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The Viewpoints of the Buddhism toward Life Sciences

Shinichi Kogure
Introduction

T

HOUGH there are many expressions to characterize the 20th century from various viewpoints, it can certainly be expressed as “thecentury of science and technology.” In the first half of the century, thedevelopments of physics and chemistry were remarkable and people’sview for material was greatly changed. The typical examples were findings for “uncertainty principle” and “atomic bomb.” In the latter half,life sciences leading by molecular biology have been developing rapidly
and they engrave DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) on the people’s viewpoint of life. Topics such as “Completion of the plan for all humangenomic DNA sequence” and “Clone sheep, Dolly” have been caught
the people’s hearts.
Many people predict that the life sciences will become in the centerof science in the 21st century. Optimistic scientists as well as medical
doctors stated that “Sick treatment will be renewed according to theindividual genome analysis” or “The organ and tissue will be madefreely by the clone technology.”1
We must realize, however, that a way to “chaos” or condition filledwith anti-value for human being is there, as well. Because life sciences
are also based on the elementalism as well as the reductionism: the goalof life scientists is to substitute the life phenomena for word such as thematerial name and to express the relation between the phenomena bymathematical formula.2 Such analytical approach of life sciences would
be useful for our lives, minds and hearts? And, we could ethically-correctly apply the life operation technology, mind control technology andso on derived from there, to our society?
When we think about the present condition of life sciences and technologies, issues of science/technology itself and scientists/technologists
themselves are becoming radical and “aporia.” To solve the difficult
issues, it is more adequate for us to change our stance to depend on
Buddhist ideas rather than Western thoughts, because the latter have led
modern science and technology to result in facing chaos or aporia.
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In the present paper, after summarizing the progress of science andtechnology in the 20th century, some Buddhist viewpoints will be provided: “Nyo-jitsu-chi-ken” (to look at objects as they actually stand)and “En-gi” (an essential relationship to depend on each other among
existences) are introduced to the issue of science/technology, while“Sho-yoku-chi-soku” (to satisfy with a little of gratification) is introduced to the issue of scientists/technologists. Finally, the author willrefer to Goethe’s idea for the natural science different from Newton’s orLinne’s one, and will present his own idea entitled “A neurophysiological approach to drives.”
Developments of Physics and Chemistry during the First Half of the20th Century
It could be said that rapid development in modern sciences was made in
the 20th century, and there was a very striking development in the fieldsof physics and chemistry. Table 1 shows a list of the main Nobel
prizewinners in physics during the first half of the century.3
Table 1
1901
1903
1918
1921
1922
1932
1933
1949

A list of the main Nobel prizewinners in physics.
W. K. von RÖNTGEN
M. CURIE
M. K. E. PLANCK
A. EINSTEIN
N. H. D. BOHR
W. K. HEISENBERG
E. SCHRÖDINGER
H. YUKAWA

As a matter of course, not only their names but also their achievements are well known in the world. Röntgen was the discoverer of the
X-ray, and Mrs. Curie was the discoverer of the radioactive element“radium”: They became a pioneer to open the research field from theatomic level to the nuclear level at that time when the atom was presumed to be an extremity element of materials. Though the reason that
Einstein won the prize was a novel theory on the photoelectric effect, he
was rather famous for his “relativity theories.” His latter theories resulted in a paradigm shift from the general, classic idea on the space-timeworld since Newton’s era to the novel, unusual idea based on the principle of relativity. Moreover, Planck and Bohr laid a foundation of thequantum theory, and it was established by Heisenberg and Schrödinger
as a quantum mechanics. The viewpoints derived from the quantum

