UJNR Aquaculture Panel

38th Scientific SymposiumInteractions of fisheries and fishing communities related toaquaculture
October 26th and 27th, 2009 at the Harte Research InstituteTexas A & M University, Corpus Christi, Texas

Contents
7th Three year plan
Agenda for Science Symposium
Abstracts and key papers in order of presentation

The Seventh Three-year Plan of the UJNR Aquaculture Panel, 2007-2009
This plan represents a change from five year planning to three year planning in order to be more
responsive to rapid changes in quickly emerging issues related to aquaculture. The future successof seafood production must integrate aquaculture into coastal communities and benefit from thesynergies of having both traditional capture fisheries and aquaculture, to maximize the economic
value and societal benefits. Advanced technologies are being applied with great success andbenefits in all areas of our lives. Aquaculture is no exception. Advances in biotechnology
applied to aquaculture affects feeds, reproduction, organism health, product quality, humanhealth, breeding, and ultimately the economics and environmental impacts of aquaculture.
Further, advanced technology in culture systems, such as open-ocean, multi-tropic level, andrecirculation systems, are rapidly evolving and promise to produce more product at lesseconomic and environmental cost. The social and economic foundations of aquaculture in the
US and Japan greatly impact the development and growth of aquaculture industries in bothcountries and will continue to be important in the future. In the present three-year plan we willaddress these issues to enhance the management and development of aquaculture in our countries
including the implications for industry, consumer health and environmental impacts.
Specifically we will focus on how advanced technologies, social and economic structure, andinteractions of aquaculture and the environment impact future feeds development andinvertebrate culture. The last meeting of this plan will integrate the multi-faceted aspects offisheries and fishing communities relating to aquaculture.
・Aquaculture Technologies for Invertebrates. (Durham, New Hampshire, October 2007)
Culture systems for mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, and other invertebrates withcommercial importance will be considered.
・The Future of Aquaculture feeds. (Yokohama, November, 2008)
Sources for essential nutrients for aquatic animals, the tailoring of feeds for special life
stages (larvae or broodstock), special situations (low pollution, off-shore, recirculation
systems, animal health) or for enhanced product quality (human health, productstability/quality) will be investigated.
・Interactions of fisheries and fishing communities related to aquaculture (Corpus Christi, Texas,1October 2009)
The interrelated roles of fisheries and aquaculture in managing the coastal environment,
economics of fishing communities, resource allocation, management costs, and how advanced
technologies impact these issues will proved the focus for this last symposium of the threeyear plan.
Approved at the 35th meeting of UJNR, Mie, Japan 2006

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UJNR Scientific Symposium Program
Interactions of fisheries and fishing communities related to aquaculture
October 26-27, 2009
Harte Research Institute, TAMU, Corpus Christi, Texas
Day 1- October 26, 2009
13:30- 13:45 Welcome, logistics and opening remarks- Robert STICKNEY, Texas Sea Grant
Director and local host.
13:45-14:00

Opening remarks - Takaji IIDA, Japan Panel Chairman

Session 1 - Legal systems and structure of the industries in Japan and the United States
Tsutom MIYATA and Robert STICKNEY, moderators
14:00-14:25

Economic and social issues driving and affecting the development of aquaculturein the United States. Michael RUBINO (NOAA Aquaculture Program)
14:25-14:50

The legal systems of Fisheries Cooperatives and the right of fishermen in Japan.

Makoto YAMASAKI (National Research Institute of Aquaculture, FRA)
14:50-15:10

Refreshment break

Session 2 – The Human Dimension
Walton DICKHOFF and Satoshi KATAYAMA, moderators
15:10-15:35

Goal of Stock Enhancement; by the people, for the people. Yuichiro FUJINAMI(Miyako Station, National Center for Stock Enhancement, FRA)
15:35-16:00

Shellfish Growers’ Perceptions of Institutional, Environmental, Market-based andClimate Change Risks. Danielle RIOUX, (University of Washington)3

16:00-16:25

Marketing strategy of fisheries area based on locally produced and locallyconsumed: Cases of oyster and sea urchin. Tsutom MIYATA (National Research Institute ofFisheries Science, FRA)
16:25-16:50

Questions and Discussion from session 1 and 2

18:30-21:30

Symposia Reception at Omni HotelDay 2- Tuesday, October 27
8:30 – 8:45 Opening remarks – Michael RUST
Session 3 – Making a Business Case
Yasuji TAMAKI and Michael RUBINO, moderators
8:45-9:10

Commercial Farming of the Japanese Sea Urchin, Strongylocentrotus intermedius,

Now a Reality! Addison LAWRENCE (Texas A&M University)
9:10-9:35

Market survey for approaching to grouper aquaculture. Takashi IWASAKI(Kamiura Station, National Research Institute of Aquaculture, FRA)
9:35-10:00

Large scale indoor shrimp production (over 300 metric tons of shrimp per hectare

per year), commercial farming of shrimp in Japan and US, now a reality! Addison LAWRENCE(Texas A&M University)
10:00- 1020

Refreshment Break

10:20-10:45

Role of fisheries cooperative: a case study of price determination by producers.

Toshinori TAKASHI (National Research Institute of Aquaculture, FRA)
10:45-11:10

Economic analysis of offshore bluefin tuna aquaculture. Gina SHAMSHAK(Goucher College)4

11:10-11:35

Valuation of ecosystem services in restocking with freshwater fish.

Shin-ichiro ABE (Freshwater Fisheries Research Division, National Research Institute of Fisheries
Science, FRA)
11:35-12:00

Questions and Discussion from Session 3

12:00-12:20

Group photo session

12:20-13:20

Lunch

Session 4 – Industries: local and global.
Conrad MAHNKEN and Makoto YAMASAKI, moderators.
13:20-13:45

Implications of aquaculture for wild fisheries: Case of Alaska wild salmon.

Gunnar KNAPP (University of Alaska)
13:45-14:10

Revitalizing fishing villages through sightseeing fisheries in Japan. Yasuji

TAMAKI (National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fisheries Research Agency)
14:10-14:35

Technologies to bridge the gap between fisheries and aquaculture Cliff

GOUDEY (C.A. Goudey & Associates)
14:35- 15:00 Questions and Discussion of Session 4
15:00-15:20

Refreshment BreakSession 5 – Stock Enhancement, where capture and culture meet.
Shin-ichiro ABE and Michael RUST, moderators.
15:20-15:45

A comparison of salmon hatchery programs in Alaska and Japan. William

HEARD (Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA)

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15:45-16:10

Stock enhancement programs of a fisheries cooperation of a brackish lake inJapan. Satoshi KATAYAMA (Yokosuka Station, National Research Institute of Fisheries
Science, FRA)
16:10-16:35

Enhancement of Texas Sciaenids (Red Drum and Spotted Seatrout). Robert

VEGA (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department)
16:35-17:00

Efforts toward stabilization of Tiger puffer fishery and revitalization of tourism

based on puffer stock enhancement in the Tokai region of Japan. Shigenori SUZUKI (Minamiizu
Station, National Center for Stock Enhancement, FRA)
17:00-17:20

Questions and Discussion on Session 5

17:20-17:45

Closing Remarks –Robert IWAMOTO, USA and Takaji IIDA, Japan

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ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ISSUES DRIVING AND AFFECTING THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES.
Michael Rubino
NOAA Aquaculture Program, 1315 East-West Hwy. SSMC 3 - Mail Code: F, Silver Spring MD
20910
Email: Michael.Rubino at noaa.gov
In the 1990’s, rising demand for seafood, declining market share of domestically wild-caught
fish, and increasing imports led to renewed interest in the potential of marine and freshwateraquaculture in the United States. In response to increased demand for seafood and a growing
trade deficit in seafood, the U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC) and its sub-agency, theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), adopted broad aquaculture policies
in the late 1990’s. More recently, several high-profile events, initiatives, and reports have helped
shape NOAA’s expanding role in U.S. aquaculture and bring into focus the many challenges theagency faces in fostering U.S. aquaculture as part of its stewardship mission to manage andconserve marine resources.
From a national perspective, a compelling case can be made for developing additional domestic
aquaculture capacity in the United States. Aquaculture, as a complement to wild harvestcommercial fisheries, can help meet the growing demand for seafood and help rebuild our wild
fish stocks. Domestic aquaculture is also critical to maintaining an infrastructure in coastal
communities to support both wild stock fisheries and commercial aquaculture and all of the jobs
associated with the seafood industry. The potential synergies — rather than competition —among those engaged in commercial and recreational fisheries, marine aquaculture, seafood
processing, and marketing are the keys to maintaining resource-dependent coastal communities
and to ensuring a lead role for the United States in the global seafood market.
In order to cultivate those synergies and advance U.S. aquaculture, NOAA is focused on four
specific priorities:

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Ensure a comprehensive regulatory program for environmentally sustainable marine aquaculturethat is predictable, transparent and reflects an ecosystem-based management approach.
Support research and development partnerships and conduct scientific research to increaseknowledge and improve sustainable technologies for commercial aquaculture and aquaculturebased wild stock restoration.
Support public understanding of marine aquaculture. NOAA is working to provide clear,accurate, and up-to-date scientific information to decision makers and the public regarding theenvironmental, socioeconomic, and health impacts related to marine aquaculture.
Engage in international aquaculture developments and scientific exchanges.
The challenges facing NOAA are numerous. Environmental and food safety concerns and theeconomic ramifications of domestic aquaculture are the subject of much debate and widelydiffering views. With all of these issues on the table, the United States stands at a criticaljuncture in the development and implementation of marine aquaculture and the new economicand environmental opportunities it can help provide for all fisheries-dependent coastal
communities.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Rubino, Michael (editor). 2008. Offshore Aquaculture in the United States: Economic
Considerations, Implications & Opportunities (Pre-Publication Copy). U.S. Department ofCommerce, Silver Spring, MD USA. 264 pp. Available at:
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/news/econ.html
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 2007. Summary of the National Marine Aquaculture
Summit. Washington, DC. Available at:
http://aquaculture2007.noaa.gov/pdf/summitsum_web_1_08.pdf
Browdy, C.L. and J.A. Hargreaves (editors). 2009. Overcoming Technical Barriers to the
Sustainable Development of Competitive Marine Aquaculture in the United States. U.S.
Department of Commerce, Silver Spring, MD USA. NOAA Technical Memo NMFS F/SPO100. 114pp. Available at http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/noaanistwpfinal.pdf

8

Rubino, M.C. 2007. Remarks: Keynote for Environmental Impacts of Coastal Ocean
Aquaculture session. 137th Annual American Fisheries Society Meeting. San Francisco, CA.
Available at: http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/afs_07_rubino.pdf
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007. NOAA 10 Year Plan for Marine
Aquaculture. , Silver Spring, MD USA. Available at:
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/finalnoaa10yrrweb.pdf

