Chapter

16
Cluster Analysis

Identifying groups of individuals or objects that are similar to each other but different
from individuals in other groups can be intellectually satisfying, profitable, orsometimes both. Using your customer base, you may be able to form clusters ofcustomers who have similar buying habits or demographics. You can take advantageof these similarities to target offers to subgroups that are most likely to be receptive
to them. Based on scores on psychological inventories, you can cluster patients into
subgroups that have similar response patterns. This may help you in targeting
appropriate treatment and studying typologies of diseases. By analyzing the mineralcontents of excavated materials, you can study their origins and spread.
Tip: Although both cluster analysis and discriminant analysis classify objects (orcases) into categories, discriminant analysis requires you to know group membershipfor the cases used to derive the classification rule. The goal of cluster analysis is to
identify the actual groups. For example, if you are interested in distinguishing
between several disease groups using discriminant analysis, cases with known
diagnoses must be available. Based on these cases, you derive a rule for classifying
undiagnosed patients. In cluster analysis, you don’t know who or what belongs inwhich group. You often don’t even know the number of groups.

Examples You need to identify people with similar patterns of past purchases so that you cantailor your marketing strategies.

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 You’ve been assigned to group television shows into homogeneous categories

based on viewer characteristics. This can be used for market segmentation.
 You want to cluster skulls excavated from archaeological digs into the civilizations

from which they originated. Various measurements of the skulls are available.
 You’re trying to examine patients with a diagnosis of depression to determine if

distinct subgroups can be identified, based on a symptom checklist and results frompsychological tests.

In a Nutshell
You start out with a number of cases and want to subdivide them into homogeneousgroups. First, you choose the variables on which you want the groups to be similar.
Next, you must decide whether to standardize the variables in some way so that they
all contribute equally to the distance or similarity between cases. Finally, you have todecide which clustering procedure to use, based on the number of cases and types ofvariables that you want to use for forming clusters.
For hierarchical clustering, you choose a statistic that quantifies how far apart (orsimilar) two cases are. Then you select a method for forming the groups. Because you
can have as many clusters as you do cases (not a useful solution!), your last step is todetermine how many clusters you need to represent your data. You do this by looking
at how similar clusters are when you create additional clusters or collapse existing ones.
In k-means clustering, you select the number of clusters you want. The algorithm
iteratively estimates the cluster means and assigns each case to the cluster for which its
distance to the cluster mean is the smallest.
In two-step clustering, to make large problems tractable, in the first step, cases are
assigned to “preclusters.” In the second step, the preclusters are clustered using thehierarchical clustering algorithm. You can specify the number of clusters you want or
let the algorithm decide based on preselected criteria.

Introduction
The term cluster analysis does not identify a particular statistical method or model, as
do discriminant analysis, factor analysis, and regression. You often don’t have to makeany assumptions about the underlying distribution of the data. Using cluster analysis,
you can also form groups of related variables, similar to what you do in factor analysis.
There are numerous ways you can sort cases into groups. The choice of a method

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Cluster Analy sis

depends on, among other things, the size of the data file. Methods commonly used forsmall data sets are impractical for data files with thousands of cases.
SPSS has three different procedures that can be used to cluster data: hierarchicalcluster analysis, k-means cluster, and two-step cluster. They are all described in thischapter. If you have a large data file (even 1,000 cases is large for clustering) or a
mixture of continuous and categorical variables, you should use the SPSS two-stepprocedure. If you have a small data set and want to easily examine solutions withincreasing numbers of clusters, you may want to use hierarchical clustering. If you
know how many clusters you want and you have a moderately sized data set, you can
use k-means clustering.
You’ll cluster three different sets of data using the three SPSS procedures. You’ll
use a hierarchical algorithm to cluster figure-skating judges in the 2002 Olympic
Games. You’ll use k-means clustering to study the metal composition of Roman
pottery. Finally, you’ll cluster the participants in the 2002 General Social Survey,
using a two-stage clustering algorithm. You’ll find homogenous clusters based on
education, age, income, gender, and region of the country. You’ll see how Internet use
and television viewing varies across the clusters.

Hierarchical Clustering
There are numerous ways in which clusters can be formed. Hierarchical clustering is
one of the most straightforward methods. It can be either agglomerative or divisive.
Agglomerative hierarchical clustering begins with every case being a cluster unto
itself. At successive steps, similar clusters are merged. The algorithm ends witheverybody in one jolly, but useless, cluster. Divisive clustering starts with everybody in
one cluster and ends up with everyone in individual clusters. Obviously, neither the
first step nor the last step is a worthwhile solution with either method.
In agglomerative clustering, once a cluster is formed, it cannot be split; it can only
be combined with other clusters. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering doesn’t let
cases separate from clusters that they’ve joined. Once in a cluster, always in that cluster.
To form clusters using a hierarchical cluster analysis, you must select: A criterion for determining similarity or distance between cases
 A criterion for determining which clusters are merged at successive steps
 The number of clusters you need to represent your data

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Tip: There is no right or wrong answer as to how many clusters you need. It depends
on what you’re going to do with them. To find a good cluster solution, you must lookat the characteristics of the clusters at successive steps and decide when you have aninterpretable solution or a solution that has a reasonable number of fairly
homogeneous clusters.

