Education for citizenshipand the teaching of
democracy in schools

Final report of the Advisory Group on Citizenship
22 September 1998

The Young People’s Parliament, Birmingham, (YPP) – Educating for Democracy – gives young
people in Birmingham and the West Midlands a voice - whether on school, local quality of life or
wider national issues; and on global concerns such as sustainable development and human rights.
The initiative is a partnership between The University of the First Age, Birmingham City Council
and the new centre for learning and leisure, Millennium Point. Already by using ICT, websites,
video conferencing and e-mail, as well as use of the City’s Council Chamber, the young people ofBirmingham and beyond have been able to participate in two pilot projects. The General Election
project in 1997 linked young people in the West Midlands directly with politicians and provided a
lively and robust exchange of views. The first G8 Young People’s Summit (YPS) was held in May
1998 to coincide with the G8 Summit meeting in Birmingham. Two youth delegates came fromeach of the G8 countries as well as the EU. A communiqué was drafted, mainly on the issues ofthird world debt relief, after a meeting with the Prime Minister. It made a powerful statement for
the right of young people to be heard in international affairs.

The Youth Parliament Competition is now in its eighth year, organised by the CitizenshipFoundation and sponsored by Motorola. Each participating secondary school holds a mockparliamentary session of the pupils’ own choosing. There are ministers and shadow ministers
and a host of backbenchers on both sides. A twenty minute video of the debate is sent to regional
judges and regional winners are then judged by a national panel. There is also a separate political
writing competition. The national winners are invited to a presentation at the Houses ofParliament to receive their prizes and to meet senior politicians. The entry for this year’s national
winner (for the second time), St Michael’s Roman Catholic School, Billingham, Cleveland,
included Prime Minister’s Questions and the pollution tax debate. The leading roles went to Year
11 students with Year 7 pupils providing the bulk of the backbenchers.

Youth Parliaments – currently a large initiative is being developed by the Department for
Education and Employment and the Department for the Environment, Transport and Regions, tohold a national Children’s Parliament competition for primary schools, on local, regional and thennational levels. The issues debated will be environmental and there will also be an essay
competition. Youth Parliaments are also organised by the Council for Education in World
Citizenship, which involve role-play and are based on an international problem (we saw one at
Brighton on the international drugs trade).

First published by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority on behalf of the Citizenship
Advisory Group© Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 1998
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Printed in Great Britain.
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Contents
Page

Forewordby Rt Hon Betty Boothroyd, MP, Speaker of the House of Commons3

Terms of reference4

Membership of the Advisory Group

5

Introductory note

6

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION
1

Preface72What we mean by Citizenship93

Citizenship: the need and aims

13PART TWO: RECOMMENDATIONS
4

Essential recommendations

22

5

The way forward

24

5.1

Learning outcomes for Citizenship Education

24

5.2

Phasing in the statutory Order for Citizenship Education

24

5.3

Active citizenship both inside the school and relating to the community

25

5.4

The teaching of controversial issues

27

5.5

Implications for post-16 learning

27

5.6

A note on assessment

28

5.7

Implications for agencies

29

5.8

Implications for the work of OFSTED

29

5.9

Implications for the work of the TTA

30

5.10

Resourcing Citizenship Education

32

5.11

Recommendations for the terms of reference and the composition of thestanding Commission on Citizenship Education

33

PART THREE: SPELLING IT OUT
6

Framework for Citizenship Education: learning outcomes

35

6.1

Rationale35

6.2

Guiding principles

35

1

6.3

The learning process

36

6.4

Teacher assessment of learning

39

6.5

Framework of learning outcomes

39

6.6

Aim and purpose

40

6.7

The strands

40

6.8

Essential elements

41

6.9

Overview of essential elements

42

6.10

Learning outcomes by key stages

46

6.11

Key Stage 1

46

6.12

Key Stage 2

47

6.13

Key Stage 3

49

6.14

Key Stage 4

50

7

Suggestions as to how part of the statutory curriculum might
be fulfilled in combination with other subjects

52

8

How Citizenship learning can contribute to development of Key Skills

54

9

Whole-school issues

55

10

Guidance on the teaching of controversial issues

56

11

A last word

61

Appendix A
Letter from the chairman to the ‘Passport Project’ on the relationship of
Personal and Social Education to Citizenship Education

62

Appendix B
New information and communication technologies and Education
for Citizenship

67

Appendix C
The consultation process

72

Appendix D
Acknowledgements

80Foreword

Speaker’s House, Westminster, London SW1A 0AA
The Speaker

Like my immediate predecessor as Speaker, I have become increasingly concerned that
Citizenship as a subject appeared to be diminishing in importance and impact inschools – this despite a number of non-governmental initiatives over a long period ofyears. This area, in my view, has been a blot on the landscape of public life for too
long, with unfortunate consequences for the future of our democratic processes. I
therefore welcomed the pledge of the Secretary of State for Education and
Employment in the White Paper, Excellence in Schools (November 1997), ‘tostrengthen education for citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools’. Moreparticularly, I welcomed the setting up of an Advisory Group on Citizenship to reportand make appropriate recommendations in the context of the forthcoming review of
the National Curriculum.
I was pleased to be able to accept the suggestion that I should be patron of the Group.
The Citizenship Group, under the energetic chairmanship of Professor Bernard Crickand with a former Secretary of State for Education in the last administration among
the distinguished membership, has now produced a unanimous final report. I believe
this to be a measured document, with a comprehensive set of recommendations geared
to a sensible proposed timetable.
I congratulate the Group on its work and trust that it will enhance understanding ofand participation in our democratic, legal and other civic processes.

3

Terms of reference
On 19 November 1997, following proposals in the education White Paper, Excellencein Schools, the Secretary of State for Education and Employment pledged ‘tostrengthen education for citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools’, and tothat end set up this Advisory Group with the following terms of reference:‘To provide advice on effective education for citizenship in schools – to include thenature and practices of participation in democracy; the duties, responsibilities andrights of individuals as citizens; and the value to individuals and society ofcommunity activity.’

The framework document setting out the Group’s terms of reference explained that it
would cover:‘the teaching of civics, participative democracy and citizenship, and may be taken to
include some understanding of democratic practices and institutions, including
parties, pressure groups and voluntary bodies, and the relationship of formal politicalactivity with civic society in the context of the UK, Europe and the wider
world...and...an element of the way in which expenditure and taxation work,
together with a grasp of the underlying economic realities of adult life...’

The framework document also made clear that the Secretary of State expected themain outcomes of the Group’s work to be:‘a statement of the aims and purposes of citizenship education in schools;a broad framework for what good citizenship education in schools might look like, andhow it can be successfully delivered – covering opportunities for teaching about
citizenship within and outside the formal curriculum and the development of personal andsocial skills through projects linking schools and the community, volunteering and the
involvement of pupils in the development of school rules and policies.’

Our initial report setting out the aims and purposes of citizenship education in schools
was published at the end of March 1998 to meet the timetable of the Qualifications
and Curriculum Authority (QCA) for providing advice on the review of the National
Curriculum.
This final report contains, along with the main section of our initial report, detailed
proposals for a framework for citizenship education in schools. The report will beconsidered by the Secretary of State for Education and Employment with further advice
from QCA on the review of the National Curriculum and other related initiatives.

4Membership of the Advisory Group
Patron: The Rt Hon Betty Boothroyd, MP, Speaker of the House of Commons
Chairman: Professor Bernard Crick
Members:
Elaine Appelbee, Member of the General Synod of the Church of England
Lord Baker, CH, former Secretary of State for Education and Home Secretary
Tom Bentley, from the think tank, DEMOS
Michael Brunson, Political Editor, ITN
Heather Daulphin, Director of Post-16 Studies, Hampstead School, London
Mavis Grant, Headteacher of Mary Trevelyan Primary School, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Elisabeth Hoodless, CBE, Chief Executive of Community Service Volunteers (CSV)
Sir Donald Limon, KCB, representing the Speaker of the House of Commons
Jan Newton, Chief Executive of the Citizenship Foundation
Dr Alex Porter, former Lecturer in Education (Politics) at the Institute of Education,
University of London
Usha Prashar, CBE, Chair of the Parole Board
Graham Robb, Headteacher of Lode Heath Secondary School, Solihull; appointed HM
Chief Inspector for Careers Education, April 1998
Marianne Talbot, Lecturer in Philosophy at Brasenose College, Oxford
Sir Stephen Tumim, OBE, former HM Chief Inspector of Prisons in England and Wales
Phil Turner, former Assistant Education Officer at the Borough of Redbridge, London(until 2 June 1998)
Observers:
Scott Harrison, Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED)
Stephen Harrison, Teacher Training Agency (TTA)
Phil Snell, Department for Education and Employment (DfEE)
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA):
Liz Craft, Project Manager
Chris Jones, Head of National Curriculum Review Division
David Kerr, Professional Officer, seconded to QCA from the National Foundation for
Educational Research (NFER)
The Advisory Group was appointed by the Secretary of State and managed by QCA.
This report is published by QCA on behalf of the Advisory Group.

5

Introductory noteWe present our final report in three parts. Part One: Introduction, is drawn from ourinitial report of March 1998. The first three sections of this report have become, with
only minor changes of wording, the sections in the first part of the present final
report, sections 1, 2 and 3 respectively, entitled Preface, What we mean by Citizenship,
and Citizenship: the need and aims.
Part Two is our Recommendations, in two sections. Section 4, Essential
recommendations, is also drawn from our earlier report. Even after extensive further
consultation and representations, we have seen the need to make only minor changes,
though during the course of this final report, we make a number of further andimportant recommendations. In section 5, The way forward, we fulfil what we
promised to do in the Next steps section of the initial report; but where this involves
considerable detail we have simply set down a heading or the briefest summary with across reference to the relevant section in Part Three: Spelling it out.
The coloured boxes contain just a few examples, among many others, chosen toillustrate the various kinds of existing practice of citizenship learning beyond theformal curriculum that could develop more widely and generally. They should be readin conjunction with sections 5.3.1. to 5.3.3.
We have consulted widely following the publication of our initial report. Appendix C
provides details of this consultation process and of the main findings.

6

Part One

Introduction
1 Preface
1.1

We unanimously advise the Secretary of State that citizenship and theteaching of democracy, construed in a broad sense that we will define, is so
important both for schools and the life of the nation that there must be a
statutory requirement on schools to ensure that it is part of the entitlement of
all pupils. It can no longer sensibly be left as uncoordinated local initiatives
which vary greatly in number, content and method. This is an inadequate
basis for animating the idea of a common citizenship with democratic values.

1.2

To prove effective and lasting this will need more than decisions by the
Secretary of State. It will need the confidence of both the general public andthe teaching profession. A considerable part of this report is, of necessity,
addressed more to that profession than to a general audience, since we set
out in Part Three a curriculum framework with proposals for detailed
learning outcomes. We also offer guidance on how teaching in other subjects
and aspects of the curriculum can both enhance citizenship education and beassisted by it. In addition, we offer some advice on the teaching ofcontroversial issues.

1.3

However, we are anxious that the wider public should understand precisely
why we think citizenship education should be an entitlement for all pupils inschools and for young people generally even beyond the age of 16. So before
offering our detailed suggestions about how citizenship might be taught, westate the need for it, the public benefits that could follow, and offer broad
guidelines as to what principles should be followed and what should be theeducational aims and learning outcomes, including the importance forcitizenship education and schools of positive relations and interaction with
communities and community organisations.

1.4

Proposals so comprehensive, however much they can draw on existing goodpractice, need preparation and will have to be implemented over a period oftime, not all at once. We have therefore made proposals for a phased,
systematic approach to citizenship education. Both because a national
approach to citizenship education is novel to this country and because it is asensitive area, we propose a monitoring body to oversee citizenshipeducation. This body should include representatives of the public and parents
as well as teachers and public authorities (see section 5.11).

1.5

We aim at no less than a change in the political culture of this country bothnationally and locally: for people to think of themselves as active citizens,willing, able and equipped to have an influence in public life and with thecritical capacities to weigh evidence before speaking and acting; to build on
and to extend radically to young people the best in existing traditions ofcommunity involvement and public service, and to make them individually7

confident in finding new forms of involvement and action among themselves.
There are worrying levels of apathy, ignorance and cynicism about publiclife. These, unless tackled at every level, could well diminish the hoped-for
benefits both of constitutional reform and of the changing nature of thewelfare state. To quote from a speech by the Lord Chancellor earlier thisyear (on which we end this report): ‘We should not, must not, dare not, becomplacent about the health and future of British democracy. Unless we
become a nation of engaged citizens, our democracy is not secure.’
1.6

Citizenship education is an unfulfilled expectation in a national agenda
established by the previous Government in Clause 2 of the first paragraph of
the 1988 Education Reform Act. That required a ‘balanced and broadly
based curriculum’ which ‘promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental andphysical development of pupils’ and also ‘prepares such pupils for theopportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life’. Citizenshipeducation in a parliamentary democracy is also part of preparation for adultlife, just as the activity of acting as a citizen, not just as a subject, is part ofadult life. Following the 1997 White Paper, Excellence in Schools, we were
set the task of advising how to fulfil this expectation.

1.7

Citizenship education must be education for citizenship. It is not an end in
itself, even if it will involve learning a body of knowledge, as well as thedevelopment of skills and values. Such knowledge is as interesting, asintellectually demanding and as capable as any other subject of being taught
and assessed at any level. The study of politics and civil life, concerned withboth institutions and ideas, began with Aristotle, has continued ever since,and flourishes today in our universities.

1.8

In section 2 of this report we discuss What we mean by Citizenship – that inessence it has three strands: social and moral responsibility, community
involvement and political literacy. A poignant comment by an OFSTED
inspector about a school was drawn to our attention: ‘There are few
opportunities for pupils to develop an understanding of citizenship, mostly
because there is no agreed view of what this entails.’. This is by no means an
isolated case.

1.9

However, two words of caution are needed:(a) Parents and the public generally may be worried about the possibility ofbias and indoctrination in teaching about citizenship. We must recognise thatteaching about citizenship necessarily involves discussing controversial issues.
After all, open and informed debate is vital for a healthy democracy. This is
not confined to citizenship however: controversial issues arise in other areas
like History, Geography, English, Personal, Social and Health Education(PSHE) or Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural development (SMSC).
Teachers are aware of the potential problems and are professionally trained
to seek for balance, fairness and objectivity. Furthermore, safeguards ineducation law exist to guard against biased and unbalanced teaching or
indoctrination. Our report contains guidance on the discussion ofcontroversial issues which we have drawn up (see section 10) consulting fully

8with those involved in PSHE and in the promotion of pupils’ Spiritual,
Moral, Social and Cultural (SMSC) development.
(b) Schools can only do so much. They could do more, and must be helped
to do so; we must not ask too little of teachers, but equally we must not ask
too much. Pupils’ attitudes to active citizenship are influenced quite as muchby values and attitudes in schools as by many factors other than schooling:by family, the immediate environment, the media and the example of those inpublic life. Sometimes these are positive factors, sometimes not.
1.10

We believe that the establishment of citizenship teaching in schools andcommunity-centred learning and activities will bring benefits to pupils,
teachers, schools and society at large. The benefits of citizenship education
will be:for pupils– an entitlement in schools that will empower them toparticipate in society effectively as active, informed, criticaland responsible citizens;for teachers – advice and guidance in making existing citizenship provision
coherent, both in intellectual and curriculum terms, as part ofstronger, coordinated approaches to citizenship education inschools;
for schools – a firm base to coordinate existing teaching and activities, torelate positively to the local community and to develop
effective citizenship education in the curriculum for all pupils;
for society

1.11– an active and politically-literate citizenry convinced that they
can influence government and community affairs at all levels.

Certainly a citizenship education which encouraged a more interactive role
between schools, local communities and youth organisations could help tomake local government more democratic, open and responsive.

2 What we mean by Citizenship2.1

In the political tradition stemming from the Greek city states and the Roman
republic, citizenship has meant involvement in public affairs by those who
had the rights of citizens: to take part in public debate and, directly or
indirectly, in shaping the laws and decisions of a state. In modern times,
however, democratic ideas led to constant demands to broaden the franchisefrom a narrow citizen class of the educated and the property owners, toachieve female emancipation, to lower the voting age, to achieve freedom of
the press and to open up the processes of government. We now have theopportunity for a highly educated ‘citizen democracy’.

2.2With the rise of nation states there developed a secondary sense of
citizenship: people who, even in autocratic states, had the protection of thelaws – such as they were – and the duty of obeying them. In the nineteenth
century, for instance, to say that someone was a Russian citizen or an
9American citizen meant something very different. The ‘good subject’ and the‘good citizen’ meant different things. In Britain, there was often a problem ofperception over this distinction. The very continuity of our history, powers
being handed down to Parliament by the Crown in response to gradualpressure from below, has made the very concept of ‘British subject’ and‘British citizen’ seem much the same to most people.
2.3

Recently the terms ‘good citizen’ and ‘active citizen’ have come back intocurrency. The report of the Commission on Citizenship, appointed by thethen Speaker of the House of Commons, Encouraging Citizenship (1990),
did well to adopt as a starting point the understanding of citizenship foundin the late T.H. Marshall’s book, Citizenship (1950). He saw three elements:
the civil, the political and the social. Discussing the first element, thecommission rightly put greater stress on the reciprocity between rights andduties; and, more than Marshall, on welfare being not just provision by thestate but also what people can do for each other in voluntary groups andorganisations, whether local or national. Both of these it saw as a duty it
called ‘active citizenship’, but it had less to say about Marshall’s second
element. Perhaps it took political citizenship for granted (which, historically,it has never been safe to do). Civic spirit, citizens’ charters and voluntary
activity in the community are of crucial importance, but individuals must be
helped and prepared to shape the terms of such engagements by politicalunderstanding and action.

2.4

Respect for the rule of law is a necessary condition for any kind of social
order and a necessary component of education. In a parliamentarydemocracy, however, education must also help future citizens distinguishbetween law and justice. Such a distinction marked the very beginning ofpolitical thought in ancient Athens. Citizens must be equipped with thepolitical skills needed to change laws in a peaceful and responsible manner.

2.5

We firmly believe that volunteering and community involvement arenecessary conditions of civil society and democracy. Preparation for these, atthe very least, should be an explicit part of education. This is especially
important at a time when government is attempting a shift of emphasis
between, on the one hand, state welfare provision and responsibility and, on
the other, community and individual responsibility. We say only that while
volunteering and voluntary service are necessary conditions for fullcitizenship in a democracy, they are not sufficient conditions. Local
communities are, indeed, not isolated from the state and public policy.

2.6

This has recently been well stated by Professor David Hargreaves in a
DEMOS pamphlet, The Mosaic of Learning:‘Civic education is about the civic virtues and decent behaviour that adults wish tosee in young people. But it is also more than this. Since Aristotle it has been
accepted as an inherently political concept that raises questions about the sort ofsociety we live in, how it has come to take its present form, the strengths andweaknesses of current political structures, and how improvements might bemade.... Active citizens are as political as they are moral; moral sensibility derives
in part from political understanding; political apathy spawns moral apathy.’

10

2.7

So a working definition must be wide, without being all things to everyone,
but specifically must identify and relate all three of Marshall’s dimensions,
not to call any one of them on its own true ‘active citizenship’. Active
citizenship must be an habitual interaction between all three. A submission
from the Citizenship Foundation in response to the White Paper, Excellencein Schools, states this point well:‘We believe that citizenship has a clear conceptual core which relates to the
induction of young people into the legal, moral and political arena of public life. It
introduces pupils to society and its constituent elements, and shows how they, as
individuals, relate to the whole. Besides understanding, citizenship education
should foster respect for law, justice, democracy and nurture common good at thesame time as encouraging independence of thought. It should develop skills ofreflection, enquiry and debate.’

2.8

While we say that voluntary and community activity cannot be the fullmeaning of active citizenship, we also recognise that freedom and fullcitizenship in the political arena itself depends on a society with a rich variety
of non-political associations and voluntary groups – what some have called
civil society. This was the great teaching of Thomas Jefferson, Alexis de
Tocqueville and John Stuart Mill. A comparative survey of Britain and theUnited States in 1996 by Professor Ivor Crewe and others concludes:‘There is now ample evidence that electoral turn-out, attention to political andpublic issues in the media, involvement in election campaigns and demonstrations
are all strongly and consistently related to motivations that are reinforced throughparticipation in informal groups and voluntary associations.’ (See also section 3.4).

2.9

So what some once argued for, ‘political education and political literacy’ (thetitle of the influential Hansard Society Report of 1978), might now seem too
narrow a term to catch our meaning compared to ‘citizenship education’.
This meaning was well reflected in the sentence from the framework
document that we quote at the head of this report.

2.10

So what do we mean by ‘effective education for citizenship’? We mean three
things, related to each other, mutually dependent on each other, but eachneeding a somewhat different place and treatment in the curriculum: socialand moral responsibility, community involvement and political literacy.

2.11(a) Firstly, children learning from the very beginning self-confidence andsocially and morally responsible behaviour both in and beyond theclassroom, both towards those in authority and towards each other. Thislearning should be developed, not only in but also beyond school, whenever
and wherever children work or play in groups or participate in the affairs of
their communities. Some may think this aspect of citizenship hardly needs
mentioning; but we believe it to be near the heart of the matter. Hereguidance on moral values and personal development are essential
preconditions of citizenship. Some might regard the whole of primary school
education as pre-citizenship, certainly pre-political; but this is mistaken.
Children are already forming through learning and discussion, concepts offairness, and attitudes to the law, to rules, to decision-making, to authority,
to their local environment and social responsibility etc. They are also picking

11up, whether from school, home or elsewhere, some knowledge of whether
they are living in a democracy or not, of what social problems affect themand even what the different pressure groups or parties have to say about
them. All this can be encouraged, guided and built upon.

Windsor County Primary School, Toxteth, Liverpool, is in one of the mostsocially deprived parts of inner-city Toxteth, yet for several years there havebeen no exclusions, something that the headteacher puts down to the creationof the pupil council. The council held a special meeting for the pupils to discuss
what they wanted to say to others about their pupil council. Here is part of it:‘Having a pupil council ... has transformed our school by the responsible
decisions that it has taken. We have appeared on television and we have helped
to train other schools. In our school, we have organised events and fund raising
activities to buy equipment to improve our playtimes. The number of badly
behaved pupils has dropped... Being a councillor is a lot of responsibility.
Listening and advising can be a very hard job. Pupils respect the councillors andknow they are good friends to everyone. Bullying has diminished in our school
because councillors look, listen and support all children... We believe that ourpupil council has made our school a better place – a place where children’s
opinions count. We believe every school should have a pupils’ council.’(b) Secondly, learning about and becoming helpfully involved in the life andconcerns of their communities, including learning through community
involvement and service to the community. This, of course, like the othertwo branches of citizenship, is by no means limited to children’s time inschool. Even if pupils and adults perceive many of the voluntary groups as
non-political, the clearer meaning is probably to say ‘non-partisan’: forvoluntary bodies when exercising persuasion, interacting with publicauthorities, publicising, fund-raising, recruiting members and then trying toactivate (or placate) them, all such bodies are plainly using and needing
political skills.

