Agricultural Innovationsfor Sustainable Development
Contributions from the Finalists of theYoung Professionals in Science Competition
Volume 1 Issue 1

Edited by
Dr Kevin Urama
Judith Francis
Mr Marsden Momanyi
Dr Sheila Ochugboju
Mr Arnold Ominde
Dr Nicholas Ozor
Mr Guy Manners

FARAAcknowledgements
We sincerely thank the consortium partners – ATPS, CTA, AGRA,
FARA, NEPAD and RUFORUM - for making the African Young
Professionals in Science Competition 2008 a successful one. The
event will go down in history as one of the stakeholder partnershipsthat has empowered the African Youths towards the attainment ofsustainability in science and technology innovations in Africa.
We appreciate the young professionals who submitted articles thateventually led to this unique publication. We note that several efforts
and inputs have been made to ensure that this publication becomesa reality. To this end, we owe many thanks to the following people:
Dr. Kevin Urama, ATPS; Judith Francis, CTA; Dr. Catherine AdeyaWeya, ATPS; Myra Wopereis-Pura, FARA; Dr. Rufaro Madakadze,
AGRA; and Lily Aduke, ATPS. Others include Wellington Ekaya,
RUFORUM; and Dr. Ruvimbo Mabeza-Chimedza, Gender Specialist.
Finally, we wish to immensely thank the editorial team for theirsteadfastness in ensuring that this publication stands the test oftime and is of high standard. They include ; Dr Kevin Urama,
Executive Director, ATPS; Judith Francis, CTA; Mr Marsden Momanyi,
Communication and Outreach Officer, ATPS; Dr Sheila Ochugboju,
Senior Communication and Outreach Officer, ATPS; Mr Arnold
Ominde, Intern and Dr Nicholas Ozor, Post Doctoral Research Officer,
ATPS; Mr Guy Manners, Science Editor

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2009

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978 9966-7434-4-8

Agricultural Innovationsfor Sustainable Development
Contributions from the Finalists of theYoung Professionals in Science Competition
Volume 1 Issue 1

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 3

Foreword
As part of its contributions towards building stronger institutions through science, technology andinnovation policy research for sustainable development across African Continent, the African Technology
Policy Studies Network (ATPS) and her partners, the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation(CTA), the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa(FARA), The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and the Regional Universities Forum for
Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM), organized the maiden Competition for Young Professionals
and Women in Agricultural Science & Technology in 2008. The final competition and award ceremony washosted during the African Union Fourth conference of Ministers of Agriculture, Lands and Livestock, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia from 20-21 April 2009.
This initiative led to the production of the maiden issue of the book series, Agricultural Innovations for
Sustainable Development 1(1), based on the contributions made by African Young Professionals below theage of 35 who have carried out diverse researches in agricultural science, technology and innovations on
the continent. Contributions mainly ranged from issues in agricultural production, marketing, value addition,
to biotechnology, information communication technology, and climate change. Participation was open to all
African Young Professionals but only 18 Young Professionals from 10 African countries emerged as finalists
in the competition after a rigorous expert review and assessment processes. Special awards were given to
the best two researchers whose research was judged to have contributed most to the improvement inagricultural innovations and sustainable development.

4 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

African Young Professionals in Science Competition is hinged on the fact that youths play prominent role inscience and technology development of any nation especially in maintaining continuity and sustainability inthe system. Youths are endowed with energy, knowledge, mental alertness and wisdom to confront social,economic, political, environmental, cultural, and even religious challenges. Agricultural Innovations for
Sustainable Development vol. 1(1) is therefore a must read. It is a compendium of best agricultural practices
and innovations today for sustainable development tomorrow, by African youths.
Dr. Kevin Chika Urama,
Executive Director, ATPS

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 5

Table of Contents
Foreword

4

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Livelihood of Rural Women through Information
and Communication Technology
Amongi Mary

8

VAVAN Information Communication Technology (ICT) Agricultural Sustainable
Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene and Nalova Becky Etinge

14

Waste and Environmental Management through Geospatial Information Technology
for Agricultural Productivity
Matshwene E. Moshia

21

Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood
in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

26

Participatory Development of Improved Groundnut Varieties for East and Southern Africa
M.O. Osiru, E.S. Monyo, F. Waliyar, B. Chinyamunyamu, O. Mponda and M. Siambi

35

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

41

Vertical Farming for Rwanda Small-scale Tomato Farmers: COPARIMENA Tomato Growers
Cooperative
Jean Claude Ndayambaje

49

Strategies to Improve the Productivity of the Industrial Tomato Crops in the Senegal
River Valley, 2002–2005
Daouda Mbodj

53

6 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Efficacy of Teak Bark Water Extracts against that of Conventional Preservatives
Amina Hakeem Baidoo, Akwasi Asamoah and Charles Antwi-Boasiako

59

Application of Organic Pesticide Technologies for Improved Agriculture and Rural
Livelihoods in Uganda
Ssenyonjo Julius and Kyaterekera Derrick

65

Extension of Biodigester Construction to Produce Domestic Gas and Organic Compost
on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick, K. E. Basemeg and M.E. Eone71

Design, Construction and Test-running of a Biodiesel Pilot Plant
J.N. Nwakaire and C.J. Ohagwu

78

Development of Spiral Pump Technology
Frank Mwenechanya

84

Impact of Forested Zaï on the Evolution of Biodiversity and the Biological Parameters ofSoil in Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba, Hassan Bismarck Nacro, Saïdou Nourou Sall and Michel Lepage

89

Status and Prospects of Stingless Bee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia, Linnaus Gitonga and Hellen Kutima

97

Enhancing Livestock Production in HIV/AIDS Infected and Affected Households in Uganda
104
Annuciate Nakiganda, Sarah Mubiru, Stephen Kayiwa, Stephen Kiwemba and Basalirwa Musaala
Evaluation of Spineless Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indicus) as an Alternative Feed Resource for
Ruminants in Eritrea
Habteab S. Serekebrhan and J.P. Tritschler

109

Evaluation and Promotion of Cambrough Breed of Pigs for Improvement of Livelihoodsin the South Western Agro-Ecological Zoneof Uganda
C. Lagu, S. Byenkya, R.C. Nsubuga-Mutaka, W. Makuru, P. Ntakyo, I. Nabukenya, B. Ayoo
and G.Tugume116

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 7

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity andLivelihood of Rural Women throughInformation and Communication
Technology
Amongi Mary1

Keywords: marketing, sensitization, rehabilitation, farmers, empowerment

Abstract
Uganda is one of the world’s least developed countries. Its populationdepends on agriculture as a major
source of livelihood; however, agriculturalproduction has been negatively affected by civil war in the north ofthe country. The impact of this war was severe on women and yet they are the major participants in the
agricultural industry. HIV/AIDS and structural adjustment programmes have further increased the poverty
level. With over two decades of civil war raging in northern Uganda, and rebels having resorted to abducting
children to fight in their battle, girl children became targets of devastating abuse. Girls were often given as‘wives’ to rebel soldiers, destining them to a life as a sex slave. Many girls become pregnant and gave birthin the bush to what are called ‘bush babies’ (babies born as a result of rape by Lord’s Resistance Army rebel
soldiers). This is a significant percentage of the much needed agricultural labour force. However, somemanaged to escape and need to be supported during this period of resettlement and rehabilitation. Childmothers are the quiet strength, and desperately need others to join hands and support them towards
restoration. An initiative was made by Women Empowerment for Rural Development (WEFORD) to boost
agricultural production and marketing opportunities for the rural women, using information andcommunication technologies (ICTs) as one of the avenues of its contribution to the post-war rehabilitation
process. The major objectives of this project are: to build the capacity of rural women to use ICTs formarketing their products, to facilitate value addition on agricultural products for income generation, and tointegrate agro forestry with crop production for improved yields and environmental management.

1

PO Box 37802, Kampala, Uganda; or PO Box 204, Lira, Uganda.

8 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Livelihood of Rural Women through Information and Communication Technology
Amongi MaryINTRODUCTION
Uganda is one of the world’s least developed countries. Its population depends on agriculture as a major
source of livelihood; however, agricultural production has been negatively affected by civil war in the north ofthe country. The impact of this war was severe on women and yet they are the major participants in the
agricultural industry. HIV/AIDS and structural adjustment programmes have further increased the poverty
level. With over two decades of civil war raging in northern Uganda, and rebels having resorted to abducting
children to fight in their battle, girl children became targets of devastating abuse. Girls were often given as‘wives’ to rebel soldiers, destining them to a life as a sex slave. Many girls become pregnant and gave birthin the bush to what are called ‘bush babies’ (babies born as a result of rape by Lord’s Resistance Army rebel
soldiers). This is a significant percentage of the much needed agricultural labour force. However, somemanaged to escape and need to be supported during this period of resettlement and rehabilitation. Childmothers are the quiet strength, and desperately need others to join hands and support them towards
restoration.
The Women Empowerment for Rural Development (WEFORD) project is focusing on enhancing
agricultural productivity and livelihoods of rural women’s groups through training on and use of appropriate
and available information and communication technology (ICT). Prior to designing the project and drafting
strategies (highlighted in the following sections), a detailed community information-needs assessment
survey was carried out. The project embarked on a campaign to establish a small resource centre at alocation deemed to be easily accessible by the majority of the members. The centre would be used tosupport activities such as research, Internet access, documentation, lobbying and advocacy, training
sessions and facilitate knowledge sharing for best production practices among existing member andinterested non-member farmers. In turn, it would help them to access quality marketing opportunities
locally, regionally and internationally in the near future. The major question arising is: can ICTs really help in
improving agricultural productivity, marketing strategies and livelihoods of these identified groups?
Statement of the Problem
In the few years since those internally displaced by the civil war began returning home, there have been anumber of initiatives, some government based and others monitored by non-government organizations.
Most of these initiatives have either been dominated by men or men were the beneficiaries. Hence the needfor a more gendersensitive approach and intervention to support and enable the local population to
generate and exchange reliable information in a relevant setting, thereby enhancing agricultural productivity
and livelihoods of rural women through appropriate and readily available ICT facilities.
Literature Review
ICTs have been defined in many ways; Slater and Tacchi (2004), for example, consider ICT as
encompassing a full range of media commonly used with reference to communication media, including
radio, television, the press, physical notice boards, computers and the Internet. However, this project has
opted to use just a few of the highlighted ICTs. Broad-based economic growth also requires informationand communication systems that enable two-way information flows (Saith, 2001). However, for the poor,
particularly in rural areas and remote villages, accessing information is extremely difficult as economic
barriers to equal participation in the markets are common, limiting the degree of mobility that these groups
can exercise (Bracking, 2003).
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 9

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Livelihood of Rural Women through Information and Communication Technology
Amongi MaryFor these groups, the outcome is a dramatic increase in the transaction cost component of any economic
activity (Bracking and Hickey, 2005; Bracking and Sachikonye, 2001–2006). Where such barriers exist
among groups who have well-developed access to information, it can be argued that information
asymmetries may perpetuate poverty and inequality (Stiglitz, 1988, as well as social exclusion. Social
exclusion is defined as a process in which certain groups are systematically disadvantaged because of
who they are (gender, caste, class, ethnicity and so forth) and where they live (poorer areas in the cities, rural
areas) (Beall, 2002a, b, c; DFID, 2005).
For these reasons, this project recognizes that deprivation, whether socioeconomic or digital, is
multidisciplinary, typically made up of these dimensions: economic/financial (comprising income andexpenditure; communicating in emergencies) and natural/physical (infrastructure, natural resources,
biodiversity). ICTs can act as facilitating factors linking social, economic and natural well-being by improving
communication and networking (whether social or economic in intention), and by reducing exclusion,
reducing transaction costs and building social capital. Through ICTs, the poor are able to learn of new
production strategies and technologies, access market information faster and more accurately, and keep in
regular contact with peers and other social and economic contacts and associates.
Project Scope
1. Target Group. The target group comprises rural women farmers, young girls who were and were still
directly or indirectly affected by the war.
2. Technical Scope. At the time of writing (June 2008), the focus is to use radio shows, telephones andInternet to achieve the project purposes highlighted below.
Purpose of Project
The overall purposes of this project are: to build the capacity of rural women to use ICTs for marketing theirproducts, to facilitate value addition on agricultural products for income generation, and to integrate
agroforestry with crop production for improved yields and environmental management. In order to achieve
this broad purpose, the project intends to help women’s groups market their agricultural products profitably
using the appropriate available ICT, and to identify and meet the ICT training needs of the identified groups.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
The major products that are sold by these women are sesame and groundnuts in various forms (roasted,
paste). To market these products profitably, these women add value to them. After harvesting orpurchasing, the groundnuts are shelled and roasted; they can then either be ground into paste or packed
as seeds ready for consumption. In either form, the product can be consumed as a snack, but the paste
can further be used as seasoning in different sauces. Sesame is first washed, dried and roasted, and theneither packed as seeds or ground into paste. Other products include packed millet, soya flour and maize
flour.
To integrate agroforestry with crop production for improved yields and environmental management, thewomen farmers’ groups have considered planting environmentally friendly pine trees, which allow co10 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Livelihood of Rural Women through Information and Communication Technology
Amongi Marysurvival of other seasonal crops. These trees are early maturing and can be harvested at two different
stages for construction poles and timber. The trees are intercropped with groundnuts, sesame, beans,maize and millet, which benefit from the tree residues (fallen leaves). The sawdust from the timber will be
used as fuel in a locally made energy-saving stove for domestic cooking and for processing the sesameand groundnuts—thereby addressing the issues of environmental management and fuel shortage.
Methodology
Women’s groups from Lira district (one of the places that suffered the impact of the war) were identified
through local council authorities.
1. Group Categorization. Different group categories (illiterate, literate) were trained on how to use various
ICTs at their disposal; for example, Internet/e-mail, mobile phones and radios. This was done in such a waythat the literate members were given basic computer training for information generation (e-mail usage) andsharing about their products (including on word processor to design product labels). Members of thegroups who either own or have access to mobile phones were trained on how to get market information
through available mobile network services. The illiterate are facilitated to participate in radio talk shows thatmarket their products, and occasionally networking sessions and mini workshops are organized to facilitate
farmer-to-farmer sessions.
2. Communication Strategy. The information and communication strategy used was communitysensitization meetings, which aimed at tapping ideas on how best rehabilitation can be achieved gradually
without destroying the environment. Lessons learnt from the project were also shared with partners throughworkshops and radio talk shows. The project also meets farmers’ needs by creating an ‘all-round ICT
service’ using Internet-based information systems, such as e-mail services combined with a mini callcentre and training components. The project uses a participatory strategy to develop its information
services and mobilize stakeholders.
RESULTSICT Training and Agricultural Productivity
The project activities have yielded the following: of six groups with a total membership of 120, some 21% ofmembers have successfully acquired basic computer skills and are able to use e-mail services, andcomputer application packages to design labels for their products; 11% use telephone services to accessmarket information; and a third of the remaining members (22.6% and 45.4%, respectively) haveparticipated in radio talk shows and farmer-to-farmer interaction to market their products. Through the talkshows and farmer-to-farmer interactions, five new groups with a total of 61 members have been formed andare undergoing the same training at the resource centre. The training is being conducted by members of
the original groups.
A number of ICT-driven solutions have been developed towards the creation of the ‘information villages’.
Because of the government’s tax-free policy on computer equipment, acquisition of training equipment(desktop computers, mobile phone handsets and fixed desk telephone units) intended to increase accessto communications was made (to a certain extent) easier for the project. During the training sessions, atleast two participants can share a telephone, which provides easy access to the project’s mini call centre,
making technical consultancy on use of ICTs feasible via telephone and mobile phone. Building on thisinfrastructure, the project set up a dedicated hotline that provides answers to frequently asked questions
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 11

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Livelihood of Rural Women through Information and Communication Technology
Amongi Mary

from member or non-member farmers. Income generated from the products has been reinvested inagricultural production (areas of beans, maize, sesame, groundnuts and millet have increased from 1 acre
[0.405 ha] to 3 acres [1.214 ha] per farmer), improving food security and income. Nutrition has been
improved from both homemade production and food purchased with income from the products. Soil fertility
has been improved, leading to improved yields. The project has boosted community cohesion andrehabilitated those who suffered losses as a result of the civil war in this region.
Future Prospects
The project is intended to extend further, including the establishment of a saving scheme that could
possibly lead to village banking supported by the various relevant ICTs. This could cater for credit facilities forthe members, and perhaps later nonmembers would have access to these services. It is hoped that thegradual savings will enable members to educate their children, most of whom have lagged behind for the
many years that the war displaced them from their homes.
1. Partnerships. The project partners with the Ministry of Gender and the Ministry of Health at the districtlevel to address gender- and HIV/AIDS-related issues, respectively. Some of the support is still in theinformal negotiation stages and we hope in time the project will not only target women, but also try to getmen’s participation in order to have a balance in the homes.
2. Project Website. ICT consultancy firm Information Management Consult Incorporated, based in
Kampala, has agreed to work with the project to design a website, which the trained members could use tomarket their products. The firm also intends to train the project facilitators on how to use simple web tools to
get massive information shared across the targeted members and/or potential partners.
3. Other Plans for the Future. To improve livelihoods, another long-term plan is to provide better low-cost
shelter for those members who are unable to obtain shelter on their own. For most of these people, the only
shelter they have known for the past decade (since they were night commuters in search of safety) is shop
verandas .
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Much has been achieved to the best of the team’s ability and facilitation; however, the project needs toimprove the services in order to establish (beyond reasonable doubt) that impact can be observed in thefollowing areas:• Improved access to market and other production information through technology, so that better yields
and returns can be obtained, as well as information about prices for inputs and outputs—this impact
can be measured in terms of improved incomes, profits and sales that can be attributed to ICTs.
• Better understanding of the institutional frameworks that govern members’ access to essential services
and facilities—this includes knowledge of distribution systems, as well as of rights and how to enforce
those rights.
• Being able to reduce the time and cost involved in identifying, obtaining and making use of essential
services would form part of this benefit—this impact can be measured in terms of improved access toand use of essential services, as well as improvements in the quality of the services obtained that canbe attributed to ICTs.
• Better understanding of the institutional frameworks that govern their social, economic and politicalenvironments and hence the ability to assert themselves—this can be measured in terms of
12 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Livelihood of Rural Women through Information and Communication Technology
Amongi Mary

improvements in perceptions of connectedness, reduced isolation and empowerment that can be
attributed to ICTs.
In conclusion, ICTs have shown potential to improve agricultural productivity and livelihoods of rural womenin particular, and the rural poor in general. They have streamlined the channels of communication for betterand more effective ways of information sharing, in order to adopt and apply the appropriate technologies toachieve meaningful results. Through this, rural women have accessed useful information to market theirproducts and have also implemented useful ideas that have improved food security and income.
Literature Cited
Beall, J. 2002a. Science, society and the city: Social factors in urban sustainability and the implications forpolicy. In: State of the Planet Conference, 13–14 May 2002, Columbia University, New York.
Beall, J. 2002b. Living in the present, investing in the future: Household livelihoods strategies of the urban
poor. p. 71–87. In: C. Rakodi and T. Lloyd-Jones (eds.), Urban Livelihoods. Earthscan, London.
Beall, J. 2002c. Globalization and social exclusion in cities: Framing the debate with lessons from Africa andAsia. Environment and Urbanization 14 (1): 41–51.
Bracking, S. 2003. Sending money home: Are remittances always beneficial to those who stay behind?
Journal of International Development 15: 633–644.
Bracking, S. and Hickey, S. (eds.) 2005. Guided miscreants: Legitimacy, myopias and the politics ofrepresentation. World Development 33 (6): 1011–1024.
Bracking, S. and Sachikonye, L. 2001–2006. Remittances, Poverty Reduction and the Informalisation ofHousehold Wellbeing in Zimbabwe. Global Poverty Research Group, Oxford
DFID 2005. Growth and Poverty Reduction: The role of agriculture. A DFID policy paper. Department forInternational Development, London.
Saith, A. 2001. Operationalising the Human Poverty Approach in China: A Review of Issues and Options.
Report for UNDP, Beijing, and the Leading Group on Poverty Alleviation of the State Planning Council, PRC,
Beijing.
Slater, D. and Tacchi, J. 2004. Research Work: ICT Innovations for Poverty Reduction.
http://cirac.qut.edu.au/ictpr/downloads/research.pdf (retrieved June 2008).
Stiglitz, J.E. 1988. Economic organization, information, and development. p. 93–160. In: H. Chenery and
T.N. Srinivasan (ed.), Handbook of Development Economics, Vol. 1. Elsevier.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 13

VAVAN Information Communication
Technology (ICT) Agricultural
Sustainable Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene1 and Nalova Becky Etinge2

Keywords: mobile phones, kiosks, Internet, subsistence, farmers, training

Abstract
VAVAN3 Information Communication Technology (ICT) AgriculturalSustainable Project (VICTASUP), initiatedin 2003 is educating and training rural subsistence farmers on modern land-sustainable mixed organic
farming and urban poor farmers on intensive organic market gardening. It uses information andcommunications technology (ICT) for rural agricultural development (ICT4RAD) to improve productivity, inthe rich volcanic region of Mount Cameroon. As the world relies on ICT, ICT skills are essential for educationand socio-economic development for individuals and countries. Through computers, the Internet, mobile
phones and short message service (SMS), citizens gain access to new markets and services, and students
acquire education/skills needed to compete globally. Through the combination of technology and training,
ICT centres offer cost-effective means to educate and empower local citizens. They are designed to help
local communities improve their digital skills, and increase socio-economic and educational development.
By increasing ICT skills and participating in the information-based global economy, the centres help
communities globally to bridge digital gaps. But in Cameroon, the digital gap between the privileged andunderprivileged is very wide. Even those subsistence farmers and underprivileged people who do have themeans to use the digital systems, lack knowledge and training to operate computers. This situation is theresult of poverty, ignorance and marginalization of the masses, which hinder underprivileged
Cameroonians acquiring ICT knowledge to connect them with their communities and globally foreducational and socio-economic benefits. VICTASUP is answering the question: which farming methods
and ICT system(s) can sustainable deliver our objectives to targeted population? The sum total of ICTplus Information Dissemination (ID) is equal to Sustainable Development (ICTID4SD). Evidently the ICT
equipment with the best chance for effecting change, which is cost-effective, easy to manipulate, transport,
maintain and harness, is the mobile phone. VICTASUP is training subsistence farmers on organic mixed
farming or intensive market gardening to improve yields, and to use cell phones/SMS andcomputer/Internet to acquire necessary agricultural and marketing skills and information.

1–2
3

Practical Association (PRACASS), PO Box 402 Buea, Cameroon.
VAVAN means children of farmers.

14 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

VAVAN Information Communication Technology (ICT) Agricultural Sustainable Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene and Nalova Becky Etinge

INTRODUCTION
Subsistence farmers who work the rich volcanic soil of Mount Cameroon complain about poor yields,
congested distant markets, bad roads, transportation costs, uncertain fluctuating market prices, poor
storage facilities and poor communication. This challenged us, in 2002, to investigate the causes of poor
yields and how we can improve marketing conditions and communication.
Literature Review
In the past, the rich Mount Cameroon volcanic region was known for its production of abundant crops andanimals, without using chemical fertilizers, but farmers are now using chemical fertilizers in farming.
Historically, the population was small and markets were few and nearer to the farmers, enabling consumers
to get there and buy their needs. Farmers did not advertise, since people were close to them and knew theirproduce. But, as a result of population increase, and growth of villages and towns, new markets haveemerged far from farming communities. So, farmers are forced to advertise their produce and travel on badroads to distant markets with uncertain prices, to market their products.
The problems of advertising and communication, poor yields and market conditions are aggravated bymassive demands for food and pressure of increasing farming activities in the limited soil, which is forcing
farmers to use bush fires and chemicals to improve crop yields, while they are ignorant of the long-term
effects of these practices on the soil.
Problem Statement
As a result of illiteracy and lack of ICT knowledge and equipment (caused by poverty, poor exposure andpoor sensitization/awareness), the farmers adopt primitive methods, lack education/training and haveinadequate communication with customers and consumers. Consequently, they are depleting the volcanic
soil and frustrating themselves, as insufficient income is generated to meet their basic requirements.
Scope and Purpose of Research
The scope of the research reported here was to investigate the causes of poor farming methods, market
conditions, education/training and communications among farming communities, with the purpose ofobtaining solutions and educating farmers on sustainable organic farming methods and communication
skills to promote/sustain their socio-economic activities to alleviate poverty, improve their community andprotect their environment.
Through research in collaboration with technicians from the ministry of agriculture and forestry, Institute ofAgricultural Research (IRA) Ekona Research Center and Limbe Botanic Garden, we discovered that poor
yields are caused by burning of vegetation prior to planting. This may produce abundant yields in earlyseasons, but later produces poor yields, because soil saprophytes, earthworms, crickets, etc., andcolloidal properties that replenish, aerate and enrich the soil are destroyed by fire.
For marketing, we discovered that if the farmers sell their produce on site, it solves the problems of distance,transportation and storage. However, there were still questions of market prices, advertising, weather andAgricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 15

VAVAN Information Communication Technology (ICT) Agricultural Sustainable Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene and Nalova Becky Etingepest control. ICT was introduced to answer these questions. The major problems were: which farming
method should we introduce to farmers? Which ICT system(s) would be costeffective to buy, harness,maintain and run? What is the literacy level and ICT knowledge of farmers?
During the research, we discovered the most succinct statement about ICT for socio-economic
development in The Economist (Anon., 2005): “the debate over the digital divide is founded on amyth—that plugging poor countries into the internet will help them to become rich rapidly … even if it werepossible to wave a magic wand and cause a computer to appear in every house hold on earth, it would notachieve very much: a computer is not useful if you have no food or electricity and cannot read … Plenty ofevidence suggests that the mobile phone is the technology with the greatest impact on development”. This
statement motivated us and we believe that this is the first documented experiment on using mobile phones
and computer/Internet for agricultural/socio-economic development.
Evidently the sum total of ICT plus Information Dissemination (ID) is equal to Sustainable Development(ICTID4SD).
MATERIALS AND METHODSSpecific materials and ICT equipment are used, alongside costs-effective simple and friendly
methodologies to accomplish the projects objectives.
Materials
The project used: demonstration farm land (10 hectares provided by Bokoko village authorities);
agroforestry plants (for composting and fencing to protect the land from stray animals, intruders and to
replenish the soil); and farming equipment. Computers connected to the Internet, smart camera–mobile
phones for kiosks and ‘dumb’ mobile phones (capabilities limited to voice and SMS text messaging) for
farmers.
Research Methodology
The research occurred in two stages. First, an ethnographic approach was taken to understand the farmers’level of education (i.e. reading and writing), and their knowledge of mixed (crop and livestock) organic
farming, phone/SMS and computer/Internet use— we viewed agriculture not just as a process of
production, but as a social practice involving interactions among farmers, administrators, extension officers
and ICT operators.
This phase aimed to answer two questions: (1) how can we improve farming quality through mixed organic
farming, computer/Internet and phone/SMS use? (2) What is the relative value of phones/SMS andcomputers/Internet compared to various other alternatives to improve agriculture?
Sample questionnaires were used to interview farmers and their families directly, to find out their level of
education and communication skills—concerning reading and writing, understanding of organic farming
methods, use of mobile phones and computers, and Internet access.

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VAVAN Information Communication Technology (ICT) Agricultural Sustainable Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene and Nalova Becky Etinge

After a cost–benefit analysis, the second stage of the research proposed and implemented mobile phones
and computers/Internet as the best combination of ICT systems to benefit farmers, villagers andcommunities.
Methodologies of Implementation
Farmers were trained in farm partitioning, mixed organic farming, intensive market gardening, andcomputer/Internet and phone/SMS use.
Project Layout
The demonstration farm was cleared and partitioned into four parts: 5 ha for the planting of perennial andbiennial crops (maize, beans, etc.), 1 ha for the construction of poultry- and pig-raising facilities, 3 ha forgrowing cover crops, potatoes and other crops for animal feed and composting, and 1 ha for growing
mushrooms and vegetables. Cleared vegetation from the land was used for composting.
Along the agroforestry and compost fences, the climber eru (Gnetum sp.) was planted, which is nutritious,
medicinal, lucrative, economical, in great demand for consumption (nationally, regionally andinternationally), endangered, protected and overexploited.
We used an existing SMS toolkit gateway solution, available via free download. It provides a simple PCbased programming interface (consisting of send/receive and process messages) to SMS, connected toan SMS sending/receiving port. We were able to develop a software solution for the project on top of thetoolkit, written with only a few hundred lines of C# code. Technically, we used a PC connected to a server,
one Windows Mobile Smartphone to provide our SMS sending/receiving port (called the server phone), the
SMS toolkit software, our customized software, a number of kiosk Smartphones and farmers’ ‘dumb’phones for our operations. A General Service Mobile (GSM) card built into the PC could achieve the samefunctionality.
1. Agricultural Training. Agricultural technicians and forestry engineers from the agriculture and forestry
ministries were responsible for training farmers, through demonstrations at the demonstration farm andpractically on their farms, on the following: farm partitioning, mushroom cultivation, vegetables,
perennials/biennials, eru, animals, construction and use of compost, shifting cultivation, bush fallowing,
mulching, crop rotation, local production of animal feed from harvested plants, use of animal waste asmanure, planting agroforestry plants along boundaries to protect the farm, replenishing the soil with theirfallen leaves and to support the eru climber. The technicians and engineers followed up on the farmers’
farms and evaluated them after every harvest.
2. Phone/SMS and Computer/Internet Training. Training is guaranteed and provided by partnerorganization PRACASS Information Technology Communication Empowerment Center (PICTEC) and otherprofessional ICT volunteers.
Phone and SMS Training. The one-day training workshop always took place at PICTEC and the farmers andtheir children were trained on: making and receiving phone calls, sending, receiving and replying to SMS,
and phone charging.
Computer and Internet Training. Taking into consideration farmers’ and their children’s level of education,
training lasted for up to 6 months and concentrated on: Windows XP Professional, Microsoft Word,
Microsoft Excel, Internet fundamentals, and importance of ICT in agricultural and community development.
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 17

VAVAN Information Communication Technology (ICT) Agricultural Sustainable Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene and Nalova Becky EtingeCommunication Strategy
Communication was achieved by the use of mobile phones/SMS linked to computers connected toInternet, e-mail, and radio and TV programmes. Farmers receive SMS messages daily direct from PICTEC(for those who have phones and via mobile kiosks for those without) on: market prices, crops and animals inhigh demand, weather conditions and pest control. The farmers are encouraged to always use SMS, since
it is very cheap and often without charge.
The kiosks’ camera–phones are used by farmers and communities to make and receive calls, send andreceive SMS messages, and to photograph their produce (they send the images to customers/consumers
as advertisements); and the kiosks’ computers will in the future be used for a website and database. These
services are paid for by farmers and community individuals to sustain the kiosks and project operations.
RESULTS
Sample Survey
Of the 180 families interviewed, 75% knew nothing about organic farming, 80% knew nothing about
computers/Internet, 35% could use mobile (cell) phones (at least receive and make calls) and 25% had
mobile phones. Some 90% of their children could use mobile phones and 35% access the Internet. So we
settled on an SMS text-messagebased system and piloted it in seven villages and three urban poor
communities in Fako Division.
Pilot Project
The pilot project is yielding impressive results, within just 2 years of operation (June 2006 to date). Of the 180
farmers (and five kiosks) we started with, 155 farmers are practising organic farming and growing
mushrooms, eru, vegetables, perennials and biannuals, and animals on same piece of land, and arerecording good yields and sales (bush fires are now very rare). Ninety-seven of the farmers can read andwrite, use computers and browse the Internet; 98 are using personal cell phones and 175 use mobile
phones (personal phones or in kiosks). By 2008, there were 15 kiosks.
With simple coded SMS massages/beeps or per-second calls, farmers invite customers and report farm
thieves on sight. With the customers/consumers buying at the farms, the problems of transportation, badroads, perishability, market prices, congestion/frustration, unpredicted weather and consumers’ demands
are solved. Theft of farmers’ produce has greatly reduced.
Villages are booming, as private phone booths, computer and Internet training centres have emerged;
trucks come daily to transport produce and so create temporal employment, and there are job opportunities
from phone kiosks, computer/Internet centres and farm labour, as farmers can now afford to pay for labour
from their benefits.
Communication Strategy
Most of the farmers use the kiosks to make calls, since it’s cheaper, and their cell phones to send andreceive SMS to and from customers/consumers and PICTEC exchange centre. The kiosks are used as
information centres (both by phone owners and those without phones), they hire smart phone services,
photograph their produce and send the images to wherever required. Farmers also communicate easily
with agricultural and forestry technicians through SMS for advice and to solve their problems.
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VAVAN Information Communication Technology (ICT) Agricultural Sustainable Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene and Nalova Becky Etinge

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The project uses organic mixed farming and intensive market gardening, because they do not require a lotof land, are less polluting of the soil and environment, and do not destroy soil organisms and colloidal
properties. Moreover, they replenish the soil naturally. They are easy to use, less expensive (thanmonocropping) and require little effort as the vegetation exists around the farms.
Cell phones are the best ICT instrument because they are portable, cost-effective, easy to use, and easy tocharge/maintain. Computers/Internet is the media of choice (over radio/TV), because it is easy and access
is free, there is an information database, no censorship, global connectivity, educational/socio-economic
value, job opportunities, and it is cheap and fast for advertising and sending of messages.
From our results, it is evident that organic farming is highly productive, lucrative and environmentally friendly,
as it does not pollute the environment, but replenishes and enriches the soil. Also the growth of the project(due to the communication strategy and the global use of mobile phone technology for agriculture/socioeconomic development) is a clear indication of its successes. The popularity and successes of eChoupals
in rural Madivya Pradesh (Kumar, 2004), Warana Unwired in India (Veerararaghavan et al., 2007) and othersimilar experiences, is thanks to mobile-phone technology linked to computers connected to the Internet.
The impact of this project to farmers and the community can be judged from the result indicators.
Result Indicators
Result indicators are measured from the number of trucks or tonnes of produce they carry during harvestingseasons, number of farmers having phones, number of phone booths and Internet training centres locally,frequency of buying phone credits by farmers and kiosks, references to the project being successful (onradio and TV stations), growth of other economic activities in the community—all of these are positive. There
are numbers of school dropouts going back to general education and technical school or to vocational
institutions, increase in students, kiosk benefits, job opportunities, invitations from other farming
communities to introduce the project to them, numbers of youths undertaking online education in various
disciplines, and pressure from the community to develop a website and database for the project, create its
own sustainable cyber café, and increase the services provided by the kiosks.
Conclusively, the advantages of organic farming are that it is non-pollutant, environmentally friendly, andsoil-replenishing. And of mobile phones: durability of battery power and easy to charge, mobility, fast andeasy to access at any time, cheap to buy and cost-effective to use, and global connectively of the Internetwith its easy to access information.
Discussion and Future WorkVICTASUP successes demonstrate how organic farming and mobile-phone technology can sustain lastingsocio-economic development. Considering domestic/global demands for safe energy and continuous
involvement of ICT in daily activities, the future of safe energy and involvement of ICT in education andsocio-economic development in Cameroon and Africa shall be initiated by VICTASUP.
1. Safe Energy. The numerous composts owned by farmers will be used in future to generate energy, from
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 19

VAVAN Information Communication Technology (ICT) Agricultural Sustainable Project (VICTASUP)
Gilbreth Ngando Namuene and Nalova Becky Etingegases coming from rotting vegetation, trapped and tapped by pipes connected beneath the composts, toa processing plant.
2. Expansion of ICT in VICTASUP. The mobile phone/computer and Internet connectivity with it’s local,
national and global demand and influence, will be used in future to develop a cyber café for the project withadditional services like: voice-activated helplines, webcam, to be used for sustainable education,
advertisement and marketing of produce, keeping farmers sales/income records, creating a co-operative
to serve and loan scheme for farmers/community, website and database for the project.
Literature Cited
Anon. 2005. The real digital divide. The Economist (10 March).
Kumar, R. 2004. eChoupals: A Study on the Financial Sustainability of Village Internet Centers in Rural
Madhya Pradesh. Information Technologies and International Development 2(1): 45–74.
Veeraraghavan, R., Yasodhar, N. and Toyama, K. 2007. Warana Unwired: Replacing Pcs with Mobile
Phones in a Rural Sugarcane Cooperative. International Conference on Information & Communication
Technologies for Development, Bangalore.