Figure-Skating Judges: The Example
As an example of agglomerative hierarchical clustering, you’ll look at the judging ofpairs figure skating in the 2002 Olympics. Each of nine judges gave each of 20 pairs ofskaters four scores: technical merit and artistry for both the short program and the longprogram. You’ll see which groups of judges assigned similar scores. To make theexample more interesting, only the scores of the top four pairs are included. That’s
where the Olympic scoring controversies were centered. (The actual scores are only
one part of an incredibly complex, and not entirely objective, procedure for assigning
medals to figure skaters and ice dancers.)*
Tip: Consider carefully the variables you will use for establishing clusters. If you don’t
include variables that are important, your clusters may not be useful. For example, if
you are clustering schools and don’t include information on the number of students andfaculty at each school, size will not be used for establishing clusters.

How Alike (or Different) Are the Cases?
Because the goal of this cluster analysis is to form similar groups of figure-skating
judges, you have to decide on the criterion to be used for measuring similarity or
distance. Distance is a measure of how far apart two objects are, while similarity
measures how similar two objects are. For cases that are alike, distance measures are
small and similarity measures are large. There are many different definitions of
distance and similarity. Some, like the Euclidean distance, are suitable for only
continuous variables, while others are suitable for only categorical variables. There arealso many specialized measures for binary variables. See the Help system for a
description of the more than 30 distance and similarity measures available in SPSS.

* I wish to thank Professor John Hartigan of Yale University for extracting the data fromwww.nbcolympics.com and making it available as a data file.

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Warning: The computation for the selected distance measure is based on all of thevariables you select. If you have a mixture of nominal and continuous variables, youmust use the two-step cluster procedure because none of the distance measures inhierarchical clustering or k-means are suitable for use with both types of variables.

To see how a simple distance measure is computed, consider the data in Figure 16-1.
The table shows the ratings of the French and Canadian judges for the Russian pairs
figure skating team of Berezhnaya and Sikhardulidze.
Figure 16-1
Distances for two judges for one pairLong Program

Short Program

Judge

Technical Merit

Artistry

Technical Merit

Artistry

FranceCanada

5.8
5.7

5.9
5.8

5.8
5.8

5.8
5.8

You see that, for the long program, there is a 0.1 point difference in technical meritscores and a 0.1 difference in artistry scores between the French judge and theCanadian judge. For the short program, they assigned the same scores to the pair. This
information can be combined into a single index or distance measure in many different
ways. One frequently used measure is the squared Euclidean distance, which is the sumof the squared differences over all of the variables. In this example, the squared
Euclidean distance is 0.02. The squared Euclidean distance suffers from thedisadvantage that it depends on the units of measurement for the variables.

Standardizing the Variables
If variables are measured on different scales, variables with large values contribute
more to the distance measure than variables with small values. In this example, bothvariables are measured on the same scale, so that’s not much of a problem, assuming
the judges use the scales similarly. But if you were looking at the distance between two
people based on their IQs and incomes in dollars, you would probably find that thedifferences in incomes would dominate any distance measures. (A difference of only$100 when squared becomes 10,000, while a difference of 30 IQ points would be only
900. I’d go for the IQ points over the dollars!) Variables that are measured in large
numbers will contribute to the distance more than variables recorded in smaller
numbers.

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Tip: In the hierarchical clustering procedure in SPSS, you can standardize variables indifferent ways. You can compute standardized scores or divide by just the standard
deviation, range, mean, or maximum. This results in all variables contributing moreequally to the distance measurement. That’s not necessarily always the best strategy,
since variability of a measure can provide useful information.

Proximity Matrix
To get the squared Euclidean distance between each pair of judges, you square thedifferences in the four scores that they assigned to each of the four top-rated pairs. You
have 16 scores for each judge. These distances are shown in Figure 16-2, the proximity
matrix. All of the entries on the diagonal are 0, since a judge does not differ fromherself or himself. The smallest difference between two judges is 0.02, the distance
between the French and Russian judges. (Look for the smallest off-diagonal entry in
Figure 16-2.) The largest distance, 0.25, occurs between the Japanese and Canadianjudges. The distance matrix is symmetric, since the distance between the Japanese andRussian judges is identical to the distance between the Russian and Japanese judges.
Figure 16-2
Proximity matrix between judges

Tip: In Figure 16-2, the squared Euclidean distance between the French and Canadianjudge is computed for all four pairs. That’s why the number differs from that computed
for just the single Russian pair.

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Cluster Analy sis

How Should Clusters Be Combined?
Agglomerative hierarchical clustering starts with each case (in this example, eachjudge) being a cluster. At the next step, the two judges who have the smallest value forthe distance measure (or largest value if you are using similarities) are joined into asingle cluster. At the second step, either a third case is added to the cluster that alreadycontains two cases or two other cases are merged into a new cluster. At every step,either individual cases are added to existing clusters, two individuals are combined, or
two existing clusters are combined.
When you have only one case in a cluster, the smallest distance between cases in
two clusters is unambiguous. It’s the distance or similarity measure you selected forthe proximity matrix. Once you start forming clusters with more than one case, youneed to define a distance between pairs of clusters. For example, if cluster A has cases
1 and 4, and cluster B has cases 5, 6, and 7, you need a measure of how different orsimilar the two clusters are.
There are many ways to define the distance between two clusters with more than one
case in a cluster. For example, you can average the distances between all pairs of cases
formed by taking one member from each of the two clusters. Or you can take the largest
or smallest distance between two cases that are in different clusters. Different methods
for computing the distance between clusters are available and may well result indifferent solutions. The methods available in SPSS hierarchical clustering aredescribed in “Distance between Cluster Pairs” on p. 372.