The John Bentley School, Calne, Wiltshire, has a ‘Young Enterprise’ scheme,
community service learning, work experience and an active school council. The
school council has developed a formal link with the town council. As the only
secondary school in the town, it provides all 16 councillors for the Calne Young
Peoples’ Town Council (YPTC). The YPTC liaises closely with the school
council and meets monthly in the council chamber at the town hall. YPTC
members sit on a wide range of organisations in the town, representing theviews of young people, including the Civic Society, the Crime Prevention Paneland the town council’s amenities committee. The YPTC, in combination withthe school council, has obtained many improvements for young people in the
town and received grants such as that from Rural Action for environmental
work. The YPTC has recently worked on a ‘safe routes to school’ project.

12

(c) Thirdly, pupils learning about and how to make themselves effective inpublic life through knowledge, skills and values – what can be called‘political literacy’, seeking for a term that is wider than political knowledge
alone. The term ‘public life’ is used in its broadest sense to encompass
realistic knowledge of and preparation for conflict resolution anddecision-making related to the main economic and social problems of theday, including each individual’s expectations of and preparations for theworld of employment, and discussion of the allocation of public resources
and the rationale of taxation. Such preparations are needed whether these
problems occur in locally, nationally or internationally concernedorganisations or at any level of society from formal political institutions to
informal groups, both at local or national level.

The Junior Citizenship Programme has been developed by the Institute of
Citizenship Studies through a pilot with a number of primary schools in Haltonin the north-west. The programme seeks to help Year 6 pupils understand theconcept of citizenship, particularly what it is to be a citizen and the principles
involved, through their everyday experiences of the world around them. Pupils
are encouraged to be active, to speak out about issues and to develop theirideas and attitudes. The programme is supported by teachers’ notes and pupil
topic sheets, all based on the concept of community: from the schoolcommunity to the local community, including understanding of the work of
Halton Borough Council, radiating out to the national and European
dimensions. Halton’s twinning links with Leiria in Portugal, Marzahn inGermany and Usti nad Labem in the Czech Republic are used. This local focus
has proved particularly popular with pupils, as have meetings with otherschools. The Institute hopes to make the programme more widely available toprimary schools in the coming years.

2.12

So our understanding of citizenship education in a parliamentary democracy
finds three heads on one body: social and moral responsibility, community
involvement and political literacy. ‘Responsibility’ is an essential political aswell as moral virtue, for it implies (a) care for others; (b) premeditation andcalculation about what effect actions are likely to have on others; and (c)understanding and care for the consequences.

3 Citizenship: the need and aims
3.1

We state a case for citizenship education being a vital and distinct statutory
part of the curriculum, an entitlement for all pupils in its own right. We
recognise that citizenship education can be enhanced by and can makesignificant contributions to – as well as draw upon – other subjects andaspects of the curriculum. We stress, however, that citizenship education is
education for citizenship, behaving and acting as a citizen, therefore it is notjust knowledge of citizenship and civic society; it also implies developing
values, skills and understanding.

13

3.2

We also recognise that such an education is linked to two otherdevelopments in schools and depends on their effectiveness, especially in theearly stages of children’s development. Firstly, the promotion of Personal,
Social and Health Education (PSHE); and, secondly, new developments of akind being piloted by QCA in a whole-school approach to the promotion of
pupils’ Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural development (SMSC). All suchwork has some social and community entailments. Later we suggest which
values are more specific to democratic politics, drawing on, though not
restricted by, the values in the context of society, identified by the National
Forum for Values in Education and the Community.

3.3

In September 1997, a Citizenship 2000 group was formed, following initial
discussions by representatives of the Citizenship Foundation, the Association
for the Teaching of the Social Sciences (ATSS), the Secondary Heads
Association (SHA), and the Hansard Society. An agreed statement pointed to‘rapidly changing relationships between the individual and government; thedecline in traditional forms of civic cohesion; the new political context ofBritain in Europe; and rapid social, economic and technological change in a
global context’. So it concluded:‘Citizenship education in schools and colleges is too important to be left to chance;
recent research has underlined the weakness of civic discourse in this country.
Citizenship education is urgently needed to address this historic deficit if we are to
avoid a further decline in the quality of our public life and if we are to prepare all
young people for informed participation, not only in a more open United
Kingdom, but also in Europe and the wider world, as we move into the next
century. This will not happen unless there is a firm political and professional
commitment to education for citizenship.’

14

3.4

Comparative research by Professor Ivor Crewe and others between similar
communities in Britain and the United States (1996) revealed that nearly
80 per cent of British pupils say that out of school they engage in very little
discussion at all of public issues, including issues important in their own
communities. Many reported strong social norms ‘never to talk about
religion or politics’. Those who had such an opportunity at school, however,were more likely to talk at home or in the community. ‘Talk’ or discourse is
obviously fundamental to active citizenship. When the British sample was
asked to give examples of good citizenship only 10 per cent mentioned
voting or exercising political rights, whereas 70 per cent ‘talked about civic
engagement in some form – for example, working in local voluntary
associations, doing something beneficial in the local community’.

3.4.1

However, the research found that ‘single issue’ politics figured more largely;‘green’ concerns and environmental issues generally attract attention andsupport. Perhaps there is some ‘displacement effect’ at work here: politicalscientists have suggested for some time that young people, when feeling that‘something ought to be done about it’, are less likely than the post-war
generation to join political parties, are more likely to join a particularpressure group. Professor Crewe found that more young people stand up foranimal rights than for civil or human rights. Even so, here are positiveconnections between the civil and the political in the minds of young people
that we will seek to show could be developed to mutual benefit both byschools and voluntary bodies.
3.5

The British Election Study reports that 25 per cent of the 18–24 age groupsaid they would not vote in the 1992 general election, the highest abstention
rate among all age groups. In the 1997 general election, the reported figure
had risen to 32 per cent abstention, again the highest among all age groups,
though MORI put it at 43 per cent. This is compared to 71 per cent actual
turn-out in the total electorate (the lowest in the post-war period). There is
general acceptance that the actual abstention rate among the 18–24 age
group in 1997 will have been greater than that reported. However, a researchstudy by the Trust for the Study of Adolescence in 1997 found that amajority of its sample had been involved in some form of political orcommunity action the previous year. A MORI survey for the News of theWorld in March 1997 on first-time voters found that 28 per cent said theywould not vote or were unlikely to, 55 per cent said that they were notinterested or could not be bothered, 17 per cent said that it would not makeany difference, and 10 per cent said they did not trust any politicians.

3.6

Such are some measures of alienation and cynicism. Truancy, vandalism,
random violence, premeditated crime and habitual drug-taking can be otherindicators of youth alienation, even if historical comparisons are difficult;and the spurts, fits and fashions of vivid media coverage can make it difficult
to judge how much is real increase and how much is justifiable public
intolerance of things once taken more or less for granted.

3.7

A Social and Community Planning Research (SCPR) survey, commissioned in
1996 by Barnardo’s, revealed broadly similar figures. For instance, only 21
per cent of young people claimed to ‘support’ a political party and 55 percent said they never read a newspaper. However, Barnardo’s cautiously
commented that:‘The survey data are ambiguous. Although young people may not read newspapers
they do seem one way or another to have secured some basic but important
political facts. Presented with a series of propositions in quiz format, the sample
answered pretty accurately, identifying the Prime Minister, the President of the
USA and getting some constitutional facts broadly right. Eighty per cent agreed
that the Tory Party had won the last election and 76 per cent agreed that Northern
Ireland was part of the United Kingdom. That there are separate elections for the
UK and European Parliaments was known by 65 per cent. These may be simple
propositions, but the accuracy of the response suggests basic information does getingested, whatever the source.’

However, we would comment that such a level of knowledge is so basic thatwell-taught youngsters in primary school can have it, and often do – andmuch more – by the age of eight or nine; but others, leaving secondary
school, are apparently no better than that. For example, pupils by the age of
eleven should know what Parliament stands for and something of how it
works and what are its powers.
15

3.8

A DEMOS pamphlet by Helen Wilkinson and Geoff Mulgan, Freedom’sChildren: work, relationships and politics for 18–34 year olds in Britain
today (1995), presented evidence of ignorance and – as it were – ‘could-notcare-less’ attitudes, leading them to state a powerful case that there should bea legal obligation to teach civic education alongside personal and social
education and for some central responsibility for civic and politicaleducation, as in Australia and Canada. (They could also have cited all othercountries in the EU.) Over the whole population, the authors note that
disrespect for the way Parliament works doubled in four years after 1991,
and that trust in society’s core institutions has been falling steadily, leaving
only minority support for the way that national government (15 per cent)and local government (25 per cent) works. About a third of young people
take pride in being outside and against the mainstream, identifying only with
their own sub-cultures. The authors argue that ‘the potentially explosive
alienation we have uncovered requires a different approach to politics – newstyle of leadership, new languages and new mechanisms’. Their conclusion
has worrying implications for the future of democracy in this country:‘The overwhelming story emerging from our research, both quantitative andqualitative, is of an historic political disconnection. In effect, an entire generation
has opted out of party politics.’

16

3.9

Another view, however, is found in a comparison of teenage and adultattitudes to politics based on British Social Attitudes, No 12 (SCPR),
1995–96. Roger Jowell and Alison Park presented these findings in a lecturein December 1997 organised by the Citizenship Foundation, entitled ‘Young
People, Politics and Citizenship – a disengaged generation?’. They suggested
that negative attitudes, ignorance and low voting turn-out among theyounger generation (18–24 year olds) were only marginally worse than thenext adult cohort, and that the figures improved towards middle age, only
dropping off again in old age. So they questioned whether teenage andyounger generation alienation was the kind of ‘historic political
disconnection’ of the DEMOS pamphlet, or perhaps a normal phenomenonof the life cycle. Ignorance was considerable, as was distrust of government
and politicians, but the authors pointed out that it was ‘not surprising,perhaps’ that 12–18 year olds were even less interested and knowledgeable
about politics than were 18–24 year-olds; but that as people got older,concerned with taxes, mortgages and family, they began to inform themselvesbetter and show more concern for public policy.

3.10

Perhaps we need to make only two comments on this complex question:
firstly, that the truth could well be somewhere between the historic shift
argument and that things are much as ever they were; and secondly that evenaccepting Jowell and Park’s suggestion that things may not be getting
dramatically worse, they are inexcusably and damagingly bad, and could andshould be remedied.

3.11

Schools should have a coherent and sequential programme of citizenshipeducation. Yet in very few schools in England is this the case. A report byDavid Kerr of the National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER),

Citizenship Education Revisited, completed in December 1997 (part of thefirst stage of an international study of civic education in 27 countries), does
point to most schools in England claiming – when asked – to have someform of citizenship education, by different names and in different forms andin very varying quantity; and, we suspect, of varying quality, since there areno national standards or targets by which it can be assessed. When the 173
schools in the sample were asked what were the main obstacles or problems
faced in dealing with citizenship education, 79 per cent said pressure on thetimetable, 51 per cent said lack of funding for resources, 38 per cent saidlack of an agreed definition of what it was, 35 per cent said lack of staff
expertise, 31 per cent said lack of staff commitment to or confidence inteaching, 28 per cent said lack of suitable resource materials, and 27 per centsaid lack of national advice and guidance. There is a lot to build on, but it isneither enough nor a coherent basis for an education for a common
citizenship.
3.12

There has been a small but important pointer recently to show how values
can modify behaviour when mediated through a good teaching programme.
The Home Office in 1990 financed a pilot study into teaching about drug
abuse, in three inner-London primary schools, called ‘Project Charlie’. The
results were monitored six years later and a report published in November
1997. The findings showed a significantly lower level of experimentation
with both tobacco and illegal drugs, and greater resistance to peer pressure,in the children who had been taught in the programme compared toschoolmates who had not.

3.13

There are less tangible but wider social questions that constitute a broader
aim for citizenship education. The Citizenship Foundation put the case to the
National Commission on Education of 1992 in terms of: ‘the increasingly
complex nature of our society, the greater cultural diversity and the apparent
loss of a value consensus, combined with the collapse of traditional support
mechanisms such as extended families...’. ‘Cultural diversity’ raises the issue
of national identity.

3.14

Responding to these worries, a main aim for the whole community should be
to find or restore a sense of common citizenship, including a national identitythat is secure enough to find a place for the plurality of nations, cultures,
ethnic identities and religions long found in the United Kingdom. Citizenshipeducation creates common ground between different ethnic and religious
identities.

3.15

The fourth national survey, Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversity andDisadvantage (Policy Studies Institute, 1997), recommended that ‘an explicit
idea of multi-cultural citizenship needs to be formulated for Britain’ and that‘a more plural approach to racial disadvantage requires forms of citizenshipwhich are sensitive to ethnic diversity and offer respect both to individuals
and to the social groups to which they feel they belong’.

3.16

Majorities must respect, understand and tolerate minorities and minorities
must learn and respect the laws, codes and conventions as much as the17majority – not merely because it is useful to do so, but because this process
helps foster common citizenship. This gives a special importance tocitizenship education, for these matters of national identity in a pluralist
society are complex and should never be taken for granted. We all need tolearn more about each other. This should entail learning not only about theUnited Kingdom – including all four of its component parts – but also about
the European, Commonwealth and global dimensions of citizenship, with
due regard being given to the homelands of our minority communities and tothe main countries of British emigration.
3.17

Some of the replies from organisations to the Secretary of State’s call for
responses to the White Paper, Excellence in Schools, state the general aims
very well and point towards our conclusions. First however, a word on the
responses: there were only 216 responses among the 8,000 received which
expressed views on what programmes of citizenship in schools should cover(despite – as David Kerr’s NFER national survey showed – most schools
professing to be doing something). This low response is perhaps not
surprising since citizenship was only one among many new initiatives anddespite its nominal status as a cross-curricular theme, rarely commented onin OFSTED reports; so not something that schools are judged by. However,all but two of the responses were favourable, but (as also reported in David
Kerr’s national survey) there was no clear consensus on aims and purposes,
or to be blunt, on what it was.

3.18

However, a summary for the advisory group from the DfEE said this of the
216 responses:‘Although the responses to the citizenship question are relatively small in number
they contain some useful messages. They do not provide a clear consensus on aims
and purposes or a conceptual framework for education for citizenship, but that is
not surprising since they were not asked to comment specifically on these matters.
Perhaps the clearest messages to emerge are that there is support from a range ofinterests for developing education for citizenship and raising its status, thoughsome concern that there is insufficient time in the curriculum to accommodate it atpresent; that most see it as involving experiential learning as well as academic
learning; and that many see a commonality of approach with Personal, Social and
Health Education.’

We acknowledge that there may be considerable commonality of values andapproach or method, especially in primary schools – but we will differ as tocontent as pupils progress from primary to secondary school – here thesemust include explicit knowledge of social and political institutions andprocesses. Citizenship education is important and distinct enough to warrant
a separate specification within the national framework.
3.19

18

The British Youth Council (BYC) represents nearly one hundred youth
organisations with a nominal membership of some 3 million young people
aged between 18 and 25. Their submission to us was so robust and wellconsidered that it is worth quoting in full – so well does it sum up thecommon ground of many submissions we have received and what we hope toachieve by our recommendations:‘The curriculum should address issues such as democracy, community, society andcitizenship.
It should look at what representative democracy is, how it evolved, what it means
and what its advantages and disadvantages are. It should also look at otherpolitical systems around the world and other representative democracies. The
curriculum should also emphasise the importance of citizenship at a global leveland show how people can be exploited when they don’t understand citizenship.
It should consider the responsibility of belonging to society – the rights andresponsibilities of citizens. It should look at children and young people’s rights andresponsibilities as citizens, and how these change as they grow older. It should also
look at the law and the justice system and how it relates to their rights andresponsibilities.
The curriculum should enable children and young people to develop an awarenessof community and cultural diversity. It should help them see where and how they
fit into the community. It should enable them to understand their community, its
history, what part it has played in national life etc. It should also enable them togain an understanding of the diversity of community and society and an awarenessof equal opportunities issues, national identity and cultural differences. In
addition, the curriculum should show how ordinary citizens have been the
catalysts for change and improvement at a local, national and international level.
The curriculum should consider the factors that lead to exclusion from society,such as bullying, colour and other forms of “difference”. It should make students
aware of the difficulties such exclusion can have on the individual and society andof the reasons why some people “opt out” of the moral social set-up.
In looking at these areas, the curriculum should enable children and young people
to explore and understand key questions, moral problems and issues that concern
society.
The curriculum should also cover practical skills that enable young people toparticipate effectively in public life and prepare them to be full citizens. It should
enable children and young people to develop discussion, communication andteamwork skills. It should help them learn to argue cogently and effectively,
negotiate successfully and co-operate with others. It should also enable them tothink for themselves, solve problems and make decisions effectively.
These practical skills should be backed up by mechanisms that enable children andyoung people to practise them. We strongly believe that schools should, wherepracticable, establish Schools Councils. Schools Councils provide practicalfirst-hand experience of decision-making and democratic processes. They enable
children and young people to participate effectively in schools and debate andaddress issues of concern to them and their school.’

All that is lacking in this statement by the BYC is stress on volunteering andlearning from and in the local community, and consideration of economic
realities, notably taxation. These it plainly had taken for granted, since mostof its constituent organisations are heavily committed to volunteering andcommunity work. A philosopher once said that we often forget to state ourmajor presuppositions.
19

3.20

However, there was an unexpected kick in the tail of its submission thatreflects on the quotation in section 3.18 above and our own comment on it
regarding the distinct, if at some points, overlapping spheres of PSHE andcitizenship:‘Finally, we believe that it is important to set out areas that the [citizenship]
curriculum should not cover, or at least not be dominated or distracted by. It
would be tempting to allow citizenship education to become simply issues basedon moral education, revolving around key concepts such as drugs, healtheducation, housing and homelessness, careers development and employability etc.
We believe that the most important issue facing young people as citizens is theirlack of knowledge about society, its democratic process and their actual rights andresponsibilities as citizens. We believe that many pressure groups will be keen to
see the curriculum dominated by these key issues. We believe there will be room toaddress these issues in the broader PSHE education, and that citizenship educationmust clearly enable children to understand their duties as citizens and more
importantly how the world in which they are a citizen actually works.’

3.21

Plainly the BYC is not saying that the young people it represents did not
welcome discussion of the problems it mentions; but it is saying that they feelleft up in the air without the teaching of political literacy that could
empower them in adult life to have some effect on these problems. To tackle
social issues in school problem by problem can be beneficial, when done insome generally acceptable and practical moral framework. Even so, it would
not add up to an understanding of politics. For politics is the general process
by which differences of values and interests are compromised or mediatedthrough institutions in the general interest. The BYC’s reservation is a goodwarning against conflating or confusing PSHE (or other forms of values
education) and citizenship education, even if some of the topics it mentions
could be discussed under either heading, as schools may choose.

3.22

A submission to us from the Hansard Society supports the above position,and states the same general purpose of education for citizenship as the BYC
and ourselves, but in somewhat more traditional language:‘Programmes should be established to promote political discourse andunderstanding, as well as encouraging young people to engage in the politicalprocess. Further, they should encourage tolerance and respect for individuals andtheir property, irrespective of a person’s gender, race, culture or religion. They
must also encourage young people to behave honourably and with integrity, as
well as promote respect for the rule of law. Young people must be encouraged todevelop leadership and team skills in order to promote self-discipline andself-motivation. They should be encouraged to take pride in themselves and thecommunities to which they belong, as well as to see themselves as citizens of theworld.’

3.23

20

Finally, as for aims we would draw attention to one last aspect of the
responses to the White Paper. Some respondents suggested particular models.
Among them the Citizenship Foundation advocated a model for citizenshipteaching in which ‘civic, social and political education based around the three
key concepts of fairness, rights and responsibilities would have its own slot inKey Stages 3 and 4 and dedicated regular sessions in Key Stages 1 and 2’, withan allocation of five per cent of curriculum time. The Hansard Society alsofavoured such a model and the same entitlement of time. On the other hand,
the model of learning through service was favoured by CSV (Community
Service Volunteers) and by schools with existing programmes of that kind.
The Pathways to Adult and Working Life project received support from TECs
(Training and Enterprise Councils), business and business education responses.
These we have drawn upon in our proposals for a curriculum framework andlearning outcomes across key stages. (See section 6).

21

Part One
Two

Recommendations
4 Essential recommendations
We unanimously recommend that:

22

4.1

citizenship education be a statutory entitlement in the curriculum and that all
schools should be required to show they are fulfilling the obligation that thisplaces upon them;

4.2

the statutory entitlement is established by setting out specific learning
outcomes for each key stage, rather than detailed programmes of study. We
advise substituting for the present input and output model of the existing
National Curriculum subjects, an output model alone based on tightly
defined learning outcomes. This offers flexibility to schools in relation to
local conditions and opportunities, and allows the possibility of different
approaches to citizenship education, involving differing subject combinations
and aspects of the curriculum based on existing good practice in each school;

4.3

the learning outcomes should be tightly enough defined so that standards
and objectivity can be inspected by OFSTED. This approach by learning
outcomes would also avoid objections that a single way of teaching about
politics is being imposed, and lessen the dangers of subsequent ministerialinterventions on precise content;

4.4

there should be a DfEE Order setting up the entitlement and this shalldeclare that citizenship education in schools and colleges is to include theknowledge, skills and values relevant to the nature and practices ofparticipative democracy; the duties, responsibilities, rights and developmentof pupils into citizens; and the value to individuals, schools and society of
involvement in the local and wider community. This will cover anunderstanding of democratic practices and institutions both local andnational, including the work of parliaments, parties, pressure groups andvoluntary bodies, and the relationship of formal political activity to civilsociety in the context of the United Kingdom and Europe; and an awarenessof world affairs and global issues. A basic understanding is required of how
taxation and expenditure work together, and of the economic realities ofadult life;

4.5

the learning outcomes should be based on what should take no more than
five per cent of curriculum time across the key stages. This time can be
distributed as blocks, modules, a part of existing tutorial time or general
studies time, or as a regular weekly period. These are all matters for schools
themselves to decide;

4.6

schools consider combining elements of citizenship education with othersubjects (combinations of citizenship and history have obvious educational
merit). This will encourage flexibility in schools, so long as the statutory

requirement to deliver citizenship education as an entitlement for all pupils ismet. (See section 7 for detailed recommendations);
4.7

schools consider the relation of citizenship education to whole school issues
including school ethos, organisation and structures. This will be of particularhelp to schools in relation to combinations with Personal, Social and Health
Education (PSHE), pupils’ development of key skills and the promotion of
pupils’ Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural development (SMSC);

4.8

although beyond the age of 16 there is no National Curriculum, theSecretary of State should consider how the proposed entitlement tocitizenship education should continue for all students involved in post-16
education and training regardless of their course of study, vocational or
academic. (See section 5.5 for detailed recommendations);

4.9

the introduction and implementation of the learning outcomes should bephased in over a number of years. So much cannot be achieved at once. Timefor preparation is also needed for initial and in-service training, the provisionof new and revised materials, and to minimise disruption for schools inexisting curriculum arrangements. (See section 5.2 for detailed
recommendations);

4.10

everyone directly involved in the education of our children – politicians andcivil servants; community representatives; faith groups; school inspectors andgovernors; teacher trainers and teachers themselves; parents and indeed
pupils – be given a clear statement of what is meant by citizenship educationand their central role in it. This is to make clear that the entitlement for
citizenship education should include the learning of the skills, values,
attitudes, understanding and knowledge needed for both community
involvement and preparation for involvement as citizens of our parliamentarydemocracy and the wider political world. Experiential learning, discussion ofsocial and political issues as well as formal, taught learning should be part ofthis process, both inside and outside the school as appropriate;

4.11

public bodies, at local and national level, consider how best to meet their
responsibility to citizenship education. Much more should be done by publicbodies, such as the two Houses of Parliament and local authorities, toimprove or establish arrangements which assist pupils in their citizenshiplearning, particularly in providing facilities for visits. We urge these bodies togive this matter early attention. They must recognise the influence of theexample they set in public life, particularly in their dealings with young
people, on pupil’s attitudes to citizenship education and learning;

4.12

the implications of our recommendations and other proposed initiatives forthe management of teaching time at each key stage, should be given carefulattention by QCA in the context of its overall advice on the review of the
National Curriculum. We recognise that our recommendations may cause
worries among teachers about the commitment of time for a new area ofstudy in the school curriculum. Whilst issues of the broader curriculum lie
outside the remit of the group, we would want to stress that our23

recommendations should not be at the expense of other subjects nor lead toany narrowing of the curriculum;
4.13

because of the novelty of the venture and its political sensitivity, there should
be a standing Commission on Citizenship Education to monitor its progress
and when necessary to recommend amendments to the entitlements, learning
outcomes, methods of inspection and teacher training, as appropriate. This
Commission should be appointed by the Secretary of State, with aquasi-autonomous relationship to both DfEE and QCA. Its composition
should be wider than ourselves, to include cross-party representation. (Seesection 5.11 for detailed recommendations).