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mechanics, which showed that “uncertainty principle” functions
between the movement of material and its position, and that the ultimate
existence of the material is expressed by the probability, had a strong
impact on the contemporaries. Yukawa’s “meson theory” was an original theory to predict an interaction by the meson working in the atomic
nucleus between neutron and proton. As soon as the existence of themeson had been demonstrated, the elementary particle physics started
to progress for further extremity.
Of course, the development of physics have not been necessarily
made only by the people described above. And, it is needless to say thatit had been attained by many scientists including the Nobel prizewinners in chemistry, who developed vigorous research and kept in toucheach other.
Then, what was brought by the development of sciences, particularlyof physics and chemistry? It is difficult to state in brief, but firstly it canbe pointed out that several kinds of viewpoints derived from scienceschanged scientists’ view on the world. The old or classic world whichsurrounds our existence had been imagined as an “absolute space-time”
where immutability as well as continuity were preserved, and the image
was changed to the new or quantum world based on “relativity” and“discreteness.” A great influence on scientists’ view on the materials is
the second point. It means that ultimate existence could not be madeclear because of “uncertainty principle,” whereas it became to be
described at the level of elementary particles.
Since such recognition was at the macro- or micro-level, far from ourusual level, whether it influenced on the viewpoint of the people who
lived in the everyday level or not might be doubtful. However, theymight have a vague feeling that the goal of such sciences would be in
the veil, with observing that the progress of sciences continued to dismantle the materials by using the analytical and reductionismic
approaches.
The author is the one who has an impression that the dismantling ofmaterials will result in a certain type of diversity: it means that thoseinvestigations dismantling the materials are endless and have a possibility to prove fruitless. On the other hand, he is also interested in the scientific theories proposed during the development of sciences. For example, the equation of “E = mc2” deserves comment. The left side showsenergy while the right side does the mass times optical velocity squared.
The equation provides us ideas that mass and energy have interchangeability and that they are equivalent. In other words, it provides the pointof view that the matter with mass visually easy to catch is equal to theJ/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 83

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thing or event with energy visually hard to catch. When considering avacuum condition like the space from such viewpoint, it can be thoughtthat there exists nothing of the matter but happens nothing of the event.
The viewpoint based on the relations of “thing” or “event” will provide
a break-through beyond the general concept based on the existence or
non-existence.4
Developments of Molecular Biology and Brain Science during theLatter Half of the 20th Century
It is seemed that the leading part of the science development has been
replaced from physics and chemistry to life sciences including molecular biology and brain sciences during the latter half of the 20th century.
Famous Nobel prizewinners in physiology and medicine are shown intable 2.5
Table 2 A list of the main Nobel prizewinners in physiology andmedicine.
1962
F. H. C. CRICK, J. D. WATSON
1963
Sir J. C. ECCLES, Sir A. L. HODGKIN, Sir A. F. HUXLEY
1965
J. MONOD, F. JACOB
1975
H. M. TEMIN
1981
D. H. HUBEL, T. N. WIESEL, R. W. SPERRY1987
S. TONEGAWA
2000
E. R. KANDEL

Watson and Crick are so famous because of their findings on the
structure (model of a two-stranded helical molecule) of DNA, the biological molecule contained in cells which carries the genetic information. Their works took the lead enough to give the molecular biology
the first rank in the development of sciences during the last half of the20th century and the tremendous stream in the field of molecular biology spread more widely resulting in the main course of life sciences.
They were followed by Monod’s elucidation on the translation processof the genetic information from DNA to RNA, by Temin’s finding of“reverse transcriptase” which transcribes RNA into a double-stranded
DNA, and so on. During such progress, “the central dogma” has been
established for all of the biological beings on the earth: It is, simply, theidea that DNA codes for the production of RNA, RNA codes for the
production of protein, and protein does not code for the production ofprotein, RNA, or DNA. Thereafter, molecular biologists focused theirinterests on the expression processes of genetic information, and as a