Summarizing the Steps: The Icicle Plot
From Figure 16-3, you can see what’s happening at each step of the cluster analysis
when average linkage between groups is used to link the clusters. The figure is calledan icicle plot because the columns of X’s look (supposedly) like icicles hanging fromeaves. Each column represents one of the objects you’re clustering. Each row shows acluster solution with different numbers of clusters. You read the figure from the bottom
up. The last row (that isn’t shown) is the first step of the analysis. Each of the judges isa cluster unto himself or herself. The number of clusters at that point is 9. The eightcluster solution arises when the Russian and French judges are joined into a cluster.
(Remember they had the smallest distance of all pairs.) The seven-cluster solution
results from the merging of the German and Canadian judges into a cluster. The sixcluster solution is the result of combining the Japanese and U.S. judges. For the onecluster solution, all of the cases are combined into a single cluster.

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Warning: When pairs of cases are tied for the smallest distance, an arbitrary selection
is made. You might get a different cluster solution if your cases are sorted differently.
That doesn’t really matter, since there is no right or wrong answer to a cluster analysis.
Many groupings are equally plausible.
Figure 16-3
Vertical icicle plot

Tip: If you have a large number of cases to cluster, you can make an icicle plot in which
the cases are the rows. Specify Horizontal on the Cluster Plots dialog box.

Who’s in What Cluster?
You can get a table that shows the cases in each cluster for any number of clusters.
Figure 16-4 shows the judges in the three-, four-, and five-cluster solutions.
Figure 16-4
Cluster membership369
Cluster Analy sis

Tip: To see how clusters differ on the variables used to create them, save the cluster
membership number using the Save command and then use the Means procedure,
specifying the variables used to form the clusters as the dependent variables and thecluster number as the grouping variable.

Tracking the Combinations: The Agglomeration Schedule
From the icicle plot, you can’t tell how small the distance measure is as additional cases
are merged into clusters. For that, you have to look at the agglomeration schedule in
Figure 16-5. In the column labeled Coefficients, you see the value of the distance (orsimilarity) statistic used to form the cluster. From these numbers, you get an idea of
how unlike the clusters being combined are. If you are using dissimilarity measures,
small coefficients tell you that fairly homogenous clusters are being attached to eachother. Large coefficients tell you that you’re combining dissimilar clusters. If you’reusing similarity measures, the opposite is true: large values are good, while smallvalues are bad.
The actual value shown depends on the clustering method and the distance measure
you’re using. You can use these coefficients to help you decide how many clusters youneed to represent the data. You want to stop cluster formation when the increase (fordistance measures) or decrease (for similarity measures) in the Coefficients column
between two adjacent steps is large. In this example, you may want to stop at the threecluster solution, after stage 6. Here, as you can confirm from Figure 16-4, the Canadianand German judges are in cluster 1; the Chinese, French, Polish, Russian, andUkrainian judges are in cluster 2; and the Japanese and U.S. judges are in cluster 3. If
you go on to combine two of these three clusters in stage 7, the distance coefficientacross the last combination jumps from 0. 093 to 0.165.

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Figure 16-5
Agglomeration schedule

The agglomeration schedule starts off using the case numbers that are displayed on the
icicle plot. Once cases are added to clusters, the cluster number is always the lowest of
the case numbers in the cluster. A cluster formed by merging cases 3 and 4 would
forever be known as cluster 3, unless it happened to merge with cluster 1 or 2.
The columns labeled Stage Cluster First Appears tell you the step at which each of
the two clusters that are being joined first appear. For example, at stage 4 when cluster
3 and cluster 6 are combined, you’re told that cluster 3 was first formed at stage 1 andcluster 6 is a single case and that the resulting cluster (known as 3) will see action again
at stage 5. For a small data set, you’re much better off looking at the icicle plot thantrying to follow the step-by-step clustering summarized in the agglomeration schedule.
Tip: In most situations, all you want to look at in the agglomeration schedule is thecoefficient at which clusters are combined. Look at the icicle plot to see what’s going on.

Plotting Cluster Distances: The Dendrogram
If you want a visual representation of the distance at which clusters are combined, you
can look at a display called the dendrogram, shown in Figure 16-6. The dendrogram isread from left to right. Vertical lines show joined clusters. The position of the line on
the scale indicates the distance at which clusters are joined. The observed distances arerescaled to fall into the range of 1 to 25, so you don’t see the actual distances; however,
the ratio of the rescaled distances within the dendrogram is the same as the ratio of theoriginal distances.
The first vertical line, corresponding to the smallest rescaled distance, is for the
French and Russian alliance. The next vertical line is at the same distances for three371
Cluster Analy sis

merges. You see from Figure 16-5 that stages 2, 3, and 4 have the same coefficients.
What you see in this plot is what you already know from the agglomeration schedule.
In the last two steps, fairly dissimilar clusters are combined.
Figure 16-6
The dendrogram
Dendrogram using Average Linkage (Between Groups)
Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine
C A S E
Label
FranceRussiaPolandChina
UkraineJapan
USA
CanadaGermany

Num

0
5
10
15
20
25
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

3
7
6
2
8
5
9
1
4

«´«««««««««««««±«°²«««±«««««««««««««««° ²«±«««««««««««««««««««° ²«««««««««««««««««««««±«««««««««««««««««««««°²«««««±«««««««««««««««´«««««««««««««««««««««««««««°¬«««««««««««««««°¬«««««««««««««««´«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««°«««««««««««««««°

Tip: When you read a dendrogram, you want to determine at what stage the distances
between clusters that are combined is large. You look for large distances between
sequential vertical lines.

