LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

building on the
success of the

CENSUS
OF MARINE LIFE1

2

Credit: Jason Bradley (www.bradleyphotographic.com).

LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
Life in a Changing Ocean is an international scientific program to advancediscovery and expand marine biodiversity knowledge to support healthyand sustainable ecosystems. It will provide a new, integrated global viewof marine life that will fill knowledge gaps and answer important questions
needed to effectively manage and sustain our ocean ecosystems. Scientificdata, research, and findings will be integrated across four interrelated
and interconnected themes that will enhance knowledge and provide new,innovative tools to understand Life in a Changing Ocean: Biodiversity andEcosystem Services, Biodiversity in Ocean Spatial Planning, Biodiversity
Observation, and Biodiversity and Sustainable Ocean Use.
The leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), the largest of all living sea
turtles, is the only living species in the family Dermochelyidae. Its image waschosen to represent the challenges and opportunities for Life in a Changing
Ocean and its four cornerstone themes. As a critically endangered species, theleatherback turtle is an iconic image of the beauty and aesthetics provided by
the global ocean. Its nomadic nature, crossing international boundaries andlinking ecosystems, illustrates how ocean life contributes to Biodiversity andEcosystem Services and represents how scientists can learn more about where
species live and move by mapping their patterns to identify high-use habitats,integral elements of Biodiversity in Ocean Spatial Planning. Today, leatherback
turtles serve as oceanographic “ships” collecting data, via attached oceanographic
sensors and sophisticated satellite tracking and biologging devices, from remoteocean environments where scientists rarely venture, providing a novel strategy forsuccessful Biodiversity Observation. Knowledge of status and spatial movements
can lead to action, and, in this case, fishery closures and gear mitigation
techniques during the turtles’ migration may help to preserve this species, afoundation of Biodiversity and Sustainable Ocean Use. As demonstrated by theleatherback turtle example, these four biodiversity themes are intertwined andreflect how the Life in a Changing Ocean program will work across themes to better
quantify and understand marine biodiversity to support healthy and sustainableecosystems.

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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN
From the shoreline to the abyss and from the surface to thebottom, Earth’s ocean is changing. Some change is natural asseasons progress, as storms pass, and as natural disasters
such as hurricanes, tsunamis, and underwater mudslides
destroy old habitats and create new. Human activities also
contribute to these changes, from introduction of non-native
species to climate change, to habitat and species loss
associated with fishing disturbance and coastal pollution. Lifein the global ocean also changes, sometimes in ways we canpredict or control, but often in ways we do not understand.
Environmental change can be positive for some species, neutral
for others, and at times catastrophic for the way the oceanfunctions and for its many living resources upon which humans
depend. Much remains unknown about life in a changing
ocean. Estimates are that at least 750,000 species are yet to
be discovered, not even considering vast unknown microbial
diversity. Without expanding this knowledge base about whatlives in the ocean and the importance of species in theirenvironments, it is virtually impossible to identify change when
it occurs, determine if the change is significant, or predict what
the impact of the change may be.
The Census of Marine Life, which concluded in 2010 after a tenyear program of discovery, represented a large step forward inmarine biodiversity science. Some 2,700 scientists from aroundthe world worked together to document patterns of diversity,
distribution, and abundance of marine life and found an ocean
more diverse, more connected through migration highways,
and more impacted than previously thought. The Census
also provided the first global baseline of what lives in theocean against which future change can be measured—a solid
foundation upon which to build. Equally important, the Census
exposed critical gaps in knowledge of life in the global ocean,
providing the impetus for a timely new research initiative on Lifein a Changing Ocean.

Life in a Changing Ocean research will increase understandingof marine biodiversity, the importance of species, habitats
and their connectedness, and the role of different organisms
in the functioning and sustainability of ecosystems, whileat the same time filling critical gaps in our basic knowledge
about what lives in the ocean. By focusing on emerging marine
biodiversity research needs, bringing together existing scientificinformation, and stimulating innovative, interdisciplinary

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Two articles in Science reported a dire future for coral reefs. In 2007, HoeghGuldberg et al. predicted that based on current trends in greenhouse gas
emissions, coral reefs would cease to meaningfully exist by 2050. In 2008,
Carpenter et al. reported one third of all corals were at risk of extinction, making
them the most endangered group of animals on the planet. If these predictions
hold true, the future of this large and colorful new species of purple sea star,
Leiaster sp. found in the French Frigate Shoals, and many other coral inhabitants
is uncertain. Credit: Gustav Paulay, Florida Museum of Natural History.

