Japan Forum of Business and Society Annals, No.9. pp. 1-19, 2020

1(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable
Development: A Capability Approach
Kyoko Fukukawa
Professor, School of Business Administration, Hitotsubashi Universiy
Key words：Education for sustainable development, Capability approach, Responsible management
education【Abstract】
The paper examines the significance of Education for Sustainability Development (ESD) within thecontext of business studies in Higher Education. Adopting Amartya Senʼs Capability Approach, thepaper argues for ‘sustainabilityʼ as the underlying capability of ESD, not simply its goal. This gives
rise to what Sen refers to as ‘evaluative spaceʼ, whereby we understand how actions within one
domain impacts upon other domains. Current practices in implementing ESD can lead to a decoupling of practice and rhetoric. Yet, by extending the evaluative space (or the array of factors andoutcomes) we can seek greater consensus with business and wider society. In understanding ESD as

a form of capability, the evaluative space of education itself provides the means for significant
change in how we approach the subject of business and in turn how businesses might view
themselves. Crucially, the need is for more relational understanding of the broad and at times
competing factors at stake in matters of sustainability. The point is not for ESD to be a necessary
outcome of contemporary business, but as a forum for its radical critical thinking. This requires
certain evaluative spaces and capabilities, but also in turn presents the opportunity to extend them.

1.

Education for Sustainable
Development: A Capability
Approach‘space’ specific to Education for Sustainable
Development.

This paper offers critical reflection following

This paper turns particular attention to ‘Edu-thcation for Sustainable Development’ (ESD) in

Annual Conference (2019) on the theme ofrelation to business studies, which arguably

Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustain︲

expands the units of analysis to the point atability in Management Education. By way ofwhich – beyond the typical purview of busi-

introduction to four papers from the conference

ness – we need to question the relationship(outlined at the end of this paper) it serves to offer

between the educational and business setting,what is defined here as a critical, evaluativeand indeed, to question what it means to de-

the Japan Forum of Business and Society’s 9

2

イントロダクション /Introduction

liver business ethics education more funda-

for example, climate change, disaster risk

mentally. The emergence of ESD is taken in

reduction, biodiversity, poverty reduction,

this paper to be a ‘new disruptor’ within edu-

and sustainable consumption. It also re-cation. This can be understood as twofold: itquires participatory teaching and learn-

represents a specific ethical agenda to assert

ing methods that motivate and empowerover existing business education, but equallylearners to change their behaviour andit requires a level of re-thinking about the na-

take action for sustainable development.

ture of business, as to question anew how we

Education for Sustainable Development

define business education in the first place. It

consequently promotes competencies like

is worth noting, reference to the term ‘devel-

critical thinking, imagining future scenar-

opment’ in ESD is not taken here to refer to

ios and making decisions in a collabora-development issues or studies per se in rela-tive way（1）.

tion to emerging economies, but rather as abusiness and educational development that is

The definition presents an agenda for educa-

pertinent to all economies. As outlined below

tors and students to look at how they canwith respect to UNESCO’s definition of ESD,

make positive changes to support sustainabili-

the critical issues are wide-ranging and inter-ty through their own actions and behaviour

connected globally, so pertaining to all busi-(Ghoshal, 2005; Rands and Starik, 2009; Starik et

ness education contexts. As will become ap-

al., 2010). Of particular interest for this paper

parent, the framing of this paper bears rela-is the emphasis on an evaluative approachtion to debates between ethics and economics,

and competencies for independent, criticalwith specific reference to Amartya Sen, who

thinking, which raise questions about thehas done much to reinvigorate mainstream‘means’ rather than simply the ‘ends’ of educa-

economics through the contributions of moraltion; and which, in turn, pose quandaries as tophilosophy and welfare economics (Sen, 1987).

how we define the parameters and intentions

The significant prevalence of ESD teachingof business and how best to implement andat business schools dates to the early 2000s,

maintain an appropriate means for the devel-

particularly following the introduction of

opment of future leaders. Many business

UNESCO’s definition, which urges businessschools can certainly be seen not only toschools to accept a more comprehensive ap-

adopt the rhetoric of ESD, but also to seek toproach. While, there is no formally agreed

implement its key tenets. Yet, an underlying

model, the UNESCO definition, drafted as ear-problem regards the status of education, as toly as 2005, usefully establishes ESD as follows:

whether it represents a challenge to or merely the reproduction of conventional practices

Education for Sustainable Development(Burchell et al., 2015; Rasche and Gilbert, 2015;means including key sustainable develop-

Painter-Morland et al., 2016).

ment issues into teaching and learning;

The account offered here chimes with the(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach3

account offered by Baden and Higgs (2015), in

enables us to ask more operative questions

which they challenge the ‘wisdom’ of manage-

about how education can offer an appropriate

ment theories and practices. They offer a cri-alignment or articulation of means and ends

tique of ‘business and management school ed-

and so providing the capability for the ‘imag-

ucation and the values it propounds and its

ing of future scenarios’ as hoped for in UNES-

contribution to the development of future

CO’s definition of ESD. The paper adopts

leaders’ (p. 539). Marking a distinction between

Sen’s (1999) underlying argument for ‘develop-

means and ends, referring to ‘terminal goals,

ment as freedom’, where freedom is the prin-such as human welfare and instrumental

ciple and purpose of development. In thisgoals, such as money’, they are explicitly criti-

case, we need to consider how ‘sustainability’cal of dominant management models that

(outlined in more detail in the next section) is tomeasure success purely in financial terms. ‘If

be taken as the underlying capability of ESD,

business is to retain its legitimacy and benefit

not simply its outcome or goal. Also, it relatessociety,’they write, ‘profit needs to be seen as

to debates around ‘welfare economics’ (pro-a means to the end of sustainable businesspounded by Sen and others since the 1970s). We

not an end in itself’ (p. 539). Baden and Higgs

need to work towards more comprehensive

make a laudable argument, drawing attention,accounts and perspectives, which gives risefor example, to the need for curriculum changes.