Clustering Variables
In the previous example, you saw how homogeneous groups of cases are formed. The
unit of analysis was the case (each judge). You can also use cluster analysis to findhomogeneous groups of variables.
Warning: When clustering variables, make sure to select the Variables radio button in
the Cluster dialog box; otherwise, SPSS will attempt to cluster cases, and you will haveto stop the processor because it can take a very long time.

Some of the variables used in Chapter 17 are clustered in Figure 16-7, using thePearson correlation coefficient as the measure of similarity. The icicle plot is read thesame way as before, but from right to left if you want to follow the steps in order. At
the first step, each variable is a cluster. At each subsequent step, the two closest
variables or clusters of variables are combined. You see that at the first step (numberof clusters equal to 7), gender and region are combined. At the next step, parental
education and wealth are combined. At the four-cluster solution, you may recognize
the same grouping of variables as in factor analysis: a cluster for the social variables

372
Chapter 16(region and gender), a cluster for the family variables (parental education and wealth),a cluster for personal attributes (personal education, hard work, and ambition), andability in a cluster of its own. In factor analysis, ability straddled several factors. It
wasn’t clearly associated with a single factor. It’s always reassuring when several
different analyses point to the same conclusions!
Figure 16-7
Horizontal icicle plot

Tip: When you use the correlation coefficient as a measure of similarity, you may wantto take the absolute value of it before forming clusters. Variables with large negative
correlation coefficients are just as closely related as variables with large positivecoefficients.

Distance between Cluster Pairs
The most frequently used methods for combining clusters at each stage are available in
SPSS. These methods define the distance between two clusters at each stage of theprocedure. If cluster A has cases 1 and 2 and if cluster B has cases 5, 6, and 7, you needa measure of how different or similar the two clusters are.
Nearest neighbor (single linkage). If you use the nearest neighbor method to form
clusters, the distance between two clusters is defined as the smallest distance between
two cases in the different clusters. That means the distance between cluster A and373
Cluster Analy siscluster B is the smallest of the distances between the following pairs of cases: (1,5),(1,6), (1,7), (2,5), (2,6), and (2,7). At every step, the distance between two clusters istaken to be the distance between their two closest members.
Furthest neighbor (complete linkage). If you use a method called furthest neighbor (alsoknown as complete linkage), the distance between two clusters is defined as the
distance between the two furthest points.
UPGMA. The average-linkage-between-groups method, often aptly called UPGMA(unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages), defines the distance
between two clusters as the average of the distances between all pairs of cases in which
one member of the pair is from each of the clusters. For example, if cases 1 and 2 form
cluster A and cases 5, 6, and 7 form cluster B, the average-linkage-between-groups
distance between clusters A and B is the average of the distances between the samepairs of cases as before: (1,5), (1,6), (1,7), (2,5), (2,6), and (2,7). This differs from thelinkage methods in that it uses information about all pairs of distances, not just thenearest or the furthest. For this reason, it is usually preferred to the single and complete
linkage methods for cluster analysis.
Average linkage within groups. The UPGMA method considers only distances between
pairs of cases in different clusters. A variant of it, the average linkage within groups,
combines clusters so that the average distance between all cases in the resulting cluster
is as small as possible. Thus, the distance between two clusters is the average of the
distances between all possible pairs of cases in the resulting cluster.

The methods discussed above can be used with any kind of similarity or distancemeasure between cases. The next three methods use squared Euclidean distances.
Ward’s method. For each cluster, the means for all variables are calculated. Then, foreach case, the squared Euclidean distance to the cluster means is calculated. These
distances are summed for all of the cases. At each step, the two clusters that merge arethose that result in the smallest increase in the overall sum of the squared within-cluster
distances. The coefficient in the agglomeration schedule is the within-cluster sum ofsquares at that step, not the distance at which clusters are joined.
Centroid method. This method calculates the distance between two clusters as the sumof distances between cluster means for all of the variables. In the centroid method, thecentroid of a merged cluster is a weighted combination of the centroids of the two
individual clusters, where the weights are proportional to the sizes of the clusters. One
disadvantage of the centroid method is that the distance at which clusters are combined

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Chapter 16

can actually decrease from one step to the next. This is an undesirable property because
clusters merged at later stages are more dissimilar than those merged at early stages.
Median method. With this method, the two clusters being combined are weighted
equally in the computation of the centroid, regardless of the number of cases in each.
This allows small groups to have an equal effect on the characterization of larger
clusters into which they are merged.
Tip: Different combinations of distance measures and linkage methods are best forclusters of particular shapes. For example, nearest neighbor works well for elongatedclusters with unequal variances and unequal sample sizes.