20 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Waste and Environmental
Management through Geospatial
Information Technology for Agricultural
Productivity
Matshwene E. Moshia1
Key words: dryland farming, maize, variable rate technology, waste management, environmental quality

Abstract
Recycling animal manure for crop production is a sustainable practice and has potential to enhance grain
yield while improving soil quality. The objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate the influence of variable-rate
manure applications on continuous maize fields under dryland cropping systems, and (ii) to further transfer
the science to the society for public-health protection. This study was conducted on a dryland field on afine-loamy, mixed, mesic Aridic Haplustalfs soil. Treatments included variable yield goal (VYG) manure
application and VYG commercial N application across management zones. Experimental strips were 4.5 m
wide and 540 m long spanned across all management zones, with treatments nested within managementzones. VYG manure application based on soil productivity management zones has the potential topositively influence maize grain yield in low-productivity areas of fields over time. On historically lowproducing areas of the field, manure application was able to produce higher grain yield than VYG N fertilizer
application. The study suggests that VYG application of animal manure using geospatial information
technology has a potential to improve soilfertility status and can be used in conjunction with synthetic N
fertilizer for improving grain yield.

1

University of Limpopo, Private Bag X 1106, Sovenga, 0727, South Africa..
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 21

Waste and Environmental Management through Geospatial Information Technology for Agricultural Productivity
Matshwene E. Moshia

INTRODUCTION
Historical Background and Situational Analysis
The world’s population is growing by nearly 80 million people per year (United Nations Population Fund,
1999). At the start of the third millennium, there were almost three times as many people in Africa as there
were in 1960 (Cohen, 2003), when Africa had less than half the population of Europe. In 2050, Africa may beapproaching three times as many people again (United Nations Population Fund, 1999). Africa’s share of
global population is projected to rise to 20% in 2050 from only 9% in 1960. As the population increases, thedemand for food correlates positively with population (Dyson, 1996). This growing population anddemands for food products are chief driving forces for farmers to increase the scope of their farming(Lafferty, 2007). This population growth has seen most farmers completely disconnecting from organic
farming in favor of conventional farming (Paull, 2006). The growth of human population and resultant
increase in demands for animal products has led to an increase in concentrated animal feeding operations(CAFOs).
The costs to the environment associated with these operations are the chemicals contained within manureloads from these CAFOs. There is a large body of literature indicating that the chemicals and gases inmanure can be noxious, not only to plants and animal life, but also to entire ecosystem. The byproducts ofanaerobic degradation of the manure include gaseous compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, methane,ammonia, methyl mercaptan, as well as carbon dioxide. These gases pollute the air and can be a nuisanceto those living nearby. These gases also have a detrimental effect on the atmospheric chemistry, ranging
from nuisance brown clouds to global warming.
Livestock raising is an important contributor to the agricultural economy in most parts of the world. However,
the impact of animal farms on the environment has come under close scrutiny (Giasson et al., 2002). The
challenge is that most of these livestock farms are close to water bodies and pose a high risk ofcontaminating the environment through manure. The livestock farming industry has been facing a serious
predicament of too much phosphorus (P) from excreted manure (Lory, 1999). The threat with manure P isthat when P is eroded into water bodies it causes eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems (Sims et al., 1998).
The water bodies become anaerobic, killing off aerobic organisms such as fish. Aerobic organisms are
replaced by anaerobic organisms such as sulfur- and ammonia-producing microorganisms because of
the development of algae (Amora- Lazcano and Azcon, 1997).
Current Dilemma
High transportation costs have led most animal operations to recycle animal manure on the same land or
close to where manure was originally produced in order to meet nitrogen (N) requirements of the crops(Janzen et al., 1999; Kellogg et al., 2000). The challenge with manure applied to meet N requirements is thatover time P may accumulate beyond crop requirements because the N:P ratio in manure does not correlatewith the N:P requirements of the crops—there is always more P than crops can consume. When manure isapplied uniformly or at excessive rates to soil, it may potentially degrade surface- and ground-water quality(Burkart and James, 1999; Smith et al., 2001a, b), and large piles of stored manure may result in related
problems of environmental contamination. There is a need to identify alternative and perhaps more
appropriate use(s) for manure.
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Waste and Environmental Management through Geospatial Information Technology for Agricultural Productivity
Matshwene E. Moshia

Toward Sustainability
The successful development of sustainable and innovative agricultural techniques and methodologies are
as much reliant on farmers’ involvement as on scientific research. While researchers continuously seek
innovative techniques for crop production, farmers provide views that are indispensable to the process oftechnology innovation and development. Geospatial information technology, which involves the use of
remotesensing techniques, global positioning systems and geographic information systems, has beenendorsed as a viable method for the management of waste and natural resources, and protection of theenvironment. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations under the Clean Water Act andconcentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are driving the need for improved record keeping andaccountability of manure applications.
The objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate the influence of variable-rate manure applications on
continuous maize fields under dryland cropping systems, and (ii) to further transfer the science to thesociety for public-health protection.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted on a farmer’s dryland fields. Maize fields were mapped with Trimble Ag114(Trimble Navigation Ltd, Sunnyvale, CA) differentially corrected Global Positioning System (DGPS). The
gray-scale bare-soil satellite imagery of the fields was acquired. Using farmer’s management experienceand satellite imagery, site-specific management zones based on soil color were delineated using
commercially available AgriTrak Professional software (Fleming et al., 2000). Management zones of high,medium and low productivity potential were delineated.
Before planting, soil samples were collected with a JMC Backsaver probe using systematic unaligned
sampling design, and navigation to sapling points was done with GGPS and FarmGPS Software (Red Hen
Systems Inc., CO). Manure was sampled at time of application. Animal manure was incorporated on thesame day immediately after application. Soil and manure samples were analyzed for pH, electricalconductivity (EC), organic matter, total N, nitrates-N, and phosphorus. In addition, particle-size distributionof soils was analyzed.
Experimental strips spanned across all zones, with treatments nested within zones. The treatments for the
study included variable-rate manure treatments using variable yield goal (VYG) manure management
strategy of 22–67 t/ha of animal manure across management zones, and VYG commercial N fertilizer
application based on soil analysis results. VYG nutrient application strategy is based on applying lower rates
of nutrients on low-producing areas of the field and higher rates on highly productive areas of the field.
The theory behind VYG is that lower yields are expected on low-producing areas and higher yields on
historically high-producing areas.
RESULTS
Variable Yield Goal Manure Applications
In the first year of study, maize grain yields of 3.1, 2.9 and 5.1 t/ha were recorded on low, medium and highAgricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 23

Waste and Environmental Management through Geospatial Information Technology for Agricultural Productivity
Matshwene E. Moshia

management zones, respectively, with yield on high management zones being significantly(P<0.05)higher than that on low and medium management zones. In the second year of study on the same
field, grain yields of 5.4, 4.9, and 4.1 t/ha were harvested on low, medium and high management zones,
respectively. Grain yield on low management zones in the second year of study was significantly higher thanthat of the high management zone.
Variable Yield Goal N Application
In the first year of study, grain yields of 3.3, 4.3 and 3.6 t/ha were harvested on low, medium and highmanagement zones, respectively (no significant differences). In the second year of study, yields of 4.3 and4.9 t/ha were harvested on low and medium management zones (no significant difference). Nothing wasrecorded on high management zone because maize was infected by corn smut.
DISCUSSION AND SCIENTIFIC CONCLUSIONS
The results of the study showed that VYG manure application based on soil productivity managementzones has the potential to positively influence maize grain yield of low productivity areas of a field over time.
On historically low-producing areas of the field, manure was able to produce maize grain yield of 3.1 and 5.4
t/ha in the first and second year of study, respectively. This increase in grain yield can be attributed toincreased N, P and organic matter that manure supplies when applied to agricultural fields. In this study,
manure was able to produce higher grain yield than commercial N fertilizer on the historically low-producing
areas of the field. The study suggests that variable rate application of animal manure using global
positioning systems has a potential to improve soil fertility status and can be used as an alternative to or in
conjunction with synthetic N fertilizer for improving or maintaining grain yield. The good thing about applying
manure on dryland fields in semi-arid areas is that there are few environmental concerns related toleaching and erosion.
Practical Conclusions and Transferring Science to Society
Animal-manure stocks are a growing concern to both the farming and non-farming public, because of therisk of eventual contamination of surface and ground water, nutrient and mineral toxicity of soil, andexcessive odors from polluted air. In Africa, there is a gap between scientific research and transfer ofknowledge to farming communities (Moshia, 2006). These scenarios demand that the scientific world takeaction. Environmental scientists have proposed easy steps for solving environmental problems:
assessment or scientific analysis, risk assessment, public education, political action, and follow-throughhave been identified as such steps for solving environmental problems. Animal manure should be moved
away from residential areas and water bodies, and taken to areas where it will not serve as a waste but as aresource. If taken to the field, animal manure may potentially supply crops with necessary nutrients andorganic matter, thus improving soil health. The study suggests that use of geospatial information
technology in applying animal manure is worth implementing. The key to this study project is to find thebalance between agronomically and environmentally sound manure application.
Literature Cited
Amora-Lazcano, E. and Azcon R. 1997. Response of sulphur cycling microorganisms to arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi in the rhizosphere of maize. Applied Soil Ecology 6, No. 3: 217–222.
24 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Waste and Environmental Management through Geospatial Information Technology for Agricultural Productivity
Matshwene E. Moshia

Burkart, M.R. and James, D.E. 1999. Agricultural-nitrogen contributions to hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. J.
Environ. Qual. 28: 850–859.
Cohen, J.E. 2003. Human population: The next half century. Science 302 (5648): 1172–1175.
Dyson, T. 1996. Population and Food: Global Trend and Future Prospect. Routledge,New York, NY.
Fleming, K.L., Westfall, D.G., Weins, D.W. and Brodhall, M. 2000. Evaluating farmer defined managementzone maps for variable rate fertilizer application. Precis. Agric. 2: 201–215.
Giasson, E., Bryant, R.B. Nelson, L. and Bills, N.L. 2002. Environmental and economic optimization of dairy
manure management: A mathematical programming approach. Agron J. 94: 757–766.
Janzen, R.A., McGill, W.B., Leonard, J.J. and Jeffrey, S.R. 1999. Manure as a resource: Ecological andeconomic considerations in balance. Trans. ASAE 42: 1261–1273.
Kellogg, R.L., Lander, C.H., Moffitt, D.C. and Gollehon, N. 2000. Manure Nutrients Relative to the Capacity of
Cropland and Pastureland to Assimilate Nutrients: Spatial and Temporal Trends for the United States. Publ.
NPS00-0579. USDA-NRCS, Economic Research Service, Washington, DC.
Lafferty, M. 2007. Too many people, not enough earth: Scientists debate how much population the world
can sustain. The Columbus Dispatch, Tuesday, February 13.
Lory, J.A. 1999. Managing Manure Phosphorus to Protect Water Quality. University of Missouri Outreach andExtension, Columbia, MO.
Moshia, M.E. 2006. Capacity building for agricultural extension officers to disseminate research results: akey to sustainable farming in South Africa. Global Approaches to Extension Practice (GAEP) 2 (2): 35–40.
Paull, J. 2006. The farm as organism: The foundational idea of organic agriculture. Journal of Bio-Dynamics
Tasmania 83: 14–18.
Sims, J.T., Simard, R.R. and Joern, B.C. 1998. Phosphorus loss in agricultural drainage: Historicalperspective and current research. J. Environ. Qual. 27: 277–293.
Smith, K.A., Jackson, D.R. and Pepper, T.J. 2001a. Nutrient losses by surface run-off following theapplication of organic manures to arable land. 1. Nitrogen. Environ. Pollut. 112: 41–51.
Smith, K.A., Jackson, D.R. and Pepper, T.J. 2001b. Nutrient losses by surface run-off following theapplication of organic manures to arable land. 2. Phosphorus. Environ. Pollut. 112: 53–60.
United Nations Population Fund 1999. Population change and people’s choice. In: State of the World
Population. United Nations Population Fund, New York, NY.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 25

Differential Impact of MicrofinanceParticipation on Smallholder Behavior
and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool1 and Alex Winter-Nelson2
Keywords: poverty reduction, technology use, asset poverty, Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract
This paper argues that the impacts of microfinance on use of improved technology and on consumption
vary across subpopulations differentiated by their asset holdings and structural transitions (or lack thereof).
Correcting for sample selection bias and controlling for other household characteristics with data from rural
Ethiopia, the analysis finds no relationship between household participation in microfinance programs andthe use of modern technologies or consumption growth for the poorest households. In contrast,
microfinance has a positive direct effect on consumption growth and an indirect effect through modern
technology use for less poor households. The findings highlight the need to more carefully assess thediverse nature of constraints faced by different classes of poor agricultural households and show thatrecognizing target-group differences using asset-based poverty classifications can contribute to thedevelopment and evaluation of sustainable poverty-reduction programs.

1–2

Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics, University of Illinois, 326 Mumford Hall, MC-710, 1301 West Gregory Drive,
Urbana, IL 61801-3605, USA..
26 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

INTRODUCTION
Since the 1990s, Ethiopia has experienced economic growth and declining poverty rates. Nonetheless, theprevalence of poverty remains staggeringly high (Dercon, 2006). Faced with persistent rural poverty, theGovernment of Ethiopia, donor communities and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) haveincreasingly sought to enhance farmers’ productivity by increasing their access to and use of improved
agricultural technology and non-farm enterprises. In addition to the actual development of agricultural
technology, it is also important to have a clear understanding of the dissemination process of the new
information and/or technology, as well as its adoption and use. Despite numerous interventions to promote
innovation in Ethiopia, technology-adoption rates remain low (Spielman, 2007). Moreover, the impact ofmany technologies and interventions among the poorest households has not been assessed.
Innovation may be inhibited by lack of sufficient credit to acquire inputs and make necessary investments.
Furthermore, underdeveloped financial markets that are not sufficient to allow consumption smoothing stifle
the adoption of profitable innovations that could raise income variability. With direct gender implications,limited access to input and output markets and inadequate information on market prices or on the practiceof new techniques can also constrain the adoption. By combining credit with training, microfinanceinstitutions (MFIs) might provide households with access to new technologies and pathways out of poverty.
While MFIs have spread rapidly in Ethiopia since the mid-1990s, little has been done to formally explore themechanisms through which MFIs serve their beneficiaries, what types of poor households use theirservices, or how their impacts on technology use and consumption vary among poor households.
The terms and conditions of microfinance contracts are likely to imply differential access to their services
across households with different poverty profiles. For example, joint-liability systems common in
microfinance are likely to discourage participation by households that control very limited resources andwhose income streams are more variable and therefore pose a risk for co-signers. Moreover, poor
households with different asset bases could experience different returns from participation. Those withcomplementary assets or more capacity to absorb risk could find microfinance and new technologies allow
a broader range of farm and non-farm opportunities than do other households. Thus, both access to
microfinance and the payoff from investments could differ across households with different poverty profiles.
This research examines the differential impact of credit provision among farm households experiencing
different degrees of poverty in rural Ethiopia. It considers the effects of farmer participation in microfinanceprograms on the use of new technologies and the impact of these technologies and finance on
consumption growth. The paper considers three farm technologies (fertilizer use, chemical use andirrigation) and participation in non-farm enterprises, all of which could affect household income and be
affected by microfinance. Because MFIs might enhance income directly by delivering other useful services,
we consider the direct impact of microfinance participation on consumption growth, as well as its impact
through technology adoption. Given that most MFI providers in Ethiopia highlight a focus on encouraging
female participation, we also test for any gender bias in the use of MFI services. The analysis relies on anassetdynamics model to distinguish the poverty status of households3. Households were stratified on thebasis of the persistence of their asset-poverty status over a 10-year period (1994–2004). Households wereclassified as ‘always asset poor’ if their estimated consumption based on their assets was below the
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 27

Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

expenditure-poverty line in each survey year. Households whose asset base would predict consumption
above this threshold each year were labeled ‘never asset poor,’ and those whose status varied from year toyear were classified as ‘transitory asset poor.’ The always asset poor households are considered to haveeffectively been trapped in poverty from the initial period.
METHODOLOGYTechnology choice can be modeled as a constrained utility maximization problem for a household as
characterized in Singh et al. (1986). As described by Sadoulet and de Janvry (1995), the solution to thisproblem yields reduced form specifications of demand for inputs and technologies and supply of outputs.
Based on these reduced form specifications, this paper models participation in microfinance and its impact
on household livelihood in a two-part procedure. The first step analyzes the impact of microfinanceparticipation on use of technology and non-farm enterprises within each of the poverty classes considered.
The second step estimates the impact of technology use and microfinance on consumption growthamong households in each poverty class. 2 The asset-based measure used in this research wasdeveloped by a nonlinear regression of household consumption on its physical and human assets. Thismeasure was constructed by the authors and has been compared (using various methods) to the
traditional income measure used in the development literature. This measure was found to be moreconsistent in predicting the medium- and long-term poverty status of households. Following Zeller et al.
(1997) and Vidovic and Khanna (2007), we control for potential endogeneity due to unobserved
characteristics that could affect participation in MFI programs as well as technology choice, by estimating avariant of the standard sample selection model. Our technology use equation can be expressed as:
Pr(T Uikt=1)x = F((aA)x + (ßAKit)x + (?AZit)x + (dAIit)x +( ?AT)x + (? AVi)x + (Eit )x) (1)Where TUikt refers to the use of technology k by household i in period t and Pr(T Uikt=1)
is the probability that household i uses technology k in period t; K is a vector of explanatory variables that
determine a household’s use of a technology such as market opportunities; Z is a vector of household
demographic characteristics, Iit refers to household i’s participation in a microfinance arrangement in time t,
while T and V are time and village dummies to account for time- and village-specific characteristics that
could affect a household’s decision to use a particular technology. F is a nonlinear function of the
explanatory variables assumed to be symmetric around zero and the Greek letters aA, ßA, ?A, dA, ?A and ? A
are the coefficients associated with the previously defined explanatory variables. However, to address
potential endogeneity, prior to modeling the use of modern technologies, we first estimated the following:Pr(Iit=1)x = F((aI)x + (ßISit)x + (?IT)x + (? I Vi)x +(E2it)x) i=(1,…,N) ; t=(1,…,T) (2)This formulation posits that we have a latent variable I*it capturing household utility from microfinance.
Equation (2) states that a household’s decision to participate in a microfinance program is based on some3

The asset-based measure used in this research was developed by a nonlinear regression of household consumption on its
physical and human assets. This measure was constructed by the authors and has been compared (using various methods) to the
traditional income measure used in the development literature. This measure was found to be more consistent in predicting the
medium- and long-term poverty status ofhouseholds..
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Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

unobservable utility index which depends on a set of explanatory variables (S), as well as time - (T) andvillage - (Vi) specific effects. Actual participation (Iit) is observed as either one or zero, depending onwhether the household participates or not. Observed participation, Iit = 1 if I*it>0 and 0 otherwise.
Directly estimating equation (1) will lead to simultaneity bias if the error terms, E1it and E2it, are correlated aswould occur when unobserved household variables affect both Iit and TUikt. To produce unbiased andconsistent estimates of technology use, this paper uses the predicted probability of participation fromequation (1) in estimating the technology use, equation (2) (Maddala, 1983; Zeller et al. 1997; Vidovic andKhanna, 2007). The second part of this analysis uses a fixed effects model of consumption growth to obtainconsistent and unbiased estimates of the coefficients associated with modern technology use andmicrofinance estimation. This can be expressed as follows:(?Yit )x= (aLi)x + (ßL1Kit)x + (ßL2Zit)x + (ßL3Ait)x + (ßL4TUikt)x + (ßL5Iit)x + (ELit)x(3)

where (?Yit )x refers to the change in per-capita consumption of household i in poverty class x between time t
and t+1. Consumption (Yit)x is measured by log of household percapita consumption expenditure; aLi is aconstant term; Kit and Zit represent vectors of control variables as used in equation 1, and Ait includes
additional variables for the value of livestock, farm implements and miscellaneous household items; TUikt
captures household use of technology k, and I measures household participation in a microfinanceprogram. ßL is the vector of estimated parameters and ELit is the time and individual specific error term. It is
assumed that ELit is an independent and identically distributed random variable with mean zero andvariance s 2E.
RESULTS
Participation in Microfinance
Table 1 presents results from equation (1), which estimates participation by household i in a microfinancearrangement at time t. The chi-square test of this regression suggests that the instrument is valid. The
results reveal that the determinants of participation vary across poverty classes. For example, femaleheaded households are less likely than male-headed households to participate in MFI among the neverasset poor, but are more likely among the transitory asset poor households. Similarly, from the relative
poverty variable we see that within the always asset poor and the never asset poor classes, lower-income
households are less likely to participate in microfinance programs. However, lower-income households
among the transitory asset poor are more likely to get microfinance support4. The coefficients on the time
variables in Table 1 indicate increasing participation from 1994 to 1999 for non asset poor households andfrom 1999 to 2004 for households in all poverty groups. This increase in participation is consistent withgovernmental and NGO promotion of microfinance since the 1990s. On average, larger households andhouseholds with younger household heads are more likely to participate in microfinance programs.

4
Due to lack of explanatory power for the transitory asset poor class, participation in Food For Work (FFW) within that class was used as anindicator of relative poverty status rather than the household belonging to the lower third of the distribution of assets used in the other groups.
This might explain the positive relationship seen in Table 1, which is believed to be partially driven by the fact that households receiving
support in the form of FFW could be more likely to also receive other forms of assistance such as access to credit.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 29

Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

Table 1. Random effects probit estimates of microfinance (MFI) participation
MFI Participation Always Asset Poor Never Asset Poor

Transitory AssetAll Households

Poor
Coef.

P>z

Coef.

P>z

Coef.

P>z

Coef.

P>z

HH size

0.08*** 0.01

0.09*** 0.00

0.10*** 0.00

0.09*** 0.00

Male head

–0.16

0.21*

–0.43** 0.01

–0.07

Relative poverty–0.57*** 0.00

0.27**

0.08–0.45** 0.00

1999

0.200

0.661*** 0.001

0.23

0.18

0.38*** 0.00

2004

0.74*** 0.00

1.72***

0.00

0.54*** 0.00

1.10*** 0.00

Constant–1.90*** 0.00

–2.61*** 0.00

–1.55*** 0.00

–1.74*** 0.00

No. observations

380

483

352

1215

2

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.20

0.25

0.19

0.21

Prob>?

2

Pseudo R

0.35
0.27

0.09

–0.215** 0.05

0.42

Notes: Village dummies and other controls were included in the regression but were not reported for space consideration; The dependent
variable is household (HH) participation in a microfinance program;*=significant at 10%, **=significant at 5%, ***=significant at 1%. Coef.
refers to the coefficients associated with the explanatory variables and P>z refers to the probability of getting a z statistic at least as extreme
as obtained from our data if our coefficients were insignificant.

Technology Use and Participation in MFI
Table 2 summarizes the effect of MFI participation on technology use and participation in non-farmenterprises across different poverty classes. It reveals that participating in microfinance has no effect on
fertilizer, chemical or irrigation use for the always asset poor. Compared to 1994, always asset poor
households who took loans were less likely to use fertilizer in 1999 even though average fertilizer use in thisgroup was higher in 1999 than in 1994. It appears that when taken, microfinance loans were not used for
fertilizer by participants in this poverty class. In contrast, for the never asset poor, household participation in a
microfinance arrangement positively and significantly affected use of the various technologies. On average,
MFI participation among the transitory poor had no effect on their behavior. However, it was negatively
associated with participation in non-farm enterprises. Given that the poorer members of this group weremore likely to participate in MFI, this indicates that these households were also less likely to use loans forengaging in non-farm enterprises.

30 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

Table 2. Random effects estimates of the impact of participation in microfinance(MFI) on technology use with bootstrapped errors
ModernAlways Asset Poor

Technology

MFI

Never Asset Poor

MFI

MFI

1999

2004
1.8

Fertilizer–3.3–7.5**

Irrigation

6.9–10.8** –1.5

MFITransitory Asset Poor
MFI

MFI

1994

2004

–0.1

2.0

–2.4

70.2*** –50.1*** –63.2

4.2–6.6**–2.1

38.0***

MFI

MFI

1999

2004

–16.5

–37.6

MFI

Chemicals

–4.1

8.8**

4.7

34.6*** –26.3*** –33.2

–1.9

2.6

0.6

Non-farm

6.1

–8.3

–3.9 –

5.2

–9.5*

2.8

9.0**

2.8

5.3

enterprises
NProb> ?2

380
0.00

483
0.00

352
0.00

Notes: MFI is a dummy variable which is equal to 1 if a household took a microfinance loan and 0 otherwise. MFI 1999 and MFI 2004 arevariables that interact the MFI variable with a time dummy for 1999 and 2004 to account for both the direct effect of MFI and changes in theeffect of MFI over time.Village dummies and other controls were included in the regression but are not reported. The dependent variable ishousehold use of modern technology; *=significant at 10%; **=significant at 5%;***=significant at 1%.

Consumption Growth
The ultimate goal of microfinance programs and improved technology is to increase farmers’ incomes.
Considering growth in consumption expenditures, results from the fixed effects estimation of equation (3)reveal that technology practices and microfinance programs have different effects on wellbeing across thedifferent poverty classes. Table 3 shows that among the always asset poor, participation in microfinanceservices had little direct effect on consumption change. Similarly, coefficients on technology use werelargely insignificant for this group. The only variables that were positively and significantly associated withchange in household consumption were participation in wage labor and non-farm enterprises. Comparedwith 1994, taking a loan was less likely to increase household consumption in 1999. As expected,
household size was negatively associated with increased household consumption.

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Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

Table 3. Fixed effects estimation of consumption growth with bootstrapped
standard errorsÄln consumption Always Asset Poor Never Asset Poor

Transitory Asset

expenditure per

PoorcapitaCoef.

Household size

–1.1*** 0.00

Wage labor

0.46*** 0.00

P>t

Coef.

P>t

All households

Coef.

P>t

Coef.

–1.2*** 0.00

1.4***

0.00–1.2*** 0.00

0.07

0.52**

0.05

0.32*** 0.00

0.63

P>t

MFI participation

–0.01

0.96

0.35**

0.05

0.43

0.15

0.23*

0.08

Fertilizer use

–0.04

0.84

0.28*

0.06

0.20

0.33

0.15*

0.10

Irrigation

–0.04

0.86

–0.17

0.35

–0.13

0.65

–0.14

0.25

Other chemicals

0.09

0.56

0.38*** 0.00

0.30**

0.05

0.20**

0.02

0.64*** 0.00

0.141

0.87

0.30*** 0.00

Non-farm enterprise 0.59***
N

380

483

352

1215

Prob>F

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Notes: ? ln consumption expenditure per capita refers to household consumption per-capita growth between time t and t+1; Coef. refers to
the coefficients associated with the explanatory variables and P>t refers to the probability of getting a t statistic at least as extreme as
obtained from our data if our coefficients were insignificant; Prob>F gives the probability of observing the F statistic we got from our model if
the R2 in the population was actually equal to zero; *=significant at 10%, **=significant at 5%, ***=significant at 1%.

Table 3 shows that technology use was an important determinant of consumption growth among the neverasset poor households. Fertilizer use, chemical use and engaging in a non-farm enterprise all positively
contributed to household consumption. Furthermore, participation in microfinance directly contributed toincreasing household consumption. These results indicate that, apart from influencing the use of modern
technology, microfinance programs offer other services that benefit rural households in this poverty class.
For the transitory asset poor, participation in microfinance appears to have some direct impact on
consumption. On average, the relationship appeared to be positive, but was only ‘significant’ at 15%.
Chemical pesticide use was also positively associated with increased household consumption for thisgroup. As can be seen in the last column of Table 3, regression results from pooling the entire sample ofhouseholds would have obscured the true drivers of consumption growth.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONSThis research found that microfinance programs in Ethiopia have had some positive impact on farmers’
livelihoods. This impact can be seen in the role that microfinance programs play in the use of various
improved technologies and in their measured impact on consumption growth when controlling fortechnology use. The study found that this impact is not uniformly distributed, and is strongest for the neverasset poor. Participation in microfinance programs is more likely to lead to technology use for thesehouseholds. Modern technologies are for the most part significantly associated with consumption growth
for the never asset poor and the transitory asset poor, but not the always asset poor. Since even the neverasset poor households in this sample generally had very low absolute incomes, reaching them is a valuable
achievement. Households classified as always asset poor, however, did not appear to benefit frommicrofinance programs. The study found no evidence of gender discrimination in the use of microfinance
32 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia
L. Saweda Onipede Liverpool and Alex Winter-Nelson

services among the poorest households. However, among the least poor households, male-headedhouseholds were more likely to participate in microfinance programs than female-headed households.
Meanwhile, among the transitory asset poor households, there appeared to be some effective targeting by
microfinance programs as female-headed households were more likely to participate; as were the relatively
poorer households in that group.
The impact of improving agricultural technologies appears to be greater among the less poor households,
who might have more long-term potential as efficient producers. The poorest households do not appear tobenefit from their use at all. This might be economically rational given the level of their poverty, but requires
further exploration. Food-for-work programs or other similar interventions could enable the poorest
households to avoid the depletion of their meager assets and build capacity for the potential use of modern
technology practices in the future. Alternatively, other interventions could be implemented to enable
diversification out of farming. In any case, having multiple programs side by side may be an effective way to
alleviate different forms of poverty.
Non-farm enterprises had a significant and positive effect on consumption growth for all classes ofhouseholds, but microfinance programs did not appear to play a role in household participation in these
activities. Expanding the use and effectiveness of improved technology practices, as well as non-farmenterprises, necessitates understanding why poorer households are not apparently benefiting frommicrofinance institutions or existing technology enhancements.
In addition to revealing the differential impact of institutional interventions on rural farmer behavior andlivelihood, this study shows why recognizing target-group differences (e.g. using asset poverty typologies)
is an important consideration in program development as well as program evaluation. Not only does it
inform the development of appropriate strategies for different kinds of households, but it prevents wrong
assessment of government and other development programs.
In much of the evaluation of microfinance programs, focus is placed on recovery rates and number ofpeople served by the program, with little attention placed on the possible differences among participants.
As seen from this study’s results, a failure to distinguish between participants would have led to theconclusion that MFI had little or no effect at all on modern technology use. However, we find that this is not
the case for the relatively better-off households who actually benefit from this service. Similarly, it would haverevealed that microfinance programs had a direct positive effect on consumption growth, while we see that
this is not the case for the poorest households. Consequently, a conclusion about the success or failure of aprogram evaluated without distinguishing its effects on different kinds of poor households could be
misleading.
Literature Cited
Dercon, S. 2006. Economic reform, growth and the poor: Evidence from rural Ethiopia. Journal of
Development Economics 81(1): 1–24.
Maddala, G.S. 1983. Limited Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Sadoulet, E. and de Janvry, A. 1995. Quantitative Development Policy Analysis. The Johns Hopkins
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 33

Differential Impact of Microfinance Participation on Smallholder Behavior and Livelihood in Rural Ethiopia

University Press, Baltimore.
Singh, I., Squire, L. and Strauss, J. 1986. Agricultural Household Models. The Johns Hopkins University
Press, Baltimore.
Spielman, D. 2007. Social Learning, Rural Services, and Smallholder Technology Adoption: Evidence from
Ethiopia. Working Paper. International Food and Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Addis Ababa.
Vidovic, M. and Khanna, N. 2007. Can voluntary pollution prevention programs fulfill
their promises? Further evidence from the EPA’s 33/50 Program. Journal of Environmental Economics andManagement 53: 180–195.
Zeller, M., Diagne, A. and Mataya, C. 1997. Market Access by Smallholder Farmers in Malawi: Implications
for Technology Adoption, Agricultural Productivity and Crop Income. FCND Discussion Paper No. 35.
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC.