Every marine animal has an intriguing story. This large northern red
anemone, Urticina felina, is found from the Arctic to Cape Cod along theeastern North American coast. Nearshore they grow up to 15 centimeters
in diameter, and offshore tend to be even larger. They are equipped withpowerful stinging cells. Expandable mouths open wide enough to allow themto feed on small fish, urchins, crabs, jellies, and other invertebrates that
venture too close. Credit: Andrew J. Martinez (www.andrewjmartinez.com).

research, Life in a Changing Ocean will provide a new,integrated view of marine life that will answer importantquestions needed to effectively manage and sustain our ocean
ecosystems. The program will integrate scientific data andreport findings across four interrelated and interconnected
cornerstone themes:

LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
How do species affect ocean health 				and the services the ocean provides?
Recognizing that marine organisms sustain ocean and humanhealth by keeping the ecosystem functioning (water processing, filtering of contaminants, and biomass production) andby providing services (fisheries, pharmaceuticals) that directly and indirectly support human needs, how can we identify whenchanges in functions occur? When are those changes natural?
When are they critical? How do different species contribute todiverse and functioning (or “healthy”) ocean ecosystems, andhow do changes in species influence the delivery of key ecosystem functions and services? In the Gulf of Mexico, a team ofresearchers worked for years to compile an inventory of species
present throughout the Gulf, largely inspired by scientific curiosity. But with the subsequent Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010,
this baseline will prove invaluable in assessing the impact of thespill on the biodiversity in the Gulf, and in following changes inecosystem function and services as the Gulf recovers.

Biodiversity in Ocean Spatial Planning
What information is needed to successfully balance theuse of the ocean by humans with the needs of the organismsthat live there and the ecosystems they support?
Marine animals traverse the global ocean with no regard forpolitical considerations or geographic boundaries, and countries
only control 200 nautical miles of ocean off their shores,
leaving the majority of the ocean without jurisdiction. What
information would be useful to help countries better manage
their coastal oceans? How can we continue to use the oceanand extract its many resources without broadly compromising
its health and the health of planet Earth? How can we predict
where important habitats occur and how populations withina region are linked to populations elsewhere? How can we
identify the highest priority areas for marine management andconservation in the high seas, deep sea, and within exclusive
economic zones?
Ocean spatial planning is forward-looking planning that addresses the multiple, cumulative, and potentially conflicting
uses of the sea and requires
information about how humans
use the global ocean, the needsof the organisms that live there,
and the ecosystems they support.
Such planning is integral for
designation of marine protectedareas and other conservation
areas. In 2010, for example, theUnited Kingdom established amarine protected area of 545,000
square kilometers in the British
Indian Ocean, which effectively
doubled the coverage of the
global ocean under protection. It
is anticipated that this area will
help repopulate vulnerable coralsystems along the East Coast of
Africa and enhance the recoveryof the marine food supply in subSaharan Africa.

Marine life exhibits amazing adaptive abilities that allow it to exist in
extreme environments. The Antarctic ice fish, Pagetopsis macropterus, forexample, has no red blood pigments (hemoglobin) and no red blood cells,
adaptations to low water temperatures. As a consequence, its blood is more
fluid and the animal conserves energy as it pumps blood through its body.
Credit: Julian Gutt, AWI/Marum, University of Bremen.

5LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

Biodiversity Observation
How can we predict where and when changes will occur
and what the consequences may be on ecosystems 		
and humans?
Climate change, ocean acidification, sea level rise, and marine
pollution are creating new ocean conditions, some of which are
happening fast. We must fill knowledge gaps about what lives
in the ocean, and where, in order to document the effects ofthese new conditions and to predict what species and ocean
areas might be susceptible. For example, scientists recently
confirmed an astonishing biodiversity of microbes in seawaterand ocean sediments. This microbial diversity was comprisedof mostly rare and unique species rather than common ones.
Microbes play significant roles in the balance of the global
ocean, however, it is uncertain how these roles will be alteredor how their dominance might change under different ocean
conditions. The challenge is how to make better use of emerging technologies to know when changes happen in biodiversity
and to know when those changes have major ramifications not
only for the health of the ocean but also for the well-being of
humans. How can we use better observational tools to identify
species, habitats and animal movements, predict future change
and what the consequences will be, understand how naturaland human impacts alter marine biodiversity, and develop new
sensors to address emerging observational needs?