K-Means Clustering
Hierarchical clustering requires a distance or similarity matrix between all pairs ofcases. That’s a humongous matrix if you have tens of thousands of cases trapped inyour data file. Even today’s computers will take pause, as will you, waiting for results.
A clustering method that doesn’t require computation of all possible distances is
k-means clustering. It differs from hierarchical clustering in several ways. You have toknow in advance the number of clusters you want. You can’t get solutions for a rangeof cluster numbers unless you rerun the analysis for each different number of clusters.
The algorithm repeatedly reassigns cases to clusters, so the same case can move fromcluster to cluster during the analysis. In agglomerative hierarchical clustering, on theother hand, cases are added only to existing clusters. They’re forever captive in theircluster, with a widening circle of neighbors.
The algorithm is called k-means, where k is the number of clusters you want, sincea case is assigned to the cluster for which its distance to the cluster mean is the smallest.
The action in the algorithm centers around finding the k-means. You start out with an
initial set of means and classify cases based on their distances to the centers. Next, you
compute the cluster means again, using the cases that are assigned to the cluster; then,you reclassify all cases based on the new set of means. You keep repeating this step
until cluster means don’t change much between successive steps. Finally, you calculate
the means of the clusters once again and assign the cases to their permanent clusters.

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Cluster Analy sis

Roman Pottery: The Example
When you are studying old objects in hopes of determining their historical origins, you
look for similarities and differences between the objects in as many dimensions as
possible. If the objects are intact, you can compare styles, colors, and other easily
visible characteristics. You can also use sophisticated devices such as high-energy
beam lines or spectrophotometers to study the chemical composition of the materials
from which they are made. Hand (1994) reports data on the percentage of oxides of fivemetals for 26 samples of Romano-British pottery described by Tubb et al. (1980). The
five metals are aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium(Na). In this section, you’ll study whether the samples form distinct clusters andwhether these clusters correspond to areas where the pottery was excavated.

Before You Start
Whenever you use a statistical procedure that calculates distances, you have to worry
about the impact of the different units in which variables are measured. Variables thathave large values will have a large impact on the distance compared to variables thathave smaller values. In this example, the average percentages of the oxides differ quite
a bit, so it’s a good idea to standardize the variables to a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 1. (Standardized variables are used in the example.) You also have to
specify the number of clusters (k) that you want produced.
Tip: If you have a large data file, you can take a random sample of the data and try to
determine a good number, or range of numbers, for a cluster solution based on thehierarchical clustering procedure. You can also use hierarchical cluster analysis toestimate starting values for the k-means algorithm.

Initial Cluster Centers
The first step in k-means clustering is finding the k centers. This is done iteratively. You
start with an initial set of centers and then modify them until the change between two
iterations is small enough. If you have good guesses for the centers, you can use those
as initial starting points; otherwise, you can let SPSS find k cases that are wellseparated and use these values as initial cluster centers. Figure 16-8 shows the initialcenters for the pottery example.

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Chapter 16

Figure 16-8
Initial cluster centers

Warning: K-means clustering is very sensitive to outliers, since they will usually be
selected as initial cluster centers. This will result in outliers forming clusters with small
numbers of cases. Before you start a cluster analysis, screen the data for outliers andremove them from the initial analysis. The solution may also depend on the order ofthe cases in the file.

After the initial cluster centers have been selected, each case is assigned to the closest
cluster, based on its distance from the cluster centers. After all of the cases have been
assigned to clusters, the cluster centers are recomputed, based on all of the cases in thecluster. Case assignment is done again, using these updated cluster centers. You keep
assigning cases and recomputing the cluster centers until no cluster center changes
appreciably or the maximum number of iterations (10 by default) is reached.
From Figure 16-9, you see that three iterations were enough for the pottery data.
Figure 16-9
Iteration history

Tip: You can update the cluster centers after each case is classified, instead of after allcases are classified, if you select the Use Running Means check box in the Iterate dialog
box.

377
Cluster Analy sis

Final Cluster Centers
After iteration stops, all cases are assigned to clusters, based on the last set of cluster
centers. After all of the cases are clustered, the cluster centers are computed one lasttime. Using the final cluster centers, you can describe the clusters. In Figure 16-10, you
see that cluster 1 has an average sodium percentage that is much higher than the otherclusters. Cluster 2 has higher-than-average values for calcium, iron, and magnesium, anaverage value for sodium, and a smaller-than-average value for aluminum. Cluster 3 has
below-average values for all of the minerals except aluminum.
Figure 16-10
Final cluster centers

Tip: You can save the final cluster centers and use them to classify new cases. In the
Cluster dialog box, save the cluster centers by selecting Write Final As and then clicking
File to assign a filename. To use these cluster centers to classify new cases, selectClassify Only, select Read Initial From, and then click File to specify the file of cluster
centers that you saved earlier.

Differences between Clusters
You can compute F ratios that describe the differences between the clusters. As thefootnote in Figure 16-11 warns, the observed significance levels should not beinterpreted in the usual fashion because the clusters have been selected to maximize thedifferences between clusters. The point of Figure 16-11 is to give you a handle on the
differences for each of the variables among the clusters. If the observed significancelevel for a variable is large, you can be pretty sure that the variable doesn’t contributemuch to the separation of the clusters.

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Figure 16-11
Analysis-of-variance table

You see in Figure 16-12 that 2 cases are assigned to the first cluster, 14 to the second,and 10 to the third cluster. You don’t like to see clusters with very few cases unless they
are really different from the remaining cases. For each case, you can save the cluster towhich it is assigned, as well as the distance to its cluster center.
Figure 16-12
Number of cases in each cluster

If you plot the distances to their cluster centers for all of the cases, as in Figure 16-13,
you can see if there are cases that are outliers. Clusters 2 and 3 are unremarkable.
Because cluster 1 has only two cases, you see only one point on the plot. (The cluster
center is halfway between the two cases, so their distances from it are equal and areplotted at the same location.)