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THE LEGAL SYSTEMS OF FISHERIES COOPERATIVE AND THE RIGHT OFFISHERMEN IN JAPANMakoto YAMASAKI
National Research Institute of Aquaculture, FRA, Minami-ise, Mie 516-0193, Japan
Email: yama850 at affrc.go.jp
Japan fisheries cooperatives are cooperative organizations established under Japanese law (theFishery Cooperative Act, 1948) to promote the development of cooperatives among fishingcommunities. In so doing, the Fishery Cooperative Act aims to improve the economic and social
status of these communities and increase productivity within the fishing industry. Fisheries
cooperatives are formed by the associate and its formal membership is controlled by the periodof annual operation days.
The business operations of these fisheries cooperatives include credit (as with banks), mutual aid(as with insurance companies), orchestrating sales operations that fishermen require in order tosustain themselves and their activities, and providing management guidance.
A regional cooperative is a social unit, and is based on a village that fishery was followed fromthe Edo period (about 300 years former). There were 1,890 regional cooperatives in 1998,
however, now there are 1,191 in July 2007 after making consolidation actively in these ten years.
Umbrella organizations include the National Federation of Fisheries Cooperative Associations,prefectural federations of fisheries cooperative associations, and regional cooperative
organizations.
Fishery rights are licensed by a prefectural governor and enables the holders to operate solely
and exclusively within specific areas and to benefit from this restricted access. And, fisheryrights, which are established on the sea surface, are not subject to the norms associated with landownership. The following three types of fishery rights exist: 1) Fixed-net fishery rights; include
the right to lay and fix nets and other fishing gear for a specified period of time at a particularlocation, 2) area demarcated fishery rights; permit users to participate in aquatic animal or plant11aquaculture within a specified demarcated area, and 3) common fishery rights; permit fishingcommunities in a specific area to operate fisheries on a communal basis.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Hiroyoshi, K., and M. Sano (eds.). 2008. Fishery Economy-learn with arranged points-,
Hokuto-shobou, Tokyo, pp.285.
This is a textbook for university and graduate school students to learn fishery economy. Contentsof the book consist of production structures of fishery and aquaculture and management, working
formation, establishment, consumption, marketing, processing and cooperatives of fishery. It isregrettable that they are written only in Japanese.

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GOAL OF STOCK ENHANCEMENT: BY THE PEOPLE, FOR THE PEOPLE
Yuichiro Fujinami*1, Daisuke Shimizu*1, Yoshitomo Nagakura*1, Tsutomu Noda*1, andHideaki Aono*1
1

Miyako Station, National center for Stock Enhancement, FRA, Sakiyama, Miyako, Iwate 027-

0097, Japan.
Email: fujinami at affrc.go.jp
Miyako Station, of the National Center for Stock Enhancement, was established in 1979 in
Miyako city (pop. ca. 58,000), located in northern Japan. In recent years, we have continued
stocking Japanese flounder, black rockfish, Pacific herring, and spotted halibut juveniles in
Miyako Bay. The stocking activities’ effectiveness has been proven in some cases. However,these facts are known to only some researchers and fishery workers. Successful stockenhancement demands that the following information be known not only to them. This
information is indispensable for residents' understanding and cooperation.
1) stocking habitat2) stocking season, size, quality, and quantity of juveniles
3) management of the stocked juveniles
For examination of residents’ awareness of “stock enhancement”, questionnaire surveys of 148
residents were conducted during 2004 and 2005. Results show that the response percentages of“I know the term STOCK ENHANCEMENT” and “I know a hatchery for stock enhancement
exists in Miyako city” were, respectively, 85.1% and 70.3%. The response percentages related toawareness of stocking of flounder, black rockfish, Pacific herring and spotted halibut were,respectively, 48.6%, 27.7%, 25.0% and 18.2%. These results suggest that local residents do not
fully recognize stocking activities and characteristics.
To promote our activities among local residents, we held lecture meetings, events held alongwith residents to stock juveniles, and cooking competitions using Pacific herring, which is atarget species of stock enhancement, etc. In particular, annual events to stock flounder juveniles

13with schoolchildren have been reported in newspapers and on TV. Because of our activities andbecause the coverage came to be known to fishery workers, the publicity activities have givenrise to secondary effects: the fishery workers began spontaneously to halt landing of young black
rockfish and to protect herring eggs spawned on fishing nets until hatching. We will continue
such activities in cooperation with local residents and fishery workers in the future, aiming at thepromotion and success of stock enhancement.

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SHELLFISH GROWERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF INSTITUTIONAL, ENVIRONMENTAL,
MARKET-BASED AND CLIMATE CHANGE RISKS.
Danielle Rioux, University of Washington, School of Marine Affairs, Seattle, WA 98105
Email: UWshellfish at gmail.com
Currently shellfish culture comprises two thirds of U.S. marine aquaculture. With U.S.
aquaculture expected to triple in size by 2025, it is likely that there will be marked growth in theshellfish sector. To effectively manage an expanding shellfish growing industry it is importantto understand the risks shellfish growers must consider in making business decisions. Significant
academic research elucidates the scientific basis of, environmental and climate change risks toshellfish, as well as market-based, and institutional risk. Yet little research has been done toassess how members of the shellfish industry perceive these risks, their ability to obtain financial
protection from them, their perception of market demand, and their associated business decisions.
This survey fills that gap. Each grower is asked to rate the level of risk posed by 30 different
threats, from major threat categories. Shellfish growers are also asked about their perceived
level of product demand, the history of their business decisions, and their plans for future change.
The data from this survey have been quantitatively analyzed to reveal, statistically significant
differences among risks to which the industry feels most vulnerable, as well as for comparisons
between regional business decisions and perceptions of risk. This study has shown that theindustry feels most vulnerable to institutional threats, with climate threats having the lowest
perceived risk. The results of coast to coast comparisons show that the Gulf Coast of the U.S.
has the highest level of perceived risk to the threats outlined, and the West Coast has the lowest.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Beach, Robert H and Viator, Catherine L. 2008. The economics of aquaculture insurance: an
overview of the U.S. pilot insurance program for cultivated clams. Aquaculture Economics andManagement. 12:1:25-38
One important issue affecting the continued growth and success of the aquaculture industry isrisk management. Aquaculture producers face a number of production risks (e.g., weather,15disease) that substantially affect their output quantity and quality. Crop insurance is one
important potential mechanism for managing these risks, but aquaculture has historically had
limited insurance availability in the United States, in part because of unique challenges
associated with implementing crop insurance programs in aquatic settings. The Cultivated Clam
Pilot Insurance Program, which began in 2000 in four Atlantic Coast states, is the first UnitedStates, federal crop insurance program for aquaculture. This program experienced relatively highloss ratios in the early years of the program, but substantial modifications beginning with the2004 crop year resulted in a significant improvement in actuarial performance. Experiences withclam insurance can provide insight into the potential development and application of insurance
programs for other aquaculture products.
National Marine Fisheries Service Office of Science and Technology, NOAA. 2009. Fisheries of
the United States 2008. Pre-Publication available at
http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/fus/fus08/index.html
This publication is a preliminary report for 2008 on commercial and recreational fisheries of theUnited States with landings from the U.S. territorial seas, the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ), and on the high seas. This annual report provides timely answers to frequently asked
questions.
van Anrooy, R.; Secretan, P.A.D.; Lou, Y.; Roberts, R.; Upare, M. 2006. Review of the current
state of world aquaculture insurance. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 493.
Due to the rapidly changing production processes in aquaculture worldwide (e.g. submergible
cages, sea ranching, intensification, aquaponics and recirculation systems), which sometimes
increase vulnerability to disease outbreaks and which generally require large investments fromaquaculturists, over the last decades the demand for insurance to share and cover the risks
involved has increased significantly within the aquaculture sector. Risk management isincreasingly gaining attention within the aquaculture sector, which is reflected in thedevelopment and increasing implementation of Better Management Practices (BMPs), Codes ofConduct and Codes of Good Practice, Standard Operational Procedures, certification andtraceability. Aquaculture insurance is one of the tools used in aquaculture risk management, butthere is considerable ignorance within the aquaculture industry about its availability, the process16of obtaining insurance cover, especially on aquaculture stock mortality, and the constraints toinsurers providing its services.
This paper concludes that there is low availability of aquaculture insurance because the risk
assessment for the industry is extremely complex, which make under-writing policies difficult.
This is part of the inspiration for my research, as more targeted policies for specified risks theindustry feels vulnerable to, are easier to create than blanket mortality policies currently
developed.

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MARKETING STRATEGY OF FISHERIES AREA BASED ON LOCALLY PRODUCED
AND LOCALLY CONSUMED - CASES OF OYSTER AND SEA URCHIN
Tsutom Miyata
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, FRA, Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku YOKOHAMA
236-8648, JAPANE-mail: tmiyata at affrc.go.jp
Foods of oyster in Japan are popular for fried oyster, oyster hot pot, rice seasoned with soy sauce
and boiled with oyster, and eaten at home or Japanese-style bar.
Since approximately 2000, an oyster-bar has become recognized in an urban area. The other side,
an oyster barbecue in a shack is currently increasing in some fisheries areas in southern Japan.
This makes a ripple effort on oyster price of production, labor of fishery concerned and the otherindustries in the areas. The oyster-bars rarely make a ripple effort on fisheries areas. Furthermore,
the successful business is beginning to expand to the north of Japan.
This new business method is important that the shacks of oyster barbecue and oyster ponds are
the same area because the tourists want to eat local seafood when they travel seaside. Namely,
the new business method can be taken place by which is “locally produced and locallyconsumed”. Moreover, local oysters (local fishers) have a grate advantage against import oysterand farmed oysters of the other areas.
A case of sea-urchins, people in Iwate prefecture; northeastern Japan have traditionally eaten
fresh sea urchins in the summer, and prefer very fresh sea urchins caught in Iwate. However,since approximately 2000, live sea urchins produced mainly in Russia have been supplied during
autumn to spring, and sea urchins have shifted from a seasonal item to one available throughout
the year. Fast-food sushi and conveyor-belt sushi made from fresh imported sea urchins haveformed a new market. Iwate fishers are worried that local sea urchins will be expelled by imports
from Russia.
On the other hand, processors continue their demand for sea urchins caught in Iwate for theirhigh ratio of edible tissue, freshness, and local produced and local consumed. Local consumers
also prefer local sea urchins for their high quality and area brand which formed by tradition of19

food and publicity (free mass media such as news). Therefore, Iwate producers have been able to
avoid the decreased demand for local sea urchins seen elsewhere in Japan.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Tsutom Miyata. 2005. Marketing strategy of shell oyster. Journal of Regional Fisheries (Japan),
Vol:46:1. Pp161-176.
The competitiveness of Iwate prefectural* shell oyster depends on the brand loyalty (industrial
goods) , which is formed by relationship marketing and push strategy (one of promotion
strategy) for jobbers and wholesaler. There are some fascinating elements of the brand. First, theread-time is short, second, the shell oyster is standardized, third, the oyster is supplied stably andso on. These practices are not easy because fisheries cooperative association gathers the oysters
from many fishers and ships them to the destinations, in other words, the fishers have made agreat effort to do the practices.
The shell oyster has been priced stably by the brand, and the price has brought about amotivation of fishers’ effort.
* Iwate prefecture is located in northern Japan.

Mari Hazumi. 2007. Construction of Local Brand in Marine Products and Effects on Local
Society. Journal of Regional Fisheries (Japan), Vol:47:2-3. Pp217-234.
The purpose of this paper is how to build the brand which is not involved in price competition. It
describes not only a individual brand but a point with advantageous being established as a local
brand. The local brand is formed by the relation of regional various resources and marine
products, and the organization that manages them well is necessary. It is shown that there arethree types of patterns of such the local brand, and verifies some cases.