A WAY FORWARD
A newly formed Global Marine Biodiversity Consortium will carryforward the Life in a Changing Ocean research agenda. With avision of advancing discovery and expanding marine biodiversity
knowledge to support healthy and sustainable ecosystems,
the Consortium is open to all researchers and strives to bring
together marine biodiversity researchers from around the globe,
along with colleagues from related disciplines, to share data,
ideas, and knowledge so that a greater understanding of life ina changing ocean can be achieved through a collective, global
effort that maximizes resources and collaboration.
The Consortium reflects its multifaceted approach to research.
It requires the expertise of many disciplines to understandthe processes and functions in the biological componentsof the ocean and better determine the effects of ongoingenvironmental changes on marine life and the ecosystem
as a whole. At the same time, it will perform research to fillcritical gaps in knowledge, including species discovery anddistribution, changes in habitats and populations, and the roles
that individual and groups of species play in the ecosystem.
Importantly, it will work together to answer global questions
that cannot be answered by individual researchers or countries.

Biodiversity and Sustainable Ocean Use
What information do we need to know to advance 		the sustainibility of the ocean?
Every second breath we take comes from oxygen produced bymarine microbes, including phytoplankton, and the sea is an
important source for the world’s protein. Recognizing that the
global ocean is vital to our own survival as a species, whatknowledge is needed to better sustain the balance of the ocean
and preserve marine resources? What effects are climatechange, ocean acidification, and other human-induced changes
having on marine biodiversity? How can these effects bemeasured, quantified, and understood to facilitate mitigation?
What data are needed to advance sustainable exploitation ofmarine resources (fisheries, mining, and various other oceanuses), while maintaining the overall health of the marine
ecosystem?
Data are essential for managers to maintain and sustain
fisheries and other ocean resources. A 2009 study, for example,
examined global fish populations and fishing trends in ten large
marine ecosystems and found fish stocks rebuilding in five of
the areas where intensive management is taking place.
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Most of the world’s bottom ocean habitat remains unexplored, a critical gap
in marine biodiversity information. As evidenced near Deer Island Archipelago,
benthic habitats often support very diverse communities—from lobsters tosponges, tunicates, coralline algae, and tubularians—that enhance their productivity and resiliency. Credit: Mike Strong and Maria-Ines Buzeta, Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans, Canada.

LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

Novel and exciting scientific questions will drive the science but
researchers will reach out to stakeholders and policy makers toensure that the questions asked can inform management of the
global ocean and help ensure its sustainability. The Consortium
will work with established policy-driven organizations, such as
the International Council for Exploration of the Sea, the North
Pacific Marine Science Organization, the International Union
for Conservation of Nature, and others, to provide information
to decision makers. It will simultaneously seek engagement ofocean stakeholders to maximize the utility and timeliness of thescientific research. The Consortium will encourage the sharingof data and the continued growth of the Ocean Biogeographic
Information System (OBIS), the world’s largest repository of georeferenced biological data, created by the Census of Marine Life.
An interim governance structure will operationalize theprogram, but it, too, will evolve in response to needs anddemands as support is secured for the scientific prioritiesof Life in a Changing Ocean. A Science Planning Committee
has developed the scope of Life in a Changing Ocean and will
spearhead the initial scientific effort. A Secretariat will serveas the communications and administrative infrastructure to
hold the Consortium together. The Consortium plans to gather
every three years in conjunction with the anticipated World
Conferences on Marine Biodiversity, at which time researchers
will present the Life in a Changing Ocean report covering the
integration of knowledge gained across the four cornerstone
themes. An annual meeting of governing members is alsoplanned to assess progress, assign tasks, review science
priorities, and report on advancements in knowledge about life
in a changing ocean. In the long term, Life in a Changing Ocean
is envisioned as a ten-year program.
The global marine science community experienced, through thefirst Census of Marine Life, the power of collaboration, sharingof ideas, techniques, resources, and knowledge, and working
together toward a common vision and goal. This powerfulequation will continue as Life in a Changing Ocean and the
Global Marine Biodiversity Consortium are formally launchedat the second World Conference on Marine Biodiversity on
September 30, 2011. Now is the perfect time and opportunity forthe equipped, integrated, and committed international marine
biodiversity community to expand its horizons, advance researchand discovery, increase understanding about Life in a Changing
Ocean, and provide much-needed science to aid policy makers
in their quest for effective strategies for sustainability of the
global ocean and the many vital services it provides for future
generations.

