CORE PROGRAM REPORTCreating a Hub for Import / Export of the Educational System– Exploring the Possibility of Keihanna, an International Educational City –International Institute for Advanced Studies

CORE PROGRAM REPORTCreating a Hub for Import / Export of the Educational System– Exploring the Possibility of Keihanna, an International Educational City –International Institute for Advanced Studies

Table of contents[
Summary ...............................................................ⅰ～ⅱ
Introduction ................................................................. 1
Introduction................................................................................................ 2
1. Role of education in the community ...................................................... 2
2. Education as an export industry ............................................................ 2
3. Keihanna as an international educational city ...................................... 3
4. Research Objectives and Reports ........................................................ 3

Chapter 1 New Trends in Transnational Higher Education ....................... 5
1. Global trend in study abroad ................................... 6
2. Transnational Higher Education: "Study abroad without traveling abroad”

7

3. The second phase of transnational higher education in Japan ...... 9

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai - Are theyHouse of Cards? - .......................................................... 13
1. Introduction................................................. 14
2. Definition of International Branch Campuses and Key Question .... 14
3. Outline of the Higher Education System in the UAE and Dubai..... 15
4. Development of International Branch Campuses in Dubai ......... 16
5. Conclusion ................................................. 17

Chapter 3 Educational System in India ........................................ 21
1. Introduction................................................. 22
2 Educational System in India ................................... 22
3. Recent Reform Trends ....................................... 25
4. Conclusion ................................................. 25

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia ................................... 29
1. Introduction................................................. 30
2. Basic information ............................................ 30
3. Outline of Education ......................................... 33
4. International Education Cooperation with Indonesia .............. 38
5. Conclusion ................................................. 39

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the
Republic of Korea .......................................................... 43
1. Introduction................................................. 44
2. Education in South Korea .................................... 44
3. Policies to attract foreign education institutions .................. 46
4. Establishment and Operation of Foreign Educational Institutions ... 48
5. Conclusion ................................................. 51

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at Upper Secondary
Education Level in Taiwan ................................................... 53
1. Introduction................................................. 54
2. Taiwan’s educational system and the dissemination of education at each level55

3. Number of Students at Each Level in Taiwan and Students who Study Overseas 56
4. Institutional framework for the establishment of offshore schools ... 58
5. Case Studies ............................................... 59
6.Conclusion .................................................. 60

Study Group Meetings ....................................................................................................... 62
Members of the study group .............................................................................................. 63
International Institute for Advance Studies (IIAS) .............................................................. 64

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.

Summary

Introduction (from page 1)
Shigeru Takami
This chapter introduces the idea underlying the theme of "Creating a Hub for Import / Export of the Educational System :Exploring the Possibility of Keihanna, an International Educational City" from the 3 viewpoints of the role of education in
the community, education as an export industry, and Keihanna as an educational industry hub. The purpose of this study
and the outline of the report are described as follows.

Chapter 1 New Trends in Transnational Higher Education (from page 5)
Hitoshi Sugimoto
In recent years, the international expansion of higher education institutions around the world has been remarkable,
mainly in Europe and North America. In addition to accepting students from foreign countries, the institutions also acquire
students by establishing branch campuses and cooperating with partner institutions in host countries. In thesearrangements called transnational higher education, many students nowadays are taking courses abroad without travelingabroad. While countries where the providing universities are located can expect additional revenue by the education service
export, host countries, where branch campuses or affiliated schools are located, can attract world-class universities atrelatively low cost. Japan has lagged behind in this trend of transnational higher education. Although some pioneering
projects exist, they depend heavily on Japanese government subsidies. Since 2004, however, several Japanese
universities have taken on new challenges to achieve commercially profitable international expansion, and are entering
the second phase of Japan's transnational higher education.

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai - Are they House of Cards?
(from page 13)
Yusuke Nakajima
In the Emirate of Dubai, located in the United Arab Emirates, branch campuses of 25 foreign universities(International
Branch Campuses; IBCs) are deployed as of 2019. These were considered to have developed under the market
principle in the free zone where economic regulations were relaxed, and therefore, there were many discussions thatshowed concerns about the substantial education, research environment, and continuity. However, since the latter half ofthe 2000s, the system related to the administrative operation of IBCs and quality assurance has been improved, and the
movement to establish or reorganize IBCs has now settled. As a result, the focus of related research is on "understanding
individual phenomena related to IBCs " Of course, from the point of view of the main campuses and the home country,
maintaining the equality and prestige between the main campuses and the branch campuses is still an important issue.
However, from the point of view of the host country, it is also important to deepen the understanding of the IBCs in line with
the individual actors surrounding them, in that "how IBCs are integrated into its own society and system" is also important.

Chapter 3 Educational System in India (from page 21)
Masayuki Watanabe
The purpose of this paper is to outline the educational system in India. India, with a population of more than
1,300,000,000, has been experiencing remarkable economic growth in recent years, and the quantitative expansion of
education, particularly in the compulsory education stage, is progressing. India, on the other hand, has a federal system,and each state is in principle responsible for education. However, one of the characteristics there is that the central
government is also taking various measures, such as the promulgation of the National Curriculum Framework. As of May
2020, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, India is aiming at establishing "National Education Policy(Draft) for 2019.” It is expected to be the first major educational reform in about 30 years.

iChapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia (from page 29)
Kentaro Shimada
The purpose of this paper is to outline the educational system in Indonesia. One of the characteristics of the educational
system in Indonesia, which is geographically and culturally diverse, is that general schools coexist with Islamic schools.
Religious education is systematically incorporated, and an emphasis is placed on citizenship and character formation.
Educational reform in recent years aims to ensure fairness as well as quality. Indonesia is in particular in need of assistancein the area of higher education and human resource development in the industry, as democratization was promoted in theearly twenty first century and economic growth is expected. Indonesia is Japan's largest recipient of assistance, and has
continuously received assistance in various fields from basic education to higher education. Indonesia has been actively
accepting Japan’s “lesson study." In recent years, private companies have accelerated their expansion in educational
exchanges and in the education industry.

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of Foreign Educational Institutions in Korea (frompage 43)
Jeon Kyounghwa
This report introduces the establishment and operation of "foreign educational institutions" in South Korea as an exampleof the acceptance of foreign educational services. First, I outlined their school education and educational administration inorder to understand education in Korea. Next, I summarize the policy on the attraction of "foreign educational institutions"which is being promoted with the aim of strengthening the global competitiveness as a market in the education industry
and improving balance in the education service. Next, based on the situation in attracting "foreign educational institutions",
I grasped the details of the establishment and management in two case schools. Finally, as characteristics of the cases in
the Republic of Korea, I mentioned that a policy of accepting educational services was implemented accompanying
economic policy, and that the host country provided generous support in creating a hub.

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at Upper Secondary Education Levelin Taiwan (from page 53)
Yu-Ching Liao
The purpose of this report is to consider the possibility of establishing offshore schools at upper secondary school levelin Taiwan. In this report, I will do an analysis, in particular, with a view to expanding Japanese education in Taiwan. As aresult of the analysis, it is clarified that three issues must be reexamined in order to provide Japanese-style education in
Taiwan and to establish offshore schools at upper secondary school level: reconfirmation of acceptance of education in
Japan, uniqueness of the programs provided under Japanese-style education, and establishment of a qualification
framework from Japan side. On the whole, there is a need for Japanese-style education in Taiwan, but it remains on asmall scale. Therefore, it is necessary to rethink the conditions necessary to provide Japanese-style education, theelaboration of principles, and the establishment of institutional framework.

iiIntroduction
Shigeru Takamii

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.

Vice Director of International Institute for Advanced Studies, President of Kyoto Koka Women's University, Specially Appointed Professorof Center for the Promotion of Interdisciplinary Education and Research,Kyoto Universityi

1Introduction

Introduction
This chapter introduces the concept underlying thetheme of “Creating a Hub for Import / Export of the
Educational System: Exploring the Possibility of
Keihanna, an International Educational City” and outlines
the objectives of this study and this report.

The contribution of the primary income balance is large
in maintaining the surplus after 2011. This period can be
regarded as a period of structural change in Japan's
current account balance, from the stage where both thetrade balance and the primary income balance were in
the black to the stage where trade balance in the red andthe primary income balance in the black. Japan, like theUnited Kingdom in the past, may be approaching the age
where it lives on investment and its dividends to the world.
It is important for Japan to maintain its current accountsurplus over the long term for its fiscal soundness.
Therefore, I would like to pay attention to the service
balance, which has remained in deficit. This is because
the service balance can be a stabilizer for thecontinuation of the current account surplus.

1. Role of education in the community
There are various roles in education, but the primary
one is human resource development. It is an importantrole of education to develop human resources who
support local industries or the whole country.
From the point of view of locality, the activities by
students and teachers in local areas lead to themaintenance of population. In other words, education
plays a second role in preventing depopulation in local
areas.
As a third role, there is a view that education isregarded as an industry. By gathering people from home
and abroad to live, consumption in room and board,meals, and shopping, etc. is promoted, and the local
economy is revitalized. Education as an industry has
pluralistic meanings and is an important viewpoint inconsidering the possibility of education in regions.

2-2 Impact of Education on Services Balance
The service balance represents the balance ofexpenses related to transportation, travel, finance, use of
intellectual property rights, etc. In recent years, theservice balance deficit has been on the decline. One of
the main reasons for this is the increase in revenue dueto the increase in the number of foreign tourists. I can tellthe increase in foreign tourists when I see them in Kyoto
and Osaka when I commute to work.
How does this service balance relate to education? The
acceptance of international students is similar to theacceptance of foreign tourists. In other words, Japan
receives their tuition and living expenses. It may also help
revitalize local communities. They send back people withknowledge and experience. There are an exporting
country (Japan) and importing countries (countries oforigin of foreign students) through the service of
education. We can think of one trade model like that.
Furthermore, as an additional value that is different from
simply accepting foreign tourists, we cannot miss theadvantage of sending overseas personnel who haveaffinity for Japan as international students will be familiar
with Japanese-style education.
In recent years, the idea that education is the dominant
tool in service trade has been spreading. In particular, theUnited States, the United Kingdom, France, and Australia
are strategically trying to attract international students, as
the acceptance of the students contributes to the increaseof the service balance. Australia, in particular, is very
aggressive.
It
supports
international
students
enthusiastically until they get a job. The United States issaid to make an income comparable to that in ICT exportin the education industry. As a trend in recent years, it isremarkable in Asia, especially in Malaysia. Some countries
have implemented so-called intermediate trade including
exporting countries, transit countries, and importing
countries, in education and have gained benefits.

2. Education as an export industry
Considering the role of education especially as anexport industry, it has two meanings. One is to contributeto the continuing current account surplus, and the otheris to contribute to the development of human resourcesin developing countries through the export of Japanesestyle education systems.
2-1. Change in Japan's Current Account Balance
The current account balance, which is one of thestandards of each country's international balance of
payments, consists of the trade balance, the service
balance, the primary income balance, and the secondary
income balance. A country’s trade balance represents thevalue of its exports minus its imports, and service balance
represents its exports of services minus imports ofservices. A nation’s primary income balance represents
the revenues from external direct investment andsecurities investment, and its secondary income balance
represents assistance in kind such as pharmaceuticals
among official development assistance.
Japan's current account surplus decreased over the
next three years due to the large trade deficit in fiscal
2011. However, Japan’s current account balance has
been on the rise since December 2016. However, it isclear that the COVID-19 pandemic will have an impact
not only on Japan but also on the world after fiscal 2020.
The impact has already begun to be seen as of earlysummer 2020.

2

Introduction

2-3. Characteristics of Japanese-style education
systemHow is the education in Japan evaluated at home andabroad? To take an example, it is highly evaluated overall
in the interim report of the OECD Education Policy
Review, published in July 2017. According to a result ofinternational comparison based on the PISA2015 survey
and others, both students and adults achieved top-classperformances, and the quality and leadership of teaches
were highly evaluated. The fact that Japanese school
education takes a holistic approach in which not only
subjects but also a wide range of activities are involved isevaluated. In addition, parents' active cooperation andlocal learning support that enable such approach areappreciated.
Holistic education is considered as one of the factors
contributing to the success of education in Japan. The
concrete contents of that education are activities related
to school life, such as school lunch, cleaning, and day
duty, and so-called special education activities, such asclass meetings, athletic meets, club activities, disaster
drills, and student guidance. As a result, I believe that thiskind of holistic education, including extracurricular
education, has led to the spirit of respect for disciplineand courtesy and the realization of ethical and moral
education.

institutes are concentrated, and Kyoto and Nara, where
Japanese history, traditions and culture take root, havethe potential and advantage of being an educational
industrial hub. In other words, special education activities
in which developing countries have a lot of interest are
inseparable from Japanese history, tradition and culture.
Therefore, it is desirable to create a hub in the Keihanna
Science City area with such necessary conditions, toaccept teachers from developing countries for training
and to develop Japanese-style educational systems
abroad. It is also conceivable that this area could becomea transit trade base for European and American
universities in East Asia.
4. Research Objectives and Reports
This study group has set research objectives: exploring
the possibility of "Keihanna as an international
educational city" and conducting activities toward thecreation of an export/import base of education systemcentered on the Keihanna Science City area. Specifically,
we have conducted our research focusing on thefollowing three points.
Firstly, we will discuss a survey of global trends inoffshore schools and conditions for overseas expansionof Japanese-style education. Secondly, we will consider
the concept of the establishment of a training center in
Keihanna Science City area for teachers of Japanesestyle education for developing countries and promotion of
the research on the conditions for its realization. Thirdly,
we will examine how the creation of such educational
export hub could be related to the enhancement anddeepening of lifelong learning opportunities for residents
living in the university town area. In particular, in theurban space where advanced science and cultural capitalsuch as history, tradition, and culture intersect, we would
like to explore the potential impact of spirit or ethical andmoral education that values discipline and etiquette,
which is often forgotten while being evaluated by othercountries, on local residents.
Based on these research activities, the reports werecompiled.

2-4 Demand for Japanese-style education fromdeveloping countries
In developing countries, interest in Japanese-styleeducation is increasing because there is no such
extracurricular education curriculum. For countries where
the political situation is highly unstable and countries
aiming for technological development, Japan-style
discipline, cooperation, courtesy, diligence, ethics andmorals seem to be attractive, and how to cultivate themis a challenge. In addition, the morality and attitude ofJapanese people to maintain discipline in times ofdisaster and the accuracy of social systems such astransportation are considered to be based on Japanese
education. The demand for Japanese-style education
systems in developing countries is gradually increasing.
However, the current situation in developing countries
is that it is difficult to realize Japanese-style education.
This is because teachers in the field lack in interest andthey are not trained for extracurricular education inteacher training courses.

Chapter 1 is Mr. Sugimoto's report on new trends inimport/export of education In recent years, there havebeen various types of study abroad. Transnational
education, in which students receive education of foreigncountries and degrees in their home countries or third
countries, has developed. Sugimoto reports on its
substance and its impact on education, economy, andsociety.
Chapter 2 is Mr. Nakajima’s report on international
branches in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Three
countries in the UAE have branch campuses of foreign

3. Keihanna as an international educational city
It is a global trend to place importance on therelationship between education and local communities.
Places such as Keihanna Science City area, whereprominent institutions of higher education and research3Introduction

universities. Dubai in particular has a large number ofbranch campuses. The role of the free zone, attempts toensure the quality of education, and the impact on theeconomy and society, which are considered to be major
factors for that, are explained from the viewpoints of bothproviding and recipient countries.
Chapter 3 is Mr. Watanabe's report on compulsory
education in India. India has a federal system, and eachstate is responsible for education in principle. However,the form of school management and curriculum arediverse. On the other hand, India's education system issaid to have consideration for the socially vulnerable.
Chapter 4 is a report by Mr. Shimada on the education
system in Indonesia. This geographically and culturally
diverse country has established an educational systemthat emphasizes citizenhood and character formation.
The chapter reports that there is a demand for Japanesestyle education due to the deep involvement of Japanesecompanies and great interest in the education systemand teachers' pedagogical ability in Japan.
Chapter 5 is a report by Ms. Jeon on the establishment
and operation of foreign educational institutions in Korea
Following an overview of South Korea's education

system and administration, this chapter introduces
examples of U.S. branch schools, and describes thefeature of South Korea's case and the future direction of
attracting foreign educational institutions.
Chapter 6 is Ms. Liao's analysis of the possibility of
establishing offshore schools in Taiwan. Taiwan andJapan are close to each other both physically andculturally. Therefore, in order to find the demand forJapanese-style education in Taiwan, this chapter
considers necessity to consider the characteristics ofJapan and establish unique programs and qualification
frameworks that attract foreign students.
From these reports, the following issues andperspectives on the import and export of the education
system can be seen: the countries and people concerned
gain tangible and intangible benefits; people understanddifferences in religious and cultural backgrounds andestablish an education system; emphasis on the qualityof education to be sustainable; a multilateral qualification
framework to be the key; the use of districts where theeconomic framework is relaxed ; and the assessment of
actual demand.

4

Chapter 1 New Trends in Transnational Higher Education
Hitoshi Sugimotoii[Summary]
In recent years, the international expansion of higher education institutions around the world has been remarkable,
mainly in Europe and North America. In addition to accepting students from foreign countries, the institutions also acquire
students by establishing branch campuses and cooperating with partner institutions in host countries. In thesearrangements called transnational higher education, many students nowadays are taking courses abroad without
traveling abroad. While countries where the providing universities are located can expect additional revenue by theeducation service export, host countries, where branch campuses or affiliated schools are located, can attract worldclass universities at relatively low cost. Japan has lagged behind in this trend of transnational higher education. Althoughsome pioneering projects exist, they depend heavily on Japanese government subsidies. Since 2004, however, several
Japanese universities have taken on new challenges to achieve commercially profitable international expansion, andare entering the second phase of Japan's transnational higher education.

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.

Professor, Graduate School of Education, Kyoto Universityii

5

Chapter 1 New Developments in Transnational Higher Education

1. Global trend in study abroad
The demand for higher education is increasing
worldwide, and there are not so many countries that canmeet all the academic demand of local students. This
imbalance between supply and demand is a fundamental
cause of the flow of international higher education
students, that is, study abroad. The acceptance anddispatch of international students is regarded as the mostimportant key to the development of global humanresources in the knowledge society in many countries.
According to the UNESCO Education Statistics (UIS2019), the number of students studying abroad has
increased from 4,000,000 in 2011 to 5,300,000 in 2017.
It is projected that the number will have doubled to
7,200,000 in 2025. The United States is the largest hostcountry for international students and has accepted
985000 students. In recent years, the acceptance ofinternational students has been increasing rapidly inAustralia, Russia and China. Japan has accepted
164,000 international students, the ninth largest in theworld, and accounts for about 3% of the world's share. 1)
Looking at dispatch of international students, 52% of
the total are from Asia. Apart from Japan, which is in thesame Asian region, 86% of international students inAustralia, 75% of international students in the UnitedStates, and 68% of international students in Russia arefrom Asia. It will not be realistic to design international
student policies without considering the Asian market. 2)
China is the largest source country of international
students, accounting for more than 10% of the world's
international students, followed by India and South Korea.
The number of international students sent from Japan
has been leveling off recently, and Japan has launched a
project to actively support them.
It is said that the benefits of accepting international
student include the establishment of personal academic
connections, the promotion of internationalization, andthe revitalization of the university research and education
culture. The economic benefits are one of the mostfrequently discussed points. Tuition fees and living
expenses paid by them are regarded as a national
income earned by the export of educational services. The
economic effect by international students is said to be 4.4
trillion yen (2019) in the United States and 2.6 trillion yen(2018) in the United Kingdom. In Australia, the 1.4 trillion
yen by the student acceptance is recognized as one of
the main sources of national income following the exportof iron ore and coal in the amount of trade export of thenation. 3) There is also a tendency that international
students from Asian countries use their study-abroad

Table 1-1 Acceptance of International Students by Higher Education Institutions in Major Countries (2019)
Host Countries All
for International regions
Students

Foreign central
Student Asia
Ratio %*

East Asia

South
and
West
Asia

Arab
Oceania North
Easterncountrie
America + EuropesWesternEuropeSS Africa
Latin
Americaand theCaribbean

1 United States
United2 Kingdom9848975.17

5340

463856 184481

88295

6634

81776

26284

78324

38184

435734

19.92

2867

164120

27668

31951

2636

130233

43241

10424

24923

3 Australia

381202

21.48

1054

218997

98534

8684

5272

17110

4029

13109

9126

4 Russia

2506584.26 139886

16240

7581

6996

11

1723

32080

1106

5592

5 Germany

258873

8.37

5658

42722

25595

19410

1106

58311

46685

12631

12027

6 France258380

10.2

2474

38271

5381

72496

662

43204

17637

16308

47623

7 China * *235718

0.36

124

49676

924

55

36

674

124

67

210

8 Canada

209979

12.92

900

82301

42113

12756

789

31566

4812

12582

17577

9 Japan

164338

4.27

2106

-

17630

1211

599

6767

1496

1263

1308

10 Turkey

108076

1.5

32375

3327

13675

29803

109

11451

8078

322

8995

267654108489668779 331144 441798

276585561383

209676137613

World total

5309240

Reference: UNESCO UIS Inbound International mobile Students by Regions of Origin 2019 (latest data in 2017), SS = SubSaharan ; * Ratio of international student population to higher education institution student population in destination
country;* * Statistics by region of origin in China show only values of Hong Kong and Macau with missing values of mainland

6

Chapter 1 New Developments in Transnational Higher Education

experience as a first step for future immigration to theirdestination countries. Some countries in North America
and Europe, which want to invite highly skilled humanresources, give preferential treatment to those who havestudied in their own country's higher education
institutions as a part of condition for immigration
permission.
From the perspective of the dispatching side,
European and North American universities are attractive
leading in world technology and science, and areacademically influential. Studying abroad is one of themost promising social activities to gain knowledge, skills
and technology, and to form personal connections withpeople sharing same time and place. In particular, fordeveloping countries where domestic higher education isunderdeveloped, foreign universities can complement
their own insufficient academic fields. The degrees andqualifications international students obtained there havegreat prestige and value in their own countries and areassumed to have a great impact on their success in life
after their return. However, the problem is the cost of
studying abroad, and the people who can raise money fortuition, living expenses, and travel expenses are limited
to the rich in society. In many cases, it is important toobtain scholarships. Although the scholarships of the hostcountry may help them, they are mostly limited to special
fields of study for strategic purposes. The scholarships ofthe dispatching government are also available, but inmany cases, restrictions are placed on the students who
studied abroad in getting employment after returning
home.
According to Kojien, studying abroad means "staying
in a foreign country and studying" 4). In a more practicalexpression, it means that learners take certain courses(mainly) at higher education institutions in a foreigncountry. Under the Japanese legal system, as provided inthe "Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act"and “Appendix 1-4”, study abroad is defined as “activities
to receive education at “Japanese universities, collegesof technology, high schools (including the upper divisionof 6year secondary schools), specialized training schools,
or institutions equivalent to these organization” 5). This is
the case for international students accepted by Japan.
When Japanese people go abroad to study, statistics aretaken in a more relaxed way by considering study abroadas "traveling abroad for the purpose of education forabout three months or more. 6)" This report also assumes
that educational institutions that constitutes study abroad
is higher education (generally post-secondary education)
institutions. However, the term "study abroad" is also
used for different level, such as "studying abroad in highschools" and “studying abroad in compulsory education".
The category of "foreign/international students" is inmany countries a controlled residential status and may
have a privileged meaning among foreigners residing ina country. This status is mainly defined by the length,
level, and institution of study (completion of a course).
However, the criteria vary in each country.
Another issue concerning studying abroad is thequestion of what constitutes a “foreign country” and what
constitutes a “home country” for particular person. It is
obvious to anyone that students studying at a university
in their home country are not called "international
students." However, the countries that people generally
refer to as their home country include “country of birth”,“country of nationality”, and "country of permanent
residence”. All of them could be different countries. Asinternational mobility has increased, it is not unusual fora person to live in more than one country during his or her
life these days. The term "study abroad" tends to be
defined as studying at a university in a different country
from the last “country where a person plans to live
permanently."
2. Transnational Higher Education: "Study abroad
without traveling abroad”
This issue stems manly from the increased humanflows across borders and globalization of higher
education. Not only the presence of national borders ineducation are increasingly declining, but the national
attributes of universities are becoming less clear by theinternational expansion of them as one of the multinational industrial bodies. In a recent developing formof study abroad called transnational education, students
are not required to travel to the country where degree
awarding university is located, but are allowed to study inan affiliated institution located in another country. This is
the program called transnational education. According to
UNESCO (UNESCO 2001), transnational education isdefined as "Programs in which learners are located in the
country other than the one in which awarding institution
is based". 7)
Traditionally, study abroad was something as follows.
Students from Country A physically moved to Country B,
lived there, and acquired academic qualifications andskills by attending a university. Transnational program
was developed based on the idea that if the purpose of
study abroad is only to obtain a degree or qualification,
there may be a more convenient way without students
staying in a distant country for a long time.
For example, a foreign university may establish abranch campus in a country where higher education has
not sufficiently been developed. Instead of students
travelling to a foreign country, educational institutions
themselves come to the host country. The host country
can save the time and cost of starting a university from7