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COMMERCIAL FARMING OF THE JAPANESE SEA URCHIN,STRONGYLOCENTROTUS INTERMEDIUS, NOW A REALITY!
Addison L. Lawrence1, John M. Lawrence2, Stephen A. Watts3, Mickie L. Powell3
1

Texas AgriLife Research, Texas A&M System, 1300 Port Street, Port Aransas, Texas 78373,

USA
2

Department of Comparative and Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa,

Florida 33620, USA
3

Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294,

USA
Email: smpall at yahoo.com
A sustainable successful commercial aquaculture industry in a country consists minimally of fiveeconomy-of-size profit centers. These are seedstock production (reproduction plus larviculture),
production of marketable food animals, feed production, processing plants and marketingcompanies. The Japanese sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus intermedius, is the most important
species of the commercial fisheries for the production of uni (tongue, gonad) in Japan. Four ofthese five profit centers necessary for a sustainable successful commercial sea urchin farmindustry already exist in Japan. However, there is no commercial dry formulated feed available
for S. intermedius.
A dry formulated feed for S. intermedius has been developed and produced in the USA. This
feed has been used to produce commercial size gonads of S. intermedius in the People’s Republicof China. Thus, with demonstration that a commercial dry formulated feed is available for
production of S. intermedius, commercial farming of the Japanese sea urchin in Japan becomes a
reality. Based on existing data, commercial farming of sea urchins has a potential higher rate of
return than commercial farming of shrimp.
This paper will present data showing dry formulated feeds developed and produced in the USA
produce commercial size gonads for S. intermedius and S. droebachiensis. Other sea urchin

21species for which a dry formulated feed has been used to produce uni are S. fransciscanus,
Evechinus chloroticus, Tripneustes gratilla, Paracentrotus lividus, and Loxechinus albus.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Lawrence J.M., X. Cao., Y. Chang, P. Wang, Y. Yu, A.L. Lawrence, S.A. Watts. 2009.
Temperature effect on feed consumption, absorption, and assimilation efficiencies andproduction of the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus intermedius. Journal of Shellfish Research 28(2): 389-395
The paper gives data that uni can be produced from the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus
intermedius, using a dry formulated feed. This paper is the first to report gonad indexes of over
30% wet body weight for the Japanese sea urchin using a dry formulated feed.
Lawrence J.M., A.L. Lawrence, S.A. Watts. 2007. Feeding, digestion and digestibility of sea
urchins. Pages 135-159 in JM Lawrence, ed. Edible Sea Urchins: Biology and Ecology. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
This is a review paper which summarizes the available data of feeding, digestion anddigestibility in sea urchins. It provides a summary of the requirements for commercial
production of sea urchins using dry feeds.
Chang Y., J.M. Lawrence, X. Cao, A.L. Lawrence. 2005. Food consumption, absorption,
assimilation and growth of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius fed a prepared feed andthe alga Laminaria japonica. Journal World Aquaculture Society 36(1): 68-75.
This paper was the first paper to show gonad production for Strongylocentrotus intermedius
using a dry feed. Though the gonad index was only 25% of the body weight it did show that thedry feed was better that the natural feed. This was the first paper to suggest that a dry formulated
feed could be made to support uni production from Strongylocentrotus intermedius.

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Lawrence A.L., .J.M Lawrence. 2004. Importance, status and future research needs forformulated feeds for sea urchin aquaculture. Pages 275-283 in J.M. Lawrence, O. Guzman, eds.
Sea urchins: fisheries and ecology. DEStech Publications, Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
This is a review paper which reviews the history for the development of the technology to
produce a dry formulated feed for the commercial production of sea urchins. Importantly, thispaper summarizes why a dry feed is essential for the commercial farming of sea urchins and why
natural foods cannot be used.

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24

MARKET SURVEY FOR AN APPROACH TO GROUPER AQUACULTURE
Takashi Iwasaki*1, Takuma Sugaya*2, Keiichi Hirasawa*3, Shizumasa Onoue*3, Kentaro Ide*1,
Kenichi Watanabe*1, and Hiroshi Ogata*1
1

Stock Enhancement Technology Development Center, National Research Institute of

Aquaculture, FRA, Saiki, Oita 879-2602, Japan
2

National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, FRA, Fukuura, Yokohama, Kanagawa

236-8648, Japan
3

Fisheries Research Institute, Oita Prefectural Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries ResearchCenter, Saiki, Oita 879-2602, Japan
Email:tak0829 at affrc.go.jp
Aquaculture industry in Japan has been stagnant due to the increase of production costs and low
market prices of major culture species. Groupers, especially Kue (Longtooth grouper,
Epinephelus bruneus) and Ma-hata (Sevenband grouper, E. septemfasciatus) have been
appreciated as high-grade commodities due to their rarity value and palatability. Thus, thegroupers are expected as new aquaculture species in Japan. However, production and marketingstrategies of the groupers which ensure the aquaculture success have not been examined enough.
In the present study, hearing surveys were conducted in wholesale markets and local farms toreview production and marketing status of grouper aquaculture. Trade and price trends ofcultured and wild-caught groupers were investigated at wholesale markets in Tokyo (Tsukiji
Market), Osaka, and Fukuoka. Besides, the current condition of grouper production has beensurveyed in fish farms of Oita Prefecture, which is an active area of aquaculture in Japan.
The result of the investigation shows that cultured groupers were dealt with a high price of atleast 1,500 Yen/kg at the three markets, suggesting that grouper culture will be profitable. The
amount of grouper trade at Fukuoka Market was largest among the 3 sites, although Tokyo
Market is generally the leading market for many species in Japan. However, the farmers appear
to have troubles in the lack of marketing channel. Therefore, the farmer should develop local

25

sales channel to expand their trading amount. It is also clear that there were seasonal changes in
the price and dealing amount of the groupers. The seasonal changes are advantageous to thegrouper culture since the time and amount of harvest in culture system can be controlled. On theother hand, the technical problems such as low growth, quality control (abnormal formation anddirty coloration, etc.), diseases, also appear constrains in the expansion of grouper aquaculture inJapan
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Teruya, K., and K. Yoseda. 2006 Successful Mass Production of Early-stage Larvae of Kelp
Grouper Epinephelus bruneus in Improved Rearing Conditions. Aquaculture Science, Vol:54:2.
Pp 187-194.
The authors examined the influence of different water temperatures (24, 26,and 28 ℃), rotifer
densities (1, 10, and 30 ind./ml), and light intensities (<0.01, 100, 250, 500, 750, and 1,000 lx) on
feeding amount, growth, and survival rate of early stage larvae of kelp grouper Epinephelus
bruneus in 100 and 500 l tanks.
As a result of examination, authors showed that survival and growth at 26℃ were better thanother temperatures. The more rotifer densities are, the more larvae feed. Besides, the feeding
amount of larvae increased significantly in the tanks with more than 500 lx light intensity. In
addition, the authors conducted three trials of mass seed production of kelp grouper in 100 or
150 kl tanks. In this trials, temperature, rotifer density and light intensity were regulated at 26℃,
20-30 ind./ml, and 1,100-2,500lx, respectively, which were determined as the optimal rearing
conditions mentioned above. As a result, early survival rates were improved to 50-100%, and in
the three tanks 359,000 juveniles (final survival rates ranged between 20.9 and 29.6 %) mean
total length 23.9-27.2 mm were harvested finally.
Tsuchihashi, H., Kuriyama, I., Kuromiya, Y., Kashiwagi, M., and M. Yoshioka. 2002. Control ofViral Nervous Necrosis (VNN) in seedling production of sevenband grouper, Epinephelus
septemfasciatus. Suisanzoshoku, Vol:50:3. Pp 355-361.
Occurrence of Viral Nervous Necrosis (VNN) disease is a big problem in the mass seedling
production of sevenband grouper. To prevent VNN, selection of spawners by PCR-based26

detection of the nodavirus gene, disinfection of fertilized eggs with residual oxidants in seawaterand rearing of larvae and juveniles using ozonated seawater were done. As a result of 7 trials, alltrials did not observed occurrence of VNN.
Additionally, VNN occurred when cultivating juveniles of sevenband grouper with the sandfiltered seawater though VNN did not occur when juveniles was cultivated with ozonatedseawater. These methods are effective as VNN control measures in the mass seedling productionof sevenband grouper.
Tsuchihashi, H., Yamashita, H., Onoue, S., Kanashiro, K., and H. Nakamura. 2009.
Grouper aquaculture being advanced in various regions of Japan.
Aqua culture magazine, Vol:578. Pp15-26.
This article introduces the approach of groupers cultivation done in various places in Japan.
The cultivation of Longtooth grouper, Epinephelus bruneus, and Sevenband grouper, E.
septemfasciatus, are done in Mie, Ehime and Oita Prefectures. In Okinawa Prefecture, Malabargrouper, E. malabaricus, is cultivated. To make the grouper cultivation succeed, these
prefectures are doing various attempts. For instance, the workshops of grouper cultivation
method were held for the farmer who tries cultivating groupers. There were lectures in theworkshop from the experts about fish physiology, disease, nutrition, cultivation environment, etc.
In Oita Prefecture, Sevenband grouper seeds have already being sold for the farmer, and theprefecture is putting out the subsidy to the farmer. On the other hand, occurrence of VNN (viralnervous necrosis) or iridovirus disease becomes a big problem in these groupers cultivation. The
vaccine development with these diseases is tried. Additionally, cultivation with the close
circulation system on land is researched. If these groupers are cultivated with this system, it
might be useful also for the reduction in the cultivation cost and the decrease of the negativeenvironmental impact.