SCIENCE PLANNING COMMITTEEPaul Snelgrove 							Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada, chair
Patricia Miloslavich							Universidad Simón Bolívar, Venezuela, vice-chair
Linda Amaral-Zettler						Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, United States
Philippe Archambault						Université du Québec-Rimouski, Canada
S.T. Balasubramanian						Annamalai University, India
Richard Brinkman							Australian Institute of Marine Science, Australia
Roberto Danovaro							Polytechnic University of Marche, Italy
Masahiro Nakaoka							Hokkaido University, Japan
Henn Ojaveer							University of Tartu, Estonia
Eva Ramirez-Llodra							Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Spain
Lynne Shannon							University of Cape Town, South Africa
George Shillinger							Center for Ocean Solutions, United States
Xinzheng Li							Institute of Oceanology, China

WHAT IS NEEDED?
To reach its ambitious and far-reaching goals, Life in a
Changing Ocean will require a long-term dedicated commitment
from both the marine biodiversity community and a suiteof funders including governments, academic institutions,private funders, and other ocean stakeholders and users. The
community is ready to step forward to implement a programwith specific goals, milestones, and outcomes based on thethemes and questions documented here. To carry out thesetasks, financial support is needed for meetings, workshops,
and other communications to allow scientists the opportunity
to share data, discuss ideas, and come to collective agreement
about the new program. These activities would be coordinatedthrough an international Secretariat. Once the program is inplace, it is anticipated that much of the science will be fundedin traditional ways—through financial support of governments
and research institutions. The Life in a Changing Ocean program
will maximize these investments through global scientificcoordination to synthesize and report results on taxonomic andgeographic scales that could not be achieved by any single
country or project.

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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
From the smallest microbes to the largest marine mammals
and from the shoreline to the deep sea, marine life is essential for a healthy global ocean and for the survival of life on
Earth. Many marine organisms sustain ocean and human healththrough their roles in the biosphere. These roles are collectively known as ecosystem functions, examples of which are
the production of living biomass (and food) and recycling of organic matter, which provide the nutrients that sustain life andstability on Earth. For example, marine microbes, including
phytoplankton, contribute about half of the oxygen producedon Earth through photosynthesis, and these microscopic organisms also form the base of the food webs that support almost
all ocean life from shellfish to the great whales. Organisms thatlive on, and in, the sediments that cover most of the seafloor on

In addition to being highly productive anddiverse ecosystems, coral reefs provide habitat
and food for a wide variety of marine life. Reefs
also serve as important barriers that help
protect the coast from the effect of waves,storms, and even tsunamis. Shown here areviews of coral reefs at Los Roques, off the coastof Venezuela. Credit: Eduardo Klein,
Universidad Simón Bolívar.

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Earth also help to cycle nutrients and provide vital sustenanceto the many fishes (flatfish, cod) and crustaceans (lobster, crab,
and shrimp) that feed on the bottom and provide important foodsources for humans. Corals, sponges, seagrasses, mangroves,and many other “habitat building organisms” not only provide
habitat for a wide range of species, but also provide essential
benefits for human beings. The functions provided by living organisms are collectively known as ecosystem services. Marine
ecosystem services include the production of oil and gas andmineral resources, climate regulation, disease prevention andpredator control, provision of food, pharmaceuticals to treat human diseases, water purification, and a spectacular array ofrecreational and cultural support. Fisheries production, carbon dioxide sequestration, and pollution abatement are perhaps
among the best known examples of marine ecosystem services.

BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

The role of biodiversity in the delivery of these ecosystem functions that underpin the many ecosystem services that benefit
humans is thought to be crucial but largely unknown for marine systems, despite excellent examples of species loss oroverexploitation of marine resources compromising important
services and functions (such as collapse of fisheries, erosion ofshorelines, or dead zones).
In the last decade, marine scientists shifted their focus to understanding how biodiversity and ecosystem function are related toecosystem services and therefore, ultimately, to human well-being. The goal of this new research initiative is to predict “which”,“when”, and “where” biodiversity loss, from genes to species toecosystems, is likely to compromise ocean functions and services and ultimately the planet as a whole. This means filling in thelarge gaps in our knowledge about which species—some still unknown to science—occur in which environments and what they doin the ecosystem through their complex life cycles.
Scientists investigating the connection between biodiversity andecosystem functions and services are banding together to address concerns of altered ecosystem functions and services
over large time and spatial scales that are particularly urgent
for a changing global ocean. We must identify the baselinefunctions provided in different ecosystems and which species
provide them. Simultaneously we can capitalize on new ocean
observation tools to identify changes quickly and effectively,
whether they involve anthropogenic disturbances, catastrophic