Chapter 1 New Developments in Transnational Higher Education

the beginning and developing it into an independent
degree-granting university. Or if local institution
establishes the partnership with foreign world classuniversity, local students may earn a prestigious degree
or qualification without travelling to a foreign country.
Some foreign universities have entered into partnershipwith educational institutions in the host country. It has
become possible for students to earn a degree or aqualification from a foreign university by attending thepartner institutions without travelling to a foreign country.
Furthermore, it became possible for students to takecourses and obtain degrees from foreign universities
using computer terminals all over the world as theuniversities began to distribute classes for their domestic
correspondence courses to foreign countries. This is truly"study abroad without travelling abroad." In other words,
the former study abroad means going abroad and thelatter means an activity to obtain a foreign degree. The
qualifications and degrees that can be obtained are‘supposed to be’ the same as or indistinguishable fromthose obtained by going to and taking courses at main
campuses.
There are three main forms of transnational higher
education. They are (1) an off-shore branch campus of aforeign university, (2) a course delivered at a partner
college affiliated with a foreign degree awarding
university, and (3) a course of cross-border distanceeducation through e-learning. educational institutions
actually exist. The providers of these degree courses(degree-granting institutions) concentrate in Europe andNorth America, especially in the United States, United
Kingdom, and Australia. On the other hand, the persons

taking these courses are students predominantly in Asian
countries. It can be said that Asia is the primary place
where those students and educational institutions
actually exist.
According to OBHE (2006), the overseas branch
campus (1) is defined as campus which (degree
awarding) foreign institutions (partly) own in the hostcountry outside the country main campus located. (2) It
has same education mode as the main campus. Mostof the classes are taught on site by qualified teachers. (3)Students may be the residents of host country or citizensof other country.8)[1}[2]{3][4} Furthermore, McBurnie andZiguras (2007) added the requirement that face-to-faceclasses are held at a branch campus, and that local
students can receive the same support services asoffered at the main campus. 9) First of all, the advantage
of studying at an overseas branch campus for local
students is educational cost saving. Overseas branch
campuses are located in local students’ home country or,
in many cases, in non-Western countries. Unlike
traditional study abroad where students study at auniversity in a foreign country across the miles, they cansave travel expenses. In addition, living expenses areless in many cases. The second advantage is thatstudents can take courses in a living environment that isclose to the cultural environment in which they were bornand raised. This may reduce students’ stress. Thirdly, theadmission quotas are increased separately from the onesat the main campus. So, the possibility of enrollment islarger than in the case of universities without branch
campuses. Fourthly, if the degree or qualification to be
granted is recognized in the country where the main
campus is located, in the host country, or in the countryof origin of the students, the possibility of getting

Figure 1-1: Number of Branch Campuses of Foreign Universities by Region (Sugimoto 2017)

8

Chapter 1 New Developments in Transnational Higher Education

employment of graduates could have been enhanced.
According to C-BERT (2017/19), the number of branch
campuses of foreign universities established around theworld was 162 in 2006, but it increased to 250 in 34
countries in 2019. 10) 81 branch campuses (32%) ofthem are branches of universities in the US, 40 (16%) are
branches of universities in UK, followed by 24 in France,
19 in Russia, and 15 in Australia. Looking at the locationsof branch campuses (host countries), 49 branches are in
the Middle East, 47 in Asia (excluding the Middle East),
and 48 in Europe. Expansion of branch campuses in the
Middle East is especially notable (Sugimoto 2017). By
country, 29 branch campuses are in the United ArabEmirates (UAE), 32 in China (mainland), 12 in Malaysia,
and 11 in Singapore and 11 in Qatar. 11)
There are no global statistics on transnational higher
education. For example, Australia accepted 347,000
international students in 2014. 260,000 of them wereregular international students, and the remaining 24.7%,
or 86,000 students, were transnational students who did
not actually study at universities in Australia. 12)
In the United Kingdom, 65.2% of the 135 institutions
including universities had transnational higher education
programs in 2008. The total number of the programs
reached 1,536. Programs were offered in Asia most,
43.6%, followed by Europe, 28.3%, the Middle East, 6.2%,
and Africa 3.8%. As for the partner institution, private
colleges accounted for 22.5%, public universities for
21.4%, public colleges for 10.7%, and private companies
for 9.7%. The number of private universities was small,
5.7% 13).
Malaysia and Japan were the pioneering countries in
the world to have been chosen as the host countries ofthis transnational higher education which had physicalcolleges and branch campuses in the 1980s and 1990s.
However, the fate of Malaysia and Japan was very
different after that. Five foreign university branch
campuses have been developed and partnershipprograms with many colleges have generally beensuccessful in Malaysia. In contrast to that, many branch
campuses of universities, mainly from the United States,
were established in the 1980s in Japan but many of them
have withdrawn without success.
As part of its global expansion, Monash University, apublic university in Australia established a branchCampus in Malaysia in 1998 (in cooperation of Sunway
College, Selangor). It was immediately after the Private
Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996 was enacted in
Malaysia to authorize the establishment of foreign
university branches.
Monash University Malaysia offers a bachelor's degree
in business, information technology, and engineering andscience which are high in demand in Malaysia. It has agood reputation as a private university in Malaysia,
having been accredited by both the Quality Assurance
Organization and Australian professional associations(accountants, engineers). Most of the more than 100

teaching staff have been employed in countries such as
Malaysia. Only a few are from Australia. The number ofstudents is less than 4000, and about 30% of them areinternational students from countries other than Malaysia.
Majority of the international students are from China andIndonesia. They are staying and taking courses in
Malaysia to obtain Australian degrees and qualifications.
With the success of the branch campus as a steppingstone, Monash University has established branch
campuses in South Africa, the UK and Italy since then.
14)
The transnational expansion of higher education fromJapan is lagging behind in the world. Although there havebeen some overseas branch campuses of Japanese
universities, they are established and operated as places
for Japanese students to have overseas exposure.
Therefore, it does not fall into the categories oftransnational higher education institutions that accept
non-Japanese students. The demand for education in
Japanese outside Japan was not highly profitable.
Making arrangement was difficult to dispatch teaching
staff to offer classes taught in English. In addition, there
were legal problems in granting the same degree as inJapan. At present, the opening of the Egypt-Japan
University of Science and Technology (E-JUST) 15) in
Alexandria, Egypt in 2010, and the opening of the
Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology(MJIIT) 16) in Johor Bahru, Malaysia in 2011 are rareexamples. The establishment of two institutions are notunder contracts by Japanese individual universities but
by body of Japanese University Consortium. At present,
the overseas institutions of Japanese universities arerather identified as overseas bases to send students toJapan or to provide prior Japanese language education.
We can hardly deem them independent branch
campuses like those of Western universities. The
success or failure of transnational higher education by
Japanese universities in the future will depend on if they
can clearly define a model of Japanese-style scienceeducation and if they can export it to foreign countries
with a high level of quality.
3. The second phase of transnational higher
education in Japan
In response to this situation, the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) revised
the criteria for the establishment of universities in 2004.
The Ministry established a provision allowing Japanese
universities to establish "faculties, departments and otherorganizations" in foreign countries, and started to
examine the possibility of the transnational developmentof Japanese higher education institutions. In other words,
the Ministry provides administrative support for the
possibility that universities in Japan could expand
overseas branch campuses in a profitable manner not
depending on the Government subsidy.
According to the Chapter 2 of the Report of the Central

9Chapter 1 New Developments in Transnational Higher Education

Council for Education, "The Future Vision of JapaneseHigher Education," 17) (January 28, 2005) 18), “Not only
English-speaking countries but also Germany, etc. havebegun to actively establish their local branch campusesin East Asia and Southeast Asia so that local students canobtain their degrees from institutions in offering countries
by studying only at branch campuses in their homecountry. Asian countries such as China, South Korea,
Malaysia, and Singapore have also responded positively
to such international trends, and have begun to
implement measures to attract or cooperate withexcellent higher education institutions in foreign countries.
This seems to be aimed at coping with the rapid increasein the number of students going on to higher education
institutions and becoming a hub for education in theirneighboring countries. In Japan as well, there are plans
to confer degrees from foreign universities in Japan anddegree from Japanese universities abroad bycollaboration between foreign and Japanese institutionsof higher education.”“Amid continuing decline in the college-age
population, each higher education institution needs tofurther clarify its distinctive identity, characteristics, andmanagement strategy regarding human resource
development and academic research activities, in aninternational and competitive environment." "Whenincreasing the opportunities to confer degrees throughthe provision of cross-border university education, it isnecessary to pay sufficient attention to ensuring theinternational recognition of degrees from universities inJapan. In addition, it is an urgent need to establish aninternational information network on the quality
assurance of universities so that students can assess thevalue and benefit of programs, courses or degrees ofJapanese universities. Japan should actively participate
in and contribute to such international discussion. ""In order for Japanese universities to attract excellent
international students and researchers from around theworld, we need to keep in mind that it is important not only
to attain high level of quality of education and research,
but to promote a function of international contribution by
accepting students and researchers across borders. In
particular, in the field of academic research, how to build
partnerships within the Asian region is a major issue forhigher education in Japan.” All the above is mentioned in
the report.
In response to the revision of the university
establishment standards mentioned above, Japanese
universities are also trying to establish their branch
campuses overseas to expand their educational services.
These cases go beyond the phase of Japan's
international cooperation in higher education to date.
They expect the possibility of yielding profits such as
tuition on a commercial basis by establishing branch
campuses of Japanese higher education institutions or
joint degree programs in response to local educational

needs. These cases are regarded as the second phaseof Japan's transnational higher education.
Such pioneering examples include a branch campusthat University of Tsukuba is planning to establish in
Malaysia, Chiba Mahidol Collaboration Branch, which
Chiba University is planning to establish in Thailand, andDalian University of Technology-Ritsumeikan University(DUT-RU) International School of Information Scienceand Engineering, which Ritsumeikan University jointly
manage with Dalian University of Technology in Dalian,
China.
(1) University of Tsukuba Malaysia Branch Campus
As mentioned above, the University of Tsukuba
participated in a consortium with 24 universities for
Malaysia-Japan Institute of Technology (MJIIT) in
Malaysia, which was founded in 2011. Plans areunderway to develop this and create a branch campus of
the University of Tsukuba as a Japanese model ofuniversity education in Malaysia. When Malaysia's former
Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad visited Japan in 2018,
he hoped the establishment of a branch campus ofJapanese universities in Malaysia at the meeting with
Prime Minister Abe, which led to the start of the project.
At that time, Mahathir said “In Malaysia costs associatedto university operations are low, and international
students from outside Malaysia can also be attracted.” Dr.
Mahathir served as the fourth Prime Minister of Malaysia
for 22 years from 1981 and initiated the Look East policy
to promote exchange with Japan. In 2018, after he retired,
he returned to the position of the seventh Prime Ministerof Malaysia at the age of 92 and tried to revived his
external policy. 19)
Several Japanese universities responded to this offer,
but the University of Tsukuba, which was the mostpositive among them, came to start registering its branch
campus in Malaysia in 2020. The Look East policy since
1980s has enabled more than 16,000 Malaysian students
to study at universities in Japan on the government
scholarships. However, due to the high cost and linguistic
environment at universities in Japan, the number ofstudents studying in Japan at their own expense haveremained low. The new branch campus is expected tochange this trend and to be the driving force fortransferring science and technology and commercial
know-how in Japan to Malaysia. However, since Prime
Minister Mahathir resigned unexpectedly in February
2020, uncertainty has come about the future of the plan.
In addition, the establishment of a Malaysian branch
campus of Nippon Designers School is being considered
as a branch expansion by education institutions in Japan.
20)(2) Chiba Mahidol Collaboration Branch in Thailand
Thailand is an important part of the international
development of Japan’s higher education, and many
Japanese universities, including Tohoku University,

10Chapter 1 New Developments in Transnational Higher Education

Waseda University, and Kyoto University, haveestablished their offices in ASEAN center. The Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT) has been promoting “Study in Japan Global
Network Project (SJGNA)” since 2018. Regarding
Southeast Asia, the Ministry has been conducting study
in Japan fairs, academic seminars, and information
provision activities centering on the Consortium of Six
National Universities in Japan (Sixers) consisting of
Chiba University, Niigata University, Kanazawa University,
Okayama University, Nagasaki University, andKumamoto University. The goal is to promote theacceptance of international students from Southeast Asiaand increase the total number of international students inJapan by half by 2023. 21) In 2017, the Sixers opened its
office in Bangkok.
Among them, Chiba University established theInternational Exchange Center (IEC) at Mahidol
University (Mahidol University) in 2010, and signed anagreement for opening the Bangkok Campus of Chiba
University in 2017. 22) Since 2014, Chiba University has
been selected for the Top Global University Project (TypeB). As one of the performance indicators forinternationalization, the university plans to establish an
overseas branch campus as a step to realize a global
campus plan by 2023. By strengthening cooperation withMahidol University in Thailand, Chiba University will sendmore than 200 students a year to build strong cooperative
relationships and starting various cooperation toestablish the satellite campus. 23) When I visited theMahidol University in February 2019, there was an officewhere Japanese staff were stationed at the Mahidol
University. However, Chiba University had theuncertainties about the continuity after the end of the Top
Global University Project.

Dalian University of Technology by completing the
program for 2 years. It is a Dual Undergraduate Degree
Program (DUDP). 24)
Dalian University of Technology, which is under the
direct control of the Chinese Ministry of Education(equivalent to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology), has been selected for ”211
Project” in which the Chinese government plans todevelop 100 universities, and also for "985 Project" inwhich the Chinese government plans to develop flagshipresearch-type universities. DUT-RU is jointly run by
Dalian University of Technology and Ritsumeikan
University. Its main features are industry-university
cooperation and networking between Japan and China.
DUT-RU plans to form a consortium of cooperatingcompanies, organize an endowed chair, accept visiting
professors, establish scholarships, and provide
international internships. Most of the classes are
conducted in Japanese by the staff of College ofInformation Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan
University. Through international industry-academia
collaboration between Japanese and Chinese companies,
DUT-RU aims for their students’ employment in Japaneseand foreign companies. 25)
In light of the current state of global expansion anddevelopment of transnational higher education, Japan's
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology has been groping for and actively supporting
overseas expansion of higher education in a new form
since 2005. As mentioned above, this can be regarded as
the second phase of transnational higher education in
Japan. However, we cannot see the remarkable progress
when we have reached the immediate target year 2020.
The plans for branch campuses of the Tsukuba University
and Chiba University do not seem to go beyond the levelof the universities' strategic overseas offices, due topolitical instability in the host countries and the issue ofthe limited period of the project.
Ritsumeikan University’s School of Information
Science and Engineering is not a branch campus, but a
program-based cooperation. However, this is beside thedefinition of transnational higher education as somestudents are physically sent to Japan in the latter half
period of the program. In a sense, actual study abroad isincluded in a part of the program. Of course, if Japanese
universities can make a profit from the perspective ofinternational expansion, it would be a desirable result of
the "future vision of Japan's higher education," and it
does not necessarily need to be transnational. However,in this article, I would like to pay attention to the cases ofthe students who “will not study abroad,” in other words,
students who studied in the program but couldn’t remainin the group to go to Japan (couldn’t pass the selection
examination).
Transnational higher education is a new form ofinternational education that greatly changes the concept(3) Dalian University of Technology – Ritsumeikan
University International School of Information
Science and Engineering
Ritsumeikan University opened Dalian University ofTechnology-Ritsumeikan University International Schoolof Information Science and Engineering (DUT-RU) in
Dalian, China in 2013. China does not allow foreign
universities to establish their branch campuses
independently. In that case, China requires them to forma joint organization with Chinese institutions to run branch
campuses. DUT-RU International School of Information
Science and Engineering is an international IT
department jointly established by Faculty of Information
Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, andSchool of Software Technology, Dalian University ofTechnology in Dalian, Liaoning Province, China. DUT-RU
is a four-year university established on the campus of the
Dalian University of Technology Development District inDalian City. The admission quota is 210. 40 of them willenter the third year of Ritsumeikan University, and they
can obtain degrees from Ritsumeikan University and11

Chapter 1 New Developments in Transnational Higher Educationof study abroad. It is a system that brings great benefits
not only to program providers but also to the hostcountries and students (learners). However, it still isfacing issues. First of all, there is a risk that the quality
control that has been functioning in the traditional study
abroad, may not be maintained unconditionally in a totallydifferent educational environment. Secondly, as more
and more providers will offer the same degree,
qualification, or credit, hierarchies could be assembled
among them. There may be danger that the value of thedegree, qualification, or credit may decline if excessive
number of them granted off shore. Thirdly, if branch
campuses of famous foreign universities or partner
institutions’ degree courses are established in the hostcountry while its higher education is not yet sufficiently

competitive in the international market, weak domestic
educational institutions may lose a share of the market orvie with each other for students. Fourthly, the business,
educational, and cultural climates of higher education
developed in English-speaking Western countries arebrought into the higher education of host countries.
Therefore, those climates may not fit in and collide withthe host country's system, customs, ideology, and cultural
trends.
Even in the development of profitable transnational
higher education as a phase of higher education to be
explored in a new way in Japan, it still faces all of theabove four issues. In addition, in the case of Japan,
further challenges of questionable profitability and market
value of programs offered in Japanese are ahead.

[Note]
1) UIS, 2019, UNESCO Institution of Statistics, 2019, Inbound International mobile Students by Regions of Origin 2019
2) UIS statistics, 2019, (Education, Enrolment Ratio, Gross Enrolment Ratio, Tertiary by Level of Education (%)):(http://data.uis.unesco.org/)
3) NAFSA (National Association for Foreign Student Affairs), 2019, The United States of America: Benefits from International
Students; Higher Education Policy Institute, 2018,(https://www.bbc.com/news/education-42637971); Deloitte Access Economics, Australian Government 2016?, The Value ofInternational Education to Australia, converted at 74 yen to an Australian dollar,
https://internationaleducation.gov.au/research/research-papers/Documents/ValueInternationalEd.pdf
4) Kojien, sixth edition, Iwanami Shoten.
5) Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act, http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S26/S26SE319.html
6) Minutes of System and Education Subcommittee, International Student Working Group, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology
http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo4/019/gijiroku/08011108.htm
7) UNESCO and Council Europe, 2001, Code of Good Practice in the Provision of Transnational Education, Bucharest, UNESCOCEPES: http://www.cepes.ro/hed/recogn/groups/transnat/code.htm
8) Verbik and Merkley (2006) The International Branch Campus: Models and Trends, London, Observatory for Higher Education.
9) OBHE, 2006, The Observatory of Borderless Higher Education, http://www.obhe.ac.uk/; McBurnie, Grant and Ziguras,
Christopher, 2007, Transnational Education: Issues and trends in offshore higher education, pp.21-30, Routledge, London.
10) -BERT (Cross Border Education Research Team), 2017, 2019, http://cbert.org/
11) Hitoshi SUGIMOTO, Discussion "Transnational Higher Education and Concept of Study Abroad - Positioning in the Strategy for
Acquiring International Students", Web magazine “Ryugaku Koryu" June 2017, Vol. 75, p. 1-9, Japan Student Services
Organization (JASSO)
http://www.jasso.go.jp/ryugaku/related/kouryu/2017/icsFiles/afieldfile/2017/06/08/201706sugimotohitoshi.pd12) Larkins, Frank P. and Marshman, Ian, 2015+, Australian Universities Overseas Student Recruitment: Financing Strategies andOutcomes from 2004 to 2014, Australian Higher Education Policy Analysis, LH Martin Institute, p.17.
13) DUIS (Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills), 2008, Sheffield Hallam University. Trans national Education and Higher
Education Institutions: Exploring Patterns of HE Institutional Activity (DIUS Research Report 08 07). London.
14) Monash University Malaysia Website, https://www.monash.edu.my/15) Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST) Website, https://ejust.edu.eg/16) Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology (MJIIT) Website, https://mjiit.utm.my/jp/
17) https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo0/toushin/05013101.htm18) https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo0/toushin/attach/1335594.htm
19) Malaysia Kini 2019.5.15 https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/468077
20) New Strait Times 2018.12.3 Malaysia to have first ever overseas branch campus of Japanese university,
https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/12/436764/malaysia-have-first-ever-overseas-branch-campus-japanese-university.
21) The Consortium of Six National Universities in Japan http://sixers.jp/22) JSPS (Japan Society for the Promotion of Science), 2017, https://jsps-th.org/jsps_en/japanese_univ/;
Chiba University Home Page, www.chiba-u.ac.jp/international/IEC/m/e/index.html
23) Chiba University; http://www.chiba-u.ac.jp/others/topics/img/2017/20170922bankok.pdf
24) Ritsumeikan University;http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/ise/feature/dalian/25) Ibid.

12

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai- Are they House of Cards? Yusuke Nakajimaiii[Summary]In the Emirate of Dubai, located in the United Arab Emirates, branch campuses of 25 foreign universities(International
Branch Campuses; IBCs) are deployed as of 2019. These were considered to have developed under the market
principle in the free zone where economic regulations were relaxed, and therefore, there were many discussions thatshowed concerns about the substantial education, research environment, and continuity. However, since the latter halfof the 2000s, the system related to the administrative operation of IBCs and quality assurance has been improved, andthe movement to establish or reorganize IBCs has now settled. As a result, the focus of related research is on"understanding individual phenomena related to IBCs " Of course, from the point of view of the main campuses and thehome country, maintaining the equality and prestige between the main campuses and the branch campuses is still an
important issue. However, from the point of view of the host country, it is also important to deepen the understanding of
the IBCs in line with the individual actors surrounding them, in that "how IBCs are integrated into its own society andsystem" is also important.

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.

Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Osaka Ohtani Universityiii

13

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai

1. Introduction
The United Arab Emirates (hereinafter referred to as"the UAE") is located along the Arabian Gulf in the Middle
East region and is a federal state with Islam as its state
religion. It consists of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, where its
capital city of Abu Dhabi is located, the Emirate of Dubai
the Emirate of Sharjah, the Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah,
the Emirate of Umm al-Quwain , the Emirate of Ajman,
and the Emirate of Fujairah (hereinafter the term
"Emirate" is omitted). The UAE is also an oil-producing
country with abundant reserves of crude oil and othernatural resources, and 90% of its crude oil extraction
volume is mined in Abu Dhabi. The proceeds from theextraction are offered to the federal government and thendistributed to each emirate.
The UAE has such social characteristics as "Islam,""federal system," and "oil producing country." In addition
to these characteristics, the UAE has the characteristics
of a "nation where citizens are minority." Only about 10%of the total population of 9,630,000 (2018) is citizens in
the UAE. The percentage of foreign nationals is 19% forIndians, 11% for Pakistanis, and 7% for Filipinos indescending order, while the percentage of UAE nationals
is said to be 11% 1). Therefore, the official language of
the UAE is Arabic, but English is also widely spoken inthis society. The benefits from oil resources are returnedto the people in the form of high salaries for civil servantsand free education and medical care system. In addition,
the per capita gross national income (GNI) was US$74,410 (in 2017), maintaining the world's highest level.
As a means of economic development, Dubai, which is
the main target area of this report, has spent its income
from natural resources, which are mined only slightly, on
the development of infrastructure such as roads andairports. On the other hand, in order to get out of theresource-dependent economy from the early stage,
Dubai has developed special economic zones(hereinafter referred to as "free zones") in which businessregulations have been relaxed boldly in order to attract
foreign companies. Such free zones are established for awide range of fields, such as finance, medical and healthcare, semiconductors, the automobile industry, and the
media. Dubai Knowledge Park (hereinafter referred to as“DKP,” 2003~) and Dubai International Academic City
(hereinafter referred to as “DIAC,” 2008~) are free zones
established for education and human resource
development fields developed by educational institutions
and companies outside the UAE. In 2019, 25 branch
campuses of foreign universities and higher education
institutions (hereinafter referred to as "International
Branch Campuses; IBCs") were established mainly inthese free zones.
This figure shows that a large number of IBCs are

established in the limited areas of the free zones in Dubai.
These IBCs have been developed rapidly since the 2000s.
From the perspective of local communities, factors
contributing to this rapid quantitative expansion include,"high demand for economic and management programsand ICT programs as Dubai is the center of business inthe middle east-gulf area," and “there was demand fromforeign nationals who preferred to enter higher education
institutions in their own countries or western countries
rather than local higher education institutions." 2) On theother hand, from the perspective of IBCs , it is also
important that "infrastructure including buildings andfacilities is already developed in the free zones, and IBCs
can be run with less risk by using them" while meeting thedemand in the host country. 3)
In this way, the rapid quantitative expansion of IBCs in
Dubai has often been explained in terms of the so-calledmarket principle, which means that they have beendeveloped in response to social and economic demandin Dubai. Therefore, they could be in financial difficulties
and withdraw from their business if they are no longer
able to acquire students. They could also provide
education that is different from one offered at the main
campus prioritizing efficiency even though they promise
to "provide the same education and degree as those
granted at the main campus.” With respect to those, the"instability" of IBCs is often the focus of the problem. Dueto those potential problems, some people raise questions
like Smith (2009): "Will the academic activities in foreign
institutions in the UAE ‘sink in sand’?” 4) This study
pointed out that communication between the main andbranch campuses of foreign universities should be
deepened, academic activities should be carried out
based on the system of the main campuses, and local
context should be taken into consideration in order toprevent academic activities at IBCs from sinking in sand.
5)
It has been less than 20 years since foreign universities
have established their branch campuses in full swing in
Dubai. Is the development of IBCs regarded as an
unstable thing like “a house of cards"? The purpose ofthis paper is to review the moves since the 2000s,
focusing on institutional aspects, and to consider thedevelopment of IBCs in Dubai. For this purpose, Section
2 summarizes the general definition of IBCs and thequestions that can be raised about the development of
IBCs. Section 3 outlines the development of higher
education systems in UAE, mainly in Dubai, and Section
4 examines the development of IBCs in the free zone ofDubai and recent trends.
2. Definition of International Branch Campuses and14

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai

Key Question
The definition of a IBCs varies depending on the homecountry and host country for the branch campus, and also
on individual researchers and research institutions. For
example, Knight (2008), defines as follows. “A provider inCountry A establishes a branch campus in Country B andoffers courses and programs mainly to students in
Country B. (Omitted) Degrees, etc. are awarded by theprovider in Country A.” In addition, an “Independent
School" is defined separately from “branch campus” asfollows. Provider A in a foreign country establishes an
independent institution of higher education in country B
and offers courses and programs to award degrees, etc.
Generally, there is no educational institution that has thefunctions of the main campus in country A.” 6) However,
the relationship between the "independent school" andthe educational institution in home country is sometimes
not clear. Even though the branch campus and the
independent school are systematically separated in thehost country, they are sometimes lumped together as"international branch campuses" by researchers. For
these reasons, there are situations where it is difficult toclearly distinguish between branch campuses andindependent schools.
In addition to these definitions, C-BERT (2017), which
conducts a global survey on the status of thedevelopment of IBCs, defines IBCs as existence: (1) tobe owned, at least in part, by foreign higher education
providers; (2) to be operated in the name of foreign
educational providers; (3) to provide entire academic
programs; (4) to be actually located ; and (5) to lead todegrees awarded by foreign educational providers.
According to a survey conducted based on this definition,
there were 217 IBCs in the world as of 2017, with 49 in
the Middle East, 48 in Europe, and 47 in Asia (excluding
China), in descending order by region. 7)
Although there are attempts to grasp IBCs as
accurately as possible as just described, it is difficult tograsp the movement accurately because theestablishment, revision and abolition of IBCs happensvery quickly. In addition, the followings are issued to befocused on in the development of IBCs, based on priorresearch by Altbach (2010) 8) and Hanada (2013). 9)① How is the quality of IBCs assured? Does they
contribute to improving the quality of national higher
education?
② Are IBCs developed on market principles? Are they
focused on business, ICT, and other fields that are
directly linked to jobs?
③ How are instructors recruited? Isn't it difficult to hire
excellent instructors?
④ Can IBCs be operated within the cultural, social andpolitical context of the host country?

After all, isn't it difficult to develop IBCs in the longrun? Are they sustainable?
Although such questions can be raised, in reality, thestate of IBCs are diverse and complex. Even if their
quality is low, they are not necessarily closed immediately.
Even if they are IBCs of famous universities, their longterm development is not guaranteed either. Keeping in
mind the diversity and complexity of these IBCs, we will
have an overview of the development of higher education
systems in the free zones of the UAE and Dubai in thenext section.
⑤

3. Outline of the Higher Education System in the UAE
and Dubai
As mentioned above, the UAE is a federal state
consisting of seven emirates. However, the authority on
education and higher education is vested in the federal
government under Article 120 of the UAE Constitution,
which was promulgated in 1971. The competent ministry
is the UAE Ministry of Education. 10) The Federal
Department of Education is in charge of developing laws
for higher education. However, the Commission for
Academic Accreditation (CAA), which was established in
1999, approves the establishment of higher education
institutions throughout the UAE and accredits theirprograms (accreditation). In addition, the National
Qualifications Authority, which was established in 2011,
developed the Qualifications Framework Emirates, anational qualifications framework for higher educationand vocational education institutions throughout the UAE,
and clarified the qualities and abilities expected to beacquired for degrees and qualifications. Looking into thenumber of higher education institutions in the UAE, in
addition to three federal universities (UAE University,
Zayed University, and Higher Colleges of Technology),
74 public and private higher education institutions aredeveloped as of 2020 based on the institutionalfoundation. 11) The number of students in 2013 was
39,566 in Federal Universities and 73,515 in private andpublic higher education institutions. 12)
However, while the Federal Ministry of Education
retains the authority for higher education, why is it
possible to attract IBCs in the free zone in Dubai? The
reason for this is related to the Article 23 of the UAE
Constitution. It says that the natural resources and wealthof each emirate shall be regarded as the public goods ofthat emirate. Society is responsible for the protection andappropriate development of natural resources and wealthto benefit the national economy. 13) Each Emirate has
great authority for economic development in its territory,
and it is possible to establish its own free zone. As a result,the “free zone in the education sector" is an area where
the authority of each emirate to "develop free zones" and15

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai

the authority of the federal government to "manage
educational institutions" intersect. In practice, only
invitation of IBCs is regarded as “trade.” Each emirate
puts them under its’ own control by including them in theeconomic framework.
Under such framework, in the free zones in Dubai, theemirate has established its own system to regulate IBCs
and to make efforts for quality assurance. Dubai
Knowledge Village (hereinafter referred as “DKV”. It was
renamed DKP in 2016) was established as the first freeeducational zone in 2003. However, TECOM Investment,a government-affiliated company, has managed the freezone. While the emirate focused on business regulation,
it did not make efforts for systematic quality assurance. It
was also voluntary to receive accreditation by CAA. In
2006, the Knowledge and Human Development Authority(hereinafter referred to as "KHDA") was established as agovernment organization that has jurisdiction mainly overprivate educational institutions in Dubai, and legislation
for IBCs in the free zones was also introduced. In 2008,
KHDA established the University Quality Assurance
International Board (hereinafter referred to as "UQAIB")
as a third-party quality assurance organization for IBCs in
the free zones. Those IBCs are evaluated by either the
CAA or the UQAIB mentioned above, and are required toobtain permission to operate IBCs and to provide
programs. 14) As a result, the free zones in Dubai havea dual structure where the institutional framework of CAA(Federal), which derives from the authority of the higher
education sector, and the institutional framework of
UQAIB (Emirate), which derives from the authority of
economic development, overlap.
What are the advantages for foreign institutions,
including IBCs , in the free zones where regulations are
excluded from the federal government's framework? In
general, advantages of foreign institutions in the freezones are: (1) approval of 100% foreign investment; (2)no need for local sponsors; (3) no restrictions on capitaland profit repatriation; (4) exemption from corporate tax
and customs duties ; (5) long-term land use rights ; and(6) no restrictions on hiring foreign national labor. In
addition, foreign institutions are exempted from theapplication of Federal Companies Act, Federal Industrial
Act and Federal Labor Act. Outside the free zone, there
are restrictions on the business of foreign-affiliatedinstitutions, such as UAE local partners holding at least
51% of the share capital (foreign ownership of its shares
up to 49%), priority on employment of UAE citizens, andprohibition of foreign ownership of land. In the free zones,
IBCs can be operated in the environment where
regulations have been greatly relaxed. 15) In addition, in
the free zones in Dubai, (when following the regulatory
framework of the emirate) a definition of branch is "not alegal entity separated from the parent organization, but aplace to conduct business while legally relying on theparent organization, and conducts all or part of operations
specific to the mother organization. No capital is required.”16) It is regarded as a branch that is not independent fromthe main campus.
4. Development of International Branch Campuses in
Dubai
This section examines the social background of thedevelopment of IBCs in Dubai and overviews the recent
development. As mentioned above, the UAE has anextremely internationalized society with a large
population of the foreign nationals. IBCs have developed
in response to the needs of those students, and haveprovided programs mainly in fields such as business and
ICT that contribute to Dubai’s role as an economic hub.
However, other social factors that promote thedevelopment of IBCs include, for example, “preventing
brain drain." In the UAE, the higher education sector isstill developing, and there are a certain number of people
who are not satisfied with entering higher education
institutions in the country. Those students are studying at
institutions in the Western countries in search of higher
quality education, and the government provides
scholarships for citizens to study abroad. Therefore, theestablishment of IBCs was promoted as a means to keepthese students in the UAE. In addition, we cannot ignore
the fact that students avoid studying in Western countries
due to the impact caused by the September 11 attacks in
the United States in 2001 and the Iraq War in 2003. There
are many students who are Muslims in and outside theUAE. The Western governments have become
increasingly wary of Muslims since the incidents, and it
has become difficult for students in UAE to study inWesterncountries.
Dubai
has
createdtheinternationalized and modernized society while it isbroad-minded about Muslims. Under such circumstances,
IBCs are believed to have been in step with the students’
move to seek the degree and educational environment ofhigher education institutions in their home country andWestern countries.
Table 2-1 shows the development of IBCs in Dubai,
Abu Dhabi, and Ras al-Khaimah. As of 2019, there were
25 IBCs in Dubai, 6 in Abu Dhabi, and 3 in Ras alKhaimah. Dubai has the largest number of IBCs. These
IBCs are scattered not only in DKP and DIAC, which are
the free zones related to education, but also in other freezones such as Dubai Silicon Oasis and Dubai HealthCare City. As in Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah, which has 3
IBCs, also has developed free zones to attract IBCs. On
the other hand, Abu Dhabi has not developed such freezones, and IBCs are also developing in the same

16

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai

regulatory framework as for other higher education
institutions in the country.
Looking at the home countries of higher education
institutions which establish branch campuses abroad,many of them are English-speaking countries, such as
the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. In
Dubai, however, there are also many higher education
institutions from developing countries, such as India,
Pakistan, Iran, and Lebanon. Some IBCs were
established in the 1990s at the earliest, but most of themwere established from the first half to the latter half of the
2000s. There was a decrease in the number of newly
established IBCs in the 2010s.
Table 2-1 also shows some of the IBCs that havewithdrawn. The closed IBCs in Dubai were mainly (1) the
institutions that DKV recommended to withdraw due tothe quality of the IBCs before the establishment of UQAIB,(2) the institutions that withdrew due to the reorganizationof the main campuses, (3) the institutions whose
operation in the free zone was suspended as a result of
the evaluation of UQAIB, and (4) the institutions thatwithdrew due to the expiration of the cooperation contract
with the free zones. Among the IBCs classified into theabove (3), International College of Technology
Management and Mahatma Gandhi University, which arebranch campuses of institutions of higher education inIndia, have moved to the free zone in Ras al-Khaimah
which provides a more relaxed regulatory framework thanDubai. 17) Michigan State University Dubai Campus was
not able to attract students due to the impact caused by
the Dubai debt crisis. It continued to operate on a smallerscale, but eventually closed in 2019.
I would like to address the issue of diplomas arisingfrom the institutional frameworks of CAA and UQAIB, i.e.,federal and the emirate’s governments. Among the IBCs
listed on Table 2-1, only 5 IBCs in the free zones of Dubai,
including University of Wollongong Dubai and Rochester
Institute of Technology Dubai, are accredited by the CAA.
The rest of the IBCs are approved by UQAIB and
operated within the institutional framework of the emirate.
The system was established for IBCs to receive quality
assurance from either UQAIB (Dubai) or CAA (Federal).
However, the diploma, certificate, or degree were notconsidered equivalent. For example, students who
graduated from higher education institutions that are notaccredited by the CAA were not allowed to get
employment in the public or government sector at thefederal level. Even the private sector did not necessarily
recognize their diploma. In addition, CAA prohibited
students from entering or transferring from nonaccredited institution to an accredited institution. To
address these issues, the Dubai Executive Council
issued “Executive Council Resolution No. (21) of 2011
Concerning Higher Education Institutions Based in theFree Zones of the Emirate of Dubai.” The resolution
stated that academic qualifications granted by academic
institutions and certified by KHDA shall be recognized by
all public and private organizations in the Emirate ofDubai. As a result, KHDA acquired the function to certify
the degree and qualification of the students who
graduated from the IBCs approved by UQAIB, and thecertified degree and qualification became recognized in
the private and public sectors throughout Dubai. 18)
However, the institutional gap between the federal andthe emirate’s governments still exists.
Finally, I would like to mention the latest development.
In 2019, KHDA rated IBCs established in the free zones
in Dubai. The rating was done by KHDA in cooperation
with QS, a company known for world college anduniversity rankings. The IBCs were rated in 4 categories,
9 standards, and 44 perspectives. The IBCs are rated ona 1(lowest) to 5-star-plus (highest) scale. However, inorder to earn more than four stars, additional criteria must
be met.
In fact, there was no IBCs that achieved a 5-star-plus
rating. 5-stars were granted to three IBCs, Heriot-Watt
University, London Business School, and University ofManchester. 19) However, it should be noted that only 17
IBCs were subject to this rating, 20) and that IBCs
accredited by the CAA are not included.
5. Conclusion
This purpose of this paper is to review the trend sincethe 2000s, focusing on the institutional aspects, and to
consider the development of IBCs in Dubai. In the 2000s,
while the quantitative expansion of IBCs in Dubai
progressed, the system to support them was still being
developed. As a result, some researchers had at first asense of distrust towards IBCs this period. From theviewpoint of the main campuses and the home countries,
they were considered as “inferior to the main campuses"
and "something unknown." In fact, during this period,
some IBCs were closed as they could not attract students
or were considered to be of low quality.

17

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai

Table 2-1 International Branch Campuses in the United Arab Emirates (Chronological Order of
Establishment, Confirmed as of 2019)
Location

Year ofestablishment

1 University of Wollongong in Dubai

DKP

1993

Australia

2 Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani - Dubai Campus

DIAC

2000

India

3 SZABIST Dubai

DIAC

2003

Pakistan

4 Manipal University Dubai Campus

DKP

2003

India

5 International Technology Management Organization (closed)

(DKV)

2003

6 University of Southern Queensland (closed)

(DKV)

2004

2010

Australia

7 SP Jain School of Global Management, Dubai Campus

DIAC

2004

2005

India

8 The Islamic Azad University, UAE Branch

DKP

2004

Iran

9 University of Manchester Middle East Center (Manchester Business School)

DIAC

2005

United Kingdom

10 Middlesex University Dubai

DIAC

2005

United Kingdom

11 Heriot-Watt University Dubai

DIAC

2005

United Kingdom

12 Saint-Petersburg State Economic University, Dubai Branch

DKP

2005

Russia13 Royal College of Surgery in Ireland, Dubai

DHCC

2005

Ireland

14 SAE Dubai

DIAC

2005

Australia

15 London Business School Dubai

DIFC

2006

United Kingdom

16 University of Exeter Dubai

DKP

2006

United Kingdom

17 ESMOD Dubai

DIAC

2006

France18 The Institute of Management Technology Dubai

DIAC

2006

19 European University College Brussels-Dubai (closed)

(DKV)

2006

20 City University of London Dubai Center

DIFC

2007

21 Cambridge International College Dubai

DKP

2007

Australia

22 Murdoch University Dubai

DKP

2008

Australia

No.

Name of Branch Campus

Schoolclosing year

Providingcountry

United Kingdom

India
2010

Belgium
United Kingdom

23 Michigan State University Dubai Campus(closed)

DKP

2008

2019(?) United States

24 Hult International Business School

DIAC

2008

United States

25 Rochester Institute of Technology Dubai

DSO

2008

United States

26 Saint-Joseph University Dubai

DIAC

2008

Lebanon

27 University of Bolton Dental Education and Research Institute Dubai (closed)

DHCC

2008

28 University of Bradford Regional Hub Dubai

DKP

2009

29 Amity University Dubai

DIAC

2011

India

30 Synergy University Dubai

DMCC

2013

Russia31 University of Strathclyde Business School Abu Dhabi Center

Abu Dhabi

1995

United Kingdom

32 New York Institute of Technology Abu Dhabi

Abu Dhabi

2005

United States

33 Paris-Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi

Abu Dhabi

2006

France34 INSEAD Abu Dhabi Middle Eastern Campus

Abu Dhabi

2007

France35 Mohammed V University Agdal Abu Dhabi

Abu Dhabi

2009

Morocco36 New York Institute of Technology Abu Dhabi

Abu Dhabi

2010

37 Mahatma Gandhi University RAK Center (closed) moved from Dubai Ras Al Khaimah

2002

2014

38 George Mason University (closed)

Ras Al Khaimah

2006

2009

39 University of Bolton RAK Academic Center

Ras Al Khaimah

2008

40 Vatel International Business School RAK (closed)

Ras Al Khaimah

2009

N/A

France41 Bharati Vidyupeeth Deemed University RAK

Ras Al Khaimah

2009

N/A

India

42 Pune University RAK (closed)

Ras Al Khaimah

2009

2011

43 École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne Middle East

Ras Al Khaimah

2009

Switzerland

44 Madurai Kamaraj University RAK

Ras Al Khaimah

2010

India

2012

United States
United Kingdom

United States
India
United States
United Kingdom

India

Reference: Information about the International Branch Campuses in Dubai was compiled by the author by referring to various materials, mainly KHDA.
Study in Dubai International Campuses. 2013. DIFC stands for Dubai International Financial Center, DSO stands for Dubai Silicon Oasis,
DMCC stands for Multi Commodities Center, and DHCC stands for Dubai Healthcare City. About the information on international branch
campuses in Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi Education Council.' List of Higher Education Institutions in Abu Dhabi.’
http://www.adec.ac.ae/en/Students/Pages/List-of-Higher-Education-Institution.aspx.(acquired on October 4,2015) was revised partly.
Information about the international branch campuses in Ras al-Khaimah was compiled by author by referring to Lawton, W. andKatsomitros, A. International Branch Campus: Data and Developments. London: Observatory of Borderless Higher Education(OBHE),
2012. As a whole, C-BERT.' Branch Campus Listing (Updated January 20, 2017).' http://cbert.org/?page_id=34 (obtained on August 2,2018) was referred to. RAK stands for Ras Al Khaimah.

18

Chapter 2 Free Zone and International Branch Campuses in Dubai

On the other hand, in the middle of the 2010s, theestablishment of the system related to IBCs was almost
completed, and the quantitative expansion of IBCs alsoreached plateau. As a result, distrust toward IBCs seems
to be less than before. Of course, such deep-rooted
distrust toward the IBCs still exists, but on the other hand,some people regard them as “something that exists
there." The related researches on IBCs are focused on"trying to deepen understanding of individual phenomena
related to IBCs" rather than "pointing out doubts about
their continuity." In particular, after overcoming therecession caused by the Dubai debt crisis in the latter halfof the 2000s, the move to establish, revise, or abolish
IBCs has declined, and less people regard the IBCs as“houses of cards."
In fact, the meaning of IBCs from the viewpoint of thehome countries and from the viewpoint of the hostcountries may be different, and there is a "gap" in concern

regarding the IBCs. For example, from the point of viewof home countries of the IBCs and the providers such as
the main campuses, the focus seemed to be on how tomake the branch campuses "the same" as the main
campuses in terms of how to link the branch campuses
to their own interests (money, reputation, diplomacy, etc.)
and how to maintain “equal quality" and “goodreputation." On the other hand, from the perspective of
the host countries, how the IBCs contribute to theeconomic growth, labor market, human resource
development, and improvement of the education level in
their country will be issues and concerns. In some cases,
the equivalence of quality between the branch campuses
and the main campuses can be emphasized, and in othercases, it may not be emphasized that much. In practice,
it is necessary to focus on IBCs and to deepen
understanding in the context of the individual actors
surrounding them.