27

28

LARGE SCALE INDOOR SHRIMP PRODUCTION (OVER 300 METRIC TONS OFSHRIMP PER HECTARE PER YEAR), COMMERCIAL FARMING OF SHRIMP IN
JAPAN AND US, NOW A REALITY!
Addison L. Lawrence
Texas AgriLife Research, Texas A&M System, 1300 Port Street, Port Aransas, Texas 78373,
USA
Email: smpall at yahoo.com
The first production of shrimp in ponds occurred near Kogashima, Japan in the mid 1930’s.
Though this farm was not commercially successful, it did suggest potential for the future.
First attempts in the United States occurred in the 1950’s in South Carolina. By the early 1960’s,
projects were also underway in Texas and Florida. Though commercial production was initiatedin the late 1960’s, the value of farmed shrimp was still less than 2 million USD per year in 1980.
By 1990, with successful hatchery production of specific pathogen-free postlarvae seedstock,higher quality formulated feeds and better pond production methodology shrimp farming weredeveloping exponentially. In the US, the production of farmed shrimp reached approximately 30
million USD per year; for the world over a billion USD per year by 2000. With the tremendous
increase in number of hectares of ponds in production, and transfer of the technology for
production of five to ten metric tons per crop with one crop per year in the US to the tropics with
two to three crops per year, the production in the US decreased to less than 20 million USD peryear by 2008.
The inability for US farmers with a limited growing season to compete with the tropics with year
around growing season became evident. Evidence indicated that for the US farmer to becompetitive, technology would have to be developed to produce shrimp in the US year around,and not only on the coast, but also inland. This demanded the production of shrimp in raceways
in buildings. Economic analyses indicated that to be able to obtain a satisfactory internal rate of
return on investment a growth rate greater than 1.2 gms/week, survival above 75%, production ofat least 20 gms shrimp and production levels equivalent to 150 metric tons/hectare/year had to beobtained. The initial attempts in the mid 2000’s fell short of these goals. However, with
continued advances in genetic selection of faster growing shrimp, higher quality feeds and29

raceway production methodology, predictable levels of production meeting the minimal criteria
for commercial production indoors have been obtained in the last few years. At the Texas
AgriLife Research Mariculture Laboratory in Port Aransas, an equivalent production of over 300
metric tons/hectare/year with growth rates of over 1.5 gms/wk, survival of greater 75%,
production of over 25 gm/shrimp are being obtained. These results will be presented. The initial
economic analyses of these data indicate that the internal rate of return will be between 30 to
60%. Thus, with this new technology, commercial shrimp farming in the US and Japan iscommercially feasible.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Kuhn D.D., G.D. Boardman, A.L. Lawrence, L. Marsh, G.J. Flick. 2009. Microbial floc
generated in bioreactors is a superior replacement ingredient for fish meal or soybean meal inshrimp feed. Aquaculture: 296: 51-57
A microbial floc was generated in bioreactors using Tilapia waste and molasses to produce aningredient. This ingredient replaced fish meal or soybean meal in shrimp feeds, resulting in an
increased growth of over 50%. The increased growth is critical to obtaining an adequate internalrate of return for raceway shrimp production.
Lawrence A.L., F. Castille, S. Patnaik. 2008 Effects of stocking density and water exchange on
growth and survival of Litopenaeus vannamei in a flow through outdoor tank system. Pages 236243 in T.T. Rakestraw, L.S. Douglas, L. Marsh, L. Granata, G.J. Flick, eds. Proceedings of the
7th International Recirculating Conference, Roanoke, Virginia, July 25-27, 2008
This paper was the first to report up to the equivalent of 150 metric tons/ha/crop with growth
rates above 1.5 gms/week and survival above 75%. These production levels are necessary toattain an internal rate of return above 30% for raceway production in buildings.
Patnaik S., A.L. Lawrence, F. Castille. 2008. Stocking density and feed rate effect on growth andsurvival of Litopenaeus vannamei in a recirculating indoor tank system. Pages 226-235 in T.T.
Rakestraw, L.S. Douglas, L. Marsh, L. Granata, G.J. Flick, eds. Proceedings of the 7thInternational Recirculating Conference, Roanoke, Virginia, July 25-27, 200830

This paper showed that the growth rate decreased with increasing stocking density. These data
provided the basis for selecting the initial stocking densities which would give both the desired
production level required with the growth rate in order to obtain an internal rate of return above
30%. The results also indicated that an excess feed rate decreased production and that feed rates
close to satiation were optimum.
Hanson T.R., A.L. Lawrence, B.C. Posadas. 2006. Economics of partial harvesting in superintensive recirculating shrimp productions raceways. Pages 15-22 in T.T. Rakestraw, L.S.
Douglas, L. Marsh, L. Granta, A. Correa, G.J. Flick, eds. Proceedings of The Sixth International
conference on Recirculating Aquaculture, July 21-23, 2006, Roanoke, Virginia, USA.
This paper provides the data indicating that the concept of partial harvest can increase production
in raceways. The spreadsheet provides the sensitivity analyses methodology to estimate theproduction levels, growth rates, survival and size of shrimp necessary to obtain a desired internalrate of return in raceways.

31

32

ROLE OF FISHERIES COOPERATIVE ― A CASE STUDY OF PRICE
DETERMINATION BY PRODUCERS
Toshinori Takashi*1 and Makoto Yamasaki*1
1

Aquaculture Systems Division, National Research Institute of Aquaculture, FRA, Mie 516-0193,

Japan
E-mail address: ttakasi at fra.affrc.go.jp
Yellowtail (Japanese amberjack) is one of the most important commercial fish in the maricultureindustry of Japan. The total yellowtail catches by capture fishery and mariculture are 230,000
tons, and about 70 % (158,300 tons) of the catches are supplied by mariculture. Furthermore, thecultured yellowtail production occupies 60 % of the total mariculture productions.
Recently, price of the cultured yellowtail tends to have lowered. Although, in the 1980s, theprice of yellowtail was at a high value of about $16 per kilogram, it cheapened afterwards year
by year. At the present, they are sold at low prices, about $7.5 - $8.5 per kilogram. It isconsidered that low price strategy by the retail store such as supermarkets is a large factor on thisprice. This fact has shown the situation of which the pricing power of the producer has been lost.
This low price inflicts heavy damage on the financial management of fishermen who conduct
yellowtail culture. To increase business efficiency, fishermen carry out management effort suchas cost reduction and extension of the culture scale. However, some of fishermen close abusiness.
In this presentation, we introduce an example about the role of fisheries cooperative to discuss
fisheries communities. In Tachibana Bay in Nagasaki prefecture, seven fishery households
conduct Yellowtail mariculture. However, they have faced on the financial crisis causing the low
price of cultured Yellowtail. To improve their management, the fishery households and fisheries
cooperative association have conducted original approaches to maintaining profitability. The
fishery households combine the Yellowtail mariculture each other and unify the feeding
procedure to be the same quality of Yellowtail products. The Yellowtail is currently sold as the
Unzen-brand Yellowtail. Furthermore, they create their own marketing networks such as hotels,
local markets, fishery-outlet stores and internet mail-order to sell at remunerative prices.

33

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Tasaka, Y. 1999, Study on the terms of brand Formation in young Yellowtail Aquaculture, Bull.
Natl. Res. Inst. No.13, 37-70 (in Japanese with English abstract)
Aquaculture farmers have to possess flexibility both in production and marketing in addition to
the production of high quality fish. The author clarified the business terms used by middlemen inyellowtail aquaculture. Their most important terms are “Stability of Supply” and “Stability ofwholesales price”. They have other terms such as “price level”, ”Firm flesh”, and “Sizeuniformity”. Furthermore, the author judged yellowtail aquaculture in Japan, and made clear
several problems in this paper.

34

APPLICATION OF A DYNAMIC STOCHASTIC ADAPTIVE BIOECONOMIC MODEL
TO EVALUATE THE ECONOMICS OF OFFSHORE BLUEFIN TUNAAQUACULTURE
Gina Louise Shamshak1, James L. Anderson2
1

Goucher College, 1021 Dulaney Valley Road, Baltimore, Maryland 21204

2

University of Rhode Island, 1 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, Rhode Island 02882 USA

Email: gina.shamshak at goucher.edu
This research presents a bioeconomic framework for assessing the economic feasibility of an
offshore bluefin tuna aquaculture operation by developing a dynamic stochastic adaptive
bioeconomic model of such an offshore enterprise. The bioeconomic model incorporates the
biological constraints of the species, the interaction of relevant economic parameters andconstraints, and stochastic sources of risk to solve for the profit maximizing behavior of a farmed
bluefin tuna producer. The model identifies the optimal harvest schedule for an offshore bluefin
tuna farming facility that maximizes the net present value of the operation under a variety of
economic, biological and regulatory conditions. A variety of potential production scenarios areformulated and evaluated by comparing the expected net present value (NPV) and expectedinternal rate of return (IRR), as well as the distribution of those values over a ten year operating
horizon. Such a model is relevant given the growing prevalence of bluefin tuna farming
worldwide, the present lack of studies formally examining the economics of this form of
production, and the uncertainty surrounding the economic feasibility and sustainability of farmed
bluefin tuna production.
Bibliography of Key Works
1.) This research report provides an assessment of Pacific Bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis)
farming as it is presently practiced in Ensenada, Mexico. This final report is available online:
http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/ecostam_pubs/1/

35

Zertuche-Gonzalez, J., O. Sosa-Nishizaki, J. Vaca Rodriguez, R. del Moral Simanek, B. A.
Costa-Pierce and C. Yarish (2008). Marine Science Assessment of Capture-Based Tuna(Thunnus orientalis) Aquaculture in the Ensenada Region of Northern Baja California Mexico:
Final Report of the Binational Scientific Team to the Packard Foundation: 94.
2.) The following are a collection of papers focused specifically on farmed Atlantic bluefin tuna(Thunnus thynnus) production in the Mediterranean. Growth rates, mortality rates, feeding
regimes, size at capture, size at harvest, and other production parameters specific to bluefin tuna
farming as it is currently practiced in the Mediterranean are available in these papers.
Aguado-Gimenez, F. and B. Garcia-Garcia (2005a). "Changes in Some Morphometric
Relationships in Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus thynnus, Linnaeus, 1758) as a Result of
the Fattening Process." Aquaculture 249: 303-309.
Aguado-Gimenez, F. and B. Garcia-Garcia (2005b). "Growth, food intake and feed conversion
rates in captive Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus Linnaeus, 1758) under fattening
conditions." Aquaculture Research 36: 610-614.
Ikeda, S. (2003). Market and Domestic Production of Cultured Tuna in Japan-Cultured Tuna in
the Japanese Market. Proceedings of the Symposium on Domestication of the Bluefin Tuna,
Thunnus thynnus thynnus, Cartagena, Spain, Cahiers Options Mediterraneennes
Katavic, I., V. Ticina and V. Franicevic (2002). "A Preliminary Study of the Growth Rate ofBluefin Tuna From Adriatic When Reared in the Floating Cages." ICCAT Collective Volume of
Scientific Papers 54(2): 472-476.
Katavic, I., V. Ticina and V. Franicevic (2003a). "Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus L.) farming on
the Croatian Coast of the Adriatic Sea-Present Stage and Future Plans." Cahiers Options
Mediterraneennes 60: 101-106.
Katavic, I., V. Ticina and V. Franicevic (2003). Rearing of Small Bluefin Tunas (Thunnus
thynnus) in the Adriatic Sea- Preliminary Study. Proceedings of the Symposium on
Domestication of the Bluefin Tuna, Thunnus thynnus thynnus, Cartagena, Spain, Cahiers
Options Mediterraneennes
Katavic, I., V. Ticina, L. Grubisic and V. Franicevic, Eds. (2003). Tuna Farming as a New
Achievement in Mariculture of Croatia. Workshop on Farming, Management and Conservationof Bluefin Tuna. Istanbul, Turkey, Turkish Marine Research Foundation.

36

Ticina, V., I. Katavic and L. Grubisic (2007). "Growth Indicies of Small Northern Bluefin Tuna(Thunnus thynnus, L.) in Growth-Out Rearing Cages." Aquaculture 269: 538-543.
3.) The following paper develops a bioeconomic production model that is applied to farmed
salmon and cod production. While this paper does not focus specifically on farmed bluefin tunaproduction, the model and the manner in which it incorporates risk could be generalized to otherforms of production.
Jin, D., H. Kite-Powell and P. Hoagland (2005). "Risk assessment in open-ocean aquaculture: A
firm-level investment- production model." Aquaculture Economics & Management 9(3): 369387.