5 The way forward
We now set out in a very practical way what we believe needs to happen to
ensure that our essential recommendations lead to the successful delivery ofeffective citizenship education in schools.

24

5.1

Learning outcomes for Citizenship Education

5.1.1

In section 4.2 above, we recommend that the statutory entitlement tocitizenship education in the curriculum should be established by setting out
specific learning outcomes for each key stage. These detailed learning
outcomes are set out fully in section 6 as part of a curriculum framework for
citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools.

5.1.2

A word about how this framework and these learning outcomes were drawn
up. We established two sub-groups, one for primary (Key Stages 1 and 2) and
one for secondary (Key Stages 3 and 4) of experienced teachers andpractitioners, under the chairmanship of David Kerr, our Professional Officer(see Appendix D for details of membership). These sub-groups met jointly inthe first instance, taking as their starting-point past initiatives such as
Curriculum Guidance 8: Education for Citizenship and the Speaker’s
Commission report, Encouraging Citizenship, several models or frameworks
for citizenship education from other countries, notably the Republic of
Ireland, Scotland and Australia, as well as ongoing developments in LEAs andschools supported by a number of citizenship bodies and community-basedorganisations. The sub-groups drew on and adapted some content, ideas andlanguage from all these sources to construct a framework for citizenshipeducation suitable to English conditions. The two groups then used thisframework as a common basis to draw up the learning outcomes for the four
key stages. These learning outcomes have been communicated to the National
Advisory Group on Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE), theNational Advisory Committee on Creativity and Cultural Education, theDevelopment Awareness Working Group, the Sustainable Development Paneland the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation Passport Project.

5.2

Phasing in the statutory Order for Citizenship Education.

5.2.1

Our initial report put the case for a phasing in of the proposed new Orderover time. We now recommend that the statutory citizenship Order which we

proposed in section 4.4, stating the general aims of education for citizenshipand democracy, should be of immediate effect when the other revisions to the
National Curriculum come into force to begin in September 2000; but thatthe specific learning outcomes recommended in section 4.2 and set out insection 6 may be phased in as follows.
5.2.2

Schools and colleges should begin teaching in September 2000 Citizenshipcourses in the general spirit and intention of the Order set out in section 4.4,
in a manner best suited to their existing resources and with whatever
combinations with other subjects seem appropriate (see our advice in section7), moving towards the allocation of time implied in sections 4.5 and 4.6.

5.2.3

For Key Stage 1, the new requirements including the learning outcomes
would come into force in 2001 and for Key Stage 2, in 2002. We believe that
there is so much overlap with existing programmes in primary schools,
especially with PSE or PSHE, that the additional matter in Key Stage 2 canbe accommodated relatively easily.

5.2.4

For Key Stage 3, the new requirements would come into force in 2002 andfor Key Stage 4, in 2004. Our intention is to give schools time (in terms ofboth resources and training) to work towards the full implementation of thisreport’s recommendations.

5.2.5

From September 2000, schools and colleges should be able to demonstrate
how they are using resources and time to implement a coherent programmeof citizenship education. This programme should reflect the themes andpriorities set out in this report, involving a gradual familiarisation with thelearning outcomes. The programme should be designed in a manner best
suited to existing resources, and with whatever combination of other subjects
seems appropriate.

5.3

Active citizenship both inside the school and relating to the community

5.3.1‘Active citizenship’ is our aim throughout. Part One of this report states thecase for positive relationships with the local community, local and national
voluntary bodies, whether concerned with local, national or international
affairs. Also it is obvious that all formal preparation for citizenship in adultlife can be helped or hindered by the ethos and organisation of a school,
whether pupils are given opportunities for exercising responsibilities andinitiatives or not; and also whether they are consulted realistically on matterswhere their opinions can prove relevant both to the efficient running of aschool and to their general motivation for learning. In some schools these are
already common practices, while in others absent or only occasional.

5.3.2

We also discussed whether service learning or community involvement
initiated by schools should be part of a new statutory Order for citizenshipeducation, and whether proposals for school organisation should be
included; for example, that school councils should be compulsory. However,
we have concluded not to ask for their inclusion in a statutory Order at thistime, mainly for fear of overburdening schools and teachers. But thisquestion should be kept under review by the Commission on Citizenship25

Education that we recommend in section 4.13. However, the positive
presence of these two dimensions should be a proper object of comment bothby OFSTED inspectors and the LEA on the performance of a school as awhole, an added dimension pointing to a positive relationship between aschool and the surrounding community. We aim to plant a seed that willgrow. Therefore we have illustrated this report with some examples ofeffective practice both inside and outside the school.
5.3.3

We believe that citizenship education will be strengthened and made more
effective where there is an active contribution from the local community andwhere public bodies, including local councillors, MPs and MEPs, voluntary
bodies and community agencies such as the police and faith groups, areinvolved in citizenship learning and activities.

5.3.4

It was suggested to us late in the consultation process that Community
Forums be set up in each locality to assist such involvement. The forums
would include all those with an interest in citizenship education: community
leaders, elected representatives, faith groups, the police, teachers, parents andgovernors, among others, as well as young people. Their role andresponsibilities might include the sharing of experiences and areas ofexpertise; the provision of opportunities for pupils to meet representatives
and participate in service learning and community involvement, and thecoordination and dissemination of materials. We recommend that further
consideration be given to the establishment of such Community Forums andto a clearer definition of their role and responsibilities in citizenshipeducation.

5.3.5

Pupils should be encouraged to record learning from community activity andservice learning through the National Record of Achievement (NRA) process.
Pupils can then make use of this as evidence in the review and planning of
their learning and in careers guidance.

5.3.6

We draw attention to the relevance of our report to a number of initiatives
including the Millennium Volunteers, National Framework for Pupils’
Motivation, National Framework for Study Support, Education Action
Zones, School Effectiveness Programmes and Social Exclusion Programmes.
We recognise that as these initiatives develop they will interact withcitizenship teaching and learning.

At Bordesley Green Primary School, Birmingham, a Year 3 class decided towrite to the city council to complain about the state of their local park,
incongruously named the Ideal Park. They pointed out the litter, graffiti, dog
mess and broken play equipment and suggested how they would like to help to
put it right. The city council and the parks department met with the class andbefore long both the pupils and council were working together to improve thepark dramatically. As a result a new residents’ association was set up which
took on regular responsibility for monitoring and helping to care for the park.

26

5.4

The teaching of controversial issues

5.4.1

In section 1.9, we state that our report contains some guidance on thediscussion of controversial issues. This guidance is set out in section 10.
The guidance was drawn up by a sub-group, under the chairmanship of Dr
Alex Porter, who has a long-standing interest and invaluable expertise in thisarea, and included Marianne Talbot who has been overseeing the QCA pilot
work in the promotion of pupils’ Spiritual, Moral, Social and Culturaldevelopment (SMSC). This guidance has been communicated to the National
Advisory Group on Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE) and theCalouste Gulbenkian Foundation Passport Project.

5.5

Implications for post-16 learning

5.5.1

The Confederation of British Industry (CBI) brief of April 1998, Greater
Expectations: Priorities for the Future Curriculum, sees ‘four apparently
discrete elements of personal development that need to be integrated in the
curriculum: Citizenship, Values and Attitudes, Key Skills, and Career
Planning. They recommend that ‘there should be a new subject (or halfsubject) covering all aspects of citizenship...understanding of democracy,
economic and industrial understanding, personal and social education and(in Key Stages 3 and 4) formal careers education and guidance’. Later they
shrewdly comment that ‘there must be a continuum of learning between the
National Curriculum and the National Qualifications Framework’ and that‘the maps pre-14 and post-16 do not join up properly...’.

5.5.2

The Trades Union Congress (TUC) supports strongly our recommendationthat citizenship be a statutory requirement, with the important caveat that
their educational affiliates are ‘somewhat wary of extra requirements being
imposed on teachers before the review of the National Curriculum iscompleted’ – a view with which we wholly concur. They too see the need forsuch teaching to continue after sixteen.

5.5.3

Preparation for citizenship clearly cannot end at age sixteen just as young
people begin to have more access to the opportunities, rights andresponsibilities of adult citizenship amid the world of work. The need for an
exploration of the ideas and practices of citizenship is evident whether young
people are in education or in work-based training. We recognise the great
potential value offered by the variety of education and training bodies as wellas the Youth Service, voluntary organisations and others in contributing tothis learning, building on and from the platform of the schools curriculum
we propose.

5.5.4

Further education (FE) colleges do not have a duty to provide PSHE or
SMSC. Almost all colleges, however, offer a range of opportunities forstudents beyond their main course of study or training; these are known as‘enrichment activities’. In March 1996, the Further Education Funding
Council (FEFC) published a report entitled Enrichment of the Curriculumthat identified a strong commitment to such activities, some of which, theysaid, might be described as ‘citizenship’. However, the report noted that these27

aims and activities were not always clearly defined, and generally wereintended for young people, aged 16–19, rather than for older students aswell. We believe that the establishment of a framework and specific learning
outcomes for citizenship education in schools should lead colleges to develop
a coherent programme of enrichment activities.
5.5.5

It would be wholly wrong if there was a citizenship requirement for further
education courses, but not for students taking GCSE and A level courses inschool. The need is plainly not met by the relatively small number at present
taking politics, government or sociology courses which, in any case are
narrower in scope than our concept of citizenship, embracing as it does bothcommunity relations and political literacy – even if teachers of these subjects
may in the future have an important, wider role to play in teaching
citizenship throughout the school and in supporting in-service training.

5.5.6

There could be a requirement for citizenship to continue to be taught with aclear time allocation, such as that for the many year 12 and 13 students whoalready receive some form of General Studies teaching; or there could be a
Certificate of Citizenship established with a common core, but then provision
for relating the rest of the content to the particular course to be pursued
whether vocational or academic.

5.5.7

Since post-16 education has not fallen within our remit, we have not madedetailed recommendations in this area. In any case, we anticipate that arequirement up to 16 will of itself create a considerable demand for new orrevised examinations that build upon citizenship; but of themselves suchchanges would not reach everyone.

5.5.8

However, if citizenship education is to be accepted as important, not only forschools but for the life of the nation, it must continue beyond the age of 16.
We therefore recommend:(a) that it is extended into post-16 education and training as an entitlement
for full-time students; and(b) that the Commission should examine this problem in its earliest businessto help ensure that there is a coherent programme with appropriate learning
outcomes building upon pre-16 school experience and which takes accountof the increasing complexity and flexibility of the world of work and ofcommunity activity, and of the range and comprehensiveness of post-16
courses.

28

5.6

A note on assessment

5.6.1

Learning in citizenship education must also make a significant contribution
to raising standards and enabling pupils to achieve their full potential if theimplications of our recommendations for assessment and reporting are fully
understood. We decided that the assessment and reporting of pupils’
progression, as in existing National Curriculum subjects, was inappropriate
for citizenship. This should not be taken as a signal that we see citizenship asa ‘soft option’ in the curriculum with no rigour or bite.

5.6.2

We support assessment and reporting in citizenship through tightly definedlearning outcomes. These provide a fair and rigorous basis for assessment,
reporting and inspection, both internal and external. They enable assessment
by teachers of pupils’ progress and progression in their citizenship learning.
They also provide: (a) the means for schools to report pupil progress incitizenship education to parents via the annual report on that child; (b) themeans to outline to parents collectively the school’s approach to citizenshipeducation through the annual school governors’ report; (c) the means tomeasure the standards and objectivity of citizenship education within andacross schools; and (d) information to OFSTED inspectors to assist them inmaking judgements on the quality of citizenship education in a school andthe progress that pupils make.
The ‘Lipson Cluster’, Plymouth (including Lipson Community College andseven of its feeder primary schools), is based on the innovating work at
Highfield Primary School, and seeks to ensure continuity from primary to
secondary school of participative experiences. Each school holds a monthly
council meeting. ‘Circle time’ is used both to ensure even the youngest pupils
have the opportunity to become involved in the free exchange of ideas andopinions, and to vote on issues the outcome of which are then fed into theschool council via class and year representatives. The issues discussed haveincluded curriculum review, mediation in personal disputes, redesigning theschool uniform, the ‘bully buster’ campaign where older pupils act as ‘guardianangels’ in the playground, and participation in the appointment of newteachers. The schools carefully monitor the improvements in behaviour,
attendance, learning and rising pupil self-esteem that have followed theintroduction of the participative scheme three years ago. The primary school
teachers can see that their efforts are being taken forward into the secondary
school.

5.7

Implications for agencies

5.7.1

This report will have implications for those agencies involved in theformulation and implementation of educational policy and in supporting
teachers and schools in its delivery, notably DfEE, QCA, OFSTED and the
TTA. The particular implications of our report for OFSTED and the TTA are
set out in sections 5.8 and 5.9 below. However, it is imperative that all theagencies take account of the consequences of our recommendations for their
work.

5.8

Implications for the work of OFSTED

5.8.1

The importance of inspection has been made throughout the report. The
OFSTED Framework for Inspection already provides for inspection of thebroad foundations of citizenship education:(a)(Section 4.2) – Attitudes, Behaviour and Personal Development
requires inspectors to evaluate the contribution made by pupils to thelife of the community, including the degree to which they show
initiative and are willing to take responsibility;

29

(b)

(Section 5.3) – Pupils’ Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural
Development, requires inspectors to evaluate the extent to which theschool encourages pupils to relate positively to others, takeresponsibility, participate fully in the community, and develop anunderstanding of citizenship;(c)(Section 5.5) – Partnership with Parents and the Community, requires
judgements on the degree to which the school’s work is enriched bylinks with the community (primary), including provision for voluntary
service (secondary).

5.8.2

Thus there is already the basis for a review and for the more specificguidance to be provided when citizenship is added to the revised National
Curriculum.

5.9

Implications for the work of the TTA

5.9.1

We are very conscious of the implications of our recommendations forteacher training, both initial and in-service, and for teacher recruitment andsupply. The key to effective education for citizenship, as for all other areas,
lies in recruiting the highest quality of entrants to the profession andensuring that training is well targeted to meet the needs of teachers. It is vitalthat teachers have the knowledge, understanding, skills and confidence
needed to be successful in the interactive teaching approaches which
underpin effective learning in citizenship education. We advise that the
National Standards for Qualified Teacher Status (QTS), subject leaders,special education needs co-ordinators (SENCOs) and headteachers pay due
regard to the importance of citizenship in defining expectations at these key
points in the profession.

5.9.2

All those providing initial teacher training (ITT) in higher education andschools will need to take account of our recommendations and make anappropriate response in their training provision. We recommend that:(a) all initial teacher training providers in higher education and schools
receive a copy of this final report;(b) the Commission on Citizenship Education liaises with the TTA to enable
all initial teacher training providers to be informed of and involved inconsidering the implications of our recommendations for their training
provision;(c) the Commission on Citizenship Education works with the TTA to provide
support and advice to initial teacher training providers on how to interpretthe existing requirements of the National Standards for Qualified Teacher
Status (QTS) and National Curricula for Initial Teacher Training (4/98) inorder that trainees have sufficient opportunities to experience and develop
the range of knowledge, understanding and skills needed to teach citizenshipeffectively;30

(d) initial teacher training providers should be encouraged to give emphasis
to citizenship in relevant courses. The most obvious location is in thosesubjects, notably History, Geography and English, where possiblecombinations with ‘elements of citizenship education’ are strongest;(e) the Career Entry Profile can be used to identify any further needs for
professional development in newly qualified teachers in relation to theteaching of citizenship. This provides an important bridge between initialteacher training and a teacher’s induction year.
5.9.3

Our recommendations also have implications for the continuing in-service
training of teachers. We recommend:(a) that teachers are encouraged and supported to take responsibility for
their own professional development in this area;(b) that sufficient good quality training is made available to enable teachers
to be confident in teaching to achieve the learning outcomes for citizenship,
and in particular the knowledge and understanding component. There may
be a need for specific training for those who will teach citizenship in
secondary schools in this respect;(c) that the Commission on Citizenship Education works with the TTA toensure a good understanding of the responsibilities relating to citizenship thatare included in the National Standards for subject leaders, SENCOs andheadteachers;(d) that effective use is made of the National Grid for Learning and the
Virtual Teachers Centre (VTC) to make available guidance, case studies ofgood practice and high quality resources;(e) that the national training for headteachers, for example the National
Professional Qualification for Headship (NPQH), takes account of thisreport in order that those aspiring to headship have the appropriate
awareness and understanding of citizenship education in schools.

5.9.4

Our recommendations also have implications for the recruitment and supplyof teachers. We recommend:(a) that the DfEE considers increasing the number of places on those initialteacher training courses or programmes currently under the ‘other’ category,
which cover aspects of citizenship, eg Social Sciences. This would enable
increased recruitment from those with backgrounds in Social Sciences,
Politics and Philosophy and so add to the numbers of teachers mostappropriately qualified to teach citizenship;(b) that initial teacher training providers give greater emphasis in theirselection procedures to applicants’ experience and understanding of
citizenship activities, particularly those relating to community involvement.
This may provide a foundation which can be built on by tutors and teachers
during the training programme.

31

32

5.10

Resourcing Citizenship Education

5.10.1

The introduction of citizenship education cannot achieve its aims unless it isproperly resourced. This introduction of new requirements will be helped byour recommendations for phasing in, for building from existing goodpractice, for delivering through PSE or PSHE in Key Stages 1 and 2, for therole of the TTA and, above all, by a curriculum based on suggested learning
outcomes not on rigid prescriptions; but nonetheless adequate, new resources
are essential. They are of different kinds. Schools should not be reliant on
what pressure groups and campaigning bodies can provide; however worthy,
these groups do not mirror the priorities of the educational curriculum.
Schools will need additional funding to purchase resource materials andbooks.

5.10.2The implications for teacher training are treated in section 5.9 above. But in
addition we recommend that there should be an additional provision throughthe Standards Fund in the early years of introduction to assist suitablein-service training and support programmes for teachers and schools. These
programmes could be run on a regional or area basis and organised by awide range of training providers and networks including higher education
institutions, citizenship bodies, voluntary and community organisations,teacher groups or associations, local education authorities and subject
associations.

5.10.3A directory of resources and contacts relevant to citizenship teaching andlearning, including descriptions of and reports on examples of good practiceboth within and outside the school should be established under the auspices
of QCA. These should include matter from other countries and other parts of
the United Kingdom whenever relevant. This directory should also be
available on a website with interactive opportunities for comment andexchange of experiences and should also make full use of the opportunities
provided by the National Grid for Learning and the Virtual Teachers Centre.
This is important to encourage teachers and schools to make active links
within and between themselves as well as with those networks mentioned in
section 5.3.6 above.

5.10.4

Some schools and teachers, entering into this area for the first time on any
scale, will want advice and guidance on how they might approach andorganise opportunities and activities towards achieving the learning
outcomes. For the reasons we set down in recommendation 4.2 we arestrongly against any single source of authoritative guidance. However
permissively worded, this could in practice take back the greater freedom andflexibility which is the very object of the learning outcomes; and could also
raise proper public worries about imposing a single way of teaching about
political and social issues and values. Therefore we recommend that a fundbe established either in the DfEE or QCA to which the kind of bodies
mentioned in section 5.10.2 may apply for funding to prepare guidance andresource materials for the whole or part of the citizenship curriculum. In
every case the funding body shall make sure that there are alternatives

available, if necessary contracting or asking for alternative guidance notes orresource materials.
5.10.5

Publishers will, of course, respond to this new area and normal market forces
should help to ensure alternative teaching materials. However, theCommission should have resources to call two meetings or short conferences
as soon as the revised National Curriculum has been announced: (a) to brief
publishers on the meaning and implication of citizenship for their work; and(b) to discuss alternatives, targets, strategies and the possibility of somecoordination with other existing or potential providers of resource material
in the public sector and in the voluntary and charitable sectors, together with
their main funders. Provision of material and resources is useless of course, if
the money to purchase it is not there in all cases.

Cheslyn Hay Primary School, Wolverhampton, is one of a number of schools
participating in ‘Newswise’, a project providing primary and secondary school
pupils with specially selected live news topics, tailored to age and ability. Thisuse of the Internet provides pupils with material which: is immediate, relevant
and appealing; encourages thoughtful questioning and analysis of news stories(structured questions and exercises come with the material), and; enables pupils
to engage with the issues not only within a particular class but with other users
elsewhere. Evaluation of the project has shown that teachers appreciate thishigh quality resource, which promotes citizenship learning as well as developing
both literacy and IT skills. The Newswise address is:<www.ndirect.co.uk/ - sapere/Newswise>.

5.11

Recommendations for the terms of reference and the composition of astanding Commission on Citizenship Education

5.11.1

We have set out the case in section 4.13, for a Commission to advise theSecretary of State. There is no need to repeat this argument. The need not
merely to protect the public interest is obvious, but also publicly to appear to
do so.

5.11.2We therefore recommend:(a) that a Commission on Citizenship Education should be established by the
Secretary of State with terms of reference to monitor and scrutinise theprogress and problems of implementing citizenship education and withpowers to make recommendations both to the Secretary of State and QCA;
and, when the committee thinks fit, to publish them;(b) that it should receive annual reports as of right from QCA, OFSTED and
the TTA;(c) that it should receive and reply to submissions from other interested
bodies, public or voluntary;33

(d) that it should meet at least twice a year (with provision for extra
meetings if a majority of the committee request) and should publish anannual report;(e) that its composition should include cross-party representation from
Parliament, teachers, representatives of teachers’ organisations, parent
organisations, civic and voluntary service bodies, the media, ethnic andreligious groups, and other public figures (as guardians of the public
interest), and should include young people in full time education. It should
also include observers from DfEE, QCA, OFSTED, and the TTA;(f) that appropriate management and support services be provided.

