Bodhisattvas in the Lotus and Other Sutras

Margarita I. Vorobyova-DesyatovskayaW

E shall talk today of the bodhisattva that takes up an important
place in the Lotus Sūtra, M āh āyana and Buddhism as a whole.
The Sanskrit word bodhisattva should be translated as “a being (or man)
who has reach a state where he can acquire bodhi.” Bodhi means
Enlightenment, the state that Buddha had reached. Thus bodhisattva
denotes a person who is prepared for Enlightenment. After he gets
Enlightenment he will be prepared to become Buddha. Such definitionis engenders with a lot of questions:
What is the state that bodhisattva reached?
What does reached mean? How did he reach it, by what means?
If bodhisattva is prepared to acquire Enlightenment, why doesn’t he
do it? What is holding him back?
And, finally, where did this image come from? Has it always existed
in Buddhism and what are its function during the different periods ofdevelopment and establishment of Buddhism?
It is known that Buddhism has gone a long way in its development:from the first sermon by Buddha about the four noble truths and theeightfold path to saving up to a popular religion with its own pantheon,
ritual, temples and clergy. In other words, it has gone all the way from ateam of disciples following Buddha Shakyamuni and learning thelessons of virtuous life and social equality to the complex hierarchy ofthe followers of the teaching inside a community and a system of specific interrelations with the state in different countries. We shall try toanswer the questions we have just asked.
The notion of bodhisattva arose at the beginning of this millennium,
during the period when Buddhism spread beyond Indian borders andstarted conquering new territories. The six centuries that had passed
from the times of the great parinirvā n. a of Buddha Shakyamuni weremarked with events in the life of Buddha’s teaching. First, his disciples
had split, and this process was taking on an increasingly definite character; the followers of different orientations went apart not only ideologically, but territorially as well. Having drifted so far apart they confirmed
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their ideological differences, making them a law. Second, and mostimportant, is that Buddha’s teaching had by that time been written down
by his disciples. The Buddhist canon had made its appearance, which
had brought together and classified all the lessons and sermons by theteacher and all his instructions. The tripi.taka came into being, whichliterally means three baskets; they include vinaya-pi .taka, or disciplinary
regulations for members of monastic communities, sūtra-pit.aka, or collection of texts covering the Buddhist doctrine issues, and abhidharmapi .taka, or collection of texts covering the philosophy of the teaching. I
am only mentioning these well-known things because they have a direct
bearing upon the subject we are going to take up today.
Thus by the time Buddhism had spread over a large territory andstarted to advance to the North and East—to the oasis of Central Asia,
the present Xingjiang province of China—to China and Tibet, it was
already armed with a canon that was fixed in writing in the form of texts
in Sanskrit and the North-Western Gandhari Prakrit. This canon was
called śrāvakayāna or the chariot for the śr āvakas, i.e. the disciples
who adhered to the teaching, the literal meaning of śr āvakas being
those listening. Let us first dwell upon this title. The ideal aim thatśr āvakayāna was promoting the arhatship. An arhat, literally meaning
the one deserving, enjoying the rights, was a hermit observing all Buddha’s instructions, who had gone through all stages of consecration in
the Buddhist community (pravr ājita, upasa mpādita,etc.), who had then.
left it and perpetrated some feats befitting a hermit, cut off all his worldly affections, acquired a number of supernatural abilities and preparedhimself for the Enlightenment. However, he was striving to achieve
Enlightenment for himself only, wherein lay the disadvantages of theway laid out by śr āvakayāna. This is why in the first century A.D. it got
the name of Hı̄nayāna—the small vehicle.
The arhatship could not attract any considerable number of the newfollowers of the teaching. First of all, this way was too time-consuming.
The main landmarks on this way was the karma, which was a manifestation of a whole series of reincarnations. Second, the image of anarhat, a hermit, was not as attractive as to make the masses of householders want to follow it—while it was the latter that Buddhism wastrying to allure as its followers. This is when the bodhisattva image
made its appearance, which played a major role in attracting new followers of the teaching. The prototype for this image was Buddha
Shakyamuni himself. The numerous stories of his former reincarnations—the so called jātakas, as well as the texts describing the life of
Shakyamuni himself, such as Lalatavistāra or Mahāvastu, provided a