37

38

VALUATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN RESTOCKING WITH FRESHWATER
FISH
Shin-ichiro Abe*1, Yasuji Tamaki*2 and Kei'ichiro Iguchi*1
1

Freshwater Fisheries Research Division, National Research Institute of Fisheries Science,

Fisheries Research Agency, Komaki 1088, Ueda, Nagano 386-0031, Japan
2

Fisheries Economy Division, National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fisheries

Research Agency, 2-12-4 Fuku-ura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan
E-mail: shinabe at affrc.go.jp
Ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) are the important fishery recourses providing the commercial andrecreational benefits to the local communities in the Japanese hilly and mountainous areas.
However in the most of the rivers flowing in these areas the fishing sports for ayu are kept
expensively by restocking with ayu-young because a series of dams often impede their upstream
migrations. This study valuated the several nonmarket services provided from restocking withayu to reveal these benefits that would remain hidden or unappreciated. Results of the contingent
valuation showed that the satisfaction derived from the residence near the rivers inhabited by ayu
was equivalent to \ 58,440 (US $ 613.2) in annual payment per person. In addition theentertainments using ayu, such as ayu-releasing, lessen in ayu-angling and observation of riverorganisms, would be interested by many Japanese people and the benefit for one time
participation was estimated about \ 1,600 (US $ 18) per person. Furthermore, ayu-restocking andayu-fishing have a function of improving eutrophication by preventing benthic algal bloom andby removing nutrients from the waters, respectively. In terms of the running cost of seweragesystem, the annual benefits of the two functions of ayu-restocking and ayu-fishing varied inrivers from \ 8.1 to 48.2 × 106 (from US $ 85 to 503 × 103) and from \ 0.3 to 213 × 106 (fromUS $ 3.6 × 103 to 2.2 × 106), respectively.

39

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Abe S., H. Saito, H. Sakano and Y. Tamaki. 2006. Economic evaluation of freshwater fisheries
providing the function of nutrient removal from Inland waters in Japan. Aquaculture Science 54:553-560 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Freshwater fisheries have a function of removing nitrogen and phosphorus from inland waters
where the excessive nutrients are discharged from human society. This study estimated theeconomic value attached to this function of Japanese freshwater fisheries using replacement cost
method. The economic value was estimated as the running cost of sewerage system to remove
the same amount of the nutrients contained in annual products of freshwater fisheries. In addition,
the efficiency at which freshwater fisheries removed the nutrients was expressed as thepercentage of the amount of the nutrients contained in the annual products to the annual loadingof the nutrients in 23 rivers and 9 lakes in Japan. The amount of the nutrients removed by
freshwater fisheries was highest in 1981, reaching 1132 t of nitrogen and 105 t of phosphorus,
and evaluated at 23.3 billion yen as the economic value. However the economic value was
reduced to 9.1 billion yen in 2003 with the decreasing annual catch. Furthermore, freshwater
fisheries removed phosphorus at a higher efficiency than nitrogen in the rivers and lakes. The
highest efficiency was estimated in the Ogawara Lake.

Minagawa T., S. Fukushima and Y. Kayaba. 2006. A study on visual assessment of periphyton
for flow management. Civil Engineering Journal 48: 58-63 (in Japanese).
Preference for streambed conditions was inquired of ninety one test respondents (a teen to sixties
persons) who were shown the streambeds with different benthic algal biomass in an experimental
stream and the Sinsakaigawa stream. The result showed that streambed with lower periphyton
biomass was more visually agreeable and a permissible amount was below 5 g m-2 in ash free dry
mass (20 mg m-2 in chlorophyll a).

40

Tamaki Y. 2007. Case study of valuating the multiple functions of freshwater fisheries andfishery villages in Japan. Journal of the North Japan Fisheries Economics 35: 215-226 (inJapanese).
Freshwater fishermen’s activity were investigated by a questionnaire survey for 895 Japanese
freshwater fishery cooperatives in December 2005 in Japan. The questionnaires were collectedfrom 342 cooperatives (38 % of the total). Economic values of their activities to preserve theenvironments (e.g. riverside cleaning, extermination of alien fish and watching for water quality
and unlawful dumping) were estimated as labor cost and evaluated at 2166 to 3248 million yen.
Economic values of their activities to exterminate alien fish were evaluated at 368 to 552 million
yen as labor cost, although the nonuse benefits of exterminating exotic fish that Japanese people
had were estimated at 29.9 to 108.4 billion yen by the contingent valuation method by aquestionnaire survey in December 2005 using internet communication service. In addition theeconomic values of two anonymous riverine fishing spots were estimated at 250 and 229 million
yen by the travel cost method.

41

42

IMPLICATIONS OF AQUACULTURE FOR WILD FISHERIES: THE CASE OF
ALASKA WILD SALMON
Gunnar Knapp
Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence
Drive, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 USA
Email: Gunnar.Knapp@uaa.alaska.edu
Worldwide aquaculture production is growing rapidly. The experience of Alaska wild salmon
suggests that aquaculture may have significant and wide-ranging potential implications for wild
fisheries.
Salmon farming exposed wild salmon’s natural monopoly to competition, expanding supply anddriving down prices. Wild salmon has faced both inherent as well as self-inflicted challenges incompeting with farmed salmon. The economic pressures caused by competition from farmed
salmon have been painful and difficult for the wild salmon industry, fishermen and communities,
but these pressures have contributed to changes that have helped make the salmon industry more
economically viable. Farmed salmon has greatly expanded the market and created new market
opportunities for wild salmon. Farmed salmon has benefited consumers by lowering prices,
expanding supply, developing new products and improving quality of both farmed and wild
salmon.
Salmon farming has had no apparent direct effects on Alaska wild salmon resources, but could
have indirect effects on wild salmon resources that might be positive or negative. The experienceof Alaska wild salmon suggests that anyone interested in wild fisheries should pay close
attention to what is happening in aquaculture. No wild fishery market – especially for highervalued species – should be taken for granted.

43

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Knapp, G. 2008. Potential Economic Impacts of U.S. Offshore Aquaculture. In NOAA
Aquaculture Program, Offshore Aquaculture in the United States: Economic Considerations,
Implications & Opportunities (Pre-Publication Copy).
http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/news/econ.html.
Knapp, Gunnar; Cathy A. Roheim; and James L. Anderson. 2007. The Great Salmon Run:
Competition Between Wild and Farmed Salmon. 301pp. TRAFFIC North America. Executive
Summary available at http://www.traffic.org/fish/. Full report available atwww.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/iser/people/knapp.
Asche, Frank; Atle G. Guttormsen; Tom Sebulonsen; and Elin H. Sissener. 2003. Competition
between farmed and wild salmon: The Japanese Salmon Market. Centre for Fisheries
Economics, Institute for Research in Economics and Business Administration, Bergen,December 2003. Working Paper No. 44/04.
http://bora.nhh.no:8080/bitstream/2330/418/1/A44_03.pdf

44

REVITALIZING FISHING VILLAGES THROUGH SIGHTSEEING FISHERIES IN
JAPAN
Yasuji Tamaki
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, 236-8648,
Japan
Email: tamakiy at affrc.go.jp
In Japan, beach seine, set net fishery, gill net fishery, small-scale trawl fishery, basket net or pot
fishery are major types of sightseeing fisheries. Aquaculture also promotes exchange between
urban and fishing villages. About these, I introduce a case study in Japan and I discuss the rolethat sightseeing fisheries serve as in fishing village activation.
Sightseeing fisheries can be divided into 3 categories according to participation style. (1) is on an
individual basis. This type includes trips that do not use fishing boats, but collect shellfish andseaweed, trips offered by tourist home for fishery experience using small boats, and trips thatprovide individuals with omnibus-style boarding on large ships to experience large-scale set net
operations. (2) is for families and small groups. This type operates small scale trawl net andsmall-scale set net fishery on a charter basis, in which the customer keeps all that is caught anduses ships that can accommodate a fair number of people. (3) is for large groups. Its main
operational areas are those that require large groups of participants, like beach seine, those that
do not use ships, such as barrier net fishery, and large scale-set net fishery operations on acharter basis. As for the charge, type (1) is the cheapest and is often provided free by tourist
home to overnight guests as a courtesy. As for type (2), the price will be at the same level as fora day's income from fishing or above, since the catch is given away to the customers. Type (3)has the highest charges, since it requires manpower, but when recalculated on a per-person basis
it turns out to be comparably cheap.
Sightseeing fisheries can bring in larger incomes for shorter operating hours and smaller landings.
This lowers the risk of overfishing and depletion of marine resources, and lightens the workloadof the workers. It can also have an overall effect on the local economy by increasing sales ofalcohol and other beverages. This type of project can also have a promotional effect on
consumers by encouraging them to consume more fish. One of the goals of a sightseeing

45

fisheries business is to educate the consumers about how the fish and shellfish we consume daily
are caught.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Yasuji Tamaki. 2003. Evaluation of the fishing village activation effect by a fishing groundcreation and urban interchange. Bull. Fish. Res. Agen. No. 8: 22-111.
The author did a chief ingredient analysis using six indexes related to economic performance andsix indexes related to fishery performance. As a result, two chief ingredient scores to represent
the vitality of the fisheries and economic vitality were calculated. Using these scores, Japanese
coastal municipalities are divided into five types. It became clear that it profits to add it withstore of an example investigation, effective, think about a regional activation policy thoughgetting typical method by means of many indices grasps a regional characteristic.
As one of regional activation method, though the fishing ground creation of an artificial reef
establishment is enforced with every land. The author did an example analysis of an artificial
reef. Fishermen do a resources management spontaneously and restrict a fishing term, fishingmethod with an artificial reef range with this example for an artificial reef establishment in an
opportunity. It became obviously that this attained a large part for an effective utilization of an
artificial reef. And, it is not long since an artificial floating reef was established, actual situation
solving of utilization, a management and an economically effective evaluation weren't done
enough until now. The author did an example analysis. The result, establishment of an artificial
floating reef brought about a direct effect called an increase of a catch quantity and revealed
many indirect effects such as a profits increase of a fisheries cooperative association, in oil
reduction of fishermen, operating hours shortening, extension of a fishing term further. The
result, artificial floating reef made to bring about 2 ~ 5.6-times effect of the cost that needed foran establishment and a maintenance. At a distant island, fishery plays a great part at a regional
economy. While bottom fish resources decrease, collect of a migratory fish an establishment ofa artificial floating reef, is valid as a regional activation measure.
A fishing village has for various valuable regional resources that there isn't for a city. By an
interchange, a corporation with an urban resident by a valid application of regional resources, a
trial to plan an activation of a fishery area is done in many fishing villages. Next the author did astatistical analysis and questionnaire survey analysis about a fishermen's inn to be able to46

become a nucleus of an interchange. The number of people and experience menu that 1
fishermen's inn can correspond is a few. However, it can correspond to various needs of urban
residents, by corresponding to it in the fishing village whole area and be related with anactivation of the fishing village whole area. Further, the author analyzed about fishing village
activation by an experience fishery by a fishing method. As being uselessness for a special
facilities establishment for an experience fishery, a fishery person can easily do. In recent years,
a guest number for an experience fishery is decrease by a depressed influence. On the other hand,a school to do fishery experience as a general learning increases.