34 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Participatory Development of Improved
Groundnut Varieties for East andSouthern Africa
M.O. Osiru1, E.S. Monyo1, F. Waliyar2,
B. Chinyamunyamu3, O. Mponda4 and M. Siambi1
Keywords: breeding, early leaf spot, groundnut rosette disease, Malawi, resistance, Tanzania

Abstract
In Malawi and Tanzania, groundnut production is constrained by diseasesand pests. Scope exists forraising productivity to over 1.0 t/ha on farmers’ fields from current levels of 0.4–0.7 t/ha, if farmers are
empowered to use available technologies and knowledge. This research utilized varied techniques,
including a baseline survey, participatory varietal selection and on-station research, in Malawi and Tanzania
to develop high-yielding farmer- and market-acceptable short- and medium-duration groundnut varieties
with resistance to foliar diseases. For improved seed production, farmers in both countries were involved ingroundnutseed multiplication activities during 2006/07 to strengthen capacities. Results of the baseline
survey suggested key interventions, including seed supply, marketing services and extension services.
Results from the on-station work revealed three potential new sources of resistance to groundnut rosettedisease from a groundnut minicore comprising 192 lines representing the full range of trait variability in the
groundnut collection (ICG 6888, ICG 13099 and ICG 14705). Seed-production plots were established on
farmers’ fields. A total of 1.7 tonnes of variety ‘Nsinjiro’ and 32 tonnes of variety ‘Pendo’ were produced. The
multi-institutional partnership for technology uptake included farmers, community leaders, researchers andextension agents, and private-sector traders and processors.

1

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Lilongwe, Malawi.
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Niamey, Niger.
3
National Smallholder Farmer Association of Malawi, Lilongwe, Malawi.
4
Naliendele Agricultural Research Institute, Mtwara, Tanzania.
2

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 35

Participatory Development of Improved Groundnut Varieties for East and Southern Africa
M.O. Osiru, E.S. Monyo, F. Waliyar, B. Chinyamunyamu, O. Mponda and M. Siambi

INTRODUCTION
Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region in the world in which per-capita food production has continued to
decline since the early 1990s (FARA, 2003). Nutritional deficiencies remain a major concern, with close tohalf of the children under 5 years old in rural areas of Malawi (49%) and Tanzania (40%) malnourished to sucha degree that their development is retarded. Groundnut is high in both protein and oil. However, groundnut
productivity remains low (0.49t/ha in 2007; FAO, 2007) due to inadequate use of improved varieties,
diseases, pests, poor crop husbandry and poor seed, among others. Foliar diseases are generally
considered the major constraint to increased groundnut production. Groundnut rosette disease (GRD),
endemic to the African continent (Zimmerman, 1907), induces losses of up to 100% in many fields (Naidu etal., 1999b). The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) estimates lossesof US $50–89 million (€38–67 million) each year from GRD alone (Waliyar et al., 2007). Leaf diseases can becontrolled by timely applications of fungicidal sprays, but cost of fungicidal application is prohibitive forsmall-holder farmers, and there is an environmental risk (Naidu et al., 1999a). Therefore, use of resistantcrop cultivars provides the most appropriate means of disease control, being easily incorporated into
farmers’ operations at little extra cost. The objectives of this study were thus to (a) develop with farmers highyielding farmer- and market-acceptable short- and medium-duration groundnut varieties with resistance tofoliar diseases; and (b) enhance adoption rates of improved farmer- and market-acceptable varieties inMalawi and Tanzania.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
On-station Trials
Subsequent to a baseline survey, multi-site pedigree breeding and selection were undertaken in disease
hotspot locations using improved, local and wild germplasm with farmers’ participation. The breeding andselection was aimed at increasing the frequency of desirable alleles for disease resistance, stressresistance, and productivity. Breeding populations at ICRISAT (Chitedze, Malawi) and Naliendele
Agricultural Research Institute (NARI, Tanzania) were selected for resistance to diseases and abiotic
stresses as initial parents for the breeding programme. Participatory variety selection for acceptability inboth countries was undertaken on farm in both countries, and those meeting farmer and/or market criteria
were intercrossed to accumulate genes for higher levels of resistance and other useful characters.
Selection using the infector-row technique (Bock and Nigam, 1989; Subrahmanyam et al., 2001) was
conducted at sites representing the principle agro-ecologies, under disease pressure, to select forresistance to GRD and leaf diseases. Further segregating populations were screened for resistance to
GRD, early leaf spot (ELS) and rust in three long disease nurseries with plots of three rows of 6 m, spaced 75
cm apart, with 10–15 cm between plants, using infector-row technique in Latin-square design. Advanced
breeding lines were evaluated in replicated plots at several locations under different disease pressures.
Capacity-building
Concurrently, research capacity for groundnut improvement was enhanced among the participating
partners (farmers and researchers) through training in seed production and disease management
practices, and exchange visits following training needs assessments. Farmers in Malawi and Tanzania wereinvolved in groundnut seed multiplication activities during 2006/07. Thirty-six demonstrations were held on
36 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Participatory Development of Improved Groundnut Varieties for East and Southern Africa
M.O. Osiru, E.S. Monyo, F. Waliyar, B. Chinyamunyamu, O. Mponda and M. Siambi

farmers’ fields to support adoption of improved varieties and practices. Sets were planted in a randomized
complete block design in four replicates (4 farmers) with each plot consisting of four rows 20 m long spaced
as per other plots (see above). The multi-institutional partnership for technology uptake included farmers,
community leaders, researchers and extension agents, and private-sector traders and processors.
RESULTSIn the baseline surveys, respondents in Malawi cited inadequate finances for inputs and unfavourable
climate as the key crop production constraints (Table 1). Others cited unavailability of seed for crops, lack ofmanagement skills and unfavourable soil for crops as the key constraints. Groundnut marketing constraints
were reported to be low prices, uncalibrated weighing scales and lack of credit. Respondents suggested
key interventions as seed supply, marketing services, and extension services.
Table 1. Production constraints identified by farmers in Malawi and Tanzania
Constraint

Percentage of respondents citing(n=613)Inadequate finances for inputs

32.5

Climate unfavourable for the crops

27.4

Unavailability of seed for the crops

12.9

Lack of management skills

7.7

Low food/cash value of the crops

5.5

Unavailability of labour

5.2

Soil unfavourable for the crops

4.6

Don’t know

4.2

Pests and diseases

2.9

Lack of market

2.8

Lack of fertilizer/unavailability of fertilizer

1.0

Unavailability of land

0.3

Lack of extension services

0.3

Low-yielding varieties

0.2

Late planting

0.2

In Tanzania, farmers considered prevalence of pests and diseases to be the major limitations in groundnut
production. Analysis of groundnut variety preferences indicated high preference ratings for variety Pendo,
followed by Nyota, Johari and Sawia. According to this study, at least 30% of households’ total cultivatedarea was under groundnuts. Average farm area of groundnuts per household was about 1.5 acres (0.6 ha).
At least 50% of the household groundnut farms in the studied villages in Masasi were under improved
varieties.
Results from the on-station work revealed three potential new sources of GRD resistance from a groundnut
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 37

Participatory Development of Improved Groundnut Varieties for East and Southern Africa
M.O. Osiru, E.S. Monyo, F. Waliyar, B. Chinyamunyamu, O. Mponda and M. Siambi

minicore comprising 192 lines representing the full range of trait variability in the groundnut collections. The
new sources are ICG 6888, ICG 13099 and ICG 14705. From the 16 nurseries (F5–F6 in 394 progeny rows),
a total of 242 plants were identified for generation advance through single-plant selection (61% of the total
number of plants). From these, we identified 73 single-plant selections (from seven of the nurseries) with 0%
GRD incidence (18% of the progenies) and an additional 68 plants with rosette incidence of less than 20%.
From among 239 F7 progeny rows, 163 lines were identified for promotion to check-row yield performancetrials (68%) (Table 2).
From the participatory varietal selections in Tanzania, preference ratings from onfarm trials indicatedfarmers’ preference for ICGV 99555 and ICGV SM 99557. The two varieties showed high yield compared to
Pendo, the currently released variety. Other farmer preferred varieties in Tanzania were Nyota, Johari and
Sawia. In Malawi, the most farmer/market-preferred varieties were Chalimbana, CG7 and Jl24.
Table 2. Results of single-plant selection (SPS) programme for segregating
breeding populations in F5–F7 in the rosette disease (GRD) nursery, 2006/07
season, ICRISAT Chitedze Research Station (Malawi)
Nursery

Progeny Rows

No. Single

Entries with 0%

Entries with

PlantedPlants selected

GRD Incidence<20% GRD

Incidence
GRV res & conf (virg)-F5SPS

38

33

6

6

Aphid res & conf (virg)-F5SPS

50

34

5

9

GRV res & bold seeded-F6SPS

49

25

12

5

Aphid res × ELS res-F6SPS

129

65

6

33

GRV res × ELS res-F6SPS

53

35

20

6

Aphid res × GRV res-F6SPS

30

13

2

5

GRV res & conf-F6SPS

45

37

22

4

Aphid res backcrosses-F7SPS

29

13

0

4

Aphid res-F7SPS

44

27

0

5

Aphid res inheritance-F7SPS

17

8

0

0

Aphid & GRV res-F7SPS

27

15

0

3

GRV inheritance-aphid ×

8

6

2

1

GRV res &dormancy-F7SPS

36

31

2

8

GRV-F7SPS
GRV res -F7SPS

46

31

3

6

GRV inheritance-F7SPS

9

9

8

0

Dormancy & GRV res-F7SPS

23

23

0

2

conf = Confectionary; ELS = early leaf spot; GRV = groundnut rosette virus; res = resistance; SPS = singleplant selection; virg = Virginia.

Results of the demonstration trials indicated significant differences in pod and kernel yield. For Virginia
38 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Participatory Development of Improved Groundnut Varieties for East and Southern Africa
M.O. Osiru, E.S. Monyo, F. Waliyar, B. Chinyamunyamu, O. Mponda and M. Siambi

varieties, ICGV-SM 90704 was the most preferred, yielding 1281 kg/ha, while ICGV-SM 99568 (Chitala, aSpanish variety) was the overall preferred genotype across sites with a yield of 1461 kg/ha. Among the elitelines in the pipeline, ICGV-SM 01513 featured in the top four preferred varieties of the 10 tested varieties.
Chalimbana ranked poorly compared to the 2006/07 growing season, producing a kernel yield of 819
kg/ha.
Technology communication was also undertaken through farmer field days, seed fairs and meetings. Nine
farmer field days (with 393 stakeholders participating) were conducted in Malawi and two in Tanzania (171
farmers) to popularize and disseminate promising groundnut production technologies to farmers andcollaborating stakeholders. Two seed fairs (over 2000 participants) were held in Tanzania. In addition, aposter was presented at the Fourth Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) Meeting in Sandton,
South Africa.
DISCUSSION
There is large potential for improving farmer incomes through increasing groundnut production that has yet
to be exploited. Although farmers ranked variety Chalimbana poorly based on criteria provided, it remained
popular among farmers for its large kernels. Farmer ranking shows a growing inclination towards Spanish
varieties. The short rainy season experienced in these benchmark districts had a significant negative effecton the yield of long-duration varieties, especially Chalimbana. Other farmer preferences could partly explain
the continued cultivation of traditional, low-yielding varieties. Unfortunately, in Malawi, the farmer/marketpreferred varieties (Chalimbana, CG7 and JL24) are susceptible to all major diseases—GRD, ELS andrust—underlining the need to continue introgression of disease resistance into these farmer-preferred lines.
Farmers are aware that use of improved and adapted varieties significantly increases yields, but we believe
various other factors, such as poor access to improved seed, remain a constraint, highlighting the need to
improve access to seed through seed production and dissemination of improved varieties. Increasing
access to improved groundnut varieties (with better disease resistance, yield performance and market
acceptability) must be coupled with adoption of improved crop husbandry techniques and accompanying
access to markets for significant strides to be made.
At Chitedze (Malawi), the GRD pressure was high, resulting in over 90% infection in the spreader rows andsusceptible checks. Observed resistant progenies were to a great extent reflective of genetic resistance inthe populations. Two modes of resistance to GRD have been confirmed (Bock et al., 1990). The first is
resistance to groundnut rosette virus (GRV, available in ICGV-SM 90704) and the second is resistance to theaphid vector (available in ICG 12991). The resistant lines identified in this study go a long way in boostingsources of resistance to GRD. Further confirmation of the value for these lines will be done throughgreenhouse experimentation.
CONCLUSION
The findings of this research demonstrate that farmers are able to effectively participate in plant breeding
programmes. Farmers’ identification of susceptible genotypes correlated well with researchers’ results fordisease attributes. The findings also indicate that use of on-farm demonstrations can be an important tool in
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 39

Participatory Development of Improved Groundnut Varieties for East and Southern Africa
M.O. Osiru, E.S. Monyo, F. Waliyar, B. Chinyamunyamu, O. Mponda and M. Siambi

the evaluation process to ensure that input from farmers is obtained. The screening of genotypes on farm
further facilitates identification of possible parents that combine disease resistance, acceptability andadaptability to the local growing conditions. It is hoped that this will increase the adoption of improved
groundnut production technologies, as farmers’ preferred traits would be incorporated into current andfuture breeding programmes. Promotion of integrated disease management strategies, such as earlyplanting, use of resistant varieties, and correct plant spacing, should be intensified, promoted andpopularized among smallholders through field days and demonstrations, to increase awareness among
the smallholder farmers. The findings from this work underscore the importance of farmers in participatory
plant breeding.
Acknowledgements
The Mcknight Foundation is acknowledged for providing funds for this study through the Project Groundnut
Breeding for East and Southern Africa of the Legume Community of Practice for Southern Africa.
Literature Cited
Bock K.R. and Nigam S.N. 1989. Methodology of groundnut rosette screening and vector-ecology studies
in Malawi. p. 7–10. In: K.R. Bock, D.L. Cole, G.L.
Hildebrand, S.N. Nigam and J.A. Wightman (eds.), Third Regional Groundnut Workshop for Southern Africa,
Lilongwe, Malawi, 13–18 March 1988. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics(ICRISAT), Patencheru, India.
Bock K.R., Murant A.F. and Rajeshwar R. 1990. The nature of the resistance in groundnut to rosette disease.
Annals of Applied Biology 117: 379–384.
FARA 2003. FARA’s Strategy for Agricultural Research for Development in Africa, 2002–2012. Forum for
Agricultural Research in Africa, Accra.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2007. www.faostat.org.
Naidu, R.A., Kimmins, F.M., Deom, C.M., Subrahmanyam, P., Chiyembekeza, A.J. and van der Merwe,
P.J.A. 1999a. Groundnut rosette: a virus affecting groundnut production in sub-Saharan Africa. Plant
Disease 83(8): 700–710.
Naidu, R.A., Kimmins, F.M., Holt, J., Robinson, D.J., Deom, C.M. and Subrahmanyam, P. 1999b.
Spatiotemporal separation of groundnut rosette disease agents.Phytopathology 89: 934–941.
Subrahmanyam, P., Naidu, R.A., Reddy, L.J., Lava Kumar, P. and Ferguson, M.E. 2001. Resistance togroundnut rosette disease in wild Arachis species. Annals of Applied Biology 139: 45–50.
Waliyar, F., Lava Kumar, P., Ntare, B.R., Monyo, E., Nigam, S.N., Reddy, A.S., Osiru, M. and Diallo, A.T. 2007.
Groundnut Rosette Disease and its Management. Information Bulletin No. 75. International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patencheru, India.
Zimmermann, A. 1907. Uber eine Krankheit der Erdnusse (Arachis hypogaea). Der Pflanzer 3: 129–133.

40 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Morphological Characterization ofTomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei1, K.O. Bonsu1, S.O. Ekyem1 and R. Akromah2
Keywords: diversity, TYLCV, breeding, determinate, indeterminate, descriptor list, varieties

Abstract
The low diversity of tomato varieties in Ghana coupled with numerous pests and diseases, poses a serious
threat to tomato production in the country. Recognizing the importance of the crop to the economy made itnecessary to collect and characterize available germplasm from Ghana and beyond as a first step to its
improvement. Twenty-eight accessions of tomato were assessed for morphological traits using the World
Vegetable Center (AVRDC) descriptor list. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with
two replications. Data were collected on plant growth habit, leaf attitude, leaf type and exterior color of
immature and mature fruit, fruit shape and brix (sugar level). The AVRDC and International Seed Company(ISC) lines were generally uniform within accession for all the characters observed, while the Crops
Research Institute (CRI) and local lines showed variation. It was also observed that the AVRDC lines could
be stored for many days. Almost all the accessions showed symptoms of Tomato yellow leaf curl virus(TYLCV), with some of the CRI materials and the local material generally indicating some degree oftolerance to the disease.

1
2

CSIR Crops Research Institute, Horticulture division, PO Box 3785, Kumasi, Ghana.
KNUST Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Crop and Soil Science, University Post Office, Kumasi, Ghana.
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 41

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

INTRODUCTION
Tomato is one of the most commonly grown vegetables in the world (Tweneboah, 1998). It is a naturally selfpollinated crop with only 4% outcrossing (Hanson, 2005). It also has the ability to survive in diverse
environmental conditions (Rice et al., 1987). It is a very important and popular vegetable crop in Ghana,consumed on a nearly daily basis by every Ghanaian household (Horna et al., 2006). The fruit has highlevels of vitamins A, B, C and E, and nicotinic acid (Davies and Hobson, 1981). More money is spent on
tomato than on any other vegetable (Wolff, 1999). Tomatoes are eaten in fairly large amounts as flavoring instews and soups, and in raw state in pepper sauces and occasionally in salads. Its economic importance isfurther reflected in the increasing quantities that are being processed by factories into secondary products
such as tomato paste, tomato puree and ketchup.
Despite tomato’s importance in Ghana, local production is not able to meet the domestic demand andtomatoes are often imported, mainly from Burkina Faso. This situation is attributed to a number of
constraints in the tomato production and marketing chain. At the farm level, biotic and abiotic stresses limit
yield increases. There are a number of pests and diseases that affect tomato production in Ghana. Climaticstress is another limiting factor to tomato production in southern Ghana. The low diversity of varieties also
poses a serious threat to Ghanaian tomato production, because there are not enough materials that areresistant to the pests and diseases. Previous work on tomato in Ghana has concentrated on agronomic
problems. This has not had any significant impact on the tomato industry or marketing chain. Recognizing
the importance of the crop to the economy made it necessary to collect and characterize available
germplasm in Ghana and beyond as a first step to its improvement. The objective of this study was therefore
to characterize lines collected from Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Crops Research Institute(CSIR-CRI) Ghana, World Vegetable Center (AVRDC, Taiwan) and International Seed Company (ISC,
Taiwan) for use in future breeding work.
MATERIALS AND METHODTwenty-eight accessions of tomato were assessed for differences in morphological traits: 5 accessions
from CSIR-CRI; 17 accessions from AVRDC; 5 accessions from ISC (Green Seeds) and a local landrace(Bibiani pimpilifolium) (Table 1).
The study was carried out in the major and minor cropping seasons of 2006 at the Kwadaso station of CSIRCRI, Kumasi. A randomized complete block design with two replications was used. The number of
replications was limited to two due to limited quantity of seeds for most of the accessions. A single row 3 mlong spaced at 0.6 m between and 0.3 m within rows constituted an experimental plot. Seedlings from eachaccession were transplanted 3 weeks after sowing. Standard agronomic practices such as weed control,
fertilizer application (250 kg of 15–15–15 NPK/ha) and watering were adopted. An AVRDC descriptor list
(AVRDC, 2001) was used in scoring characters. Data were collected on plant growth habit, leaf attitude, leaf
type and exterior color of immature and mature fruit, fruit shape and brix (sugar content). The NumericalTaxonomy and Multivariate Analysis System (NTSYS version 2.11s; Rohlf, 2000) was used to produce a
dendrogram showing the distinct clusters among the 28 accessions characterized.

42 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

RESULTSIn general, the AVRDC and ISC lines were uniform within accession for all the characters observed, while the
CSIR-CRI and local material lines segregated. The AVRDC materials also had a long shelf life. Almost all theaccessions showed symptoms of Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), with some of the CSIR-CRI
materials and the local material indicating some degree of tolerance to the disease.
Vegetative Characters
1. Growth Habit (Fig. 1). Just over a third of the AVRDC accessions were dwarf type (CLN2623A,
ARP365-1, PT4722A, ARP365-2-5, CLN14668 and CLN2070A). A little under half (42.9%) of the AVRDC
accessions were determinate (CLN1621C, CLN2679C, PT 4664, CLN1462A, CLS4915.206 and
CLN2545B). The remaining (21.4%) AVRDC accessions were semi-determinate.
Forty percent (40%) of the CRI accessions (WS273.3 Large and WS White) were determinate, while semideterminate (WSP27F7(3)P2), indeterminate (WSP27F7(3)P3) and a mixed (WSP2F7(3)P3) typeaccounted for 20% each. Forty percent (40%) of ISC accessions were of the dwarf type (KT002 and KT003),
40% were semi-determinate (TF1C1and TF2C4), and one ISC accession (20%) was determinate (TF2T1).
Table 1. Vegetative and fruit characters of accessions studiedGroup Accessions

Source

A

Local
AVRDC
AVRDC
CRI
AVRDC
ISC
CRI
AVRDC
AVRDC
ISC
AVRDC
ISC
AVRDC
AVRDC
CRI
CRI
ISC
AVRDC
CRI
AVRDC
AVRDC
AVRDC
AVRDC
AVRDC
AVRDC
AVRDC
AVRDC
ISC

Bibiani pimpilifolium
CLS4915.206
ARP365-1
WS White
CLN14668
Kt002
WS273.3 Large
ARP365-2-5B
PT4664
TF2T1
CLN2026D
KT003
Ch154
CLN2498D
WSP27F7(3)P2
WSP27F7(3)P3
TF1C1
CLN2070A
WSP2F7(3)P3
C
CLN1621C
CLN2679A
PT4722A
CLN2545B
CLN1462A
CLN2679C
CLN2545A
D
CLN2623A
TF2C4
1
See Fig. 3.

Leaf
AttitudeSemi-erect
Drooping
Drooping
MixtureDrooping
Semi-erect
Drooping
Drooping
Drooping
Drooping
Semi-erect
Semi-erect
Drooping
Drooping
Semi-erect
MixtureDrooping
Drooping
MixtureDrooping
Drooping
Drooping
Drooping
Drooping
Drooping
Semi-erect
Drooping
Semi-erect

Leaf
Type1
6
5
5
5
5
5
3A
5
3A
2C
3A
3A
5
3A
5
5
5
3C
5
5
5
5
5
3A
3A
3A
5
5

Fruit shape
Slightly flat
High round
Round
Round
High round
High round
High round
Round
Heart-shaped
Heart-shaped
Heart-shaped
Plum-shaped
Plum-shaped
Plum-shaped
Slightly flat
Slightly flat
Slightly flatPlum-shaped
MixtureRound
High round
High round
High round
High round
High round
Round
Plum-shaped
Pear-shaped

Immature
Fruit Colour
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
MixtureMixtureMixture
Light
Light
Light
Mixture
Light
Light
Light
Light
Light
Mixture
Light
Light
Light
MixtureMatureFruit Colour
Red
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
MixtureGreenyellow
Green
Yellow
Green
Green
Yellow
Green
Green

Brix
5
5.2
5
5
2.2
5
5
5
6
6.2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
5
5.8
6
6.5
6.5
6.7
6
8
8
7
7

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 43

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

Fig. 1. (a) Plant growth habit of accessions; (b) determinate (above) andindeterminate (below) growth habits

(a)

(b)
2. Other Characteristics (Table 1). Over half (57.1%) of Group A accessions in the dendogram (Fig. 2)
had drooping leaf attitude, while 28.57% of the same group had semierect leaf attitude (Table 1). Six leaf
types were observed within the population (Fig. 3). The leaf types in group A were 5, 3A and 6 comprising
71.4%, 14.3% and 14.3%, respectively.

44 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

Fig. 2. Dendogram produced from Numerical Taxonomy and Multivariate
Analysis System based on vegetative and fruit characters

In group B, 54.5% had drooping leaf attitude, and leaf types 5, 3A, 2C, 3C were represented by 45.5%,
36.4%, 9.1% and 9.1%, respectively (Fig. 3; Table 1).
In group C, 85.7% had drooping leaf attitude, with 14.3% semi-erect. Leaf types were 5 and 3A, represented
by 57.1% and 42.9%, respectively.
In group D, where there were only two accessions, there was one each of drooping and semi-erect leaf
attitude. Only leaf type 5 was represented in this group.
Fruit Characters
Six fruit shapes were present in the accessions characterized (Fig. 4).
Over half (57.1%) of the accessions in group A had high round fruits, and 14.3% were slightly flattened(Table 1). The immature fruits of accessions in group A were all light colored; 85.7% being green at maturity,
and 71.4% having a brix of 5.
Over a third (36.4%) of the accessions from Group B had plum-shaped fruit, withjust over a fourth (27.3%) each heart-shaped and slightly flattened. Almost half (45.5%)

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 45

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

Fig. 3. Various leaf type of tomato (AVRDC, 2001)

1

2A

4

2B

2C

5

3A

3B

3C

6

Fig. 4. Different fruit shapes within tomato accessions studied (AVRDC, 2001)

had light immature fruit color in this group, while 90.9% had green mature fruits, and 72.7% had a brix of 6.
Nearly three-fourths (71.4%) of accessions in group C had high round fruit, and 28.6% round. Immature fruit
color in this group was mainly light (85.7%), while mature fruit color was green (57.1%) or yellow (42.9%), anddominant brix scores were 8, 6.5 and 6 (21.4% each).
The fruit shapes in group D were plum-shaped (50%) and pear-shaped (50%). Immature fruit color in thisgroup was light (50%) or a mixture (50%), while mature fruit color was green and brix 7 (Table 1).
Clusters
Cutting the dendrogram (Fig. 2) at a co-efficient of 4.78 produced four main groups of tomato accessions.
In group A, ARP365-1 and WS White were the most similar accessions, with similar leaf type (5), fruit shape(round), immature fruit color (light), mature fruit color (green) and brix (5) (Table 1).
Likewise in groups B and C, accessions WSP27F(3)P3, TF1C1 and CLN2679A, PT4722A share somesimilarities.

46 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

The similarities in Group B lie in leaf type (5), fruit shape (slightly flattened), immature fruit color (light), mature
fruit color (green) and brix of 6 (Table 1).
In group C, the similarities are based on the leaf attitude (drooping), leaf type (5), fruit shape (high round),immature fruit color (light) and brix (6.5) (Table 1).
In group D, similarities occur in leaf type (5), mature fruit color (green) and brix (7) (Table 1).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The AVRDC and ISC lines were far more uniform than the CSIR-CRI and local lines, because the latter are
landraces while the former are inbred materials. The CRI materials and the local material showed somedegree of tolerance to TYLCV, confirming that they have some resistance to the viruses (Hanson, 2005).
Thus, they will serve as a genetic base to improve the other accessions, which can be stored for long
periods, but are much susceptible to TYLCV.
Vegetative Characters
Different genotypes have different growth habits. The commonest growth habit among the accessions
from AVRDC (42.9%) and CSIR-CRI (40%) was determinate. This character might have been selected forover the years because it rarely requires staking and pruning. Moreover, it is able to combine large numbersof fruit with many plants per unit space, which is an indicator for high yield (Hanson, 2005). Breeders could
incorporate determinate growth habit in their improvement program. More than 30% of the AVRDC and ISC
accessions had dwarf growth habit. This suggests that fruits harvested from these accessions have highchances of fruit rot, since they easily touch the ground/soil and get rotten or damaged. Also, their fruits areproduced over a short period of time, which is another disadvantage. Nevertheless they require no stakes
or pruning. The indeterminate growth habit found in some of the CSIR-CRI accessions gives longer harvest
period. This is an advantage if prices fluctuate.
Fruit Characters
The majority of the AVRDC materials had high round fruits, which is very desirable in the Ghanaian market.
This character can therefore be selected for breeding by incorporated into the local materials that are highyielding but lack such desirable shape. Heart-shaped and plum-shaped fruits would be a very good forprocessing. The accessions with these fruit shapes also had high brix level, which is an indication of good
taste. Thus, such accessions (irrespective of their source) can be used to increase brix level of tomato
materials for industrial canning and processing into ketchup and tomato paste (among other products).
There was considerable variation within the plant and fruit characters observed. The AVRDC accessions
had almost all the categories of tomato fruit shapes, with the exception of slightly flattened shape, which arepresent in the local, CSIR-CRI and ISC materials.
Acknowledgments
Many thanks to Mr Joseph Gyau of CSIR-Crops Research Institute for his technical assistance. Also to
AVRDC for permission to reproduce Figures 3 and 4.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 47

Morphological Characterization of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Germplasm in Ghana
M.K. Osei, K.O. Bonsu, S.O. Ekyem and R. Akromah

Literature Cited
AVRDC 2001. Vegetable Germplasm Conservation and Management. A training course held at AVRDC
Africa Regional Program, Arusha, Tanzania, 26 March to 1 April. Asian Vegetable Research andDevelopment Center Africa Regional Program, Arusha, Tanzania.
Davies, J.N. and Hobson, G.E. 1981. The constituents of tomato fruit—the influence of environment,
nutrition and genotype. Critical Reviews of Food Science and Nutrition 15: 205–280.
Hanson, P. 2005. Lecture Notes on Tomato Breeding. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center
Africa Regional Program Training, Arusha, Tanzania.
Horna, D., Smale, M. and Falck-Zepeda, J. 2006. Assessing the Potential Economic Impact of Genetically
Modified Crops in Ghana: Tomato, Garden Egg, Cabbage and Cassava. PBS report, October 2006.
Available upon request (dhorna@cgiar.org)
Rice, R.P., Rice, L.W. and Tindall, H.D. 1987. Fruit and Vegetable Production in Africa. Macmillan, UK. 371 p.
Rohlf, F.J. 2000. NTSYS-PC, Numerical Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis System version 2.1 Manual.
Applied Biostatistics, New York.
Tweneboah, C.K. 1998. Vegetable and Spices in West Africa. C.K. Tweneboah and Co- Wood, Kodua Ville,
North Dwowulu.
Wolff, H. 1999. Economics of Tomato Production with Special Reference to Aspects of Plant Protection: A
Case Study of Two Tomato Production Systems in Brong-Ahafo Region, Ghanaian–German Project for
Integrated Crop Protection, GTZ, Eschborn. 131 p.

48 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Vertical Farming for Rwanda Smallscale Tomato Farmers: COPARIMENA
Tomato Growers Cooperative
Jean Claude Ndayambaje1
Key Words: vertical farming, small scale tomato farmers, demographic trend, indeterminate crops

Abstract
By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the earth’s population will reside in urban centers. Applying the mostconservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about 3
billion people during the interim. An estimated 109 hectares of new land will be needed to grow enoughfood to feed them, if traditional farming practices continue as they are practiced today. At present, over 80%of the world’s land that is suitable for raising crops is in use (FAO and NASA data). With 8 million people andonly 26,388 km2, Rwanda has an overall population density of more than 300 people per km2. Farming
vertically is a potential solution to this problem, even if it is not new. What is new is the urgent need to scale up
this technology to accommodate millions of people in the coming years. After 6 years working in horizontal
tomato farming, the role of vertical tomato farming was recognized, and 793 farmers (members of
COPAR–IMENA grouped in 45 associations) are being helped to introduce vertical farming as a future
household tomato-farming technology. This study presents an environmentally sound vertical farming
system for tomatoes in peri-urban areas and identifies its potential advantages.