Possibly up to a billion kinds of microbes inhabit the global ocean, and by
weight, comprise up to 90 percent of marine biomass. Their roles in ecosystem functions and services are many and varied, most important being
their roles in key nutrient cycles in the global ocean, with much more to belearned about how they help to maintain balance. This photosynthetic cyanobacterium Lyngbya—about a half millimeter long­—serves as an example ofthe beauty, variety, and uniqueness of the ocean’s hidden majority.
Credit: David Patterson, MBL, used under license.

and episodic events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, underwaterlandslides, and blooms of toxic algae and jellyfish. We aim toinvestigate global marine ecosystems and their life to address
the following key questions:• Can we link and predict changes in biodiversity and ecosystem functions with global change and anthropogenic
impacts?
• How is biodiversity linked to ecosystem services?
• Are diversity hot spots also ecosystem services hot spots?
• How do species of differing sizes (from microscopic tolarge) interact, from the shallow ocean to the deep?
• Which functions and services are most vulnerable to loss,
and which can be restored?
• How can we monitor the loss of functions or services inmarine ecosystems?
Current environmental policy and legislation at local, national,
and international levels rarely take into account this ecosystem-based view of life in the global ocean and how it affects
humankind. It is our hope that through new research linking
biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services we will provide policy makers with the necessary information to reduceand halt declines in ocean and human health, to increase ocean
sustainability, and to provide the knowledge needed to improvedegraded environments where key functions and services havebeen lost. This knowledge is vital to effective spatial planningand sustainable ocean use.

Bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, are highly prized fish that have fed humanpopulations around the world, a vital ecosystem service. As a result of their
popularity, numbers are decreasing and many international initiatives havebeen proposed to manage stocks to help ensure their survival.
Credit: Richard Hermann, Galatée Films.

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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

BIODIVERSITY IN OCEAN SPATIAL PLANNING
The first global baseline of information on marine life provided
by the Census of Marine Life offers a snapshot against whichchanges in marine biodiversity, distribution, and abundance canbe measured. The baseline is timely amidst increasing humanimpacts that compromise the health of ocean ecosystems. Even
with a baseline, however, much remains unknown about lifein the global ocean. The vast water column and deep seafloor,
the largest habitats on the planet, remain largely unexplored
and uncharted. Yet our limited knowledge suggests that thesehabitats support a rich diversity of species intermingled withvaluable biological and mineral resources and provide important
ecosystem services. Some coastal areas are better known, but
knowledge of other more remote areas remains poor, including
polar regions, eastern Africa, and large parts of the Indianand Indo-Pacific Oceans. In all ocean habitats, knowledge isconcentrated within the most visible taxonomic groups, suchas fish and large vertebrates, crustaceans, molluscs, andplants. Our knowledge of smaller organisms is scant, despite
indications that many are important to ocean health. These
gaps in our knowledge point to the need for improving regional
lists and maps of known and newly discovered species along

In the Southern Ocean, Weddell seals, Leptonychotes weddellii, and otherlarge marine animals have been equipped with electronic tags that allow
scientists to examine the state of the ocean on a continuous basis in nearreal time, providing a means to construct the past, current, and future models of high use habitats for highly migratory species. Credit: Daniel Costa,
University of California, Santa Cruz.

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with basic knowledge of their biology and ecological role,
information on species migration and population connectivity,and greater knowledge of poorly known or sensitive habitats,including areas in the high seas or outside of national
jurisdiction, which can be derived from global ocean observation
activities.
Organisms move at different stages of their life, either actively
through migration or passively with currents, or in response
to environmental changes caused by human activities, suchas changes in water temperature and acidification that are
resulting from climate change. These movements, regardlessof cause, play a critical role in how ocean ecosystems function.
On the one hand, larvae and highly migratory species often
move across international boundaries unimpeded, presenting
tremendous challenges for marine managers. On the other
hand, managers must also consider strategies to minimize
the impact of heavy trawling gear and other human activities
that damage sessile and often sensitive seafloor fauna suchas corals and sponges, which provide habitat for a wide rangeof other species. Improved global and regional oceanographic
datasets now allow the development of predictive relationships
between organisms and their surrounding environments. For

Obtaining robust data on larval ecology and their colonization potential isessential to understand the maintenance of populations and the relative
isolation of habitats such as canyons, cold-water corals, seamounts, hydrothermal vents, or cold seeps. Larval ecology remains a major challenge,
however, due to the obstacles presented by the microscopic size of larvae
and the complexity of the processes taking place in the vast open sea.
Shown are Lamellibrachia luymesi tubeworms from cold seeps in the Gulf of
Mexico. Other Lamellibrachia species are also found at hydrothermal vents.
Credit: Chuck Fisher, Pennsylvania State University.