47

48

TECHNOLOGIES TO BRIDGE THE GAP BETWEEN FISHERIES AND
AQUACULTURE
Clifford A. Goudey 1
1

C.A. Goudey & Associates, 21 Marlboro Street, Newburyport, MA 01950 USA

Email: cliffgoudey at gmail.com
In many cases, the growth of aquaculture is perceived to be at the expense of traditional fisheries
and as a result, conflicts have arisen between these two sectors of the seafood industry.
Opposition from fishermen has come in spite of explicit attempts to involve them in new
aquaculture projects through retraining programs.
The problem may rooted in the introduction of forms of aquaculture that merely compete forspace while not presenting opportunities that take advantage of fishermen knowledge and skills
or allow the continued use of their existing investments in operational assets. By factoring these
aspects into aquaculture development, not only can the conflicts between these sectors be
reduced, but also both sectors can benefit from a synergy that results in stronger seafood markets
and more viable business ventures.
Offshore aquaculture, more than any other form, offers business opportunities for fishermen.
Not only can fishermen provide essential logistics support for such operations, but they can also
be pivotal in site selection, environmental data collection, facility installation, and environmental
monitoring. Fishermen can also identify species opportunities and provide insight on seasonality,
pricing trends, assist in marketing, and perform broodstock collection.
The emerging concept of mobile cage operations may present the most compelling opportunity
for fishermen to get directly involved in fish farm ownership and operation. The far-flung natureof these operations will require mobility and a level of regional ocean knowledge that is held by
few others besides fishermen.
This paper will discuss historical examples of fishermen/aquaculture conflict and cooperation bysiting examples from New England and the tropics. Also presented will be recent developments
related to mobile cage technology and how such advanced technologies can allow the large-scale
expansion of fish farming. Recent full-scale self-propulsion tests of a 3,250 cu m. sea cage will
be described and prospects for mobile cage operations will be discussed.

49

Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Goudey, C.A. 1998. Model Tests and Operational Optimization of a Self-Propelled Open-Ocean
Fish Farm, in Proceedings Offshore Technologies for Aquaculture, ed. A. Biran. Haifa, Israel.
This paper describes scale-model tests of a self-propelled sea cage conducted at the U.S. Navy’s
David Taylor Model Basin. Test results include cage speed vs. power and drifting behavior vs.
sea state. Performance predictions are discussed including maneuverability and the energy
implications of intermittent powering in predictable ocean currents.
Smolowitz, R., C.A. Goudey, S. Hendriksen, E. Welch, K. Riaf, P. Hoaglund, H. Kite-Powell, D.
Leavitt. 1998. Sea Scallop Enhancing and Sustainable Harvesting, The Seastead Project. Reportfrom Westport Scalloping Corporation to NOAA Award No. 66FD0027
This report presents the findings of a two-year project aimed at evaluating the idea of sea scallop
culture in an offshore setting. The SeaStead project was conducted in a nine-square-mile area
south of Martha’s Vineyard Massachusetts. It became the first commercial aquaculture
operation in U.S. federal waters. Culture experiments included suspended cage culture, bottom
cage culture, and bottom seeding. The growth results and economic potentials of each method
are compared. The project was responsible for the identification of large scallop sets in the New
England groundfish closed areas, which resulted in the development of rotational management
schemes for that fishery.

50

A COMPARISON OF SALMON HATCHERY PROGRAMS IN JAPAN AND ALASKA
William R. HeardNOAA/NMFS Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Auke Bay Laboratories, 17109 Pt. Lena Loop
Road, Juneau, Alaska 99801
Email: bill.heard at noaa.gov
Japan and Alaska have two of the largest and most developed Pacific Rim salmon hatchery
programs. These programs vary considerably in complexity with diverse objectives andoperational procedures but still have many similarities in common. Alaska’s modern salmon
hatchery system started in the 1970s and grew out of depressed fisheries that reached record low
harvest levels. At the same time a century old Japanese salmon hatchery system was undergoing
dramatic improvements in performance with record high marine survivals of young salmon,
increased releases of up to 2 billion juveniles per year, and returns of adult chum salmon ranging
from 40 to 60 million fish annually. These impressive results caught the attention of emerging
Alaska salmon hatcheries, consequently, considerable Japanese influence is found within the
Alaska salmon hatchery system.
Private groups of fishermen operate most hatcheries in both countries including Prefectural
Fisherman Cooperatives in Hokkaido and Honshu and Private-Non Profit Regional Aquaculture
Associations in five major regions of Alaska. In both countries salmon catches are taxed under auser-pay system to help pay cost of hatchery operations. Both systems focus on pink or chumsalmon production and both systems extensively use short-term rearing of these fry to improve
marine survivals.
Several important exchanges between Japanese and Alaska scientist helped forge some of thesesimilarities in the two hatchery programs. The Governor of Alaska sent his Chief of Staff andfour others to participate in the 1982 UJNR Meeting in Tokyo and to tour hatcheries onsubsequent field trips. Another exchange between these salmon hatchery programs occurred in
1993 during the 23rd UJNR Meeting in Homer, Alaska when scientists from both countries
reviewed Alaska’s hatcheries together. Other exchanges occurred in 1976 and from 1982-198451

when scientist and engineers from Alaska Department of Fish and Game studied many Japanesesalmon hatcheries on Hokkaido and Honshu.
There also are many differences between hatchery programs in Japan and Alaska. Japan’ssalmon production, almost totally dependent on hatchery production, has eliminated many wildor native populations, caused in part by wide spread egg transplants between hatcheries.
Alaska’s salmon production strives for a balance between wild and hatchery production with apriority given to protecting and maintaining wild stocks. Closely regulated egg transfers in
Alaska are limited to local hatcheries within a limited region where brood stocks originate fromwild stocks in the same region.
In 2007 over 70% of 5 billion juvenile salmon released into the Pacific Ocean were from Japan(2.01 billion) and Alaska (1.6 billion). For the first time ever the commercial catch of Pacificsalmon reached 1 million tonnes in 2007 and Alaska and Japan accounted for two-thirds of thistotal catch. Over 90% of Japan’s catch was hatchery chum salmon while Alaska’s chum andpink salmon catch was 67% and 43% respectively of hatchery origin. Increased world wide
production of farmed salmon has impacted economic viability of hatchery production of salmon
in both Japan and Alaska.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
1. McGee, S. 2004. Salmon hatcheries in Alaska-------plans, permits, and policies designed toprovide protection for wild stocks. Am. Fish. Soc. Symposium 44:317-331.
The author provides a detailed overview of development of modern salmon hatcheries in Alaska
that began in the 1970s to rehabilitate depleted salmon fisheries. This program was designed toprotect Alaska’s wild salmon stocks through a rigorous permitting process that considers
genetics, pathology, management reviews, policies with priorities given to wild stocks, requiring
hatcheries to be located away from significant wild stocks, use of local brood stocks,
requirements for marking hatchery fish, and studies on hatchery-wild stock interactions. The
author reviews specific Alaska statutes and regulations that provide oversight for these hatcheries.
Details of the planning and permitting process are reviewed that includes steps taken to
determine production limits by species for individual hatcheries. The program is comprised of52

state, federal, and private non-profit (PNP) hatcheries with most hatcheries operated by PNP
Regional Aquaculture Associations. In 2002 hatcheries accounted for 22 % of the salmon
harvested commercially in Alaska. Alaska hatcheries produce approximately 1.5 billion juvenile
salmon annually, the majority of which are pink and chum salmon. Potential impacts ofhatchery salmon on wild salmon stocks is a contentious and debated issues in Alaska.
Interaction between hatchery salmon and relatively smaller populations of wild salmon are
unavoidable, however, obvious adverse impacts from hatcheries on wild salmon are not evident.
2. Kaeriyama, M. 1989. Aspects of salmon ranching in Japan. Physiol. Ecol. Japan, Spec. Vol.
1. 625-638.
The author reviews the origins and history of the development of Japan’s current salmon
hatchery program and the fisheries that harvest these fish. The first large scale salmon hatcherysystem in Japan began in 1888 when the national Chitose Central Salmon Hatchery wasestablished on a tributary of the Ishikari River in Hokkaido. After this many other hatcheries
were built and the numbers of juvenile chum salmon released increased significantly. From thelate 1800s to 1970s annual catches of chum salmon in Japan ranged from 1 to 5 million andaveraged about 3 million fish. Since 1971 annual catches have increased exponentially to 30
million fish as a result of increased hatchery efficiency and new technology combined withintensive scientific research. The key factor in this dramatic change in success of the Japan’ssalmon hatcheries was development of a post- emergent fry feeding program whereby fingerlings
are fed in hatcheries to a size > 5cm in fork length and allowed to migrate seaward when sea
temperatures and salinities are favorable for rapid growth to a post-fingerling stage. The author
carefully reviews migration and release patterns of juvenile chum salmon along with the return
rates for numbers of adult returns for different regions of Hokkaido and Honshu. Size andtiming for optimal juvenile releases varies according to different regions associated withprevailing sea conditions in each region.
3. White, B. 2009. Alaska salmon enhancement program 2008 annual report. Alaska Dept. Fish
and Game, Fishery Management Report No. 09-08. Division of Sport Fish, Research andTechnical Services, 333 Raspberry Road, Anchorage, Alaska 99518-1565. 47 p.

53This document summarizes results of the 2008 salmon enhancement program in Alaska. A totalof 39 tables and 4 figures cover details of egg takes, released juveniles, and total returns
attributed to each Alaska hatchery and enhancement project in 2008. The data provided
includes adult salmon caught by species in common property and cost recovery fisheries alongwith brood stock numbers and escapements for each of the four major hatchery regions in thestate (Southeast, Prince William Sound, Cook Inlet, Kodiak). In 2008 1.4 billion juvenile
salmon were released from Alaska hatcheries, mostly pink and chum salmon. There were 133
million salmon caught in the common property commercial fishery and an estimated 45 million,
or 34 % were produced by the salmon enhancement program. Enhanced salmon provided an
estimated $110 million or 29% of the exvessel value of the commercial common property
harvest. Private non-profit (PNP) hatcheries recover their operational cost from a special harvestof returning adult fish called a cost recovery harvest. This salmon enhancement program (ocean
ranching of salmon) employs hundreds of Alaskans in seasonal and full time employment and is
the largest agricultural industry in Alaska.
4. Kaeriyama, M., and S. Urawa. 1993. Future research by the Hokkaido Salmon Hatchery forthe proper maintenance of Japanese salmonid stocks, pp. 57-62 in Y. Ishida, Y. K. Nagasawa, D.
Welch, K. W. Myers, and A. Shershnev (eds.). Proceedings of the International Workshop on
Future Salmon Research in the North Pacific Ocean. Special Pub. Nat. Res. Inst. Far. Seas
Fisheries. 20. Shimizu, Japan
These authors review how the dramatic successes in hatchery technologies have caused
exponential increases in Japanese chum salmon stocks in recent decades. However, thesesuccesses in the Japanese salmonid enhancement program have raised new questions including
density-dependent effects on decrease in body size of chum salmon, dependence on intensive
hatchery production of chum salmon with loss of wild or native populations, and economics oflower prices paid to fishermen due to increased supplies of salmon in markets. Japanese
consumers expect a high quality product such as fatty chum salmon (bright, early run fish), andbecause of lower quality (darker ,late run fish) price of returning chum salmon dropped by over
20% in one year. Many native chum salmon populations in Japan have been eliminated by theextensive hatchery program caused, in part, by egg transplants between hatcheries. Other effects
include changes in run timing and reduction in genetic variability due to artificial selection in54

hatcheries. The authors propose a number of new research strategies for Japan and elsewhere to
begin addressing these problems.