for the need of what Sen refers to as ‘evalua-

A point echoed in this current paper is fortive space’; i.e. to understand how actions

the need to go beyond cosmetic, superficial

within one domain, or pertaining to specificchange (as has been prevalent, for example, inneeds, has impact on other domains and fac-presenting ethics, responsibility and sustainability

tors. If we can extend the evaluative ‘space’

through elective modules etc.), with the need ‘to(or the array of factors and outcomes we take

integrate relevant discussions into business

into account) we can seek to reach greaterschools to move beyond a situation where theconsensus with businesses and wider society.

topic is only treated as an add-on’ (Rasche and2.

for change does not necessarily help in actual︲

SITUATING EDUCATIONFOR SUSTAINABILEDEVELOPMENTly finding ways to effect change. One of the

Kurucz et al. (2014, p. 454) position sustainabili-

problems of Baden and Higgs’ account, for ex-ty as a ‘provocation’ to traditional manage-

ample, as will be examined here, is that they

ment education, which they argue is limited

are not fully reflective of the means throughin its ‘capacity to address complex global is-which an ‘alternative’ business model can besues’, despite such issues being increasingly

asserted.

important and visible in the business world.

Gilbert, 2015, p. 240). However, arguing the needThis paper draws on the philosophicalThus, sustainability offers a mode of critique

pragmatism of Amartya Sen’s Capability Ap-

and renewal, ‘to build a new vision for man-proach (1999). As will be argued, Sen’s work

agement education that moves business4

イントロダクション /Introduction

schools beyond functioning as management

simultaneously’ (p. 429). The specific literature

training and diploma-granting facilities’, andwithin business education has been more lim-

instead to ‘serve as public spheres of consci-

ited, but has shown similar growth rates. Cul-

entization’. It is not so much that within alen notes how the rapid increase in interest,

curriculum that sustainability represents aover a relatively short period of time, has led

defined set of learning elements within a syl-

to confusions (and arguably dilutions), with alabus, but that it is a way of approaching thewide range of different understandings andsubject area as a whole. Analogy can be madedefinitions of sustainability (Marshall and Toffel,

to learning a foreign language. The syllabus

2005; Ferdig, 2007; Parr, 2009). Equally, it can besets out a finite set of vocabulary to learn, butargued interest in sustainability in main-it also requires certain principles of grammar

stream business and management studies has

to be understood, which in turn enable thecome late, and as a result significant attention

words to be used in a variety of ways and‘has yet to be integrated at any level into

contexts. Ethics and sustainability can be un-most business school courses and programs’

derstood more as a ‘grammar’ of learning. It(Starik et al., 2010, p. 377). By the mid-2000s, foris a way of formulating the subject and a way

example, while the topic was seen to haveof maintaining and underpinning learning. As

had significant take up, sustainability was

will be outlined, ESD is to be taken as a ‘capa-

nonetheless seen ‘as a relative “newcomer” tobility’ for facilitating and enhancing further

the MBA curriculum’ (Christensen et al., 2007,

learning rather than simply as a topic of

p. 352). For the purposes of this paper, sustain-

learning. Beyond the classroom, this raises

ability is to be understood within the broad

searching questions about the practical andterms set out by UNESCO (outlined above),epistemological relationship between business

which allows for an understanding across eco-practices, education and research, as well asnomic, social and environmental issues. As

more broadly the status and positioning of

Cullen notes, ‘sustainability has been a central

business practices within wider social andconcern in fields such as geography, sociology

economic discourse.

and development studies for decades, [while]

Cullen’s (2017) bibliometric review shows

the relatively recent interest from manage-

that since the mid-1990s the fields of businessment studies can be seen to stem from theand management studies have shown a sub-various social, environmental and economic

stantial growth in interest in sustainability ascrises facing the world (2017, p. 430). As part ofa general topic, and from around the mid-which, sustainability concerns both intergen-

2000s ‘the emphasis of books published in thiserational and collaborative thinking. Whenarea began to change from one which advo-

UNESCO refer to ‘imagining future scenarios’cated “sustainable development” to one which

there is a need to understand different gener-

viewed sustainability as a management prac-

ational temporalities, which, in terms of short-tice which could help businesses and society

term political cycles are not always easy to(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach5‘sustain’ and make workable. Similarly, estab-wards change. The line taken here is that inlishing and then sustaining collaboration a-order for ESD to be instrumental to a chang-cross different domains and disciplines caning landscape within business studies, so ar-prove difficult. These, then, are as much sus-

guably impacting positively on society at

tainability issues as are the headline concerns

large, there is equally a need to consider itof finance, resources and the environment.

more substantively – as something constitu-

As will be discussed in the next section, thetive of how we live, or intend to live.

work of Amartya Sen is concerned with an

In discussing ESD, it is pertinent to draw

underlying interest in the expansion of realattention to the ‘Principles for Responsible

freedoms that people can enjoy – to advance,

Management Education’ (PRME), since bothfor example, the kind of ‘well-being’ thatare linked initiatives of the UN Global Com-

Baden and Higgs suggest is the goal of educa-

pact. At its core, PRME is directed at thetion. Importantly, Sen argues for freedom asnext generation of business professionals. Asan end in itself; a ‘constitutive role’ of free-Parkes et al., (2017) outline:

dom, which ‘relates to the importance of substantive freedom to enriching human life. The...the underlying goal [in establishingsubstantive freedoms include elementary ca-

PRME] was to develop the capabilities ofpabilities like being able to avoid such depri-

our students to be generators of sustain-

vations as starvation, undernourishment, es-able value for a more inclusive global

capable morbidity and premature mortality’,economy through our teaching, research,

as well as freedoms of education, literacy, po-and campus practices. Then UN Secre-

litical participation and freedom of speech etc.