1

YPARD RWANDA, PO Box 4856 Kigali, Rwanda.
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 49

Vertical Farming for Rwanda Small-scale Tomato Farmers: COPARIMENA Tomato Growers Cooperative
Jean Claude Ndayambaje

INTRODUCTION
Rwanda is a small, densely populated country in East Central Africa, with a total area of 26,338 km2, of which
about 1,400 km2 is water. Known as the land of a thousand hills, Rwanda enjoys a mild climate despite its
location. The most important and fundamental natural resource of the Rwandans is land. Agriculture
occupies more than 90% of Rwandans in rural areas. Rwanda has a very high population density (thehighest in Africa) with an average of 0.6 ha/household (Ndayambaje, 2008). Cooperative de Production
Agricole au Rwanda (COPAR-IMENA) is a cooperative of 793 farmers from six tomato-growing zones in
Gasabo and Kicukiro Districts. Established in 2002, COPAR-IMENA’s mission is to become a market leader
in tomato production and marketing in Rwanda (Ndayambaje, 2007).
In order to achieve its mission, COPAR-IMENA plans to increase the quantity and quality of tomatoes
produced by its members, as well as broaden its customer base to include big hotels and supermarkets
through production of year-round fresh tomatoes. COPAR-IMENA members grow tomatoes on individual
fields. The tomatoes are collectively sold to one main buyer, SORWATOM, a tomato-processing factory,
under a supply agreement. Through this arrangement, SORWATOM supplies inputs to the farmers on
condition that all the tomatoes produced will be sold to it; the company also sets the price. This relationshipis not favorable to the cooperative farmers, as SORWATOM often pays below market price. As a result, thecooperative would like to break SORWATOM’s monopoly and explore other market opportunities. In order toachieve this, the cooperative needs to significantly increase the quantity and quality of tomatoes produced
by its members by adopting greenhouse tomato-production technology. The proposed greenhousetomato farming is in conjunction with the introduction of a simple vertical farming technology, where farmers
are adopting an indeterminate variety called ANA F1. This variety is popular because it is disease resistantand gives yields often three times that of the determinant varieties, which will increase productivity without
expansion of production area. COPAR-IMENA obtained United States African Development Foundation(USADF) support to invest in a pilot project for greenhouse tomato production. The grant is helping farmers
to promote greenhouse tomato farming as well as vertical farming.
The objective of this paper is to present the environmentally sound vertical tomato farming in rural areas andidentify the potential advantages of vertical tomato farming.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
We used Participatory Learning and Actions (PLA) to learn about communities. This approach places equalvalue on the knowledge and experience of local people and their capacity to come up with solutions toproblems that affect them. Each association was contacted beforehand, to find out more about its context,
to discuss the purpose of the activity and to confirm practical arrangements. Any sensitive issues relating to
the service were identified during the liaison process and these were discussed with the Board members of
COPAR-IMENA to ensure that they were dealt with appropriately, or avoided, in the PLA sessions (forexample, lack of literacy skills among the elders). We identified 10 members from each zone who had notbeen evaluated in any other areas of the evaluation strategy related to COPAR-IMENA.
In general though, the act of participation itself was taken as consent, since nobody selected was
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Vertical Farming for Rwanda Small-scale Tomato Farmers: COPARIMENA Tomato Growers Cooperative
Jean Claude Ndayambaje

constrained to take part.The main tools used were timelines to explore and share perceptions of what
happened; when and why; with whom; and with what impact. They were also used to compare past andpresent, to explore causal factors and to look toward the future. The visualization helps to concretize
people’s experience and its significance. This was followed up by sharing and summarizing, where thefacilitator asks for contributions and writes up responses. Papers written by various stakeholders in COPARIMENA were reviewed.
RESULTS
In order to fully assess the successful implementation of the vertical farming in various locations, fivedeterminants were examined - geography, economics, government, environmental consciousness andcommunity impacts.Vertical farms do not necessarily have to be built on land. An extremely innovative
revolution of vertical farming would be to build the farms at sea in the form of a ship.
The process of promoting vertical farming should start with the introduction of an indeterminate variety to theregion. Certain interest groups presented opposition during the initial adoption of vertical farming for various
reasons. They believed that their livelihoods would be harmed, or they were opposed to such a dramatic
move from traditional farming.
Potential Advantages of Vertical Farming (Feasibility)• Year-round crop production• Eliminates agricultural runoff (the worlds’ greatest source of pollution)• Dramatically reduces use of fossil fuels• Makes use of abandoned or unused properties• No weather-related crop failures (such as those caused by drought, flood)• Sustainability for urban centers• Converts ‘black’ water to potable water• Adds energy back to the grid via methane generation• Offers new employment opportunities• Could dramatically reduce incidence of some tropical infectious diseases• Returns farmland to nature, restoring ecosystem services.
Within 6 months, COPAR-IMENA received 500 farmers who came to ask about vertical tomato farming, how
to construct greenhouses, and how to obtain seeds - a considerable result for this program.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way,
we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts.
Within that same timeframe, we became a predominantly urban species—60% of the human population
now lives ‘vertically’ in cities (Vertical Farm Project, 2009). This means that the majority of people areprotected against the elements, yet we subject our food-bearing plants to the rigors of the great outdoors
and can do no more than hope for a year of good weather. However, more often than not (due to a rapidlychanging climate regime) that is no longer what follows.
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Vertical Farming for Rwanda Small-scale Tomato Farmers: COPARIMENA Tomato Growers Cooperative
Jean Claude Ndayambaje

Massive floods, protracted droughts and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions oftons of valuable crops. Don’t our harvestable plants deserve the same level of comfort and protection that
we now enjoy? The time is at hand for us to learn how to safely grow our food vertically because of shortageof space. If we do not, then in just another 50 years, the next 3 billion people will surely go hungry, and theworld will become a much more unpleasant place in which to live.
COPAR-IMENA has started: 793 members will be able to return 409 ha of farmland to nature and the
production will be three times higher than before, which is a good contribution to the Millennium
Development Goals.
.
While the benefits of vertical farming are undeniable, a number of issues must be overcome before thefarms can be successfully adopted in various locations (Reitano et al., 2006). Vertical farming will be regionspecific according to economics, geography, government and culture, as the issues presented by thechange cannot be uniformly addressed. Some issues and challenges that each location must consider
include: obtaining funding; how best to involve traditional farmers, who might otherwise be harmed by an
influx of vertical farms; a probable shift in politics with regard to the agricultural sector of the economy, as well
as a temporary shift in trade; farms must be situated in locations that are relatively free from risk ofenvironmental hazards or disasters. Policies and strategy elements need to be taken into consideration in
the design and implementation of a sustained vertical farming program in Africa.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mr Nzeyimana Emmanuel, Country Representative of YPARD Rwanda, and Mr
Nzeyiki Wellars, the Chairman of COPAR-IMENA, for their support.
Literature Cited
Ndayambaje, J.C. 2007. The effects of animal draught power for transport in Twuzuzanye Cooperative: User
beneficiary responses. COPAR-IMENA, Kigali.
Ndayambaje, J.C. 2008. Management of rainwater harvesting lined ponds in dryland of Rwanda: Casestudy in NTARAMA lined ponds owners. YPARD Rwanda, Kigali.
Reitano, E., Del Giacco, E., Touré, S., Gin, G. and Ramirez, I. 2006. Socioeconomic and Political
Implications of Vertical Farming. Columbia University, New York.
Vertical Farm Project, The. 2009. www.verticalfarms.com

52 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Strategies to Improve the Productivityof the Industrial Tomato Crops in the
Senegal River Valley, 2002–2005
Daouda Mbodj1
Keywords: industrial tomato, producers, training, yield, demonstration, seed, didactic support

Abstract
Industrial tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) production was started in the Saint-Louis region of Senegal in
the mid-1970s. In 2002, average yields had reached only 25 t/ha, despite the use of enormous quantities of
inputs, especially seed. Insufficient understanding of appropriate production techniques was the maincause of weak performance. The desire to increase yields (and income) motivated the tomato producers torequest support. The current programme aims to find answers to the producers’ problems.
Demonstrations followed by training resulted in an over 60% reduction in quantities of seed used, and yield
increases in 50% of the meadows. The main innovation was mass training, which allowed a maximum
number of potential producers and farm villages to be reached. Land areas used for tomato cultivation
practically doubled. In order to perpetuate the experience, didactic audiovisual support materials are given
to peasant farmers who have attended rural training sessions in industrial tomato production (so that they
can support other farmers in their communities).

1

ANCAR de Saint-Louis, BP 272 Saint-Louis, Senegal.
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 53

Strategies to Improve the Productivity of the Industrial Tomato Crops in the Senegal River Valley, 2002–2005
Daouda Mbodj

INTRODUCTION
Origin of Programme
Industrial tomato producers in the Saint-Louis region of Senegal organized their industry around atransformation plant that bought their total harvest. The producers knew that their yields had been low since
tomato was introduced to the region in 1974, i.e. an average of 25 t/ha until 2002, despite enormous
quantities of inputs. The establishment of the Agence Nationale de Conseil Agricole et Rural (ANCAR) in theregion was followed by a tomato-productivity improvement programme using the following procedure:• demand was expressed by the producers via the chairman of the Tomato Committee;• the request was analysed with the applicant, who was also asked about constraints, producers’
expectations and advisable activities;• after listening to the communities, a draft programme was prepared. Proposals were made on the basisof technical feasibility and concurrence between the proposals and ANCAR’s objectives and its
technical, financial and methodological procedures. The strategic options and the modus operandi
focused heavily on the immediate objectives;• once prepared, the draft programme was amended and validated by the requesting party (i.e. theTomato Committee).
Context
The rural areas around Saint-Louis are characterized by food insecurity due mainly to chronically low farmincomes.
Tomato production is a major challenge for the region, because:• it had a high, unexploited production potential that could increase income and hence combat poverty;• surplus production can contribute to improving food security significantly through cereal purchases;• large-scale tomato production is a pre-condition to consolidating a dynamic, secure, employment- andresource-generating industry.
There are also many technical problems in tomato cropping:• because the producers did not fully understand the nursery techniques, they used 500 g of seed per
hectare, while the recommended rate is 150 g;• in some zones, tomatoes cannot be grown because of plant diseases, especially viral ones;• the farmers used large quantities of phytosanitary products such as pesticides;• there was a big gap between the best yields and the average yields (42 versus 26 t/ha) despite theproducers’ claim that they had good control over their crop thanks to long experience and ancient
practices.
To meet this challenge successfully, most strategies were based on simple practical solutions for the
farmers, rather than being aimed at the peasant leaders. Stress was placed on communication tools andeducational support that producers can easily understand. The Saint-Louis region benefits from experiencein this field. The demands of intensive tomato cultivation required capacity building to enable producers toreach their expected performance level (over 40 t/ha). This inspired the producers to request
demonstrations and high-quality training
54 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Strategies to Improve the Productivity of the Industrial Tomato Crops in the Senegal River Valley, 2002–2005
Daouda Mbodj

Objectives
The objectives were to train producers in intensive cropping techniques forindustrial tomato production. Specifically, to:• increase average yields to 40 t/ha and stabilize them, while at the same time decreasing the quantity of
seed needed by over 60%;• increase the amount of farmed land up to 3,500–4,000 ha;• extend the annual campaign to make it last 5–6 months.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The programme aimed to make industrial tomato more productive and therefore needed to meet shortterm requirements (2002–2003 season) and fit in with prospects for future growing seasons.
This line of logic was central to the programme’s technical and methodological proposals.
All the materials and methods used were keyed to overcoming the constraints and achieving the results
indicated in Table 1.
Table 1. Constraints to be overcome and outputs expected
Constraints to be overcome

Outputs expected• Uneven technical level of producers• Producers able to establish and produce(yields vary between 16 and 40 t/ha)

industrial tomato crop in compliance• Insufficient understanding of croppingwith technical recommendations onpractices recommended by research andthe Tomato Committee• Average yields low considering
recommended intensive farming

production intensification• At least 60% reduction in seed quantities• Increase in average yields by 50% in
2 years and 75% in 5 years

techniques• Too much seed used (500 g)• Only few farming models respectrecommended farming practices• Identification and training of 50
extension-producers• Absence of farmers capable of extending
production techniques• Producers insufficiently self-reliant intechnical and technology-transfer skills• Absence of educational audiovisual• Production of audiovisual material onmaterial adapted to farming techniquesindustrial tomato production techniques

for industrial tomato production in thein the valley

valleyAgricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 55

Strategies to Improve the Productivity of the Industrial Tomato Crops in the Senegal River Valley, 2002–2005
Daouda Mbodj

Materials
1. Plant material. Angela, Madona and Xina varieties were used. Angela and Madona are hybrid varietiesthat farmers were reluctant to plant. Xina is a well-established variety.
2. Audiovisual material. Video and photo cameras to make documentary films and slides. These
supports were made available to producers and extension-farmers (who were then be able to extend thepractices to other farmers in their communities) for future discussions and meetings.
Methods
1. Train producers and establish demonstration plots. A vast training campaign on techniques andsupply control was organized for producers, since greater technical skills will contribute substantially toincreasing yields and production quality. This fitted in with the ambitious objectives of the committee for theyear 2004, namely to:• increase and stabilize average yields at 40 t/ha
• increase farmed areas to reach 3,500–4,000 ha• extend the production season to 5–6 months• control the pressure of pests and diseases.
Technical capacity-building involved both the creation of audiovisual supports on the techniques ofindustrial tomato production and training of the producers and extension agents.
The request for mass training was innovative in itself, since this is a zone where training is usually provided
only to the leaders. The training scheme was designed to build up the producers’ capacities, centring on:• rural activities on the topic of the day, with well-adapted audiovisual supports;• a demonstration followed by practice exercises in targeted areas.
This activity was intended for about 12,000 producers living in 30 villages in the delta and middle valley
areas.
Training was paced according to the main cropping activities (sowing, irrigation, fertilization, crop protection,
harvest) and depending on the crop-season calendar drawn up by the committee.
2. Training extension-farmers. To promote local farmers’ knowledge and strengthen the producers’
technical independence, 50 producers, in other words, two farmers per site, were trained in tomato
production techniques.
3. Production of educational supports. Well-adapted educational support materials must be created if
results-oriented tomato production plans, which are more or less new in this area, are to be achieved. With
this in mind, the programme produced:• a video film and slides on a crop management plan (itinéraires techniques) for industrial tomato crops;• a producers’ manual of good practices (in French, Wolof and Pulaar);• a technical description of the tomato in the local language.

56 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Strategies to Improve the Productivity of the Industrial Tomato Crops in the Senegal River Valley, 2002–2005
Daouda Mbodj

RESULTSThe following results were achieved:• a drop in per-hectare seed requirements from 500 g to 200 g, with some achieving 150 g;• installation of 15 demonstration plots (average yields of 58 t/ha);• substantial reduction of seed damping-off and clear understanding of nursery techniques;• (thanks to lower seed requirements) greater on-farm utilization of hybrid varieties that are more resistantto viral infections and are affordable;• increase in average yields from 25 to 42 t/ha, with a maximum of 78 t/ha;• tripled production (which led to the creation of a second tomato transformation plant);• larger sown areas;• loans on rice crops paid off with profits from tomato crops;• recruitment of temporary workers on a considerable number of tomato farms, thus leaving farm children
free to study better;• production of a video-film and slides.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The farmers have a better understanding of nursery techniques, especially with sowing on loosened soils,
thanks largely to the installation of demonstration plots. This means using less seed than in former times,
and results in less fungal disease and more vigorous plants. The decrease in seed quantities encourages
farmers to use the high-yielding hybrid varieties that are more or less resistant to tomato yellow leaf curl virus,
which is an endemic disease in the area.
Mass training made it possible to reach the producers themselves and not just the leaders, which led tomuch higher average yields, larger cropping areas and tomato production figures that have been growing
steadily year on year since 2002. Another result has been the installation of a second tomato transformation
plant (at Dagana) and loan repayments of over 98%.
These results have been achieved through teamwork, strong participation of the producers from the very
beginning, and the use of films and well-adapted support materials. Forums, workshops and othermeetings provided a good opportunity to transmit technical and commercial information. For one month,
we went on the air at RTS, the regional radio broadcasting system, and invited all the partners andproducers to discuss themes that had been the focus of training sessions and demonstrations.
Manuals on good practices, translated into the local languages, were distributed to the producers, together
with technical description forms based on the training sessions.
Audiovisual support materials covering the farming techniques, with focus on good practices, have been
produced. Among other things, they are useful for the trained extension-farmers who can use them in rural
gatherings to provide better assistance to their fellow farmers.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 57

Strategies to Improve the Productivity of the Industrial Tomato Crops in the Senegal River Valley, 2002–2005
Daouda Mbodj

Acknowledgements
I should like to thank my partners, especially the CNCFTI producers (2000–2002 technical description forms
as documentation). I also want to thank all my colleagues at ANCAR, especially Mr Ismaila Mbengue, all ofwhom contributed so actively to the success of this endeavour.

58 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Efficacy of Teak Bark Water Extracts
against that of Conventional
Preservatives
Amina Hakeem Baidoo1, Akwasi Asamoah2, and Charles Antwi-Boasiako3
Keywords: eco-friendly, standardization, percentage hardness loss, percentage mass loss, visualdurability rating

Abstract
Conventional preservatives are not only toxic to wood bio-deteriorators, but also to humans and animals. Inan effort to find preservatives that are non-toxic to humans and animals, efficacy of water extract of teak (ahighly durable timber species) bark (0.0174 g/ml), was compared with that of chromated copper arsenate(CCA, 0.058 g/ml), Pyrinex 48EC (0.5% v/v) and creosote (100% v/v) on heartwood of Ceiba pentandra andCeltis milbraedii by pressure impregnation and buried in a termite-prone field for 5 weeks following EN 252.
Teak-bark water extract was standardized on the basis of visual durability ratings, percentage hardness andmass losses of impregnated Ceiba and Celtis after burial. Regardless of retention level, single treatment
with teak bark water extract did not improve the natural durability of Ceiba and Celtis to the same extent that
CCA, Pyrinex 48EC and creosote did at experimented preservative concentrations. Indications were that
teak-bark water extract alone could be used to adequately improve the durability of Ceiba and Celtis onlywith multiple treatments (three or more) at a higher concentration (1.74 g/ml = 100×0.0174 g/ml), or mixed
with CCA (5% v/v) on single treatment at experimented concentration (0.0174 g/ml). Eighty per cent and
83% of Anloga furniture-makers who tried teak-bark extract unmixed or mixed with CCA, respectively,
showed a high likelihood of adoption.

1–3

Department of Wood Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 59

Efficacy of Teak Bark Water Extracts against that of Conventional Preservatives
Amina Hakeem Baidoo, Akwasi Asamoah, and Charles Antwi-Boasiako

INTRODUCTION
Over the years, wood users have treated wood with conventional preservatives such as pentachlorophenol,
tri-butyl-tin oxide, creosote, and Pyrinex 48EC. Creosote, an oil-based preservative, is acknowledged as
one of the oldest and most effective industrial wood preservatives (Wood Preservation Canada, 2008).
Pyrinex 48EC (chlorpyrifos), a well-known and effective agricultural insecticide, is a good choice against
insect attack on wood, particularly termites (Wood Preservation Canada, 2008).
These conventional preservatives are not only toxic to bio-deteriorators of wood, but also to humans andanimals. Even chromated copper arsenate (CCA), the most widely used preservative in Ghana (Ofori and
Bamfo, 1994), which was thought to be non-toxic to humans and animals because of its permanence andstability in wood (Wood Preservation Canada, 2008), is now known to leach into the environment over time
(Richardson, 1978). Some of the hazards of conventional preservatives to humans and animals aredamage to liver and foetuses (Findlay, 1985). These hazards have necessitated increased research into
alternative preservatives that are equally effective as conventional ones, but harmless to humans andanimals in a chance contact.
One promising way of avoiding wood-preservative hazards is the use of extracts from durable woodspecies such as Milicea excelsa (odum), Tectona grandis (teak), Azadiracta indica (neem), Erythropleum
suaveolens (potrodom) and Piptadeniastrum africanum (dahoma), which contain polyphenols such as
tannins, lignans, lapacols, tectoquinones and terpene acids (Lame and McAnn, 1985) to preserve lessdurable wood. Asamoah et al. (2008) impregnated heartwood extracts of teak and dahoma into stakes of
Celtis zenkeri and partially buried them in a termite-prone field for 8 months. After exposure, stakes
impregnated with teak extract at 0.65 g/ml (120 kPa, 123°C, 2 hours) were resistant to termite attack. Opoku
et al. (2007) impregnated Antiaris and Bambusa blocks with 1% and 0.5% w/v of teak bark, seed and leaf
water extracts and partially buried them in a termite-prone field for 2 months. Blocks impregnated with bark
extract (both dosages; 120 kPa, 123°C, 1 hour) were resistant to termite attack.
This study was conducted to standardize the efficacy of water extract of teak bark (a highly durable timber
species) against CCA, Pyrinex 48EC and creosote on heartwood of Ceiba pentandra and Celtis milbraedii,
which are perishable in the ground (Addae-Mensah et al., 1989) and resistant to impregnation (Findlay,1985) by pressure impregnation following European Norms 252. Likelihood of adoption of teak-bark water
extracts unmixed or mixed with CCA (5% v/v) was ascertained from two groups of 100 Anloga furnituremakers (one group for each kind of extract).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Bark granules of teak were dried and milled to 40–60 mesh size. Extracts were removed from meal by gentle
warming on hot plate at 60ºC or lower (Rudman and Da Costa, 1959) for 3 hours. Teak-bark meal (1250 g)
was steeped in 10,250 ml distilled water. Extracted solution was decanted into a plastic drum and stored in aconditioning room to maintain its concentration. Mass concentration of extract was determined byevaporating a 3 ml aliquot on a water bath to solute.

60 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Efficacy of Teak Bark Water Extracts against that of Conventional Preservatives
Amina Hakeem Baidoo, Akwasi Asamoah, and Charles Antwi-Boasiako

Five litres of teak-bark water extract (0.0174 g/ml), CCA (0.05769 g/ml), Pyrinex 48EC (0.5% v/v) or creosote(100% v/v) was used to impregnate 250×25×12.5 mm air-dried (25–30% moisture content [MC])heartwood stakes of Ceiba and (separately) Celtis. For each species, 18 stakes were used for each ofcontrol (untreated), teak-bark water extract, CCA, Pyrinex 48EC and creosote. Impregnation was bypressure (120 kPa, 123°C, 2 hours).
Ninety minutes after impregnation (to allow for fixation), stakes were reweighed to the nearest 0.5 g todetermine the mass of preservative chemical absorbed. Retention of chemical preservatives (g/mm³) ineach stake (R1) was determined as [R1 = (q2 - q1)/v] (Asamoah et al., 2008), where q1 is the mass of airdried untreated stake, q2 is the mass of air-dried treated stake, and v is the volume of air-dried untreatedstake. Consequently, mean retention (Rn) was determined as, [Rn = (R1 + R2 + R3...Rn)/n] where Rn is thenth treated stake in a charge of 36 stakes (one treatment-chamber load).
After reweighing, stakes were buried (to accelerate attack) in a termite-prone field for 5 weeks.
Teak-bark water extract was standardized on the basis of visual durability ratings, percentage hardness andmass losses of impregnated Ceiba and Celtis 5 weeks after burial. Stakes were rated visually on a scale of 0
to 4 (0 = no termite attack, 1 = sight attack, 2 = moderate attack, 3 = severe attack, 4 = failure) and theaverage rating for each charge calculated. Hardness of stakes were taken with Proceq Pilodyn (0 being no
penetration [highest hardness] and 40 the deepest penetration [lowest hardness]).
Percentage hardness losses of stakes were calculated on air-dried hardness instead of oven-dry hardnessof stakes as Hardness loss =[(Rh - Ih)/Ih] ×100%, where Ih is initial hardness of stakes and Rh is final
hardness of stakes.
Percetage mass losses of stakes were calculated on air-dried mass instead of oven-dry mass of stakes as
Mass loss = [(I - R)/I] x 100% (Kumi-Woode, 1996), where I is initial mass of stakes and R is the final mass of
stakes.
Setup was completely randomized (CRD) with visual durability ratings, percentage hardness loss orpercentage mass loss as a single-factor (efficacy response) in which corresponding control, CCA, Pyrinex
48EC, creosote and teak-bark-water-extract-treated values were treatments (levels of each single factor).
Not discriminating Ceiba from Celtis, differences between means of treatments of each single factor wereanalysed for real significance using least square difference (LSD) at 5% significance level with SAS (2008)
software.
To ascertain likelihood of adoption of teak-bark water extracts mixed (0.0174 g/ml; treated once) or unmixed(1.74 g/ml=100×0.0174 g/ml; treated thrice) with CCA (5% v/v) by Anloga furniture-makers, two groups(100 individuals each, one group for each kind of extract) were asked to treat their freshly made Ceiba andCeltis wood furniture against powder post beetle attack for 5 weeks by brushing.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 61

Efficacy of Teak Bark Water Extracts against that of Conventional Preservatives
Amina Hakeem Baidoo, Akwasi Asamoah, and Charles Antwi-Boasiako

RESULTS
Typical of resistant timbers (Ofori and Bamfo, 1994), chemical preservative retention in Ceiba and Celtis
varied, with Pyrinex 48EC being retained the most and creosote the least (Table 1). Teak-bark-water-extracttreated Ceiba and Celtis recorded a high visual durability rating (i.e. most susceptible to attack), while
Pyrinex 48EC-and CCA-treated Ceiba and Celtis recorded the lowest visual durability rating (i.e. leastsusceptible to attack) (Table 2). Teak-bark-water-extract-treated Ceiba and Celtis showed the highest
percentage hardness loss (i.e. most susceptible to attack), while Pyrinex 48EC-treated Ceiba and Celtis
showed the lowest percentage hardness loss (i.e. least susceptible to attack) (Table 3). Teak-bark-waterextract-treated Ceiba and Celtis recorded a high percentage mass loss (i.e. most susceptible to attack),
while creosote-treated Ceiba and Celtis recorded the lowest percentage mass loss (i.e. least susceptible toattack) (Table 4).
Indications were that teak-bark water extracts could be used unmixed to adequately improve the durabilityof Ceiba and Celtis only with multiple treatment (treated three or more times) and at a higher concentration(1.74 g/ml = 100×0.0174 g/ml); or mixed with CCA (5% v/v) in single treatment at experimented
concentration (0.0174 g/ml).
Some 80% and 83% of Anloga furniture makers reported that teak-bark water extract unmixed or mixed with
CCA, respectively, resisted powder post beetle attack in furniture made from Ceiba and Celtis wood.
Table 1: Least squre differences for retention of chemival preservatives in Ceiba
and Celtis
Treatment

Mean

No. stakes

Treatment grouping

Pyrinex 48EC

0.0007179

36

A

Teak

0.0003189

36

A

CCA

0.0002639

36

AB

Creosote

0.0000794

36

B

Control

0.0000000

36

B

Treatment means with the same treatment grouping are not significantly different

Table 2. Least square difference for visual durability rating of Ceiba andCeltis treatment
Treatment

Mean

No. stakes

Treatment groupings

Control

1.5833

36

A

Teak

1.555636

A

Creosote

0.027836

B

Pyrinex 48EC

0.000036

B

CCA

0.000036

B

Treatment means with the same treatment grouping are not significantly different

62| Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Efficacy of Teak Bark Water Extracts against that of Conventional Preservatives
Amina Hakeem Baidoo, Akwasi Asamoah, and Charles Antwi-Boasiako

Table 3. Least square difference for percentage hardness loss of Ceiba andCeltis treatment
Treatment

Mean

No. stakes

Treatment grouping

Teak

61.15

36

A

Control

47.98

36

A

CCA

38.8

36

AB

Creosote

29.28

36

B

Pyrinex 48EC

27.57

36

B

Treatment means with the same treatment grouping are not significantly different.

Table 4. Least square difference for percentage mass loss of Ceiba and Celtis
treatment
Treatment

Mean

No. stakes

Treatment grouping

Control

29.064

36

A

Teak

23.78636

A

Pyrinex 48EC

10.57336

B

CCA

10.10336

B

Creosote

7.672

36

B

Treatment means with the same treatment grouping are not significantly different.

Pyrinex 48EC was well retained in Ceiba and Celtis because it is water-based (Richardson, 1978), so its
water formed a continuum with the water of Ceiba and Celtis wood and a diffusion gradient caused
movement of its active ingredients (possibly of low molecular weight) into the wood. Consequently, Pyrinex
48EC-treated Ceiba and Celtis recorded less attack by visual durability rating, percentage hardness loss
and percentage mass loss. Creosote was retained in Ceiba and Celtis least because it is oil-based—the oil
did not form a continuum with wood water or a diffusion gradient, thereby preventing the diffusion of its
active ingredients (possibly of higher molecular weight) into the wood. Nonetheless, creosote made Ceiba
and Celtis less susceptible to attack (recorded by visual durability rating, percentage hardness loss andpercentage mass loss) because it formed an oily coating (barrier) around the wood, which repelled water (afactor essential to attack) from the environment. Teak-bark water extract and CCA followed Pyrinex 48EC in
retention in decreasing order, as their active ingredients’ molecular weights may be progressively less thanthat of Pyrinex 48EC. However, Ceiba and Celtis treated with teak-bark water extract recorded more attackby visual durability rating, percentage hardness loss and percentage mass loss, which confirmed its
moderate toxicity compared to Pyrinex 48EC, CCA and creosote. That 80% and 83% of Anloga furnituremakers reported success with teak-bark water extract unmixed or mixed with CCA, respectively, reflected
the potential of botanical extracts as alternatives to conventional preservatives.
Regardless of preservative retention levels, teak-bark water extracts did not adequately improve the natural
durability of Ceiba and Celtis in a single treatment as much as CCA, Pyrinex 48EC and creosote did attested preservative concentrations. Teak-bark extract mixed with CCA recording 83% shows that it may
have acted synergistically with the CCA (Richardson, 1978).

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Efficacy of Teak Bark Water Extracts against that of Conventional Preservatives
Amina Hakeem Baidoo, Akwasi Asamoah, and Charles Antwi-Boasiako

Acknowledgements
Thanks to Prof. K. Frimpong-Mensah and Dr A.A. Oteng-Amoako for technical advice.
Literature Cited
Addae-Mensah, A., Ayarkwa, J., Mohammed, A.I. and Azerengo, E. (eds.). 1989. Users’ Guide of Some
Ghanaian Secondary and Ten Timber Species Based on Strength and Related Properties. Information
Bulletin No. 9. Forest Products Research Institute. 4p.
Asamoah, A., Antwi-Boasiako, C. and Frimpong-Mensah, K. 2008. Treatment of selected lesser usedtimber species against subterranean termites using heartwood extracts from teak (Tectona grandis) anddahoma (Piptadeniastrum africanum). Paper prepared at the 39th Annual International Research Group on
Wood Protection Meeting, Istanbul, Turkey, 25–29 May 2008.
Findlay, W.P.K. 1985. Preservation of Timber in the Tropics. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr Junk Publishers, Dordrecht,
Netherlands. 292p.
Kumi-Woode, B.G. 1996. Natural Decay Resistance of Some Ghanaian Timbers and Wood Decay Hazard
Potential for Ghana. MSc Thesis, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario.
Lame, K. and McAnn, M. 1985. AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants. AMA, London. 170p.
Opoku, A., Asamoah, A. and Antwi-Boasiako, C. 2007. Preservation of Bambusa vulgaris and Antiaris
toxicaria Using Pressure Methods with Vegetative Portions of Tectona grandis. BSc Thesis, Department ofWood Science and Technology, KNUST, Kumasi.
Ofori, J. and Bamfo, R.K. 1994. The treatability of three lesser-used Ghanaian hardwood timber species.
Ghana Journal of Forestry 1: 1–4.
Richardson, B.A. 1978. Wood Preservation. Penarth Research Centre. The Construction Press, Lancester,London. New York. p. 53–154.
Rudman, P. and Da Costa, E.W.B. 1959. Variation in extractive content and decay in the heartwood of
Tectona grandis L.f. J. Institute of Wood Science 3.
SAS (Statistical Analytical Software Institute Incorporated). 2008. http://www.sas.com/Wood Preservation
Canada. 2008. www.woodpreservation.ca.

64 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Application of Organic Pesticide
Technologies for Improved Agriculture
and Rural Livelihoods in Uganda
Ssenyonjo Julius1 and Kyaterekera Derrick2
Keywords: application, organic pesticides, technologies, improved agriculture, rural livelihoods

Abstract
Organic pesticide technologies (OPTs) are perceived by Ugandan farmers as the positive road tosustainable agriculture and development of rural communities that derive their livelihoods from agriculture.
Farmers have long sat on the margins of Ugandan society, constrained by crop pests and diseases, andthe absence of cheap control measures. In response to this, in 2004, young professionals of Practicing
Environmental Managers’ Organization (PEMO) designed a scientific but cheap strategy that uses locallyavailable materials to manufacture organic pesticides. The major objective of this project was to improve
agriculture in Uganda through the use of OPTs. Mukono district was identified as one of the areas infested
with pests and diseases; Ngogwe and Ntunda sub-counties were selected out of the 12 sub-counties
within the district. Farmers have been educated on organic pesticides and how these can be made locally.
Community-based organizations and model farms were formed in each of the selected sub-counties tohelp implement strategies within the wider community. Farmers have managed to save their incomes,
which they used previously to spend on expensive agrochemicals. Results are communicated to farmers
by PEMO researchers through community workshops and the media. More scientific research is neededon numerous pests and diseases, and the benefits of OPTs need to be extended to other agricultural areasof Uganda, and other agricultural countries within Sub-Saharan Africa that are infested with pests anddiseases.