55

56

STOCK ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMS OF A FISHERIES COOPERATION OF A
BRACKISH LAKE IN JAPAN
Satoshi Katayama
National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, FRA, Nagai, Yokosuka, Kanagawa 238-0316,
Japan
Email: skata at affrc.go.jp
Lake Ogawara is a brackish water lake located on the Pacific side of northernmost Honsyu,
Japan and covers an area of 63.3 km2. The northern section of the lake is connected to the Pacific
Ocean by the 6-km-long river, through which sea water is brought into the lake by tidal flow,
making the lake some what salty, 0.8-1.0 PSU. Harvest of pond smelt Hypomesus nipponensis,
glassfish Salangichthys microdon, and brackish clam Corbicula japonica between the years
2002-2006 average 445, 420, and 2156 tons a year, respectively.
Active stock enhancement strategy has been conducted for the brackish clam. Because the claminquires brackish water at the egg and the larval stages, the juveniles are distributed exclusively
in the north part of the lake. Fisheries cooperation of the lake intensively carries outtransplantation of the clam from nursery ground (north part) to productive fishing ground (southpart).
For stock enhancement of the fishes, the fisheries cooperation employs two strategies based on
intensive ecological surveys. One is the closed season for fishing in their spawning seasons, andanother is the lake preserves of the spawning areas. Particularly the latter is important because
their spawning grounds overlap the fisheries ground for clam digging.
Environmental characteristics of the lake highly related to life histories of these species, e.g.
oligosaline condition is essential for ontogenetic development of the clam, parts of the
populations of pond smelt and glassfish display anadromous migration through the out-flowing
river, and a part of pond smelt population spawn in the inflowing rivers. So fishermen havestrong consciousness to the environments of not only the lake, but also its adjacent areas. The
cooperation leads local administration and social agreement for environmental protection of thelake. All programs were independent actions of the fishermen and the cooperation. Seed release57

and artificial introducing from other habitats have not been carried out. The cooperation,
however, maintains high fisheries production through efficient fisheries managements promoted
by fisheries scientists.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Katayama, S., R.L. Radtke, M. Omori, and D.S. Shafer, 2000. Coexistence of anadromous andresident life history styles of pond smelt, Hypomesus nipponensis, in Lake Ogawara, Japan, as
determined by analyses of otolith structure and strontium: Calcium ratios. Env. Biol. Fishes,
58(2). 195-201.
Anadromous and resident forms of pond smelt, Hypomesus nipponensis, were found to occur insympatry in Lake Ogawara, Japan. Profiles of Sr : Ca ratios from individuals could be grouped totwo patterns (1) a 'resident' pattern with low Sr: Ca ratios from core to edge and (2) an'anadromous' pattern with relatively low Sr: Ca ratios near the core with abrupt increases in ratios
at a location approximately 0.3 mm from the core. Spawners smaller than 60 mm standard length(SL) were resident, between 60 to 80 mm were mixed resident and anadromous, and larger than
80 mm were anadromous. Anadromous individuals first migrated after 40 to 82 days fromhatching (mean +- sd, 59.1 +- 13.5 d) and 14.6 to 30.9 mm SL (22.2 +- 5.3 mm). There was nodifference in SL between resident and anadromous individuals during age at first migration,suggesting that size may not be the mechanism for divergence of alternative life history styles.
Katayama, S. 2001, Spawning grounds and reproductive traits of anadromous and resident pond
smelt, Hypomesus nipponensis, in Lake Ogawara, Japan. Fish. Sci. 67(3). 401-407.
The objective of this study was to reveal the spawning grounds and reproductive characteristics
of anadromous and resident pond smelt, Hypomesus nipponensis, coexisting in Lake Ogawara.
Life history styles of females shedding in spawning grounds in the lake and its inflowing rivers
were differentiated by otolith increment analysis. Size, dry weight, and water content of mature
oocytes and fecundity of fish were compared between resident and anadromous fish. Bothanadromous and resident fish spawned in the lake. In contrast, no resident fish were found in anyof the inflowing rivers, where only anadromous fish spawned. Regression of fecundity against
standard length was discontinuous with an inflection point at 63.8 mm, which is the body size58

that differentiates large anadromous spawning groups from small resident spawning groups.
Mean oocyte diameters were not significantly different between resident and anadromous fish.
The eggs of resident fish had significantly more water content and a significantly lower dry
weight than those of anadromous fish. These differences might influence the growth anddevelopmental processes of progeny.
Katayama, S., M. Sakaki, A. Tsurugasaki, and K. Numabe. 2008. Anadromous migrants shirauo
Salangichthys microdon, in Lake Ogawara, as determined by otolith microchemistry analysis.
Aquaculture Sci. 56 (1), 121-126.
To reveal the life history pattern of Shirauo, Salangichthys microdon, in Lake Ogawara, we
examined otolith Sr:Ca ratios in individuals from Lake Ogawara (n=12) and its tributary, theTakase River (n=6). Sr:Ca ratios were observed in two types of patterns: a resident pattern with
low Sr:Ca ratio from core to edge, and an anadromous pattern with abrupt increases in Sr:Ca
ratio. Back-calculated total lengths at the time of seaward migrations of anadromous individuals
were 63.4mm-67.7mm for five specimens from the river, and 36.8mm-63.8mm for three fromthe lake. These findings suggest there is a wide variation in life history for S. microdon, and that
residents and anadromous migrants live together in the lake.
Sakaki, M., S. Katayama, A. Tsurugasaki, and K. Numabe. 2008. Spawning Ground of Shirauo
Salangichthys microdon, in Lake Ogawara, Northern Honshu, Japan. Aquaculture Sci. 56 (1),
139-140.
Spawning grounds of shirauo Salangichthys microdon were found in Lake Ogawara, through an
intensive survey of the distribution of egg laid on the sandy bottom. Based on the presence andstatus of the sampled eggs, it was estimated that the shirauo spawned in shallow (≈ 1m) water
depths from mid-May to late June. By identifying important spawning areas, our results provide
valuable information for protection of the spawning stock.
Komaru, A., K. Onouchi, Y. Yanase, T. Narita, T. Otake, 2009. Shell strontium/calcium ratios ofCorbicula japonica collected from brackish area with different salinity. Nippon Suisan
Gakkaishi, 75 (3). 443-450.

59

To establish a method to estimate habitat salinity of Corbicula species, we examined thestrontium (Sr) to calcium (Ca) ratios of C. japonica collected from lakes with different salinity
and that of a freshwater species C. leana with an electron probe micro analyzer (EPMA). Sr/Ca
ratios in the shell of C. japonica from Lake Ogawara, Aomori Pref. (salinity: 0.2-1.7 psu), Lake
Shinji. Shimane Pref. (3.3-15.2 psu), Lake Jinzai, Shimane Pref. (7.5-32 psu), IN River, Gifu andfresh water species C. leana from Hatahoko River, Iki Island, Fukuoka Pref. C. japonica
collected from high salinity lakes showed high shell Sr/Ca ratios: 8.06 +/- 0.30 from Lake Jinzai
and 6.84 +/- 0.21 from Lake Shinji, respectively. On the contrary, C. japonica from low salinity
Lake Ogawara and IN River showed low Sr/Ca ratios: 3.68 +/- 0.18 and 1.33 +/- 0.14,
respectively. The fresh water species C. leana also showed low Sr/Ca ratio (1.65 +/- 0.11). Thus,
habitat salinity of Corbicula species can be roughly estimated by Sr/Ca analysis using EPMA,
and such information may be useful in the determination of place of origin.

60

ENHANCEMENT OF TEXAS SCIAENIDS (RED DRUM AND SPOTTED SEATROUT)
Robert R. Vega1*, William H. Neill2, John R. Gold3, Michael S. Ray1
1

Texas Parks & Wildlife Department, 4200 Smith School Road, Austin, TX 78744-3291, USA

2

Dept. Wildlife & Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, 2258 TAMUS, College Station,

TX 77843-2258, USA
3

Center for Biosystematics and Biodiversity, Texas A&M University, 2258 TAMUS, College

Station, Texas 77843-2258, USA
Email: robert.vega at tpwd.state.tx.us
Recreational fishing for two estuary-dependent sciaenids, the red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) andthe spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), is of vital importance to the economies of Texas(U.S.) coastal communities. The Texas saltwater recreational fishery, with about 1.2 million
fishermen, is presently worth $1.7 billion per year (U.S. dollars); of that total economic value,
the recreational fisheries for red drum and spotted seatrout—the two major targeted species--areworth $350 million and $220 million, respectively.
In the 1970’s, apparent abundance of red drum in Texas waters reached alarmingly lows.
Stocking red drum fingerlings to enhance the wild population was initiated in 1975, with a largescale stocking program coming on-line in1983. To date, more than 568 million red drum
fingerlings have been hatchery-produced and then released into Texas coastal bays. At least
partly in consequence of this enhancement effort, the red drum bay population in Texas waters
now has rebounded to near-record highs. Estimates of the contribution made by stocked
hatchery fish to total red drum numbers in Texas bays have ranged from 0 to 40%. It is
increasingly apparent that the efficacy of the stock enhancement program varies widely, bothfrom year to year and from bay to bay. But, it is equally evident that overall, Texas Parks &Wildlife’s long-term management plan using hatcheries to supplement natural recruitment, inconcert with traditional management tools, has played a crucial role in mitigating and countering
the decline of the red drum population.