BIODIVERSITY IN OCEAN SPATIAL PLANNING

example, improved understanding of animal behaviors andrelated ecological patterns is enhancing our capacity to model
movements of animals such as tuna, billfish, marine turtles andsharks, and to integrate that knowledge with oceanographic andstatistical fisheries data, providing a means to better predict
animal movement in the face of climate change, and manage
fisheries, reduce bycatch, and preserve stocks. This knowledge
is also proving crucial for developing sound management andconservation strategies such as Marine Protected Areas.
New Geographic Information System (GIS) and modelling
tools tailored for biodiversity and for marine resource decision
makers will help revolutionize how new data can be used inpractical ways. These tools, with additional information frommarine research, can differentiate spatial changes in marine
ecosystems caused by natural events largely beyond humancontrol (tsunamis, hurricanes, and underwater landslides)from those caused by human activities (oil spills, fisheries,hydrocarbon and mineral exploitation, and litter) that canbe managed effectively with sufficient knowledge andmotivation. They can also illustrate competing uses of themarine environment (transportation, fishing, recreation, andconservation) and quantify their effects on the ecosystem andits inhabitants. Such information is critical for developing newmodels of ocean governance that can mitigate impacts, help
restore ecosystems, and provide for sustainable ocean use.
The knowledge gained from biodiversity data will address thefollowing key questions:• How and where do human impacts affect environmental
variables that influence the movements/distribution ofmarine life and, in turn, ocean ecosystem services?
• Can we use knowledge from well-known regions to predict
species distributions, biodiversity patterns, and hotspots
in lesser-known regions by relying on easily measured
predictors that quickly characterize large ocean areas?
• How do movements of species connect ocean locations
and populations of organisms and how can that knowledge
advise conservation and management?
• What information about individual and overlapping
impacts and their severity on marine species will facilitate
ocean management and spatial planning?
• Where are high priority areas for marine management andconservation based on diversity, productivity, and size ofcritical habitat?

Marine polar biodiversity is under growing pressure from both climate change and resource development. A decrease in ice cover is already diminishing
the habitat of polar bears, Ursus maritimus, and further decreases will allow more shipping along the Northwest Passage and subsequent increases in thepotential risk of oil spills, introduction of alien species, and the exploration and exploitation of seafloor resources. These last pristine areas are under threat
and our knowledge of species and ecosystem function and resilience is very limited. Without better knowledge, it will be difficult to craft sound management
actions for these under-explored regions. Credit: Rolf Gradinger, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

BIODIVERSITY OBSERVATIONThe ocean covers 71 percent of Earth and provides 99 percentof the planet’s living space by volume. Although the first Census of Marine Life provided a baseline of diversity in what should
be called “planet Ocean,” much remains unknown because a vast
part of the ocean is very deep, dark, and remote, and therefore
difficult to observe. Because marine biodiversity is vital for maintenance and resilience of the global ocean and human impacts on
the ocean continue to expand, it is necessary to quantify biodiversity status and trends. The ability to quantify changes over time
facilitates management efforts to recognize early warning of ecosystem changes including the arrival of non-native, invasive or
toxic species, or declines in species important for the ecosystem
or for the services they provide.
Ocean observations are currently limited in time and space andmany changes go undetected or are only recognized long after
they occur. The vast majority of what is known about biodiversity comes from studies focused on the coastal and continental
shelf near human populations. The number of marine biodiversity observations declines with distance from land and the ocean
surface. Unlike ocean temperature, which is easy to measure andmodel, biological change over time is currently difficult to mea-