1,2

Practicing Environmental Managers’ Organization (PEMO), PO Box 8957, Kampala, Uganda.
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 65

Application of Organic Pesticide Technologies for Improved Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods in Uganda
Ssenyonjo Julius and Kyaterekera Derrick

INTRODUCTION
As in many other Sub-Saharan African countries, agriculture forms the backbone of Uganda’s economy:
80% of Ugandans directly depend on it for their daily survival (UNDP, 2007). In 2007, agriculture contributed
61% of all exports and 70–80% of all export earnings, as well as 40% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Yet
this agriculture is on the decline; for instance, livestock contribution to Uganda’s GDP has declined from
25% to a mere 5% since the late 1970s. In 2006, Uganda exported only US $134 million (€268,000) worth offood and imported over US $154 million (€308,000) worth of food.
The over 88% of Ugandans who live in rural areas and depend on agriculture for their livelihoods are themost poverty stricken according to welfare indicators (MAAIF and MFPED, 2000). On poverty eradication in
Uganda, MAAIF and MFPED (2000) point out major causes of the worsening poverty situation in the country
to include; slower growth in agriculture and a decline in farm-gate prices. The slower growth in agriculture is
attributed to pests and diseases, and absence of dynamism within the agricultural sector to invest in
indigenous science and technological research—for example, the Republic of Korea spends 2.6% of its
GDP on science and technological research related to both the primary sector and the manufacturingsector, while Uganda spends just 0.8% of its GDP on these sectors (UNDP, 2007). It is not surprising
therefore that the 31% of Ugandans who live on less than a dollar a day are mainly in agricultural households.
To combat this poverty situation and improve rural livelihoods, we need to improve agriculture through theuse of affordable indigenous technologies. To this end, in 2004, Practicing Environmental Managers’
Organization (PEMO) designed a scientific but cheap strategy that uses locally available materials to
manufacture a variety of organic pesticides with proven preventive and curative abilities against pests anddiseases.
Statement of the Problem
While Uganda (like many other Sub-Saharan African countries) is predominantly an agricultural country,
various pests and diseases have continued to limit the development and performance of its agricultural
sector. Pests and diseases in Uganda include: maize stalk borer, mealy bugs, aphids, banana wilt,
nematodes, ticks and rodents. Although the Ugandan climate favors many agricultural pests and diseases,
only 3.4% of farmers in Uganda use agrochemicals. A lot of agricultural produce is therefore lost at the farmand in stores due to absence of affordable pesticides. This situation may not be limited to Uganda, but ishighly likely to be the case in many other Sub-Saharan African countries.
Uganda’s agriculture registers among the lowest yields in the world, despite favorable climatic conditions.
For example, the average yield of cotton in Uganda is 600 kg/ha, compared to 2500 kg/ha in Israel. The
most prevalent problem attributed to this poor performance still is pests and diseases (NPA, 2008). Though
the development of a natural-resource-based country like Uganda requires a strong indigenous
technological base, it is estimated that only 14% of all Uganda’s exports are produced using scientific andtechnological innovations (UNDP, 2007). This contrasts with 55% for Malaysia. To boost poverty-stricken
rural livelihoods that largely depend on agriculture in the face of rampant pests and diseases, stringent
measures based on cheap and locally available resources (such as organic pesticide technologies, OPTs)
are needed for farmers, who have sat on the margins of global economy for a long time.
Objectives of the Organic Pesticides Project
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Application of Organic Pesticide Technologies for Improved Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods in Uganda
Ssenyonjo Julius and Kyaterekera Derrick

The objectives of the project were:
1 To create awareness of and practical skills in the use of organic pesticides towards sustainableagriculture;
2 To increase the number of farmers that use organic pesticides from 6% to at least 30% by 2020;
3 To improve rural livelihoods through improved agricultural output in rural communities of Uganda.
Purpose of the Project
The project aims at developing scientific innovations in OPTs through research, and communicating theresults to farmers for improved agriculture and rural livelihoods in Uganda.
Scope of the ProjectThis project focuses on OPTs. Since 2004, the project has been implemented in Mukono district of Uganda.
Mukono is one of the areas most heavily affected with pests and diseases, and was the most accessible
agricultural district (given the project’s financial resources). The project covers two sub-counties of the
district, Ntunda and Ngogwe.
Literature Review
We can draw on a range of schools of thought on how best to increase agricultural productivity and improverural livelihoods, especially in a developing country. Thirwall (1983) observes that the quickest andcheapest way to raise productivity depends on the reasons for the low productivity and constraints toagricultural growth, which vary from country to country and from region to region. The major constraints toagricultural growth in Uganda are pests and diseases, poor farm-gate prices and inadequate capital toinvest in productive agriculture (KARI, 2003). Thirwall (1983) further contends that, in some cases, it is an
inappropriate labor-to-land ratio combined with a lack of appropriate and complementary inputs that
constrains agriculture; in other cases, it is the structure and organization of agriculture, and in many cases it
is a combination of the two coupled with unfavorable natural factors. Kalirajan et al. (1996) complements
this line of argument by asserting that as long as farmers are not operating on their frontiers, due to various
non-price and organizational factors—which is the case in Uganda—, technical progress cannot be theonly source of total factor productivity growth. A substantial increase in productivity under thesecircumstances can still be realized by improving the method of application of the given technology.
Kalirajan et al. add that it is important to know whether technological progress is stagnant over time andwhether the given technology has been used in such a way as to realize its full potential. Certainly, the yieldsof selected crops in Uganda indicate that productivity of maize has fallen, as has that of finger millet (KARI,
2003). These results further indicate that Ugandan farmers are operating below their frontiers and therefore
available technologies are not being used to their full potential. While Africa is the only developing region
where crop output and yield growth is lagging seriously behind population growth, there is very little literature
on measurement of productivity in this region, essentially due to lack of reliable data. Savadogo et al. (1994)
show that, since the spate of African farm management studies in the 1960s and 1970s, soils havedegraded rapidly, access to land has become increasingly constrained, and factor and credit markets havechanged structurally. They further point out that these changes should affect productivity across farm types,
suggesting the need to revive attention on farm-level analysis. Such analyses are important for Uganda,
given the emphasis the country is putting on agriculture, not only for improving rural livelihoods, but also forgeneral economic growth and poverty reduction.
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Application of Organic Pesticide Technologies for Improved Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods in Uganda
Ssenyonjo Julius and Kyaterekera Derrick

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Methodology
In establishing the use of organic pesticides, researchers in PEMO reviewed the (published andunpublished) literature on both agrochemicals and organic pesticides. This helped to give an insight into
the effects and effectiveness of the two types of pesticides on agriculture and the environment. This wasfollowed by investigations on the most recurring pests and diseases in the endemic areas; and testing of
the organic pesticides on animals, and on different crops and vegetables in farmers’ gardens affected byvarious pests and diseases. A descriptive survey on farmers’ gardens in the two sub-counties of Mukono
district was carried out to identify the existing control methods used by farmers, factors influencing adoptionof such methods, and the impacts of such methods on both soil quality and agricultural output. Qualitative
analysis was used and data were analyzed on a daily basis and then coded according to themes. The
different themes and sub-themes were given codes that later aided in report writing. That is to say, content
analysis was used to analyze the data. Table 1 shows materials used, name of the pesticide, andprocedure.
Table 1. Name of pesticide, materials used and production procedure Name
Materials and production procedure Application
NameMaterials and production procedure

Application

Chili(1) Boil 3 L of water; (2) once boiling, add

Used on vegetable gardens against caterpillars,

pepper

0.5 kg of thinly sliced or pounded ripe pilipili;

aphids, flies, ants, mealy bugs and nematodes.

(pilipili)(3) boil for further 15–20 minutes and remove

Applied once a week if there is no rain, 2–3 times

from heat; (4) add 30 g soap; (5) stir to make thea week if it rains

pesticidesolution soapy; (6) add 3 L cold water
Pawpaw(1) Chop 1 kg of fresh pawpaw leaves;pesticides(2) place into a container with 10 L water;This is used on crops against a variety of pests(3) add 2 tablespoons of paraffin; (4) leave for atleast 3 hours, and then strain out the leaves
Tobacco(1) Boil 3–4 L water; (2) add 300 g dry tobacco

Applied to maize or sorghum to kill stem borers.

pesticideleaves; (3) boil for 15–20 minutes, then remove

Can also be brushed on the hides of sheep, cattle

from heat; (4) add 30 g soap and stir until bubbles

or goats infested with ticks. Can be applied on

are formed; (5) add 3– 4 L cold water; (6) cover andbedding through soaking to kill bed bugs

leave to cool, and then filter through a light clothOnion(1) Pound 5 onion bulbs; (2) add 3–4 L water; (3)bulbleave to ferment for 2–3 days

Tomato(1) Boil 3–4 L water; (2) add 300 g of pounded dryleavestomato leaves; (3) boil for 15– 20 minutes, thenremove from heat; (4) add a handful of ash;(5) add 2 liters of dilute animal urine; (6) add
0.5 kg of red pepper; (7) add 3–4 L cold water;(8) cover and leave to cool, and then filter througha light cloth after 2 days

68 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

The smell of the solution repels many pests
Applied to banana plants to control nematodes.

Application of Organic Pesticide Technologies for Improved Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods in Uganda
Ssenyonjo Julius and Kyaterekera DerrickCommunication Strategies Used
Workshops were carried out in different villages through an interactive approach where experts from PEMO
passed on knowledge and skills to farmers on how organic pesticides are manufactured using locallyavailable materials. Media are used in an ongoing strategy where information and knowledge about organic
pesticides is broadcast to farmers every Saturday between 7:00 a.m. and 8:00 a.m. on Impact Radio. The
farmer audience is now more knowledgeable about the use of organic pesticides, and how organic
pesticides can be manufactured through simple scientific techniques.
RESULTS
Mukono was identified as the district most affected by pests and diseases—caterpillars, nematodes,
armyworms, mole rats, aphids and mealy bugs. In effect, PEMO researchers successfully developed five
types of organic pesticides to control these pests and diseases (see Table 1). Farmers in these areas haveused these pesticides for 3 years. Farmers apply these liquid pesticides using watering cans or by dipping
leafy twigs into the solution and sprinkling onto plants and animals against a variety of pests and diseases.
Farmers in the selected areas were taught about organic pesticides and how these can be made locally. For
sustainability, we helped form community-based organizations (CBOs) that now implement strategies andprovide extension services to other farmers within the wider community. In Ntunda sub-county, Ntunda
Community Organic Pesticide Farmers’ Organization was formed with 28 executive members (12 men and
16 women). In Ngogwe, Ngogwe Agricultural Development Organization was formed with 20 executive
members (11 men and 9 women). At least one model organic farm that uses organic pesticides wasdeveloped in each of the two sub-counties.
Soil fertility, crop productivity, and livestock quality have greatly improved in the 3 years since OPTs wereintroduced in Mukono district. Through the CBOs, farmers have managed to widen the market for theiragricultural produce by convincing buyers in the urban centers about the organic nature of their agricultural
produce. One farmer interviewed by PEMO researchers during monitoring and evaluation on theeffectiveness of organic pesticides in Ntunda sub-county, in April 2008 had this to say:
Production and income have greatly improved since I started using organic pesticides in 2007, I now sell agood looking pawpaw at Uganda Shillings 700 [€0.35] yet before I used to sell each pawpaw at only 42
Shillings [€0.021].
Farmers in the two sub-counties have managed to save their income, which they previously used to spend
on expensive imported agrochemicals. In 2006, farmers in Ntunda sub-county started a farmers’
microfinance organization, called Ntunda Farmers’ Savings and Credit Cooperative Society, for theirsocioeconomic development.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
An overview of this research project shows that, among other measures, OPTs were identified as the
positive road to sustainable agriculture. They require the use of locally available materials, from which they
are made through simple step-by-step techniques affordable to the economically constrained farmers inrural settings. Mukono district was identified as one of the most pests and disease infested areas in Uganda
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Application of Organic Pesticide Technologies for Improved Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods in Uganda
Ssenyonjo Julius and Kyaterekera Derrick

and also one of the areas where agriculture is predominant (engages over 80% of the population). The
project used (and uses) community workshops and media (Impact Radio-98.5FM) to communicate resultson the effectiveness of OPTs and how these can be manufactured to control a variety of pests anddiseases.
Project farmers in the selected sub-counties greatly improved their agricultural productivity due to the qualityof their agricultural products; their incomes have also improved and they have started saving part of theirincome. Thus, OPTs have enabled farmers to reduce the infestation of pests and diseases and save someof their meager incomes. It should be noted, however, that organic pesticides would not be of any good ifthey were not introduced to our farmers. Thus, more scientific research and development, including
dissemination of such scientific results to our farmers, are significant.
Literature Cited
Kalirajan, K.P, Obwona, M.B. and Zhao, S. 1996. A decomposition of total factor productivity growth: Thecase of Chinese agricultural growth before and after reforms. Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 78: 331–338.
KARI 2003. Yield Status of Selected Crops in Uganda 1993 and 2003. Kawanda Agricultural ResearchInstitute.
MAAIF and MFPED 2000. Plan for Modernization of Agriculture: Eradicating Poverty in Uganda. Government
Strategy and Operational Framework. Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries and Ministry of
Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala.
NPA 2008. Vision 2035. Towards a Transformed Ugandan Society from a Peasant to a Modern and
Prosperous Country within 30 Years. Working draft for National Dialogue. National Planning Authority,
Kampala.
Savadogo, K., Reardon, T. and Pietola, K. 1994. Farm productivity in Burkina Faso: Effects of animal traction
and nonfarm income. Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 76: 608–612.
Thirlwall, A.P. 1983. Growth and Development with special Reference to Developing Economies. Macmillan
Education, Basingstoke, UK.
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) 2007. Uganda Human Development Report. DW&DW
Publishers, Kampala.

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Extension of Biodigester Construction
to Produce Domestic Gas andOrganic Compost on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick1, K. E. Basemeg2 and M.E. Eone3
Keywords: adaptability, biogas, organic waste, digestate, energy, liquid manure

Abstract
Peasant households face several limitations for efficient biogas production, including low livestock
production and population density. Lack of energy infrastructure also constitutes a major constraint in rural
areas. To solve this problem, farmers could combine energy and manure production to optimize use ofwaste. The aim of this study was to identify conditions in which a biodigester could be sustainably built andused by farmers to optimize biogas and organic-manure production in an integrated crop–livestock
system. The energy requirements of the main rural households was calculated and their agricultural
structure determined. The yield was 413 litres of biogas and 12 kg of organic manure per quarter for acommunity farm of 20 pigs. A field trial using organic manure at the rate of 12 t/ha showed a growing yield
response of between 175 and 560 kg/ha for maize. Groundnut yields also responded to the manure, but
not to the same extent. In this experiment, each quarter the farmer earned €133.39 from maize production
and saved a further €191.91 that would otherwise have been spent on fuel—the total of €325.30 constituted
46% of the investment cost for biodigester construction. A peasant community with 20 pigs recovered its
investment cost of €702 after two 6-month agricultural cycles. The economic yield from biodigester
construction was observed in Sub-Saharan African community farms. However, the study must be
considered with caution, considering the high rate of fires associated.

1–3

Engineers Without Borders, P.O. Box 7105, Douala, Cameroon.
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Extension of Biodigester Construction to Produce Domestic Gas and Organic Compost on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick, K. E. Basemeg and M.E. Eone

INTRODUCTION
The natural assets of Cameroon have promoted the country’s agricultural development. However, potential
assets for development have faced constraints. Indeed, even where there is a biological balance, important
issues are at stake. Peasant households face several limitations for efficient biogas production, including
low livestock production (three pigs) and population density (150 people/km2). The management of crop
residues, soil degradation and energy infrastructure for low-density areas are highly problematic for rural
households. Therefore, populations use huge quantities of natural fuels for cooking, and deforestation
remains an increasing concern. Environmental preservation requires local-level innovations and goodpractices (Riedacker et al., 1999). Lagrange (1979) explains that farm waste is a major source of the mostharmful greenhouse gases, methane (CH4) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). According to Ganry (1991), theaddition of compost allows minerals to be returned to the soil up to a level of 1.5–2 t/ha. Similarly, biologicalsources can be used to produce energy (Farinet and Sarr, 1989). Our research focused on maximizing theuse of farm residues and the simultaneous production of energy and organic fertilizers.
Research Issues
The assumption that principles of industrial ecology can be applied at the local family-farm level leads to thefollowing research questions:• Can the production of biogas contribute to creating village ‘pockets of sustainability’ and serve as a pathto sustainable development?
• What are the minimum requirements for rural biogas and compost production to be effective in a farmunit?
• How can the energy produced be used?
• What are the effects of organic fertilizers on rural farm productivity?
Objectives
The hypothesis of this study was that the adaptability of biodigester technology depends on the production
cost and the participating farm unit. The main objective was to identify conditions in which biodigesters canbe built and used sustainably in a rural environment. More specifically, this meant:• experimenting with the construction of digesters, using simple building tools and available materials;• optimizing animal dung, especially pig manure, and plant waste found in rural farms;• evaluating the quantity of inputs required (bio-wastes, human time and skills, financial resources) tolaunch efficient biodigesters.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
The preparation was done by hand using simple materials (pickaxe, shovel, plumb line, etc.). Rock coveredby at least 10 cm of cement was used as an embankment. Wooden templates were used for measuring.
The biodigester was gradually covered with mortar. Earthen bricks were used for the base. Water-drenchedbricks were used to construct the 50° slope. The (PVC and galvanized) pipes were scraped with a metal saw
to ensure maximum adhesion and were then attached with barbed wire to prevent any movement. The
reservoir was covered with a sheet of metal and a block of cement. A stirrer, made with a metal rod with a
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Extension of Biodigester Construction to Produce Domestic Gas and Organic Compost on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick, K. E. Basemeg and M.E. Eone

metal disc welded to one end, was installed at the opening of the reservoir. The digester had an averagecapacity of 2 m3.
Fig. 1. Construction of the chamber of biodigester

Methods
The methodology used was based on action research in partnership with rural producers. The brief was tocollect data by reviewing secondary data on the question, and by semi-structured surveys, field experience
with technical supervisors and activity reports, to analyse the technology-transfer process and its
adaptability. Data were collected at the same time as the simplified ‘biodigester’ technology was beingtransmitted through technical training sessions for producers.
Trials were carried out in the initial project site areas located in community pig farms in Omog, Boumyebel
and Matomb villages, Nyong and Kellé Division, Centre Province, Cameroon. Bougrier (2005) feels that the
optimal volume of biogas production can be achieved (0.925 m3 of biogas per tropical livestock unit perday) and the investment can be made profitable with about 20 sows. Hence, choices concerning the
pigsties were based on the production-capacity criterion (between 18 and 24 animals to be able to counton a quantity of excrement of between 3,600 and 4,800 kg per quarter).
Training for community farms was given to groups averaging 12 farmers and was structured as practical
exercises that emphasized manure collection and storage, construction of a biodigester, spreading
compost, recovery and possible uses of energy produced (cooking gas, lighting, etc.).
The digestate (residues from biodigesters) was mixed with plant residue and stored for a final 4-month
aerobic finishing phase. Farm trials were carried out for three consecutive seasons (March and August
2007, March 2008) in order to provide compost for an associated maize–groundnut crop (3 t/ha perseason).
Choice of Sites for the Study and Experimental Units
The experiment was laid out in completely randomized blocks with three replicates. Local varieties of maize
and groundnut were used for calculations of fertilizer quantities and yields. The compost made from thebiodigesters was composed of organic manure derived from plant and animal waste. The compost was
analysed. The experimental unit was 7 m ×5 m, i.e. 35 m2. Four levels of compost were tested. The
compost was provided at the beginning of the production cycle, then spread after the land had been lightly
tilled. The effect of the compost was evaluated at the end of the growing season. To measure the volume of
the biogas, it was recovered in a tube buried 50 cm underground and connected to a gas cooker. There
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Extension of Biodigester Construction to Produce Domestic Gas and Organic Compost on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick, K. E. Basemeg and M.E. Eone

were two valves on the cover, one to regulate the biogas flow to the gas cooker and the other connected tothe manometer. Data were collected on the quantities of biogas and compost produced.
The data were analysed using qualitative and factorial analysis tools (Excel and SPSS software).
RESULTS
Simplification/Adaptability of Process
The simplified technology functioned well. Technical suggestions for improving the farmers’ biodigestion
systems are known (materials, reservoir entrances and exits, inspection panel, mixture area, etc.). The
results from the three sites varied according to the material types and the composition of the farm andhousehold wastes. This initiative also facilitated extension of research findings by providing rural
populations with a simplified technology for producing environmentally-friend energy.
Cost of Construction of Artisanal Micro-biodigester
Labour needed amounted to 24 work-days (wd) to prepare the terrain, 180 wd for the construction work, 36
wd for plumbing and 120 wd for finishing work over an average period of 4 weeks. A 2 m ×3 m biodigester
made by non-qualified labourers cost €702 and the average production was 413 litres of biogas for from
1.22 kg of manure per day. The average energy production potential was 2.29 kW/m3.
Characteristics of Products Obtained
The system is based on daily fermentation of a large organic mass composed mainly of pig manure, in thepresence of anaerobic bacteria. To improve farm hygiene, the manure has to be properly managed. In
these experiments, we obtained an average of 12 kg of organic compost. A tonne of compost derived fromthis methanation contains about 0.65 kg of nitrogen compounds, 9.8 kg phosphate compounds and 1 kgorganic carbon; its value to agriculture is undeniable, as these are good levels of minerals. This simplified
biogas-production system can be used to produce methane, as a replacement of wood, for cooking. After
getting rid of the first gas, the gas that was obtained had a clean blue flame. In the beginning, the flame
burned for 20 minutes and then went out. We obtained better raw materials and production normalized.
Table 1 shows improvements in biogas production after 18 test days.
Table 1. Improvement of biodegradability and biogas production
Locality

Substratum used

Biodegradability (Increase in) Biogas production

Omog

40% pig manure

40±4%

338.52 L per kg of suspended volatile material

54±6%

17%

59±8%

36%

60% plant waste
Boumyebel

60% pig manure
40% plant waste

Matomb

90% pig manure
10% plant waste

Waste with a high concentration of pig manure had a higher methane yield (Table 1).

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Extension of Biodigester Construction to Produce Domestic Gas and Organic Compost on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick, K. E. Basemeg and M.E. Eone

Average maize yields obtained after the application of manure from the biodigester varied between 1.87
and 3.25 t/ha (Table 2). Gains thus earned over fallow system without organic fertilizer averaged 0.89 t/ha
(Table 2).

Table 2: Effects of added compost to maize yield (t/ha)
Manure (t DM/ha)1

Location10 (new plot)

8 (without fallow)

16 (without fallow) 24 (without fallow)

Omog

1.66

1.88

2.57

3.30

Boumyebel

1.69

1.85

2.58

3.26

Matomb

1.69

1.87

2.59

3.18

Average

1.68

1.87

2.58

3.25

The data points are averages of both replicates and years (mean of 9 trials each).

Groundnut yields, after application of compost, varied on average between 1.81 and 1.88 t/ha (Table 3).
Table 3. Effects of added compost to groundnut yield
Manure (t DM/ha)1

Location10 (new plot)

8 (without fallow)

16 (without fallow) 24 (without fallow)

Omog

1.78

1.83

1.84

1.89

Boumyebel

1.76

1.79

1.81

1.86

Matomb

1.77

1.82

1.83

1.88

Average

1.77

1.81

1.83

1.88

The data points are averages of both replicates and years (mean of 9 trials each).

Tables 2 and 3 show that maize responded more to manure application than groundnut did. During 3 years,
maize and groundnuts gave good response to manure. We can assume that at least the middle-term
productivity of amended soils with manure is ensured. Furthermore, we see that productivity rises withcompost applications of between 0 and 24 t/ha. It seems conceivable that maximum yields have not beenreached with this dose.
Biodigester construction in Sub-Saharan African community farms was economical because, each quarter,
the farmer earned €133.39 (19%) from maize production and saved €191.91 that would have been spent
on fuel (without the biodigester). The total of €325.30 represents 46% of the investment cost for biodigester
construction. So, investment costs of €702 are covered after two 6-month agricultural cycles.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
A biodigestion unit can be optimized through 90 days of biomethanization in a farmer’s pigsty with about 20
sows. During that period, biogas production goes up. Waste with a high proportion of pig manure produces
up to 2.7 times more biogas than waste of mainly plant origin. However, it is important to know the
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Extension of Biodigester Construction to Produce Domestic Gas and Organic Compost on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick, K. E. Basemeg and M.E. Eone

plant/animal matter ratio that allows for optimal biogas production.
Compost requires good storage and fulfils a small part of the crops’ requirements for nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, magnesium and trace elements. The application of organic manure contributes to considerable
increases in maize yields. With bags selling at €21.34 (Hatcheu, 2003), the farmers earn €855 per hectare ofmaize planted. For groundnut, the manured plots yielded little more than the fresh field. Although the factthat there was little difference in groundnut yields between manured plots and fallowed plots, it seems that
producers can use manure to maintain the fertility of the soil and reduce deforestation by stabilizing
cropping areas.
ISF (2004) suggest that small rural households need an average of 20 kWh/month. Assuming a productionlevel of 137 kWh/month, the biodigester could supply six rural households. Since an average family spends
around €655 on energy per year (ISF, 2004), a biodigester pays for itself in five quarters, but due attention
has to be given to the capacity/needs ratio to convince rural areas to implement integrated artisanal biogasproduction systems.
There are no definite conclusions on profitability. Parameters other than biogas production have to be bornein mind. Determining whether the biodigester is economically viable requires a preliminary estimate oflabour costs for the collection of organic waste.
On the other hand, a higher rate of fires can be associated with the volatilization of biogas wheninappropriately used by less skilled people. In order to protect peasant populations from fires risks, further
studies on adequate risk-reduction strategies must be considered.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the volunteers at Engineers Without Borders-Cameroon (EWB) for their financial andtechnical contributions. We are also grateful to the participating farmers for their unwaivering commitment.
Literature Cited
Bougrier, C. 2005. Optimisation du procédé de méthanisation par mise en place d’un co-traitement
physico-chimique : Application au gisement de biogaz représenté par les boues d’épuration des eauxusées. Thèse du département Environnement et agronomie, Université Montpellier II, France.
Farinet, J.L. and Sarr, P.L. 1989. Bilan de cinq années d’expérimentation d’un système continu deproduction de biogaz et de compost à Bambey (Sénégal). In: UREF. Journées scientifiques, energies
renouvelables et zones arides, programme génie parasécheresse AUPELF/UREF, Senegal, 11–15
December 1989. CIRAD-IRAT, Montpellier.
Ganry, F. 1991. Valorisation des résidus organiques à la ferme et maintien de la fertilité du sol. Un itinéraire
technique progressif appliqué à la culture de maïs au Sud-Sénégal. p. 317–331. In: Savanes d’Afriques,
Terres Fertiles ? 10–14 December 1990, CIRAD, Montpellier, France. La documentation française, Paris.
Rencontres internationales sur les savanes d'Afrique.
http://publications.cirad.fr/une_notice.php?dk=418286
Hatcheu, E.T. 2003. L’approvisionnement et la distribution alimentaires à Douala (Cameroun) : logiquessociales et pratiques spatiales des acteurs. Thèse de l’Institut d’Etudes de Développement Economique et76 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Extension of Biodigester Construction to Produce Domestic Gas and Organic Compost on Family Farms
E.L. Ngo-Samnick, K. E. Basemeg and M.E. Eone

Social (IEDES), Université de Paris I Panthéon Sorbonne, France.
http://www.cartographie.ird.fr/publi/Hatcheu.pdf.
ISF 2004. Etude de faisabilité du développement intégré de la communauté d’Omog-Tayab. AROTAD,
Douala.
Lagrange, B. 1979. Biométhane, énergies alternatives, collection « Technologies douces ». Editions
Edisud, Aix en Provence.
Riedacker, A., N’Gikam, E., Seck, M. and Girard P. 1999. Possible contributions of biomass in sustainable
developments under three different conditions: In the tropics, in the Sahel and under temperate climate. p.
153–162. In: Jardin planétaire’99 : actes. Chambery : Prospective 2100. International Symposium on
Sustainable Ecosystem Management, 14–18 March, CIRAD, Chambery, France.
http://publications.cirad.fr/une_notice.php?dk=392164.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 77

Design, Construction and Test-runningof a Biodiesel Pilot Plant
J.N. Nwakaire1 and C.J. Ohagwu2
Keywords: beniseed oil, centane index, palm kernel oil, viscosity index, flash point, caloric value

Abstract
The production and utilization of biodiesel as an alternative fuel for diesel engines have continued to gain
worldwide attention and world output has increased. For Nigeria, as a developing nation, the implication ofutilizing this emerging technology is highly positive. In this work, the design and construction of an efficientbiodiesel pilot plant were considered. The gains from such consideration resulted in the construction of a 30
liter per hour pilot plant. The various systems were carefully designed and selected after application ofprincipal equations, like the heat-capacity, volume of a cylinder and cone equations. After carefulconstruction, the plant was tested with beniseed oil and palm-kernel oil. The resultant biodiesel from thevegetable oil was characterized in order to determine the fuel properties of the biodiesel. Cetane index of thefuel was calculated using ASTM (American Society of Testing and Materials) cetane index equation(D.4737). The cetane index of palm-kernel biodiesel was 51.824, while that of beniseed biodiesel was
60.69. The viscosity, flash point and caloric value of palm kernel biodiesel were 3.4 mm2/s, 143.5
C and 128,244.27 J/L, respectively, while those of beniseed biodiesel were 2.97 mm2/s, 139.87 C and132,283.46 J/L, respectively. Thus, the fuels produced met with international standards of ASTM and UnitedStates Soydiesel Development Board. This work is a major breakthrough in Nigeria’s quest to be renewableenergy complainant in the aspect of biodiesel production.

1–2

Department of Agricultural & Bioresources Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.
The two-way problem was to achieve oil viscosity equivalent to that of diesel fuel and producing oil that has the properties of diesel
fuel that does not clog the nozzles of the injector, thus removing impurities
like sulphur oxide.
2

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Design, Construction and Test-running of a Biodiesel Pilot Plant
J.N. Nwakaire and C.J. Ohagwu

INTRODUCTION
Simply defined, biodiesel is a diesel fuel made from vegetable oil, alcohol and a catalyst. It is the only
alternative fuel that has passed all of the Environmental Protection Agency’s clean-air fuel requirements.
Biodiesel was produced due to the need to solve a two-way problem2 identified during the analysis of theuse of vegetable in combustion engine (Dr Rudolf Diesel tested a diesel engine on peanut oil, which can becalled straight vegetable oil).
Biodiesel production plants are designed to reduce the bottlenecks encountered between the discovery ofa process and the eventual scaling up of the production process. Therefore the need to establish a pilot
plant in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. The processes and production of biodiesel (methyl ester) fromvegetable oil and animal fat feedstocks remain a strong growth market in the USA and Canada, as well as in
the European Union. Most reports on capacity and consumption are generalized due to lack of formal
reporting in some national markets, companies’ secrecy about plant capacity and production, and themoving-target nature of pinning these down (Bockey, 2002).
Statement of the problem
The fundamentals of biodiesel production are well known. However, in Nigeria, most research on the
production process has been on batch processors. Therefore, there is a need to establish a pilot
continuous-flow biodiesel production plant, which is a stepping stone for full industrial production plant.
Thus, the design and construction of a continuous-flow biodiesel pilot plant will strengthen the research anddevelopment of the biodiesel industry in Nigeria.
Objectives of the Study
The main objectives of the work are:
• To design, construct and test-run a 30 L/h continuous biodiesel production plant using beniseed oil; and,• To characterized or determine experimentally the fuel properties of the biodiesel produced and compare
results with international standards for biodiesel
Biodiesel Production Process
Vegetable oil is used for production of biodiesel. A titration is performed on the vegetable oil using sodiumhydroxide (NaOH) as a catalyst, and methanol or ethanol as a reagent. The process of biodiesel production
is called transesterification (Tickell, 2002). Sodium hydroxide and methanol were mixed to form a strong
base, sodium methoxide, with a significant amount of exothermic heat. Caution and proper safety
equipment must be used in this stage of biodiesel production. The mixture of sodium methanoxide is thenadded to the vegetable oil pre-heated to approximately 45ºC. This mixture is then thoroughly mixed or
stirred for about 30 minutes to one hour, and allowed to settle for about 8–10 hours. In a successful reaction,
glycerin settles to the bottom of the processor with the lighter ester (methyl ester) forming the top layer. The
pilot plant is thus designed to handle this set of processes. Biodiesel can also be produced from waste
vegetable oils.
According to the (US) National Biodiesel Board (2006), the mixture ratios most effective for the production
process is one part of methanol to five parts of vegetable oil, and 0.35 g sodium hydroxide pellets to one litre
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Design, Construction and Test-running of a Biodiesel Pilot Plant
J.N. Nwakaire and C.J. Ohagwu

of vegetable oil, for example, 1 L alcohol + 1.75 g NaOH + 5 L oil. According to Chevron (1998), for abiodiesel fuel produced to meet international standards, such properties as cetane number, flash point,
viscosity index, pour and cloud point, and caloric value, should be analysed. The improved equation for
calculating cetane index (CCL) for diesel fuel known as ASTM D. 4737 is (Chevron, 1998):
CCL = 45.2 + (0.0892) (T10N) + [0.131 + (0.901) (B) [T5ON] + [0.0523(0.420) (B) [T90N] + [0.00049][T10N)2] + (107) (B) + (60) (B2)
Where, B = [(e(– 3.5)) DN] – 1, D = Density of biodiesel at 15ºC, DN = D – 0.85, T10 = 10% recovery
temperature as measured by D863 in ºC, T10N = T10 – 215, T50 = 50% recovery temperature as measured by
D86 in ºC, T50N = T50 – 260, T90 = 90% recovery temperature as measured by D86 in ºC, T90N = T90 – 310.
The parts of the biodiesel plant are: reaction tank, the heating system, supporting system or frame work, theseparation system, mixing system, transferring equipment, and storage system (Technologies
International, 2007). According to Paul (2006), the material’s compatibility is required for producing astandardized biodiesel, and he mentions some materials that were termed ‘good’ for biodiesel production(aluminium, stainless steel, fluorinated plastics, Teflon, Viton, nylon, and fibre glass). Another important areaof consideration is the capacities of the materials that will be used in the production process. According toNoureddini et al. (1996), material capacity is especially important with respect to equipment used in mixing,
transferring and heating. The appropriate selection of pump size required to perform an operation depends
on the power required for the operation and pipe diameter. According to Onwualu et al. (2006), the equation
for determining the pump power is:
P = WxHt
Where, W = weight of fluid to be pumped (kg), H = pressure head to be overcome (m), t = time required topump the fluid(s). However, pump size is calculated on the basis of the pump power and pump efficiency:
Ps = P/e, where Ps = pump size (hp), P = pump power (kW), and e = efficiency (%) (Onwualu et al., 2006).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The pilot plant was designed and constructed after applying the basic design equations. Tables andaverages were used in the analysis of results. Three tests were carried out on three samples of each of thebiodiesels produced. The properties tested were cetane number, flash point, viscosity index, pour andcloud point, density of the fuel, and caloric value. The basic mixing proportions used was 1 L alcohol + 1.75
g NaOH + 5 L oil.
Laboratory tests were conducted to determine each of the properties of the fuel. The Obukpa community in
Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria was shown a sample of the fuel and the village
head organized some agro-processors to see this new type of fuel they can use. The interactive session
3

D86 is a standard test method for distillation of petroleum product at atmospheric pressure.