34

Part Three

Spelling it out
6 Framework for Citizenship Education: learning outcomes
6.1

Rationale

6.1.1

The learning outcomes are part of a broad framework for citizenshipeducation and learning in schools, as requested in our terms of reference.
This framework provides the basis for what good citizenship education inschools might look like and how it can be successfully delivered. It seeks tobuild from the aims and purposes of citizenship education, as set out in theinitial report, and to bring increasing clarity about what citizenshipeducation entails and how it can be approached, including opportunities
within and beyond schools.

6.1.2

In this way, the framework seeks to ensure that the benefits to pupils,
teachers, schools and society at large of establishing citizenship teaching inschools and community-centred learning and activities (see section 1.10
above) are realised. In particular, the benefits of the framework include:
increased clarity for teachers about what they should teach and how theymight teach it; specified learning outcomes for pupils; a firmer basis for theassessment of pupils’ progress and of the progression in their learning; and abetter foundation for schools to coordinate existing teaching approaches andlearning opportunities and to relate positively to the local community. Overtime, it is hoped that the framework will enhance teachers’ confidence andprofessionalism in developing effective citizenship education for all pupils.

6.2

Guiding principles
The learning outcomes are founded on a number of guiding principles, andaim to secure:

6.2.1

Breadth and balance
To extend and deepen the range and quality of educational experiences that
pupils should have through their schooling;

6.2.2

Coherence
To provide an entitlement to citizenship education which is coherent for
pupils in terms of the concepts, values and dispositions, skills and aptitudes
and knowledge and understanding to be acquired, and the range ofeducational experiences;

6.2.3

Continuity and progression
To ensure continuity and progression in pupils’ learning through outcomes
which are developmental and sequential, and which reinforce and further
develop the concepts, values and dispositions, skills and aptitudes andknowledge and understanding which pupils acquire at each key stage;35

6.2.4

Relevance
To address the immediate and future needs and interests of pupils in thecontext of the social, moral, cultural, political and economic environment;
and to contribute to pupils’ development of positive attitudes to teaching, theschool and society in general;

6.2.5

Quality
To challenge teachers and help pupils to achieve the highest possible
standards of excellence, with due regard to differing aptitudes, abilities andcircumstances;

6.2.6

Access and inclusion
To ensure that all pupils should have opportunities to engage in all theteaching, activities and experiences which constitute effective education for
citizenship.
It is important to recognise that these guiding principles are not exclusive tocitizenship education but are part of the general aims and priorities of thecurriculum in schools.

6.3

The learning process
Learning in citizenship education is influenced by a number of factors:

6.3.1

Whole-school approaches
There is increasing recognition that the ethos, organisation, structures anddaily practices of schools, including whole-school activities and assemblies
have a significant impact on the effectiveness of citizenship education.
Through such climate and practices schools provide implicit and explicit
messages which can have a considerable influence, both positive andnegative, on pupils’ learning and development. Schools need to consider how
far their ethos, organisation and daily practices are consistent with the aim
and purpose of citizenship education and affirm and extend the developmentof pupils into active citizens. In particular, schools should make every effort
to engage pupils in discussion and consultation about all aspects of school
life on which pupils might reasonably be expected to have a view, andwherever possible to give pupils responsibility and experience in helping to
run parts of the school. This might include school facilities, organisation,
rules, relationships and matters relating to teaching and learning. Suchengagement can be through both formal structures such as school and classcouncils and informal channels in pupils’ daily encounters with aspects ofschool life. To create a feeling that it is ‘our school’ can increase pupil
motivation to learn in all subjects.

36Fair Oak Junior School, Eastleigh, Hants, has had a school council for four
years. It has become steadily more effective and has had a major effect inreducing bullying in the school. Councillors hold regular ‘surgeries’ for theirconstituents. But their most unusual activity involving almost all the pupils is in
the production of the school newspaper, Fair Comment, which has a print runof 6000 and is distributed throughout the local community. It is professionallyprinted with colour on four of its 20 pages and has the feel of a good local
paper. Groups of pupils research articles, and draft reports before submission to
the editorial team. The paper is funded from advertisement income and is taken
very seriously by local businesses. It is an excellent learning experience for
pupils and enables the school to promote its high standards to the local
community.

6.3.2

Teaching approaches and learning opportunities(a) The learning outcomes will be best achieved through a broad range ofteaching approaches and learning opportunities. These should be chosen for
their appropriateness in supporting and challenging pupils in theirdevelopment, application and understanding of the essential elements
underpinning citizenship education and in the overall development of pupils
into informed and active citizens. It is vital that pupils are provided withstructured opportunities to explore actively aspects, issues and events
through school and community involvement, case studies and critical
discussions that are challenging and relevant to their lives. It is difficult toconceive of pupils as active citizens if their experience of learning incitizenship education has been predominantly passive.
(b) Pupils may derive further benefit where these opportunities are linked toa class, school or community project which they have helped to identify,
plan, carry through and evaluate. Often the school and its local community
provide a perfect context for pupils to examine issues and events and to
become involved in active, participatory activities and experiences where theemphasis is on learning through action. This can help pupils to make theconnection between learning and acting locally to thinking globally.

37

CSV (Community Service Volunteers) is involved with many school-based
activities. Their work with Battersea Technology College, Wandsworth, London
is a pilot programme for a Year 7 class using the CSV Citizenship Tool-Kit andteaching materials. The school stands amid economically and socially depressed
council estates. Prior to the programme the class experienced high truancy levels
and discipline problems. In particular, pupils displayed low self-esteem, an
inability to make eye contact with teachers and each other, as well as being
unable to work in groups. After 15 weeks, truancy has been greatly reduced forthe class, behaviour modification has taken place and been well documented by
all their teachers. Morale has increased and the pupils have bonded into small,
productive working groups. Their verbal and written skills have improved andthe pupils have become role models for the rest of the school. ‘There is not somuch fighting and jumping around anymore’, says one pupil, ‘I like being inclass more because we get to go outside and we get to make the school better. I
liked what we did today and I think I am learning what it means to be a good
citizen.’. The headteacher said, ‘Schools have to take an increasing
responsibility for preparing young people for decision-making. The course ishelping them learn about relationships, sensitive listening and taking part, as
well as learning to be sensitive to the environment.’

6.3.3

Special educational needs
There is a need to provide pupils identified with special educational needs
with appropriately challenging work in citizenship education at each key
stage. This should be in line with the statement on access, which applies tothe revised National Curriculum, in the section on Common Requirements.
This currently says that:‘The programme of study for each key stage should be taught to the great majorityof pupils in the key stage, in ways appropriate to their abilities.
For the small number of pupils who may need the provision, material may be
selected from earlier or later key stages where this is necessary to enable individual
pupils to progress and demonstrate achievement. Such material should bepresented in contexts suitable to the pupil’s age.
Appropriate provision should be made for pupils who need to use:

38■

means of communication other than speech, including computers, technologicalaids, signing, symbols or lip-reading;■non-sighted methods of reading, such as Braille, or non-visual or non-auralways of acquiring information;■technological aids in practical and written work;■

aids or adapted equipment to allow access to practical activities within andbeyond school.’Ashley Special School, Widnes, has had a school council for six years. It has
evolved to become central to the life of the school and with a number of
supporting committees ensures that most pupils have a chance to be directly
involved. In 1995, the pupils voted to change the name of the school to the
Ashley School in honour of Jack, a son of Widnes (now Lord Ashley), for his
work on behalf of people with disabilities. Since 1996 he has taken a closeinterest in the school and regularly invites school councillors to visit Parliament.
A polling station is set up in a local community centre for elections to theschool council, with ballot boxes borrowed from the borough council. The fullcouncil meets monthly and will soon have, with the support of the governors, apurpose fitted council chamber in the school. The school was the first special
school to receive an Eco-Schools Award and pupils have been to both theHouses of Parliament and to Brussels to talk to MPs and MEPs. The sculptor,
David Gross, worked with pupils to make a large globe inscribed with figures
representing the values of the School Charter, commitment to justice and global
citizenship.

6.4

Teacher assessment of learning

6.4.1

Day-to-day assessment supports teaching and learning in citizenshipeducation. It helps teachers to clarify their learning objectives and articulatethem to pupils, and provides a measure of the progress that pupils havemade in the learning outcomes. Such assessment should be practicable andmanageable, providing useful information to the parties involved without
becoming burdensome. Day-to-day assessment will take a number of forms,
including observation, listening and appraising pupils’ written work. This
assessment is most effective where it arises naturally from the teachingapproaches, learning opportunities and experiences. It should be valued bypupils and raise their standards of achievement in citizenship. Day-to-day
assessment will contribute to periodic reporting on standards and progress
and ultimately to pupils’ Records of Achievement.

6.4.2

At Key Stage 4, it is important that there are opportunities for pupils toreceive accreditation for their work in citizenship. Awarding bodies should be
encouraged to develop a range of appropriate qualifications to match theneeds of young adolescents, including full, combined and short course
GCSEs, GNVQ units, and Certificates of Achievement.

6.5

Framework of learning outcomes
The framework has four interrelated components:

6.5.1

Aim and purpose
The rationale and justification for citizenship, as set out in the initial report,
encapsulated in a statement which sets out the aim and purpose of
citizenship education in schools.

6.5.2

Strands
The three strands which make up effective education for citizenship namely,39

social and moral responsibility (an essential pre-condition for citizenship),community involvement and political literacy, and which are developed
progressively as pupils move through schooling from age five to 16.
6.5.3

Essential elements
The concepts, values and dispositions, skills and aptitudes, and knowledge
and understanding which underpin effective education for citizenship: these
are implicit in the aim and purpose statement and the strands of citizenshipeducation and provide the basis for the learning outcomes.

6.5.4

Learning outcomes(a) These are set out by key stages as part of a new statutory entitlement tocitizenship education for all pupils in schools.
(b) A clear understanding of the four components and the ways they relate toeach other will help teachers use the framework to develop a variety ofteaching approaches, learning opportunities and experiences which, together,
constitute effective education for citizenship in schools.

6.6

Aim and purpose
The purpose of citizenship education in schools and colleges is to makesecure and to increase the knowledge, skills and values relevant to the natureand practices of participative democracy; also to enhance the awareness ofrights and duties, and the sense of responsibilities needed for thedevelopment of pupils into active citizens; and in so doing to establish thevalue to individuals, schools and society of involvement in the local andwider community.
Democratic institutions, practices and purposes must be understood, both
local and national, including the work of parliaments, councils, parties,
pressure groups and voluntary bodies; to show how formal political activity
relates to civil society in the context of the United Kingdom and Europe, andto cultivate awareness and concern for world affairs and global issues. Someunderstanding of the realities of economic life is needed including how
taxation and public expenditure work together.

6.7

The strands

6.7.1

Social and moral responsibilityChildren learning from the very beginning self-confidence and socially andmorally responsible behaviour both in and beyond the classroom, both
towards those in authority and towards each other (this is an essential
pre-condition for citizenship).

6.7.2

Community involvement
Pupils learning about and becoming helpfully involved in the life andconcerns of their communities, including learning through community
involvement and service to the community.

40

6.7.3

Political literacy
Pupils learning about and how to make themselves effective in public life
through knowledge, skills and values.

6.8

Essential elements
The learning outcomes that follow are founded on four essential elements:
concepts; values and dispositions; skills and aptitudes and knowledge andunderstanding which underpin education for citizenship (see Fig 1). The
successful integration and progressive development of these essential elements
across the key stages should ensure that schools achieve the learning
outcomes and in so doing develop effective education for citizenship for all
pupils.

6.8.1

Concepts
A number of key concepts provide a clear, overarching, conceptual core to
citizenship education. Pupils should come to understand, as they progress
through the key stages, how these key concepts serve collectively, though not
exclusively, to underpin effective education for citizenship.

6.8.2

Values and dispositions
Certain values and dispositions are appropriate to citizenship education.
Pupils should be encouraged, as they progress through the key stages, torecognise, reflect and act upon these values and dispositions. They should behelped, in particular, to reflect on and recognise values and dispositions
which underlie their attitudes and actions as individuals and as members ofgroups or communities. This is vital in developing pupils into active citizens
who have positive attitudes to themselves, as individuals, and in theirrelationship with others.

6.8.3

Skills and aptitudes
Certain skills and aptitudes are appropriate to citizenship education. Pupils
should have opportunities to develop and apply these skills and aptitudes
within pluralist contexts. These contexts should be carefully chosen in order
to allow pupils to reinforce and further deepen their understanding, thinkcritically, develop their own ideas, respond in different ways to a diversity ofviews, defend or change an opinion, and recognise the contribution of others.

6.8.4

Knowledge and understanding(a) Pupils should acquire basic knowledge and understanding of particular
aspects of society with which citizenship education is concerned. It must be
stressed that the manner and depth of acquisition is a matter for the
professional judgement of teachers, taking into account what is appropriate
for the age and abilities of the pupils concerned. These particular aspects ofsociety provide important contexts and content to support the aim andpurpose of citizenship education in schools and are:■social;■moral;
41■political, including issues relating to government, law and constitution;■

economic (public and personal), including issues relating to public services,
taxation, public expenditure and employment;■

environmental and sustainable development.

(b) Pupils should acquire a basic knowledge and understanding of these
aspects of society through the topical and contemporary issues, events andactivities which are the lifeblood of citizenship education. The importanceshould be stressed of developing the habit of having a view on current
affairs. The critical reading of newspapers and discussion of television andradio current affairs programmes should be encouraged.
(c) For each of these aspects there might be a school, local, national, Europe,
Commonwealth or global context. Some issues and events will allow severalof these aspects to be accessed at the same time – others may be morehomogeneous. How aspects and topical and contemporary issues and events
are selected and treated is a matter for the professional judgement ofteachers, taking into account factors such as the age of pupils, the range of
their abilities and the relevance and challenge to pupil needs and interests.
However, motivation is obviously increased when pupils are given somechoice in the issues to be discussed.
(d) It should be emphasised that the knowledge and understanding
components should not be learned as a disembodied list of aspects, content
and terms but embedded in issues, events and activities of significance andinterest. Indeed there is scope, where aspects, content and terms are revisitedacross key stages, to reinforce and deepen pupils’ knowledge andunderstanding, ensuring continuity and progression in learning. Such an
approach is vital in order to achieve the overall aim and purpose of
citizenship education in schools.
(e) As already noted, the concepts, and values and dispositions, and, to amuch lesser extent, skills and aptitudes, and knowledge and understanding
which underpin the learning outcomes are neither inclusive to citizenshipeducation nor mutually exclusive. They can be developed and applied within
other subjects and parts of the curriculum. It will be important for schools to
identify the links between pupils’ learning, activities and experiences incitizenship education and those elsewhere in the curriculum, both within andbeyond the school. This is essential if teachers are to be helped to build onsuch links in order to reinforce and further develop such learning for pupils
and ensure breadth and balance, coherence, continuity and progression andquality in such learning experiences across the curriculum.

42

6.9

Overview of essential elements

6.9.1

The four columns (Fig 1) represent a complete statement or overview of what
is required in citizenship education by the end of compulsory schooling inorder to prepare pupils for citizenship in adult life. It is not expected that thelearning outcomes will be approached all at once. Rather they are designed
to be approached in a developmental and sequential way which reinforcesand further develops pupils’ learning, as appropriate, at each key stage. The
manner of approach is a matter for the professional judgement of teachers
taking into account, in particular, what is appropriate to the age and abilitiesof the pupils concerned.
6.9.2

It is also important to recognise that many of the key concepts, values anddispositions, and, to a much lesser extent, skills, aptitudes, knowledge andunderstanding already are or can be developed and applied within otherparts of the curriculum. Taken together this means that the scope and noveltyof this potentially ‘new area’ is not as daunting as may appear from an initial
look at the columns.

6.9.3

The columns are deliberately set out this way so as to emphasise an approachto learning in citizenship education which is founded on encouraging pupils’
growing understanding, development and application of the concepts, values
and dispositions, and skills and aptitudes which underpin education for
citizenship. The knowledge and understanding provides the contexts andcontent to support such learning through the other columns. Such an
approach is essential if schools are to develop effective citizenship education
for all pupils.

43

Fig 1

Overview of essential elements to be reached by the end ofcompulsory schooling

Key Concepts■

democracy and autocracy■

co-operation and conflict■equality and diversity■

fairness, justice, the rule oflaw, rules, law and humanrights■freedom and order■individual and community■

power and authority■

rights and responsibilities

Values and Dispositions■

concern for the common
good■belief in human dignity andequality■

ability to make a reasonedargument both verbally andin writing■

ability to co-operate andwork effectively with others

Knowledge and Understanding■

topical and contemporary
issues and events at local,
national, EU,
Commonwealth andinternational levels■

concern to resolve conflicts
a disposition to work withand for others withsympathetic understanding■

ability to consider andappreciate the experienceand perspective of others■■

the nature of democratic
communities, including how
they function and change

proclivity to act responsibly:that is care for others andoneself; premeditation andcalculation about the effectactions are likely to have onothers; and acceptance of
responsibility for unforeseenor unfortunate consequences■

ability to tolerate other view
points■■■ability to develop a
problem-solving approach

the interdependence ofindividuals and local andvoluntary communities■

the nature of diversity,
dissent and social conflict■legal and moral rights andresponsibilities ofindividuals and communities■

the nature of social, moral
and political challenges
faced by individuals andcommunities■

Britain’s parliamentary
political and legal systems at
local, national, European,Commonwealth andinternational level, including
how they function andchange■the nature of political andvoluntary action incommunities■

the rights andresponsibilities of citizens as
consumers, employees,
employers and family andcommunity members■

the economic system as it
relates to individuals andcommunities■

human rights charters andissues■sustainable development andenvironmental issues■

practice of tolerance■

judging and acting by amoral code■

courage to defend a point of
view

■

44

Skills and Aptitudes

willingness to be open tochanging one’s opinions andattitudes in the light ofdiscussion and evidence■

individual initiative andeffort■civility and respect for therule of law■

determination to act justly■

commitment to equal
opportunities and genderequality■

commitment to active
citizenship■commitment to voluntary
service■concern for human rights■

concern for the environment

■

■

■

■

ability to use modern media
and technology critically togather informationa critical approach toevidence put before one andability to look for fresh
evidenceability to recognise forms ofmanipulation andpersuasion
ability to identify, respondto and influence social,moral and politicalchallenges and situations

Fig 2

Diagramatic representation

This cube may help to reinforce the interrelationship of the essential elements and to
confirm the need to approach them in a developmental and sequential way throughthe four key stages. This approach underpins the learning outcomes, as set out by key
stage, that follow.

VALUESANDDISPOSITIONSKEY CONCEPTS
Democracy and Autocracy
Co-operation and Conflict
Equality and Diversity
Fairness, Justice, The Rule of Law
Rules, Law and Human Rights
Freedom and Order
Individual and Community
Power and Authority
Rights and Responsibilities

S
L
L
I
SKND ES
A UD
T
I
T
P
A

KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
KS1

KS2

KS3

KS4

45

6.10

Learning outcomes by key stages

6.10.1The learning outcomes are designed so that pupils will be encouraged todevelop and apply the skills and aptitudes through the contexts and content
provided in the knowledge and understanding components at each key stage.
The knowledge and understanding required will be at a basic level. It is
important to reiterate that the manner of acquisition is a matter for the
professional judgement of teachers taking into account, what is appropriate
to the age and abilities of the pupils concerned. In this way, pupils’ learningin citizenship education is manageable and capable of being reinforced andfurther developed as they progress through the key stages.

The learning outcomes for Key Stages 1 and 2
6.11

Key Stage 1

6.11.1

Skills and Aptitudes

By the end of Key Stage 1, pupils should be able to:

6.11.2■

express and justify orally a personal opinion relevant to an issue;■

contribute to paired and class discussion on matters of personal andgeneral significance, learning what it means to take turns, respond to theviews of others and use acceptable forms of disagreement or challenge;■

work with others and gather their opinions in an attempt to meet achallenge of shared significance;■

use imagination when considering the experience of others;■reflect on issues of social and moral concern, presented in different ways
such as through story, drama, pictures, poetry, and ‘real life’ incidents;■

take part in a simple debate and vote on an issue.

Knowledge and Understanding

By the end of Key Stage 1, pupils should:

46■

recognise how the concept of fairness can be applied in a reasoned andreflective way to aspects of their personal and social life;■

understand the different kinds of responsibility that they take on, in
helping others, respecting differences or looking after shared property;■

know about the nature and basis of the rules in the classroom, at school
and at home; also, whenever possible, know how to frame rules
themselves; understand that different rules can apply in different contexts
and can serve different purposes, including safety, safeguarding of property
and the prevention of unacceptable behaviour;■know about the different kinds of relationships which exist between pupils
and between adults and pupils; also have some notion that the power insuch relationships can be exercised responsibly and fairly or irresponsibly
and unfairly;■

understand the language used to describe feelings associated with aspectsof relationships with others, including words such as happy, sad,
disappointed, angry, upset, shy, embarrassed, peaceful, worried, proud and
glad;

■

understand different kinds of behaviour using moral categories such as
kind or unkind, good or bad, right or wrong; know about theconsequences of anti-social or egocentric behaviour and attitudes, forindividuals and communities; also understand that many problems can betackled as a community;■know where they live, in relation to their local and national community,
understand that there are different types and groups of people living intheir local community such as other children, teenagers, families and oldpeople;■know about differences and similarities between people in terms of theirneeds, rights, responsibilities, wants, likes, values and beliefs; also
understand that many of these differences are linked with cultural andreligious diversity;■know and understand, through shared activities and the process of
exploratory talk, the meaning of key terms such as respect or disrespect,question, comment, discuss, agree or disagree, similar or different, point ofview, opinion, compare and contrast.

6.12

Key Stage 2

6.12.1

Skills and Aptitudes

By the end of Key Stage 2, pupils should be able to:■express and justify, orally and/or in writing, a personal opinion relevant to
an issue;■contribute to paired and small group discussion on matters of personaland general significance and be prepared to present the outcome to a class;■work with others in a class and gather their opinions in an attempt tomeet a challenge of shared significance through negotiation,accommodation and agreed action;■use imagination when considering the experience of others and be able toreflect and hypothesise – the ‘what if’ scenario – on issues of social, moral
and political concern in response to stories, drama or ‘real life’ incidents.
These should cover a range of citizenship issues and include considerationof the lives of others living in other places or times and with different
values or customs;■

discuss a range of moral dilemmas or problems, in which choices between
alternatives are evaluated, selected and justified, using appropriate
language;■participate in a question and answer session in which a member of thelocal community offers an expert opinion and answers questions preparedin advance by pupils;47

6.12.2■

collect information about a topical or contemporary issue from a range ofsources, including television and radio news, documentary footage,
newspapers and new communications technologies, and recognise thedifferent ways the sources present the information;■

take part in simple debates and have opportunities to vote on issues.