sure and predict, and few scientific programs support long-term
marine biodiversity observations.
Biodiversity observations have typically focused on species we exploit (i.e., commercial fisheries), but ignored environments ororganisms that do not have clear economic value. Yet, marine organisms provide important roles beyond their immediate economic
value by helping to keep the ecosystem functioning and supplying many valuable ecosystem services. These services extend from
helping to regulate climate to improving our quality of life by stabilizing coastlines and breaking down pollutants, to name just afew. Changes in some environments, such as in the Arctic and coral
reefs, and the presence or absence of organisms that identify a specific environmental condition or change can serve as early warning
signs regarding current or potential trends, providing living gauges(“life gauges”) to monitor ecosystem changes.
Biodiversity observations will be most valuable if a wide rangeof organisms (microbes to mammals) and habitats are sampled
at meaningful time scales. Sample processing, including identifications of organisms, standardized data management andinteroperability, and training must be coordinated to achieve a truly global view. Technology innovation and implementation, such as
the use of molecular barcoding and environmental gene surveys,

The Census of Marine Life initiated long-term global nearshore biodiversity observations that can inform changes in species composition and abundance overtime. Japan has committed to continue these observations along its coast for the next 100 years, creating a unique opportunity to measure changes in biodiversity
associated with climate change and natural disasters, including the recent tsunami. The green dots above show the location of key marine ecosystem monitoringsites that were in the vicinity of the 11 March 2011 tsunami. The tsunami’s aftermath in the vicinity of the Onagawa Marine Lab at Tohoku University are shown in
the inset. Credit: Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Onagawa Field Center, Tohoku University.

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BIODIVERSITY OBSERVATION

Innovative techniques such as Autonomous
Reef Monitoring Structures, shown being
deployed here on a Hawaiian coral reef,
were developed through the Census ofMarine Life to sample a range of taxa andprovide a comparative tool to quantify
changing reefs from different regions of the
global ocean. Credit: Andy Collins, NOAA.

will also be required to simplify exploration, automate sampling,and enhance identification of collected specimens. Data will be
useful to the widest array of users if computer software and visualization tools can integrate large datasets from around the world
seamlessly and easily. This data, deposited in the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) for global access and use, will
provide an invaluable legacy for future generations of marine scientists performing ecosystem-based biodiversity assessments andpolicy makers working toward a sustainable ocean environment.
Many of the technologies to observe biodiversity exist or are within reach, but require investment and coordination to employ them
most effectively for the purpose of long-term data gathering.
Without this capacity, we lack basic information for immediate
management needs and the ability to detect and quantify changes in the future.
Key questions that can be answered through biodiversity observations include:• How does species diversity, distribution, and abundance
vary over time and as organisms move?
• Does diversity influence an ecosystem’s capacity to resist or
recover from disturbances, from pollution to tsunamis?
• How does biodiversity respond to global climate changes(warming, acidification), and other human influences? What
are the consequences for ecosystem function?

• Are there “early warning organisms” that might allow time
for mitigating actions?
• What information is needed from biodiversity observation topredict future changes in composition, distribution, and abundance of marine life in the global ocean?
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide at Mauna Loa Observatory
400(atm CO2)y = 1.811x - 32524

8.40
8.35

375

350

Mauna Loa atmospheric CO2 (ppmv)
Aloha seawater pCO2 (µatm)
Aloha seawater pH

8.30
8.25
8.20

325

8.15
(pCO2)y = 1.90x - 3453.96

8.10

300
(pH)y = 0.00188x + 11.842
275

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

8.05

8.00
2010

Long-term observations from Hawaii clearly show increased carbon dioxide in theatmosphere (red line), which has increased the carbon dioxide in the ocean (blueline) and therefore increased ocean acidity (shown as decreasing pH in green).
Thus, vulnerable organisms such as coral must not only cope with ocean temperatures that can exceed their tolerance, but also deal with loss of skeletal structurefrom acidification. These data clearly show the alarming changes in ocean chemistry that confront marine ecosystems. Marine biodiversity data of this type arealmost completely lacking, and highlight the need for sustained observation of life
in a changing ocean.Credit: Feely et al. [2009]. Oceanography 22(4): 36–47.