[Note]
1) Koji HORINUKI "National management and social transformation in UAE : "Formation and development of a nation where citizens
are minority" doctoral dissertation in 2011, the Graduate School of Asian and African Studies, Kyoto University
2) Hitoshi SUGIMOTO and Yusuke NAKAJIMA, "Development of transnational higher education - mainly in Middle Eastern countries","Publications of Kyoto University Graduate School of Education, No. 58, 2012, pp.6-8.
3) Yusuke Nakajima "Development of Transnational Higher Education in Dubai - Focusing on Attracting Higher Education Institutions toFree Zones -", Hitoshi Sugimoto, eds., "International Comparison of Transnational Higher Education - Changing the Concept ofStudying Abroad", Toshindo, 2014, pp. 291-292.
4) Smith, L. "Sinking in the Sand? Academic Work in an Offshore Campus of an Australian
University." Higher Education Research & Development. vol.28, no.5, 2009, pp.467-479.
5) Ibid., pp.476-478.
6) Knight, J. "What is the higher education offered across borders?" Edited and written by the OECD Center for Educational Researchand Innovation and the World Bank, "Transnational Higher Education Crossing Borders: Guidelines for the Internationalization andQuality Assurance of Education," translation supervisor Satomi SAITO, Akashi Shoten, 2008, p.34.
7) Cross-Border Education Research Team, obtained on July 5, http://cbert.org/ (obtained on July 5, 2019).
8) Altbach, P.G. "Why Branch Campus may be Unsustainable." International Higher Education.
The Boston College Center for International Higher Education, no.58, 2010, pp.2-3.
9) Hanada, S. "International Branch Campuses in the United Arab Emirates and Qatar", Comparative Education Research No. 47,
Japanese Comparative Education Society, 2013, pp.121-139.
10) UAE Ministry of Education was originally an independent ministry as the Ministry of Higher Education and Science, which wasestablished in 1992. However, it was integrated into the Ministry of Education due to the reorganization of the government organizationin 2016.
11) Commission for Academic Accreditation. “Active Institutions.” https://www.caa.ae/caa/Desktop
Modules/Institutions. aspx (obtained on April 11, 2020).
12) Yusuke Nakajima, "Research on the institutional characteristics of the higher education qualification framework in the United ArabEmirates", "Higher Education Quality Assurance Society", 2013.
13) The U.A.E Cabinet. Constitution of U.A.E. 1971.
14) Yusuke Nakajima “Quality Assurance for International Branch Campuses in Dubai Free Zone - The Development of a Dual Assurance
Approach-" Comparative Education Research No. 49, Japan Comparative Education Society, 2014, pp.176-177
15) ARC Country Study Group "ARC Report United Arab Emirates 2017/2018 Edition", 2017, pp.55-58.
16) Yusuke Nakajima "Governance of International Branch Campuses in the United Arab Emirates - Focusing on Diversification ofRegulatory Bodies and Management Structure of Branch Campuses -" "Publications of Kyoto University Graduate School of
Education" No.62, 2016, p.200.
17) Yusuke Nakajima, 2014, forecited, p.182.
18) Same as above, pp.187-188.
19) University Reform Support and Degree Granting Organization “UAE: The Dubai government announce a rating of higher education
institutions. 17 TNE institutions receive star-rating.” https://qaupdates.niad.ac.jp/2019/07/31/dubai-classification/ (obtained on April
13, 2020).
20) Knowledge and Human Development Authority. Higher Education Classification 2018/19. 2019, pp.14-19.

19

20

Chapter 3 Educational System in India
Masayuki Watanabeiv[Summary]
The purpose of this paper is to outline the educational system in India. India, with a population of more than
1,300,000,000, has been experiencing remarkable economic growth in recent years, and the quantitative expansion of
education, particularly in the compulsory education stage, is progressing. India, on the other hand, has a federal system,and each state is in principle responsible for education. Despite all of that, one of the characteristics there is that thecentral government is also taking various measures, such as the promulgation of the National Curriculum Framework.
As of May 2020, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, India is aiming at the establishment of "National
Education Policy (Draft) for 2019," which is expected to be the first major educational reform in about 30 years.

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.

iv

Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Welfare, Biwako-Gakuin University

21Chapter 3 Educational System in India

1. Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to outline the educational
system in India. This section summarizes basic
information on India.
According to the World Bank, India's population in 2018
was about 1,353,000,000, making it the world's second
largest superpower after China. 1) India is a country richin religious, linguistic, and ethnic diversity, and was born
as a federal state due to the need to unify the diversity
and transfer authority to each group. It now consists of 29
states and 7 federal territories. According to the 2011
census, Hindus accounted for 79.8% of all religions, while
Muslims accounted for 14.2%, Christians for 2.3%,
Sikhism for 1.7%, Buddhists for 0.7%, and Jains for 0.4%
2). The federal official language is Hindi (English istreated as an official second language), and there are 21
other state languages that are recognized constitutionally.
Since India became independent from the United
Kingdom in 1947, the Indian National Congress (INC), led
by the first Prime Minister Nehru, aimed to realize a fairsociety free from discrimination and inequality under ademocratic political system and a planned economic
system. On the political front, general elections were held
once every five years under the democracy based on theuniversal suffrage system, and the INC came to power
until the late 1980s. On the economic front, the first FiveYear Plan was launched in 1951. From the Second
Five-Year Plan (1956-61) in 1956, full-scale nationbuilding with heavy industry as a key industry began.
However, as the economy gradually began to stagnate,
confusion began to appear both politically andeconomically, as seen in the introduction of a market
economy in some areas from the 1980s, and the collapseof predominant-party system of the Indian National
Congress in 1989. The party had been in power until then.
Faced with a serious economic crisis in 1991, thegovernment
pushedforwardfull-scale
marketdevelopment through structural adjustment reforms. In
the seventeenth general election held in 2019, the"Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)" came into power with amajority (the current Prime Minister is Narendra Modi).
Table 3-1 shows the changes in India's overall GDP
since 1990. The GDP in 2000 is about 1.5 times larger
than in 1990, and the GDP in 2010 is about 3.6 times
larger than in 2000. This indicates that the change from2000 to 2010 was very large in India.
In this section, basic information on India is briefly
summarized. India has a population of more than
1,300,000,000 and is rich in religious, linguistic and ethnic
diversity. India has continued to enjoy remarkableeconomic growth especially by the introduction of fullscale marketing in the 1990s.

2 Educational System in India
This section outlines India's education system.
First, the school system in India is described. The
school levels in India are roughly divided into four:Primary School for grades 1 to 5; Upper Primary Schoolfor grades 6 to 8; Secondary School for grades 9 to 10;
and Senior Secondary School for grades 11 to 12.
Basically, India has a 5-3-2-2 education system (althoughsome states have a 4-3-3-2 system) (see Figure 3-1 at
the end of this chapter). Regarding compulsory education,
the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act (RTE2009) was enacted at the federal level in 2009
(enforced in 2010). Compulsory education, which had
been the responsibility of the state in principle, has been
actively pursued under cooperation between the federal
and state governments since then. The subjects ofcompulsory education are grades 1 to 8.
Next, the Gross Enrollment Raito, the number ofschools, and the number of students at each school level
in India are shown in Table 3-2. Table 3-3 shows the grossenrolment ratio from fiscal 2000 to 2015. In particular, thegross enrolment rate at the primary school level (grades
1 to 5) reached almost 100%, and the number of children
reached nearly 100,030,000 in fiscal 2015 to 2016. On
the other hand, the gross enrolment ratio declines as
students enter higher level schools, finally reaching 50%
in late secondary schools (grades 11 to 12) in recent
years. 3)
Behind this background, there is the fact thatsocioeconomic disparity still exists. In India in particular,
the socially vulnerable have been marginalized socially,
economically, and educationally during its long history. As
far as education is concerned, not only their low school
enrolment rate (see Table 3-4), but also poor academic
performance and high drop-out rate (Table 3-5) areproblems. It has been pointed out that the resulting
educational disparity has led to the reproduction of further
socioeconomic disparity.
Therefore, RTE2009 states that private schools will
accept (at least 25% of the quota) children of the sociallyvulnerable (including categories such as SC and ST) who
live in the neighborhood and provide compulsory
education free of charge until completion. Since thepublic sector alone cannot provide satisfactory
education with quality as well as quantity, opening
private schools to children of the socially vulnerable
is considered to be a very effective means to provide
them with better educational opportunities. 4)
There are four main types of school management:
Government, Local Bodies, Private Aided, and Private
Unaided (See Table 3-6).

22Chapter 3 Educational System in India

Table 3-1. Changes in GDP in India (1990, 2000, 2010, 2018)
In 1990
GDP ($1,000,000,000)

In 2000
317

462

In 2010
1,657

In 2018
2,719

Reference: Compiled by the author based on data from The World Bank.
(https://data.worldbank.org/country/india, last viewed on May 27, 2020)

Table 3-2. Gross enrolment ratio, number of schools, and number of students at each school level in India
School Level
Gross enrolment
Number of schools
Number of students
ratio (%)
(2015-2016(Unit:10,000) (In(2015-2016
Academic Year)2017)
Academic Year)
Primary School (Grade 1-5)
Upper Primary School (Grade 6-8)

99.2
92.8

840,546
429,624

12,994.2
7,207.1

Secondary school (grade 9-10)
Senior Secondary School(Grade 11-12)

80.0
56.2

139,539
112,637

4,851.2
4,371.3

Reference: Compiled by the author based on MHRD and EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE (2018).

Table 3-3 2000 - Gross Enrolment Ratio from FY 2000- 2001 to FY 2015-2016 (%)
2000 to 2001
2010-2011
Academic Year
Academic Year
Primary School (Grade 1-5)
95.7
115.5

2015-2016
Academic Year
99.2

Upper Primary School (Grade 6-8)
Secondary school (grade 9-10)

81.6
-

103.9
65.2

92.8
80.0

Senior Secondary School (Grade 1112)
Higher education

33.3

39.4

56.2

8.1

19.4

24.5

Reference: Compiled by the author based on MHRD and EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE (2018).

“Government" schools are the schools established andoperated by the federal or state government. “Local
Bodies” schools are the schools established andoperated by the local government level of India called
Panchayat (based on the village Panchayat which usuallyconsists of several villages). “Private Aided” schools are
the private schools that receive financial assistance fromthe (state) government. "Private Unaided" school are theprivate schools that are not basically funded by the (state)
government.
On the other hand, about the curriculum, the National
Council of Educational Research and Training, a federal
level council, establishes National Curriculum Framework(hereinafter referred to as “Curriculum Framework"),
which serves as a framework in designing actual
curriculums and creating textbooks. The council is trying
to unify education content to some extent (curriculums
may be established at the state level in accordance with
the Curriculum Framework). The curriculum framework
published in 2005 is the latest and continues to be used
as of May 2020.
In parallel with the establishment of each school, eachschool founder selects and affiliate with a board thatprovides the actual curriculum based on the curriculum
framework. Basically, schools established by the federal
government are affiliated with the Central Board of
Secondary Education (CBSE), and schools establishedby state governments (or subsidized) are affiliated withboards at each state level. Some private unaided schools
are affiliated with CBSE, state-level boards and theInternational Baccalaureate (IB) depending on their intent
of establishment. In India, passing an examination
conducted by each board at the end of Grade 12 qualifies
students for university entrance, and each board
mentioned above is the examination implementing body.
About the teacher training system in India, a central
organization called the National Council of Teacher
Educationhasestablishedminimumteacherqualifications. For example, in order to become a primaryschool (grades 1 to 5) teacher, it is necessary to complete
a 2-year diploma course (such as DIET at local
educational and training institutions) or to obtain a degreein education at a university after completing a seniorsecondary school. In addition, in order to become an
upper primary school (grades 6 to 8) teacher at it isnecessary to take a course similar to that for those who

23

Chapter 3 Educational System in India

Table 3-4. Enrolment ratio by category (%) in 2015-16
School Level
All

SC

ST

Primary School (Grade 1-5)
Upper Primary School (Grade 6-8)

99.2
92.8

110.9
102.4

106.7
96.7

Secondary school (grade 9-10)
Senior Secondary School(Grade 11-12)
Higher education

80.0
56.2

85.3
58.0

74.5
43.1

24.5

19.0

14.2

Reference: Drawn up by the author based on MHRD, EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE (2018).
SC stands for "Scheduled Caste" and ST stands for "Scheduled Tribe."

Table 3-5 Drop-Out Rate (%) by school level in 2014-2015 Academic Year
All
SC

ST

Primary School (Grade 1-5)
Upper Primary School (Grade 6-8)

4.13
4.03

4.46
5.51

6.93
8.59

Secondary school (grade 9-10)
Senior Secondary School(Grade 11-12)

17.06
-

19.36
3.22

24.68
-

Reference: Drawn up by the author based on MHRD, EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE (2018).

Table 3-6. School Management Type in Each School Level in India (%)
School Level/ Management Style
Government
Local Bodies
Private Aided

PrivateUnaidedPrimary School (Grade 1-5)
Upper Primary School(Grade 6-8)
Secondary school (grade 9-10)

55.5
55.9

29.6
14.6

3.0
9.5

8.2
16.9

33.1

0.9

25.8

40.3

Senior Secondary School(Grade 11-12)

32.7

7.9

21.8

37.6

Reference: Drawn up by the author based on MHRD, Statistics of School Education 2011-12（2014）

wish to become a primary school teacher, or to obtaina degree in humanities or science at a university, etc.,
and then take a teacher training program for 1 to 2 years
at an educational training institution or a faculty ofeducation at a university, etc. Therefore, in the case of
those who wish to become upper primary school teachers,
students enrolled in institutions other than the teacher
training ones cannot earn a teaching license by taking ateacher-training course at the same time unlike in Japan.
They are supposed to newly take a teacher-training
program again after graduating from a university, etc. In
recent years, in order to be employed as a teacher, it has
been required to pass the Teacher Eligibility Test.
The higher education system in India consists of not
only universities but also affiliated colleges. Basically, theuniversities are institutions that prepare curricula, give
exams, grant degrees, and conduct for themselves
education and research. The affiliated colleges, on theother hand, do not have the authority to prepare
curriculums, give examinations, and grant degrees.

Therefore, they mainly provide education according tocurriculums prepared by the universities, and students
take examinations of the universities and receive degrees
from the universities. About 90 percent of students areenrolled in the affiliated colleges that belong to state
universities. Therefore, the role of the states is also
important in higher education, but the federal government
also has a certain level of authority to establish andoperate national universities, coordinate overall higher
education, and set minimum standards. On the other
hand, the term of courses at the undergraduate level in
India is 3 years for general studies, but 4 years forengineering and 5 years for medical science. In terms ofhigher education from 2018 to 2019 academic year, GER
accounted for 26.3%, and the number of universities andaffiliated colleges reached 993 and 39,931, respectively,
and the number of students reached about 37,400,000.
5)
In this section, I have outlined the education system inIndia, especially schools, related statistical information,

24

Chapter 3 Educational System in India

curricula, teacher training, and higher education. India
has a population of more than 1,300,000,000. In recent
years, as the country continues to enjoy remarkableeconomic growth, quantitative expansion has been
progressing, mainly in the compulsory education stage.
On the other hand, since India has a federal system, eachstate is responsible for education in principle. However,
one of the characteristics of India is that the central
government is also taking various measures, such as thepromulgation of the curriculum framework.

aiming at expanding preschool education following
compulsory education. Regarding “school education," forexample, the goal is to fully spread primary education by2025, and to reorganize the existing 10 + 2 (8 years ofprimary education and 2 years of lower secondary
education, and 2 years of upper secondary education)
education system into 5 + 3 + 3 + 4 (5 years of foundation
stage including 3 years of pre-primary education and 2
years of primary education, 3 years of preparatory stage(upper primary education), 3 years of middle stage(higher primary education), and 4 years of secondary
stage (secondary education)). On the other hand,regarding "higher education," there are a number of plans
aimed at improving quantity and quality, such as theestablishment of 13 national universities and thereorganization of about 800 universities and about
40,000 affiliated colleges into 15,000 excellent
institutions.
Also, the National Curriculum Framework in 2005,
which was introduced in the previous section, isscheduled to be revised by April 2021, anticipating thepassage of the National Education Policy 2019 (Draft). 8)
As just described, India is now aiming to enact the"National Education Policy 2019 (Draft)," which isbelieved to greatly influence the future direction of
education in India.

3. Recent Reform Trends
Finally, this section summarizes recent educational
reform trends in India.
As of May 2020, India is seeking to implement a major
educational reform, the first in about 30 years. This is therevision of the "National Education Policy," whichindicates the national education policy.
Since India became independent in 1947, education
has been conducted in principle under the authority of thestate government under the federal system. On the other
hand, as one of the educational policies of the federal
government for the whole country, India has a policy
called the "National Education Policy 1986" (partiallyrevised in 1992). The contents of this educational policy
had not been changed for many years, but when the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) took power due to thechange of government in 2014, the "National Educational
Policy 1986" was renewed and the "National Educational
Policy 2016 (draft)" was announced as centerpiece of
educational reform. However, the government could notcoordinate views on the contents of the draft with state
governments and other interested parties. As a result, thedraft was not realized. However, when the BJP achieveda landslide victory in the 2019 general elections, the"National Education Policy 2019 (Draft) " was announced
again in June 2019. As of May 2020, the final coordination
is in progress toward the enactment. 6)
The National Educational Policy 2019 (Draft) consistsof 23 chapters, from Part 1 “School Education," including"Pre-School Education," Part 2 "Higher Education," Part
3 "Additional Areas of Primary Importance," including
vocational and adult education, and Part 4,"TransformationofEducation,"includingtheestablishment of the National Board of Education(Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog) to deliberate national
education. 7) First of all, "Pre-School Education" includes
the establishment of "a Curricular and Pedagogical
Framework for Early Childhood Education" and the
expansion of pre-school education. It also stated that “thethorough spreads of high-quality early childhood
education are probably the best investment for India'schildren and the country's future." The government is

4. Conclusion
In this paper, based on the basic information of India, theeducation system of India, especially schools, statisticalinformation and curriculum related to them, teacher
training, higher education, etc. were outlined, and finally,
recent reform trends were mentioned a little.
India has a population of more than 1,300,000,000 andhas been experiencing remarkable economic growth inrecent years. In terms of educational systems, for example,
gross enrolment ratio has reached almost 100% in primaryschool level (grades 1 to 5), but the has declined as
students move up to higher schools. In senior secondary
schools (grades 11 to 12), it has only recently reached 50%.
Preferential treatment is also given to the sociallyvulnerable to ensure quality as well as quantity. On theother hand, since India has a federal system, each state is
responsible for education in principle. However, one of thecharacteristics of India is that the central government isalso taking various measures, such as the promulgation of
the curriculum framework.
As of May 2020, under the leadership of Prime Minister
Narendra Modi, India is aiming at the establishment of"National Education Policy (Draft) for 2019," which is
expected to be the first major educational reform in about
30 years. Therefore, we will need to watch future
developments more closely.

25

Chapter 3 Educational System in India[Note]
1)
The World Bank, "India" (https://data.worldbank.org/country/india, last viewed on May 27, 2020)
2)
Ministry of Foreign Affairs “India Basic Data"(https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/india/data.html#section1, last viewed on May 27, 2020)3)
I will explain a little about Gujarat. Gujarat is a state in western India facing the Arabian Sea. The population is 60,383,000 (2011census), and the state capital is Gandhinagar. Ahmadabad is the state's largest city.
The language is Gujarati. Table 3-7 below compares the gross enrolment ratios in the nation and Gujarat between 2015 -2016
Academic Year.
Table 3 : Comparison of gross enrolment ratios (%) between the nation and Gujarat in 2015－2016 Academic Year
NationGujaratPrimary School (Grade 1-5)

99.2

97.24

Upper Primary School (Grade 6-8)

92.8

95.73

Secondary School (grade 9-10)

80.0

74.13

Senior Secondary School(Grade 11-12)
Higher Education

56.2

43.43

24.5

20.7

Reference: Drawn up by the author based on MHRD, EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE (2018).
4)

5)

6)

7)
8)

On the other hand, in India, under Article 46 of the Constitution, preferential treatment has been proactively given to sociallyvulnerable groups called Scheduled Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribe (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC). One of the best
examples of this is reservation system. In the system, priority in enrollment in educational institutions and hiring, etc. is given tocertain percentage of people in specific categories according to their population ratio (At federal level, 15% of SC, 7.5% of ST, 27%
of OBC. In addition, Persons with Disability (PWD) are also eligible for the system, and 3% reservation of each category will begiven to them.) The reservation system also applies to the employment quotas for teachers at government-subsidized higher
education institutions.
Ministry of Human and Resource Development, All India Survey on Higher Education 2018-19(https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/AISHE%20Final%20Report%202018-19.pdf, last viewed on
May 29, 2020)"PM Modi deliberates on national education policy, reforms in education sector", Hindustan Times(https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/pm-modi-deliberates-on-national-education-policy-reforms-in-education-sector/storySiWGhom9K3U4yTGycCraiJ. html, last viewed on May 29, 2020)
Ministry of Human and Resource Development, Draft National Education Policy 2019(https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/Draft_NEP_2019_EN_Revised.pdf, last viewed on May 30, 2020)"15 years on, schools to get new curriculum", The Times of India(https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/15-years-on-schools-to-get-new- curriculum/articleshowprint/75727846. cms, last viewed
5 / 29 / 2020)[Reference]
Naoyuki Ushio, "The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE2009) and Educational Opportunities for the Socially
Vulnerable", Journal of Contemporary India Studies: Hiroshima University, Vol. 2, 2012, pp.63-74.
Written and edited by: Fumiko Oshigawa and Kazuyo Minamide 『「学校化」に向かう南アジア』The South Asian Region Heading for'Showado, 2016
Yuki OHARA "Study of Indian Unauthorized Schools:' Shadow System' to Support Public Education", Toshindo, 2014.
Edited by Noboru Karashima and others, “[New Edition] Encyclopedia to learn about South Asia" Heibonsha, 2012.
Hiroshi Sasaki “Educational Inequities in India", Akashi Shoten, 2011.
Hideaki SHIBUYA, 「「インド式教育」で魅力を高める学校－インド」 Edited by Akira NINOMIYA, 『新版 世界の学校－教育制度から日常の学校風景まで』Gakuji Shuppan Co.LTD., 2014, pp.152-159.
Masayuki WATANABE, "Education in India," "Comparative Education Theory," Kyodo Shuppan, pp.257-262.
Ministry of Human and Resource Development, EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS AT A GLANCE, New Delhi; MHRD, 2018(https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/ESAG-2018.pdf, last viewed on May 27,2020)
Ministry of Human and Resource Development, Statistics of School Education 2011-12, New Delhi: MHRD, 2014.
(https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics/SSE_11-12Final.pdf, last viewed on May 30, 2020)26

Chapter 3 Educational System in India

Figure 3-1 School System in India
Reference : Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, "World's School System (Website Version)"(https://www.mext.go.jp/component/b_menu/other/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2017/10/02/1396848_001_1.pdf last viewed on May 29, 2020)

27

28

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia
Kentaro Shimadav[Summary]
The purpose of this paper is to outline the educational system in Indonesia. One of the characteristics of theeducational system in Indonesia, which is geographically and culturally diverse, is that general schools coexist with
Islamic schools. Religious education is systematically incorporated, and an emphasis is placed on citizenship andcharacter formation. Educational reform in recent years aims to ensure fairness as well as quality. Indonesia is inparticular in need of assistance in the area of higher education and human resource development in the industry, as
democratization was promoted in the early twenty first century and economic growth is expected. Indonesia is Japan's
largest recipient of assistance, and has continuously received assistance in various fields from basic education tohigher education. Indonesia has been actively accepting Japan’s “lesson study." In recent years, private companies
have accelerated their expansion in educational exchanges and in the education industry.