379
Cluster Analy sis

Figure 16-13
Plot of distances to cluster centers
excavation site

Distance of Case from its Classication Cluster Center

1.50

Llanederyn
Caldicot
Island Thorns
Ashley Rails

1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

1

2

3

Cluster Number of Case

You can decrease the number of clusters to be used to two and that would most likely
eliminate the two-case cluster at the expense of making the clusters moreheterogeneous. Or you could increase the number of clusters and see how the solutionchanges. In this example, increasing the number of clusters causes clusters 2 and 3 tosplit, while cluster 1 remains with the two cases that are characterized by very highlevels of sodium.

Locations of the Pottery
The pottery in the data set was found in one of four locations. To see whether pottery
found at the same site is homogeneous with respect to metallic composition, you cancrosstabulate the site where a pot was found and the cluster to which it was assigned,
as shown in Figure 16-14.

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Figure 16-14
Crosstabulation of site and cluster

You see that the anomalous pottery in cluster 1 was found at the first site. Most of thecases in cluster 2 were also from the first site, although two of them were from thesecond. Pottery from the third and fourth sites were all in cluster 3. It looks like there
is a relationship between the metallic composition of a piece of pottery and the sitewhere it was excavated.

Two-Step Cluster
When you have a really large data set or you need a clustering procedure that can rapidly
form clusters on the basis of either categorical or continuous data, neither of theprevious two procedures fills the bill. Hierarchical clustering requires a matrix of
distances between all pairs of cases, and k-means requires shuffling cases in and out ofclusters and knowing the number of clusters in advance. The SPSS TwoStep Cluster
Analysis procedure was designed for such applications. It requires only one pass of data(which is important for very large data files), and it can produce solutions based on
mixtures of continuous and categorical variables and for varying numbers of clusters.
The clustering algorithm is based on a distance measure that gives the best results if
all variables are independent, continuous variables have a normal distribution, andcategorical variables have a multinomial distribution. This is seldom the case inpractice, but the algorithm is thought to behave reasonably well when the assumptions
are not met. Because cluster analysis does not involve hypothesis testing and calculationof observed significance levels, other than for descriptive follow-up, it’s perfectly
acceptable to cluster data that may not meet the assumptions for best performance. Only
you can determine whether the solution is satisfactory for your needs.

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Cluster Analy sis

Warning: The final solution may depend on the order of the cases in the file. To
minimize the effect, arrange the cases in random order. Sort them by the last digit of
their ID numbers or something similar.

Step 1: Preclustering: Making Little Clusters
The first step of the two-step procedure is formation of preclusters. The goal of
preclustering is to reduce the size of the matrix that contains distances between all
possible pairs of cases. Preclusters are just clusters of the original cases that are usedin place of the raw data in the hierarchical clustering. As a case is read, the algorithm
decides, based on a distance measure, if the current case should be merged with apreviously formed precluster or start a new precluster. When preclustering is complete,
all cases in the same precluster are treated as a single entity. The size of the distancematrix is no longer dependent on the number of cases but on the number of preclusters.

Step 2: Hierarchical Clustering of Preclusters
In the second step, SPSS uses the standard hierarchical clustering algorithm on the
preclusters. Forming clusters hierarchically lets you explore a range of solutions withdifferent numbers of clusters.
Tip: The Options dialog box lets you control the number of preclusters. Large numbersof preclusters give better results because the cases are more similar in a precluster;
however, forming many preclusters slows the algorithm.

Clustering Newspaper Readers: The Example
As an example of two-step clustering, you’ll consider the General Social Survey data
described in Chapter 6. Both categorical and continuous variables are used to form theclusters. The categorical variables are sex, frequency of reading a newspaper, andhighest degree. The continuous variable is age.
Some of the options you can specify when using two-step clustering are:Standardization: The algorithm will automatically standardize all of the variables
unless you override this option.

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Distance measures: If your data are a mixture of continuous and categorical variables,
you can use only the log-likelihood criterion. The distance between two clusters
depends on the decrease in the log-likelihood when they are combined into a single
cluster. If the data are only continuous variables, you can also use the Euclidean
distance between two cluster centers. Depending on the distance measure selected,
cases are assigned to the cluster that leads to the largest log-likelihood or to the clusterthat has the smallest Euclidean distance.
Number of clusters: You can specify the number of clusters to be formed, or you can let
the algorithm select the optimal number based on either the Schwarz Bayesian
Criterion or the Akaike information criterion.
Outlier handling: You have the option to create a separate cluster for cases that don’t fit
well into any other cluster.
Range of solutions: You can specify the range of cluster solutions that you want to see.
Tip: If you’re planning to use this procedure, consult the algorithms document on the
SPSS Web site for additional details.

Examining the Number of Clusters
Once you make some choices or do nothing and go with the defaults, the clusters areformed. At this point, you can consider whether the number of clusters is “good.” If
you use automated cluster selection, SPSS prints a table of statistics for different
numbers of clusters, an excerpt of which is shown in Figure 16-15. You are interested
in finding the number of clusters at which the Schwarz Bayesian Criterion, abbreviated
BIC (the I stands for Information), becomes small and the change in BIC between
adjacent number of clusters is small. That’s not always easy. For this example, thealgorithm selected three clusters.