Knowledge and Understanding

By the end of Key Stage 2, pupils should:

48■

know at a simple level, how rules and laws are made and the varying
purposes they serve; and understand that there are various sources ofauthority in their duties but that there are also sources of help and support
when needed; also understand the meaning of terms such as rights andresponsibilities, right, wrong, fair, unfair, rule, law, forgiveness;■understand the need for laws and their enforcement in shaping behaviour
and tackling crimes and why certain behaviour is prohibited; also know
about the role of the police in the prevention of crime and protection of
persons and property, and be aware of the consequences of anti-social
behaviour on individuals and communities; also understand the meaning ofterms such as punishment, cause, consequence, justice, fairness, evidence;■know about the workings of local and national communities, including themain faiths and ethnic cultures, and how individuals relate to them; know
about, in simple terms, contemporary relations between England, Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland and Europe; know about local and nationalsources of government and opportunities to participate; also understandthe meaning of terms such as mayor, council, councillor, Member ofParliament (MP), election, vote, parliament, Member of the European
Parliament (MEP), political party;■

understand that there can be different types of government such as
democracies and dictatorships; also understand the meaning of terms suchas freedom of speech, opposition, vote, government, King, Queen, Prime
Minister, President;■

know about voluntary and community bodies who work in their local
community; also understand the meaning of terms such as voluntary
service, volunteer, charity, protest, petition;■know that there are different economic systems; know that there aredifferent ways of allocating scarce resources; understand the choices thathave to be made in modern society and the impact on individuals andcommunities; also understand the meaning of terms such as fairness,justice, choice, price, services, wealth, market, wage;■

know about the world as a global community, and that people around theworld live in communities as we do; understand that there are similarities
and differences between communities in terms of social, economic,
cultural, political and environmental circumstances; also understand themeaning of terms such as poverty, famine, disease, charity, aid, humanrights.

The learning outcomes for Key Stages 3 and 4
6.13

Key Stage 3

6.13.1

Skills and Aptitudes

By the end of Key Stage 3, pupils should be able to:

6.13.2■

express and justify, orally and in writing, a personal opinion relevant to anissue;■

contribute to small group and class discussions on matters of personal andgeneral significance and present the outcome to a class;■work with others to meet a challenge of shared significance throughnegotiation, accommodation and agreed action, and be able to reflect on
the process;■use imagination when considering the experience of others and be able torole-play, express plausibly and reflect on viewpoints contrary to theirown;■

analyse, discuss and reflect on significant issues and events encountered
within a community;■

garner information about an issue from a range of sources including TV
and radio news, documentary footage, newspapers and newcommunications technologies with some understanding of the different
roles these sources play;■demonstrate an understanding of the use of statistics;■

take part in informal debates and have opportunities to vote on issues.

Knowledge and Understanding

By the end of Key Stage 3, pupils should:■

understand the significant aspects of topical and contemporary issues andevents;■understand, at a basic level, the legal rights and responsibilities of young
people with particular reference to the UN Convention on the Rights of
the Child, particularly the right to be heard; understand the general natureof legal aspects and responsibilities of other citizens, including consumer
law, employment law, discrimination law, age-related laws and the laws
relating to drugs and relationships; also understand the meaning of terms
such as discrimination, equal opportunities, tribunal, ballot, trade unions;■

understand the rights and responsibilities underpinning a democraticsociety, with particular reference to the European Convention on Human
Rights (ECHR); be aware of issues surrounding rights such as freedom ofspeech and freedom from arbitrary arrest; know about the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and why it was developed; also understandthe meaning of terms such as prejudice, xenophobia, discrimination,
pluralism;49■know about aspects of the criminal justice system, including the role of thepolice and how a criminal trial works; also understand the meaning ofterms such as court, judge, magistrate, jury, witness, defendant;■

know about local government, the services it offers and the opportunities
to contribute at a local level; also understand the meaning of terms such as
mayor, council, councillor, bye-law, election;■know about the work of voluntary and community bodies; also
understand the meaning of terms such as pressure groups, lobbying,protest, public opinion;■

know about the work of Parliament, the Government and the Executive inmaking and changing the law; also understand the meaning of terms suchas Member of Parliament (MP), general election, political party, national
government, opposition, cabinet, government department, Act ofparliament;■

know about the ideas and aims of the main political parties and pressuregroups; also understand the meaning of terms such as pressure groups,
lobbying, public opinion;■

know about the UK as a political entity, including its multi-national
constitution and contemporary relations with the Republic of Ireland, theEuropean Union (EU) and the Commonwealth; also understand themeaning of terms such as Scottish Parliament, Northern Ireland Assembly,
Welsh Assembly, Member of the European Parliament (MEP), European
Union (EU);■understand the economic system with reference to the work of the market
and the concept of price and major economic issues of the day such as
poverty and unemployment, including the provision of key public services;
also understand the meaning of terms such as taxation, the welfare state,competition, market forces, distribution of wealth;■know about the world as a global community and understand thepolitical, economic and social disparities that exist; also understand themeaning of terms such as overseas aid, development, sustainable
development, international trade, charity, human rights.

6.14

Key Stage 4

6.14.1

Skills and Aptitudes

By the end of Key Stage 4, pupils should be able to:50■

express and justify, orally and in writing, a personal opinion relevant to anissue;■

contribute to small group and class discussions on matters of personal andgeneral significance and present the outcome to a wider audience;■

work with others to meet a challenge of shared significance throughnegotiation, accommodation and agreed action, and be able to reflect onand critically evaluate the process;6.14.2■

use imagination when considering the experience of others and be able torole-play and express plausibly viewpoints contrary to their own, and toreflect on and critically evaluate such viewpoints;■

investigate, analyse, discuss and reflect on major challenges faced bycommunities;■

research an issue or event of significance from a range of sources including
TV and radio news, documentary footage, newspapers and newcommunications technologies with particular reference to bias and the useof evidence;■

demonstrate an understanding of the use and abuse of statistics;■

take part in formal debates and have structured opportunities to vote on
issues.

Knowledge and Understanding

By the end of Key Stage 4 pupils should:■

understand the significant aspects of topical and contemporary issues andevents;■understand, at a basic level, the law and the legal system in relation toareas such as the family, consumers, the law at work and in relation to theenvironment; understand about different sources and types of law,
including statute, judge-made law, and European law (including ECHR);
know about the different ways in which the law is enforced, the role of thepolice, crime and punishment and penal reform as a personal and social
issue; also understand the meaning of terms such as rule of law, civil law,criminal law, civil rights, natural justice;■know about the different ways in which MPs can be elected and theGovernment held accountable through parliament to the electorate,
including the importance of voting, public opinion, opinion polls, the roleof the media, lobbying, pressure groups and different forms of protest; thedifferent electoral systems and understand the reasons for the differences;also understand the meaning of terms such as proportional representation,referendum, federalism, monarchy;■

know about the values, interests and policies of the main political parties
and pressure groups; also understand the meaning of terms such aspressure groups, lobbying, public opinion;■

know about the changing constitution of the UK, including therelationship between the two Houses of Parliament, the changing role ofthe monarchy, shifting relationships between England, Scotland, Wales andNorthern Ireland and Britain’s relationship with the European Union and
the Commonwealth; some understanding of why the European Union was
created; also understand the meaning of terms such as devolution,
independence, European Monetary Union (EMU);■

understand the economic system with reference to what is appropriate to
private and to public ownership, regulation or control, and to problems of51

income distribution, employment, taxation, housing and the provision of
public services, especially health, education and social services; also
understand the meaning of terms such as wealth creation, personal
taxation, pension provision;■understand the world as a global community, including issues such assustainable development, economic interdependence, heavily indebted
countries, and the work of United Nations organisations and major
non-governmental organisations; understand the meaning of terms such as
stewardship, interdependence, ethical trading, peace-making andpeacekeeping.

7 Suggestions as to how part of the statutory curriculum might befulfilled in combination with other subjects

52

7.1

So long as the intentions in sections 4.4, 4.5 and 4.9 are observed concerning
curriculum time for this new area, certain combinations of ‘elements ofcitizenship education with other subjects’ are obvious and possible atdifferent key stages in different schools. The word ‘elements’ is important for
we strongly believe that citizenship needs a distinct profile in the revised
curriculum (see section 4.4). Though some of the key concepts, values anddispositions, and skills and aptitudes in the learning outcomes can be
developed and applied within other parts of the curriculum, many of theskills and aptitudes, and knowledge and understanding need separate
articulation. Nonetheless in primary schools this is likely to be done by classteachers through existing subjects and there can be substantial overlap.

7.2

The biggest overlap is with PSE or PSHE. While the learning outcomes for
Key Stages 1 and 2 are the essential basis of our whole report, we believethat they can be achieved as part of the framework for PSE or PSHE
programmes of primary school. Appendix A sets out our reasoning on this(and we welcome Professor Tomlinson’s response to our chairman’s letter).

7.3

However, a distinct and separate articulation of citizenship is essential in Key
Stages 3 and 4. Nonetheless so long as this takes place within the kind oftime allocation set out in section 4.5 and with the flexibility for provision set
out in section 4.6, we point to obvious and advantageous overlaps withelements of both the content and approach of other subjects, most notably ofHistory, Geography and English.

7.4

In History, there is much teaching and learning about the development ofsocieties and of political, social and economic systems, including thedevelopment of British democracy and of our pluralist society, which
provides an essential conceptual and institutional foundation to many
elements in our learning outcomes. For example, the history of Parliament is
at the heart of British history and can readily lead into discussion of present
day electoral arrangements. Meanwhile, British, European and world history
topics can also lead into consideration of the international, sustainable
development and the human rights aspects of our learning outcomes. The
emphasis in History on the use of evidence and processes of enquiry can help

pupils to discuss and reach informed judgements about topical andcontemporary issues which are the lifeblood of citizenship and to develop theconfidence to take informed action.
7.5

In Geography, the emphasis of place, space and environment and the study ofplaces, themes and issues from the local to the global, offers significant
opportunities to learn about conflicts and concerns, to extend knowledge
about political groupings and the activities of pressure groups and voluntary
bodies and to evaluate the consequences for people, places and environmentsof decision-making. There is a particular opportunity to understand how
people and places are inextricably linked and interdependent, thus to learn
about and experience citizenship from the local to the global. The processesof enquiry in Geography, as in History, can also contribute to pupils’
development of the understanding, skills and confidence needed to takeinformed action. Pupil involvement in fieldwork can enhance such learningand despite the pressure of the timetable, many schools in Key Stage 3 have
Environmental Studies programmes.

7.6

While in most secondary schools with existing citizenship programmes ofsome kind the teaching is done by History and Geography teachers, English
can also play a role. There is scope through the sources in English teaching
to make links to the elements in our learning outcomes – both printed
sources (books, plays, poems and newspapers) and oral and visual sources(television, radio, and new communications technologies) – as well as
through drama, role-play, literary criticism and media education. One
common example is reading Orwell’s Animal Farm. Is it a lament for thefailed attempt to create an egalitarian society, or an implication that it was
and is always impossible? The critical, open-ended reading and discussion ofa text is a skill very close to our ‘critical approach to evidence put before one
and ability to look for fresh evidence’. Meanwhile, drama, role-play andstories can be excellent means to help pupils develop the ‘ability to consider
and appreciate the experience of others’.

7.7

The possibility of combination is not limited to History, Geography andEnglish, though these are likely to be closest to citizenship in terms of subject
content, contexts and teaching and learning approaches. Other subjects canmake valuable contributions too. For example Mathematics and Information
Technology (IT) can contribute to a knowledge and understanding ofelectoral systems and opinion polls and the skills to get the best from them.
Science and Technology subjects commonly raise ethical issues of social
policy. Religious Education (RE) provides opportunities to explore moral andsocial concerns. Physical Education (PE) can encourage individual initiativeand effort as well as teamwork skills. Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) canoffer a contrasting perspective from other countries on national, European
and international events and issues, while Business Studies can combine toexemplify the economic aspects of citizenship.

7.8

The experience of the Technical and Vocational Education Initiative (TVEI)
highlighted the existing possibilities in making combinations with music andthe arts. One obvious linkage of Art, citizenship, PSE and PSHE exists

53already in many schools where classroom walls and open areas are covered
with artwork made by pupils, illustrative of lessons and projects.
7.9

These are but a few illustrative examples to underline the possibilities. The
potential combinations are many and varied. How these combinations are
identified and approached is ultimately a matter for schools to decide, solong as they are natural and advantageous to the subjects involved and theelements of citizenship education in any combinations are clearly identifiable.

7.10

Many schools are able to find time for programmes based on the ideas of
Human Rights, Rights of the Child, Global Citizenship or Sustainable
Development, and the charters or international agreements associated withthem. Others find room simply for a weekly current affairs lesson. All ofthese can make and are making (where they occur) significant contributions
to citizenship learning and teaching. In our general aims and learning
outcomes they can all find a valued place; but none on their own can furnish
the comprehensive and sequential citizenship teaching of our advice.
Nonetheless, our strategy allows for considerable variation in the proportionof time and effort given to different topics and existing programmes.

8 How Citizenship learning can contribute to development of Key Skills

54

8.1

We recognise the close links between citizenship and ‘the six key skills’(communication, application of number, information technology, working
with others, improving own learning and performance, and problem solving
and learning) and maintain that citizenship learning can be a relevant and an
appropriate context for pupils’ development and achievement of key skills.
Our proposed learning outcomes provide many opportunities to integrate thekey skills; an approach that would avoid duplication of effort and be ofgreater benefit to pupils and schools.

8.2

The first three key skills are at the heart of the learning outcomes across all
four key stages. The key skill of Communication closely relates to theemphasis in citizenship on discussion and the opportunities for pupils todevelop and practise verbal communication skills from primary school
onward. This should be seen alongside the current emphasis on literacy
which overlaps with the skill in citizenship of gathering and criticallyevaluating information and evidence in all forms. There are numerous
opportunities through citizenship learning to help pupils to progress in theirwritten and verbal communication skills and the ability to develop areasoned argument.

8.3

The key skill of Application of Number can also be developed in citizenshipcontexts, such as examining electoral systems, opinion polls and statistics
and investigating the current reforms to the electoral system in Britain. The
teaching of citizenship can contribute to the key skill of Information
Technology (IT) by enabling pupils to develop their competence in, forexample, data handling and presentation of information. Good use can bemade of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in teaching
citizenship education where it enables the learning outcomes to be achievedmore effectively. The teaching and learning of some topics can be enhanced
through the use of software packages and websites. (See Appendix B).
8.4

The wider key skills, though closely interrelated, can also be developed
through the teaching approaches and learning opportunities which underpin
the learning outcomes in citizenship. The key skill of Working with Others isfundamental to the aim and purpose of citizenship education and to help
pupils become involved in the local and wider community. The key skill of
Improving Own Learning and Performance is a guiding principle behind thelearning outcomes, while the key skill of Problem Solving can be developed
through an active, experimental approach to citizenship both inside andoutside schools. We see problem-solving as central to political and social
thinking in education, rather than formulation of doctrinal alternatives - assome have argued.

8.5

We also note the potential of the day to day approaches to assessment oflearning in citizenship education in schools to contribute to the assessment ofpupils’ development and acquisition of key skills. The recording of citizenshiplearning through pupil Records of Achievement and other appropriate formsof accreditation, offer scope to the future development of key skills
qualifications both pre and post-sixteen.

9 Whole-school issues
9.1

We recognise the significant contribution that citizenship learning can maketo whole-school issues and to the development of values. The contribution isa two-way process. The ethos, organisation, structures and daily practices ofschools have a considerable impact on the effectiveness of citizenshipeducation. Schools need to consider to what extent their ethos, organisationand daily practices are consistent with the aim and purpose of citizenshipeducation, and provide opportunities for pupils to develop into active
citizens. We believe that schools should make every effort to engage pupils in
discussion and consultation about all aspects of school life on which pupils
might reasonably be expected to have a view, and wherever possible to give
pupils responsibility and experience in helping to run parts of the school.
(See section 5.3).

9.2

Citizenship learning can also make a significant contribution to thedevelopment of values. The values and dispositions which underpin
citizenship and democratic politics are clearly set out in the learning
outcomes. Pupils are encouraged to recognise, reflect and act upon thesevalues and dispositions through citizenship learning across the four key
stages. These values and dispositions overlap with, though are not restricted
by, the values in the context of society, identified in PSHE and by the
National Forum for Values in Education and in the community, which form
the basis of the QCA pilot looking at a whole-school approach to thepromotion of pupils’ Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural development.
(See section 2.11(a)).

55

10 Guidance on the teaching of controversial issues
Summary of the Statutory Requirements
The Education Act 1996 aims to ensure that children are not presented by theirteachers with only one side of political or controversial issues. Section 406 of
the Act requires school governing bodies, headteachers and local education
authorities to forbid the promotion of partisan political views in the teaching of
any subject in schools; and to forbid the pursuit of partisan political activities
by pupils under age 12 while in school. Section 407 requires them to take allreasonably practical steps to ensure that, where political or controversial issues
are brought to pupils’ attention, they are offered a balanced presentation or
opposing views.
If anyone has reason to believe that a school is not complying with theserequirements, they may make a formal complaint to the governing body understatutory local arrangements for considering complaints about curricularmatters. If dissatisfied with the governors’ response they may refer thecomplaint to the local education authority, in the case of an LEA-maintained
school, and, ultimately, to the Secretary of State (in the case of either an
LEA-maintained or grant-maintained school).

56

10.1

Education should not attempt to shelter our nation’s children from even theharsher controversies of adult life, but should prepare them to deal with suchcontroversies knowledgeably, sensibly, tolerantly and morally. Of course,
educators must never set out to indoctrinate; but to be completely unbiased
is simply not possible, and on some issues, such as those concerning humanrights, it is not desirable. When dealing with controversial issues, teachers
should adopt strategies that teach pupils how to recognise bias, how toevaluate evidence put before them and how to look for alternativeinterpretations, viewpoints and sources of evidence; above all to give goodreasons for everything they say and do, and to expect good reasons to begiven by others.

10.2

A controversial issue is an issue about which there is no one fixed oruniversally held point of view. Such issues are those which commonly divide
society and for which significant groups offer conflicting explanations andsolutions. There may, for example, be conflicting views on such matters as
how a problem has arisen and who is to blame; over how the problem may
be resolved; over what principles should guide the decisions that can betaken, and so on.

10.3

Controversial issues can arise in the teaching of virtually every subject. For
example, History deals with the causes of events such as wars, industrial
disputes, revolutions, coups, and so on, implicitly attributing blame or credit.
Geography involves a concern with the use of the natural and built
environments and consequently with issues such as pollution, the siting ofroads, airports and power stations. English literature is replete with all thedrama of human life; divided loyalties, patriotism, the worth of human life,
political and secular betrayals, crises of faith, issues of ends and means andtheir relationship and justification. Religious Education probably embraces
the very essence of controversy, dealing as it does in foundations of moral
behaviour and the purpose and meaning of life. And the sciences, technicalsubjects and the arts are not exempt from controversy, both about their
theories and their applications in society.
10.4

There are two kinds of justification for encouraging teachers not to shy awayfrom giving attention to controversial issues, whether in school or incommunity-based activities. Firstly, at the immediate and practical level it canbe argued that controversial issues are important in themselves and to omit
informing about and discussing them is to leave a wide and significant gap inthe educational experience of young people, and is to fail to prepare them for
adult life. Many controversial topics are major issues of the day: moral,
economic, political and religious issues which young people ought to know
about either because the issue could directly affect them or because they willin some way in a democratic society have opportunities to take a part in
influencing the outcome. Other issues have an enduring and unremitting
significance. Social issues concerning war and peace, concerning relationships
between peoples of different colour, ethnicity and creed, concerning
oppression and justice, and religious issues concerning the value of human
life, our stewardship of creation and our response to spiritual values are allof this order.

10.5

Secondly, in a more profound sense it could reasonably be argued that toomit controversial subject-matter is to leave out not only an important areaof knowledge and human experience but the very essence of what constitutes
a worthwhile education. For teachers to confine their endeavours to theinculcation of knowledge and the transmission of skills, no matter how
useful they may be, is to restrict the enterprise of schooling to just a schemeof training. Education, as opposed to mere training, requires an encounter
with other experiences, such as active participation in group decisionmaking, and the development of further qualities of mind beyond retentive
memory.

10.6

Those particular qualities of mind which we believe would be enhanced byexamining controversial issues in a programme of citizenship education
would include:

10.7

■

a willingness and empathy to perceive and understand the interests, beliefs
and viewpoints of others;■

a willingness and ability to apply reasoning skills to problems and to value
a respect for truth and evidence in forming or holding opinions;■a willingness and ability to participate in decision-making, to value
freedom, to choose between alternatives, and to value fairness as a basis
for making and judging decisions.

But a word of caution is required. The very nature of controversial issues
means that everyone concerned with education is aware that various groups
are likely to hold strong opinions on such issues and can even object to57

others expressing their views. Educators are aware that controversial issues
may also be sensitive issues. Headteachers, governors and members of thelocal education committee may worry or speculate about the possibility ofparents being afraid of biased teaching and even of attempts to indoctrinate
their pupils. Understandably some teachers, particularly newly qualified
teachers, may lack confidence when approaching these issues.
10.8

Such fears, while common, are largely unfounded and greatly underestimate
both the professionalism and the prudence of teachers. In the early 1980s,
when some attention was being given in schools to particularly sensitive
issues such as Peace Studies, advisers and inspectors were required to be alert
to the possibility of teachers abusing their position to persuade pupils to theirpoint of view, and to investigate complaints. Verified examples were
extremely rare and a senior staff inspector of HMI was able to reassure thethen Secretary of State for Education that there was no evidence tosubstantiate such fears.

10.9

We acknowledge, however, that in the teaching of controversial issues there isalways a risk of bias, whether unwitting or otherwise. Experienced teachers
would seek to avoid this by resisting any inclination to:■highlight a particular selection of facts or items of evidence thereby giving
them a greater importance than other equally relevant information;■

present information as if it is not open to alternative interpretation or
qualification or contradiction;■

set themselves up as the sole authority not only on matters of ‘fact’ but
also on matters of opinion;■

present opinions and other value judgements as if they are facts;■

give their own accounts of the views of others instead of using the actual
claims and assertions as expressed by various interest groups themselves;■

reveal their own preferences by facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice,etc;■

imply preferences by a particular choice of respondents or by not opening
up opportunities for all pupils to contribute their views to a discussion;■neglect challenging a consensus of opinion which emerges too readily.

Experienced teachers would also feel secure in establishing a classroom
climate in which all pupils are free from any fear of expressing reasonable
points of view which contradict those held either by their class teachers or by
their peers.
10.10

58

The above does not address adequately the concerns of those who haveanxieties that there may be some teachers who consciously set out topersuade a class to their own point of view. Although, as suggested earlier,such anxieties are largely unfounded, they do need to be addressed. And so,recommendations are needed about how teachers might approach theteaching of controversial issues in such a way as to fulfil the aims ofeducation for citizenship, as well as to provide some reassurance for those
who are apprehensive.

10.11

The most effective way to address these two concerns will be to adopt
teaching strategies which place as a priority the objective of equipping pupils
with an understanding and an ability to recognise bias, an ability torecognise and evaluate argument, an ability to weigh evidence put before
them, and to look for alternative interpretations, viewpoints and sources ofevidence. The recommended curriculum based on learning outcomes in
section 6 addresses these concerns in detail. Teaching strategies which are
based on these principles will ensure that controversial issues are not only
presented in a fair, acceptable and thoroughly professional manner but, more
importantly, that they are also handled in a way that is most likely tostimulate the interest of pupils and achieve many of the basic aims ofeducation for citizenship.