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.
Specially-appointed assistant professor, Center for the Promotion of Interdisciplinary Education and Research, Kyoto University
Assistant, Faculty of Business Creation, Kaishi Professional Universityv

29

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

1. Introduction
In the global market economy, the international liquidityof people, goods and money in the field of education isincreasing. Parents seek better education providers
across borders, and policymakers consider ways toimprove their country's education from other countries'
practices. The same is true for teachers and schools. The
competitors are becoming the educational institution in allover the country and neighboring countries beyond theones in neighborhood municipalities. As society is rapidlychanging, students have to think about what they willlearn and what their future career will be with awarenessof the world. In this regard, International Institute forAdvanced Studies (2019) points out that people-topeople exchanges in the course of study abroad, mainlyin universities, are a model for trade. As
internationalization progresses, the possibility cannot be
overlooked that social and economic activities centeringon education will become active in the field of basic
education in the future.
As education contributes to economic development,
education in Japan is drawing attention from around theworld. This is because Japanese children show a highlevel of basic academic ability and norm consciousness.
In fact, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Scienceand Technology (MEXT) has been implementing the"Overseas Development Project of Japanese-style
Education" since 2016, which is a public-private
partnership project called “Edu-port Nippon.” One of thecharacteristics of Japanese-style education is that“holistic education, including extracurricular education,
results in the establishment of a spirit that values
discipline and courtesy, and in the realization of ethics
and moral education" (op.cit. Chapter 16). In addition tocontributing to economic development, the international
community has agreed that education itself leads to theself-realization of individuals and the promotion ofhappiness, and that receiving a better education is an
important element of fundamental human rights.
Clarifying the characteristics of Japanese-style education
is valuable not only to Japan but also to the world.
The purpose of this paper is to outline the educational
system of the Republic of Indonesia (hereinafter referred
to as Indonesia) and to summarize the implications of theexportability of Japanese-style education. Indonesia is acountry consisting of many islands. It is a developing
country that has achieved rapid economic development
in recent years among Southeast Asian countries. It is
economically and historically deeply connected withJapan. The next section, we examine the outline ofIndonesia from the economic and administrative aspects.
Section 3 focuses on the education system. It will explain
the actual situation of the school system, curriculum,

teacher training and educational reform in recent years.
Section 4 examines examples of Japanese private
sector’s entry into the education industry and overseas
educational facilities in Indonesia.
2. Basic information
2-1. REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
Indonesia is the fourth largest country in the world witha population of 267,000,000 as of 2018 (world bank,2020a). This accounts for 40% of the total population of
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),
and its economic size is more than twice that of Thailand.
The total land area is 1,910,931 square kilometers, andthere are more than 10,000 islands (See Figure 4-1). Its
land area is about 5 times larger than that of Japan. There
are 514 prefectures and cities in all 34 provinces. The
Special Capital Region of Jakarta is located on Java
Island, and is home to about 10,000,000 people. The
Special Capital Region of Jakarta is composed of fivewards and one province, with a total area of 662.33
square kilometers. Chronic floods and traffic jams areproblems. About 60 percent of the Japanese residents inthe country are concentrated (about 19,000 people).
Indonesia, a multiethnic country, guarantees freedomof religion and has 6 nationally recognized religions. The
composition of each religion in the population is asfollows. 87.2% of Muslims, 6.9% of non-Catholics, 2.9%of Catholics, 1.7% of Hindus, 0.7% of Buddhists, and0.05% of Confucians. So, nearly 90% are Muslims(Indonesia Information Portal, 2020). The Java tribe is themost popular ethnic group, with 41.7%, followed by the
Sunda tribe with 15.54%, and other ethnic groups withless than 4%. For example, 3.6% of Batak, 1.2% of
Chinese Indonesians, and 0.1% of foreign nationals 1).
As mentioned above, the idea of Indonesia, where people
from various backgrounds live, is "Unity in Diversity( Pancasila: The five principles of National Foundation).
In Sanskrit, it means the practice of five virtues. The fiveprinciples are: "Belief in The One and Only God", "A justand civilized humanity", “Unity of Indonesia", "Democracy
led by Inner Wisdom in consultation/representation", and"Social justice for the entire people of Indonesia."
2-2 Political, Economic and Administrative Systems
The head of state is President Joko Widodo. He was
first elected in 2014 and reappointed in October 2019. Heserved as mayor of Surakarta and governor of the Special
Capital Region of Jakarta. He has the common touch andattracts attention as the first president who is not an eliteor military man (JETRO, 2018). The April 2019presidential election came to an end with the reelectionof Joko Widodo with the support of moderate Muslims
and non-Muslims. He won against conservative rival

30

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

Prabowo Subianto by about 10 percent of vote (55.26
percent) (Honna, 2019).
Indonesia's political system is a republican republic. 2)
The term of the president as head of state is 5 years. The
highest legislative organ is the People's Consultative
Assembly (MPR). The developmental dictatorship of thefirst president, Sukarno, collapsed after the Asianfinancial crisis in 1997, and democratization isprogressing. In particular, the autonomy of local
governments has been expanded, and the influence of
local leaders elected through direct elections has become
stronger (Miichi, 2019). The National Assembly has 560
seats and the Regional Representative Council has 132
seats. The MPR consists of a total of 692 members fromthe National Assembly and the Regional Representative
Council.
According to Horie (2017), Indonesia's economy isdriven by domestic demand. Personal consumption issteady and stable, with no political instability. The export
structure is resource dependent. In order to transform theindustrial structure, it is necessary to improve theinfrastructure and foreign capital inducement policy, andto train good quality workers. 3) Compared to neighboring

countries (such as Vietnam, India, Myanmar, andBangladesh), labor costs are relatively high and foreign
investment is difficult to attract. However, Indonesia's
strength is that it has the fourth largest population in theworld, and the total population will increase until 2070.
The working-age population will also increase until 2055,
and the consumer market will continue to expand overthe next 50 years. If appropriate measures are taken,
there is a high possibility of further economic growth.
Infrastructure development, the development of highquality industrial human resources, and adjustments forregional gap are necessary. 4)
The currency is Indonesian Rupiah (1 Yen = 139.44
Rupiah, 1 USD = 14909.80 Rupiah as of May 11, 2020).
The real GDP growth rate in 2010 was 6.4%. It dropped
to the 5% level in 2013, but it still remained at 5.0% in
2016. The GDP growth rate is expected to remain in therange of 5% (See Figure 4-2).
The Indonesian government has a three-tiered

Figure 4-1 Map of Indonesia
Reference: Blank Map Store (2020)31

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

GDP Growth (Annual %)
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
-5.00
-10.00
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018

-15.00

Bangladesh

East Asia & Pacific (excluding high income)Indonesia

Japan

MyanmarVietnamFigure 4-2 Trends in the Economic Growth Rates of Major ASEAN Countries
Reference: Created by the author based on World Bank (2020b)

Figure 4-3 Local Government System in Indonesia
Reference: Council of Local Authorities for International Relations (2009), 30

structure consisting of the central government, provincial
governments, and prefectural and city governments (SeeFigure 4-3). All states introduced a single system under
the Local Government Act 2004. Five provinces, theSpecial Capital Region of Jakarta, the Special Region of
Yogyakarta, provinces of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam,
Papua and West Papua, have special autonomy (Councilof Local Authorities for International Relations, 2009, 28).
The president will cooperate with the National Assembly
and the Regional Representative Council through the
MPR. The Cabinet structurally has Coordinating
Ministers above each minister and the interior minister,and the Coordinating Ministers communicate with the
President. Each Provincial Government is headed by a32

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

governor and consists of a provincial assembly,
organizations, and the provincial branch office. Eachprefectural/city government is headed by a prefectural
governor/city mayor and consists of each assembly,
organizations, and a prefectural/city branch office.
According to the two Acts on Decentralization after
2001 (The Local Government Act (No.22/1999), theRevised Local Government Act (No.32/2004), and the
Revised Act (No.33/2004) on Financial Balance between
Central and Local Government, the authority of thecentral government was limited to diplomacy, national
defense and security, justice, financing and national
finance, and religion, and almost all the authority
concerning the provision of administrative services wastransferred to prefectures and cities (prefectures andcities are equal).

themselves, society, the people, and the nation"((Moriyama, 2015, 77). 6)
Preschool education in Indonesia is not compulsory.
Preschool education is important as a condition forentering a private elementary school. 7) In the case of anursery school, the enrollment fee is 5,000,000 IDR(about 35,000 yen) or more, and the tuition fee is
3,600,000 IDR (about 26,000 yen) or more. 8) Primaryand secondary education in Indonesia is compulsory.
Compulsory school age is from 7 to 15 years old. The
standard school age is 6 years to 12 years old forelementary school, 13 years to 15 years old for junior highschool, and 16 years to 18 years old for high school.
The first semester begins in July and ends in December.
The second semester starts in January and lasts until
June. Non-formal education is also spreading to a certain
extent. The education is for students who study without
going to school, such as home-schooling students, andfor students who attend international schools and study
in a curriculum different from that of the Indonesian
government. Such education is called Study Group(Kelompok Bejar), and the students take classes threedays a week to prepare for the certification examination
which is conducted twice a year. The examination has
three types: elementary school (Paket A), junior highschool (Paket B), and high school graduation (Paket C).
The Administrative fee, operating costs and tuition are
free of charge for public elementary and junior highschools. Travel expenses, bags, shoes and uniforms will
be borne by individuals. Private schools differ from school
to school.
In all types of schools, those who pass the national
examination at the time of completion are given the
National Certificate, which is a basic requirement forentering higher education. As for higher education,
entrance examinations are conducted for those who havegot a certificate of secondary education. At universities, a
S1 degree, which is equivalent to a bachelor's degree isusually awarded in four years, a S2, equivalent to amaster's degree, is awarded in two or more years, and a
S3, equivalent to a doctor's degree, is awarded in three
years. Professional colleges, colleges, polytechnics andacademies offer 1-4-year courses. Certificate of D1-D4 isawarded in one to three years, and Certificate of D4,
which is equivalent to bachelor's degrees, are awarded infour years.
Table 4-2 The changes in Enrollment Rates for Each
Education Level in Indonesia, shows the enrollment rates
for each school type and level. The reason why theenrollment rates exceed 100% in primary school
education is believed that there are those who repeat
their school years or those who are older than the normal
age of admission. In terms of changes over time,enrollment rates in the compulsory education level havenot changed significantly, except for the fact that the rates
in senior secondary education improved from 64.9% in2011 to 80.7% in 2018. A challenge exists in preschool
education and higher education. As of 2018, theenrollment rates were about 30%, and it is necessary to
improve them. Table 4-3 shows the net enrolment rates
for each education level by province.

3. Outline of Education
3-1 School System
Indonesia adopts the 6-3-3-4 education system (SeeFigure 4-4). 5) Hattori (2014) indicates systematicallyorganized the general schools and Islamic schools under
the jurisdiction of the Ministry of National Education and
the Ministry of Religion. The central government decides
the national education policy and measures, and theprovincial, prefectural, and city governments formulate
and implement education plans according to each local
government. With regard to financial assistance,measures are being taken to meet the demands at central
and local levels. The government basically has
jurisdiction over higher education. In addition, the central
government is in charge of screening textbooks for basic
education and setting standards for the contents.
Prefectural and private educational institutions hire
teachers.
General schools accounted for 86 percent (elementary
schools), 69 percent (junior high schools), and 62 percent(high schools), respectively. The ratio of primary publicschools to private schools is 9:1. On the other hand, thepublic schools account for 60% of junior high schools and
50% of high schools. Most Islamic schools are private
schools for elementary, junior high, and high schools.
(See Table 4-1).
Indonesia's educational reform was triggered by the
Asian financial crisis. The influence of democratization
also extends to education (Hattori, 2008). The
educational policy was changed from uniform education(language, curriculum, value education) to the education
where diversity in each region is respected. In addition to
the transfer of authority through the systematic
introduction of the autonomous school management
system, citizens' participation in society has also beenencouraged. This is based on the National Education
System Act 2003 enacted after the reform in 1998. The
objectives of education in the country are defined asfollows. In other words, "education is a conscious andsystematic effort to realize an environment for learningand learning processes so that those who receive
education can actively develop their own abilities in orderto acquire religious spirit, autonomy, individuality,
intelligence, noble morals, and skills required for

33

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

Figure 4-4 School Education System in Indonesia
Reference: Compiled by the author based on the information from the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (2019) and Hattori (2014)

Looking at the changes in public education spending
between 2007 and 2015, it has remained at around 3%
of GDP (See Table 4-4). Although it cannot be said that
educational expenditure is sufficiently secured, theannual expenditure has increased more than twice from
USD 13,158,000,000 in 2007 to USD 30,850,000,000 in
2015. Looking at the changes in the ratio of current andcapital expenditure by education level, the ratio of

educational expenditure to total government expenditure
has increased slightly from 14.9% to 20.5% (See Table 45). The ratio in Primary and secondary education, whichis equivalent to the period of compulsory education,accounts for about 70% of the total, and the ratio ofcurrent expenditure and capital expenditure is 8-9:1 iscommon even compared with that in other countries.

34

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

Table 4-1. Schools under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Religion
and the number of schools by type
Public(%)
Private(%)
Total
Primary School
General School

131,974

89.0%

16,27011.0%

148,244

Islamic School
Total

1,686
133,660

6.8%
77.2%

23,26539,535

93.2%
22.8%

24,951
173,195

Junior High School
General School

23,227

59.6%

15,73340.4%

38,960Islamic School
Total

1,437
24,6648.3%
43.8%

15,926
31,659

91.7%
56.2%

17,36356,323High School
General School

6732

49.9%

6763

50.1%

13,495Islamic School
Total

765
7,497

9.4%
34.6%

7,399
14,162

90.6%
65.4%

8,164
21,659Reference: Compiled by the author based on the information from World Bank (2019)

Table 4-2. Changes in Gross Rnrolment Ratio in Indonesia(Year)

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015
35.2

2016
34.6

2017
33.8

2018
37.9

Primary Education
Junior Secondary Education

102.6
89.8

104.3
89.5

107.7
86.0

108.9
88.6

110.5
91.2

109.3
90.1

108.5
90.2

108.6
91.5

Senior Secondary Education
Higher Education

64.9

68.8

66.6

74.3

78.0
25.3

80.9
28.0

82.8
29.9

80.7
30.2

Preschool Education

References: Compiled by the author based on the information from BPS-Statistics Indonesia (2019)

3-2 Curriculum and Teacher Training
The current curriculum in Indonesia is based on thecontent revised in 2013. The goal is to develop productive,
creative, innovative and emotional Indonesians throughinspiring integral attitudes, skills, and knowledge. (Sri,2016). The 2013 curriculum is the eighth revision from the1947 curriculum as the starting point. However, the basisof these revisions is based on Pancasila, which is the five
National Principles, and the 1945 Constitution (Mukminin,
at el, 2019).
The 2013 curriculum is characterized by greater
involvement of some central governments than in the2006 curriculum. The major turning point in the overall
curriculum reforms is the curriculum reform in 2004. In
2004, the Ministry of National Education introduced theCompetence-Based Curriculum (KBK). Teachers canflexibly organize learning items according to each
student’s competence. Only the standards ofcompetence to be achieved are set, and the details of
education content are left to the discretion of teachersand schools. Nakaya (2006) summarizes the differencesfrom the 1994 edition. The feature of the 2004 curriculumis that the balance of cognitive and psychological aspects
is emphasized on the basis of competency, and that it

made possible for each school and region to draw up asyllabus. This contrasts with the 1994 curriculum, which
is based on content and teaching materials and ischaracterized by centralized curriculum developmentemphasizing cognitive aspects (emphasizing knowledge
and teaching content). The 2006 curriculum revised KBK
and introduced the "Curriculum Led by Educational
Institutions (KTSP)". There is no essential difference fromthe 2004 edition, and the technical implementation
system has been improved (Sri, 2016, 78). At public
primary schools in Indonesia, students learn religion,
citizenship, Indonesian, mathematics, natural science,sociology, art and culture, exercise and health. 9) In
addition to those, students learn English and arts andcrafts at junior high schools. Classes are offered in mainly
Indonesian.

35

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

Table 4-3. Gross Enrolment Ratios by Province (2018)
Preschool
Education

Primary
Education

JuniorSecondary
Education

SeniorSecondary
Education

Higher
Education

Aceh

31.8

113.9

99.3

84.8

43.9

North Sumatra

24.3

111.1

90.0

91.6

31.1

West Sumatra

30.2

111.0

90.9

84.0

44.2

Riau

29.3

106.9

94.2

83.9

34.2

Jambi

31.7

112.0

87.6

78.9

33.8

South Sumatra

25.4

114.1

86.5

77.4

26.2

Bencoolen

28.8

113.5

92.1

85.6

38.3

Lampung

33.2

110.1

94.2

81.6

21.3

Bangka Belitung

36.1

111.2

85.9

82.2

13.2

Riau Islands

28.3

107.3

92.4

91.0

27.6

Special Capital Region of Jakarta

39.8

105.3

94.9

74.0

36.7

West Java

35.9

106.2

91.0

75.3

25.1

Central Java

49.8

108.2

92.0

84.2

22.0

Special Region of Yogyakarta

69.8

105.8

97.0

87.4

70.6

East Java

56.9

106.7

94.9

79.1

30.0

Banten

29.8

109.5

91.7

71.7

33.4

Bali

35.5

103.0

96.1

87.7

36.4

West Nusa Tenggara

40.3

108.8

93.8

89.6

29.8

East Nusa Tenggara

32.6

116.6

88.5

77.8

30.1

West Kalimantan

22.5

117.0

83.0

79.3

22.7

Central Kalimantan

37.9

110.0

95.8

74.8

25.2

South Kalimantan

47.3

110.2

86.2

75.7

26.4

East Kalimantan

32.2

108.0

92.6

96.1

35.6

North Kalimantan

32.8

102.3

103.0

89.2

21.6

North Sulawesi

31.8

109.0

88.5

82.3

35.0

Central Sulawesi

41.8

105.3

92.9

83.5

40.6

South Sulawesi

32.2

110.3

87.0

81.7

41.2

Southeast Sulawesi

31.2

110.8

85.2

84.8

46.4

Gorontalo

50.2

112.0

80.2

84.3

35.2

West Sulawesi

42.5

108.6

82.4

84.5

28.9

Maluku

30.8

112.3

95.6

87.2

48.4

North Maluku

35.3

113.7

91.1

88.0

42.7

West Papua

27.4

110.7

89.7

90.7

36.0

Papua

13.2

94.5

87.8

65.1

19.0

Indonesia as a whole

37.9

108.6

91.5

80.7

30.2

References: Compiled by the author based on BPS-Statistics Indonesia (2019a)

Figure 4-5 shows international comparison data of theInternational Education Achievement Survey. As for thequality of education, the quality of teachers, teaching
methods, and problems of school governance werepointed out, the government tried to catch up with theglobal standard by introducing international standard
schools. However, it was abolished from the viewpoint offairness in 2013 (Hattori, 2014). In response to the trendof the decentralization reform since 2004, theautonomous school management system has been
introduced in the educational community, andeducational practices based on the needs of local
communities have been promoted. At the same time, thegap in educational levels has become apparent.

36Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

Table 4-4. Changes in public education expenditure (2007 - 2015)(Fiscal Year)
Government Education
Expenditure as a
Percentage of GDP
Government Education
Expenditure in US$ (millions)

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

3.0

2.9

3.5

2.8

3.2

3.4

3.4

3.3

3.6

13158

14806

19021

21235

28481

31276

30652

29290

30850

References: Compiled by the author based on World Bank (2020c)

Table 4-5. Changes in Current and Capital Expenditure Ratios by Education Level
Fiscal Year

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

14.9
0.7

13.7
0.7

19.3
0.7

16.7
0.7

18.0
..

18.1
2.2

17.6
1.8

17.7
1.8

20.5
..

Secondary Education

48.4
25.1

49.0
25.3

47.9
25.5

44.4
24.3

..
..

41.8
26.0

42.5
26.0

43.7
26.8

42.6
27.0

Higher Education

12.8

11.0

12.2

16.1

..

17.2

16.4

15.1

15.8

9.2

9.6

10.2

11.9

12.6

13.4

12.1

11.7

11.9

21.0
10.8

21.0
10.9

21.1
10.8

19.9
10.8

19.3
13.1

16.5
12.6

18.5
13.3

18.8
13.1

..
12.4

6.8
12.0

6.9
13.9

6.6
21.6

7.7
27.1

8.7
25.4

7.4
28.3

7.6
19.7

7.6
18.6

7.2
22.2

90.8
79.0

90.4
79.0

89.8
78.9

88.1
80.1

87.4
80.7

86.6
83.5

87.9
81.5

88.3
81.2

88.1
..

Secondary Education

89.2
93.2

89.1
93.1

89.2
93.4

89.2
92.3

86.9
91.3

87.4
92.6

86.7
92.4

86.9
92.4

87.6
92.8

Higher Education

88.0

86.1

78.4

72.9

74.6

71.7

80.3

81.4

77.8

Education Expenditure as a
Percentage of Total
Government Expenditure
Preschool Education
Primary Education

Capital Expenditure as a
Percentage of Public
Educational Institution
Expenditure
Preschool Education
Primary Education
Secondary Education
Higher Education
Ordinary Expenditure as a
Percentage of Public
Educational Institution
Expenditure
Preschool Education
Primary Education

References : Compiled by the author based on World Bank (2020c)

Figure 4-5 PISA2015 Mathematical Literacy International Comparison
References: Compiled by the author based on OECD (2015)

37

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

3-3. Recent Policy Trends
Looking at the Education Development Strategy for2015 to 2019, we can see the government aims to
improve the governance of preschool education, basic
education (especially secondary education), adulteducation, and the overall education system. For each ofthese, the government seeks high quality andemphasizes equal resource allocation across states,
districts, and cities (MOEC, 2016, 81). Since the Asianfinancial crisis, education reform has been carried out invarious fields in response to social change in Indonesia. .
Since the reform in 2003, the importance has beenplaced on education that utilizes the educational
functions of local communities, national education thatembraces various forms of education as alternativeeducation, and development to improve the quality ofteachers and educational personnel (Hattori, 2008).
The teacher training system is stipulated in the law onteachers (including lecturers and professors) establishedin 2005 (Yabuta, 2010). The National Education
Standards Law and the new law mentioned above requirethat primary, junior high and high school teachers have
either S1 (bachelor's degree) or D4 (qualification for 4
years of professional higher education) degrees in their
specialty. The educational qualification improvement
policy aims to ensure that all teachers in Indonesia havethis qualification to improve the quality of education.
(world bank, 2019b). Teacher Certification Program is apolicy to grant certification to teachers with S1 or D4
qualifications who meet certain criteria.

as a hub in Indonesia. Japan is supporting the "ASEAN
University
Network/Southeast
Asia
Engineering
Education Development Network (SEED-Net)" and theestablishment of Indonesia Accreditation Board forEngineering Education （ IABEE). In the area of basic
education, in line with the policy of extending compulsory
education in 1994, Japan is conducting projects tomaintain junior high school buildings, enhance quality ofeducation in teacher training colleges, introduce "lesson
study," and supporting the improvement of local
educational administration through the participation of
local residents. These supports also contributed to the
spread of the current school subsidy system and thegovernment-led “lesson study" method. At present, themethod has spread to 67 teacher training colleges. It has
also led to the establishment of a base such as theIndonesia University of Education, which accepts
trainees from Asia and Africa.
4-2 Examples of Expansion of the Education Industry
This section introduces examples of expansion of
education industry, which is closely related to this paper,
into Indonesia and its problems. JICA et al. (2013)
conducted a research on BOP business 11) for education
fields. The research focused on the lack of basic
academic skills (mathematics and arithmetic). JICA andothers conducted a 30-minute class three times a week
for 600 students in grade one to three in Surabaya city for9 months from July 2012, in order to examine the effects
of repeated learning such as Hundred-SquareCalculations. The research also found that parents arehighly aware of the importance of education and that 2045 percent of children in the lower grades of elementary
school go to cram schools. It also revealed that school
teachers run a tutoring school after school hours.
Gakken Holdings (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2018)
conducted after-school classes in Parepare city, Sulawesi
island. Gakken conducted math classes four times aweek for about 5,000 children at 80 primary schools in
the city. Each class lasts one hour and is intended forsecond to third graders. The city of Palepare pays to
Gakken, and students attend a class free of charge. The
semipublic "after-school classes" became available
because of the connection with the mayor and the
support of the government. Thanks to that, a system that
benefits children from the poor could be created.
There is also a case of popularization anddemonstration
projects
toenhancechildren’sachievement level of mathematical skills using e-learning
by industry-university cooperation (JICA, 2017). The
projects have promoted the introduction of theIndonesian version mathematics drills and e-learning
content (Surara Ninja!). The Indonesia University of