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typical example of such process, the origin of antibody diversity was
first demonstrated by Tonegawa.
On the other hand, the nervous systems including our human brains
were studied mainly in the fields of neurophysiology and medical sciences where the analysis by observation was rather important thanexperimentation: In other words, the then brain science, although thename had not appeared yet, seemed to be based on “empiricism” rather
than “experimentalism” during the first half of the century. However,with the rapid development of molecular biology during the latter halfof the century, brain researches also developed and they were integrated
to “brain sciences” mainly based on the experimentalism just like
physics and chemistry. Hodgkin and Huxley described in physicochemical and mathematical terms, the mechanisms by which nerves
conduct electrical impulses, whereas Eccles termed the EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential) and the IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential), and identified inhibitory neurons which play an important role inregulating the flow of information within the central nervous system. As
for the functions of the cerebral cortex where is the highest center in thecentral nervous system, Hubel and Wiesel investigated the mechanismsof visual perception at the cortical level, Sperry pioneered the behavioral investigation of split-brain animals as well as human split-brain
patients, and by using Aplysia, Kandel brilliantly demonstrated “synaptic plasticity” which has been thought as a underlying mechanism oflearning and memory.
What kind of influence has been brought by the development of molecular biology and brain sciences? It is, needless to say, an influence on
our viewpoint toward lives: a shift from the previous viewpoint (i.e.
empiricism) based on natural history to a novel one (i.e. experimentalism) based on molecular biology. Since all of biological beings aredesigned by DNA and they cannot live without proteins which are very
important functional molecules synthesized by the central dogma, it isnatural that a “machine-like image” for biological beings has been
imprinted in our minds. Furthermore, scientific approaches are proceeding more and more even in our brains where mind and heart are postulated to be situated, and “the last mystic fortress” will fall soon, like acandle in the wind.
The author also wants to point out the “dismantling of life” in thesymbolic “plan for all human genomic DNA sequence,” and the fuzzy
theory of “functional localization in the brain.” The reasons are as follows: The former project has just been completed and elucidated all ofJ/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 85

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the base sequence which showed that human genome is consisted ofapproximately 3 billion of base pairs but there are only about 30–40
thousand of genes which correspond to useful proteins. How should it
be right? In our real lives, we must use many kinds of proteins morethan such estimated value. As Tonegawa demonstrated a diversity ofantibody, the process of gene expression might include a variety ofdiversities, of which elucidation requires enormous time as well as
fund. With progressing of brain sciences, the latter theory has been
replaced one after another. For example, the visual centers were restricted in 2–5 areas of the occipital cortex, but they are now identified inapproximately 30 areas of the frontal, temporal and occipital cortices.
When we imagine other sensory, motor and associate centers on the distributed visual centers, the functional localization might be replaced byso-called “holism.” Against the present direction of brain sciences
which continue to dismantle our minds, we will never forget the excellent view stated by Sir C. S. Sherrington, a famous neurophysiologist
awarded with a Nobel prize in 1932: “Man’s analysis of his sensible
world seems to have outstripped his analysis of his mind.”6Life Sciences in the 21st Century
It is easily able to suppose that the development of life sciences including molecular biology and brain sciences will be lasting in the 21st century. Because, apart from good or evil, sciences based on the analysis
and experimentation have an essential nature to proceed in the directionof the resolution and to dismantle the materials as well as minds. This isprobably an endless marching. Therefore, the more life sciences accelerate to search, the more we are exposed to an enormous accumulationof new knowledge.
For example, the function of a certain gene will be gradually elucidated after the completion of the human genome project. There aresome scientists who speculate that single-gene genopathy (an illness
which happens due to the mutation of single gene) will be solved before
long and even poly-genes genopathy (an illness which happens due tothe multiple mutations of poly-genes) will be settled by the next century. Differences will be explained according to the genetic structures,among not only our physical aspects such as faces and figures but also
our spiritual aspects such as personality and intelligence. There aremany people who sound the alarm toward the conditions that the genetic information is capable of being applied to employment, marriage,
insurance premium and medical cost.