tary-General Ban Ki-Moon, pointing to the(1999, p. 36). However, he also accounts for ‘in-potential of the PRME initiative, noted（2）

strumental’ freedoms and rightsthat ‘may

that, “The Principles for Responsible Man-

also be very effective in contributing to eco-

agement Education have the capacity tonomic progress’. These are operative in devel-take the case for universal values andopment, though still substantive freedoms re-business into classrooms on every conti-

main fundamental. As Sen notes, ‘the signifi-

nent”’ (p. 61)

cance of the instrumental freedom of political
freedom as means to development does not in

The Secretary-General’s words undoubtedly

any way reduce the evaluative importance ofsuggest of a more inclusive, interconnected

freedom as an end of development’ (p. 37). An

set of relationships. It is interesting how weunderlying tension of this paper is the degree

might read the phrase ‘universal values andto which issues of sustainability can be readbusiness’, whether we take the ‘and’ as an op-

in terms of substantive freedoms (on a par

erator between two entities, or as a means towith the aforementioned elementary capabilities),

intrinsically link the two. Parkes et al.’s (2017)or whether as more instrumental means to-reference to students as ‘generators’ and in6

イントロダクション /Introduction

having ‘capabilities’ in the first instance would

necessary for innovation. Also, accreditation

seem to suggest of a working out from busi-

standards and processes should not impedeness, so to impact upon the wider world. Yet,experimentation or entrepreneurial pursuits;

over time, this may lead to a different concep-

the standards must recognize that innovation

tion of where the boundaries lie, if indeed

involves both the potential for success andthey need to exist at all between business andthe risk of failure’ (AACSB, 2017, p. 3)（4）. Theresociety（3）.

is a need to look beyond prescriptions and in-

Currently, if we look at the ‘Eligibility Procedures and Accreditation Standards for Busi-

stead consider underlying capabilities andhow these can align with aspirations.

ness Accreditation’ of the well-known AACSB

Various stakeholders are all looking in theInternational (The Association to Advance Colle-

same direction, towards a more progressive

giate Schools of Business), it is evident that,business landscape. What is missing, however,while the overall vision is for business andis a cohesive means of proceeding. It is in thisbusiness schools to be ‘a force for good, con-respect that Sen’s perspective of a ‘Capability

tributing to the world’s economy and to soci-Approach’ can be useful to redefine problems

ety’, the thrust of the language emphases busi-

as questions around the appropriate capabili-

ness as somehow separate to (even if ‘serving’)

ties required to achieve certain functions. As

society or communities. It uses phrases sucha long-time advocate of welfare economics, in-

as: ‘society is increasingly demanding thatvolving the co-consideration of ethics and eco-companies become more accountable’, ‘thenomics (Sen, 1987; Putnam, 2004, pp. 46-64), forsame factors impacting business also are

Sen there is a need to re-evaluate the way wechanging higher education’, and ‘business

relate to debates of the market; i.e. how weschools must respond to the business world’s

position ourselves vis-à-vis business and soci-changing needs by providing relevant knowl-

ety. The most prominent argument in favour

edge and skills to the communities they serve’.

of the market mechanism is that left unre-

Of course the purpose of such a body is to set

stricted it typically allows income and wealthaccreditation standards, which inevitably

to flow (and ‘trickle down’), which broadly Sen

leads it to narrow its focus, in this case busi-

agrees to, with some caveats. However, his ar-ness education (and so the site of business prac-

gument for the market is different, and moretices more generally) . Yet, the accreditation

fundamental, regarding an inalienable right tobodies are arguably themselves looking to in-undertake exchange and transactions. ‘Even if

novate and to be more responsive to the col-such rights are not accepted as being inviola-leges they interact with. As AACSB Interna-

ble,’ he writes, ‘...it can still be argued thattional’s documentation puts it: ‘Accreditation

there is some social loss involved in denying

standards and associated processes should

people the right to interact economically with

foster quality and consistency, but not at theeach other’ (1999, p. 26). Added to which, he

expense of the creativity and experimentation

notes, ‘[t] he discipline of economics has tend-

(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach7

ed to move away from focusing on the value

business, it is one of the fundaments of beingof freedom to that of utilities, incomes andsocial. In this view, we can begin to view any

wealth. The narrowing of focus leads to an

rigid distinction between business and society

underappreciation of the full role of the mar-as problematic.

ket mechanism’ (p. 27) . In Sen’s view, then,As will be considered further below, Sen’s

there is a need to rebalance the ‘engineered’focus on capabilities and ‘freedoms’ as devel-or highly mathematical approach to twentiethopment (not the result of development), sets out

century economics, through the reintroduc-a more pragmatic and interconnected under-tion of ethics (Putnam, 2004, pp. 47-48) . It is

standing of the market, wealth and sociality,

worth noting, in Sen’s case, ‘the reintroduction

which we can adopt to make better sense ofof ethical concerns and concepts into econom-

how ESD needs to be conceptualised and ar-

ic discourse must not be thought of as anticulated within the context of the businessabandonment of “classical economics”; rather

school. While Sen certainly does not dismiss

it is the reintroduction of something that wasclassical economics, his reading, as suggested

everywhere present in the writings of Adamabove, is nuanced and reintroduces philosophi-

Smith’ (Putnam, 2004, p. 48). Sen aligns strongly

cal and ethical considerations relevant to con-with the work of Adam Smith. He notes wry-

temporary debates. By making a link, then,ly how commentators often rarely get beyond

ESD represents one opportunity to rethink

the famous quote of ‘the benevolence of the

how we define the curriculum for a new gen-butcher, the brewer, or the baker’, but sug-

eration. What needs to take effect is not only

gests, even if they do not read further, ‘thisa framework (and set of accreditation standards)

passage would indicate that what Smith is do-for articulating new values（5）, but also a means

ing here is to specify why and how normal

allowing for ‘the next generation of managers,

transactions in the market are carried out’,leaders, and business professionals, committed

and that crucially, ‘the fact that Smith noted

to developing their capabilities to be genera-that mutually advantageous trades are very

tors of sustainable value for a more inclusive

common does not indicate at all that heglobal economy’ (Parkes et al., 2017, p. 62). It isthought that self-love … could be adequate

in this direction that Sen’s ‘Capability Ap-

for a good society. Indeed, he maintained pre-proach’ offers valuable insights.

cisely the opposite. He did not rest economic
salvation on some unique motivation’ (Sen,
1987, pp. 23-24). Thus, Sen reminds of the un-

3.