4. International Education Cooperation withIndonesia
4-1 The True State of International Education
Cooperation
According to JICA (2018), the acceptance of 15
trainees from Indonesia in 1954, before theestablishment of diplomatic relations, was the beginningof international cooperation. Japan accounts for 45% of
the total amount of ODA to Indonesia since 1960 and is
the largest aid donor. At the same time, Indonesia
accounts for 11% of the cummulative total amount ofJapan’s ODA and is the largest recipient country. Japansupports Indonesia’s economic development through thedevelopment of basic infrastructure (transportation,
electric power and energy, telecommunications, etc.),
and assists in its’ establishment of democratic systems(supports election and police) and development of humanresources for industry, and establishment of partnerships
for South-South cooperation.
In the field of higher education, Japan has continuously
supported Bandung Institute of Technology and otherinstitutions of higher education in engineering that serve

38Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia

Education in Bandung is a co-operator. Behind thesuccess of this project is the fact that the Special Capital
Region of Jakarta ICT Utilization Education Quality
Improvement Project has established to some extent theenvironment for ICT utilization education and e-learning
introduction for elementary and junior high schools in theregion. The cooperative relationship with the Indonesia
University of Education, which is the partner, also
contributed to the success. The university was a baseuniversity of the projects, Strengthening In-service
Teacher Training of Mathematics and Science Education
at Junior and Secondary Level (SISTTEMS) and
Program for Enhancing Quality of Junior Secondary
Education (PELITA), which was the popularization phaseof SISTTEMS.

under the name of registered holder, and a notary public
approves the agreement. By doing so, actual
management rights can be retained by the company. In
the case of the education industry, a recommendation
letter must be obtained from the Ministry of Education andCulture. If one can register a company as a local
corporation, it is possible to obtain a work visa (KITAS).
However, there is no restriction on the ratio of the numberof employees to the number of KITAS issues. Overseas
remittances take the form of stock dividends and royalties,
but there is no limit if 10% tax is paid. However, even if
profits are large, 20% of the stated capital must be
retained internally. It is common to ask a local certified
public accountant office to take the investment procedure.
About US $ 6000 is needed. (JICA et al., 2013)

4-3. Overseas Education Facilities in Indonesia
There is also educational exchange through education
for foreign children. Japanese overseas educational
facilities (Zaigai Kyouiku Sisetsu) are defined as
educational facilities established abroad mainly for the
purpose of providing education equivalent to school
education in Japan for the children of Japanese nationals
residing abroad (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology, March, 2018). As of 2019, there
are 26 overseas educational facilities in Indonesia that
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan is aware of. This
includes international schools. Among them, there are
five Japanese schools. There are six overseas
educational facilities around Jakarta (Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 2019b). They are Jakarta Japanese School,
German School Jakarta, Jakarta Intercultural School, LFJ
Lycee Francais de Jakarta, Australian Independent(International) School-AIS, and Jakarta Japanese School
Cikarang Campus (Cikarang Japanese School).
The Special Capital Region of Jakarta runs a financial
support program called Jakarta Smart Card (Kartu
Jakarta Pintar) to provide educational opportunities forthe poor. Subsidies are provided to cover transportation
expenses, bags, shoes, uniforms, and miscellaneous
expenses for extracurricular activities which are originallyborne by individuals. The target of the program is primary
to high school and higher professional school students
and include students of Islamic schools and special
schools that provide education equivalent to primary,secondary, and higher education.
Establishment of a local corporation in Indonesia
requires permission from the Indonesian Investment
Coordinating Board (BKPM). The minimum investment
for the service, based on BKPM's bylaws, is US$300,000
as of 2013. The education sector is on the negative list,
with a foreign equity cap of 49%. About 51 percent ofdomestic capital, a company concludes a shareholder
agreement, which includes a non-transferable item,

5. Conclusion
The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of theeducation system in Indonesia and to summarize theimplications of the exportability of Japanese-styleeducation. Indonesia is a geographically and culturally
diverse country. Religious education has been adopted,
and an educational system emphasizing citizenship andcharacter formation has been established. The
government has promoted democratization in the earlytwenty first century, and economic growth is expected in
the future. Especially the private education industry is
expected to expand into the country.
The development in the field of higher education andindustrial human resource development is inextricably
linked with economic growth. As the field is positioned as
an important strategy target, it is expected that it will
require various support not only from the government but
also from the field of international educational
cooperation. It is also important to improve the quality ofbasic education that supports higher education.
In Indonesia, educational system reform has been
carried out continuously over a relatively short period oftime. When considering exporting Japanese-styleeducation, it is necessary to flexibly reflect the time andthe needs of the region in which the Japanese
educational services are established. Indonesia's
educational policy, which attaches importance tocharacter development and sociability, has a high affinity
for the special activities of Japanese-style education, andthe history of international educational cooperationshows that it is highly likely that Japan’s educational
industry will make inroads into this field because of its
friendly relationship of trust. It is highly likely thatJapanese-style education will take root in Indonesia,
which is taking positive steps one after another toimprove the quality of education, if Japan’s educational
industry can offer effective improvement measures.

39

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International Institute for Advanced Studies, 2019, International Institute for Advanced Studies Annual Report 2018, International
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Council of Local Authorities for International Relations, 2009, "Local Governing in Indonesia", Council of Local Authorities forInternational Relations
Blank Map Store, 2020, blank map of Indonesiahttps://www.freemap.jp/item/asia/indonesia.html(2020)(accessed on May 8, 2020)
Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2017, Gakken HD, After school education in Asia, first in Indonesia, December 28, 2017, Nihon Keizai Shimbun
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Mina Hattori, 2008, "Chapter 8 Indonesia: Supporting Basic Education in the Context of Decentralization,” Supporting Basic Education in
Developing Countries (the second volume) International Approach and Practice, edited by Yasushi Hirosato and Yuto Kitamura,
pp217 - 250
Mina Hattori, 2014, “School Education - Education that Ensures Regional Autonomy and Variety", (written and edited by )Tomoko Mase,
Natsuko Saeki, Yoshinori Murai 60 Chapters to Know Modern Indonesia, Akashi Shoten, pp152-156
Masato Horie, 2017, "The Current State of the Indonesia’s Economy and Its Future Outlook - The World's Fourth Most Populous
Country Where Strong Economic Growth Continues", Economic Report, Mitsubishi UFJ Research and Consulting, pp1-22
Jun Honna, 2019, "What happened in the 2019 Indonesian presidential election: The Political Vector of Division and Cohesion,”IDE
Square, Eyes to See the World, Asian Economic Research Institute, Japan External Trade Organization, pp1-6
Ken Miichi, 2019 "Indonesia/ Current Political System," Political Changes in Middle Eastern and Islamic Countries, HYPERLINK"https://dbmedm06.aa-ken.jp/archives/145" https://dbmedm06.aa-ken.jp/archives/145 (accessed on May 11, 2020)
Mikihiro Moriyama, 2015, "Comparison of Character Formation Education in Indonesia and Japan - Mainly in West Java and Sunda
Regions", Nanzan University Bulletin "Academia" Humanities / Natural Sciences Edition No.10, pp75-92
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2016, Japanese Children Studying in Foreign Countries, Current Stateof Japan’s Education for Children Abroad, 2016 edition, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology,
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JICA, Osaka Institute of Educational Research, Applied Management, Kokusai Kogyo, 2013, Preparatory Survey for Educational
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JICA, 2017, Completion Report on the Verification Survey with the Private Sector for Disseminating Japanese technologies forStrengthening of Children’s Mathematical Ability by e-Learning through University-Industry Collaboration in the Republic ofIndonesia, Japan International Cooperation Agency
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40

Chapter 4 Educational System in Indonesia[Note]
1) There are 1340 ethnic groups based on the classification by native language and religion from the result of the census in 2010.
There are about 30 categories on the site, but there are no clear definitions. In addition, there has been increase in migration andethnic intermarriage in recent years. The significance of emphasizing ethnic groups more than necessary is fading away.
2) It is stipulated in the Constitution in 1945.
3) The export items are mineral fuels such as coal and natural gas account for 23.3%, animal and vegetable oil (palm oil) 11.3%, andelectronic equipment and parts 4.9% (JETRO, 2019a).
(4) Economic activities are concentrated in the western part of Java Island which accounts for 7% of Indonesia’s land area. Jakarta has
the highest nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of USD 14,858, followed by East Java (USD 3316) and East Nusa
Tenggara (USD 1138) (JETRO2018). GDP per capita varies.
5) 9-year compulsory education was declared by the government on National Education Day, May 2, 1994 (Hattori, 2008, 218). The
governing law is Article 34 of the Education Act 2003.
6) Undang-Undang Republik Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional (Moriyama, 2015)
7) The number of kindergartens in Jakarta (Kanak-Kana, TK) is 2119 (public: 24 kindergartens, private93 kindergartens). Other
educational institutions other than kindergartens are as follows. Day-Care Center (Taman Penitipan Anak, TPA), Playgroup(Kelompok Bermain, KB), preschool education institution (Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, PAUD), combination of community healthcenters (Posyandu) and PAUD, Community facilities for families with children under 5 years old (Taman Pendidikan Al-Quran/TPQ)
with children under 5 years old, and Sunday schools (Christian) (MoEC, 2016).
8) 1 yen = 139.44 Rupiah, 1 USD = 14909.80 Rupiah as of May 11, 2020
9) Public schools in Indonesia provide religious classes. Religious subjects are not allowed in Japan by Article 15, Paragaph 2 of the
Basic Act on Education. Religion is also taught in "Religion and Courtesy" (Agama dan Budi Pekerti) and “Pancasila and Civics
Education” (Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan), which aims at character formation education and civics education. When the two
subject hours are combined, they are eight classes and 280 minutes (Moriyama, 2015).
10) About 90% of the total amount of aid is loan assistance, mainly yen loans, and is mostly to support basic infrastructure such as
power plants, irrigation, flood control, reclamation, railways, and roads (JICA, 2018).
11) BOP refers to low-income groups whose annual income is less than $ 3000 on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. The
population of the BOP (Base of the Economic Pyramid) group, mainly in developing countries, accounts for about 70% of theworld's population. BOP business refers to a sustainable business that contributes to the improvement of living standards in therelevant countries by providing useful products and services to the BOP group, while achieving the development of companies.
(JETRO, 2019)

41

42

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational
Institutions" in the Republic of Korea
Jeon Kyounghwavi[Summary]
This report introduces the establishment and operation of "foreign educational institutions" in South Korea as an
example of the acceptance of foreign educational services. First, I outlined their school education and educational
administration in order to understand education in Korea. Next, I summarize the policy on the attraction of "foreign
educational institutions" which is being promoted with the aim of strengthening the global competitiveness as a market
in the education industry and improving balance in the education service. Next, based on the situation in attracting"foreign educational institutions", I grasped the details of the establishment and management in two case schools.
Finally, as characteristics of the cases in the Republic of Korea, I mentioned that a policy of accepting educational
services was implemented accompanying economic policy, and that the host country provided generous support increating a hub.

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.

vi

Lecturer, Faculty of Child Education, Kyoto Koka Women's University

43Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

1. Introduction
In addition to the conventional view of education as apublic good, there seems to be some agreement on theview of education as one of the target items in service
trade assuming there are producers and consumers. It is
important not only to discuss the pros and cons of theview, but also to discuss a desirable direction where thecharacteristics of education are utilized.

Zones" (Act No. 16416).
2. Education in South Korea
In this section, in order to understand education inSouth Korea, the basic information of the country, thesystem of school education, and the educational
administration are outlined, and then the types of upper
secondary educational institutions related to the contentsof this paper are explained.

The trade in services, including educational services,
is classified into four categories: cross-border trade(Mode 1), consumption abroad (Mode 2), provision ofservices through business bases (Mode 3), and provisionof services through movement of natural persons (Mode4)1). In both situations, there are providers (exporters)
and recipients (importers) of educational services. In
order to enhance its presence in the field of education in
one’s country and to strengthen its global
competitiveness in the international community, it isnecessary to discuss export sectors where profits suchas nation’s brand power and economic effects can be
expected. In addition, it is possible for importers to expect
a certain level of profit. For example, it is possible toprovide high-quality education to consumers by
accepting excellent overseas educational services. It isalso possible to receive global education while staying in
one’s country.

2-1. Basic Information
South Korea has a population of 51,840,000 (May 2,2020 2 ） ) and a land area of about 100,000 square
kilometers3). It has about half the population and is aquarter of the size of Japan. The nation is an ethnicallyhomogeneous nation (Korean people), and 45% of thepeople are Protestant, 35% Buddhist, and 18% Catholic(in 2015 4）). The political system is a democratic republic,
and the president is elected directly by the people, andthe term of office is 5 years (without re-election). The
National Assembly is unicameral, and the term of themembers of the National Assembly is four years. The
National Assembly is basically operated in a manner
similar to the two-party system, although the politicalparties are often merged and separated taking on a fluid
look. In terms of economic situation, GDP (grossdomestic product) is US $ 172,091,000,000, the twelfthlargest in the world, and GDP per capita is US $ 33,346,
the thirtieth largest in the world ( in 2018 5）).

This paper introduces the case of the Republic ofKorea (ROK) as a recipient of overseas educational
services. In particular, this paper examines the policy of
attracting foreign educational institutions, which is being
promoted to enhance global competitiveness in the fieldof education, and describes the history of theestablishment and operation of such institutions, as wellas the experiences of the host schools.

As for the economic background, after the 1970 s, thecountry achieved rapid economic development called theMiracle on the Han River, and became the second
member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) in Asia in 1996. In 1997, South
Korea received financial assistance from the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) due to the Asian financial crisis.
However, the country continued to reform its economic
structure, and in 2001,it freed itself from the IMF’s support
system. It was human resources that supported Korea's
economic growth,

In this paper, literal translation of word from Korean into
English, "foreign educational institution" is used. This
term is defined as "schools established and operated
under foreign laws and regulations (including branch
campuses)" in Article 2, paragraph 5 of the "Special Act
on the Designation and Operation of Free Economicand education contributed to its human resource
development.

1998). Since then, the role of education has been
consistently emphasized as the foundation for thedevelopment of all aspects of society7).

The Korean government has traditionally attachedimportance to education, and has focused on humanresource development in order to cope effectively with theshortage of capital and resources that arises during theprocess of industrialization.6) The role of education formodernization was emphasized from the time of themilitary government (1961 - 1987). In particular, the roleof education was further emphasized in the national
strategy of "globalization" to reach the level of developed
countries under the Kim Young-sam government (1993 -2-2 School Education
The school system in South Korea is a 6-3-3-4 system,
which is basically a single-track ladder system. Students
attend primary school for six years, middle school forthree years, and high school for three years before
entering university. As shown in Figure 5-1, compulsory
education is a total of nine years of education with six
years of primary education (primary school) and three44

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

years of lower secondary education (middle school). As
the content of education at each stage, except for higher
education (university), the national curriculum, which
describes the objectives of subjects and the content ofeducation, is stipulated. Primary and secondary
educational institutions are mainly classified into national,
public and private schools, and about two third of them
are national and public schools (FY 2019)8). The net
enrollment ratio in each school level is highl:98.7% forprimary education, 96.7% for lower secondary education,and 91.3% for upper secondary education. The net
enrollment ratio in higher education institutions is 67.8%,
indicating that university education is being universalized(in 20199）).

six metropolitan cities, eight provinces, and two selfgoverning cities, 17 Offices of Education are established.
The central Ministry of Education and the Offices of
Education in the upper tier are in charge of theadministration of primary and secondary education. In
order to ensure the neutrality and professionalism ofeducation, the Offices of Education in the upper tier are
positioned as executive agencies independent from theheads of local governments. Superintendents of
Education, the heads of the educational offices (four-year
term, can be reappointed with conditions), are elected
through direct elections by the residents12）. In addition,the "Board of Education" has been established as astanding committee to conduct deliberations on
education in local assemblies of the upper tier. In addition,the "Education Support Agency" is established in thebasic administrative divisions (cities, counties, andwards) as a regional office of the Office of Education, andunder the direction of the head of education appointed by
the Superintendent of Education, the Education Support
Agency conducts an administrative operation for public
and private kindergartens, elementary schools, and juniorhigh schools within the jurisdiction. Finally, at each schoollevel, the School Management Committee is established

2-3 Education Administration
As for the education administration, the "Ministry of
Education" has been established as the central
administrative organization, and is in charge of humanresources development policy and affairs related toschool education, lifelong learning, and academia11）. In
addition, in first-tier administrative divisions (hereinafterreferred to as “upper tier”) consisting of one special city,

Figure 5-1 School System in South Korea
References: Excerpt from "Education Statistics of Foreign Countries" "School System Chart (South Korea)" 10),
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2019).

45

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

Table 5-1. Types of Upper Secondary Education Institutions in South Korea
Classification of Upper Secondary
Education Institutions
General High Schools
Autonomous High schools

Types of High Schools
Public and Private General High Schools, National High Schools, Creative Management
Schools, and Innovation Schools
Autonomous Public High Schools, Autonomous Private High Schools

Special Purposed High schools

Science High Schools, Foreign Language High Schools, International High Schools, Arts
High Schools
Sports High Schools, Meister High Schools

Specialized High Schools

Vocational Education Specialized High School, Alternative Education Specialized HighSchoolScience Gifted Education Schools, Science and Art Gifted Education Schools

Gifted Education Schools
Alternative Schools
Foreign Schools andForeign Education Institutions
Open High Schools
Lifelong education institution
school where educational
attainment is accredited
Special Schools

Alternative Schools Offering High School Courses
Foreign Schools, Foreign Education Institutions, and Jeju International School

Open High Schools
Lifelong Education Institution School where Educational Attainment is Accredited

Special Schools Offering High School Courses

References: Translated from "Admission System (High School)14 ", a website for laws and regulations.

regardless of its’ form of establishment. As an advisory
body composed of teachers, parents, and local residents,
the committee conducts deliberations on the schoolbudget, the management of curricula, and the selectionof textbooks13).

2020, as shown in Table 5-1, upper secondary education
institutions in South Korea are categorized into generalhigh schools, autonomous high schools, special
purposed high schools, specialized high schools, gifted
and talented schools, alternative schools, and foreignschools and educational institutions. In addition, suchdiversity in the types of upper secondary education
institutions has made it possible to establish foreign
education institutions, which will be described later, ateducational stages other than higher education
institutions.

2-4. Types of Upper Secondary Education Institutions
The following sections describe the types of upper
secondary education institutions in South Korea in
relation to the foreign education institutions focused on inthis paper. There are three types of upper secondary
education institutions in Korea: general high schools,
vocational high schools, and arts and sports high schools.

3. Policies to attract foreign education institutions
In South Korea, as globalization progresses, there has
been continuous discussion on cooperation among
countries through education and exchange of educational
services. In particular, they thought that the country could
strengthen its global competitiveness in the field of
education and improve the balance of educational
services by attracting excellent foreign education
institutions to South Korea. South Korea has seen an
imbalance between the number of students sent outsideof the country and the number of accepted international
students for long time, and that has been a challenge.
The number of students who study abroad early has been
increasing even at the elementary and secondary
education levels, as if it reflects manias for education andlearning English16). Therefore, there have been
discussions on ways to meet such needs in South Korea.

In South Korea, the reform of selection system,
exemplified by the "Equalization Policy15)," wasimplemented in order to adjust the gap in academic ability
among high schools and to ease competition in highschool entrance examinations. On the other hand, as asupplement to the policy based on such equality,
education policies aimed at the expansion of talented
education were also pursued. For example, special
purposed high schools such as science high schools andforeign language high schools, specialized high schools
aimed at developing specialists in specific fields, andschools for gifted and talented children under thejurisdiction of the Ministry of Science and Technology(currently the Ministry of Future, Creation and Science)
are listed. Other experimental schools such as
autonomous high schools are also established. As of46

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

As a solution to both of them, efforts have been made toestablish a system to attract foreign education institutions
so that students can obtain the same effect as study
abroad while studying in South Korea.

children. It was also necessary to attract foreign
education institutions in order to meet the demand for
Korean students to study abroad, and to improve thequality of the contents of education at the foreign
educational institutions that have been alreadyestablished and operated. In addition, a plan was also
proposed to establish a Foreign Educational Institution
Invitation Planning Team to examine the specialty ofschools that are being considered as foreign educational
institutions and to operate a Foreign School General
Information Website to provide information to parents
and students.

This section outlines two policies related to attracting
foreign educational institutions and describes whichaspects were planned and what were aimed at.
3-1. Plans to Revitalize Global Education Services
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology(currently, the Ministry of Education) announced Plans
to Revitalize Global Education Services in 2010 as ameasure to strengthen global competitiveness in thefield of education services. It was also the firstcomprehensive plan announced by the government tomeet the global demand for education, such as theincrease of accepted international students and theestablishment of overseas branch campuses.

3-2. Plans to Strategically Attract Foreign
Educational Institutions in Free Economic Zones
In 2011, the government announced a plan tostrategically attract foreign educational institutions
through the cooperation of the six Free Economic Zone
Authorities, the Intellectual Economic Agency (currently,
the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy), and theMinistry of Education, Science, and Technology (currently,
the Ministry of Education) based on the recognition thatnational-level measures are necessary in light of the

As part of the improvement of the residential
environment for foreign nationals in the Special
Economic Zones (to be described later), the plan wasformulated to enhance educational institutions for their

Table 5-2. Establishment of Foreign Educational Institutions
Classification

Foreign education institutions

Purpose of
Attracting Foreign Investment, Improving the Living Environment, and Meeting Global Education Needs for
Establishment Korean Nationals
Basis forSpecial Act on Establishment and Management of Foreign Educational Institutions in Free Economic Zones
Establishment and Jeju Free International City
Qualification Non-profit foreign incorporated educational institutionforEstablishment
Areas where
Foreign
Educational
InstitutionsareEstablishedFree Economic Zone, Sejong Special Self-Governing City, Industrial City, Science Business Belt Hub Area,
etc.

Qualification
for Enrollment

Children of foreign nationals living in South Korea, Korean nationals

Enrollment
Rate

•
•

Established
Institutions

30% of the capacity of elementary and secondary educational institutions is for Korean nationals (up to
50% at the discretion of the city or province)
No restrictions for higher education institutions<Primary and Secondary Educational Institutions> (2 schools)• Daegu International School• Chadwick International School<Higher Education Institutions> (4 schools)• State University of New York Korea• George Mason University Korea• Ghent University Global Campus• The University of Utah Asia Campus

References: Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy (2016)17),

47

Compiled with some additions and corrections

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

current situation where each country’s competition isintensifying in the education service industry.

Economic Zones in 2005.
This plan is based on the "Special Law on the
Designation, Operation and Development of Special
Zones for the Internationalization of Education" (enacted
in 2012), which aims to cultivate human resources
capable of responding to internationalization, and further
strengthen the international competitiveness of the nation,
and achieve balanced regional development (Article 1).
Special Zones for the Internationalization of Education,
which is also the name of the plan, is defined as the areathat was created to revitalize foreign language educationand internationalization education (Article 2). Municipal
and provincial governors and the superintendents ofeducation have leading authority over the area
designated as this special zone, and schools that are notsubject to the Primary and Secondary Education Act(Article 10) can be operated there. It is stipulated that thecentral government, including the Ministry of Education,
provides for systematic support and management under
the Special Law.