61

During the past two decades, managers have had to implement increasingly restrictive fishingregulations for spotted seatrout, prompted by evidence of overfishing, including declines in mean
size of fish caught by anglers and also in estimated spawning stock biomass. Beginning in 1993,
traditional management was complemented by the stocking of hatchery-reared juveniles. Since
then, more than one million spotted seatrout fingerlings per year have been stocked, with the
cumulative total now exceeding 50 million. Currently, the spotted seatrout population is healthy
along most of the Texas coast, with management concerns focusing on the lower coast.
Evaluation of the success of the seatrout stocking program is on-going, with studies based on theapplication of genetic markers.
Fishery managers in Texas have taken the often controversial technique of hatcheries and used it
to the apparent benefit of the red drum and spotted seatrout fisheries. In turn, organizations ofrecreational fishermen have been staunch advocates of the enhancement program, providing not
only invaluable political support but also $4 million in direct contributions to operation of the
program. The utilization of stocking, combined with traditional management practices, has
proven to be a powerful combination in managing Texas natural resources wisely. The objectiveof this presentation is to present an overview of Texas’ marine stocking program as it has
benefited multiple users and stakeholders, including anglers, and coastal communities
economically impacted by recreational fishing.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Saillant, E., M.A. Renshaw, D.M. Gatlin III, W.H. Neill, R.R. Vega, and J.R. Gold. 2009. An
experimental assessment of microsatellite markers for genetic tagging of hatchery-reared red
drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) used in stock enhancement. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 25:108113.
Multiplexed microsatellite markers were evaluated as genetic tags for red drum (Sciaenops
ocellatus) juveniles used in stock enhancement. Offspring were generated from spawns of ninesets of five broodfish (three dams and two sires) in individual brood tanks. Intensive sampling,by trawling, at 2, 7, 8, 10 and 11 days after release of 192,500 hatchery-raised fingerlings
resulted in recovery of a total of 310 fingerlings. All parents and recovered offspring were62

genotyped for variation at 30 microsatellites combined for simultaneous assay in six multiplex
panels. An optimal combination employing three of the six multiplex panels allowed
unambiguous parentage assignment of all recovered offspring. Only 21 of 52 possible dam x sirecombinations were represented among recovered offspring. The founder equivalent (fe) of therecovered offspring was 8.7 vs the expected fe of 36.0 (95% CI = 33.3–38.4) if reproductive
success was randomly distributed among breeders. The significantly lower founder equivalenttranslated into reduced genetic diversity among the recovered offspring and may reflect differing
contributions of individual broodfish to spawning events, differing productivity among broodtanks, and /or variable survival of families during early larval and/or juvenile stages.
Karlsson, S., E. Saillant, B.W. Bumguardner, R.R. Vega, and J.R. Gold. 2008. Genetic
identication of hatchery-released red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) in Texas bays & estuaries.
North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 28:1294-1304.
The stock enhancement program for red drum Sciaenops ocellatus in Texas annually releases
from 25 to 30 million fingerlings into Texas bays and estuaries and represents one of the largest
such programs for marine fishes worldwide. We used 16 nuclear-encoded microsatellites and a
370-base-pair fragment of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) D-loop to assign red drum sampledfrom two bays along the Texas coast to either hatchery or wild origin. A total of 30 hatcheryreleased fish were identified among 321
red drum belonging to three year-classes sampled from Galveston Bay, while a total of 11
hatchery-released fish were identified among 970 red drum belonging to four year-classes
sampled from Aransas Bay. Allelic richness (microsatellites) was significantly lower among
hatchery-released fish than among hatchery broodfish and wild fish. Similarly, the expected
number of mtDNA haplotypes in hatchery-released fish (based on simulation analysis) was
significantly lower than that expected in a random sample of both brood and wild fish. The
contribution of brood dams, sires, and dam 3 sire combinations to the hatchery-released fish was
nonrandom, as was the distribution of hatchery-released and wild fish with respect to samplingstations (localities) within each bay. The possibility of a Ryman–Laikre effect is discussed.
McEachron, L.W., C.E. McCarty, and R.R. Vega. 1995. Successful enhancement of the Texas
red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) population. Pages 53-56. In: Marcia R. Collie and James P.
McVey, editors. Interactions between cultured species and naturally occurring species in the63environment: Proceedings of the Twenty-Second U.S.-Japan Aquaculture Panel Symposium,
August 21-22, 1993. Technical report /U.S.-Japan Cooperative Program in Natural Resources No.
22. Alaska Sea Grant Report: AK-SG-95-03. Homer, Alaska.
Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) is an estuarine-dependent sciaenid that inhabits estuaries, bays,
and coastal regions from New York to Mexico. In Texas, the red drum population began adramatic decline in the 1970s, prompting the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) to
set up a three-pronged recovery plan. Management approaches were: 1) Initiate an independent
monitoring program to assess relative abundance; 2) Implement restrictive regulations to reduce
fishing pressure, including license restrictions, size, bag, and possession limits, a commercial
quota, restrictions on netting, and a ban on commercial sale of red drum; and 3) Develop andstart a marine enhancement program based on the release of hatchery-reared fingerlings andassessment of subsequent survival.
Recently, the red drum population in Texas coastal water rebounded because of several factorsthat had a positive effect on the recovery. TPWDs long-term management plan utilizing
hatcheries and stocking to supplement natural spawning played a role in reversing the decline of
the red drum population. The strategy used by the TPWD can serve as a blueprint for othermarine enhancement programs.
Matlock, G. C. 1990. Preliminary results of red drum stocking in Texas, pp. 11-15. In: A. K.
Sparks (ed.). Marine Farming and Enhancement: Proceedings of the 15th U.S. Japan Meeting on
Aquaculture. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 85. U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. Washington, D.C.
The ability to control spawning and to rear red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) in captivity has
afforded managers the opportunity to use stocking to enhance native fisheries. This paper
presents preliminary results of the effects of 2 years of intensive stocking in two Texas estuaries.
Catch rates in gill nets fished randomly in stocked and unstocked bays in spring (April-June) andfall (September-November) were compared to determine changes in relative abundance offishable populations. Landings by private sport-boat anglers in each bay during the low use (midNovember through mid-May) and high-use (mid-May through mid-November) seasons before
and after stocking were compared for fish ~450 mm total length. Relative abundance and angler

64landings of red drum were higher after stocking in the stocked bay; abundance and angler
landings were similar or lower in unstocked bays after the stocking dates. Additional research isneeded to determine optimum stocking rates, times, and fish sizes.

65

66

EFFORTS TOWARD STABILIZATION OF FISHERY AND REVITALIZATION OF
TOURISM BASED ON TIGER PUFFER STOCK ENHANCEMENT IN THE TOKAIREGION OF JAPAN
Shigenori Suzuki*1, Masaharu Machida*2, and Masahiko Nariu*1
1

Minami-Izu Station, National Center for Stock Enhancement, Fisheries Research Agency (FRA),

Irouzaki, Minami-Izu, Shizuoka 415-0156, Japan.
2

Miyazu Station, National Center for Stock Enhancement, Fisheries Research Agency (FRA),

Odashukuno, Miyazu, Kyoto 626-0052, Japan.
Email: sshige at affrc.go.jp
Kanzanji Spa Resort, located in Hamamatsu City, Shizuoka Prefecture, once flourished andattracted many tourists during the 1970s thanks to its convenient accessibility from metropolitan
areas and the existence of nearby leisure facilities. Nevertheless, the number of tourists to the
Kanzanji Spa Resort has decreased since the 1980s because the mode of Japanese domestic
travel has shifted from group-based trips to individual travel, and because the main motive of
visiting spa resorts has changed. They used to be visited by workers for the sake of refreshingthemselves and promoting friendships; now people go to the resorts to enjoy seasonal andregional cuisine. Kanzanji Spa Resort has begun seeking new tourism resources aimed atrevitalizing this area.
Meanwhile, as a result of 1989’s Tiger puffer, Takifugu rubripes good catch, members ofHamana Fisheries Cooperative Association in Hamamatsu City drastically began to catch for
Tiger puffer, a kind of fish that had previously attracted little attention. Consequently, the Tiger
puffer catches grew rapidly. However, because there was no custom by which people ate
pufferfish for food in Shizuoka Prefecture, the caught Tiger puffer were rarely consumed locally.
Most were instead transported to western Japan by truck. After the Kanzanji Tourist Association
learned of this, they began to use “High Grade Tiger puffer Ingredients” as a new tourism
resource for Kanzanji Spa Resort in cooperation with the Hamana Fisheries Cooperative
Association and Hamamatsu City Chamber of Commerce. However, because the catches of67

Tiger puffer off the Hamamatsu are subject to frequent fluctuations under impact from the natureenvironment, they concluded that supplying Tiger puffer for food was difficult, especially if they
depended solely on wild stock. Therefore, large-scale production and release of the artificial
seeds of Tiger puffer was started in 2002.
This presentation will present the recent progress in stock enhancement for Tiger puffer and thetourism promotion measures in Kanzanji Spa Resort utilizing the Tiger puffer.
Annotated Bibliography of Key Works
Nakajima, H., M. Kai, K. Koizumi, T. Tanaka, and M. Machida. 2008. Optimal Release
Locations of Juvenile Ocellate Puffer Takifugu rubripes Identified by Tag and Release
Experiments. Reviews in Fisheries Science, Vol: 16:1. Pp 228-234.
We identified the optimal location for releasing hatchery-produced juveniles of ocellate puffer(Takifugu rubripes) for stock enhancement by tag and release experiments. The fish werereleased at four areas, Suruga Bay, Enshu Nada, Ise Bay, and Kumano Nada, along the central
coast of Honshu Island in Japan from 2001 to 2005. Approximately 10,000-40,000 cultured
puffer fish were released in these areas in 23 groups. Tagged fish were mainly recaptured at age
0 by small-scale trawl net fishing in Ise Bay, and by longline fishing at age one or older in
Suruga Bay, Enshu Nada, and Kumano Nada. Overall average recapture rate yielded 13.0% for
the Ise Bay release group compared with 2.0%, 2.9%, and 0.7% for the Suruga Bay, Enshu Nada,
and Kumano Nada release groups, respectively. Even in the Ise Bay area, significant differencesin recapture rates were observed among three release locations. Lower recapture rates were
presumably caused by predation, because tagged fish were found in the intestines of Japanese sea
bass (Lateolabrax japonicus). It is suggested that release locations should be carefully evaluatedand chosen to reduce initial mortality even if cultured ocellate puffer are released in Ise Bay. Oneof the optimal release locations is specified in shallow areas, such as off Tokoname, which are
inhabited by wild juvenile ocellate puffer.
Tsukui, F., and N. Yoneyama. 1999. The Characteristic of the Income Depending on Puffer LongLine Fisheries in Shizuoka Prefecture [in Japanese]. Bull. Shizuoka Pref. Fish. Exp. Stn. Vol:34.
Pp49-52.

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In the sea area from Kumano Nada, Ise Bay to Enshu Nada surrounding Mie, Aichi, andShizuoka Prefectures, there was a record catch of Tiger puffer in 1989. Since then, although thecatches have fluctuated considerably, Tiger puffer fishery has become a vital industry in the
Tokai region because of its high profitability. This study investigated the actual situation of Tiger
puffer fishery in Shizuoka Prefecture and changes in fish prices since 1988.
N. Hiroshi. 2005. Hearing Report of Hamamatsu City and Kanzanji Hot Spring Report [inJapanese]. Economic review, Shizuoka University Vol:10:1. Pp 41-48.
Off the coast of Hamamatsu in Shizuoka Prefecture are known as one of the largest Tiger puffer
fishing ground in Japan. However, because no pufferfish-processing facility existed in
Hamamatsu region, most Tiger puffer that have been caught have been shipped to the
Shimonoseki region in Yamaguchi Prefecture. Kanzanji Spa Resort in Hamamatsu City began
projects to assign a brand value to the Tiger puffer caught in off the coast of Hamamatsu
beginning in 2003. As citizens came to attach greater importance to the consumption of thelocally produced food, hotels and inns in Kanzanji Spa Resort made a joint capital investment inNovember 2003 in the establishment of a puffer processing plant. The facility began operations,which enabled them to provide puffer cuisine locally. In 2004, the Small and Medium Enterprise
Agency of Japan designated Kanzanji’s project as its “Japan Brand Promotion Project,” and the
Agency provided government grants amounting to 25 million yen to the project. Using this grant,
the Kanzanji Spa Resort implemented an advertising and promotion campaign, with the goal of
encouraging 40,000 visitors to come to the resort. In addition, new snacks adding puffer powder
in its ingredients such as sweets, Japanese rice crackers and cookies were produced and sold in
the market. Consequently, the spa resort hosted 20,000 visitors in FY 2003 and 35,000 visitors in
FY 2004. The economic effect in FY 2004 was estimated as about 400 million yen.

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