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And, the “clone technology” is being watched with the keenest interest in the biotechnologies. A clone means a population of genetically
identical individuals. In the case of plants, it has been relatively familiaras the tree can develop by taking a cutting. On the other hand, the animals’ clones were used to be realized through their fertilizations ofreproductive cells, but recently some kinds of clone animals (sheep,
bovine and monkey) have been produced by the nuclear transplantationof somatic cell into unfertilized egg without its nucleus. Thus there is
only one step to approach the stage where the clone technology isapplicable to the human being. In addition, it is stressed that several
kinds of biotechnologies will bring great benefit in the fields of stockbreeding, medicine manufacture, development of anti-carcinogen andaging-inhibitor, regeneration of organs, restoration of extinct animals,
and so on.
In brain sciences, new emphasis on combining information from different levels of analysis into integrated models of brain function andnervous disease has been made during the past “Decade of the Brain”(1990s) and the following “Century of the Brain.” So many patients suffering from Alzheimer’s disease as well as Parkinson’s disease, particularly, live in hopes that brain scientists will be sure to find the basic
mechanisms of such diseases resulting in the development of novel
therapies: It is very promising to make use of “stem cells,” which havethe “totipotence” to differentiate into other types of cells and have beenfound even in the adult brain. Therefore, many scientists in the world
are competing to find a new substance to stimulate its proliferation, differentiation, or migration of the stem cells. As for the field of so-called“neuro-computer,” advances in computers and neural networks provide
new models of both nervous system functions and next generation-typeof computer which has abilities of pattern recognition as well as parallel
processing like our human brain.
At any rate, the development of life sciences will facilitate the spreadof molecular biological viewpoint toward the life. The idea that lives arealso consisted of machine-like materials based on molecules of DNA
and protein may become a common sense. However, the more dismantling of the life progresses, the more diversity of species or lives are elucidated and also, the more dismantling of the brain does, the morediversity of minds appears. As a result, a certain type of paradigm shift
may be required from the analytical or dismantling approach to lives
and minds to synthetic or integrating approach to them. It must be
important to take a serious view of the relationships or linkages among
biological beings rather than their existences themselves.

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Buddhist Viewpoints toward Issues Surrounding Life Sciences
It is easy to say that life sciences keep their situation in the center ofsciences during this century, as described above. The life sciences
progress so fast, and include so many bioethical problems that we mustendure to watch their progress, although scientists as well as biotechnologists should take the responsibility themselves. To discuss such
issues surrounding life sciences in order, we may just as well divide
them into ones related to life sciences themselves and others related toscientists/technologists themselves.
As for the former, it is the first matter for argument whether our lives
and minds could be elucidated by analytical methods based on the
reductionism. How far such approaches are available for their goals oflife sciences? Though the phenomena based on lives and minds will beable to be explained by the complex-assemblies of genes and proteins,
such as “A certain disease is induced by a specific combination of mutations in several kinds of genes” or “It is the key role for our learningand memory that a specific regulation among several kinds of neurotransmitters and functional receptor proteins is promoted or suppressedby other kinds of substances,” is it the final goal? Nobody says “yes,”because as suggested by T. Yoro,7 the scientific work is to transform thephenomena into the information expressed by the technical words or themathematical formula, but at that time when the biological phenomena
have been consolidated, the dynamic and changeable characteristics
specific to biological beings are lost to sight. The second matter forargument is as to a close relationship between science and technology.
Scientific findings promote the development of the technology, and viceversa. The relationship can be applied to the case of life sciences andbiotechnology. During the mutual progresses, the new technologies forlife-sustaining system and life-operating system have been developedwith proposing novel bioethical problems on artificial abortion, artificial
fertilization, genetic diagnosis, genetic treatment, brain death, organtransplantation, etc. We will also be facing the same issues on humanclone, active euthanasia, death with dignity, and so on.
As for the latter, there are widely debated on the way of scientists/technologists and the way of academic society. It must be thought
during the early period of science development that the aim of scienceis to find the truth and then act to behave as a scientist/technologist
includes a private part to be joyfully moved by discovering the providence of the nature. Since then, however, to expand the scientificknowledge became the focus in the academic society. It means that theJ/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 88