The priority issues were to ease related regulations andprovide incentives to strategically attract foreign
educational institutions, to develop global humanresources through university-industry relation based inforeign educational institutions, and to ensure thesoundness of management through qualitative control
over foreign educational institutions. By resolving theseissues, the government intended to revitalize the Free
EconomicZone
andreconsider
theglobalcompetitiveness of South Korea's higher education. The
government also announced its policies to actively
provide necessary support to attract foreign educational
institutions at the elementary and secondary educationlevels in line with Korea's public education in order tostrengthen the social function of schools.
3-3. Comprehensive Plan for the Development ofSpecial Zones for the Internationalization of
Education (2013 - 2017)

4. Establishment and Operation of Foreign
Educational Institutions
This section presents two cases of the establishment
and operation of foreign educational institutions in South
Korea, particularly in the elementary and secondary
education stages.

In 2013, the Comprehensive Plan for the Developmentof Special Zones for the Internationalization of Education(2013 - 2017) - Reconsideration of national
competitiveness and balanced regional development
through the creation and dissemination of leading models
for the internationalization of education at the local level
was announced. This was intended to build a global
human resources development system that utilizes thecharacteristics of each region and to strengthen thecapacity to promote globalization at the regional level.
Behind this back ground is the fact that it became
necessary to develop programs to revitalize theinternationalization of education as the infrastructure forinternationalization was being developed through theenactment of the Act on Special Zones for Regional
Development in 2004 and the Special Act on Free

It is the primary and secondary education institutions
and higher education institutions that are expected to be
attracted as "foreign education institutions" in the policy
outlined in Section 3. However, in the case of elementaryand secondary educational institutions, it is necessary to
conduct educational activities in accordance with thenational curriculum, so it is difficult for schools equivalent
to Article 1 schools in Japan to conduct education basedon foreign curricula. Jeju International School included in
Schools for Foreign Nationals and Foreign Educational

Table 5-3. Authority and Role of Administration for Establishment, Management and Operation of Foreign Educational
Institutions
Classification
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Trade, Industry, andLocal Governments andEnergySpecial Economic Zone
Authorities
Responsibilities
and Roles

Purpose of theInvitation

Authority over establishment andmanagement

Invitation and support（Government Subsidy Budget)

Control over the execution ofsubsidies

To stimulate investment in the country
by attracting foreign educational
institutions with excellent
infrastructure and educational
programs

Improvement and stability of theliving environment of foreigncompanies and research
institutions(Education for Children)

Sharing the attraction
purpose that the Ministry of
Education and the Ministry ofIndustry, Trade and Energy
have

References: Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (2016), translated from page 65.

48

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

Institutions listed on Table 5-1 Types of Upper Senior
Secondary Educational Institutions are establishedbased on the Special Law and Order for Enforcement of
Foreign Educational Institutions. Therefore, the school
can organize the curriculum without greatly restricted by
the national curriculum.

Education) has the authority to approve theestablishment of educational institutions, and the local
governments and the Free Economic Zone Authorities
are in charge of the administration, operation and support.
In addition, if necessary, a part of the authority of the
Minister of Education can be delegated to thesuperintendents of education in a special city, ametropolitan city, or a provinces, as stipulated by apresidential decree.

As mentioned before, the main purpose of foreign
educational institutions is to improve the educational
environment for foreigners living in the Free Economic
Zone and Jeju Free International City, which were created
to attract foreign investment. The institutions are
established and operated in the areas. However, a certain
percentage of Koreans are admitted to such institutions.
Jeju International School refers to a school established in
Jeju Free International City for the purpose of improving
the foreign language ability of the people and fostering
professionals to cope with internationalization, and there
is no restriction on the admission of Koreans. As of 2020,as shown in Table 5-2, there were two foreign primary andsecondary educational institutions and four foreign higher
educational institutions.

4-1.Chadwick International School18)
In this section, Chadwick International School andDaegu International School are taken up as examples offoreign educational institutions in the elementary andsecondary educational stages, and are discussed indetail.
Chadwick International School is a foreign educational
institution opened in Songdo International New City,
Incheon. The school is managed and operated by
Chadwick, a private school foundation in the UnitedStates. Formal curricula for kindergartens and grade 1 to
12 are organized. The International Baccalaureate (IB)Primary Education Program (PYP), Secondary Education
Program (MYP), Pre-IB and Diploma Program (IBDP) areprovided too. In addition, the Korean Scholastic

The Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy has theauthority over inviting these foreign educational
institutions in the Free Economic Zones. On the other
hand, the Ministry of Education (the Minister ofTable 5-4. Operation of Chadwick International School
School Name
Year of Foundation

Chadwick International School
September 2010

Main Campus (Governing Body)

Roessler-Chadwick Foundation (US)WASC (the Western Association of Schools and Colleges) accredited school
Round Square (International Federation of Private Schools) member school

Ratio of the number of students tothe quota

51.6% (1,037/2,080)

Ratio of the new admissions to the
quota

42%

Percentage of Korean Students

70.2% (811/1,156)

Number of Teachers and Other
Staff

Teachers 178, Other staff members: 35

Number of Students per Class
Ratio of Male to Female Students
University Acceptances

Recognition of academic
background in South Korea

Support through the government
subsidies

18.95
Male students: 607, Female students: 549 (including 345 foreign students)
All 68 graduates got accepted by universities in South Korea and abroad(85% of graduates got accepted by universities ranked top 50 in the world's
universities including Cornell University, Johns Hopkins University, Hong Kong
University, Waseda University.)
Students who have studied at least two subjects in the national curriculum ofelementary and secondary schools, including Korean and Social Studies, at a school
designated as a foreign educational institution for accreditation of academic
qualifications will be recognized as having the same academic background as that of
Korean high school graduates with some conditions.
No (100% private foreign educational institution)

Note: All information listed here is the information of 2016.
References: Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (2016), partially extracted and translated from page pages 45 to 47.

49

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

Credentials Recognition Program (KSCR) has been set
up. If Korean students take two or more subjects,
including Korean and Social Studies, for at least twohours a week along with the school curriculum, they will
be recognized as having the same academic backgroundas that of Korean high school graduates.

results as an educational institution. The school
continuously cooperates with the Incheon Metropolitan
Office of Education in order to eliminate the image ofaristocratic schools. The school is also providing
opportunities for practice teaching and training ofteachers in cooperation with the Gyeongin National
University of Education, which is a local university. In
addition, using weekend and national holidays, theschool teachers conduct English classes for children in
Incheon’s poor areas.

The number of teachers is 178, including 26 Koreans.
Most of the teachers have master's degrees in the field of
education. Since the number of students per teacher is
as small as seven, small-group instruction is provided.
The school has the same curriculum as the main schoolin the United States, therefore classes are given in
English. However, ESL (English as a Second Language)
program is also provided for students whose first
language is not English. In addition, financial support
from the South Korean government has not been
provided. PTA plays a central role in fund-raising toensure financial stability in school management. Since
the school was opened in September 2010, it has been
producing graduates who have been accepted by leading
universities every year in South Korea and overseas. It
can be said that the school is achieving some positive

The ratio of the number of students to the quota of theschool is 51.6%, and the ratio of Korean nationals is ashigh as 70.2%. Although new admissions to the school
remains at 42% of capacity, the financial situation of theschool has been continuously in the black. When foreign
workers who work for Samsung Biologics in the same
area as schools sign employment contracts, they often
visit the school. The challenge is that it would be difficult
to increase the enrollment rate of foreign students in theschool without a revitalization of the local free economic
zone.

Table 5-5. Operation of Daegu International School
School Name

Daegu International School

Year of Foundation

August 2010

Main Campus (Governing Body)

Lee Academy (US)WASC (the Western Association of Schools and Colleges) accredited school

Ratio of Enrolled Students to School
Capacity

46.6% (317/680)

Ratio of the new admissions to the
quota

42%

Percentage of Korean Nationals

67.8% (215/317)

Number of Teachers and Other Staff
Number of Students per Class
Ratio of Male to Female Students

University Acceptances

Recognition of academic background inSouth Korea

Support from the South Korean
government and local governments

Teachers: 52, Staff members: 10
13.78
Male students: 150, Female Students: 167 (including 102 foreign students)
All 21 graduates got accepted by universities in South Korea and abroad(More than 75 percent of students got accepted by prestigious universities in the
United States including Stanford University, Dartmouth University, Johns
Hopkins University, Oxford University, and Pennsylvania University. Somestudents enter prestigious universities in South Korea.)
Students who have studied at least two subjects in the national curriculum ofelementary and secondary schools, including Korean and Social Studies, at aschool designated as a foreign educational institution for accreditation ofacademic qualifications will be recognized as having the same academic
background as that of Korean high school graduates with some conditions.
No subsidies for school management

Note: All information listed here is the information of 2016.
References: The Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (2016), extracted and translated from pages 48 to 50.

50

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea

measures such as asking for increasing the ratio ofenrollment of Korean nationals and making efforts to
attract foreign students.

4-2.Daegu International School19)
Daegu International School was the first foreign
primary and secondary educational institution that was
opened in the Free Economic Zone. The school wasestablished in 2010 by the Ministry of Knowledge andEconomy (currently Ministry of Trade, Industry, andEnergy) and the City of Daegu with financial support andfree land loans, and is run by Lee Academy in the UnitedStates. The school conducts integrated education forkindergarten and students in grades 1-12 based on thesame curriculum as the main campus, and offers the 20
Advanced Placement (AP) courses of the Collage Board.
In addition, the school offers English as a Second
Language (ESL) program for students whose first
language is not English. It includes Chinese and Spanishclasses in the regular curricula and gives those classes
as part of the in-depth study in the curricula for thekindergarten to the students in 1-7 grades. Just like
Chadwick International School, Daegu International
School offers the KSCR program, and if certain
conditions are met, students can be recognized as having
the same academic background as that of Korean highschool graduates.

5. Conclusion
This paper has shown the cases of Korea as a recipientof foreign educational services. What was aimed at inthose cases was improvement of the living environment
and educational institutions that would contribute to therevitalization of foreign investment in the Free Economic
Zones. In addition, it was expected that meeting thedemand for early study-abroad in South Korea and being
able to provide education to develop human resources
who can play active roles internationally. It was also
expected to strengthen the global competitiveness as amarket for the education industry. Looking back at thesegoals from the two cases of foreign educational
institutions, it seems that they have achieved somepositive results in in meeting the needs for early studyabroad.
The cases in South Korea can be said to be similar toMode 3 in terms of trade in services, as they provide
educational services through bases such as overseas
branch campuses and partnerships with local institutions.
It is characterized by the local context of Korean society,such as the implementation of policies to accept
educational services in conjunction with economic
policies (revitalization of free economic zones), theassumption that consumers were foreigners who moved
to Korea, and the generous support of the host country in
the formation of the base.

Regarding its teachers, 13 out of the 52 teachers are
Koreans. One of the conditions for employment is thatthey must have a teaching qualification in their homecountry or have at least two years of teaching experience.
Since most of the foreign teachers are from the UnitedStates, many teachers are certified teachers in the UnitedStates. About region cooperation, Daegu International
School has exchanged memorandums with the Daegu
National University of Education and has provide student
teaching opportunities. The school also has interactions
with local junior and senior high schools and gives
opportunities for the class observation.

One of the common problems faced by the foreign
educational institutions at the elementary and secondary
levels, which were the examples in this paper, was that it
was practically difficult to fill the admission quota forforeign students, and the number of students was always
fell below capacity. In addition, the fact that students
mainly go on to universities overseas after graduation is
also a problem from the viewpoint of preventing brain
drain. The South Korean government expected that theattraction of foreign educational institutions in the primaryand secondary education stages would play a role instrengthening the social function of the school
while keeping in line with South Korea's public education.
If this is the case, more expectations would be placed on
the roles as educational institutions that provide highquality and global education for Koreans from an earlystage. The government is also expected to make a shift
in the policy to strengthen the function of foreign
educational institutions.

The ratio of the enrolled students to the school capacity
is 46.6% of which Korean Nationalities account for as
high as 67.8%. The ratio of new enrollment to the quota
is only 42%, however, the financial situation of the school
has been continuously in the black. The school cited the
difficulty of recruiting foreign students as a problem. The
number of foreign students in the area is not large due tothe stagnation of foreign investment in the area, and theschool quota for foreign nationals is not filled. In addition,
the school has a problem that the rate of the filledcapacity for foreign nationals will be much lower when
foreign students return to their home countries. As it isdifficult to fill the quota without attracting foreigncompanies and investment, the school has come up with51

Chapter 5 Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the Republic of Korea[Note]
1)
2)

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan "4 Modes of Trade in Services" (https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/wto/service/gats_5.html)
South Korea’s Ministry of the Interior and Safety, "Population Registration and Household Status" (http://27.101.213.4/index.jsp,
2020.05.30) last accessed on May 30, 2020
3) National Statistics Portal "National Land Area" (http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_2KAA101 last accessed on
May 30, 2020)
4) Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (2018) "The Current State of Religion in South Korea" (report)(http://27.101.209.87/Sviewer/index.php?kid=19011417425813436, 2020.05.30 last access)5) KASIS National Statistics Portal "OECD National Key Indicators"(http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_2KAAG01, last accessed on May 30, 2020)
6) Korean Culture and Information Service "Education, Research, and Industry"(http://japanese.korea.net/AboutKorea/Society/Education-Research-Industry, last accessed on May 30, 2020)
7) Kyounghwa Jeon (2018) "Chapter 3 : Development of International Baccalaureate in South Korea", edited by 李霞 "Global Human
Resource Development and International Baccalaureate - Introduction of IB in Asian countries -" Toshindo, p.71.
8) Ministry of Education (2019) "Educational Statistics" (http://kess.kedi.re.kr/index, last accessed on May 30, 2020).
9) Ministry of Education (2019) "Organized Educational Statistics" 2019 (http://kess.kedi.re.kr/index, last accessed on May 30, 2020)
10) Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2019) "Educational Statistics of Foreign Countries", "1.1.1.7 School
System Map (Korean)" (https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/data/syogaikoku/1415074.htm, last accessed on May 30, 2020)11) Encyclopedia of Korean Culture "Ministry of Education"(http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0005536, last accessed on May 30, 2020)12) "Local Education Autonomy Act" (Act No. 16682)
13) The official blog of the Ministry of Education, "What is the School Steering Committee?"(https://if-blog.tistory.com/3617, last accessed on May 30, 2020)
14) Website of Easy to Find, Practical Law "Admission System (High School)"(http://easylaw.go.kr/CSP/CnpClsMain.laf?popMenu=ov&csmSeq=745&ccfNo=1&cciNo=1&cnpClsNo=1, last accessed on May 30,
2020)15) A method to allocate students to the general high schools in the school group by drawing based on the scores of the high school
entrance examination (joint examination).
16) Seth, M. J. Education Fever: Society, Politics, and the Pursuit of Schooling in South Korea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
2002.
17) Ministry of Industry, Trade and Resources (2016), "Study on Sustainable Development of Foreign Educational Institutions in Free
Economic Zones", pp.25-27.
18) Ministry of Industry, Trade and Resources, shown before 17), pp.51-147.
19) Ministry of Industry, Trade and Resources, shown before 17), pp.51-147.

52

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at Upper
Secondary Education Level in Taiwan
Yu-Ching Liaovii[Summary]
The purpose of this report is to consider the possibility of establishing offshore schools at upper secondary schoollevel in Taiwan. In this report, I will do an analysis, in particular, with a view to expanding Japanese-style education in
Taiwan. As a result of the analysis, it is clarified that three issues must be reexamined in order to provide Japanesestyle education in Taiwan and to establish offshore schools at the upper secondary education level: reconfirmation of
acceptance of Japanese-style education, uniqueness of the programs provided under Japanese-style education, andestablishment of a qualification framework from Japan side. On the whole, there is a need for Japanese-styleeducation in Taiwan, but it remains on a small scale. Therefore, it is necessary to rethink the conditions necessary toprovide Japanese-style education, the elaboration of principles, and the establishment of institutional framework.

Notice: The English in this report was machine translated from the original Japanese before undergoing post-editing byhuman translators. In the event of any discrepancies between this translated document and the Japanese original, theJapanese original shall prevail.

Specially Appointed Assistant, Center for the Promotion of Interdisciplinary Education and Research, Kyoto University

53

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan

1. Introduction
In education in Taiwan, there was no policy interest intransnational or internationalized education before the1990s. The international development of education was
mainly regarded as one of the political and diplomaticmeans, and under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Education, emphasis was placed on the acceptance of
foreign students, educational support for overseas
Chinese, and promotion of cultural exchange1 . After theentry of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2002,transnational education and the internationalization of
education is drawing attention. Education has come to be
regarded as an industry. The goal is to form an
Educational System that can be competitive in the world
while keeping in mind the international education market.
On the other hand, the door has to be opened for theprovision of education from abroad.
Against this backdrop, the Taiwanese government hasoften come up with policies on the internationalization of
education, such as educational organization reform andthe acceptance of foreign students. In concrete terms, theUniversity International Competitiveness Improvement
Program ( 提 昇 大 学 国 際 競 争 力 計 画 in the original
language) which was formulated in 2002, aimed toencourage universities to recruit foreign students and toprovide courses related to the WTO. Subsequently, the"Project to Increase Acceptance of Foreign Students (inthe original language: 拡大招收外国学生来台留学案) in
2002 and 「陽光南方政策」 in 2004, and the "Export ofHigher Education - Action plan to increase acceptance of
foreign students” (in the original language:「高等教育輸
出 － 拡 大 招 収 境 外 学 生 行 動 計 画 ） ) in 2011 were
proposed. These plans set out a strategy focusing on
Southeast Asia in particular, with the aim of promoting
exports of higher education to foreign students andmaking Taiwan a hub for higher education in East Asia.
Specific policies on educational programs include
providing and strengthening English programs,enhancing language training programs, building
collaborative programs with universities in developed
countries, and establishing specialized courses forforeign countries. Looking at the policies of thesemeasures, the international educational development in
Taiwan tends to focus on the provision of education
overseas, mainly in the higher education stage. Also, asa social image, receiving foreign education is usually
linked to studying abroad from the graduate school stage.
Nevertheless, with the recent development of theinternational education system in Taiwan and the active
recruitment of foreign students by foreign countries underglobalization, there is a growing tendency for Taiwanese
students to receive education overseas after completionof secondary education. According to the survey reporton the entrance to higher-level schools and employment
status of graduates of senior high school (equivalent tohigh schools in Japan) (in the original language: 高級中等学校應届畢業生升学就業概況調査報告) by the Ministryof Education (equivalent to the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan), thenumber of students who completed the upper secondary
education stage in 2010 and entered higher-level schools
abroad was 476. The number exceeded 1,000 in 2013
and reached 1,900 in 2018, accounting for 1.0% of thetotal graduates2). Those graduates’ destinations to study
abroad is not limited in Western countries like before. The
number of students who study in China, Hong Kong,
Singapore, and Japan is increasing as the neighboring
Asian countries are actively recruiting international
students.
The international development of education describedabove shows that while Taiwan's acceptance of foreign
education is institutionally conservative, it tends to berelaxed in terms of expansion of the educational stage
and diversification of the providing countries. In light ofthese developments, the establishment of offshore
schools, which are in the upper secondary education
stage, will be considered as a clue to the diversificationand internationalization of education in the future. The
purpose of this report is to consider the possibility of
establishing offshore schools at the upper secondary
education level in Taiwan. An analysis is conducted in thisreport, in particular, with a view to expanding Japanesestyle education in Taiwan. In Japan, a pilot project todisseminate Japanese-style education overseas (EDUPort Japan) was launched in 2019 to develop andpromote businesses that serve as a model for overseas
expansion of Japanese-style education. Against thisbackground, by targeting Taiwan, which has cultural andsocial affinity with Japan and is geographically close to
Japan, and examining the possibility of providing
Japanese-style education there, it will be possible toprovide a new perspective for promotion projects thathave been conducted mainly in South America andSoutheast Asia5).
The structure of this report is as follows. First, theeducational system in Taiwan is explained (Section 2),
and then, the enrollment status at each education stage
and the trend of students who study abroad are analyzed(Section 3) in order to clarify the needs and acceptanceof Japanese-style education. After the overall situation isunderstood, the institutional framework for theestablishment of offshore schools is considered throughexamining the law on the establishment of upper
secondary schools. Finally, the offshore schools alreadyestablished in Taiwan are taken up as examples. Basedon this institutional framework, the contents of the54

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan

junior high school (equivalent to junior high school inJapan), upper middle school (equivalent to high school inJapan), and higher education stage. The educational
system is basically the same as the 6-3-3-4 system inJapan, but differs in that it is largely divided into a general
education system and a vocational education systemfrom the upper secondary education stage. The
curriculum of upper middle schools at the upper middle
education stage is divided into 2 types, general andspecialty-based (vocational) courses.
The Regular course provides education to broaden
students’ education and cultivate citizens. The goal of
regular course is to establish the foundation necessary
for the acquisition of academic research and expertise.
Graduates of the regular course mainly go on to

2.
Taiwan’s
educational
systemandthedissemination of education at each level
Let's take a look at the current school educational
system in Taiwan.
As shown in Figure 6-1, the school educational stages in
Taiwan continues to/from the national elementary school(equivalent to elementary school in Japan), national

School
age

Age

20

26

19

25

18

24

17

23

National Open
University

courses, qualifications that students will have, thenumber of students, and the composition of teachers of
the schools are examined to analyze the current situationof the provision of education from overseas in Taiwan.
Based on this social context, institutional basis and casestudies, this paper examines the situation and problemson the establishment of offshore schools in Taiwan.

16

22

15

21

14

20

13

19

High schools andvocational
training schools

12

18

11

17

10

16

National
Supplementary
Schools Attachedto National
Junior HighSchools

9

15

8

14

7

13

National
Supplementary
Schools Attachedto National
Elementary
Schools6

12

Preschool
Education

Internship

Universities of (2 years)
Universities

Science andJunior CollegesTechnology(General Course)(2 years)(5 year)Technical

JuniorColleges

College(Vocational Course)

High Schools

National Junior High Schools

National Elementary Schools

Kindergarten(JuniorCollege)(4 years)

Advanced
StudiesCollege

Open University and Supplementary/
Training education system

Primary Education

Secondary Education

Higher Education

Graduate school

5

11

4

10

3

9

2

8

1

7
6

Figure 6-1 School Education System in Taiwan
References: Compiled based on 教育部統計処『中華民国教育統計 民国 107 年版』 the Ministry of Education, 2018, page 239
with some additions and revisions.

55

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan

universities and colleges. They can also go on to juniorcolleges and vocational colleges one year after
graduation6). The purpose of the specialized (vocational)
course is to teach vocational knowledge and ability, todevelop vocational morals, and to train soundelementary-level engineers. Graduates of the course
mainly go to 専科学校 vocational schools and vocational
universities, but they can also go to regular universities
and 学院 schools7). The educational institutions at thisstage were divided into three types: upper middle schools
providing conventional general education, upper
vocational schools providing vocational education, andcomprehensive upper middle schools providing both of
the two types of education mentioned above. However,the policy of extending the national basic education to 12
years, which was established in 2014, led to thereclassification of these institutions into Regular, Skillbased, Comprehensive, Specialty-based upper middle
schools8). Under the Upper Middle Education Act of 2013,
these schools, regardless of type, are free to offer regularcourses, specialty-based (vocational) courses andpractical technology programs, etc.
However, these upper secondary schools have different
objectives as schools, and there are differences in themain curriculum offered by each school type. Regularupper middle schools and skill-based upper middle
schools have been converted from conventional upper
middle schools and upper vocational schools. Regularupper middle schools are schools which provide mainly
regular subjects and enrich student education. Skillbased upper middle schools offer courses that are mainly
professional and practical, provide education in practicaltechnology, cooperate with industry and academia, anddevelop students' expertise and vocational abilities.
Comprehensive upper middle schools provide both basic
courses and specialized courses, and corresponds to theabove-mentioned comprehensive upper middle schools.
In addition, there are schools called specialty-based
upper middle school that specialize in a particular area ofexpertise The school focuses on specific subjects, andaims to further develop the potential of students who are
judged to have special abilities and characters in fields
such as physical education, art and science9).
The higher education stage also consists of two subsystems in line with the regular education system and thevocational education system. The first is a general higher
education system consisting of universities and institutesof higher education, and the second is a higher vocational
education system consisting of higher vocational
education institutes such as National University of
Science and Technology, National Institute of Technology,
and specialized schools (equivalent to the level ofJapanese colleges of technology or junior colleges).