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Design, Construction and Test-running of a Biodiesel Pilot Plant
J.N. Nwakaire and C.J. Ohagwu

was illustrated using an overhead projector. They were also urged to cultivate more oil seeds like Jatrophaand beniseed.
RESULTSThe completed biodiesel plant is shown in Figure 1, and a design diagram of the tanks is shown in Figure 2.
The results of the test conducted on the beniseed and palm-kernel oil biodiesels to determine their fuelproperties are summarized in Table 1. The cetane index of palm-kernel biodiesel was 51.824, while that forbeniseed was 60.69. The viscosity, flash point and caloric value of palm-kernel biodiesel were 3.4 mm2/s,
143.5ºC and 128,244.27 J/L, respectively, while those of beniseed biodiesel were 2.97 mm2/s, 139.87ºC
and 132,283.46 J/L, respectively. The fuel produced met international standards from ASTM (2003) andUnited States Soydiesel Development Board (2004).
The local community embarked on mass planting of oilseeds in order to boost biodiesel production. The
university community also benefited. The university came first in the area of science and technology in the2008 National Universities Research and Development Fair, Lagos, Nigeria. The work was displayed during
the 2008 Special
Fig. 1: The completed 30 L/hbiodiesel pilot plantFig. 2: Design diagramof the reservoir

Convocation Ceremony at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. There is an ongoing collaboration between the
researchers and Biodiesel Nigeria Group.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
One major property of diesel is its cetane index or number. We used the ASTM equation for calculating theindex. The calculated cetane index for palm-kernel biodiesel is 51.824 (Table 1). This value is within the
stipulated standard of ASTM which is 47 minimum for biodiesel. Thus, the fuel met international standard.
Physical observation during the test- running of the fuel on an R-175 4-hp engine in the Department ofAgricultural Engineering showed zero soot production.
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Design, Construction and Test-running of a Biodiesel Pilot Plant
J.N. Nwakaire and C.J. Ohagwu

Table 1. Summary of the fuel properties of palm-kernel oil (PKO) and beniseed oil
biodiesel

Viscosity (mm2/s at 40ºC)

PKO

Biodiesed

Biodiesed

BeniseedbiodieselStandard

3.41

2.97

1.9-6.0mm2 (ASTM 06751 – 03)

Cetane index

51.82460.69>47 (ASTM 06751-03)

Flash point (ºC)

143.5

139.87>130ºC (ASTM 06751-03)

Pour point (ºC)

–21.44–21.56(Report to customer, ASTM)

Cloud point (ºC)

–10.37–10.64(Report to customer, ASTM)

Relative density (at 15ºC)

0.894

0.872

0.88 (USNSDB)Caloric value (J/L)

128,244.27

132,283.46

128,000 (USNSDB)ASTM: American Society of Testing and Materials (2003); USNSDB: United States National Soydiesel Development Board (1994).

The engine started smoothly and ran noiselessly.
The design and complete construction of the 30 L/h biodiesel pilot plant is a significant breakthrough in
Nigeria’s quest to join the biodiesel league. It is significant to note that this pilot plant is the first continuous
biodiesel plant built in Nigeria.
Built with local materials, it is portable, and suitable for small-and medium-scale entrepreneurs.
The grand mean viscosities of 2.97 mm2/s for beniseed biodiesel and 3.4 mm2/s for palm-kernel biodiesel,
fit within the international ASTM standard of 1.9–6.0 mm2/s.
Literature Cited
ASTM, 2003. Standards for Diesel Fuel Oils (ASTM D975). American Society of Testing and Materials.
www.astm.org/standards/D975.htm (retrieved 2004).
Bockey, D. 2002. Situation and Development Potential for the Production of Biodiesel – An International
Study. Union zur Förderung von Oel-und Proteinflanzan e.V., Frankfurt.
Chevron, 1998. Diesel Fuels: Technical Review. www.chevron.com/dieselfuel/astmstandard.pdf (retrieved2004).
Noureddini, H., Harkey, D. and Medikondura, V. 1996. A Continuous Process for the Conversion of
Vegetable Oils into Biodiesel, Liquid Fuels and Industrial Products from Renewable Resources. ASAE, St
Joseph, Michigan. p. 83–94.
Onwualu, A.P., Akubuo, C.O. and Ahaneku, I.E. 2006. Fundamentals of Engineering for Agriculture.
Immaculate Publications, Enugu, Nigeria.
Paul, F. 2006. Building a Biodiesel Processor. www.appstate.edu/bioidiesel/processor.html.
Technologies International, 2007. Biodiesel pilot plant heating Systems
www.biodieselgear.com/biodiesel_plant/utilities/heating.html.
Tickell, J. 2002. From Fryer Pan to Fuel Tank: A complete guide to production and use of biodiesel as fuel.
www.veggievan.com.

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Design, Construction and Test-running of a Biodiesel Pilot Plant
J.N. Nwakaire and C.J. Ohagwu

United States National Soydiesel Development Board. 1994. Comparison of typical properties of biodiesel
and conventional diesel.
US National Biodiesel Board. 2006. Biodiesel Mixing Proportions.
www.biodiesel.org/biodieselproduction/proportions.pdf (retrieved 2004).

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 83

Development of Spiral
Pump Technology
Frank Mwenechanya1
Keywords: irrigation, small-holder farmer, alternative, operation, pressure heads, motorised

Abstract
Foundation for Irrigation and Sustainable Development (FISD), a local non-governmental organization, hasdeveloped and tested a spiral pump with low torque requirements. The pump has been designed
specifically to be mounted in a river and driven by paddle wheels by aid of water current. This pump, which
can easily be built by local welders, has low maintenance and operation costs as it pumps water without theneed of either fuel or electricity, provided there is a flowing stream or river. It can also be hand-turned orotherwise driven to provide a low-cost, efficient pump. The pump is made from a series of locally available
metal paddles attached through spokes of steel to a central hollow axle mounted on ball-bearings. The
polythene pipe is arranged to form a spiral fixed to the sides of the wheel. Water enters the spiral tube
through an enlarged pipe, which collects water as it rotates and is dipped into the flowing river. A core ofwater is picked up on each revolution of the wheel followed by a core of air. So an alternating series of coresof air and water enter the coils, and then passes along the pipe as the coil turns on the wheel. The innermost
spiral of the tube delivers water into the wheel axle and there it is led through a pipe up to the field for irrigation
under pressure created by the compressed cores of air and water.

1

Foundation for Irrigation and Sustainable Development (FISD), PO Box 31245, Lilongwe 3, Malawi.

84 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Development of Spiral Pump Technology
Frank Mwenechanya

INTRODUCTION
Malawi irrigates only 72,000 of its 400,000 hectares of irrigable land. Up to 90% of Malawi’s agriculture israin-fed. The country derives up to 70% of its foreign-exchange revenue from agricultural production and
85% of the country’s population depends on the same sector for its livelihood. Seven out of 10 households
in Malawi typically run out of food before the harvesting season, mainly because of drought and floods. Withcurrent population increase and erratic rainfall pattern (which is expected to be further exacerbated byclimatic change), Malawi’s hope for achieving food security and a stable economy is to jump-start its
agricultural production by dramatically increasing the use of irrigation. This calls for technology
advancement for water abstraction options for irrigation from water sources that are lower than thecommand area, bearing in mind that the great majority of the potential 400,000 hectares falls into thiscategory.
Foundation for Irrigation and Sustainable Development (FISD), a local non-governmental organization
formed by three young Malawian graduates from University of Malawi in 2005, has developed and tested aspiral pump along Shire River in southern Malawi. The pump has low torque requirements, for pumping
water at no cost. The spiral pump project was initiated to derive an alternative water-abstraction option thathas no operation costs as compared to motorized pumps widely used to abstract water from large rivers,
where building of water abstraction structures like weirs is expensive and difficult. The pump has been
designed to be mounted in a river and driven by a paddle wheel in a current of four feet (1.22 m) per secondor greater. This easily built, low-maintenance spiral pump can be used to pump water without the need forfuel wherever there is a flowing stream or river. It can also be hand-turned or otherwise driven to provide a
low-cost, efficient pump.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The project underwent processes of pump design; this stage was conducted together with extensive
review of (mostly informal, e.g. Internet) literature. Pump design was in line with locally available materials
and calculated water requirements for the available 7 acre (2.83 ha) plot. This was in line with the elevationsof the area to be commanded (fed) by the pump. After the pump was designed, the project identified locallyavailable materials, and then assembled and tested the pump. Plans are underway to disseminate thetechnology to farmers and stakeholders. Through targeted training, local welders in all the three regions ofMalawi will be informed of the technology and this new business opportunity created for them. The project
has had three phases, of which only one is completed. The first phase was the pump design andidentification of local materials and beneficiaries to manufacture the patented pump. The second phase isto develop a demonstration farm for the technology, and the third will be the dissemination phase.
Pump Design and Identification of Local Materials for Construction
In this first prototype, 13 spirals totalling about 40 metres of 50 mm polythene pipe were coiled on each sideof the pump. Two water collectors were made of 150 mm PVC pipe, each about 0.8 m long. The ends of theinnermost coils were connected to the axle through polythene elbows. The axle was mounted through two
sealed ball-bearings mounted on the 3 mm angle iron supports at the side of the spiral.

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Development of Spiral Pump Technology
Frank Mwenechanya

To determine whether the designed pump could be built by a local welder with basic working instruments,
one welder was identified who was then involved in constructing and assembling the pump throughout thephase.
Demonstration Plot
Being a new technology, to aid quick adoption, the next phase after constructing the pump and testing it
was to acquire land and develop a demonstration farm. This phase is expected to run until the end of 2009.
The farm, apart from aiding quick technology diffusion, is to be used in identifying likely challenges to be
faced by small-holder farmers when using the pump and subsequently devise ways of modifying thepump.
Dissemination PhaseAs the technology has to be understood by policy-makers and different stakeholders in irrigation, FISD is
preparing comprehensive documentation of the technology and is organizing a field show in March 2010,
where different modes of this water-driven pump will be demonstrated. This we believe will enable
government to substitute motorized pump distribution to resource-poor farmers with this technology,
considering the current price of fuel. The technology will benefit two categories of resource-poor
Malawians—small-holder farmers who cannot manage motorized pump irrigation interventions and lowincome welders. The latter will be identified in the dissemination phase and, together with the welder who
has been helping to develop the pump, this group of beneficiaries will be trained on spiral-pumpconstruction and maintenance.
PROJECT RESULTS SO FAR AND DISCUSSION
Through the project, a pump has successfully been designed and constructed. When this technology is
promoted, it is expected to provide a much more reliable alternative of pumping water to methods that
require fuel or human power. As the technology is simple (Fig. 1), it is further expected that the technology
will easily be replicated through numerous local welders around the country, whom we expect to train assoon as funds are available under phase 3 of project implementation.
Fig. 1. The prototype spiral pump .

1 - metal paddles
2 - spiral of polythene pipe
3 - water-collection pipe
4 - drums for pump stabilization and floating in water
5 - wheel axle

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Development of Spiral Pump Technology
Frank Mwenechanya

The spiral pump is made from a series of locally available metal paddles (Part 1) attached through spokes ofsteel to a central hollow axle mounted on ball-bearings. The ‘spiral tube’ water pump itself consists of alength of polythene pipe so arranged that it forms a spiral fixed to the sides of the wheel (Part 2). In this water
wheel, two spiral pipes are used and these are horizontally opposed. Water enters each spiral tube throughan enlarged pipe which acts as water collector (Part 3). The collector picks up water as it dips into the waterflowing down the river, stream or canal—like a scoop. Enough water is picked up to half fill each coil. Thus, acore of water is picked up on each revolution of the wheel, followed by a core of air. So an alternating seriesof cores of air and water enters the coils, which pass along the pipe as the coil turns on the wheel. The
innermost spiral of the tube delivers water into the wheel axle (Part 5) and there it is led through a simple
water seal to the field for irrigation. As the wheel 3 1 2 4 5 revolves, a pressure head develops within each coilof the spiral tube, water in the rising coils being higher than that in the descending coils. These cores ofwater in the spiral tube compress the air between them as they travel around the spirals and both water andair are expelled under pressure into the axle. The flow of water up to the irrigation field is also accelerated by
the compressed air escaping and expanding from the outlet at the axle of the wheel. This is the effect thathelps to lift water uphill.
Theoretically, the highest point to which water could be pumped may be influenced by the number of spiralsof the polythene pipe and the diameter of the spiral. This is the next stage of experimentation. Generally,
looking at how the pump works, the head upon which the pump may be able to deliver scooped water isdirectly proportional to the number of spirals and their diameter, but this relationship has yet to beestablished. The volume pumped can be clearly seen to depend on the amount of water picked up by the
scoop and retained by the pipe during each revolution. Several spiral tubes could be fitted to the same
wheel, the ideal number being two. With a single spiral, air and water are expelled alternately at the outlet.
Unlike a single coil, double coils (as in Fig. 1) create continuous pressure along the spirals and, hence,
better results. With two horizontally opposed spiral tubes fitted to a single wheel, air and water rise throughthe pipe in more regular bursts.
Considerable pumping heads can be achieved if necessary by using an appropriate number of coils on asuitable sized wheel placed over a canal or river system of adequate water power. The power delivered tothe paddles must be sufficient to overcome the weight of water held in the rising segments of the spiral andso this is a limiting factor. If the weight of water held in the rising coils is much larger than the weight held in thedescending coils, the wheel may stop turning if the power delivered to the paddles is insufficient. A balancemust be struck between the power delivered by the water on the paddles, the wheel diameter, the pipe size,
number of coils, and required head of water to be delivered. If the number of coils in the spiral is insufficientto pump water to the desired height, water flows over from one coil to the next without achieving any
pumping, hence no discharge is achieved.
CONCLUSION
The great advantage of the spiral-pump system is that once it is worked out, the mechanics are very simple
and reliable. The pump has less operational and maintenance costs than the widely used motorizedpumps, which are not viable for most of Malawi’s small-holder farmers, who live on less than a dollar a day.
While the first pump has been built and tested successfully, we are still developing the technology further byAgricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 87

Development of Spiral Pump Technology

carrying out the tests for subsequent modelling and simulation for documentation and replication bylooking at the capacity of the pump at different speeds, the effect of the size of the scoops (water collectors)
and the relationship between the size and number of coils with reference to the level to which water could bedelivered. This will help in standardization and specification of the constructed pumps.

88 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Impact of Forested Zaï on the
Evolution of Biodiversity and the
Biological Parameters of Soil in
Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba1, Hassan Bismarck Nacro1Saïdou Nourou Sall2 and Michel Lepage3
Keywords: Yatenga, soil rehabilitation, forested zaï, biodiversity

Abstract
Forested zaïis a technology for soil rehabilitation which is being increasingly used in Yatenga (Burkina Faso).
The technology allows the restoration of vegetation on degraded soils. The main objectives of this researchwere to characterize the evolution of chemical and microbiological parameters of fallows in order todetermine the factors that influence biodiversity in forested zaï. The study was carried out in the village of
Gourga, department of Oula, Yatenga province. The results showed an increase of floristic richness in the
different fallows of increasing ages. Several interrelated parameters affected the biodiversity of thezaïecosystem: the heterogeneity of the fallow, various human actions on the environment, and the soil
topography.

1

Institut du Développement Rural, Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso, 01 BP 1091 Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.
Laboratoire d’Ecologie Microbienne des sols Tropicaux, Centre ISRA-IRD, 1386, CP 18524 Dakar, Senegal.
3
Laboratoire BIOEMCO, UMR 7618 46 rue d’Ulm, 75230 Paris Cedex 05, France.
2

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 89

Impact of Forested Zaï on the Evolution of Biodiversity and the Biological Parameters of Soil in Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba, Hassan Bismarck Nacro, Saïdou Nourou Sall and Michel Lepage

INTRODUCTION
Burkina Faso, an agro-pastoral country, is located in the Sahelian part of West Africa. Its economy is mainly
based on agriculture. The agricultural sector accounts for 40% of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product),
procures over 65% of the country’s income from exports (Adda, 1999), and employs close to 90% of theworking population. Burkina Faso agriculture is subsistence agriculture based on food grains (sorghum,
millet, maize), which cover over 88% of the sown lands each year (Yonkeu et al., 2003). The degradation ofnatural resources is accelerated as a result of the objectives of agriculture and livestock production, that is,
production increases to ensure food security, a vital element in poverty reduction.
The elimination of the plant cover is accompanied by a concomitant physico-chemical and biological lossof soil fertility (Pieri, 1989). This leads to a more or less general drop in agrosystem productivity (Hien, 1995;
Sangaré, 2007). Faced with problems of soil degradation, accelerating soil-fertility decline and overall lossof biodiversity, Burkinan farmers developed various cropping techniques for soil and water management,
including the zaï system that combines the control of run-off, using stone bunds, and a soil preparation
technique composed of organic matter (compost or manure) that is put into seed holes dug, before therains, in places where specific plant species are cultivated (Roose et al., 1993a; Delaite and Pastor, 1997).
The zaï is a complex soil-restoration system using organic matter localization, termite-boring channels in thecrusted soils, and run-off capture in micro-watersheds. Termites play an important role in this system both toincorporate available residue and to facilitate infiltration of rainwater (Roose, 1989).
There is abundant literature available on farmers’ techniques and technologies for combating soil
degradation (Ouedraogo and Kaboré, 1996; Ambouta et al., 2000; Roose et al., 1993b), but most of thiswork focuses exclusively on the comparative increases in yields obtained, without really questioning thelong-term evolution of soil fertility or the consequences of these changes in land use on the organic matterand the biological interactions in the soil at both the plot and village-land (terroir) levels.
Furthermore, the dynamics of organic matter are highly dependent on the activity of micro-organisms(Ndiaye, 2003). Hence, biological activity continues to be essential in soil fertility, which means thatmeasuring microbial activity is an important factor in soil-quality studies. This study fits in with the issues
described above and aimed to examine the effects of forestry zaï on the evolution of soil biodiversity. In thisstudy, we have given preference to a functional approach, starting with a given function and ending with the
responsible organisms. We studied two biological aspects of the microbial population:(1) microbial activity, and (2) microbial abundance.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Site
The study was carried out in the village of Gourga, 8 km from Ouahigouya, chief town of the Yatenga
province (13°06'– 14°26'N; 1–3°W), Burkina Faso. The Soudano-Sahelian climate is marked by a long dry
season, whose dryness is accentuated by the harmattan, the dry winds from the Sahara. Furthermore, it has
two seasons:• a rainy season, from May to October, with rains often poorly distributed in time and space;
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Impact of Forested Zaï on the Evolution of Biodiversity and the Biological Parameters of Soil in Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba, Hassan Bismarck Nacro, Saïdou Nourou Sall and Michel Lepage• a long dry season, which lasts 8–9 months and is composed of a cold period from November to
February (14–36°C) and a hot period (23.7–47.3°C).
Between 1921 and 2004, annual rainfall varied between 400 mm and just under 900 mm. The study site wascomposed of zaï-forest plots of various ages established by an innovative farmer. The plots had beenplanted using zaï technology, and were then left fallow and closed off for several years. At the time of thestudy, these plots were between 14 and 30 years old. The study site, thus, provided an excellent opportunity
to study the impact of zaï on biodiversity and especially microbial diversity at the village-land (terroir) scale.
Sampling
The terrain extended around a hardpan table. The work plan was to sample the environment on the basis of
the hardpan table by laying out four transects according to the four compass points and the toposequence.
The sample squares were spaced regularly (3 m, starting at the beginning of the transect) and followed fourtransects (north, south, east, west). Soil samples were removed at a depth of 0–5 cm and 5–10 cm andsifted through a 2 mm mesh sieve.
Twenty-eight soil samples (depth of 0–5 cm) were taken from small (0.5 ×0.5 cm) squares for use in the
microbial behaviour analysis.
Two analyses were made as part of the microbial behaviour study at the Laboratoire d’écologie microbienne
des sols et agrosystèmes tropicaux (LEMSAT-IRD, Dakar, Senegal).
Measuring the Potential of Soil Respiration
1. Principle. Soil respiration was determined by measuring carbon dioxide released in relation to total air
volume and as a function of time, using a soil sample incubated in an enclosed area.
Measurements were made every day through direct injection into a gas micro-chromatograph (MTI P200,
Microsensor Tecnology Inc., Fremont, CA, USA) equipped with a Poraplot column. Helium was used as thecarrier gas. Results are given as percentages of flask volume and were calculated in relation to initialquantity of CO2 (T0). Daily measurements define the kinetics of CO2 releases.
2. Operating Method. Soil samples of 25 g were put in 120 ml glass bottles, with three repetitions, andwere wetted to a maximum of 100% of the soil’s water-retention capacity. The bottles were sealed andshaken vigorously before measuring T0 (initial quantity of CO2).
Each day, for 7 days, the content was read by CPG (gas chromatography) injection.
Microbial Biomass
The quantity of CO2 in the soil sample was measured each day. On day seven, the microbial biomass wasmeasured using the Fumigation-Extraction method (Amato and Ladd, 1988; Wu et al., 1990). This
technique uses chloroform vapours and doses of soluble carbonate compounds. The difference in solubleorganic carbon between the fumigated and the unfumigated samples gives the quantity of ‘extractable’
carbon of microbial origin; the quantity of carbon is directly proportional to the biomass. The method gives aAgricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 91

Impact of Forested Zaï on the Evolution of Biodiversity and the Biological Parameters of Soil in Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba, Hassan Bismarck Nacro, Saïdou Nourou Sall and Michel Lepage

global measurement that represents the quantity of carbon ‘living’ in the soil.
The a-aminated nitrogen in the micro-organisms is obtained through incubation in a medium saturated withchloroform (fumigation), which is supposed to kill the organisms living in the soil. The a-aminated nitrogenappears during fumigation through the lysis of soil micro-organisms that have been killed by chloroform.
The quantity of a-aminated nitrogen is a function of the quantity of micro-organisms in the soil prior to
fumigation.
The Fumigation-Extraction method is used to determine the a-aminated nitrogen obtained throughincubation with chloroform then extracted using potassium chloride (KCl). Ninhydrin reagent is added to thequantities extracted (T0, T10). The amount of carbon in the biomass is calculated by multiplying the gain in
the a-amino nitrogen released during incubation by a factor of 21 (Amato and Ladd, 1988).
The results are expressed in µg /g of dry soil. The value of the microbial nitrogen per soil sample is obtainedusing the following equation:
Nm = ((NT10 –Nt0) × 75)(P– (P×H))
Where, Nm = microbial nitrogen (µg/g of dry soil); NT0 = a-aminated nitrogen measured in the KCl extracts
at time T0 (µg N/ml); NT10 = a-aminated nitrogen measured in the KCl extracts after 10 days of incubation(µg N/ml); 75 = volume of KCl used for the extraction (ml); P = weight of fresh sample (g); H = moisture
content of sample (%) = ([fresh weigh – dry weight] ×100) / dry weight.
Statistical Analysis
The data collected were processed in an Excel spreadsheet (Microsoft). For the variance tests, thestatistical analyses were made using XLSTAT software.
RESULTS
Soil Chemical Parameters
The largest quantity of carbon was observed in the 20-year old zaï (14.35 mg C/g soil) followed by the 24year old zaï (12.05 mg C/g soil) (Table 1). The 21-year old zaï had the lowest amount of total carbon. These
results lead us to deduce that total carbon and nitrogen rates do not change as a function of plot age. As
concerns assimilable phosphorus, rates tended to be significantly higher in the 30-year old zaï (P<0.005).
There was no significant difference in the C/N ratio among zaï plots.

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Impact of Forested Zaï on the Evolution of Biodiversity and the Biological Parameters of Soil in Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba, Hassan Bismarck Nacro, Saïdou Nourou Sall and Michel Lepage

Table 1: Total carbon, total nitrogen, assimilable phosphorus, C/N ratio, water
pH and KCl pH of soil samples according to age of zaï, in the 0–5 cm soil horizonAge
14 years

20 years

21 years

24 years

30 years

C-total10.15 ab14.35b

9.6a12.05ab

10.4ab

N-total

0.92a

1.09b

0.79a

1.07ab

0.98ab

P-assimilable

2.27bc2.41bc

1.38a

2.12b

3.13c

C/N

10.98a10.92a12.07a11.31a10.72apH water

6.25a

5.84a

6.27a

6.12a

6.04a

pH KCl

5.21a

4.80a

5.15a

4.81a

4.53a

Significant difference between two means for each row is indicated by the different letters, based on the Fisher test (P<0.05).

Intensity of Soil Respiration
Figure 1 shows total quantities of C-CO2 (mg/kg of soil) released in a 7-day period by microbial respiration.
The largest quantity of C-CO2 was observed in the 24-year old plots, i.e. 87 mg C-CO2/kg soil. The 14-year
old plot had the lowest quantity (52.24 mg C-CO2 /kg soil).
The variance analysis showed that the quantity of C-CO2 was higher in the 24-year old plot.
Comparing averages, there were differences between the 20-, 21-and 30-year old plots. The difference
ranges between 22.21 and 26.57 mg C-CO2/kg soil. However, the observed differences are not statisticallysignificant.
Fig. 1: Total quantity of C-C02 released from the soil, depending on zaï plots

Total Microbial Biomass
The highest total microbial biomass was observed in the 24-year old zaï (101.33 µg C/g soil) followed by the
14-year old zaï (82.42 µg C/g soil; Fig. 2). The lowest amount of biomass was found in the 30-year old zaï(46.18 µg C/g soil). Variance analysis showed a significant difference between the 24-and 30-year old plots(P<0.01) and between the 24-year old plots and the 20- and 21-year old plots (P<0.05).

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Impact of Forested Zaï on the Evolution of Biodiversity and the Biological Parameters of Soil in Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba, Hassan Bismarck Nacro, Saïdou Nourou Sall and Michel Lepage

Fig. 2. Quantity of total microbial biomass (µg C/g of soil) per zaï plot

Bars with the same letter are not significantly different according to one-way ANOVA (P<0.05).

Metabolic Quotient
The highest metabolic quotients were found in the 21-, 20-and 30-year old plots (Table 2) although they did
not have the highest microbial biomass; the 14-and 24-year old plots had the highest microbial biomass.
These results indicate that large quantities of microbial biomass are not always synonymous with strong
respiratory activity. The quality of the microbial populations is extremely important. This explains the need for
frequent functional diversity tests.
Table 2: Metabolic quotient according to age of zaï
Age of zaï

Microbial biomass

Metabolic quotient(µg C/g soil)
14 years

82.42

0.039

20 years

58.33

0.140

21 years

56.42

0.156

24 years

101.330.067

30 years

46.08

0.132

DISCUSSION
Results show that respiratory activity that may accompany the degradation of organic material is not always
connected to the total microbial biomass. A low level of microbial biomass can produce strong respiratory
activity, and an active metabolism means high metabolic quotient. This suggests population rejuvenation,
since the metabolic quotient of young organisms is higher than that of older ones (Anderson and Domsch,1978). Furthermore, the soil carbon in each plot provides an explanation for the high levels of C-CO2 andmicrobial biomass. The higher the soil organic-car bon content, the greater the microbial populations andtheir activities. Numerous studies have indicated that microbial population dynamics depend on theamounts of soil carbon (Degens et al., 2000). Garcia-Gil et al. (2000) have shown that the abundance of
microbial communities correlates positively with the quantity of carbon available to satisfy their energy
demands.
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Impact of Forested Zaï on the Evolution of Biodiversity and the Biological Parameters of Soil in Burkina Faso
Sabine Doamba, Hassan Bismarck Nacro, Saïdou Nourou Sall and Michel Lepage

Furthermore, the quality of the microbial populations can induce different respiratory activity. The quality ofthe soil populations is reflected in their diverse aptitudes for metabolizing the substrata (Garland and Mills,
1994).
CONCLUSION
Microbial compartmentalization is essential for the zaï ecosystems, because of its role in controllingmechanisms for the decomposition and recycling of elements that are nutritious for the plants.
This study has shown that:• zaï is an agro-sylvo-pastoral technique that provides for sustainable soil-fertility management andreduced pollution from mineral fertilizers;• zaï is an excellent tool not only for restoring (rehabilitating) degraded lands, but also for biodiversity
conservation.
Yet, this study needs to be rounded out by a more inclusive study that includes the study of the effects ofmanure quality on micro-organisms (activity and diversity). It would also be worthwhile going further into
microbiological characterization through more in-depth analyses—for example, bacteria and fungi counts
and catabolic diversity analyses.
Acknowledgements
This study was made possible thanks to funding from DMP (Desert Margins Program). The authors are
extremely grateful to Mr Yacouba Sawadogo (owner of the forested zaï zone) for all the facilities he madeavailable during the field studies.
Literature Cited
Adda, L. 1999. Etat de la Désertification et des Ressources Naturelles au Burkina Faso. Rapport d’étude.
Ministère de l’environnement et du cadre de vie, Ouagadougou.
Amato, M. and Ladd, J.N. 1988. Assay for microbial biomass based on ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen in
extracts of fumigated soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 20: 107–114.
Ambouta, J.M., Moussa, I.B. and Ousmane, S.D. 2000. Réhabilitation de jachère dégradée par lestechniques de paillage et de zaï au sahel. p. 751–759. In: C. Floret and R. Pontanier, La Jachère en Afrique
Tropicale: Rôles, Aménagement, Alternatives. John Libbey Eurotext, Paris.
Anderson, J.P.E. and Domsch, K.H. 1978. A physiological method for the quantitative measurement of
microbial biomass in soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 10: 215– 221.
Degens, B.P., Schupper, L.A., Sparling, G.P. and Vukovic, M. 2000. Decreases in organic C reserves in soils
can reduce the catabolic diversity of soil microbial communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32:
189–196.
Delaite, B. and Pastor, M. 1997. Manuel des Techniques de Conservation des Eaux et des Sols (CES) au
Sahel. Edition PRECONS. Programme régional de reboisement et de conservation des sols au sahel,
Ouagadougou.
Garcia-Gil, J.C., Plaza, C., Solver-Rovira, P. and Polo, A. 2000. Long-term effects of municipal solid waste
compost application on soil enzyme activities and microbial biomass. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32:
1907–1913.
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Garland, J.L. and Mills, A.L. 1994. A community-level physiological approach for studying microbialcommunities. p. 77–83. In: K. Ritz, J. Dighton and K.E. Giller (eds.), Beyond the Biomass. Compositional
and Functional Analysis of Soil Microbial Communities. John Wiley and sons, Chichester.
Hien, F.G. 1995. La régénération de l’espace sylvo-pastoral au Sahel : une étude de l’effet de mesures deconservation des eaux et des sols au Burkina Faso. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University.
Ndiaye, D. 2003. Impact des structures biogéniques de termites sur l’activité et le fonctionnement descommunautés microbiennes du cycle de l’azote, en zone soudanosahélienne. PhD Thesis, Université
Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris 6.
Ouedraogo, M. and Kaboré, V. 1996. The zaï: a traditional technique for the rehabilitation of degraded land in
the Yatenga, Burkina Faso. In: C. Reij, I Scoones and C. Toulmin (eds.), Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous Soiland Water Conservation in Africa. Earthscan, London.
Pieri, C. 1989. Fertilité des Terres de Savanes. Bilan de trente ans de recherche et de développement
agricoles au Sud du Sahara. Ministère de la coopération and CIRAD-IRAT Ed., Paris.
Roose, E. 1989. Diversité des stratégies traditionnelles et modernes de conservation de l’eau et des sols en
milieu soudano-sahélien d’Afrique occidentale. Conf. Intern. ISCO6, Addis Abeba, ORSTOM Montpellier.
Roose, E., Dugué, P. and Rodriguez, L. 1993a. L’aménagement des terroirs villageois et l’amélioration de la
production agricole au Yatenga (Burkina Faso). Une expérience de recherche-développement. Cahiers
ORSTOM, Série Pédologique 27 (2): 385–402.
Roose, E., Kaboré, V. and Guenat, C. 1993b. Le zaï : Fonctionnement, limites et amélioration d’une pratique
traditionnelle africaine de réhabilitation de la végétation et de la productivité des terres dégradées en région
soudano-sahélienne (Burkina Faso). Cahier ORSTOM, Sér. Pédol. 28 (2): 159–173.
Sangaré, S.A. 2007. La mycorhization contrôlée d’une essence forestière exotique : conséquences sur ladiversité fonctionnelle de la microflore endémique d’un lixisol ferrique du Burkina Faso. Mémoire de DEA,
Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.
Wu, J., Joergensen, R.G., Pommerenurg, B., Chaussod, R. and Brookes, P.C. 1990. Measurement of soil
microbial biomass by fumigation-extraction: an automated procedure. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22: 1167–1169.
Yonkeu, A.H., Maiga, A.H., Wethé, J., Mampouya, M. and Maga, G.P. 2003. Conditions socio-économiquesdes populations et risques de maladies : le bassin versant du barrage de Yitenga au Burkina Faso. VertigO –La revue électronique en sciences de l’environnement 4 (1): 1–15.