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act to behave as a scientist or a technologist was a means to approach
toward the final goal in the past, but the one is changed to the goal itself
in the present: we cannot find out such a latter type of scientist/technologist suffering from the ideal relationships among science, his own lifeand society. Life sciences now become a big science and life
scientists/technologists are concentrating upon the accumulation ofknowledge. As Mahatma Gandhi quoted “Science without humanity is
one of seven social sins” in 1925,8 to abandon themselves wholly tosuch a competition may result in the gradual loss of their morality andhumanity.
How can we lead such conditions to the right way for human beings,
to avoid “the way of chaos” or “the way of evil” appeared during thedevelopment stage of the science and technology in the former century?
It may be “aporia” not to have an answer. However, it seems very
important for us including scientists and technologists to stop and tolook at those issues surrounding life sciences and biotechnology,
although we may be too busy to have time to do so.
In order to solve such difficult issues, we should change our stance todepend on Buddhist ideas rather than Western thoughts, because the latter have led modern science and technology to result in facing chaos oraporia. Buddhism, in particular Mahayana Buddhism is deeply discerned about the dignity of biological beings as well as human beings toattempt an essential solution against four kinds of sufferings, such as“Sho-ro-byo-shi” (sufferings from birth and living, diseases, aging, anddeath). Therefore, it can be said that Buddhism has many ideas to offer
in the quest for answers to those issues. One of them is the idea of “Engi” which means an essential relationship to depend on each otheramong existences, and the other is the idea of “Nyo-jitsu-chi-ken”
which expresses a perspective looking at objects as they actually stand.
The former idea provides a stance to think much of neither “analysis”
nor “reductionism” but “mutual-dependency” and “associativity” or“integration,” whereas the latter provides a stance to make much of not“experimentation” but “observation.” Such paradigm shift should be
required for the modern science and technology, although they may not
be held apart from “analysis,” “reductionism” and “experimentalism.”
However, its realization is so difficult that some groups ofscientists/technologists are struggling for the establishment of a new
methodology for their “complex-systems science.”9 When we see thistrend in science and technology, Goethe’s idea for the natural science
different from Newton’s or Linne’s one comes into our minds. It is
implied in the following “Basic attitude toward morphology”: i) One

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grasps “the whole” of biological beings instead of reducing them totheir elements like a mosaic; ii) One knows intuitively “the concrete”
living vividly instead of its abstract like a mosaic; iii) One understands“the dynamic organism” instead of the static dead like a mosaic. To
realize such ideas, Goethe also described “There is a very delicate experience (“zarte Empirie”) when the subject perfectly fits to the object andsuch a condition becomes truly a complete theory as it is. However,such a higher level of our mental ability will be realized in the era
deeply enlightened.”10
We can certify here that “Basic attitude toward morphology” and“zart Empirie” proposed by Goethe are related to Buddhist concepts
such as “En-gi” and “Nyo-jitsu-chi-ken.” Therefore, it is concluded thatleading the “aporia” surrounding the current life sciences and biotechnology to a breakthrough depends on whether we will be able to get a
way to realize such inspired conditions or not.
A Neurophysiological Approach to Drives
At the end, the author wants to make a proposal for solving the issues
surrounding life scientists and biotechnologists, which is closely related
to the drives. Dr. Y. Kawada described as follows: “An argument on thedrives is one of the biggest themes in the present day. Because the modern civilization based on science and technology, which had started brilliantly with the aim of the sufficiency of the drives, is in the face of the
global crisis. Our basic drives which essentially lead our lives to thepeaceful, delightful and creative condition are now trying conversely toopen the world of the bad dream filled with death and confusion.”11
It is the indication that deserves listening attentively. The science andtechnology started in order to suffice our many kinds of drives, but they
have proceeded to release them without a limit. In addition, scientists
and technologists who initially worked to make the ideal goals havebeen captured by their drives, particularly egoism. Therefore, it isimportant that we think over our drives to lead science and technology
in this century to an original way.
How it will be able to face the problem of the drives that seems to be
the root of the various global issues in the modern societies? Though
the author wants to entrust it to philosophers’ or psychologists’ intelligence, he would like to present the following hypothesis as one of thebrain scientists. The hypothesis is referred to as a neurophysiological“Sho-yoku-chi-soku” (to satisfy with a little of gratification) theory,
because it is based on the dopaminergic system in the brain.
The dopaminergic system which uses dopamine as its neurotransmit-

