stratigraphic type sections
and well-known fossil sites which would be visited during the pre-symposium field excursion.
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K. M. Xu et al.

Figure 2. Lithostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic framework of the Jiaolai basin.

Tuchengzi Formation of northern Hebei and the lower Zhidan Group of theOrdos basin), which was formed under arid climate controlled by the westerly.
The Qugezhuang Formation is assigned to the Qingshan Group because of its
unconformably overlying on the Laiyang Group. The Malanggou and Tianjialou
formations are correlated with the Linjiazhuang and Xingezhuang formations of
the lower Wangshi Group, and are assigned to the upper Lower Cretaceous(Figure 2). An Ir anomaly with a peak content of 0.37 ng/g in the lower Jiaozhou
Formation (borehole JK1 537.3 - 537.4 m) indicates a Cretacous/Palaeogene
transition horizon, with abundant Paleocene Aquilapollenites species.

4. Pre-Symposium Field Excursion
The field excursion is planned for three days (Figure 3). Day 1: We will first visit
the aeolian dune deposits of the Santain Formation exposed in the Red Stone
Park of Laicheng district of Jinan city, then go to see the dinosaur footprints of
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Figure 3. Field excursion route map.

the Yangjiazhuang Formation at Huanglonggou and dinosaur fossils of the lower
Hongtuya Formation in Zhucheng. Day 2: fossil insect site of the Shuinan Formation at Tuanwang Zhen, the type section of the Laiyang Group between
Zhifengzhuang and Shuinan villages of Longwangzhuang Zhen, and the Lycoptera fish fossil site of the Shuinan Formation at Beipozi of Muyudian Zhen, Laiyang. Day 3: type sections of the Houkuang, Bamudi and Shiqianzhuang formations of the Qingshan Group, and the Linjiazhuang Formation of the Wangshi
Group between Pomaikou and west Sunjiakuang, the Hongtuya Formation of
the Wangshi Group between Jiangjuding and Jingangkou, and the 2nd dinosaur
fossil pit and dinosaur museum of Laiyang.

Acknowledgements
This research is supported by China Geology Survey (1212011120106). This is acontribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of thispaper.

References[1]

DOI: 10.4236/ojg.2019.910085

Xu, K.M., Ning, Z.G., Qin, J., Wang, Y.P. and Zhang, F.Z. (2019) Comprehensive
Study on Regional Geology, Basin Evolution and Lithostratigraphy of Cretaceous in
Jiaodong Area, Eastern China. Geological Publishing House; Beijing, 1-320. (inChinese)725

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Open Journal of Geology, 2019, 9, 726-730
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ISSN Online: 2161-7589
ISSN Print: 2161-7570

Diversification of Eupolypods in
Mid-Cretaceous—Evidenced by Myanmar
Amber Forest
Cunxiang Li1*, Libing Zhang2,3State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Center for Excellence in Life and Palaeoenvironment, Nanjing Instituteof Geology and Palaeontology, Nanjing, China
2
Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
3
Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
1

How to cite this paper: Li, C.X. andZhang, L.B. (2019) Diversification of Eupolypods in Mid-Cretaceous—Evidenced by
Myanmar Amber Forest. Open Journal of
Geology, 9, 726-730.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.910086
Received: August 30, 2019
Accepted: September 24, 2019
Published: September 27, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
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Abstract
The evolutionary history of Eupolypods still remains unclear, especially on its
diversification scenarios. In recent years, it has been found that approximately 100 million-year-old Myanmar amber provides a unique source of polypod fossils. Different families and numerous sporangia, spores, and scales
have been found in Myanmar amber. These discoveries are neverthelessimportant because they provided the first unequivocal fossil evidence thatthe diversity of eupolypod ferns was present already in the mid-Cretaceous
Myanmar amber forest. This clearly shows that Eupolypods originated before
mid-Cretaceous, probably as early as the Early Jurassic, which is consistent
with the recent divergence time estimate based on molecular dating.

Keywords
Mid-Cretaceous, Myanmar Amber, Eupolypods, Divergence TimeIn the last two decades, unprecedented progress has been made by employing
DNA sequence data and phylogenetic approaches toward a full understanding of
the relationships that shape the major branches of the fern tree of life. In 2006,
these phylogenetic hypotheses were consolidated and presented in a revised classification for ferns [1]. Smith et al. [1] recognized a monophyletic order Polypodiales (“Polypods”, Figure 1), and most species within the order belong to the
Eupolypods, composed of two clades: Eupolypods I and Eupolypods II [2] [3].
Together, the eupolypod lineages include nearly 6000 species—more than half ofextant fern diversity.

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Figure 1. Eupolypod phylogenetic chronology based on the study of [4] (left) and [5] (right). Divergence time estimates for
eupolypod lineages are indicated on the left side of the time tree.

However, the evolutionary history of the ferns remains incompletely understood, especially on its diversification scenarios, for example, most DNA-based
divergence-time studies indicate that Eupolypods diversification occurred in the
Late Cretaceous [2] [4], but Testo and Sundue [5] demonstrated that Eupolypods originated as early as in the Early Jurassic (Figure 1). The latter authors
thought their age estimates to be much more realistic because they used moretaxa (4000 taxa), a more advanced dating algorithm, and many more fossil calibrations with different placements. Although a range of molecular dating methods is now available, they all share a vital dependence on fossils as one ofimportant age calibrations. It is therefore of prime importance to thoroughly
document and critically evaluate new and informative fern fossils, especiallythose fossils from those periods of geologic time that are believed to represent
important phases in the establishment and/or radiation of new fern lineages [6].
However, so far, no single study based on fossils from stratigraphic depositions
has provided unequivocal evidence for a Cretaceous or pre-Cretaceous occurrence for Eupolypods [2] [7] [8] [9].
In the recent years, it has been found that approximately 100 million-year-old
Myanmar ambers provide a unique source of polypod fossils. Eight fossils of
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Figure 2. Eupolypod spores (monolete with distinct perine) in Cretaceous Myanmar amber ((A) (B), #2016-03; CD, #2018-67). Scalebars = 20 μm (A) (C) (D), and 10 μm (B).

different families and numerous sporangia, spores, and scales have been found in
Myanmar ambers [6] [10]-[15], including eupolypod-like fossil Cretacifilix

fungiformis [10], the first compelling eupolypod fossil Holttumopteris burmensis[6], eupolypod fossil scales, and spores (Figure 2). All these findings suggest that adiversity of eupolypod ferns was present already in the mid-Cretaceous Myanmar
amber forests, clearly showing that Eupolypods originated before mid-Cretaceous,
probably as early as the Early Jurassic, consistent with the divergence time estimates from the study of Testo and Sundue [5]. Myanmar amber is about to become the most important source of new information on mid-Cretaceous fern
diversity, as work on the Myanmar amber deposits continues, new fossils will
be discovered and described and can be used to refine reconstructions of fern
evolution during this important period of geologic time (i.e., the Cretaceous
Terrestrial Revolution, [16]), and eventually can be used to piece together thesteps and stages in the evolution and radiation of the eupolypod ferns [6].

Acknowledgements
The research was supported by projects of State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology
and Stratigraphy (Nanjing Institute of geology and Palaeontology, Chinese
Academy of Science) (Grant No. Y626040108) and Strategic Priority Research
Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB26000000). This is acontribution to UNESCO-IUGS IGCP Project 679.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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