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Cluster Analy sis

Figure 16-15
Autoclustering statistics

N um berof
C lusters

B IC C h ange

1

R atio of B IC
2
C ha nges

R atio of
D istan ce3
M e asure s

1

S chw arz’s
B aye sia n
C riterio n (B IC )6827.38725646.855-1180.532

1.000

1.74 1

3

5000.782-646.073.547

1.79 044672.859-327.923.278

1.04 754362.908-309.951.263

1.06 664076.832-286.076.242

1.19 373849.057-227.775.193

1.13 083656.025-193.032.164

1.07 993482.667-173.358.147

1.16 2103343.916-138.751.118

1.24 0113246.541-97.376.082

1.12 8123168.733-77.808.066

1.09 313

3103.950-64.783.055

1.02 2143042.116-61.835.052

1.15 2152998.319-43.796.037

1.05 9

1. T he c hanges are from the pre vio us n um be r of clusters in the tab le.
2. T he ratios of ch anges are relative to the cha nge for the tw o clu ster s olu tion.
3. T he ratios of distance m easures are based on the c urrent num ber of c lus ters a gainst th eprevious num ber of c lus ters.

You can also examine the number of cases in the final cluster solution as shown in
Figure 16-16. In this example, you see that the largest cluster has 44% of the clusteredcases, and the smallest has 27%. Usually, you don’t want many small clusters. (For thisexample, the excluded number of cases is large because many people were not asked
the newspaper question. Only cases with valid values for all variables are included incluster formation.)
Figure 16-16
Distribution of cases in clusters

1

396

% of
C om bin ed
44.0%

2

244

27.1%

3

259

28.8%

9 .4%

C om b ine d899

1 00.0 %32.5%

NC luste r% of Total
14.3%
8 .8%

E xclude d C as es

18 66

67.5%

Total

27 65

100.0%

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Chapter 16

Warning: When you have cases that are very different from other cases and notnecessarily similar to each other, they can have a large impact on cluster formation byincreasing the overall number of clusters or making clusters less homogeneous. One
solution to the problem is to create an outlier cluster that contains all cases that do not
fit well with the rest. SPSS will do this automatically for you if you select Outlier
Treatment in the Options dialog box.

Examining the Composition of the Clusters
Once you’ve formed clusters, you want to know how they differ. SPSS offers numerous
displays and tables to help you determine the composition of the clusters and theimportance of each variable in determining the cluster.
For categorical variables, you get crosstabulations and bar charts of the distributionof the variable within each cluster. For example, Figure 16-17 shows the percentage ofmales and females in each of the clusters. You see that gender distribution in all of theclusters is fairly similar to the overall distribution. Gender isn’t an important variablein forming the clusters.
Figure 16-17
Within-cluster percentage of respondent’s gender
GenderMale
Female1

Cluster23Overall

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Percent within Cluster

For each continuous variables, you get a plot of the means for each group andsimultaneous confidence intervals for the population cluster means. In Figure 16-18,
you see that the average age is largest for the second cluster.

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Cluster Analy sis

Tip: For simultaneous confidence intervals for the means of several groups, theconfidence level is for all population means being simultaneously included in theirrespective confidence intervals. Simultaneous confidence intervals for several
population means are wider than the individual intervals.
Figure 16-18
Within-cluster percentage of respondent’s age

Age of respondent

50

45

40

35
1

2

3

Cluster
Reference Line is the Overall Mean = 46

Examining the Importance of Individual Variables
When you cluster cases, you want to know how important the different variables arefor the formation of the cluster. For categorical variables, SPSS calculates a chi-squarevalue that compares the observed distribution of values of a variable within a cluster tothe overall distribution of values. For example, Figure 16-19 is a plot of the chi-squarestatistic for newspaper readership. Within each cluster, the observed distribution iscompared to an expected distribution based on all cases. Large values of the statistic
for a cluster indicate that the distribution of the variable in the cluster differs from theoverall distribution. The critical value line that is drawn provides some notion of how
dissimilar each cluster is from the average. If the absolute value of the statistic for acluster is greater than the critical value, the variable is probably important indistinguishing that cluster from the others.
Tip: The values of the statistics are just rough guidelines to help you find out how
individual clusters differ from all cases combined. The actual values and the associated386
Chapter 16

significance levels that can be plotted instead of the actual values can’t be interpreted
in the usual fashion, even when adjustments to the probabilities are made.
Figure 16-19
Importance of newspaper reading to cluster formation

How often do you read a newspaper?

Bonferroni Adjustment Applied
Critical Value
Test Statistic

Cluster

3

2

1

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Chi-Square

For continuous variables, instead of plots of chi-square values, you can get plots oft statistics that compare the mean of the variable in the cluster to the overall mean.
Figure 16-20 shows the average age for the three clusters. You see that the average age
is statistically different for the three clusters, since the value of the test statistic exceeds
the critical value for each of the clusters.
Warning: You must specify a confidence level in the TwoStep Cluster Plots dialog box
in order to get the critical value lines plotted.

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Cluster Analy sis

Figure 16-20
Importance of age
Age of respondent

Bonferroni Adjustment Applied
Critical Value
Test Statistic

Cluster

3

2

1

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

Student’s tLooking at All Variables within a Cluster
Instead of tracking a single variable across all clusters, you can look at the compositionof each cluster. Figure 16-21 shows the categorical variables that make up cluster 3.
You see that the distributions of highest degree and frequency of reading a newspaper
are different for cluster 3 compared to all clusters. The distribution of gender is not.