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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE OCEAN USE
An expanding human population is affecting life in the ocean.
As fishing, energy development, mineral extraction, shipping,and other ocean uses increase to meet human needs so dotheir impacts on marine biodiversity and marine ecosystems.
Human activities near the coast and discharge of greenhousegases globally also are greatly affecting life in the ocean.
Recent studies indicate that human intervention has resulted
in the global decline of top marine predators by over 95 percent
and consequent changes in the food web and availability ofcommercially important fish, leading to serious socioeconomic
implications for coastal communities. Human-mediatedinvasion of non-native species has intensified in recent decadeswith a new invasion front currently moving towards the open
ocean. Temperature shifts in the water due to climate change
are causing other species to move from warm tropical waters
toward warming temperate zones, with implications for thoseecosystems. Areas of the global ocean are affected by increased

In 1958, after an excursion on a Key West (Florida, USA) charter boat, a familyof recreational fishers displayed their trophies, especially large groupers,
subfamily Epinephelinae. In 2007, the size of the fish displayed by the same
charter enterprise had plummeted, and the mix of species had changed.
Credit: Monroe County Library (top) and (right) Loren McClenachan, Simon
Fraser University.

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acidification as a result of absorbing carbon dioxide from theatmosphere, which reduces the ability of marine organisms
to build skeletons. Human population increases and declining
resources on land, particularly in coastal regions, are pushingocean exploitation to increasing depths, affecting poorly known
and often fragile ecosystems. As a consequence of theseever-increasing human demands, marine populations andecosystems are less able to withstand and recover from humaninduced changes and climate change.
The ocean is changing, and in some cases the changes are
rapid. We are just beginning to appreciate the potential
consequences of both the introduction and removal of living
marine resources. While we know that non-native species
can prompt changes at the genetic, population, and even
ecosystem-wide levels, much more information is needed togauge the consequences of human activities on marine life
and the sound functioning of marine ecosystems. Current andemerging technologies for oil, gas, and mineral extraction,

BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE OCEAN USE

especially in deep-sea habitats, are increasing the availabilityof these resources to human exploitation, with unknown
consequences for the viability of these remote and unique,ecosystems, which are part of the interconnected ocean. New
pollutants and synthetic substances continue to enter theocean, but knowledge of their effects on marine biota is limited.
The timeliness of learning more and enhancing our ability
to predict consequences of actions is illustrated by recent
research that suggests that the nature and scale of different
human stressors have a greater impact when they act inconcert, rather than individually. This is particularly worrisome
when considering how the effects of climate change interact
with other human-induced changes, with unknown cumulative
impacts on marine species and ecosystems.
Several regional and global initiatives are working to establish
policies to restore damaged habitats and recover depleted species
and populations. To achieve these targets and develop credible
plans for a sustainable global ocean will require not only learningfrom the past, but also continuing exploration and expansionof what is known about ocean life, its vulnerability to multiple
threats, and sharing of this critical knowledge with decision
makers and broader groups of stakeholders. Life in a Changing
Ocean will provide scientific information needed for these tasks,
as well as a synthesis of lessons learned from past applicationof fisheries and marine resource management and conservation
strategies. This new knowledge will prove useful to managementand decision making bodies, providing a better understandingof the effects of human activity on marine biodiversity andsubsequent consequences for sustainable use of the ocean.

Increased knowledge and implementation of ocean spatialplanning and observation tools provide a path forward toward
ensuring the maintenance of ecosystem functions and services
upon which life on Earth depends.
The impacts of resource exploitation and other human-inducedchanges on marine biodiversity and the sustainable use of the global
ocean will be investigated through the following key questions:• How do climate change and other human pressuresinteract to influence marine biodiversity, and on what spatial
and temporal scales?
• How do these effects vary among different species,
assemblages, and ecosystems?
• Why do some strategies succeed while others fail inefforts to recover decimated populations and ecosystems?
• How do these strategies vary for different species andecosystems?

Above: This assortment of marine
litter was collected at 2,000 meters
depth in the western Mediterranean,
illustrating that human impacts
extend well beyond the coastalzone and even into remote deep-sea
habitats. Credit: Eva Ramirez-Llodra,
Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC.
Left: Beauty can be deceiving.
These brightly colored non-native
red harpoon weeds (Asparagosis
armata), originating from New
Zealand, entered the Mediterranean
Sea by the Strait of Gibraltar. In its
new environment, this alien species
competes for resources with native
organisms. Credit: Mario Cormac,
Università di Catania.

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LIFE IN A CHANGING OCEAN

Global Marine Biodiversity Consortium
Consortium for Ocean Leadership
1201 New York Avenue NW, Fourth Floor
Washington DC 20005
Kristen Yarincik+1 202 448 1237
info @ lifeinachangingocean.org
www.lifeinachangingocean.org
building on the
success of the

CENSUS
OF MARINE LIFE

Sea nettles, Chrysaora fuscescens, Monterey Bay California,
October 2007. Credit: Richard Herrmann, Galatée Films.

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