There is basically no difference between a university anda college in terms of level, but their scales are different.
Colleges may apply to change status to “University” if theschool site, facility, school, academic system, researchlaboratory, and funding meet the relevant regulations.10
In addition to the regular educational system, there is a
supplementary and training educational system (in theoriginal language: 補習及進修教育体系).This is related
to the establishment of schools, which will be describedlater. The system is different from the meaning of
supplementary education in Japan. It is a non-regulareducation system which is formed in parallel with theordinary school education system for the purpose of
supplementing the basic knowledge of the people,
improving the level of education, teaching practical skills,
cultivating awareness as a citizen, and promoting thedevelopment of society11）. In this system, corresponding
institutions are established at each educational stage,
and they are mainly attached to regular schools.
Specifically, from the elementary education stage to thehighereducation
stage,
thereare
National
Supplementary Schools Attached to the National
Elementary Schools, National Supplementary Schools
Attached to the National Junior High School, Upper
Middle Schools, Vocational Training Schools, SkillsBased Training Schools, and University Training Schools.
Open University, which is equivalent to the Open
University of Japan, is often treated as a part of
supplementary education and training because of its
historical background and nature of lifelong education.
Open University meets needs of working adults morethan regular institutions of higher education. Althoughthese schools are treated as non-regular schools, if thestudents complete the course, they will be recognized ashaving the same academic background as that ofgraduates of regular schools of the same level.
As described above, in Taiwan's education system, theregular education system has been developed by dividing
the content of education into vocational education andgeneral education in accordance with the 6-3-3-4 system.
The non-regular education system is being formed inparallel with regular education, and the provision offlexible and diverse education is required.
3. Number of Students at Each Level in Taiwan andStudents who Study Overseas
In order to understand the educational system in
Taiwan described above, this section analyzes the needs
for Japanese education in Taiwan based on the numberof students at each level and the students who study
overseas.
Table 6-1 shows the number of students and the net
enrollment rate12) and the advancement rate at each56

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan

Table 6-1: Number of Students, Net Enrollment Rate, and Advancement Rate at Each Education Stage in FY 1 2019
Education Stage
Higher Education

Number of students

Net enrolment ratio(Bachelor of Arts) 961,905(Junior College) 86,658

Advancement rate

71.0%

Upper Secondary Education

696.875

93.8%

94.3%

Lower Secondary Education

624.407

96.5%

99.8%

References: Compiled by the author based on Republic of China Academic Year 108 Educational Statistics, Ministry of Education
Republic of China, 2019.

educational stage in FY 2019. According to the table, thedissemination of education in Taiwan can be summarized
as follows. First of all, in terms of the net enrollment ratio,
the scale of education up to the upper secondary
education stage in Taiwan can accommodate more than
90% of the total population of people who should receive
the same level of education. In addition, almost all
students who have completed the lower secondary
education go on to the upper secondary education. 90%of them went on to higher education after completing
upper secondary education. Taiwan has already met theneeds of education up to higher education level, and isconsidered to have an educational scale that can meetalmost all of the needs of education. Under thisdeveloped system, Taiwanese school-age children,
students and students receive education to the higher
education level. It can be assumed that it is common
practice to study abroad and receive overseas educationfrom the higher education stage, especially from thegraduate school education stage.

Based on understanding of the scale of education
mentioned above, this section describes which
foreign education is accepted in Taiwan by
analyzing the number of students who have studied
abroad and study abroad destinations. First of all,the number of students in Taiwan who studied
abroad (including for language training) in 2018
was 71,221. The Destinations of 80% of them areconcentrated in the following five countries. The
United States (23,269 students), Australia (18,791
students), Japan (9,524 students), Canada (4,390
students), and the United Kingdom (3,850 students).
Looking at the number of foreign students and the
major destination countries, students in Taiwan
tends to choose English-speaking countries as popular
destination countries. On the other hand, Japan is the

Figure 6-2 : Number of Foreign Students Studying Abroad from Academic Year 2008 to 2018
References: Compiled by the author based on “Leaving the Country and Study Abroad" by 国際及両岸教育司(https://depart.moe.edu.tw/ed2500/News.aspxn=2D25F01E87D6EE17&sms=4061A6357922F45A, last viewed on January 25, 2020)57

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan

only non-English-speaking country among the fivedestinations and accounts for 10% of the total. Japan isconsidered to have a certain scale.
Based on the structure of the ratio mentioned above,
the trend in the number of students who have studied
abroad from FY 2008 to FY 2018 shows that there is stilla certain scale of demand for education in Japan
although the needs for overseas education in Taiwan arelimited. There is also a tendency for the demand for
education in Japan to increase. Figure 6-2 shows thenumber of students who studied abroad and had astudent visa13) from Academic Year 2008 to 2018.
According to this figure, the number of students who
studied abroad in 2018 increased 1.7 times compared to
5 years ago in 2013. Among them, the number ofstudents studied in the United States is the largest but isdeclining. On the other hands, the number of students
who studied in Australia, Germany, Canada and Japan,
are on the rise. The number of students who studied inJapan has increased about 1.8 times.
Due to Taiwan’s educational system mentioned above,
the ratio of those who receive education abroad accountfor a low percentage of the total number of people who
receive education. Students study abroad mainly at thehigher education stage. On the other hand, there is still a
certain scale of demand for education in Japan. The
demand tends to increase.

the systems.
First of all, the establishment of offshore schools as aregular education system is mainly stipulated in Articles
82 and 83 of the Private Schools Act. The Act provides
that "foreign nationals or legal foreign corporations may
establish private schools whose stage is higher thansenior high school stage within the borders of the
Republic of China (Article 82)" and "foreign nationals or
legal foreign corporations may establish private schools
whose stage is lower than senior high school stage andattached kindergartens within the borders of the Republicof China, and students of foreign nationality shall be
recruited (Article 83)." According to these laws, offshore
schools for Taiwanese cannot be established at the upper
secondary education level or lower, and only foreign
students can be recruited. In addition, although it ispossible to establish an offshore school at the upper
secondary education level or higher, teachers, curriculum
contents, and school facilities must be based on the same
standards as Taiwanese educational institutions. For
these reasons, there are many restrictions on theestablishment of offshore schools within the regulareducation system as a whole, and it is difficult to provide
Taiwanese with Japanese-style education in the regulareducation system.
In contrast, the establishment of offshore schools inexperimental education systems is more flexible andrelatively likely. The experimental education system isrelated to three acts (hereinafter, these three acts will bereferred to as “Three Acts Governing Experimental
Education") : the Enforcement Act for Non-schoolbased Experimental Education Across Levels Below
Senior High School (in the original language:高級中等
以 下 教 育 段 階 非 学 校 形 態 実 験 教 育 実 施 条 例 ), theEnforcement Act for School-based Experimental
Education, and the Act Governing the Commissioning of
the Operation of Public Elementary and Junior
Secondary Schools to the Private Sector (in the original
language:公立国民小学及国民中学委託私人辦理条例)
enacted in 2014. These acts were introduced to promote
educational innovation and to enable the provision of
education/forms of education that are different fromnormal education14). The educational institutions
established under the Three Acts Governing
Experimental Education are further divided into 3 types:
school-based, commission of the operation of publicschools to private schools, and non-school-based.
According to the statistical data in 2019, there are 40
experimental educational facilities at the upper
secondary education stage. The breakdown is four
school-based institutions, two institutions in the form

4. Institutional framework for the establishment ofoffshore schools
Based on the above discussion on the needs foreducation in Japan, this section examines the institutionalframework for the establishment of offshore schools,
using the Act on the Establishment and Operation ofUpper Secondary Education Institutions in Taiwan as aclue, and analyzes the possible forms of establishment
and issues when Japanese educational institutions
providing education in Taiwan.
As mentioned in Section 1, private educational
institutions can be established not only as a regulareducation system but also as a non-regular education
system in Taiwan. The non-regular education system isfurther divided into a supplementary education system, atraining education system, and an experimental
education system which is developed on the extension of
the supplementary and training education systems(details will be described later). The supplementary andtraining education system institutions are attached tomainly regular schools and are not related to theestablishment of offshore schools. Therefore, attention ismainly focused on the experimental education system
here. In the following sections, the possibility of
establishing an offshore school is examined according toof commission of the operation of public schools to
private schools, and 34 non-school-based facilities15).

58

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan

From the point of these forms, there are only a few
experimental educational facilities that are school-based
or in the form of commission of the operation of publicschools to private schools. The reason for this is that theestablishment of experimental educational facilities thatare school-based or in the form of commission to private
schools is influenced by the ordinary school organizationand school system, and the development as anexperimental education is limited more than that of nonschool based institutions.
However, in the experimental education system, theestablishment and operation standards concerning thecontents of education, the qualifications of administrativeand educational personnel, and the operation of facilities
and schools are less stringent than those of regulareducational institutions, and it is possible to freely provide
education based on their own principles. For example, in
addition to securing a certain number of school sites,
experimental educational institutions can apply for anduse space that will not be used by public schools or otherschools, and flexibly choose places to conduct classes.
In addition, it is possible to carry out activities restricted
in ordinary educational institutions, such as theemployment of non-qualified foreign teachers in Taiwan,
the fostering of teachers suitable for the needs ofinstitutions, and the development of curricula.
According to the institutional framework that we haveseen so far, it is possible to establish offshore schools inboth the regular and non-regular education systems.
However, the regular education system has more
restrictions on the education content, purpose, andconditions of establishment than the non-regulareducation system. For this reason, it is difficult toestablish an offshore school within the regular education
system in order to achieve and develop Japanese-styleeducation, which is the subject of concern in this report.
On the other hand, the establishment of an offshore
school as an experimental education facility, which isclassified into the non-regular education system, is more
appropriate for the goal to develop Japanese-styleeducation.

facilities can provide education based on their own
principles. Therefore, the experimental education
facilities of the 40 schools mentioned above provide
education based on specific educational principles suchas Montessori education, Steiner education, and naturalenvironment education. Unlike these facilities, Taiwan
Adventist International School’s primary purpose is toprovide American-style education. These characteristics
can be often used as a reference from the perspective ofthe development of the Japanese-style education system,
which is the issue of concern in this report. For thisreason, the school is chosen as an example in order to
conduct analysis.
Let's
take
a
look
at
the
educational
philosophy/objectives, educational contents, teacherstudent structure, graduation requirements, andqualifications to be given at Taiwan Adventist
International School (hereinafter referred to as TAIS).
TAIS is a non-school based experimental educational
facility established in 201516). The school aims to provide
all-around education (equivalent to liberal arts education)
suitable for the American-style Christian doctrine17). The
school provides a total of six years of education
corresponding to middle and high school levels. Those
who want to go on to higher education can be enrolled ineach grade. The completion certificate of the American
Course is awarded to those who have only enrolled formore than 1.5 years after the entrance and met the
specified requirements18). The ratio of students toteachers of the school is 4 to 1, and the number ofstudents per class is 3 to 18. The school conducts
education under the policy of classes with fewer students.
The educational content of the organization is the
programs certified by Griggs International Academy (GIA)
19), , an international educational institution in the UnitedStates. The program is mainly conducted in English by
GIA accredited foreign teachers20). The specific subjects
are English literature appreciation, leaning things in areasof mathematics, science, and international humanities,
aesthetics and practical work, life and interpersonal
relations, and applied arts21). These subjects aredeveloped under the American curriculum, which isdifferent from the curriculum guidelines stipulated in theUpper Secondary Education Stage in Taiwan. In addition
to these regular courses, extracurricular educational
support is also provided, such as supplementary courses
for the U.S. University Examination and career guidance
for applications.
Regarding graduation requirements and qualification to
be given, students who meet a certain attendance rateand complete the required literature, mathematics,
science, second language courses as well as required
subjects will be awarded a GIA certificate, which

5. Case Studies
Based on the institutional framework described above,
when setting up an offshore school in Taiwan, it is most
likely to be established as an experimental educational
facility. How can offshore schools be established as
experimental educational facilities to develop Japanesestyle education? In order to find an answer to the question,
this section uses Taiwan Adventist International School,
which is a non-school-based experimental educational
facility as an example and examine it.
As already mentioned, experimental educational

59

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan

academic qualifications in the United States22). The
school's policy on its students’ entrance into a higherlevel school is to send graduates to universities in the
United States and abroad. According to the informationmaterials on the academic destinations of graduates in
the academic year 2018, those graduates mainly go on
to schools in English-speaking countries such as theUnited States, the United Kingdom, Canada, andAustralia23). Overall, 90% of the graduates of the school
go on to schools in foreign countries24). If students meetthe graduation requirements, they will be awarded not
only the GIA certificate but also the certificate ofcompletion of the experimental education at the upper
secondary education stage. This certificate of completionis treated as equivalent to the certificate of completion of
upper secondary education and allows students to entera university in Taiwan.
In this way, TAIS, as an experimental educational
institution, is forming its own educational model by
separating itself from the Taiwan’s educational systemand building its own educational content, qualifications
and career options.

to receive Japanese-style education. For example,
students who receive Japanese-style education in
Japanese mainly go to Japanese universities. However,compared to the cases mentioned in this report, thenumber of students who go to Japanese universities is
considerably limited, and it can be assumed thatJapanese universities are not attractive to students whowant to go abroad.
In addition, the uniqueness of the programs provided
under Japanese-style education must be considered.
This point is related to the above. As an Asian country,
Taiwan has many similarities in society and culture to
Japan. That makes it difficult to distinguish Taiwanese
education from Japanese-style education, whichemphasizes non-cognitive aspects such as ethics andmorals. In order to make an appeal to Taiwanese
students for the merits of Japanese-style education, it isnecessary to dig deep into the contents of the courses
and others at the micro level.
The last point is related to the qualification framework.
According to the examples used in this report, TAIS canbe positioned as an intermediary institution for the
students to mainly go on to American universities. About
the establishment of offshore schools envisaged in thisreport, it could be assumed that the schools would send
their graduates to Japanese universities and educational
institutions while aiming to provide Japanese-styleeducation. In such cases, a person who has completed
an offshore school should be granted not only a certificate
of completion of an experimental educational facility, butalso, like a GIA certificate, a qualification corresponding
to the Japanese academic qualification. It is necessary tounderstand how the Japanese qualifications from theJapan side are granted.
On the whole, there is a need for Japanese-styleeducation in Taiwan, but it remains on a small scale. It isnecessary to rethink the conditions required for theprovision of Japanese-style education, the elaboration ofideas, and the establishment of institutional frameworks.

6.Conclusion
According to the current situation of education in
Taiwan and the institutional framework and examples ofthe provision of overseas education, the following threeissues can be summarized for the provision of Japanesestyle education in Taiwan and the establishment ofoffshore schools at the upper secondary education stage.
First of all, it is necessary to reconfirm the acceptanceof Japanese education. As mentioned earlier, regarding
overseas education, Taiwan is more eager to receive
education of Western (English-speaking) countries rather
than that of Japan. Therefore, regarding the provision ofJapanese-style education at the upper secondary
education stage, it is necessary to consider again fromvarious points of view what advantages Taiwanese
students could have and what kind of people would like

60

Chapter 6 Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at the Upper Secondary Education Level in Taiwan[Note]
1) Ministry of Education "The fourth Yearbook of Education of the Republic of China", 1974, pp.1-33.
2) The Ministry of Education, 「高級中等学校應届畢業生升学就業概況調査」
https://www.edu.tw/News_Content.aspx?n=829446EED325AD02&sms=26FB481681F7B203&s=1547C271DEDAE9
60, last viewed on May 30, 2020.
3) 聯合新聞網「我出国留学人数創５年新高 徳日加成長最多」 HYPERLINK"https://udn.com/news/story/7270/3979373" https://udn.com/news/story/7270/3979373Last viewed on May 30, 2020.
4) Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology "The results of the selection of the pilot project of “FY
2019 "EDU-Port Nippon"
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/31/06/1418465.htm, last viewed June 10, 2020.
5) For details, refer to “the outline of a pilot project to disseminate Japanese-style education overseas (EDU-Port
Japan)” by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.
https://www.eduport.mext.go.jp/summary/index.html, last viewed on May 30, 2020.
6) 教育部統計拠『中華民国教育統計 民国 107 年版』, Ministry of Education, 2018, pp.223-228.
7) Same as above.
8) For details, see Article 5 of the Higher Secondary Education Act. （教育部主管法規査詢系統「」、
http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/LawContent.aspx?id=GL001143, last viewed on February 3, 2019.
9) Same as above.
10) 教育部主管法規査詢系統「教育部辦理独立学院申請改名為大学審査作業規定」、
http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/LawContent.aspx?id=FL008673, last viewed on February 3, 2019.
11) For details, refer to 「補習及進修教育法」(2017)(https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?PCode=H0080002, last viewed on September 29, 2018)12) Net enrolment ratio is the ratio of the people who are actually receiving education at a certain education stage to thetotal number of people of the age at which they should be educated at that stage.
N/A13) With regard to those who have student visas, if they are qualified to study in the United States, they are those who
aim to acquire a degree, engage in short-term training outside the course period (at least 18 hours per week), andengage in short-term exchange. The United Kingdom, Japan, and Canada, have implemented a visa exemption
policy since 2009. The increased number of international students after that is considered to be the number ofstudents studying abroad for a long period of time. In other words, students who receive participate in language
training and short-term exchange programs in the above-mentioned countries are no longer counted from 2009. As aresult, the number of people who have received education overseas since 2009 is considered to be bigger than the
figures shown.
14) 行政院「重要政策《実験教育法》三法修正ー譲台湾教育創新更具動能」、
https://www.ey.gov.tw/Page/5A8A0CB5B41DA11E/d0f42a96-289c-4bb2-8c1a-87575a998a50, last viewed February
5, 202015) 台湾実践教育推動中心「各類高中職実験教育単位整理表」、https://teec.nccu.edu.tw/school2_detail/23.htm、Last viewed on June 29, 2020.
16) 南投県復臨国際実験教育機構「関於復臨」、https://tais.tw/zh-hant/about/last viewed on June 29, 2020.
17) Same as above.
18) Same as above.
19) Griggs International Academy is an international educational institution established in 1909. The academy provides
remote courses, programs, program certification, and teacher training courses.
The institution is accredited by the Association for Higher Education, the Junior and Senior High School Board, theChristian School Association and the University Association, and a certificate of completion will be awarded uponcompletion of the program accredited by the institution. Students can apply to universities with the certificate. (Fordetails, see GRIGGS, "Approved & Accredited," https://www.griggs.edu/about/accreditation, last viewed June 29,
2020.)
20) Some second foreign language classes and Chinese and subjects of Chinese and foreign cultures are taught inChinese by Taiwanese teachers.
21) 南投県復臨国際実験教育機構「師資与課程」、https://tais.tw/zh-hant/teacher-class/、
Last viewed on June 29, 2020.
22) 南投県復臨国際実験教育機構「畢業条件」、https://tais.tw/zh-hant/graduate-rule/、
Last viewed on June 29, 2020.
23) For details, refer to 南投県復臨国際実験教育機構「榜単」、 https://tais.tw/zh-hant/admission/, 復臨 International
Experimental Institute, Nantou Prefecture.
Last viewed on June 29, 2020.
24) 南投県復臨国際実験教育機構、https://tais.tw/zh-hant/, last inspected on June 29, 2020.

61

Study Group Meetings
First Meeting
Date:

Saturday, December 22, 2018 , 13:00 - 16:00

Place:

Kyoto University

Content: Explanation of the purpose and future development
Second Meeting
Date:

Saturday, April 13, 2019

Place:

Kyoto University

14:00 - 17:00

Content: Hitoshi Sugimoto: "New Trends in Transnational Higher Education"
Masayuki Watanabe: “Educational System in India”
Third Meeting
Date:

Saturday, July 6, 2019 14:00 - 17:00

Place:

Kyoto University

Content: Yusuke Nakajima: "Free Zones and International Branch Campuses in Dubai - Are theyHouse of Cards ?”Kentaro Shimada: "Education System in Indonesia"
Fourth Meeting
Date:

Saturday, February 8, 2020 14:00 - 17:00

Place:

Kyoto University

Content: Kyounghwa Jeon: “Establishment and Operation of "Foreign Educational Institutions" in the
Republic of Korea”
Yu-Ching Liao: "The Possibility of Establishing Offshore Schools at Upper Secondary
Education Level in Taiwan"

62

Members of the study group

Representative
Shigeru Takami, Vice director of the International Institute for Advanced Studies
President of Kyoto Koka Women's University, Specially Appointed Professor,Centerfor the Promotion of Interdisciplinary Education and Research, Kyoto University
Xiaobo Guo, Lecturer, Faculty of Education, Kobe Shoin Women’s University
Kentaro Shimada Specially Appointed Lecturer, Center for Interdisciplinary Education and Research
Promotion, Kyoto University, Assistant, Faculty of Business Creation, Kaishi
Professional University
Kengo Shirogane, Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Welfare, Biwako-Gakuin University
Hitoshi Sugimoto, Professor, Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University
Kyounghwa Jeon, Lecturer, Faculty of Child Education, Kyoto Koka Women's University
Hirofumi Tanimoto, Associate Professor, Faculty of Child Education, Kyoto Koka Women's University
Emi Chihara, Professor, Faculty of Child Education, Kyoto Koka Women's University
Yusuke Nakajima, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Osaka Ohtani University
Yoshiki Nagahisa, Social Studies Teacher, Keimeigakuin Junior High School
Hirotaka Nanbu, Professor, Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University
Jun Nishikawa, Lecturer, Department of Health Sciences, Kyoto Koka Women's University
Kenji Hattori, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University
Hajime Fukuda, English Teacher, Keimeigakuin Junior High School
Yoshimasa Matsumoto, Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University
Yuko Miyamura, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Kio University
Yu-Ching Liao, Specially Appointed Assistant, Center for the Promotion of Interdisciplinary Education
and Research, Kyoto University
Motoyasu Yamada, President of Suruga Gakuen (currently dispatched from the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs through personnel exchanges between the public and private sectors)
Former First Secretary of the Permanent Mission of Japan to the United Nations
Masayuki Watanabe, Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Welfare, Biwako-Gakuin University* Positions and titles are based on the data as of April 1, 2020.

Acknowledgment
We received support from Suruga Gakuen for this research. Thank you very much.

63

International Institute for Advance Studies (IIAS)

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Can we or future generations continue to live on this planet in the same way and with the same values we’ve
held up to now? How can we resolve such problems that have historical and social origins? And in the 21st
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64

CORE PROGRAM REPORTCreating a Hub for Import / Export of the Educational System– Exploring the Possibility of Keihanna, an International Educational City –Original Japanese Edition, September 2020
English Edition, March 2021 (Translated by machine translation)
International Institute for Advanced Studies
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ISSN 2436-4010

2021.03-R020E