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Chapter 16

Figure 16-21
Importance of variables within a cluster
TwoStep Cluster Number = 3

Bonferroni Adjustment Applied
Critical Value
Test Statistic

Variable

How often do you reada newspaper?

Highest degree

Gender

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Chi-Square

Looking at the Relationship to Other Variables
You can save the cluster membership variable for each case and examine therelationship between the clusters and other variables. For example, Figure 16-22 showsa crosstabulation of cluster membership and use of the Internet. You see that 60% of
the members in cluster 1 use the Internet compared to 52% of members in cluster 2. If
you want to target people who use the Internet, the cluster solution may help.

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Cluster Analy sis

Figure 16-22
Crosstabulation of Internet use and cluster membership
U se W W W other than
m ail
Yes
Tw oStep
C lu ster N um ber

1

C oun t% w ith in Tw oStep
C luster N um be r

2

C oun t% w ith in Tw oStep
C luster N um be r

3

C oun t% w ith in Tw oStep
C luster N um be r

Total

C oun t% w ith in Tw oStep
C luster N um be r

238

No
158

Tota l396

60.1%

3 9.9%

1 00.0%

127

117

244

52.0%

4 8.0%

1 00.0%

147

112

259

56.8%

4 3.2%

1 00.0%

512

387

899

57.0%

4 3.0%

1 00.0%From Figure 16-23, you see that you might be able to use the cluster solution to identify
people who watch TV for many hours a night. Maybe you can sell them popcorn.
Figure 16-23
Average hours of television viewing by cluster membership
H ours pe r da y w atc hing T V
Tw oStep
C luster
N um ber

1

M ean
2.77

2
3
Total

N
395

Std. D eviation
2.4 68

3.16

244

2.3 483.15

259

2.2 08

2.99

898

2.3 68

Obtaining the Output
To produce the output in this chapter, follow the instructions below.
For Figures 16-2 to 16-6, use the olympics.sav data file.
Figures 16-2 to 16-6. From the Analyze menu choose Classify/Hierarchical Cluster.
Move all variables except judgename into the Variable(s) list. Move judgename into theLabel Cases By box. In the Cluster group, select Cases. In the Display group, selectboth Statistics and Plots. Click Statistics. In the Statistics subdialog box, selectAgglomeration schedule and Proximity matrix. In the Cluster Membership group, selectRange of solutions and specify from 3 through 5 clusters. Click Continue, and then click

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Chapter 16

Plots. In the Plots subdialog box, select Dendrogram, All clusters, and Vertical. Click
Continue, and then click OK.

For Figure 16-7, use the gettingahead.sav data file.
Figure 16-7. From the Analyze menu choose Classify/Hierarchical Cluster. Moveability, ambition, edparen, edself, hardwork, gender, region, and wealth into the
Variable(s) list. In the Cluster group, select Variables. Select both Statistics and Plots inthe Display group. Click Plots. In the Plots subdialog box, select All clusters in the Iciclegroup and Horizontal in the Orientation group. Click Continue and then click Method. In
the Method subdialog box, select Interval in the Measure group, and select Pearson
correlation as Interval measure. Click Continue, and then click OK.

For Figures 16-8 to 16-14, use the pottery.sav data file.
Figures 16-8 to 16-12. From the Analyze menu choose Classify/K-Means Cluster. Move
ZAl, ZCa, ZFe, ZMg, and ZNa into the Variables list, and specify 3 as Number ofClusters. Click Options and in the K-Means Cluster Analysis Options subdialog box,
select both Initial cluster centers and ANOVA table. Click Continue, and then click Save.
Select both Cluster membership and Distance from cluster center. Click Continue, andthen click OK.
Figure 16-13. From the Graphs menu choose Scatter/Dot. Select the Simple Scatter icon
and click Define. Move QCL_1 to the X Axis box and QCL_2 to the Y Axis box. ClickOK.
Figure 16-14. From the Analyze menu choose Descriptive Statistics/Crosstabs. Move
QCL_1 into the Row(s) list and site into the Column(s) list. Click Cells, and in the
Crosstabs Cell Display subdialog box, select Observed in the Counts group and Column
in the Percentages group. Click Continue, and then click OK.

For Figures 16-15 to 16-23, use the gssdata.sav data file.
Figures 16-15, 16-16, and 16-18 to 16-20. From the Analyze menu choose
Classify/TwoStep Cluster. Move degree, news, and sex into the Categorical Variables
list, and move age to the Continuous Variables list. Click Plots. In the Plots subdialog
box, select Within cluster percentage chart, Rank of variable importance, and Confidence
level. Click Continue, and then click Output. In the Output subdialog box, selectDescriptives by cluster, Cluster frequencies, and Information criterion (AIC or BIC) in theStatistics group, and select Create cluster membership variable in the Working Data Filegroup. Click Continue, and then click OK.

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Cluster Analy sis

Figure 16-21. Follow the steps above, but in the Plots subdialog box, leave Rank ofvariable importance selected but now select By variable in the Rank Variables group.
Proceed as above.
Figure 16-22. From the Analyze menu choose Descriptive Statistics/Crosstabs. Move
the new cluster membership variable, whose name will begin with TSC_, into theRow(s) list, and move usewww into the Column(s) list. Click Cells, and in the Cells
subdialog box, select Row percentages. Click Continue, and then click OK.
Figure 16-23. From the Analyze menu choose Compare Means/Means. Move tvhours
into the Dependent List, and move the new cluster membership variable, whose namewill begin with TSC_, into the Independent List. Click OK.