COMPREHENSIVEOUTCOMES

derlying social principle of economics. We al-

The agenda of ESD in itself puts forward aways trade with others. It is a freedom weneed for change – to change the curriculum,

seek to secure, which can only be secured

to change behaviours, to change businessthrough the relations with others, rather thanpractices. Institutionally, this gives educators

despite them. In effect, exchange comes before

and administrators a ‘case for change’, but as8

イントロダクション /Introduction

already intimated, implementation of new ap-

jective of development relates to the valuation

proaches can end up being superficial, or atof the actual freedoms enjoyed by the people

least bolted on rather than built in. In other

involved. Individual capabilities crucially de-words ESD is readily incorporated into the ed-pend on, among other things, economic, social,ucational programme, but it is not necessarily

and political arrangements’ (Sen, 1999, p. 53).

constitutive of it. At stake is a wider range of

Sen’s account of ‘development as freedom’capabilities for a transformative understand-might be described best as the freedom to do

ing of business. Underlying Sen’s work is thethings (to live according to your own capabilities),

need for an integrated picture. He notes, forrather than suggest of the more negative free︲example, how various economic indicators in

dom from something. In other words, develop-

isolation can be used to show disparities inment is not applied to free us from a problem,

wealth between countries, but when com-instead it is the articulation of our freedom.

bined with other factors such as health statis-

According to Sen’s data, males living in Kera-tics produce quite striking and unexpectedla will on average earn substantially less thandisparities. For example, male survival rates

black males living in the USA, but potentiallyin the USA are higher than that of the state

possess more substantive freedoms (in terms ofof Kerala, India, by over a decade. The obvi-

education, social networks, literary etc.). And it isous explanation is that the USA is vastly

these substantive freedoms that he argues

more affluent and so people live longer. Yet,

combine to lead to longer life expectancy.

the same statistics show that black males liv-

Crucially, a combined ethics and economic

ing in USA have a lower survival rate than inperspective looks to the bigger picture, so

Kerala. What Sen argues with these statistics

asking different questions of and across datas-

is the importance of combined factors, or ‘sub-ets. Similarly, ESD requires a broader canvas

stantive freedoms’ as he calls them. These in-to be taken into account, which itself is chal-

clude aspects of social and health care, com-

lenging of the field of business studies.

munity relations, education, law and order,

The factors involved in ESD are of course

security, and political factors (notably the level

different to those pertaining specifically toof democracy) . In order to attend to issues

poverty, well-being and life expectancy, butsuch as poverty and health it is not enough tosimilar principles are at stake (and there are in-simply spend more money. Businesses, for ex-terrelated debates). Firstly, ESD should not be

ample, can often be criticised for the ineffec-

viewed as development on from traditional

tiveness of philanthropic activity; for only do-

business, or indeed as an imposition upon, or

nating to, not actually contributing to society.

even policing of, existing business practices.

Development is not merely a return on in-This would be to suggest ESD is somehow

vestment and it is not a luxury: ‘...enhancement

seeking freedom from business (forever charac-of human freedom is both the main object andterised as bad). Alternatively, the view might

the primary means of development. The ob-

be taken that business and commerce has ma-

(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach9

tured to a point at which it is now possible to

Education itself is one key freedom or capabil-

apply ESD. Again, this would be the wrong

ity. We need the ability to think critically andway to frame things, as if ESD is a luxury wecreatively in order to re-evaluate and trans-

can now afford. The point is to consider ESD

form business. Thus, the capabilities of aas the freedom to pursue business in a partic-

teacher to deliver the kind of education theyular way, one which offers a more integrated

value is important in itself, but equally this is

picture and so is both led by and leads topart of the greater freedom to understandgreater capability. As Sen writes: ‘Capability

sustainable development, and for education tois thus a kind of freedom: the substantive

provide support to business thinking, to allow

freedom to achieve alternative functioning

for a wider set of viewpoints. In this sense,

combinations (or, less formally put, the freedom

education is not simply about feeding busi-

to achieve various lifestyles)’ (1999, p. 75). The

ness with appropriately skilled labour to en-use of the term ‘functioning’ varies acrossable the status quo. Education is to be taken

Sen’s work, but as Hart (2013, pp. 37-38) notes,

as a substantive freedom of business itself. It

the term generally gravitates to ‘achieved

is part of an infrastructure that gives individ-

functionings’, made possible through an indi-uals and individual businesses the means tovidual’s ‘capability set’. As Sen writes: ‘The

pursue the values they deem to be important.

capability set would consist of the alternative

From Sen’s perspective, intervention is not

functioning vectors ... While the combination

what makes changes, but only what supports

of a person’s functionings reflects her actual

it. What we require are the grounds for change,

achievements, the capability set reflects thewhich form the freedom to assert change. It

freedom to achieve: the alternative function-

can be argued that economic development

ing combinations from which this person can

can better support and resource education,choose’ (1999, p. 75). Sen gives the example ofyet Sen (1999, p. 41) sees this the other way

how an affluent person choosing to fast has around, arguing education is a freedom sup-very different ‘capability set’ (or set of choices)

portive of economic development. Education

than the destitute person unable to feed them-is for example capability towards the function（6）

selves.

of greater productivity. He cites, for example,

Given the various (and even competing) de-

the East Asian economic ‘miracle’ as being

mands and perspectives encapsulated bystrongly predicated on ‘human resource de-

ESD, we can think of it as an attempt tovelopment’ and higher levels of literacy, un-bring together a variety of ‘lifestyles’ or choic-

derlying which – in this particular context

es, which represents a complex ‘capability

and circumstance – is a common cultural andset’, all of which needs attention and evalua-social investment in the primacy of education.