10.12

There are three general approaches to the teaching of controversial issues
which are commonly recommended.
(a) The ‘Neutral Chairman’ approach was first advocated by the Schools
Council Humanities Curriculum Project (HCP). This requires the teacher not
to express any personal views or allegiances whatsoever, but to act only as
the facilitator of a discussion, ensuring that a wide variety of evidence isconsidered and that opinions of all kinds are expressed.
(b) The ‘Balanced’ approach by which, as teachers ensure that all aspects of
an issue are covered, they are expected to express their own opinions on anumber of alternative views to encourage pupils to form their own
judgements. This requires teachers to ensure that views with which they
themselves may disagree, or with which the class as a whole may disagree,
are also presented as persuasively as possible – in other words, to act on
occasion if necessary, as ‘Devil’s Advocate’.
(c) The ‘Stated Commitment’ approach in which teachers openly express
their own views from the outset, as a means of encouraging discussion,
during which pupils are encouraged to express their own agreement or
disagreement with the teacher’s views.

10.13

It seems to us that if used in isolation, rigidly or alone, each of theseapproaches contains significant shortcomings. A teacher using only the‘Neutral Chairman’ approach is likely to find pupils are unconvinced by heror his ‘neutral’ stance, perhaps because of what they know and observe
about the teacher during the rest of school life. There is also some evidence
from the evaluation of the HCP pilot materials on race, that this approach
may lead pupils to hear only what they wish to hear, thereby reinforcing
their prejudices. The ‘Balanced’ approach runs the obvious risk that as ateacher strives to ensure every point of view is given equal attention in theclassroom, the pupils themselves, already subject to a barrage of partisan
opinions from the mass media, may not be adequately equipped with ideas
and information which counteract those that they get from the media. And
the ‘Stated Commitment’ approach alone carries with it, from the start, thegrave risk that teachers who use it may well be accused of bias andattempting to indoctrinate those whom they are teaching.

5910.14

It is not our business or intention to try to tell teachers how to teach as if
there was for every issue and in every circumstance a single best method, but
we do suggest a ‘common sense’ approach has much to commend it. We
suggest that teachers may wish to adapt or select methods from any or all of
the strategies we have outlined, as they develop a personal style of teaching
controversial issues. Sometimes, for example, a useful starting point to alesson or discussion may be to say, ‘ Here are a number of viewpoints on theissue we are examining: what do you think?’. As a discussion develops, theteacher’s personal assessment of all such points of view may be helpful topupils so long as contrary views have been sought and expressed. Just as
sometimes it may be helpful if a teacher has the ability to say: ‘Well, I havepersonal experience of these matters and I’d like to share it with you.’

10.15

The guiding principle should surely be that teachers are encouraged to use
whatever means they find most effective in bringing home to those they teachthat, by their very nature, controversial issues do not admit of easy answers.
Nevertheless, whatever approach a teacher chooses to adopt, good practicewill always seek to provide assurance that the risk of bias is avoided bymaking sure that every aspect of an issue is examined fairly and thoroughly
by means of a checklist of questions such as the following:

10.16

■

What are the main features and probable causes of this issue?

■

How, where and by whom are these matters normally resolved?

■

Are there other ways in which this issue might be resolved?

■

What are the main groups involved in this issue and what do they sayneeds to be done and why?

■

What are their interests and values? What are the likely consequences of
their policies?

■

How can people be persuaded to act or change their minds?

■

How can the accuracy of the information be checked and where canadditional evidence and alternative opinions be obtained?

■

How does this issue affect us and in what ways can we express our pointof view and influence the outcome?

We recognise the anxiety that the handling of controversial issues causes tomany people, especially parents, headteachers and school governors.
However, in summary, we stress that three important principles underpin therecommendations in this section of our report:(a) While we do not underestimate the difficulties, it is our strong belief thatoffering pupils the experience of a genuinely free consideration of difficult
issues forms a vital and worthwhile part of citizenship education.
(b) Therefore pupils themselves should always be given some choice as to theissues to be considered. First, because that is likely to lead to a considerable
increase in their enthusiasm for, and interest in, the subject-matter. Second,
because it guards against attempts to impose upon them any particularsectional interest or viewpoint.

60

(c) Good practice will usually take the form of analysing issues according toan established set of criteria (such as those suggested in section 10.15 above)
which are open to scrutiny and which are publicly defensible.

11 A last word
11.1

Let the last word – for the moment, for this report will stimulate discussion
or else it has failed – be with the Lord Chancellor. Earlier this year, andcoincidentally, he put the three strands of our definition of citizenship inclear and forceful terms in an address to the Citizenship Foundation at the
Law Society (27 January 1998):‘A healthy society is made up of people who care about the future. People who
willingly contribute to its development for the common good. People who rejectthe “don’t care” culture, who are not always asking “What’s in it for me?” People
who want to be practising citizens. Before this can happen they need to have asense of belonging – of identity – with the community around them.... Our goal is
to create a nation of able, informed and empowered citizens who, on the one
hand, know, understand and can enforce their rights; and, on the other, recognisethat the path to greatest personal fulfilment lies through active involvement instrengthening their society.
Citizenship education must give people confidence to claim their rights andchallenge the status quo while, at the same time, make plain that with rights comeobligations. It should foster respect for law, justice and democracy. It should
nurture concern for the common good at the same time as it encourages
independence of thought. It should provide people with an armoury of essential
skills: listening, arguing, making a case; and accepting the greater wisdom or forceof an alternative view.
But, since we learn by doing, the practical experience of citizenship is at least as
important as formal education in its principles. One of the best ways of putting
the theories of citizenship into practice is through voluntary work in thecommunity. Young people often display a spiritual and material generosity
towards others which can disappear by the time adulthood is reached. One of thechallenges facing us is how to encourage children to retain that giving instinct andhow to help them put it to best use.’

61

Appendix A
Letter from the chairman to the ‘Passport Project’ on the relationshipof Personal and Social Education to Citizenship Education.
Professor John Tomlinson, CBE
Chairman, The Passport Project
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation
98 Portland Place
London W1N 4ET
12 May, 1998
Dear Professor Tomlinson,

Passport Project and Citizenship62

1.

Your committee is, I am sure, aware of the initial report of the advisory groupon Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools
established by the Secretary of State for Education and Employment of which I
am chairman. I am glad that our Professional Officer, David Kerr, has been
invited to attend your meetings and that there is other cross-membership. The
proposal for your project, it is almost needless to say, struck me and mycolleagues as an admirable and well stated proposal for getting greater clarity
and systematic purpose into PSE – an area of education of extraordinary
importance but which, indeed, has sometimes been as variegated and confused
as has Citizenship in schools.

2.

Noting the several strong references to Citizenship in your framework
document, I think it might be useful to set down my own view of where the twoareas differ as well as coincide, otherwise confusion may arise both ineducational circles and in the public mind that will help neither of us. To beclear on this is a pressing matter because, on the one hand, the Secretary ofState for Education and Employment clearly intends that Citizenship will play arole in a revised national curriculum and, on the other hand, there has been
established the committee on PSHE of the two ministers from the Department
for Education and Employment and from the Department of Health, doubtless
to be much enriched and influenced by your eventual recommendations. With somuch public importance attached to both areas, it is very important, I suggest,that we both can give a clear message about divergences as well as common
ground and do not appear to be rivals for curriculum time whether separately or
together – thus worrying teachers about overload and duplication.

3.

I am a little concerned because throughout your initial document, assummarised in Appendix 3, A Framework for PSE in Schools, Citizenship istreated as sub-theme of PSE. This may be because your project takes as its
starting point the five cross-curricular themes as defined by the NCC in 1989.

One of these was Education for Citizenship (Curriculum Guidance 8). Our
work began by assuming that we were set up both because that paper’s
definition of citizenship was too narrow and because a cross-curricularapproach to citizenship had failed. Your treatment of Citizenship gives me nocause to worry if it is read as a temporal statement relating to primaryeducation, but it does worry me if it can be read as an intellectual statement on
which curriculum development would be based: that what is needed for good
citizenship can simply be deduced from the principles to guide PSE, whether
part of the curriculum or cross-curricular.
4.

In our initial report we give, as it were, a sound-bite summary of three senses or
strands of Citizenship education as the three heads on one body: ‘social andmoral responsibility, community involvement and political literacy’. The first
may be thought of as common ground between us (indeed for all education) or
as our final report may well state more clearly, the essential pre-condition forwhat is commonly thought of as citizenship both as teaching and practice. The
second clearly has much common ground, if with a different emphasis (I will
elaborate in a moment); but the third is quite distinct in content from anything
reasonably called PSE and calls for a different type of teacher and teaching aswell as curriculum.

5.

This will become clearer in the second phase of our work that we have only justbegun: setting out learning objectives through Key Stages 1 to 4 (not a precisely
prescribed programme for citizenship education as in the present National
Curriculum subjects) by (a) values, concepts and attitudes; (b) skills; and (c)knowledge. A word on each.
(a) Most values and attitudes will, of course, begin in PSE teaching influenced
by the ideas of SMSC, indeed exist already in the whole ethos of a good primaryschool (say ‘responsibility’ itself, say ‘respect for truth’, say ‘tolerance andempathy’, say ‘a sense of right and wrong’). But, of course, in Citizenshiplearning and education moral questions of responsibility gradually have to be
attached to institutional knowledge of who or what body is responsible,
whether in social or voluntary services or in political and administrative
structures. And the limits of toleration have to be discussed in terms of publicorder and political doctrines, as well as the ability to understand different
interests and values. Always ‘what is thought to be the case’, ‘what is the case’and only then ‘what ought to be the case’.
(b) ‘Community involvement’ is an objective that is a large part of our remit.
We have yet to discuss how far schools can be required to take action in thisfield as distinct from encouraging it strongly as a definite set of assessable
learning objectives. But at least (and I suspect we will go further) a concreteknowledge of what are community organisations, voluntary and official, local
and national, will be required and treated as a child’s entitlement to know andto be given a chance to volunteer. This may be thought of as either common
ground or an extension of PSE into Citizenship; but I suspect that once it passes
into Key Stages 3 and 4 it will need a different kind of teacher and teaching,more akin to our third and overtly ‘political strand’. For it is impossible,
undesirable, indeed to discuss such community organisations without policy and63political issues being raised. However much teachers must stress the reality of‘what is the case’ and try to keep expectations realistic, ‘what ought to be thecase’ and ‘can it be done better?’ will inevitably be discussed and should be
discussed.
(c) By ‘political literacy’ we mean to imply that not only knowledge of politicaland social institutions and ideas, but the skills, values and attitudes are needed
for the practice of good citizenship in adult life, and some experience ofanalogous activities whether in or out of school. However, the knowledge
component is large: again, national and local political, economic and social
institutions, the EU and other international commitments and concerns (all thesein our remit). This is certainly distinct from PSE and is more likely to beundertaken in its early years of development (and we have advised that it should
be phased in gradually) by History or Geography teachers than by those trainedin PSE or moral education. So looked at from the point of view of curriculum
construction, our first Citizenship strand above could be fully satisfied within
PSE programmes; the second less clearly so, or different schools may properlyinterpret it either way if neither field is over-prescriptive; but the third strand isclearly a different concern from PSE, and one in which, I suspect, you would
not want to get involved!

64

6.

The interests of good citizenship would, in my opinion, be fully served if my
sub-committee on the primary stages comes up with some simple but definite
learning objectives, particularly concerning our second and third strands; sothat, for example, no child should leave primary school without more than aglimmer of what are the differences between democracies and dictatorships,
what are the main institutions of government in the United Kingdom (eg thedifference between the office of Prime Minister and the Crown), what local
councillors and MPs can and cannot do, and what are community organisations
etc. Some children get this in primary school already (it is well within theirabilities), but some not at all. It is an essential basis on which to build towards
the aim of a politically literate citizenry as well as one disposed towards public
and voluntary service. Citizenship depends upon good behaviour and an ability
to make informed moral judgements; but it is far more than that.

7.

However, what is essential common ground is that at primary school ‘circle
teaching’ or inter-active and experiential teaching is practised for both PSE andCitizenship objectives – an essential way to fulfil the aims of both. Moretraditional direct teaching may, indeed, be the best way forward to enhance
literacy and numeracy. Neither of our groups should or need to contest that forone moment. But we do both need, I suggest, to say very firmly that children
learn responsibility best and gain a sense of moral values by discussing, withgood guidance from the earliest age, real and controversial issues. Talk,
discussion and debate are the bases of social responsibility and intercourse andthe grounding and practice of active citizenship. Simple and immediate issues get
discussed at first, of course – home and neighbourhood, attitudes to stealing etc,
but then more complex social issues, with reasons and evidence for opinions
being demanded at every stage. Take the practical issues which, I believe, thePSHE committee of two ministers may concentrate on: drug and alcohol abuse,sexual morality and behaviour, and parenting. Each of these presumably begins
with classroom discussions centred on personal responsibility – clearly PSE
territory in every sense; but in secondary school these issues will be also
discussed as issues of public policy identified with parties and pressure groups,
justice and law enforcement – more plainly Citizenship.
8.

We are both aware how ambivalent is public opinion (certainly the press):demands that something must be done in schools in both fields, but fears thatthe wrong things are being done; sometimes a naive belief that values can bedirectly taught, coupled with a somewhat contradictory fear of indoctrination.
The view is even expressed that schools should keep out of both areas becauseof fears of bias, so ‘leave it to the parents’. Because of this my group has just set
up a sub-committee on ‘The Teaching of Controversial Issues’ with the aim ofproviding an advisory paper aimed both to assuage public worries and to giveteachers some practical guidance. (David Kerr will see that an early draft
reaches you with the possibility in mind of a broadly common approach, at leastnon-contradictory statements – possibly even a joint statement?).

9.

To put it briefly. I myself would be quite happy, despite the remit of my Groupto cover all the time in school, simply to set out what citizenship learning
objectives should be met in Key Stages 1 and 2, presumably to be taught in PSE.
‘What’s in a name?’ (I have recently visited a primary school in a problem areathat teaches all I want to mean by Citizenship under the rubric PSE; and visitedanother that under the flag of ‘Citizenship’ tackles many of the objectives you
set out, with a particular emphasis on ‘parenting’). But for Stages 3 and 4
I would see a Citizenship programme as having substantially different goals
from PSE; so that both areas need a definite and different curriculum even if(which is important) there are fruitful areas of overlap – the approach, forexample, to crime and drug abuse as personal responsibility, but also to be
examined and discussed as social and political problems. ‘Overlap’ is not aninvitation to time-table a consolidation of teaching at that level, rather should
be seen as a fruitful reinforcement. To put it logically: PSE is a necessary but nota sufficient condition for good citizenship.

10.

I hope this genuine attempt to clarify is welcome, not itself confusing.

Yours sincerely,

Bernard Crick65

Reply from chairman of the Passport Project to Professor Crick

PASSPORT
THE PASSPORT PROJECT Raising the Quality of PSE in Schools

Professor Bernard Crick
Chairman, Citizenship Advisory GroupQCA
29 Bolton Street
London W1Y 7PD

26 May 1998

Dear Professor Crick,Very many thanks for your letter of 12 May. Our view of the Citizenship project could
almost be exactly described in the words you use about PSE in schools – ‘an area of
education of extraordinary importance but which, indeed, has sometimes been as
variegated and confused as [PSE] in schools’. So we see the problem in the same lightand care equally that the revised National Curriculum should give both areas their due
weight and space.
Your long and thoughtful summary of the relationship between the two domains
deserves to become a locus classicus. The Passport Project leaders are in complete
agreement with your understanding of where our two projects meet and diverge. And
we are determined to ensure that our project works alongside the several othercognate projects and enquiries now in train so that the model eventually offered toschools is coherent and workable. We look forward to the contribution David Kerr
will be able to make to that end so far as your project is concerned.
On behalf of all involved in the Passport Project, thank you for writing so fully andhelpfully. And let us work together to see the teachers and the children are offered abetter curriculum after 2000.
Yours sincerely

John Tomlinson

ST

66

LAN

F

O

E G U L BENK

C A L OU

Chairman, Advisory CommitteeUN

D AT I O

Nwith additional support
from the Department
for Education and
Employment

Appendix B
New information and communication technologies and Education for
CitizenshipThe purpose of this appendix is three-fold. It seeks to demonstrate that:■new information and communication technologies (ICTs), specifically the Internet,
are growing fast as an educational tool, particularly amongst young people;■

many opportunities to become better informed about citizenship and to participate
in democratic discussion exist on the Internet;■

the interactive character of the Internet provides opportunities for invigorating
citizenship education, although some notes of caution need to be considered.

The growth of the Internet
In June 1997, when the last major survey was carried out, the number of households
in Britain with access to the Internet was 960,000: approximately 1 in 25 of allhouseholds. The number exactly one year earlier (June 1996) was under 400,000. Six
million people over 18 used the Internet in the year prior to June 1997 andapproximately nine million are expected to have used it by June 1998. The growth in
UK Internet connectivity shows no sign of decreasing. Indeed, with schools becoming
systematically connected via the National Grid for learning, and pupils having theirown e-mail addresses, there is every reason to predict a continued sharp rise in thenumber of ‘connected’ citizens in the UK.
However, not all users of the Internet use the World Wide Web (WWW). The Internet
is still mainly used for e-mail. Using the WWW (ie visiting web sites) is more costly, as
it involves maintaining a telephone connection when on-line, and web sites cannot be
visited without being on-line. Comparative data with countries where telephone callcharges are lower show greater use of the WWW by Internet users – and where there
is no charge for local calls, as in the USA and Canada, Web use is very high.
Nonetheless, use of the WWW has grown significantly in the UK: three million
Internet users used the WWW in the month before June 1997, whereas only
1,100,000 had in December 1995.
The fastest rate of growth for Internet usage is for educational purposes. In June 1996,
39% of the Internet use was as an educational tool. By June 1997 this had increased
to 48%. This has coincided with growth in Internet connections by younger people:
29% of users are aged between 25 and 34. Most students (at school or college) are
not connected in their own name, but some have access to the Internet and WWW via
personal computers at home and /or school/college computers.

67

Opportunities for on-line information and/or deliberation of citizenship
There is a wealth of information on the WWW. Much of it is primarily US-based andof little use to UK citizens. Unfortunately, most web browsers (which search for sites
matching key words) have a built-in tendency to find American sites. However, as
background for the teaching of citizenship and politics, there are several very good
UK-based sites which meet key standards of accuracy, impartiality andcomprehensiveness. These sites offer political and social resources which are broader
and less expensive than most schools or colleges could otherwise afford to store.
Amongst the best UK web sites are Julian White’s British Politics Page:<http://www.ukpol.co.uk>, and Richard Kimber’s Political Science Resources(produced at Keele University): <http://www.psr.keele.ac.uk>. The Keele site isparticularly good for accurate, up-to-date political facts and figures, and it includes
David Boothroyd’s Election site which is a mine of information on UK elections.
UK school networks can be reached via Eduweb, which has its own discussion groups:<http://www.eduweb.co.uk> and SchoolNet:<http://www.schoolnet.org.uk/schools/welcome.html>. The on-line journal, From
Now On, is a very good resource for linking schools internationally and providing
clear guidelines on web design and protocol: <http://fromnowon.org>.
The EU’s Europa website is not the easiest to navigate, but there is a worthwhile
forum, Dialogue Youth: <http://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg22/euodesk/dyhome.html>.
There is also the well-established EU Youth Forum: <http://www.alli.fi/euro/forum/>.
The Tatis discussion network is of relevance to educators seeking to make links withothers in the EU; it can be contacted by e-mail via <http://tatis@agonet.it>. On
international issues, the One World web site is excellent: <http://www.oneworld.org>.
The same site also runs community.web which connects a number of active youthbased groups: <http://www.oneworld.org/community.web/>. Of similar interest is the
UNICEF information and discussion site: <http://www.unicef.org/voy>.
It is important to differentiate between such web sites and those from news groups
which are primarily informational or based on specifically-organised discussions andwhich encourage more casual, user-driven discussion of news and current affairs. The
latter are particularly active in the UK. The uk.politics news groups have regularly
received several hundred messages per day and often of a quite high standard of
discussion. News groups exist in the form of ‘hierarchies’, with uk.politics as the
opening address, followed by a dot and then a sub-theme, such as electoral reform,
cryptography, or the environment. (There are hundreds of themes: some attract many
participants, others remain relatively dormant.) A more international news grouphierarchy is news:talk. The participants in news groups are overwhelmingly young andnot conventionally politically involved. A good search engine for new groups is<http://www.dejanews.com>.
The UK has pioneered citizen-led, on-line discussion at a national level with theformation in 1995 of UK Citizens Online Democracy (UKCOD). This non-partisan,
independent web site was set up with the intention of providing an on-line public
space for informed democratic dialogue amongst citizens and between citizens andgovernment. A good example of UKCOD’s work was the government-supported Have68

Your Say forum (to be found at <http://www.foi.democracy.org.uk>) set up as apre-legislative on-line public consultation on the Freedom of Information (Your Right
To Know) White Paper. The site was used to provide access to the White Paper, withinformative background material relating to it; to allow any citizen to make an on-line
submission to the Cabinet Office regarding the White Paper; and for a ‘Meet The
Minister’ session in which questions from the public were put to the Minister over an
extended period.
This site could be used as an example of how government consultation takes place,allowing young citizens to evaluate the arguments and advocacy skills of those
involved. It is also useful, in terms of education for citizenship, to look at how
discussions develop; the Internet permits this because most web sites remain asarchives after they are ‘dead’. The work of UKCOD as a pioneer UK experiment inon-line democratic deliberation is covered in the UK chapter for the G7
Government-Online White Paper: <http://www.state.mn.us/gol/democracy/>.
On-line opportunities
Certain opportunities provided by the new information and communication
technologies are of particular relevance to citizenship education. It is important topoint out that:■the technologies are interactive: users are not expected to simply imbibe
information, but are usually able to add to it or contest it;■

the information provided is easy to access (once on-line) and can be examined in asmuch or little depth as the user chooses;■

information can be updated regularly;■

on-line discussions offer people a sense of not simply hearing about or being
spectators of civic affairs, but becoming involved as deliberating participants.
The commonly-stated claim that ‘nobody cares what I think’ is countered by theease with which citizens can have their say on-line and experience a sense of being
heard and meeting responses;■

on-line discussion allows citizens to become familiar with the rules (implicit as well
as formal) of democratic debate. Very often peer pressure from other users serves totemper the initial dogmatism or crudeness of contributions to discussion. On-line
discussion exposes people to information and ideas they might not otherwise haveencountered;■globalisation has been an intellectual as well as an economic process. This applies
particularly to ‘cyberspace’ which is quintessentially global: it is as easy to discuss
issues with people in Melbourne, Australia as it is with those in Manchester. The
European Union (EU) has been pursuing a number of initiatives to further the useof the Internet as a means of developing common understanding between the
citizens of Europe (Tatis);■sites such as UKCOD allow citizens a closer (virtual) proximity to people inauthority than they would otherwise have;69

■much has been written about the effects upon the identities of ‘netizens’, that is
citizens who use the Internet. Some of this is perhaps exaggerated, but there iscertainly evidence that groups such as the disabled or the young feel less intimidated
or ignored in an interactive forum where their identities are not revealed;■

the imminent arrival of digital TV (DTV) could soon make interactive
communication a much more widespread aspect of being a citizen. DTV will havevast potential for interactive communication and should have within its provision a
Citizens’ Channel and other slots for more direct interaction between citizens andgovernment. One school of thought suggests that DTV will render the Internet
obsolete, but even if that is so, in terms of educating young people to be active
citizens, the Internet is an excellent tool and the best available at present;■

the Internet’s anarchic reputation is well known. In fact, good Internet usage does
require rules and regulation; nonetheless, the sense of free access to information andcomment and the diminished barriers between rulers and ruled does make for amore egalitarian, liberal (if sometimes libertarian) atmosphere. This communication
environment may well be compatible with values of individual independence
combined with civic co-operation appropriate to a twenty-first century conceptionof citizenship.