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ter is seemed to be closely involved in the reward system or the emotion.12,13 Wherever the system is stimulated, its nerve terminals release
dopamine, resulting in a feeling of pleasure. One of the dopaminergic
system, “A10 nerve system” is distributed very extensively: It originatesin the mid-brain, and joins in the medial forebrain bundle which passes
through the lateral part of the hypothalamus where is concerned withthe appetite as well as sexual drive. Furthermore, it widely projects tothe cingulate cortex where is closely connected to the limbic systemsuch as the hippocampus and the amygdala, and also projects to the
cerebral cortices, particularly to the prefrontal area of the frontal lobe.
The characteristics of the dopaminergic system are as follows: i) Even if
it is elicited, a feeling of pleasure is caused. ii) The neurotransmitter of
dopamine is released from its nerve terminal. iii) Because there are no
auto-receptors in the terminals which are located in the frontal lobe, theprojecting system does not have a function of negative feedback. iv) Socalled “the dopamine hypothesis” indicates that a lower concentrationof dopamine in the frontal cortex is related to the depressive psychosis
while its higher level is related to schizophrenic symptoms.
In addition, it is assumed that homeostasis is kept in the amount of
dopamine in the brain. Because, when it is not kept, the abnormal conditions like the depressive psychosis or schizophrenic symptoms occur
according to the lower or higher level of dopamine, respectively.
Based on the presumption, the following considerations become possible. i) If we can satisfy our instinctive drives (such as the appetite andsexual drive) at a lower level, the amount of dopamine released in the
hypothalamus decreases. ii) According to the projection of the A10
dopaminergic system, it is reasonable that the amount of dopamine usedin the cerebrum as well as the limbic system can be expected toincrease. iii) Therefore, it is easier to make conditioning “mental drives” to the voluntary movements and/or creative behaviors by means of
releasing dopamine frequently/largely in the forebrain regions.14
The author would like to propose again that this is a neurophysiological “Sho-yoku-chi-soku” theory. It suggests neither to suppress nor
inhibit our drives, but to control the allotment of our drives. Though theinstinctive drives are something a priori, the mental drives can bethought to be consisted of a priori as well as a posteriori part. A part of
the human personality, the will and the creativity to make the root of
humanity seems to be really based on the latter. We essentially have theroot of humanity in ourselves. However, whether we can live it up ornot, depends on the postnatal growing process. Thus, we, scientists andtechnologists, have to live up our roots of humanity, by practicing theJ/Orient/02 03.1.17 1:26 PM ページ 91

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neurophysiological “Sho-yoku-chi-soku” theory, and we should build“Science with humanity” offered by Mahatma Gandhi.
NOTES
1
Yoshikawa Y. (2001), “Seimeikagaku yo ogorunakare (Life scientists, don’t be fullof conceit!),” Daisan Bunmei, January issue, Daisan Bunmei-sha, Tokyo.
2
Yoro T. (2000), “Ikimono wo atsukaenakatta 20-seiki no Kagaku (Sciences of the20th century which could not treat biological beings),” Nikkei Science, December issue,
Nikkei Science-sha, Tokyo.
3
Dictionary of Scientists (1994), Larousse, New York.
4.
Sato F. (2000), Kagaku to Kofuku (Science and Happiness), Iwanami-Shoten.
5.
ibid. (3).
6Nobel Prize Winners (Ed. T. Wasson, 1987), T. W. Wilson Co., New York.
7
ibid. (2).
8Gandhi M. (1925), “Young India.”
9
Shimizu H. (1992), Seimei to Basho (The Life and Location), NTT-Shuppan,
Tokyo.
10
Takahashi Y. (1992), “Mo-hitotsu no Kagaku toshiteno Goethe Shizenkagaku(Goethe’s natural science as another type of science),” Riso, vol. 649.
11
Kawada Y. (1981), Yokubo to Seimei (Drives and Life), Daisan Bunmei-sha,
Tokyo.
12
Shepherd G. M. (1994), Neurobiology, Oxford University Press, New York.
13
Oshima K. (1989), No to Seiyoku (The Brain and Sexual Drive) , Kyoritsu-Shuppan, Tokyo.
14
Kogure S. (2002), A neurophysiological approach to the instinctive drives, 89th
Indian Science Congress, Lucknow, India.