tion. Following this logic, it is necessary toWith respect to ESD, education is not simply

consider what substantive freedoms are re-a driver towards greater productivity, but to-quired of business within the frame of ESD.

wards better (and sustainable) business practic-

10

イントロダクション /Introduction

development or change through capabilities. It

es.
Capability Approach pays attention not

can be viewed a form of idealism, Sen refers

only to opportunities but also processesor pro-to ‘outcomes’ (and is context specific). His ap-

cedures ‘that allow freedom of actions and de-proach, in looking at the processes and proce-cisions’ (Sen, 1999, p. 17) . The idea of under-dures that allow for opportunities, as a com︲standing ‘development as freedom’ leads us tobined reading, and which vary enormouslypose different kinds of questions about what

between different situations, is concerned

we think development means, and how it cor-with development as a form of action and do-relates to ideas of freedom. In effect, Sening, not simply a value or belief (which argu-

turns our frames of reference around, to un-

ably can remain merely an ideological pronounce-

derstand freedom not as the ‘goal’ (whether de-ment).

velopment, or education), so not as an end, but

Thus, for Sen, there is a distinction ‘be-equally as means. This is given further defini-tween “culmination outcomes” (that is, only fi-tion through his distinction between ‘culmina-

nal outcomes without taking any note of the pro-tion outcomes’ and ‘comprehensive outcomes’.

cess of getting there, including the exercise of

Taking a hypothetical idea that a competitive

freedom) and “comprehensive outcomes” (tak-market mechanism could be matched by aing note of the processes through which the cul-

centralized, even dictatorial system, Sen asks

mination outcomes come about)’. The relative– if both yield the same economic result – ismerits of a market system, he argues, is notthere any real difference if we concern our-based solely on the ‘capacity to generate more

selves only with end results? Intuitively, heefficient culmination outcomes’ (1999, p. 27). In

writes, ‘something would be missing in such athe context of ESD, there are numerous dif-

scenario ... the freedom of people to act as

ferent ways for its implementation within thethey like in deciding on where to work, what

education setting, which in turn can be re-to produce, what to consume and so on’ (Sen,flected in simple measures and accreditations.

1999, p. 27). Despite being able to produce the

However, if we look to how implementation

same end results, the argument is that we

culminates, i.e. how ESD is ‘actually existing’

would still prefer the scenario offering freeand how it progresses beyond the educational

choice. The difference is between whether orcontext, we might come to quite different

not we focus on just the ends, or equally uponviews about how best to pursue it. In an ever

the means; and that such means are constitu-

increasingly regulated society, with numerous

tive of the ends, i.e. it is how we define our-systems of accreditation and auditing, univer-selves through the process as much as thesities and companies have become skilful in（7）

appropriately positioning their activities (andSen’s explicit interest in capabilities is of

without necessarily making fundamental changes

more specific import, providing a pragmaticto their practices). In this sense the implement-

way of analysing a situation and of defining

ing and integrating of ESD (as a culminationend.

(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach11

outcome) is not necessarily the same as its em-

tarian perspective, which puts ‘equal weights

bedding (Rasche and Gilbert, 2015). For that, weon everyone’s utility gains’ (1992, p. 13), whenneed to understand – as active forces – the in-in fact, he argues, we cannot assume all indi-tegrated context of education, business andviduals can achieve the same utility gain fromsociety. ESD provides a prompt to redraft

the same resources or circumstances. Thus,

how we define these terms, and indeed how

despite general agreement that equality is athese sites of practice interrelate, so allowing

good thing, it is not something we can neces-

for the imaging of future scenarios, as UNES-

sarily uniformly agree upon in practice. As

CO would hope for, and for a broader ‘evalua-much as we may need to debate the impor-tive space’ (to adopt Sen’s term, explored further

tance of equality, for Sen, the question is also

below), whereby a wider range of options andalways ‘equality of what?’ (Sen, 1992). Being

interactions can be taken into critical consid-

egalitarian, he argues ‘is not a “uniting” fea-

eration.

ture’. Indeed, he writes, ‘it is precisely because

4.

EVALUATIVE SPACE: ESD
AS CAPABILITY

there are such substantive differences between
the endorsement of different spaces in whichequality is recommended ... that the basic sim-

If we review the various issues that UNESCO

ilarity between them (in the form of wanting

list in their definition of ESD, such as climate

equality is some space that is seen as important)change, biodiversity, poverty, and sustainable

can be far from transparent’ (1992, p. 14). Simi-

consumption, and others such beside, each inlarly, the question of ‘why sustainability?’ canturn are laudable concerns. However, difficul-

appear to dominate, whereas, pace Sen, weties may arise if we start to consider them inshould really ask ‘sustainability of what?’. The

relation to one another. For example, is there

answer to which will vary depending on nu-

a hierarchy of low to high priority, and in at-merous factors. And like equality, there are

tending to one issue can we remain true tosome ‘spaces’ of sustainability (as Sen terms it)others? Overcoming issues of poverty could

that are more readily associated than others.

in some circumstances lead to increased pro-So, for example, the environment can quickly

duction, or a decrease in biodiversity (where

be evoked, yet, as noted in this essay, the is-perhaps greenbelt land is used to overcome hous-sues range more broadly. The protest move-ing shortages etc.). Wilkinson and Pickett (2010)

ment, #BlackLivesMatter, for example, hasargue that improvements to quality of life andsought to show how environmental concerns

equality can be met without further economic

such as air pollution are also deeply entwined

growth. Indeed, their thesis is that equality

with matters of class and race (Kelbert, 2016)（8）.

and sustainability are intrinsically linked.