Notes of caution
New information and communication technologies (ICTs) possess no inherent meansof enhancing political literacy and developing young people as active and informed
citizens. Socio-political (and, indeed, philosophical issues) must be considered before
assuming that the new media can facilitate a more democratic, participative approach
to informed citizenship. Notes of caution that need to be considered when considering
the use of ICTs in citizenship education include:70■

there is currently unequal access to the Internet, leading to the well-known divide
between the information-rich and information-poor. When all students are on-line
at school or college this division will diminish, but still there will be a divide
between those who have on-line access outside of school or college and those who
do not;■some information on the Internet is outdated, and trivial, inaccurate or heavily
slanted. It is important to teach skills of discrimination and good judgement – as in
the whole curriculum – that will enable users to distinguish between useful, lessuseful and useless information. With the expansion of new media these critical skills
will be more essential than ever as prerequisites for active citizenship;■some (though probably only a minority) of on-line discussions are poorly
monitored. Some thought is currently being given to the need for training inmonitoring on-line democratic discussions. It is necessary to refine these skills andproduce ‘best practice’ guides for moderated interactive discussion. In acquiring
these skills, young people could learn much about debating protocols and theimportance of developing tolerant approaches to discussion based upon ‘hearing’ aswell as ‘speaking’;■some Internet users and, more importantly, web site providers, are as yet too
concerned about technology and insufficiently aware of the need for the quality ofcontent and materials;■

the Internet, as an educational tool, can be both interactive and stimulating to thecritical mind. An alternative tendency, notable amongst the flourishing growth ofeducational games and on-line libraries, is based upon a rather simplistic,
encyclopaedic purely factual approach to knowledge. If applied to citizenshipeducation this would be a negative tendency, diminishing autonomous, criticalthought and teaching a reliance upon formulaic conceptions of citizenship. So, it isimportant that recommended sites involve dialogue debate and ideas as well as
information provision.

Most of these problems are equally applicable to the use of any library system. They
are not peculiar to the Internet, but should be noted as a counter to those who have
depicted new information and communication technologies as ‘the solution’ toconcerns about the ‘democratic deficit’ in modern societies.
Overall a strong case can be made for the use of ICTs as an integral part of education
for citizenship. However, at present, there are few signs that schools and colleges are
realising or have the resources to realise the full potential of this important link within
the curriculum. Much of the potential is dependent on the competence and confidenceof teachers in using ICTs as a teaching and learning tool as well as on resources. It is
to be hoped that the opportunities provided by ICTs to contribute to effective
citizenship education for all young people will be fully grasped in the coming years
and the experiences and outcomes carefully monitored and evaluated.
Further useful websites:
The Labour Party: <www.labour.org.uk>
Conservative Party: <www.conservative-party.org.uk>
Liberal Democrats Party: <www.libdems.org.uk>
Scottish Nationalists: <www.snp.org.uk>
Government Information Services: <www.open.gov.uk>
Number 10 Downing Street site: <www.number-10.gov.uk>
Parliament: <www.parliament.uk>
House of Commons: <www.parliament.uk/commons/HSECOM.HTM>
House of Lords: <www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/Id/Idhome.htm>
UK Directory: <www.ukdirectory.com/gov/index.htm>
British Politics Index: < www.psr.keele.ac.uk/area/uk.htm>
Cambridge University Law Faculty’s Politics link Page:<www.law.cam.ac.uk/URLLISTS/POL.HTM>
National Citizens Advice Bureaux: <www.nacab.org.uk>
Dr Stephen Coleman
Director of Studies, The Hansard Society for Parliamentary Government
LSE Media Research Group
Political Consultant, UKCOD

71

Appendix C
The consultation process
BackgroundIn our initial report we recommended that before this final report was written wewould present the initial report to regional conferences for representatives ofgoverning bodies, parents’ associations, youth organisations, local authorities,
community and voluntary organisations, employer and employee organisations, aswell as teachers and teacher associations. QCA organised three consultative
conferences in June 1998. The conferences were held in Birmingham on 2 June
(70 participants), Sheffield on 5 June (89 participants) and London on 8 June
(99 participants).
Participants at each conference included teachers, drawn from a representative sampleof schools in each area, as well as representatives from local education authorities,
subject associations, teacher unions, community and voluntary organisations andother interested bodies and individuals. Members of the Advisory Group also attended.
The conferences had a uniform format consisting of short keynote presentations,followed by questions, group discussions and a plenary session. David Blunkett,Secretary of State for Education and Employment spoke at the Sheffield conference,
Estelle Morris, then junior Minister for Education, at London, and Professor Tim
Brighouse, Birmingham’s Director of Education, at Birmingham.
At the same time, the Advisory Group gathered further views by means of a shortproforma included with the initial report. Two hundred and sixty-seven responses
were received, 229 completed proformas and 38 in the form of letters or written
statements. These views were considered alongside those from the consultative
conferences. Those who took part in the consultation process are named inAppendix D.
What follows is a summary of (a) the views expressed in the consultation conferences(as noted by the QCA officers attached to each session); (b) the responses to the
proforma questions. (The analysis of these responses was carried out by Jim Jamison
and Sarah Blenkinsop from the National Foundation for Educational Research(NFER) with assistance from David Kerr).
(a) A summary of the views expressed in the consultation conferences
There was general support from participants for the essential recommendations, thedefinition and the need and aims of citizenship as set out in the initial report. Many
felt that the aim and purpose of education for citizenship and the teaching of
democracy in schools required greater emphasis to ensure that everyone concerned
was clear about the distinctiveness of the subject and its benefits for pupils, teachers,
schools and society. Points raised in connection with specific recommendations
included:72

statutory entitlement – participants argued that a statutory entitlement was essential
to ensure that citizenship had status as a subject in schools, particularly in relation toexisting National Curriculum subjects. This status must be clear to teachers, pupils
and parents to ensure that citizenship education will be taken seriously. A number ofparticipants emphasised the need for citizenship education to be a specific focus of the
OFSTED school inspection process, to reinforce the issue of status. Some went further
and argued that OFSTED should hold headteachers accountable for ensuring thestatutory entitlement was met, while a small number felt that citizenship should be afeature of league tables for schools.
learning outcomes – this approach was warmly welcomed as a positive development,
particularly by those from schools. They saw that it offered flexibility in relation to
local circumstances. There was general relief that the group had not proposed a rigid
programme of study for citizenship education, as in the existing National Curriculum
subjects. Participants felt that the learning outcomes approach would stimulate adiversity of approach to citizenship education and allow schools to build on existing
good practice.
However some participants expressed concern that if citizenship education became
part of the formal curriculum there was a danger that some of the informal aspects ofcurrent citizenship teaching might be lost. Others argued that while citizenship is not a
new subject in some schools, the approach through learning outcomes is and,
therefore, it would require exemplification and support and training for teachers tofulfil its potential. There were a number of issues which it was felt were not given
sufficient emphasis in the initial report, notably social issues, economic aspects,
including the pupil as future worker and consumer, environmental concerns, humanrights issues, media literacy and European and global dimensions. These should bemade more explicit in the proposed learning outcomes.
Many participants argued that there was insufficient reference in the initial report toassessment. There was general agreement that it required further clarification, butthere was no consensus on how. Some participants were opposed to a national
qualification in citizenship education, others suggested drawing up a set of standards
or levels of expectation which could be moderated, while others favoured an approachakin to the National Record of Achievement.
curriculum time – many participants were concerned about the stipulation of up to
five per cent of curriculum time for citizenship, if made without consideration of theimplications for teaching time within the curriculum as a whole. Those from primaryschools raised the issue of time for citizenship alongside the current time and resource
expectations of the literacy and numeracy strategies. It was important that citizenshipwas not presented to schools as yet another thing to be squeezed into the curriculumat the expense of other subjects and areas. Therefore it was essential that the issue ofcurriculum time for citizenship was considered within the context of the review of the73National Curriculum and presented as part of the overall advice to schools on how tomanage the revised National Curriculum.
While recognising the need to ensure distinct and identifiable curriculum time, becauseof the failure of cross-curricular approaches, participants considered that flexibility of
approach was the key to curriculum time. The acknowledgement of different ways of
distributing curriculum time for citizenship and of potential combinations of elementsof citizenship education with other subjects was considered helpful in this respect,
though requiring further clarification.
combinations with other subjects – participants requested further clarification of the
proposed links between elements of citizenship education and other subjects, as well as
relationship of citizenship to other initiatives in Personal, Social and Health Education(PSHE), sustainable development, arts and creativity, and Spiritual, Moral, Social andCultural Education (SMSC). It was noted by many participants that there are clear
links between citizenship and PSHE in terms of pupil development of values and skills,
particularly in primary schools. However, some participants warned that teachers
would not be able to distinguish between the two areas unless the rationale for anddistinctiveness of citizenship was clearly stated and understood.
post-16 education and training – there was strong support for the continuation of
citizenship education as an entitlement for all students involved in post-16 educationand training. The group should consider this further.
whole-school approaches – it was accepted that for citizenship education to be
successful it had to be both for all pupils and accessible to all pupils. The emphasisshould not be on disaffected and special needs pupils nor should it be the sole preserveof those on academic courses. The ethos and organisation of the school was seen as
central to such an approach. Some participants felt that the culture of schools needed
to change if this was to happen, particularly in terms of their capacity to value, listen
to and involve pupils in school matters. A number of participants stressed the need for
pupils to be given opportunities to experience citizenship beyond the taught
curriculum in schools, particularly through active involvement in class and school
councils. However, there was no agreement as to how this could be best achieved.
Some participants favoured encouraging schools to offer such experiences while otherspressed strongly for such involvement to be made a statutory requirement.
There was also strong support for greater co-operation between schools and their local
communities. This was seen as a key component of citizenship education and a way tolink the three strands as set out in the initial report. Many participants provided
positive and effective examples of such co-operative experiences. They underlined theneed for teachers to be encouraged to work in partnership with a range of local bodies
such as councils, churches, charities, voluntary bodies, employers, businesses, youth
groups, youth service and public services such as the police.

74

phased introduction and implementation – this was generally welcomed, thoughparticipants raised a number of areas, affecting implementation, to which it was hoped
the Advisory Group would give further consideration. These included teacher training,
OFSTED inspection, advice and guidance, and dissemination. Participants emphasised
the importance of teacher training, both initial and in-service, in ensuring that both
new and existing teachers have the confidence, knowledge and skills to be able todeliver effective citizenship education. Some raised a concern about the current
difficulty of those with social science backgrounds to secure places on PGCE
postgraduate teacher training courses. It was felt such people would be a welcome
addition to the number of teachers qualified to teach citizenship in schools. Many
participants called for the OFSTED inspection framework to be amended following
the review of the National Curriculum, to take account of citizenship education.
They argued this would be crucial to how it would be approached by schools, and toits status. However, there were concerns that some aspects of citizenship education
were difficult to inspect and would require careful handling.
Many participants also stressed the need for mechanisms to enable the sharing anddissemination of examples of effective practice. This process would be given akickstart if some examples of effective practice were included within the Advisory
Group’s final report. Finally, participants stressed the need for the main messages fromthe final report and any further advice and guidance to be distributed widely andquickly in order to assist planning and implementation. Dissemination needed to bebroader than schools and include all those involved in the education of children,
including governors, parents, politicians and the wider community.
(b) A summary of the proforma responses to the Advisory Group’s initial report
Introduction
Two hundred and twenty-nine completed proformas were returned and in addition
38 responses were received in the form of letters or written statements. Nearly all of
the respondents identified themselves or their institutions. The responses were as
follows – 43 from universities, 36 from schools, 28 from local authorities, 13 fromlocal authority related organisations, ten from subject and Personal, Social and Health
Education (PSHE) associations, seven from faith organisations, four fromorganisations concerned specifically with citizenship education, six from teachers
associations, three from Training and Enterprise Councils (TECs) and businesseducation organisations, 69 from other organisations and 37 from individuals. The
organisations and individuals are included in Appendix D, Acknowledgements.
When the responses were analysed by group (schools, universities, local authorities,etc) it was found that there was very little difference – the same pattern of response
was repeated. Many responses were brief, consisting largely of expressions of generalagreement with some specific suggestions. There were also some quite lengthy written
responses, sent in addition to or instead of the proforma and the key messages fromthese responses have been included in the analysis.
75

Key points from the proforma responses■

Over 80 per cent of respondents agreed with the essential recommendations, thenext steps and the way in which citizenship was defined in the initial report.

■

A frequently-expressed concern was that global, European and multicultural issues
should be given sufficient emphasis in citizenship education.

■

While some respondents saw citizenship as a separate element in the curriculum, amuch greater number felt that it should be closely related to PSHE programmes inschools.

■

There was a widespread feeling that learning about citizenship should be active andparticipatory and should involve participation from members of the wider
community.

Responses to each question are explored in more detail below.
Do you agree with the essential recommendations?
Of the 229 respondents who completed the proforma, 222 replied to this question. Of
these, 187 (84 per cent) agreed with the essential recommendations, 24 (11 per cent)disagreed and ten (four per cent) indicated that they agreed with somerecommendations but not all. Additional comments, either expressing support for, ordissension from, specific recommendations were made by some respondents. Of these,
25 (17 who agreed and eight who disagreed) thought that learning about citizenshipand democracy should either be integrated with PSHE or related to it in the
curriculum; only five of these respondents stated that they thought citizenship should
be a separate subject. Twenty (17 who agreed and three who disagreed) expressed theview that learning about citizenship should be active and participatory and twenty (18who agreed and two who disagreed) were strongly in favour of citizenship being astatutory curriculum entitlement. Four felt that it should not be.
The concept of a maximum of five per cent of curriculum time for citizenship was
criticised by 20 respondents, eleven of whom largely agreed with the essential
recommendations. Twelve wrote stressing the need for more consideration of global or
European issues within citizenship education. Fourteen, all but one of whom agreed inprinciple with the recommendations, expressed support for the flexibility provided by
the suggested output model based on tightly defined learning outcomes.
Do you agree with the ‘next steps’ outlined?
Once again, the majority agreed. Of the 221 who responded to this question, 190
agreed (86 per cent), 21 disagreed (10 per cent) and four agreed with some aspects ofthis section but not all. Thirty-one respondents (28 who agreed and three who
disagreed) wrote stressing the need to involve the wider community actively incitizenship education. Almost as many (26 who agreed and four who disagreed)
stressed the need for training and guidelines for teachers and for the provision of76

adequate resources. Fourteen respondents stated that, in their view, in addition to thespecific learning outcomes for teaching about citizenship and democracy, schools
needed guidance on how this should be structured and taught. Twelve took theopportunity in answering this question to indicate their belief that citizenshipeducation should be closely related to PSHE.
Do you agree with the definition of Citizenship Education?
Two hundred and twenty respondents answered this question, 183 (83 per cent)agreeing with the definition. Twenty-seven (12 per cent) disagreed and ten (five percent) were uncertain. Only two comments featured in more than six responses. These
were that global, European and multicultural issues should be included (15 comments)and once again that citizenship should be closely related to PSHE (nine comments).
Other comments
In response to the invitation to add any additional comments, a number of
respondents wrote comments which could be categorised as expressing generalapproval or disapproval of the report, without saying anything specific. Of these, 34
were generally positive and only seven were negative. The other comments are
summarised in tabular form below:
Table 1

Respondents’ additional comments on the initial report

Comments

Citizenship should be integrated with or related to PSHE
Comments on the need for funded teacher training and resources
Citizenship programmes should be participatory and democratic
Global and European issues should be included
Include the wider community in an active participatory role
Concerns about the already crowded school curriculumStressing the importance of learning outcomes and assessment
Importance of addressing ethnic diversity

Number of
Respondents

33
31
29
25
24
17
12
9

These comments were made by respondents from all of the main respondent groups.
None of the comments came exclusively or mainly from one group.
The 38 additional responses which were received in the form of statements and letterswere almost all in favour of education for citizenship and teaching about democracy
taking place in schools.
A number of these responses expressed concerns about the context within which theadvisory group was working. These can be summarised as falling into two categories:
fears that a specialist and enthusiastic group were creating a separate subject which
would have to be integrated into the National Curriculum prior to the outcomes of77

the National Curriculum review; and the belief that the Advisory Group, or at least
the proposed standing Committee on Citizenship Education, should include wider
representation – from local authorities, teacher associations, ethnic groups, special
interest groups and others. Some of these respondents also questioned the need for aseparate standing Committee for Citizenship Education.
It was felt by teacher associations that the time and financial cost of citizenshipeducation becoming a statutory requirement in schools required further investigation.
There were concerns too about how even five per cent of curriculum time could befound to accommodate it. These concerns prompted some respondents to state theiropposition to curriculum time for citizenship education being found at the expense ofother subjects and to suggest that it should be located in PSHE and other subjects.
On the other hand, some of those who supported the idea of citizenship education
having a separate ‘slot’ in the curriculum were concerned that without this, it would
suffer the fate which has met the cross-curricular themes in many schools, especiallysecondary schools, that of being diffused across subjects and lost. These respondents
similarly argued for it to be taught by teachers with specialist knowledge.
There was some concern expressed that citizenship education could become a way of
encouraging children to behave appropriately. Many commented on the importance ofthe ethos of the school needing to be itself democratic if the teaching of democracy
were to succeed: ‘if the ethos of the school is not reinforcing the skills and practices
the students are learning in the lessons, then the impact on them is minimal....staff
training needs to precede working with students and consultation needs to precede
staff training’.
Some felt strongly that citizenship education meant that all schools should have school
councils, but ‘school councils fail if real power is not shared’. Circle time was also
identified as having the potential to give young people the experience of developing
rules and solving difficulties democratically.
Respondents from some schools and local authorities pointed out that the local
context in which schools would be teaching about citizenship and democracy should
be taken into consideration. They referred to communities of great ethnic diversity andto communities where much of the population felt disenfranchised or socially excluded
and urged the advisory group to consider strategies to include and consult with thewider community, particularly parents.
There was concern expressed about potential variation in pupils’ experiences ofcitizenship education. A small number felt that establishing specific learning outcomes,
rather than detailed programmes of study, could mean that the content and quality ofteaching and learning might continue to vary widely between schools and LEAs.

78

Also with the quality of teaching and learning in mind, many respondents saw a needfor the implementation of a programme of citizenship education to be supported by acomponent in initial teacher training courses and in-service training programmes.
Summary
Although the responses to the consultation exercise are relatively small in number, andshould not be regarded as representative of the views of all interested groups, they docontain considered and potentially helpful messages. There are concerns about where
citizenship education should be located in the curriculum, its scope, particularly inaddressing local, European and global issues, how it should be taught and how it will
be resourced. However, the central message is that there is strong support from a
range of groups and individuals for education for citizenship and the teaching of
democracy in schools as set out in the advisory group’s initial report and for its
inclusion in the revised National Curriculum.
Conclusion
The consultation process, though constrained by the limits of time between the
publication of the initial report in March 1998 and the completion of the final reportin summer 1998, proved to be extremely valuable and worthwhile. The advisorygroup are grateful to all who took the time and effort to contribute. The consultation
process influenced members’ thinking, as reflected in the substance, tenor andorganisation of this final report. Responses to the final report will be carefully
considered by both DfEE and QCA.