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Status and Prospects of StinglessBee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia1, Linnaus Gitonga2 and Hellen Kutima3
Keywords: conservation, income, farmers, meliponiculture

Abstract
Stingless bee-keeping (meliponiculture) is a unique eco-friendly agro-practice with the potential forenvironmental amelioration, employment and income generation. Meliponiculture would be ideal for
generating of supplementary income for resource-poor farmers around forests, in addition to conserving
stingless bees. This project assessed the folk knowledge, honey quality and antibacterial effect ofstingless-bee honey. Assessment of the folk knowledge of stingless bees by communities in Kenya
indicated that different tribes have knowledge stingless bees, but they do not undertake any active
conservation measures. The communities identify stingless bees by their morphological features, nestingarchitecture, and the taste, smell and colour of their honey. Honey from five bees (Hypotrigona gribodoi,
Meliponula bocandei, M. ferruginea [black], M. ferruginea [white] and Plebeina hildebradti) varied incomposition. Moisture content was higher than that of Apis mellifera. Studies on antimicrobial activity of thestingless bees against five strains of bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia
coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) indicated susceptibility of the bacteria to the honey.
Escherichia coli and P. auregnosa were the most susceptible bacteria. Moreover, honey from P. hildebrandti
and M. ferruginea (b) showed the highest antibacterial effect. This project forms a foundation of
meliponiculture Kenya as incentive for forest conservation and income generation for resource-poor
farmers.

1–3

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Department of Zoology, PO Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Status and Prospects of Stingless Bee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia, Linnaus Gitonga and Hellen Kutima

INTRODUCTION
The number of people living in poverty is ever increasing and the rate of poverty growth continues to rise.
The external debt-servicing burden has greatly reduced the ability of mainly African countries to address theissues of poverty in an adequate manner. Poor people often have no option but to use the environment in
non-sustainable ways. A degraded environment cannot sustain continued use of its natural resources andhence cannot sustain food production, wild animals or natural pollinators (Raina, 2004). It is against thisbackground of non-sustainable use of the environment and the need for strategies to develop linkages
between diversity of resources and sustainable livelihood through income-generation options that thisstudy was initiated on stingless-bee farming in Kenya.
Stingless bees are social bees in the family Apidae. They live in permanent colonies that often contain many
thousands of bees (Michener, 2000). There are about 400–500 species of stingless bees in the world(Crane, 1990). In Africa, 19 species of six genera of stingless bees are known to occur (Eardley, 2004). In
Kenya, six species have been identified (Macharia, 2007).
For sustainable utilization of stingless bees, there is a need to utilize the traditional knowledge of the local
communities (Byarugaba, 2004; Macharia, 2008), especially in taxonomy and honey. Stingless bees
produce honey which is relished as human food, but the official definition of ‘honey’ is restricted to thehoney of A. mellifera by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Vit et al., 2004). Official methods for honeystandards have been developed for A. mellifera (Bogdanov, 1997). There are no standards for stinglessbees’ honey worldwide. Besides promoting knowledge regarding honey from stingless bees, this work is acontribution for the data bank to adjust the quality standards of honey from stingless bees, especially in
Africa. Honey from stingless bees is considered in folk medicine to be more powerful than honeybee honeyfor use in the treatment of common diseases (Vit, 2001; Garedew et al., 2004, Macharia et al., 2007).
Beekeepers and honey enthusiasts alike have long reported the medicinal qualities of honey (Ransome,
1986; Crane, 1990; Molan, 1997). Most of these studies have been conducted using honey produced by A.
mellifera.
The purpose of this study was (1) to review and document folk knowledge on stingless bees; and (2) tosuggest standards for stingless bee honey and the antibacterial effect of these honeys.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Study Area
The project was carried out mainly in three regions in Kenya: Kakamega rainforest located in the west,
Mwingi dry forest and Arabuko Sokoke coastal forest.
Folk Knowledge
A survey using a questionnaire was carried out on folk knowledge and conservation status of stingless beesin three regions in Kenya—Mwingi, Kakamega and Arabuko Sokoke.

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Status and Prospects of Stingless Bee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia, Linnaus Gitonga and Hellen Kutima

Honey Analysis
Honey samples were collected from the nests using a syringe. The methods used to analyse the 120
samples of honey were based on those of the Association of the Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990)
and International Honey Commission (Bogdanov et al., 1997; Bogdanov, 1999). The percentage ofmoisture in honey was determined using a hand-held honey refractometer. Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)
content was determined using the spectrophotometric method (White, 1979). Diastase activity of eachhoney sample was quantified by spectrophotometric method (Schade et al., 1958). Free acidity wasquantified by volumetric-titration. Proline was quantified using spectrophotometric method.
Antibacterial EffectFive bacterial strains were used in the study—Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia
coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis - all obtained from Inoclaine International, Nairobi, Kenya.
The agar disc diffusion method was used (Allen et al., 1991) to evaluate the antibacterial activity of honeys
from stingless bees and honeybee against the test bacteria.
Statistical Analysis
In honey analysis, all the determinations were repeated at least three times and the means determined.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare antibacterial effect of the different honeys. The TukeyKramer multiple comparison test was used to separate significant means at 5% level of significance.
RESULTS
Five tribes in Kenya have local names for stingless bees depending on the species. Luhya tribe names
them ikore, iwele, inanasa, viuyiya, vusit; Kamba tribe names them ngilu and mbua; Pokomo name them
mabwata; Giriama tribe names them urombi or oza; Kalenjin name them kesomei. These communities use
different characteristics in identifying stingless bees. These characteristics include: body size, colour,
shape of the nest entrance, taste and quantity of honey produced by different species.
The means for the quality variables analysed (moisture, HMF, diastase, proline, free acidity and reducing
sugars) are summarized in Table 1. Mean constituent values were 21.0–27.0% moisture, pH 3.28–4.12,
34.8–46.70 meq/kg free acidity, 3.72–18.80 mg HMF/kg, diastase 8.62–22.80 Schade units, 75.0–396.2
mg proline/kg, 58.1–70.3% reducing sugars, and 2.0–5.2% sucrose.
A summary of the antibacterial activity (expressed as inhibition zones) of stingless bees’ honey is presented
in Table 2. Generally, larger zones of inhibition were exhibited on Gram-negative bacteria, P. aeruginosa andE. coli, as compared to the Gram-positive bacteria, B. subtilis and S. aureus.
DISCUSSION
In Kenya, several local tribes have a good knowledge about native species, including stingless bees. Suchknowledge when collected is important in linking the folk knowledge with classical taxonomy. Such studies
can be used in the process of choosing bee species as potential pollinators and in the development of astingless-bee management strategy. This study established a foundation of folk taxonomy of stingless
bees.
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Status and Prospects of Stingless Bee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia, Linnaus Gitonga and Hellen Kutima

Comparing the data of stingless-bee honey analysed with the international standards for A. mellifera honey(Codex, 2001), the honey from the different stingless bees varied in composition. Moisture content of thesamples of stingless-bee honey from Kenya was higher than the standard for A. mellifera honey (maximum
20% moisture content). These observations agree with other findings (Vit et al., 1994, 2004; Torres et al.,
2004; Lubertus et al., 2006). The combination of HMF, diastase and invertase enzyme levels indicate theextent of heat and storage damage of honey and can be used as markers of honey freshness andadulteration (White, 1994). All the samples in this study had HMF within the acceptable limits, agreeing withthe results of Vit et al. (2004).
It is hoped that the results of this study will constitute a starting point for creating a solid database ofstingless-bee honey, including all parameters useful for honey quality control in Africa. A honey qualitycontrol campaign directed to stingless-bee keepers is needed, for harmonization of analytical methods.
This will allow the control of this valuable product, leading to the setting of quality standards and marketingsystems for income generation.
Table 1: Physicochemical composition (means ± SE) of stingless bees honeysamples collected from different areas in Kenya
Area and

Moisture

Free

HMF

Diastase

ProlineReducing

Sucrosespecies

contentpHacidity[<40[>8DN]*[>180

sugars[<5%]*[<21%][<50

mg/kg]*

mg/kg]*[>65%]*

meq/kg]*Kakamega
forestM. ferruginea

25.4

3.41

34.8

6.47

22.80

284.0060.0

4.30(n=17)± 0.53± 0.12± 4.09± 2.65± 4.60± 78.0± 12.07± 1.71

M. bocandei

26.20

3.36

38.20

7.42

18.80

396.2059.1

2.10(n=13)± 0.34± 0.13± 5.54± 2.97± 6.21± 127± 8.70± 0.32

H. gribodoi

21.00

4.12

44.00

6.65

8.62

75.00

61.00

3.80

(n=10)± 0.21± 0.11± 2.02± 2.90± 1.70± 43.0± 11.98± 1.78MwingiM. ferruginea

22.20

3.61

42.00

8.40

15.30

240.00

65.00

5.20

(n=10)± 1.80± 0.28± 0.92± 3.38± 2.18± 56.7± 4.97± 2.01

H. gribodoi

26.20

3.28

38.60

18.80

13.00

206.00

58.10

3.50

(n=10)± 0.48± 0.31± 3.81± 1.24± 2.40± 42.40± 3.12± 0.13

Melipona sp.

22.20

3.40

46.70

6.16

10.10

234.00

68.10

4.60

(n=6)

± 0.02± 0.11± 0.85± 1.03± 1.09± 63.40± 1.38± 0.67

Unknown sp.

27.00

3.29

42.00

3.72

13.40

208.00

70.30

2.00

(n=2)

± 0.15± 2.14± 0.53± 1.78± 52.1± 1.16± 0.12

Arabuko
SokokeW. PokotTana± 0.43*Honey quality standards of the Codex Alimentarius for floral honeys (Codex, 2001).

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Status and Prospects of Stingless Bee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia, Linnaus Gitonga and Hellen Kutima

Table 2: Antibacterial activity (expressed as inhibition zones) of stingless-bee
honey against 5 bacteria strains (B. subtilis, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. coli andS. typhi)
SpeciesB. subtilis

Inhibition zones (mm ± SE)
E. coliS. aureus

S. typhiP. aeruginosa

Local isolate
M. ferruginea (b) 8.25 ± 0.16
M. ferruginea (w) 0

STD 25922
12.20 ± 1.44
15.51 ± 0.50

ATCC 20591
9.70 ± 0.15
9.00 ± 0.00

ATCC 2202
9.25 ± 0.37
0ATCC 27853
12.00 ± 0.77
10.50 ± 0.50

H. gribodoi

017.31 ± 1.93

9.50 ± 0.50

013.62 ± 1.53

P. hildebrandti

9.33 ± 0.67

10.00 ± 0.41

10.31 ± 0.25

8.75 ± 0.25

9.00 ± 0.41

M. bocandei

010.00 ± 0.91

9.75 ± 0.25

10.00 ± 0.41

12.83 ± 1.11

Streptomycin

21.00 ± 3.00

22.51 ± 0.50

20.32 ± 0.67

16.30 ± 0.33

17.24 ± 1.69

Local people in Kenya value honey from stingless bees is highly as it is believed to be a panacea for many
ailments and to have more value compared to honey from A. mellifera (Macharia et al., 2007). Many authors(Molan and Russell, 1988; Bogdanov 1997; Selçuk and Nevin, 2002) have confirmed the antimicrobialactivity of honey. Most of these studies have been conducted using honey produced by A. mellifera. The
results of this study indicate that Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli and P. aeruginosa) and Gram-positivebacteria (S. aureus) are susceptible to stingless-bee honey, in various degrees, which agrees with studies
by Vorlová et al. (2005). It can also be concluded that different honey from stingless bees has different
strengths in antibacterial effect. The traditional use of stingless bees’ honey in Kakamega as a panacea
against different illnesses is rational if the infection to be treated is caused by bacteria.
Stingless bees have the potential to become an integrated part of rural development and local economy in
Kenya, particularly concerning their role as pollinators of human food plants. Knowledge of African stinglessbees is rudimentary; therefore a concerted effort has to be made to improve our understanding of these
bees, exchange information on African stingless bees, start research cooperation both on applied aspectsof stingless-bee biology and on applied pollination. Once we have filled the gaps in our knowledge of these
bees, we can promote their use in local initiatives and potentially even in commercial organic farming
systems.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. Raina, Dr Biesmeijer, Dr Yves, Dr Connal, Dr Muli and Dr Mary Gikungu, for their contributionsin this work. International Fund for Agriculture and Development (IFAD), UNDP–GEF, Toyota Environmental
Facility and Critical Ecosystem Partnership for financial support in the field; Royal Belgian Institute of Natural
Science for sponsoring me for stingless-bee taxonomy training; Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture
and Technology and the International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) for support in thisresearch.
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Allen, K., Molan, P.C. and Reid, M. 1991. A survey of the antibacterial activity of some New Zealand honeys.
Parm. Pharmacol. 43: 817–822.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 101

Status and Prospects of Stingless Bee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia, Linnaus Gitonga and Hellen Kutima

AOAC 1990. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (5th edn).
Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC.Bogdanov, S. 1997. Nature and origin of
antibacterial substances in honey. Lebensm.
Wiss Technol. 30: 748–753. Bogdanov, S. 1999. Harmonised Methods of the International Honey
Commission. Swiss Bee Research Center, FAM, Liebefels, Bern. Bogdanov, S., Martin, P. and Lulmann, C.
1997. Harmonised methods of the European Honey Commission. Apidologie. Elsevier, Paris and INRA,
Versailles.
Byarugaba, D. 2004. Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) of Bwindi impenetrable forest, Uganda and
Abayanda indigenous knowledge. Intl. J. of Tropical Insect Sciences 24: 117–121.
Codex 2001. Revised Codex Standard for Honey. CODEX STAN 12-1981. Codex Alimentarius Commission.
FAO/OMS, Rome. Crane, E. 1990. Bees and Beekeeping: Science, Practice and World Resources.
Heinemann Newnes, Oxford. Eardley, C.D. 2004. Taxonomic revision of the African stingless bees
(Apoidea: Apidae: Apinae: Meliponini). African Plant Protection 10(2): 63–96. Garedew, A., Schmoltz, E.
and Lamprecht, I. 2004. Microcalorimetric investigation on the antimicrobial activity of honey of the stinglessbee Trigona spp and composition of some parameters with those obtained with standard methods.
Therochimica Acta 415(1–2): 99–106.
Lubertus, B., Luc, L.M., Martens, E.P. and Sommeijer, M.J. 2006. Water content of stingless bee honeys(Apidae, Meliponini): Interspecific variation and comparison with honey of Apis mellifera. Apidologie 37:
480–486.
Macharia, J.K. 2007. Distribution of stingless bees in selected Kenyan forests: Potential for meliponiculture
enterprises. p. 188–191. In: S.K. Raina, E. Muli, E. Nguku and E. Kioko (eds.), Development of Sericultureand Apiculture Products for the Poor in Fragile Ecosystems Using the Value Chain Approach (Proceedings).
ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi.
Macharia, J.K. 2008. Status and Potential of Stingless Bees (Apidae: Meliponinae) for Forest Conservation
and Income Generation; Case Study of Kakamega Forest. MSc Thesis, Jomo Kenyatta University ofAgriculture and Technology.
Macharia, J.K., Raina, S.K. and Muli, E.M. 2007. Stingless bees in Kenya. Bees for Development Journal 83:
9.
Michener, C.D. 2000. Bees of the World. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.
Molan, P.C. 1997. The antibacterial activity of honey. 2. Variation in the potency of antibacterial activity. Bee
World 73: 59–76.
Molan, P.C. and Russel, K.M 1988. Non peroxide antibacterial activity in some New Zealand honeys. J. Apic.
Res. 27(1): 62–67.
Raina, S.K. 2004. Commercial Insects: A Practical Guide for Raising and Utilizing Silkmoths and Honeybees
in Africa, Volume 1. IBRA Press, Cardiff. p. 16 –22.
Ransome, H.M. 1986. The Sacred Bee in Ancient Times and Folklore. Gordon Press, Burrowbridge, UK.
Schade, J.E., Marsh, G.L. and Eckert, J.E. 1958. Diastase activity and hydroxymethylfurfural in honey andtheir usefulness in detecting heat adulteration. Food Res. 23: 446–463.
Selçuk, H. and Nevin, K. 2002. Investigation of antibacterial effect of honey collected from various regions ofTurkey. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 5: 325–328.
Torres, A., Garedew, A., Schmolz, E. and Lamprecht, I. 2004. Calorimetric investigation of the antimicrobial
action and insight into the chemical properties of ‘angelita’ honey – a product of the stingless bee
Tetragonisca angustula from Columbia. Thermochimica Acta 415: 107–113.
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Status and Prospects of Stingless Bee-keeping in Kenya
Joseph Macharia, Linnaus Gitonga and Hellen Kutima

Vorlová, L., Karpíková, R., Chabinioková, K., Kalábová, K. and Brázdová, Z. 2005. The antimicrobial activityof honeys produced in the Czech Republic. Czech J. Anim. Sci. 50(8): 376–384.
Vit, P. 2001. Stingless bees honey and the treatment of cataracts. In: P. Munn and R. Jones (eds.), Honeyand Healing. IBRA, Cardiff. Vit, P., Bogdanov, S. and Kilchenmann, V. 1994. Composition of Venezuelan
honeys from stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponinae) and Apis mellifera. Apidologie 25: 275–288.
Vit, P., Medina, M. and Enríquez M.E. 2004. Quality standards for medicinal uses of Meliponinae honey in
Guatemala, Mexico and Venezuela. Bee World 85(1): 2–5. White, J.W. 1979. Spectrophotometric method
for hydroxymethylfurfural in honey. J. Ass. Off. Anal. Chem. 62: 509.
White, J.W. 1994. The role of HMF and diastase assays in honey quality evaluation. Bee World 75(3):104–117.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 103

Enhancing Livestock Production in
HIV/AIDS Infected and AffectedHouseholds in Uganda
Annuciate Nakiganda1, Sarah Mubiru1, Stephen Kayiwa1
Stephen Kiwemba2 and Basalirwa Musaala3
Keywords: small-holder dairy, labour-saving technologies, improved cattle feed, milk production, forage
chopper

Abstract
HIV/AIDS is very detrimental in crop and livestock production as it kills and weakens the active age groups
that provide labour for production. Livestock production is crucial in households infected and affected by
HIV/AIDS as it provides nutritious food such as milk and income for these households. However,inadequate feed was identified as a major constraint to livestock production, especially in dairy cattle
production. A project was designed to improve food and feed production for humans and livestock
production through utilization of improved livestock technologies. Project identification and implementation
was a participatory process. Calliandra, elephant grass–legumes intercrop and maize–lablab intercrops
were introduced to HIV/AIDS infected and affected households. Manual forage choppers were also given to
weak farmers and orphans to reduce the drudgery effort associated with chopping of elephant grass. There
was a 20% feed increase on farm. On average, milk production increased by 29%, 38% and 30% for cows
fed on Calliandra, elephant grass–legumes intercrop and lablab–maize intercrop, respectively. There wasalso an increase in household monthly incomes by 36,250, 47,500 and 37,500 shillings for households who
fed their cows with Calliandra, elephant grass–legumes intercrops and lablab–maize intercrop,
respectively. It is very important to involve the target group in the whole research process so that the
research is relevant and beneficial to them. Involving sick people in research and introducing to themsimple, user-friendly improved livestock technologies can have a big positive impact on lives of people
living with HIV/AIDS.

1

National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), PO Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda.
Jinja District Extension Department, PO Box Jinja, Uganda.
3
Jinja District Farmers’ Organisation, Jinja, Uganda.
2

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Enhancing Livestock Production in HIV/AIDS Infected and Affected Households in Uganda
Annuciate Nakiganda, Sarah Mubiru, Stephen Kayiwa, Stephen Kiwemba and Basalirwa Musaala

INTRODUCTION
HIV/AIDS is a major challenge in crop–livestock production as it kills and weakens the active age groups thatprovide labour for production. Household members who look after the sick have less time to put into
production. In addition, sickness and death of parents disrupts the transmission of both traditional andmodern knowledge and farm management skills between generations. This has led to a devastating
impact on rural women, men, youth and children, and has resulted in reduced food production and income.
Livestock have proved to be important, especially for women, particularly in communities where men have
either died of AIDS, or have become too sick to work. Livestock offer women the opportunity to earn money(InfoAgrar, 2005). Livestock products are excellent sources of protein and some key micronutrients that are
generally scarce in grain and root staples. These are highly valuable in the nutrition and health of HIV/AIDSaffected people as they can help to boost their immune system (Garí, 2003). In addition, livestock play a roleof enhancing social cohesion and social support, which is relevant for food security and HIV/AIDS
mitigation.
Inadequate feed was identified as one of the major constraints limiting production of livestock, especiallydairy cattle (Mubiru et al., 2003; Nakiganda, 2004). This necessitated an intervention if dairy was to thrive,
especially in households affected and infected by HIV/AIDS.
A project was designed to improve food and feed production for humans and livestock through utilization of
improved livestock technologies. Another objective was to promote and disseminate labour-saving
technologies among HIV/AIDS infected and affected households. The third objective was to promote
inclusion of HIV/AIDS infected and affected households in research, development and training
programmes. The infected persons are women, men, youth and children living with HIV/AIDS. The affected
persons are children orphaned due to HIV/AIDS and household members who care for those infected with
HIV/AIDS.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The project implementation was participatory and it involved all stakeholders in all the project phases. The
project operated in Mafubira and Kakira sub-counties of Jinja district. The project was implemented by the
National Crops Resources Research Institute, Jinja District Extension Department, Jinja District Farmers’
Organization and Jinja Women HIV/AIDS Heifer Project. The project started with planning meetings
between researchers, Jinja District Farmers’ Organization staff, Extension Department staff and farmers.
The study area and target group were identified. This was followed by farmers’ needs assessment in threefocus groups of women, men and the youth. The focus groups identified the major livestock and crop
enterprises. These were ranked using pair-wise ranking. Constraints to the priority enterprises were also
identified and ranked. Potential solutions for solving problems were identified together with the farmers andthese were implemented later during the study.
Labour-saving technologies, particularly manual forage choppers, were identified and sourced from theAgricultural Engineering and Appropriate Technology Research Centre (AEATREC). A baseline survey was
carried out to understand farmers’ status and resources. Contact farmers were identified and on-farm
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Enhancing Livestock Production in HIV/AIDS Infected and Affected Households in Uganda
Annuciate Nakiganda, Sarah Mubiru, Stephen Kayiwa, Stephen Kiwemba and Basalirwa Musaala

fodder demonstrations were established on 30 farms. These included Calliandra, maize–lablab intercrop
and elephant grass–siratro–Centrocema intercrop. Seventeen farmers planted Calliandra, 6 farmers
planted maize–lablab intercrop, and 7 farmers established elephant grass–siratro– Centrocema intercrop(choice depending on the farmers’ land size). The maize intercropped with lablab was cv. Longe 5, a highquality protein maize. Ten manual forage choppers were acquired and distributed to the weak farmers andorphans. These were meant to reduce work-effort associated with chopping the elephant grass. Farmers
were trained on fodder establishment, management, conservation and utilization. They were also trained on
how to operate and manage the forage choppers. On-farm fodder demonstrations were monitored anddata collected. Farmers were given simple data-recording forms with which to record milk yields and feed
given to the cattle. Dairy farmers from non-participating sub-counties (Butagaya and Busedde) visitedcontact farmers in participating sub-counties to learn from them what they were doing.
The project is planning to have a feedback workshop and to prepare a farmers’ manual and leaflets. The
data analysis was both qualitative and quantitative. The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive
statistics by Genstat computer package.
RESULTS
Feed Interventions
A total of 300 farmers were as trained in pasture establishment, management, conservation and utilization.
This has led to improved pasture management on farm. There has been a general increase of cattle feed by
20% on participating farms.
The increase in balanced feed on farm, especially in the dry season, led to an increase in milk production
per cow. Cows fed on Calliandra had 29% average increase in milk production, while that of those fed onelephant grass–legumes intercrops increased by 38%. For people who are struggling with HIV/AIDS, this isa big achievement, as they can now get milk both to drink and also some for sale. The increases in milk
sales (Table 1) have boosted the monthly incomes of farmers suffering from HIV/AIDS by 47,500 shillings(US $25)/household per month and 36,250 shillings (US $19)/household per month for farmers who useelephant grass–legume mixture and Calliandra, respectively.
Table 1. Effect of feed interventions on milk production and farmers’ income
Feed intervention

Average (%) increase in

Increase in income per

milk production per cow

household per month(Uganda Shillings)1

Calliandra

1

29

36,250 (US $ 19)

Elephant grass–legumes

38

47,500 (US $ 25)

Lablab–maize

30

37,500 (US $ 20)

US $1 = 1900 Uganda Shillings.

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Enhancing Livestock Production in HIV/AIDS Infected and Affected Households in Uganda
Annuciate Nakiganda, Sarah Mubiru, Stephen Kayiwa, Stephen Kiwemba and Basalirwa Musaala

Labour-saving Technologies
Ten manual forage choppers were bought and distributed to 10 households. The criteria for receiving aforage chopper were that the farmers must be weak or orphans who had limited time as they combined
studying and looking after the cattle.
Nine farmers who received the forage choppers acknowledged that they have been very useful and handy
to them. The benefits that farmers got from the forage choppers were as follows:• They use less energy to chop the grass, such that even weak people can chop the grass;• They no longer feel chest pain while chopping grass;• They spend less time chopping grass, so that they can use the remaining time on other activities;• They chop the grass while standing and no longer need to bend;• It makes the work easy such that children enjoy chopping the grass;• The forage chopper chops small pieces of grass, such that the cows eat everything and there is no more
feed wastage;• Farmers no longer cut their fingers.
However, one orphan was experimenting with the forage chopper, changing its settings to cut longer
pieces of elephant grass. Most of the time, he was giving uncut elephant grass to the cow on the ground.
This young farmer lacked a feed box and that may be why he never made use of the forage chopper.
DISCUSSION
Cattle feed on the demonstration farms increased by 20%. This was a good achievement, as these farmers
were always hit by drought and always had feed shortage. Jinja district farmers grow a lot of maize, which isused as food; however, the maize stover was not being used by farmers as feed for dairy cattle. Farmer
training and incorporation of lablab in the maize stover helped to improve the feed value of maize
stover—hence the 30% increase in milk of the cows fed on the maize stover–lablab feed package. Farmers
who planted Calliandra benefited from it because it resists drought and provides feed in both rain and dry
periods. In addition, it can be planted on boundaries, takes little land and requires minimal labour. This wastherefore suitable for HIV/AIDS infected and affected farmers with limited land. According to Nakiganda etal. (2006), the majority of farmers in the study area had very small land holdings.
Improved feed on farms of HIV/AIDS affected and infected persons led to increased milk production; forexample, cattle fed on Calliandra had average 29% increase in milk production, while those which fed onelephant grass–legumes intercrop increased by 38%. When farmers get more milk, they consume some ofit and sell the remainder. This helps to improve their nutrition and helps their bodies to fight the disease. Thisagrees with literature which indicates that improving and maintaining good nutrition may prolong health anddelay HIV disease progression (RCQHC et al., 2003). Farmers ate the grains of of Longe 5 maize, while they
fed the stover to the cattle. The quality protein maize also helped to contribute to balancing the farmers’ dietin terms of proteins.
The manual forage chopper helped to reduce effort associated with chopping elephant grass;—90% of
farmers noted that the chopper required less energy, so that even the weak ones could chop the grass.
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Enhancing Livestock Production in HIV/AIDS Infected and Affected Households in Uganda
Annuciate Nakiganda, Sarah Mubiru, Stephen Kayiwa, Stephen Kiwemba and Basalirwa MusaalaChildren also helped in this work, as they enjoyed using the forage choppers to chop the grass. The
choppers also helped to reduce feed wastage, as they cut small pieces of grass and the cows would eat
everything. On the farm where the forage chopper was not very successful, there was an orphan staying
with an old grandmother, where management of the cow was very poor. The cow had no feed box and theorphan farmer used to throw unchopped elephant grass on the ground for the cow to feed on. He
experimented with the chopper a lot, adjusting it so that it cut very long pieces of elephant grass. In the end,
he kept the chopper in the house instead of using it. This shows that in order for improved technology tosucceed, other management aspects of the cow must also be appropriate.
CONCLUSION
The lessons learnt from this project are that it is very important to involve the target group in the wholeprocess of technology development—for example, from problem identification up to the end of the
project—so that the project is relevant and beneficial to the target group. All relevant stakeholders need to
be involved in the project process and there is a need to respect one another. Involving sick people inresearch and introducing to them simple, user-friendly improved technologies can have a big impact on the
lives of people living with HIV/AIDS. However, for the improved livestock technology to succeed on farm, theother management practices of the cattle must be appropriate. It is also very important to work in
multidisciplinary teams, as these help to address farmers’ problems as a whole.
Literature Cited
InfoAgrar, 2005. Symposium Report: Poor Health, Food Insecurity and Poverty – How to break a vicious
circle? Berne, Switzerland, 13 October 2005. Agricultural Information and Documentation Service forDeveloping Countries, Zollikofen, Switzerland.
Garí, J.A. 2003. Agrobiodiversity Strategies to Combat Food Insecurity and HIV/AIDS Impact in Rural Africa:
Advancing grassroots responses for nutrition, health and sustainable livelihoods. FAO, Rome.
Mubiru, L.S., Rubaire-Akiiki, C., Kabirizi, J., Odur, A.G., Nakiganda, A., Ndyanabo, W., Bareeba, F.B.,
Halperg, N., Namagembe, A., Kayiwa, S. and Kigongo, J. 2003. Introduction of improved techniques offeed resource utililisation on smallholder dairy farms in Uganda. Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences
8(10): 383–394.
Nakiganda, N.A. 2004. Economic Evaluation of Small Dairy Cattle Feeding Strategies in Masaka District.
PhD Thesis, University of Reading. 172 p.
Nakiganda, A., Mubiru, S., Kiwemba, S. Musaala, B. and Kayiwa, S. 2006. Improving Livestock Production
in HIV/AIDS Infected and Affected Households in Jinja District. Unpublished Technical Report 2005/2006.
NARO/DANIDA.
RCQHC, FANTA Project and LINKAGES Project. 2003. Nutrition and HIV/AIDS: A Training Manual. Regional
Centre for Quality of Health Care, Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project and LINKAGES Project,
Kampala. Available at: www.fantaproject.org/focus/preservice.shtml.

108 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Evaluation of Spineless Cactus(Opuntia ficus-indicus) as an
Alternative Feed Resource for
Ruminants in Eritrea
Habteab S. Serekebrhan1 and J.P. Tritschler2
Keywords: cladodes, barley straw, digestibility, water intake, feed intake, sheep

Abstract
Throughout East Africa, animal feed resources fluctuate seasonally and are often of limited availability.
Finding alternative feed resources that can sustain animal production during the long dry season is an
essential need. Cactus is a drought-tolerant and succulent feed resource available throughout the year in
Eritrea. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of increasing levels of spineless cactus (Opuntia
ficus-indica) inclusion on feed and water intake, apparent digestibility and body-weight change in sheep
fed a base diet of urea-treated barley straw (UTBS). Twenty-four fat-tailed Highland male sheep with mean
live weight of 21.1 kg were randomly assigned into four treatments (T1–T4). Animals in T1 received ad
libitum amount of barley straw treated with urea (5%) alone, while those in T2, T3 and T4 received ad libitum
UTBS supplemented with 175 g, 350 g and 525 g of spineless cactus (dry-matter basis), respectively.
Spineless-cactus cladodes were high in water content and ash, but low in crude protein and crude fiber.
With increasing level of cactus, there were significant increases in dry-matter consumption (DMI) (P<0.001)
and body-weight performance (P<0.05), while water consumption decreased (P<0.001). The highest DMI
was found in the T3 and T4 (101.8 and 96.5 g/[kg body weight]0.75 per day, respectively) as compared toT1 and T2 (94.4 and 87.6 g/[kg BW]0.75 per day). Sheep in T1 consumed more water (2 L/day) than theother treatments (0.85, 0.51 and 0.15 L/day for T2, T3 and T4, respectively). The highest body-weight gain
(51.9 g/day) was found in T3, while the lowest was in T1 (26.8 g/day). The metabolism trial demonstrated
that available-energy intake (digestible organic-matter intake or total digestible-nutrient intake) was directly
related to animal performance in the feeding trial. In conclusion, feeding cactus with UTBS can significantly
increase animal performance and feed intake, and reduced water intake.