What Sen has to say of equality can be trans-

Sen’s Capability Approach is attuned to these

posed to matters of sustainability: ‘it is impor-kinds of interrelated concerns. In discussing

tant to recognize equality in one space – noequality, for example, he is critical of a utili-

matter how hallowed by tradition – can lead

12

イントロダクション /Introduction

one to be anti-egalitarian in some other space,
the comparative importance of which in the

The selection of the evaluative space has

overall assessment has to be critically as-a good deal of cutting power on its own,

sessed’ (1992, p. 16).

both because of what it includes as poten-

The frequent reference to ‘space’ needs

tially valuable and because of what itsome clarification. The Capability Approach is

excludes. For example, because of theconcerned with what Sen refers to as ‘evalua-nature of the evaluative space, the capa-

tive space’, which is never definitively defined,bility approach differs from utilitariancertainly not as a specific site or domain.

evaluation ... in making room for a variety

Nonetheless, looking across his writings, weof human acts and states as important in

can relate ‘space’ to a form of operation thatthemselves (not just because they may pro-varies according to different domains, dis-duce utility, nor just to the extent that theycourses and disciplines. Different professional,

yield utility). It also makes room for valu-

conceptual and discursive domains or spaces

ing various freedoms – in the form of ca-

will emphasise different ‘objects of value’:pabilities. On the other side, the approach
does not attach direct – as opposed to de-

The identification of the objects of value

rivative – importance to the means of liv-

specifies what may be called an evalua︲ing or means of freedom (e.g. real income,tive space. In standard utilitarian analysis,

wealth, opulence, primary goods, or resourc-

for example, the evaluative space consistses), as some other approaches do. Theseof the individual utilities (defined in thevariables are not part of the evaluative

usual terms of pleasures, happiness, or desire

space, though they can indirectly influ-

fulfilment). [...] The capability approach isence the evaluation through their effects

concerned primarily with your identifica-

on variables included in that space (Sen,tion of value-objects, and sees the evalua-

1993, p. 33).

tive space in terms of functioning and capabilities to function (Sen, 1993, p. 32).

Education provides an obvious context inwhich not only can we engage with an evalu-

As already discussed, capability sets provide

ative space, but also potentially to constructpossibility of different choices or functions. All

one. ESD in particular presents specificof which, however, sit within ‘spaces’ (meaningmeans to pursue the relational complexity

domains or discourses), which are inevitably im-that is suggestive of Sen’s account. However,portant in driving the terms of debate. Differ-

as discussed above, the implementation ofent evaluative spaces or agendas will have a

ESD and the pressures of various drivers canstrong impact on how we come to view capa-

inhibit how we frame or engage in the issues.

bilities and functionings in the first place. To

Baden and Higgs (2015), as shown, are criticalquote Sen at length:of the dominant approaches, suggesting that

(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach13‘ethical issues tend to be presented as instru-

ised approach is still followed. We might evenmental rather than the infusion of wisdom

relate this to a more utilitarian mode, as a

into the curriculum’ (p. 545). Nonetheless, theymeans to maximise sustainability in a given

outline a number of areas where a wider

area, without necessarily broaching its deeper

frame of reference and perspective can be ad-significance. Certainly, it is the case, throughopted to broaden the purview of businessmodularisation, that the different subject ar-studies. So, for example, they suggest Ac-

eas may not necessarily interact. Samuelson

counting modules can work upon the concept

notes, for example, ‘a course with “sustainabil-of the triple bottom line (Elkington, 1997), toity” in the title might consider the risks forbroaden out from economic to social and envi-

both the business and its fence-line neighbors,ronmental performance. Finance, while poten-... But in finance and other classes, these same

tially more difficult, can look at financing thatstudents are taught to externalize costs andcontributes positively to social needs. Humandiscount the future’ (p. 67). However, if we areresource management can turn to ‘quality of

to see ESD as genuinely broadening a capabil-life’ indices to offer justifications for improved

ity set, and evoking a different kind of evalua-working conditions not on the basis of im-tive space, it is important to maintain a criti-

proved productivity, but on the human value.

cal dialogue between differing perspectives

Marketing is another difficult area, as argu-

and needs. As Cebrián, Grace & Humphris

ably it is predicated on consumption, which(2013, p. 286) put it, ‘ESD can foster a sustain-

then is in tension with sustainability issues.

able social transformation, through the clarifi-

Nonetheless, it is possible to promote decreas-

cation and reassessment of values;’ indeed

es in production and focus on shifts to servic-‘sustainability can be defined as a learning

es. Entrepreneurialism can be centred aroundprocess that encourages transformative learn-

inspirational prosocial role models, and corpo-

ing, the capacity to challenge existing pat-rate governance modules can look to alterna-

terns and worldviews, to construct new knowl-

tive legal models and structures, and strategy

edge collectively, to rethink current practice,

modules can emphasize stakeholders overand to critique and examine sustainability is-shareholders (Baden and Higgs, 2015, pp. 546-

sues’ (p. 287); an argument that echoes Kurucz

548).

et al. (2014).

Each of these examples suggest changes to

The evaluative space determines key con-what might be included or excluded in thesiderations or the terms of debate, even the‘space’ of the curriculum and teaching envi-

degree to which sustainability might beronment. Of course, a key concern is the ex︲viewed as significant in the first place. Educa-

tent to which such changes are made. Theytion can clearly play a role in influencing andcan be presented as mere alternative func-

even re-calibrating such spaces. However,tionings, so becoming just one choice out of awithin such a context is it also how we relate

range of choices. As such, a compartmental-

to capabilities that is important. ‘The freedom

14

イントロダクション /Introduction

to lead different types of life,’ writes Sen, ‘isfurther influence future capabilities. However,reflected in the person’s capability set’ (1993,

what is significant about Sen’s work is thep. 33). This is by no means an unproblematicneed to relate between different circumstancesnotion. We might not always be aware of ourand indicators – to understand relational dif-