79

Appendix D
Acknowledgements
The Advisory Group would like to offer particular thanks to the following for their contributions and advice indeveloping the framework of learning outcomes for citizenship education in schools:
Primary sub-groupDavid Kerr- Chair (Professional Officer ). Annabelle Dixon - Lucy Cavendish College, University of Cambridge.
Mavis Grant - Mary Trevelyan Primary School, Newcastle Upon Tyne. Roy Honeybone - Mansbridge County
Primary School, Swaythling, Hampshire. Don Rowe - Citizenship Foundation. Graeme Smith - The Brow County
Primary School, Halton Brow, Runcorn.
Secondary sub-groupDavid Kerr- Chair (Professional Officer ). Heather Daulphin - Hampstead School, London. Tina Harvey St Anne’s SLD School, Merton, Surrey. Jan Newton - Citizenship Foundation. John Potter - Community Service
Volunteers. Graham Robb - HM Chief Inspector for Careers. Gabby Rowbery - Council for Education in World
Citizenship. Chris Waller - Mill Chase Community School, Bordon, Hampshire.
The following members of the advisory group worked on the Controversial Issues Paper.
Controversial issues sub-group
Dr Alex Porter - Chair, Elaine Applebee, Michael Brunson, Marianne Talbot, and Phil Turner.
Our thanks also go to Dr Stephen Coleman, for his work on Appendix B New information and communication
technologies and education for citizenship and to Jim Jamison and Sarah Blenkinsop at NFER for their analysisof the responses to the initial report which are included in Appendix C The Consultation Process. We are also
grateful to all those teachers and professionals who attended and contributed to the consultation conferences heldin June 1998. The Advisory Group would also like to thank the following schools, colleges, local authorities,
universities, subject and teacher associations, organisations, government agencies and departments, andindividuals for all their contributions and responses to our work.
Initial Consultations
Colin Adams, National Association of Humanities Advisers (NAHA). John Bangs, National Union of Teachers(NUT). Tony Breslin, Citizenship 2000. Terry Cane and Tom Wylie, National Youth Agency (NYA). Arthur deCaux, National Association of Head Teachers (NAHT). Professor Ken Fogelman, Centre for Citizenship Studies
in Education. Dr Rita Gardner, Royal Geographical Society (RGS). David Harris, The Hansard Society. Olwyn
Gunn, National Association of Schoolmasters and Union of Women Teachers (NASUWT). Samantha Peters,
British Youth Council (BYC). John Potter, Community Service Volunteers (CSV). Patricia Rogers, Council for
Education in World Citizenship (CEWC). Don Rowe, Citizenship Foundation. Pat Smith, Association of Teachersand Lecturers (ATL). Madeline Stiles, The Historical Association (HA). Peter Stokes, The Foundation for Civil
Society. John Sutton, Secondary Heads Association (SHA). Jenny Talbot, The Institute for Citizenship Studies.
Clive Thomas, The Politics Association.
Schools
Albert Bradbeer Junior School. All Saints RC School, Sheffield. Alleyn’s School, London. Ampleforth College,
York. Aran Hall School, Gwynedd. Archbishop Grimshaw Secondary School, Birmingham. Archbishop Tenison’s
CE High School, Croydon. Ashley School, Widnes, Cheshire. Avondale Park School, London. Barrs Hill School
and Community College, Coventry. Beaverwood School, Kent. Beech Hill Primary School, Wigan. Belfast Royal
Academy. Bilton High School, Rugby, Warwickshire. Bordesley Green Primary School, Birmingham. Bramcote
Park Comprehensive, Nottingham. Broadoak High School, Manchester. Brodetsky Primary School, Leeds. Brooke
Weston City Technology College, Corby. Buckpool School, West Midlands. Brow County Primary School, Halton
Brow, Runcorn, Cheshire. Bury Grammar School for Girls, Lancashire. Byron Primary School, Gillingham, Kent.
Cambridge School, London. Carmel College, St Helens, Merseyside. Cherwell Upper School, Oxford. Cheslyn
Hay Primary School, Wolverhampton. Chislehurst and Sidcup Grammar School, Sidcup, Kent. City Technology
College, Birmingham. City School, Sheffield. Clifton Comprehensive, Rotherham. Collingswood College,
Durham. Co-operative College, Loughborough. Courthouse Green Primary School, Coventry. Cypress Hill Junior
School, London. Dame Dorothy Primary School, Sunderland. Dartford Grammar School for Girls, Kent.
Dronfield School, Dronfield, Derbyshire. Eare Marshall School, Sheffield. Edge End High School, Nelson.
Edwalton Primary School, Nottingham. Fair Oak Junior School, Eastleigh, Hampshire. Farnborough Grange
County Nursery and Infant School, Hampshire. Ferndown Upper School, Dorset. Firfield Primary School,
Derbyshire. Foulstone School, Barnsley. Frances Bardsley School, Essex. Frankeley Community High,
Birmingham. Godolphin and Latymer School, London. Grangetown Primary School, Middlesborough. Hallmoor
School, Birmingham. Hampstead School, London. Harrogate College, Harrogate. Hartland School,
Nottinghamshire. Higham Lane School, Nuneaton, Warwickshire. Highfield Primary School, Plymouth, Devon.
Hillcrest School, Birmingham. Hindle House School, Sheffield. Holly Lodge High School, West Midlands.
Immanuel College, Bushey, Hertfordshire. Jewish Free School, London. John Bentley School, Calne, Wiltshire.
King Solomon High School, Ilford, Essex. Kings School, Worcester. Lancaster Royal Grammar School, Lancaster.
Langley Green Middle School, West Sussex. Langley Park School for Boys, Beckenham, Kent. Leys High School,80Redditch. Lipson Community College, Plymouth, Devon. Liskeard Junior School. Little Heath Primary School,
Coventry. Lode Heath School, Solihull, West Midlands. Madeley Court School, Telford. Manor Park Primary
School, Birmingham. Manor School, Woodhouse. Mansbridge Primary School, Hampshire. Mary Trevelyan
School, Newcastle Upon Tyne. Meden Secondary School, Mansfield. Mill Chase Community School, Bordon,
Hampshire. Mill View School, Upton, Chester. Monknearmouth School, Sunderland. Mornington Primary
School, Nottingham. Mount Nod Primary School, Coventry. Mount Pleasant Primary School, Quarry Bank, West
Midlands. Netherhall School, Cumbria. Oakbrook School, Yorkshire. Olchfa School, Swansea. Parkstone
Grammar School, Poole, Dorset. Pheasey Park Farm Grant Mntd. Primary School, Birmingham. Phoenix College,
Morden. Pingle School, Derbyshire. Prince Albert Junior and Infant School, Birmingham. Repton Primary School,
Derby. Rickstones School, Colchester. Ridgewood High School, Wollaston Stourbridge. Robert Bruce School,
Bedford. Robert Bruce Middle School, Berkshire. Rossett School, North Yorkshire. Royal Grammar School,
Newcastle Upon Tyne. Royal Manor School, Portland, Dorset. Royton and Crompton School, Oldham. Rushey
Mead School, Leicester. Ryhope Junior School, Sunderland. Sandford School, Sandford, Devon. Sandringham
School, St Albans, Hertfordshire. Sawtry Community College, Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire. Scargill CE Primary
School, Derbyshire. Sheffield College, Sheffield. Shoreham Beach First School, Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex.
Sidney Stringer City Technology College, Coventry. Sir Bernard Lovell School, Bristol. Spennymoor School, Co.
Durham. Spingfield School, Portsmouth. St Andrew’s College. St Anne’s SLD School, Merton, Surrey. St Giles
School, Nottinghamshire. St John Fisher Catholic Primary School, Sheffield. St Mary County Primary School,
Clyst, Devon. St Mary’s Meadowside School, Sunderland. St Mary’s Primary School, London. St Marylebone
School, London. St Michael’s RC School, Billingham, Cleveland. St Wilfred’s RC Primary School, Sheffield.
Sunderland High School, Sunderland. Swaffield Primary School, London. Thirsk School, North Yorkshire.
Tolworth Girls’ School, Surrey. Turney GM Special School, West Dunwich. Wath-upon-Dearne Comprehensive
School, Rotherham. Wentworth CE School, South Yorkshire. Willowgarth High School, Barnsley. Wimbledon
Chase Middle School, London. Windsor County Primary School, Liverpool. Wolverhampton Grammar School,
Wolverhampton. Wyggeston and Queen Elizabeth I College, Leicester.
Local Authorities
Barnet LEA. Barnsley LEA. Birmingham Advisory and Support Services. Birmingham City Council Education
Department. Blackburn Borough Council. Bradford Metropolitan District Council Education Department.
Bradford Education Inspection and Advisory Services. Brighton and Hove Council. Bristol LEA Education Centre.
Buckinghamshire LEA. Bury Metropolitan Borough Council Education Department. Cambridgeshire Advisory
Service, Huntingdon. Cambridgeshire LEA. Camden LEA. Carlisle City Council. Chelmsford Borough Council.
City of Coventry LEA/Support and Advisory Services. City of York LEA. City of Swansea Education Services.
Cumbria LEA. Derbyshire LEA. Devon LEA. Dover District Council. Dudley LEA. Durham LEA. East Riding ofYorkshire Council. East Sussex PSE Advisory Team. East Sussex County Council Education Service. Enfield
Professional Development Centre. Essex County Council. Gloucestershire County Council Education Services.
Hammersmith & Fulham Urban Studies Centre. Hammersmith and Fulham LEA. Hampshire County Council
Education Services. Hampshire Inspection and Advisory Service. Harrow Borough Council LEA. Hertfordshire
LEA. Hillingdon Borough Council Education Department. Isle of Man. Islington LEA. Kent County Council
LEA. Kirklees Council. Lambeth Borough Council Education Department. Lancashire County Council Education
Department. Global Education Centre, Lancashire. Leeds City Council, Education Department. Leicester
Advisory and Inspection Services. Leicester City Council Education Department. Leicestershire City Council.
London Borough of Bromley Education Development Centre. London Borough of Enfield Education Advisers.
Merton London Borough Council Education Department. Newham Conflict and Change Project, London.
Redbridge Borough Council Advisory and Inspection Services. Southwark Borough Council Education
Department. Sutton London Borough Council, The Glastonbury Centre. Tower Hamlets London BoroughCouncil Education Department. Wandsworth Borough Council LEA. Westminster Borough Council LEA.
Manchester City Council Education Department Inspection and Advisory Services. Manchester City Council
Education Department. Medway Council. Middlesbrough LEA. Milton Keynes Council. Newcastle Upon Tyne
City Council. North Lincolnshire Council Learning Services. North Yorkshire LEA. Northamptonshire LEA.
Oldham Metropolitan Council. Oxfordshire LEA Advisory and Inspection Services. Oxfordshire County Council.
Peterborough City Council. Plymouth Advisory Service. Plymouth LEA, Professional Development Services. Poole
School Advice and Support Services. Redcar & Cleveland LEA. Rochdale LEA, Rotherham LEA, Royal Boroughof Windsor and Maidenhead Education Directorate. Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council Education andCommunity Services. Sefton LEA. Sheffield LEA. Sheffield Advisory and Inspection Services. Sheffield Pupil
Referral Service. Shropshire LEA. Somerset LEA. Staffordshire LEA. Stockport LEA. Stockton on Tees BoroughCouncil Education Office. Stoke-on-Trent City Council Continuing Education Department. Suffolk County
Council Education Department. Sunderland LEA. Surrey LEA. Tameside Metropolitan Borough Council
Education Department. Thurrock Council. Trafford Metropolitan Borough Council. Wakefield LEA Advisory andInspection Services. Warwickshire LEA. West Sussex LEA. Wigan LEA. Wiltshire LEA. Wirral Youth Service.
Wirral LEA. Worcestershire LEA.
Universities
Bath Spa University College. Birmingham University. Birmingham University, School of Education, NALDIC.
Birmingham University, Education in Human Rights Network. Birmingham University, School of Public Policy.
Bristol University. Cambridge University, School of Education. City University, London. De Monfort University,
Bedford. Durham University Business School, Enterprise and Industrial Education Unit. Durham University. East
Anglia University. Exeter University, School of Education. Glasgow University. Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Greenwich University. Hertfordshire University. Homerton College, Cambridge. Keele University,
Education Department, Staffordshire. Lancaster University. Leeds Metropolitan University, School of Professional81

Education. Leeds University, Adult Education for Citizenship and Democracy Programme. Leeds University,
Bretton Hall (College), Wakefield. Leeds University, School of Education. Leicester University, School of
Education, The Centre for Citizenship Studies in Education. Liverpool Hope University College. Liverpool John
Moores University. London School of Economics. London University, Commonwealth Values in Education
Project. London University, Goldsmiths College, Centre for Cross-Curricular Initiative. London University,
Human Rights Incorporation Project, King’s College. London University, Institute of Education, International
Centre for Intercultral Studies. Loughborough University. Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge. Luton University.
Manchester Metropolitan University, Development Education Project. Manchester Metropolitan University,
School of Education, Crewe. Manchester University, School of Education. Manchester University, Department ofGovernment. Nene University College, Northampton. North London University, School of Education.
Nottingham University, Department of Politics. Oldham College Institute. The Open University, School of Healthand Social Welfare. Oxford University. Oxford Brookes University, School of Education. Plymouth University.
Portsmouth University. Portsmouth University, School of Languages and Area Studies. Reading University.
Reading University, Southern Regional Council for Education and Training. Rolle School of Education, Plymouth
University. Roehampton Institute, London. St Mary’s University College, Twickenham. St Mary’s College, Centre
for Research and Curriculum Development, Belfast. Staffordshire University. Staffordshire University Business
School. Strathclyde University, Department of Social Studies. Strathclyde University, Faculty of Education. Trinity
and All Saints College, Leeds. University of Central England in Birmingham. University of the West of England,
ASDAN, Bristol. University of the West of England, Faculty of Economics and Social Science, Bristol. Universityof Wales at Cardiff, Department of Education. University College, Worcester. Warwick University. Westhill
College, Birmingham. Westminster College, Oxford. Wolverhampton University, Walsall. Worcester University,
Faculty of Education and Psychology. York University, Department of Educational Studies.
Organisations
2000 by 2000, Sun Alliance, London. Amnesty International UK, Teachers’ and Academics’ Network, Universityof London. Antidote Campaign for Emotional Literary, Slough. Archives in Education Group, London. Arts
Council of England, London. Association for Language Learning, Rugby, Warwickshire. Association for
Librarians and Information Managers, London. Association for the Teaching of Social Sciences, Watford.
Association of Essex Councils, Chelmsford. Association of Muslim Schools. Association of Northamptonshire
School Governing Bodies, Wellingborough. Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL), London. Audit
Commission, London. Award Scheme Development and Accreditation Network (ASDAN), Bristol. Baptist Unionof Great Britain, Oxfordshire. Barnardos, Basildon, Essex. Board of Deputies of British Jews, London. British
Association for Early Childhood Education, London. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), London. British
Education Suppliers Association, London. British Humanist Association, London. British Red Cross, London.
British Youth Council, London. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, London. Cambridge Schools Classics Project,
Cambridge. Catholic Education Service, London. Changemakers , Welham Green, Hertfordshire. Channel 4
Learning. Charter88, Cardiff. Children’s Consortium on Education, London. Children’s Rights Office, London.
Christian Education Movement, Derby. Church of England General Synod Board of Education. Citizen
Organising Foundation, London. Citizenship 2000, London. Citizenship Foundation, London. Civic Trust,
London. Classical Association, Bolton. Common Purpose , London. Communitarian Forum, Bury St Edmunds.
Community Initiatives in Citizenship Education Regionally Organised (CICERO), Sheffield. Community Service
Volunteers (CSV), London. Confederation of British Industry (CBI), Education and Training Human Resources
Directorate, London. Cornwall 2000, Bodmin, Cornwall. Council for British Archaeology, York. Council for
Education in World Citizenship (CEWC), London. Council for Environmental Education, Reading. Courseware
Publications, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk. Curriculum and Management Consultancy, Surrey. Demos, London.
Design Council, London. Development Education Association, London. Duke of Edinburgh Award, Windsor.
Dynamix, Swansea. Economics and Business Education Association (EBEA), The Nuffield Foundation, London.
English Heritage, London. English Outdoor Council European Movement, London. European Parliament Office,London. Federal Trust, London. Field Studies Council, Shropshire. Foundation for Civil Society, Birmingham.
Free Churches Council, Surrey. Funding Agency for Schools. Further Education Funding Council, Coventry.
Geographical Association, Education Standing Committee, Sheffield. Halton Junior Citizenship Project. Hansard
Society for Parliamentary Government, London. Headmasters’ and Headmistresses’ Conference. Heads, Teachers,
Industry, Coventry. Health Education Authority (HEA), London. History Curriculum Association, Lewes, East
Sussex. Howard League for Penal Reform, London. Human Scale Education, Bath. Humanities Association,
London. Inner Cities Young Persons Programme, London. Insted Ltd, London. Institute for Citizenship Studies,
London. Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR), London. Institute of Democracy from Mathematics, Oxford.
Institute of Legal Executives, Kempston, Bedford. Jewish Council for Racial Equality, London. Joint Associationof Classical Teachers (JACT) and Hellenic Society, London. Leeds Development Education Centre. Leicestershire
Model United National Girl Assembly (MUNGA). Library Association, London. Library Association, Youth and
School Libraries, London. Lloyds TSB Forum, London. Local Government Management, London. London
Federation of Clubs for Young People. May Field, Shrewsbury, Shropshire. Merton Education Business
Partnership, Morden, Surrey. Metropolitan Police, London. Midlands History Forum, Birmingham. Mitsubishi.
Modern Studies Association, Linlithgow, West Lothian. MORI Social Research, London. Motorola, London.
Museum of Law, Nottingham. Muslim Teachers Association, Surrey. National Advisory Council for Education &Training Targets (NACETT), London. National Advisory Group for Continuing Education and Life Long
Learning (NAGCELL), London. National Association for the Education of Sick Children, London. National
Association of Educational Inspectors, Advisers and Consultants (NAEIAC), London. National Association for
the Teaching of English, Sheffield. National Association of Head Teachers (NAHT), Haywards Heath, West
Sussex. National Association of Humanities Advisers, London. National Association of Schoolmasters and Union
of Women Teachers (NASUWT), Birmingham. National Child Helpline Action for Children, London. National82

Children’s Bureau, London. National Consumer Council, Council. National Council for Development of Urdu,
West Yorkshire. National Education Business Partnership Network (NEBPN), Co. Durham. National Foundation
for Educational Research (NFER), Slough, Berkshire. National Governors Council, Crediton, Devon. National
Institute for Careers Education and Counselling, Cambridge. National Research Child and Family Department,
London. National Society for Education in Art and Design (NSEAD), Wiltshire. National Society for thePrevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), London. National Union of Teachers (NUT), London. National
Youth Agency, Leicester. Norfolk Education and Action for Development, Third World Centre, Norwich.
Northbank Curriculum & Professional Development Centre, Sheffield. Northern Examination and Assessment
Board (NEAB), Manchester. Nuffield Foundation, London. Ormonde Advisory Service, Birmingham. OXFAM,
Oxford. Parliamentary Education Unit, Houses of Parliament, London. Personal Finance Education Group,
London. Political Studies Association of the UK, Nottingham. Politics Association, Citizenship Education
Committee, Manchester. Professional Association of Teachers (PAT), Derby. Quality Learning Services, Stafford.
Re:membering Education, Brighton. Religious Education Council of England and Wales, Hertfordshire. RGS IBG, Bedford. Rockington Teachers Centre. Royal Geographical Society, London. Royal Society for thePrevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), Horsham, West Sussex. RSA Examinations Board , Coventry.
Runnymede Trust, London. Save the Children Fund Education Unit, London. Schools Council UK, London.
Schools Curriculum Advisory Development Education Association, London. Schools Music Association,
Hertfordshire. Second City; Second Chance, Birmingham. Secondary Heads Association (SHA), Leicester. Selfesteem Network, London. Sheffield EBP, Education Business Partnership Network. Shell UK Ltd, London. Social
and Community Planning Research (SCPR), London. Society of Archivists, London. Teachers in Development
Education (TIDE), Birmingham. Thames Valley Partnership, Thame, Oxfordshire. The East London Communities
Organisation (TELCO). The Education Training Partnership, Salford. The Glade Centre, Community Resource
Centre, Yeovil, Somerset. The Historical Association (HA), London. The Industrial Society, London. The
Methodist Church. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) Education and Training
Department, West Sussex. Third Sector Schools Alliance, Windsor, Berkshire. Tourist Concern. Trades Union
Congress (TUC), London. Trident Trust, London. United Kingdom Reading Association, Derbyshire. United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UK Committee, London. Urban Learning Foundation, London. Values
Development Unit, Bristol. Values Education Council, London. Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO), Development
Education Unit, London. Welcome Trust. Workers Educational Association (WEA), London. World Citizenship
Project, London. World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Surrey.
Government Agencies and Departments
Cabinet Office, Social Exclusion Unit. Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment, Northern
Ireland (CCEA NI), Belfast. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Department for Education and
Employment. Department of Environment, Transport and Regions. Department for International Development.
Department of Trade and Industry. HM Customs and Excise. The Home Office. The Lord Chancellor’s
Department. Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED). Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum(SCCC), Dundee. Scottish Office Education Department. Teacher Training Agency (TTA).
Other Countries
Australian Curriculum Studies Association, Belconnen, ACT. Civic, Social, Political Education, Dublin West
Education Centre, Dublin. Civics Expert Group, Canberra, Australia. Department of Education & Science,
Government of Ireland, Dublin. Dutch National Institute for Curriculum Development, Enschede, Netherlands.
Generator, Roseville, MN, USA. In-Career Development Unit, Dublin. Johnson Foundation Inc., Rancine, WI,
USA. Keiwa College, Niigata, Japan. Le Ministre de la Fonction Publique, Bruxelles. Ministry of Education,
Department of Primary and Lower Secondary Education, Denmark. National Council for Curriculum andAssessment, Government of Ireland, Dublin. National Council for Social Studies, Washington DC, USA. National
Youth Leadership Council, MN, USA. The Communitarian Network, Washington DC. The Washington
Workshop Foundation, Washington DC, USA.
Individuals
C. Addison, Stuart Ainsworth, Professor the Lord Alton of Liverpool, E. G. Archer. David Armitt, Dr Madeleine
Arnot, Marilyn Ashworth, Simon Atkinson, George Ball, Professor Michael Barber, James Baxter, Professor G. H.
Bell, P. Bellingham, M.A. Bond, Tony Breslin, Malcolm Brigg, Professor Tim Brighouse, Helen Brooks, Michael
Brown, Martin Buck, Helena Burke, Tom Buzzard, John Bynner, The Most Reverend and Rt. Hon George Carey,
Professor Wilfred Carr, I.M. Cartlidge, Roger Casale MP, V. Cassie, Di Clay, M. P. Clayton, Christine Counsell,
Cedric Cullingford, Christopher Donnelly, R. Doubtfill, Dove Excell, Derek Fatchett MP, Sherry L. Field, George
Foulkes MP, Professor R. H. Fryer, Stuart Gardiner, Carmel Gallagher, Karen Gold, Teddy Gold, Derry Hannam,
Professor David Hargreaves, Derek Heater, D. Hooper, Paul Hutchinson, Sally Inman, Lord Irvine of Lairg, The
Lord Chancellor, George Johnson, Roger Jowell, Rose Jowell, David Kidney MP, Richard Kimberlee, B. Knight,
J. R. Lambert, David Liverside, John Lloyd, Tim Lomas, Laura MacDonald, Henry Macintosh, Stephen McCarthy,
Des McConaghy, James McLwraith, Paul Machon, Professor David Melville, Alison Montgomery, Gillian Morris,
Kevin Mott-Thronton, Dawn Oliver, Kate Parish, Alison Park, Sarah Perman, Lord Plant of Highfield, Sir George
Quigley, Eleanor Rawling, A. Rodda, Lord Rogers of Riverside, Andrew Rowe MP, M.H. Scott, Professor Alan
Smith, Deirdre Smith, Andrew Stevens, Bob Tutton, Stephen Twigg MP, N. Tyldesley, Jenny Wales, Tony Webb,
Dr Anne Webster, Baroness Williams of Crosby, Dr Tony Wright MP, Professor Ted Wragg.
Finally thanks are due to QCA for the management and support of the work of the advisory group, and inparticular to Liz Craft the Project Manager.

83

The Citizen Organising Foundation (COF) is a multi-faith alliance with affiliates throughout
the country which aims to help people in localities to combine to effect the well-being of theircommunities by their own actions. Their ‘Iron Rule’ is ‘never to do for others what they can
do for themselves?’. TELCO (The East London Communities Organisation) is especially
active both within schools and between schools and local communities. The COF provides
training for teachers and for community activists. [Citizen Organising Foundation,
3 Merchant Street, Bow, London E3 4UJ].

Dynamix is one of the most experienced of several travelling performance groups who offer
role-playing and training activities for schools. They offer work such as Anti-Bullying
Strategies (for the Council for Voluntary Services), participation (for the Local Government
Information Service), the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (for Save the Children),as well as Youth Parliaments for schools and LEAs. [Dynamix, 14 Montpelier Terrace,
Swansea SA16JW.]

Changemakers is a partnership of organisations who help young people between eleven andtwenty-five to get together to set up their own projects to achieve positive benefits forthemselves and their communities. Their book Young People Sharing Their Future gives anaccount of activities all over the country. Currently they have a DfEE grant to pilot a model
for activities to provide young people with skills and experience for the world of work.
Together with the thinktank DEMOS, they are organising a series of regional seminars.
[Changemakers, 45 Somers Road, Welham Green, Herts AL9 7PT].

Education Business Partnerships (EBPs) is a network with 147 affiliates in England and Walesand 18 in Northern Ireland, supported by BT and the DfEE. They try to provide in LEA
areas a single point of contact for business and schools to improve pupils understanding ofand readiness for the world of work. Generally they see their work as part of citizenship.
Some groups have developed well-structured and imaginative role-playing scenarios forrunning the governments and economies of imaginary societies, such as the ‘Micro Society’
programme from the Merton Education Business Partnership (Phoenix College, Morden).
We saw classes at Park House Middle School, Wimbledon School making good use this.
[The Secretary, NEBPN, c/o DBEE, Broom Cottages Primary School, Ferryhill, Co. Durham,
DL17 8AN].

Ref: QCA/98/245
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