1 Ministry of Agricultural Anseba Zone, Animal Resource Division, PO Box 118, Keren, Eritrea.2 Small Ruminants Program, Virginia State
University, Petersburg, VA 23806, USA.
Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 109

Evaluation of Spineless Cactus (opuntia ficus-indicus) as an Alternative Feed Resource for Ruminants in Eritrea
Habteab S. Serekebrhan and J.P. Tritschler

INTRODUCTION
Shortage of animal feed and water are major constraints for the livestock sector in arid and semi-arid regionsof East Africa. The major feed resources are rangeland pasture and crop residues. The quality andavailability of these feed resources decreases rapidly following the rainy season. This fluctuating pattern ofanimal-feed supply results in a pattern of gain and loss in animal growth and performance. In a country like
Eritrea, where feed shortage is such a serious problem, utilization of multipurpose trees and shrubs that cancope with low and erratic rainfall, high temperature, poor soils, and require few inputs can serve as analternative strategy to reduce the chronic shortage of animal feed and water. Spineless cactus (Opuntia
ficus-indica) possesses important characteristics for animal feed in drought-prone regions, including highdry-matter (DM) yields, drought tolerance, nutritive value and palatability for animals (Tegegne, 2001).
Spineless cactus is a fast-growing xerophytic plant. It has high water use efficiency due to its crassulaceanacid metabolism (CAM) photosynthetic pathway. Cacti serve as an extremely important fodder in waterscarce semi-arid regions (Felker and Inglese, 2003). It is well adapted to marginal land with poor soil fertility
and low, erratic rainfall conditions. Cactus remains succulent during the long dry season and can serve as asource of feed and water during this period. Furthermore, cactus is suitable as human food, as fuel, formedicine, as bee forage, and in rangeland rehabilitation projects (Barbera et al., 1995). The aim of thisresearch was to assess the potential of spineless cactus as an alternative source of feed and water for
ruminant animals fed poor-quality roughage during the dry season.
MATERIAL AND METHODSThe experiment was carried out in the highland of Eritrea, which is characterized by a semi-arid climate. A
randomized complete block design was used to allocate 24 fat-tailed Highland male sheep with initial mean
live weight of 21.1 kg into one of two replications for four feed treatment groups (T1–T4), consisting of six
animals per group. Animals in T1 received ad libitum barley straw treated with urea (5% by weight) alone,while those in T2, T3 and T4 received ad libitum urea-treated barley straw supplemented daily with 175 g,
350 g and 525 g of spineless cactus (DM basis), respectively. Diets were offered twice daily, aiming at 20%
refusals (i.e. 20% excess). At the end of the feeding trial, four sheep were transferred to metabolic crates,
where digestibility trials were conducted for each diet over 7 days of feeding and collecting. Data wereanalyzed using standard analysis of variance (ANOVA) and general linear models (GLM) with GENSTAT
statistical software. The results were disseminated through demonstrations, on-farm trails, posters, leaflets
written in local languages, and training of farmers and experts
RESULTS
Chemical Composition of Spineless Cactus CladodeThe chemical composition (proximate analysis) of the spineless cactus and urea-treated barley straw ispresented in Table 1. Spineless cactus cladodes (stem segments) were high in water and ash, but low incrude protein and crude fiber content. In this analysis, cactus had 65% more digestible energy than ureatreated barley straw.

110 | Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1

Evaluation of Spineless Cactus (opuntia ficus-indicus) as an Alternative Feed Resource for Ruminants in Eritrea
Habteab S. Serekebrhan and J.P. Tritschler

Effect of Supplementation on Feed Intake
The performance characteristics of sheep fed urea-treated barley straw supplemented with increasing levelof spineless cactus are presented in Table 2. The amount of cactus in this study was restricted; however, it
was a highly palatable feed. Except for T2, there was a highly significant (P<0.001) increase the total drymatter consumption (DMI) with increasing spineless-cactus levels in the diet, and (as expected) a
comparable reduction in straw DMI. The highest DMI expressed on metabolic weight basis (102 g/[kgBW]0.75 per day)3 was found in sheep that received 350 g spineless cactus (T3) and the difference from theother treatments was highly significant (P<0.001).
Table 1. Chemical composition of experimental feed ingredientsFeedstuff

DM

CP

CF

(%)

(% DM)(% DM) (% DM) (% DM) (% DM) energy (MJ/Kg DM)

Spineless Cactus 12.9

4.7

15.8

0.9

61.6

16.7

13.2

Urea-treated

10.2

46.5

1.1

34.8

7.2

8.0

69.4

EE

NFE

Ash

Digestible

barley straw
DM = dry matter; CP = crude protein, CF = crude fiber, EE = ether extract, NFE = nitrogen-free extract.

Table 2. Performance of sheep supplemented with increasing level of cactus
Parameter

T1

T2

T3

T4

LSD

Initial body weight (kg)

21.25

21.25

21.08

21.25

ns

Final body weight (kg)23.67b

24.25b

25.67a25.50a0.832

Weight gain (g/day)

26.8b

33.3b

51.9a

47.2a

12.26

0

175

350

525

–

94.35b87.57c101.81a96.48b

3.418

Water intake (L/day)

1.98a

0.78b

0.57c

0.18d

0.03

DOMI (g)

541.8

504.8

667.8

656.3

–

DCPI (g)

61.2

51.8

61.5

42.6

–

TDNI (g)

542.0

588.2

672.0

663.1

–

Cactus DMI (g/day)Total DMI (g/[kg BW]

0.75

per day

Means with different superscripts (a–d) in the same row differ significantly (P<0.001). LSD = Leastsignificance difference, ns = not significant, DOMI = digestible organic-matter intake, DCPI = digestible
crude-protein intake, TDNI = total digestible-nutrient intake.
Effect of Supplementation on Water Intake
There was a clear and significant (P<0.001) reduction in water consumption with increasing intake ofcactus (Table 2). Sheep in T1 consumed more water (2 L/day) than sheep in the other treatments.
Compared to those fed urea-treated barley straw only (T1), sheep in T2 drank of 50% less water per
kilogram of feed intake. Sheep in T4 approached zero water consumption.
3

Metabolic weight = [body weight (kg)]0.75 .
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Habteab S. Serekebrhan and J.P. Tritschler

Effect of Supplementation on Animal Performance
There was a significant difference in body-weight gain in sheep with cactus supplementation to ureatreated barley straw based diets (Table 2). The live body-weight gain was significantly (P<0.05) higher for
sheep on T3 and T4 diets, compared to the control diet (T1). The highest body-weight gain (51.9 g/day) was
found when sheep received 350 g DM of cactus (T3), while the lowest was in the control T1 diet (26.8
g/day). Even though the total dry-matter intake of the sheep in the control was higher than that of sheep inT2, sheep in the latter group performed better (in terms of body weight, though not to an extent that was
statistically significant).
Apparent Digestible Nutrient Intake
A digestibility study was conducted, and apparent digestible-nutrient intake was determined (Table 2).
Increasing the level (or proportion) of spineless cactus in the diet increased the energy value of the diet.
Therefore, supplementation of cactus tended to increase energy intake (Total Digestible Nutrient Intake orDigestible Organic Matter Intake). In contrast, increasing the level (or proportion) of cactus decreased theamount of crude protein (CP) in the diet. Thus, supplementation of cactus tended to decrease CP intake.
The digestible CP intake was highest in diets T1 and T3, and lowest in diet T4.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Chemical Composition of Spineless Cactus CladodeThe high water and low CP content of spineless-cactus cladodes found in this trial are similar to values
reported by other authors (Nefzaoui and Ben Salem, 2001; Flachowsky and Yami, 1985) for cactus grownon poor soils. The protein content of cactus was below the general minimum of 7% CP required for normal
microbial activity in the rumen (Misra et al., 2005). Therefore, animals fed with cactus-based diets needappropriate protein supplementation. This study confirms that urea treatment of low-quality forage can be asuitable protein source (10.2% CP on DM basis). In semi-arid regions, where water is a very scare resource,
the high water content can be considered as a benefit. To develop a feeding system using locally available
feed resources, sources of abundant and cheap energy are very important (Preston and Leng, 1987). This
makes cactus highly valuable for its energy content.
Effect of Supplementation on Feed Intake
Voluntary dry-matter intake is related to the intake potential of the feed and the nutrient demand of the animal(Coleman and Moore, 2003). Cactus is a highly palatable feedstuff. Higher total DMI in T2 could be
associated with the higher consumption and digestibility of cactus. Tegegne et al. (2005b) found that total
DMI increased for sheep progressively from 77 to 100 g/[kg BW]0.75 per day when the cactus supplement
was increased from 0 to 60% in pasture-and hay-based diets. In the current study, the gradual decrease in
DMI of urea-treated barley straw can be explained by the substitutive or associative effect of feed whenreplaced with a highly soluble source of carbohydrate. In this study, there was no digestive disturbance orhealth effect observed even at highest cactus inclusion rate that substituted about 50% of the dry-matterintake. Ben Salem et al. (1996) observed that spineless cactus could be fed without any digestive
disturbance up to 55% of the total DMI. This would help farmers to economize on straw. The absence of anegative effect, coupled with higher digestibility and water content would facilitate a rapid disappearance of
cactus from the rumen (Nefzaoui and Ben Salem, 2001).
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Evaluation of Spineless Cactus (opuntia ficus-indicus) as an Alternative Feed Resource for Ruminants in Eritrea
Habteab S. Serekebrhan and J.P. Tritschler

Effect of Supplementation on Water Intake
Water intake was high when sheep were fed urea-treated barley straw alone. However, there was asignificant decrease in water intake with the progressive increase of cactus. The declining water intake ofsheep was in good agreement with pervious work (Ben Salem et al., 1996; Tegenge et al., 2005b), which
reported that water intake decreases significantly as the level of cactus intake increases in diets of lowquality roughages. Sheep drank negligible amounts of water when the cactus supplementation reached
525 g/day. In line with this finding, Ben Salem et al. (1996) indicated that sheep stop drinking water when the
cactus intake reached 600 g/day. In the tropics, the dry season is characterized by higher temperatures,
decreased supply of water and higher dry matter of herbage. Therefore, animals that are sustained on poorquality dry roughages are in need of large amounts of water to facilitate digestion. Animals travel long
distances to reach water points, spending more energy and losing body weight. In East Africa during the dry
season, the distance traveled to watering point increased by 43–52% for small ruminants (Ndikumana et al.,2002). In countries where water is a vital resource during the dry season, the high water content of cactus
could play a significant role in mitigating drinking-water shortage. It may also reduce rangeland degradation
as animals converge on water points during drought.
Effect of Supplementation on Animal Performance
There was a significant difference in body weight gain when urea-treated barley straw was supplemented
with spineless cactus. This result was in accordance with pervious work (Tegegne et al., 2005a) on
supplementation of cactus to sheep fed urea-treated wheat straw. The higher performance of sheep in T3
and T4 as compared to the control (T1) diet can be correlated with associative effects of high total DMI of the
sheep in those treatments and the higher readily digestible carbohydrates content of spineless cactus.
Even though the total DMI of the sheep in the control (T1) was higher than that of sheep in T2, sheep in thelatter group performed marginally better. This could be attributed to the lack of readily fermentable organic
matter for sheep that were fed urea-treated barley straw alone. The DM digestibility of the urea-treatedbarley straw was higher when it was supplemented with cactus than when it was fed alone. Therefore, thevalue of cactus as a cheap source of energy for efficient utilization of non-protein nitrogen is also importantin improving the nutritive value of poor-quality roughage. A 22% body-weight improvement was achieved inthis study, at a time when animals normally lose body weight (during the dry season), although cactus pear
is abundant and succulent in this season. A much higher improvement (72%) in body weight gain wasreported when cactus was supplemented with a bypass protein source (i.e. protein that is not digested in
the rumen) (Shoop et al., 1977).
Apparent Digestible Nutrient Intake
The digestible-nutrient intake data of the metabolism trial is in agreement with the feeding trail. Increasing
spineless-cactus supplement to the urea-treated barley straw based diet resulted in improvement of theenergy density of the diet (higher total digestible nutrients). Body-weight gain as a measure of animal
performance was highly correlated with DMI and its energy concentration, and these results are consistent
with those of other researchers (Moore et al., 1999). The higher performance of sheep in T3 and T4 as
compared to T1 and T2 may be explained through the increase in available dietary energy and through an
associative effect. In this associative effect, the addition of cactus improves the total digestibility of the diet,including the digestibility of the straw. With increasing level of cactus in the diet, there was an increase in theenergy concentration of the diet, while the protein concentration decreased. Besides the slight
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Evaluation of Spineless Cactus (opuntia ficus-indicus) as an Alternative Feed Resource for Ruminants in Eritrea

improvement in performance of sheep in T2, cactus supplementation at the lower level (175 g DM) did not
result in a significant difference as compared to the control diet (T1). This might be because, although T2
shows an improvement in energy, there is both a decreased percent dietary protein and lower daily
digestible-protein intake. The crude-protein intake of the animals was lower for this group (T2) than for either
T1 or T3. Supplementation of 350 g DM spineless cactus (T3) seems to be the optimum supplementation
rate. At this level, the animals are able to maintain protein intake, so that they can benefit from the extra
energy, thereby optimizing growth. Therefore, animals in T3 had a higher total digestible-nutrient intake ascompared to the other groups, illustrating a more optimal balance of protein and energy. Inclusion of cactus
at higher rate (T4) was still better than T1 and T2, which is attributed to additional energy, but it may havebegun to decrease due to low protein intake.
In conclusion, feeding cactus with urea-treated barley straw can significantly increase animal performanceand feed intake, and reduce water intake. One of the positive impacts of this work is that it initiatedspineless-cactus plantation by the ministry of agriculture on the rangelands, and currently about 200 ha isplanted with cactus in Anseba zone as a pilot project. On-farm research is also underway on cactus silage
making on the RAM private farm. Continuous training has been given to experts and farmers on the use andfeeding of cactus. A leaflet has also been distributed in local language. Although the adoption rate has notbeen measured, farmers’ awareness of the feeding value and levels of cactus is increasing. Therefore,
utilization of cactus as an animal feed could play a vital role in promoting sustainable livestock production by
providing an alternative feed and water source.
Literature Cited
Barbera, G., Inglese, P. and Pimienta, E.B. (eds). 1995. Agro-ecology, cultivation and uses of cactus pear.
FAO Plant Prod. Prot. Paper 132. Rome, Italy.
Ben Salem, H., Nefzaoui, A., Abdouli, H. and Orskov, E.R. 1996. Effect of increasing level of spinelesscactus (Opuntia ficus-indica var. inermis) on intake and digestion by sheep given straw-based diets. J.
Anim. Sci. 62: 293–299.
Coleman, S.W. and Moore, J.E. 2003. Feed quality and animal performance. J. Field Crop Res. 84: 17–29.
Felker, P. and Inglese, P. 2003. Short-term and long-term research needs for Opuntia ficus-indica utilization inarid areas. J. Prof. Assoc. Cactus Develop. 5: 131–152.
Flachowsky, G. and Yami, A. 1985. Composition, digestibility and feed intake of Opuntia by Ogaden sheep.
Archiv. Tiernarhung 35: 599–606. Misra, A.K., Mishra, M.K., Tripathi, O.H., Chaturvedi, S., Vaithiyanathan, S.,
Prasad,S.R. and Jakhmola, R.C. 2005. Intake, digestion and microbial protein synthesis in sheep on hay
supplemented with prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.) with or without groundnut meal. Small
Ruminant Research 63: 125–134.
Moore, J.E., Brant, M.H., Kunkle, W.E. and Hopkins, D.I. 1999. Effects of supplementation on voluntary
forage intake, diet digestibility, and animal performance. J. Anim. Sci. 77: 122–135.
Ndikumana, J., Stuth, J.K. Amid, R. Ossiya, S. Marambi, R. and Hamlet, P. 2002. Coping mechanisms andtheir efficacy in disaster-prone pastoral systems of the greater Horn of Africa. p. 7–30. In: L.T. Traedal (ed.),Sustainable Livelihoods of Farmers and Pastoralists in Eritrea, Proc. Conf. Develop. Dry Lands, Dry Land
Coordinating Group, Asmara, Eritrea, 28–29 Nov.
Nefzaoui, A. and Ben Salem, H. 2001. Opuntia spp.: A strategic fodder and efficient tool to combat
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Evaluation of Spineless Cactus (opuntia ficus-indicus) as an Alternative Feed Resource for Ruminants in Eritrea

desertification in the WANA region. p. 73–90. In: J.C. Mondragon and G.S. Perez (eds.), Cactus (Opuntiaspp.) as Forage. FAO Plant Prod. Prot. Paper 169. Rome, Italy.
Preston T.R. and Leng, R.A. 1987. Matching Ruminant Production Systems with Available Resources in the
Tropics and Sub-Tropics. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia.
Shoop, M.C., Alford, C.J. and Mayland, H.F. 1977. Plains prickly pear is good forage for cattle. J. Range
Manage. 30: 12–16.
Tegegne, F. 2001. Nutritive value of Opuntia ficus-indica as a ruminant feed in Ethiopia. p. 91–100. In: J.C.
Mondragon and Perez, G.S. (eds.), Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as Forage. FAO Plant Prod. Prot. Paper 169.
Rome, Italy.
Tegegne, F., Kijora, C. and Peters, K.J. 2005a. Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) as a Complement to UreaTreated Straw in Dry Season Feeding Systems of Ruminants. Humboldt Univ., Berlin, Germany.
Tegegne, F., Kijora, C. and Peters, K.J. 2005b. Study on the Effects of Incorporating Various Levels of Cactus
Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) on the Performance of Sheep. Humboldt Univ., Berlin, Germany.

Agricultural Innovations for Sustainable Development: Volume 1 Issue 1 | 115

Evaluation and Promotion of
Cambrough Breed of Pigs for
Improvement of Livelihoods in theSouth Western Agro-Ecological Zoneof Uganda
C. Lagu1, S. Byenkya2, R.C. Nsubuga-Mutaka3, W. Makuru4
P. Ntakyo5, I. Nabukenya6, B. Ayoo7 and G. Tugume8
Keywords: Cambrough pigs, growth patterns, reproductive indices, improved livelihoods, western
UgandaAbstract
Pig farming is an emerging enterprise in south-western Uganda. A 5-year longitudinal study to evaluate andpromote pig production for livelihood improvement was conducted in the South Western Agro-Ecological
Zone (SWAEZ) of Uganda, targeting the Cambrough breed of pigs recently imported from South Africa.
Birth weights of piglets were 1.5–2 kg, while weaning weights at 2 months ranged from 8 kg to 12 kg. Mature
live weights at 2 years were 180–200 kg and 160– 180 kg for boars and sows, respectively. Age at first
farrowing was 9–10 months, followed by a period of 4 weeks between farrowing and next conception. A
farrowing interval of 6–8 months was observed. Litter size ranged from 7 piglets at first farrowing to 13 piglets
at fourth farrowing, with culling recommended at seventh farrowing. The non-conventional locally available
feed resources recommended to farmers included sweet potato root tubers and vines, pumpkins andbanana peelings. This study observed that strategic treatment of piglets of one month old, then at 2-monthintervals, using ivermectin injection (subcutaneously administered) significantly reduced mortalities from
Ascaris suum infection compared to the conventional treatment using piperazine. Results revealed that pig
production is a viable enterprise in the south-western Uganda; with an average gross margin of 5.95 million
Uganda shillings (€2,380) per annum. This has a strong bearing on the management level—inputs,
especially feed resources, and ability to minimize costs without compromising production. The findings ofthis study indicate that pig production, especially of the Cambrough breed, has potential to improvehousehold incomes and bridge the animal protein gap for the resource-poor, who are largely women,
youths, elderly, persons living with HIV/AIDS and their households, in rural settings.

1–8

Mbarara Zonal Agriculture Research and Development Institute, PO Box 389, Mbarara, Uganda.

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INTRODUCTION
The technology of introducing and adapting the improved Cambrough breed of pigs in Uganda has been
conducted for a period of 5 years (2003–2008) at Mbarara Zonal Agriculture Research and Development
Institute (MbaZARDI). The institute is mandated to provide research services to the South Western AgroEcological Zone (SWAEZ), which covers the districts of Mbarara, Ibanda, Isingiro, Kiruhura, Ntugamo,
Bushenyi, Lyantonde, Ssembabule and Rakai. This zone has a very fast-growing population which in theyear 2007 was estimated at 7 million people (UBOS, 2006). With increasing population, the demand foranimal-based protein source of foods, and the need to venture into enterprises that have quick income
turnover cannot be overemphasized. The Meat Master Plan (MAAIF, 1998), Farming System and Livelihood
Analysis (Twinamasiko et al., 2003) and Zonal Priority Research Setting (MbaZARDI, 2007) all pointed to thelack of improved breeds as one of the major constraints to livestock productivity in the zone and this has
crippled efforts to improve the livestock industry in the country.
Under the Capacity Building for High Yielding Germplasm project, supported by the Government of Japan,
the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) helped MbaZARDI to establish a nucleus
pig breeding unit and stock it with Cambrough breed of pigs (ARDC, 2003). The introduction of theCambrough pig required a study to provide urgent research-based information for farmers.
The main objective of this study was to evaluate and promote the introduced Cambrough pigs for livelihood
improvement of households in the SWAEZ. The specific objectives included: (i) to determine the growth
patterns; (ii) to establish reproductive indices; (iii) to evaluate the utilization of locally available feeds; (iv) to
provide a strategy for managing the worm burden in piglets due to Ascaris suum infestation; (v) to find out
the economic viability of rearing pigs; and (vi) to promote the adoption of pig rearing.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
MbaZARDI is located in the South Western Rangelands of Uganda around 0º35'S and 30º35'E. Annual
rainfall is between 1000 and 1200 mm (bimodal). Intensive pig management system was adopted. The
study used a longitudinal approach over a period of 5 years (2003–2008) with Cambrough breed pigs
imported from South Africa. The Institute started with 15 two-month-old weaners (13 females and 2 males)(ARDC, 2003). Each of the objectives was addressed in one of six studies. The studies were carried out on
both the parent stock and their offspring (2003–2008). Hygiene was maintained through daily cleaning of
the sty. The piglets, the weaners, the porkers and the culls that were not utilized in the studies were disposed
off.
Study 1: To Determine Growth Patterns
Piglets were weighed at birth, and then subsequent at fortnightly intervals. This continued until the piglets
were one-year old. The piglets were sampled from the litters produced. The weighing of piglets, in a bag,
was carried out using a spring balance, in the morning before feeding. The mature weight at 2 years wasdetermined using the heart girth tape also in the morning before feeding.

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Evaluation and Promotion of Cambrough Breed of Pigs for Improvement of Livelihoods in the South Western Agro-Ecological Zoneof Uganda, C. Lagu, S. Byenkya, R.C. Nsubuga-Mutaka, W. Makuru, P. Ntakyo, I. Nabukenya, B. Ayoo and G. Tugume

Study 2: To Establish Reproductive Indices
The piglets were monitored for reproductive performance from maturity. Breeding was by natural services
using two boars. The boar was introduced to the female pigs after attaining reproductive maturity,
determined by age and size for the first conception. Thereafter the boars and sows were kept together.
During the study, records were kept for every sow from first conception up to the time of culling.
Study 3: To Evaluate the Utilization of Locally Available Feeds
The pigs were fed on a wide range of feeds, namely: (1) commercial feeds (sow and weaner); (2) agroprocessing by-products (maize bran); (3) milk products (soured milk and whey); (4) non-conventional
locally available feeds—including bananas and banana peelings, sweet potato tubers and vines, lablab
herbage, greens (e.g. Wandering Jew Commelina species). Pigs were provided with red anthill soils rich iniron. Commercial feeds were fed alone. Agro-processing by-products were fed in combination with soured
milk or whey and with the local feedstuffs. Piglets were allowed to suckle up to weaning (8 weeks) andaccess the red anthill soils and the feeds of the adults. Feeding was administered once a day, with ad libitum
water for drinking. Feeds were largely qualitatively evaluated. The feeding value was assessed on the basisof the productive performance (growth response, reproductive response and absence of observable
nutritional deficiency).
Study 4: The Strategic Health Management of Worm Burden in Piglets due toAscaris suum Infestation
Fifteen (15) piglets were selected for each of three treatment groups: ivermectine (Noromectine®),piperazine (Ascarex®) and control. A total of 45 piglets were selected for the study. Each of the three groups
was put in a pen and each piglet was given a numbered ear-tag for follow-up purposes. Conventionally,
deworming is carried out on a quarterly basis. During this study, however, deworming was carried out
bimonthly. Baseline worm load per gram was first established for the three treatment groups and the two
drugs administered to the two groups; the control did not receive any treatment.
Feacal egg count was done using a McMaster technique counting chamber before and after treatmentswith drugs, and the reduction in egg counts were noted after 7 and 14 days.
Study 5: Economic Viability of Rearing Pigs in the Zone
The inputs included feeds, drugs, water, maintenance-repair, transport costs and labour. The outputs were
piglets, weaners, porkers, culls and manure. Data from inputs and outputs were recorded and analysed forgross margin analysis to establish the economic viability of rearing pigs to provide relevant information tofarmers and extension workers and other stakeholders.
Study 6: Promotion of Adoption of Commercial Pig Rearing
The Plan for Modernization Agriculture (PMA) (MAAIF, 2000), the Farming Systems and Livelihood Analysis(Twinamasiko et al., 2003) and the Priority Setting (MbaZARDI, 2007) identified the urgent need to improve
food security and increase the household incomes of the rural poor. Local papers, radio, information
disseminated via workshops, participation in Annual National Agricultural Shows (Annual World Food Days)
and trade fares (Uganda Manufacturers Association), farmers’ groups, schools, extension workers’ visits,
and industrial training were all used as channels for creating awareness about the Cambrough breed ofpigs.
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Evaluation and Promotion of Cambrough Breed of Pigs for Improvement of Livelihoods in the South Western Agro-Ecological Zoneof Uganda, C. Lagu, S. Byenkya, R.C. Nsubuga-Mutaka, W. Makuru, P. Ntakyo, I. Nabukenya, B. Ayoo and G. TugumeData Analysis
Data were collected on body weight, reproductive variables, worm-egg counts, feeds (largely qualitative),
inputs used and outputs produced, and dissemination (channels). Data were analysed using Social
Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 12 to reveal growth, reproductive performance, feeding value,
worm control, profitability of the pig enterprise, and adoption of the technology. T-tests were performed tolook into the significant levels of worm control using the two dewormers ivermectin and piperazine.
RESULTS
Growth Patterns
The following growth parameters were documented (averaged over the 5-year period): birth weight was
1.5–2 kg per piglet; weaning weight at 2 months was 8–12 kg; and mature live weights attained were180–200 kg for boars and 160–180 kg for sows at 2 years of age.
Reproductive Indices
The following reproductive parameters were documented (averaged over the 5-year period): age at first
farrowing, 9–10 months; period from farrowing to conception, 4 weeks; farrowing interval, 6–8 months; litter
size: first farrowing, 7 piglets, second farrowing, 9, third farrowing, 10, fourth farrowing, 13, fifth farrowing, 12,
sixth farrowing, 9, and at seventh farrowing culling is recommended; age at first mating was 6 and 7 months
for a young sow, while age at weaning was 8 weeks for both sexes.
Evaluation of the Utilization of Locally Available Feeds
The study found that a combination of agro-processed by-products (maize bran), milk processing byproduct (soured milk or whey) and greens (Wandering Jew or lablab herbage) offered a complete,affordable feed ration for weaned and growing pigs. It was established that feeding a combination of 70 kg
of maize bran, 40 litres of soured milk and 100 kg of greens (Wandering Jew) was sufficient to maintain 10
mature pigs, 54 weaners and 20 piglets per day. Therefore, the recommended energy requirement would
be about 2 kg, 0.74 kg and 0.5 kg of maize bran per day per adult pig (8 months and above), weaners (2–8months) and piglet (2 weeks to 2 months), respectively. The water requirement would be about 6 and 8 litres
per weaned pig per day during wet and dry seasons, respectively.
Strategic Health Management of Worm Burden in Piglets due to Ascaris suum
Infestation
Strategic treatment of one-month old piglets, at an interval of 2 months, using subcutaneous ivermectin
injection reduced mortality due to Ascaris suum (and other helminthes) infection from 30% to less than 1%.
The reduction of worm-egg counts before and after ivermectine treatment was highly significant (P=0.006)
compared to piperazine treatment (P=0.018).
Economic Viability of Rearing Pigs in the Zone
Seventeen sows, 19 young sows, 2 boars and 300 piglets were studied, among which there was less than
5% mortality. The sources of revenue were: sale of piglets and culled sows. Feed, drugs and maintenancerepair were variable expenses, while labour was a fixed expense. Total revenue for one year was 19.05
million Uganda shillings (€7620; €1 = 2500 Uganda shillings, 2007) and total variable costs were 13.1
million shillings (€5,240). Thus, net profit was 5.95 million shillings (€2,380).
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Evaluation and Promotion of Cambrough Breed of Pigs for Improvement of Livelihoods in the South Western Agro-Ecological Zoneof Uganda, C. Lagu, S. Byenkya, R.C. Nsubuga-Mutaka, W. Makuru, P. Ntakyo, I. Nabukenya, B. Ayoo and G. Tugume

Promotion of Adoption of Commercial Pig Rearing
During the 5-year period (2003–2008), about 5000 piglets were distributed to farmers who had taken a keeninterest in commercial pig farming. The Institute has become a centre of attraction to students pursuing
agriculture and veterinary medicine courses at the Makerere, Kyambogo and Mbarara Universities. In 2007,
the institute hosted 500 primary pupils, 4000 secondary school students, 200 tertiary and university
students, and 100 farmers and extension workers. All these were provided with information on pig rearing.
The same trend continued in 2008. The Institute participated in public field shows and trade fares, wheremature pigs were exhibited in order to scale up technology dissemination to a wider community.
Dissemination has been done through posters, brochures, flyers and working documents for farmers andother stakeholders in the zone and beyond.
DISCUSSION
The genetic and environmental interactions have impact on performance related to birth weight, weaning
weight, and eventually weight at maturity for both female and male pigs (Mugerwa, 2001). Nutritional leveland provision of supplements are key to enhancing the efficiency in reproductive indices. It was observedthat feeding pigs on commercial feeds (sow and weaner) was not sustainable and therefore not costeffective; this concurs with the results of other studies (Twinamasiko, 2001). This study established thatprovision of maize bran and soured milk offered adequate nutrition for pigs with no nutritional deficiencies.
It was observed that feeding red soil rich in iron from anthills offered an alternative source of iron for the pigs.
Greens, e.g. Wandering Jew (Comellina species), were an alternative source of minerals and vitamins. The
non-conventional feed resources recommended for farmers include sweet potato root tubers and vines,
pumpkins, bananas and banana peelings. This study noted that providing maize bran without adding aprotein source in the diet was not enough, as the growing pigs suffered stunted growth. This agrees with theresult of other studies (Twinamasiko, 2001).
The study found that the use of ivermectin bimonthly was more effective than the traditional quarterly
application to control worms, and also more effective than piperazine administered bimonthly. Thiseffectiveness of the ivermectin was mainly due to mode of administration (subcutaneous
injection)—piperazine is normally mixed in feeds. Also functionally, ivermectin paralyses the parasitic
nematodes leading to eventual death by affecting the chloride channels independent of gamma-amino
butyric acid (GABA) as observed by Urquhart et al. (1996), whereas piperazine causes narcosis of theworms and they are expelled out of the body by peristalsis (Brander et al., 1977; Georgi, 1980).
The economics of input and output relationships must be balanced to ensure viability of the enterprise to
guide allocation of funds. Annual budgets should guide expenditure, recording of inputs and returns put
into practise, and strategic marketing instituted, so that costs do not outweigh benefits (DdumbaSsentamu, 2004; Lutwama, 2004).
Finally, getting the right channels and means of disseminating information is key in up-scaling technology to
the wider community of the area and the region to create impact.

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CONCLUSION AND LESSONS LEARNEDThis study concludes that production of Cambrough pigs bridges the animal protein gap and provides
quick returns for the resource-poor in rural areas. Women and youth in particular, and persons living with
HIV/AIDS have benefitted the most. The study recommends further research to determine the costeffectiveness of feeding strategies for pigs using the non-conventional and locally available feeds and their
combinations, comparative performance evaluation of other breeds of pig, and carcass-quality studies
under Uganda SWAEZ conditions.
Acknowledgements
The study was funded by the Government of Uganda and Government of Japan which supplied imported
pigs. Thanks are due to the National Agriculture Research Organisation and Mbarara Zonal Agriculture
Research and Development Institute (MbaZARDI) for creating a favourable environment for the research to
be carried out.
Literature Cited
ARDC 2003. Mbarara Agriculture Research and Development Centre Annual Report 2003. ARDC, Mbarara.
Brander, G.C., Daykin, P.W. and Pugh, D.M. 1977. Veterinary Applied Pharmacology and Therapeutics (3rdedn). The English Language Book Society and Baillière Tindall, London. p. 425–444.
Ddumba-Ssentamu, J. 2004. Basic Economics for East Africa: Concepts, Analysis and Applications.
Fountain, Kampala. p. 79–95. Georgi, J.R. 1980. Parasitology for Veterinarians (3rd edn). W.B. Saunders,Philadelphia, USA. p. 389–446. Lutwama, L. 2004. Advanced Level Economics for Developing Countries.
Comboni Community Publishers, Kampala. p. 84–91.
MAAIF 1998. Meat Master Plan 1998. Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Uganda.
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