capabilities, or we may not always have impe-

ferences and that change occurs through cir-tus to make choices despite being available tocumstances. In this case, while the mechanic

us. Furthermore compound issues, such as

is perhaps not so consciously engaged in thementioned above in relation to environment

evaluative space of sustainability issues, it

and race, are either not easily visible, or candoes not mean the business is not already inbecome so entrenched that limited capability

possession of requisite capabilities and indeed

is normalised. To give an example specific toalready functioning in a sustainable way. The

sustainability and the business context, wequestion over ‘sustainability of what?’ is again

might consider the differing capability sets ofpertinent. As Sen argues, capability is not aa large, nationwide car dealership and a small,resource of fixed value, but something that

local mechanics firm. With the former, narra-

must be examined in terms of its scaling ac-tives pertinent to sustainability can often becording to specific circumstances. The difficul-

made quite explicit. Perhaps the company

ty, of course, is bringing legitimacy and/or

promotes a new line in hybrid or electric cars,

consciousness to such capabilities. At this lev-

and/or a scrappage scheme framed explicitly

el, as Putnam (2004, p. 60) reminds, census

as a ‘green’ service. A problem, of course, isaround matters of capability requires publicthat the business is also predicated on in-debate and democratic engagement and ac-

creasing sales, so adding to the number of

ceptance. In this case, the car dealership per-cars on the road. It is focused on providing

haps speaks more publicly, yet in looking to a

new cars, rather than new components. Down

new generation of business practitioners a

the road, the local mechanic does not neces-

wider, relational field of vision allows us tosarily see him- or herself as being particularly

look more across different capabilities, todiligent towards issues of sustainability, yetmake finer judgements about what is valu-

as a business the focus is on repairing cars,able. Again, it is arguably the educational

keeping them on the road. It is about re-using‘space’ that has a vital role to play.

resources. These businesses engage different-

Inevitably, there are various critiques andly with the evaluative space concerning sus-

challenges made of Sen’s work (Hart, 2013,

tainability. One is overt about such evalua-

pp. 34-46; Qizilbash, M., 1996; 2008; Gasper, 2002;

tions. Indeed, the car dealership is likely to

Clark, 2005; Cohen, 1993). It is not in the scope

have a dedicated CSR report and provide lotsof this paper to work through these in detail,of related signage on its premises to impress

but in closing a few points can be made. Sen

its customers. Such displays of ‘consciousness’is criticised for a lack of clarity in the use ofon the part of the business could be said to

his terms (which have evolved over his career).

(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach

15

This paper has sought to clarify the key con-when looking at ESD through the lens of ca-

cepts as far as possible within the narrative

pability approach, would be whether or notprovided here. As Hart (2013, p. 35) notes, there

Nussbaum’s (2003) consideration of ‘fundamen-

are many terms, such as class, power andtal entitlements’ and ‘minimum thresholds’

poverty, that are equally difficult to define,might in fact be pertinent to establishing as-

but their contested nature is equally constitu-

pects of curriculum and its tie-up with busi-

tive of our need to debate the issues that sur-ness practices. Finally, a key criticism of Sen’s

round them. This is the case too of ‘sustain-

work is in ‘under-emphasizing the role of so-

ability’, which, as argued in terms of ESD,

cial interaction in the generation of capabili-

should not be fixed, but always the subject ofties’ (Hart, 2013, p. 44). This, again, is an area

debate. ‘Freedom’ is another term of signifi-that requires further research. The approachcant complexity and is central to Sen’s work.

taken in this paper is that the conceptual ap-

Qizilbash (1996) has been critical of a lack ofproach – to understand specific principles ofattention to ‘negative freedom’, i.e. the forcesmeans and ends, to privilege comprehensive

to take us away from freedom. Sen could beoutcomes, and to give credence to sets of ca-

seen as overly optimistic. However, rather

pability etc. – is something that translates

like the debates around the concept of thewhen we consider ‘individual’ sites of practice,‘public sphere’, which is really only somethingsuch as a firm or the interaction of businesses.

of an ideal, even a myth, most critics hold theAlso, in terms of ESD, specifically (i.e. in theview that it is a ‘necessary possibility’, as

context of education), the ideas of capability dosomething we must work towards even if not

generally apply, even if more theorisation isalways reached. Likewise, ‘capability’ may not

welcomed (Hart, 2013, pp. 45-46). Overall, ESD

necessarily be something we can distinctively

is a critical prompt for the expansion of theidentify or agree upon, but it becomes an im-

evaluative space of business, which needs toportant concept through which we can makebe addressed through a broadening of capa-

empirical judgements about how best to ap-

bilities both within and outside of the educa-

proach topics such as ‘sustainability’ (withintional setting itself.

the specific space, for example, of business andbusiness education). As part of which, the argu-

ment made here to keep debate open, to con-

5.

TOWARDS A NEW
DIALOGUE

tinually test circumstances etc., echoes Sen’sThis paper has examined the emergence of

reluctance to offer specific ‘lists’ of capabilities

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)

and functions. By contrast, Nussbaum, an as-within the field of business and managementsociate of Sen and an important scholar of ca-

studies. The body of current literatures tend

pability theory in her own right, has been

to focus on the development of teaching eth-more forthright about the need to develop

ics and sustainability in a compartmentalised

schema. An implication for future research,way, with less attention on how business can

16

イントロダクション /Introduction

engage dynamically with such a new agenda

which leads to a challenging of received knowl-(i.e. the wider ramifications its inscribes). To sup-edge and norms. Nonetheless, not only does

port a change in agenda, consideration has

this critical work require certain evaluative

been made of Sen’s Capability Approach, whichspaces and capabilities, it also in turn presents

leads to the view that ESD itself can be un-

the opportunity to extend them.

derstood a form of capability. In the context

Overall, then, the account offered here hasof education it is an evaluative space that pro-sought to provide the critical, conceptual toolvides the means for significant change in howof ‘evaluative space’ in relation to ESD. It is

we approach the subject of business and inoffered as a contribution to the Japan Forumturn how businesses might view themselves.

of Business and Society’s 9th Annual Confer-

Crucially, the need is for more relational un-ence 2019, which was held around the themes

derstanding of the broad and at times com-of Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustain-

peting factors and agents at stake in mattersability in Management Education. Specifically,of sustainability. Current practices in imple-

the paper seeks to aid an understanding of

menting and accrediting ESD can lead to a

forward-going, progressive engagements withde-coupling from the actual educational prac-

ESD, and in particular serves to offer criticaltices of a business school. Such decoupling

dialogue with four papers from the confer-

may be caused where ESD is seen as an end

ence: Elisabeth Fröhlich and Berivan Kul’s

point of strategic renewal, not as a means of‘The Necessity of Sustainability in Manage-educating, expanding on and practicing in re-ment Education’; Masao Seki’sʻサステナブル

lation to ethics and sustainability issues. Sen’s

ビジネス教育における課題 : トランスフォー

formulation of ‘development as freedom’, byメーションの時代に求められるものʼ[Chal-

which he means we need freedom or capabili-

lenges in Sustainable Business Education

ty to be able to pursue development (i.e., free-－What is Required in the Age of Transfor-

dom is not a product of development, but its

mation]; Yasushi Sonobe and Makiko Kawaki-means), is significant in turning the tables inta’s ‘The Prestige Effects of Sponsorship on

how we relate to the issues of ESD. We might

Attitudes toward Corporate Brands and Art

argue, not for sustainability as ESD (i.e. that

Events’; and Hidemitsu Sasaya’s ‘SDGs を活用

ESD can lead to sustainability), but rather ESD

した新たな共通価値の創造 (CSV)’ [Evolution ofas sustainability, that sustainable thinking andCreating Shared Value (CSV) by Utilizing

actions, or capability are required for ESD to

SDGs]. The first of these two papers illustratetake root. The point is not for ESD to be

how educators and professionals in their own

some form of ‘necessary’ outcome, but as aevaluative space consider approaches to, andgenuine practice based on an expanded ‘eval-engage in, the practice of ESD. The other two

uative space’, allowing for comprehensive out-

papers present investigations that offer con-comes. Of course, one of the real difficulties oftexts exemplifying ‘objects of value’ and lead

ESD is the radical critical thinking it implies,

towards a question of ‘what’ is to be located(Re) thinking Education for Sustainable Development: A Capability Approach

among consumers, organisations and society.

17

The paper by Sonobe and Kawakita pres-

The paper by Fröhlich and Kultake on theents an investigation on the relationship be-task by discussing a case from the CBS Inter-

tween corporate prestige and corporate image

national Business School, to explain its sus-by supporting artistic activities. In particular,

tainability vision in terms of serving as a role

it examines the effects of prestige in sponsor-

model for other business schools. They argue

ships on consumers’ attitudes toward corpo-that ‘Rethinking Capitalism’ is one of the es-

rate brands and art events. While reading,sential requirements to respond to ecologicalone may ask whether doing ‘good’ actuallyand social challenges we face today. It is aequates to being ‘good’. The paper provides

particular interest of this paper to consider

context to deepen our understanding of how

how a business school approaches its curricu-

we evaluate corporations every day: Does it

lum design comprehensively in order to con-matter, for example, who the ‘good doers’ aretribute to achieving the Sustainable Develop-(e.g. corporations) and who (e.g. consumers) eval-ment Goals (SDGs). They propose ‘SDG teach-uates them? The paper by Sasaya, which sim-

ing mapping’ as the means of engaging in thisilarly notes that addressing social issues has

process. As an example of this mapping exer-

become an important business proposition for

cise, SDG12’s targets are utilized to evaluate

many corporations, develops a reading of thecurrent practices and so to identify opportuni-

notion of Creating Shared Value (Porter andties and directions in terms of curriculum de-Kramer, 2011). However, he finds it problemat-

sign in the future. The paper by Seki argues

ic that there has been insufficient insight intothat achieving SDGs requires not only pro-the social issues to be addressed. He argues

gressive improvement but transformation

SDGs help articulate social issues and propos-

that would make major social and economices they complement a process of creatingchanges at the system level (e.g., one of thenew, shared values.

keys is digital transformation).

He points outthat companies are the driving force behindsuch transformation and places importance on‘future aspiration’, ‘strategic thinking’ and‘backcasting’ while nurturing people who cancreate innovation. Backcasting refers to identifying what needs to be done now as a plan,
after defining what would be a desirable statein the future. The paper certainly triggers
key questions regarding what we value: what
and where do ‘we’ want to be in the future?
Indeed, ultimately, to ask: what is a good life?

（1）

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco-world-

conference-on-esd-2014/resources/what-is-esd/,
Accessed June 3rd 2020.
（2）

Sen (1999, pp. 36-40) identifies five types of in-strumental reason: (1) political freedoms, (2) economic facilities, (3) social opportunities, (4) transparency guarantees and (5) protective securities.
These freedoms ‘contribute to the general capability of a person to live more freely, but they also
serve to complement one anotherʼ, thus analysis‘must also take note of the empirical linkages thattie the distinct types of freedom together, strengthening their joint importanceʼ (38). As an example,
he notes that a rich person prevented fromspeaking openly is deprived of their freedom. ‘Development seen as enhancement of freedom can-

18

イントロダクション /Introduction

not but address such deprivationsʼ (37).

larly to the differentiation of class, community,

It is worth noting conceptions of and relations

caste, and genderʼ. And the extent of such depri-

between business and society can be seen to dif-vations can often not show up as a metric simply

fer culturally. Tange (2001), for example, presents

because individuals come to accept hardships; ‘thea contrast between Anglo-American and Japanese

victims do not go on grieving and lamenting allmodels of community, whereby the former places

the time, and very often make great efforts toindividuals and companies as separate entities

take pleasure in small mercies...ʼ.

（3）

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