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lot of material for creating the image of a man who helps the others inthis life, which contributed to his progress towards self-improvement
and finally reaching the Enlightenment. After that he could lapse into
nirvāna,. but he does not, remaining among the people and helping
them. Such charitable man was introduced into the teaching under thename of bodhisattva. In terms of his position and role played the bodhisattva is an exact antipode to the arhat. He lives among the people
and for them, helping out not only the followers of the teaching, but
those who are in the beginning of their way and are experiencing difficulties. Bodhisattva’s activities attract broad masses to Buddha’s teaching, who are thus acquiring support in their lives. This new powerful
influx of followers marks the advance of the teaching beyond Indian
borders. At the same time, it is a new stage in the development of theteaching proper, that has enriched it with many new ideas. Starting fromthis period we can single out a new trend in Buddhism as an all-encompassing ethical, religious and philosophical tendency. It got the name of
Mah āyāna, or the great vehicle, as distinct from śr āvakayāna, which
remained under the name of Hı̄nayāna, or the small vehicle.
The early M āh āyana s utras, whose existence can be reliable provedby the existence of the Sanskrit manuscripts—copies of these sutras—
as well as by the existence of their Chinese translations of the secondfourth centuries, contain the description of ideal bodhisattvas and theirmoral code. These s utras include, first and foremost, the Lotus Sūtra.
Let us take a closer look at it.
The ideal bodhisattva is described in chapter 14 of the Lotus Sūtra,which is called Sukhavihāra-pariv ārtah. in Sanskrit, meaning chapter on
ideal state. The Chinese translation from Kumārajı̄va’s language runs as
Peaceful Practices. In this chapter Buddha addresses his disciples saying that in case the worst times come and belief wanes he is entrusting
the bodhisattvas of the future his biggest treasure—the Lotus Sūtra, sothat they can go on preaching the teaching. The bodhisattvas will only
be able to preach this sutra if they observe four sets of rules in their wayof life (ācāragocāra pratis. thita
in Sanskrit), that are necessary for any.
bodhisattva. What are these rules?
The first set of rules concerns bodhisattva’s behaviour and his contacts. In his behaviour a bodhisattva must be purposeful and persistent,
noble, generous and tolerant; he should not be cruel and self-conscious,and he should only act after the true meaning of things is obvious tohim.
Further, what contacts shall a bodhisattva refrain from? In this discussion we find interesting details that testify of the early origin of the

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sutra and the democratic nature the teaching had at the time when it was
first put down in writing. First of all, a bodhisattva should not have any
close relations with rulers, princes, ministers of high rank and heads ofadministration. All other restrictions concern the contacts which cancompromise a bodhisattva—for instance, those with representatives ofother religions, with heretic sects, with people involved in risky entertaining, actors, boxers, hunting and fishing-fans and, finally, executioners. He must be also careful in communications with monks and nuns
who ask irrelevant questions and try to engage the bodhisattva in a discussion or argument. If a bodhisattva comes into any home asking foralms, he must concentrate on the lessons taught by Buddha and refrainfrom engaging in settling everyday problems. Such is the first group ofrules concerned with the behaviour of a bodhisattva—a preacher of the
Lotus Sūtra.
Before passing over to the second set of rules obligatory for a bodhisattva it seems necessary to make an important comment that mightshed light on the Lotus Sūtra as one of the early ones and on the originsof the śūnyat ā doctrine—a term that is commonly taken to mean emptiness in the Buddhist studies. The Buddhologists belonging to the Russian school interpret śūnyat ā as subjectlessness and objectlessness of all
dharmas, as having no substance and lack of contents.
In the Lotus Sūtra, where the notion of śūnyat ā is linked to bodhisattva’s state, we can clearly observe the original interpretation of this term,that is, its direct connection with meditation, or contemplation. Let us
turn now to the text of the sutra.
The ability to plunge into deep contemplation is a necessary qualitythat each bodhisattva must possess. How should he practice contemplation? Having concentrated on a specific object the bodhisattva first registers in his mind that it is motionless and does not move in space. The
next stage is when the bodhisattva observes the outlines of the object,
its contours disappear. Then he sees its colour disappear, its specificfeatures that are usually perceived with one’s sensory organs. Finally, inplace of the object there is a sort of an emptiness. The bodhisattva iscompletely cut off from the reality. In order to return to it he must concentrate on the idea that everything in this world is the result of causeand-effect relationship and comes into being only due to the rise of
causes and the resultant consequences. While restoring, step by step, theexternal and internal features of the object which is being contemplated,the bodhisattva returns into the world of reality. This is one of the earliest, if not the earliest, attempts to explain the term emptiness. Further
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stone which can identify the text as belonging to a specific school ofthought.
I would like to comment on one more detail. We should not confuse
the notions of meditation, contemplation and the shamanism or
vajray āna trance, though meditation is often called trance in scholarly
works. The shaman trance means going beyond the limits of reality, but
it means, at the same time, entering the world of imaginary things andphenomena. The vajrayāna trance is somewhat close to it, as it is aimed
at departing from the real world and merging with one of the deities
carrying vajra, i.e. the gods of the vajrayāna pantheon.
Thus, the second set of qualities that the ideal bodhisattva has to possess according to the Lotus Sūtra is the ability to plunge into contemplation.
The third and the fourth set refer, once again, to the morale of thebodhisattva—the preacher of the Lotus Sūtra.
The third set is concerned with bodhisattva’s great tolerance. He
should not rejoice when detecting mistakes in the speeches and manuscripts of other preachers, and he should not condemn them in public. If
ever he comes across any monks or nuns, or even lay men who want toproceed in bodhisattva’s wake he should not dissuade them, tellingthem about the difficulties they would en-counter on their way, and heshould not plant the seeds of doubt in their souls. In case there are somedisciples among the bodhisattva’s followers who display special interest
towards the dharma, they should not be in any way singled out and get
more teaching than the rest. It is necessary to treat all live creatures withequal compassion. The Buddhas should be treated as one’s own father,and the bodhisattvas of all four world quarters worshipped and respected.
Based on these qualities the obligatory rules of the fourth set areformed: in case there are some people in the audience who neither
believe or understand what is being said, the bodhisattva must treat
them with compassion and promise to direct these people on the way totrue dharma after he has achieved Enlightenment.
If the bodhisattva observes all the rules he will not make any mistakes and will be preaching the Lotus Sūtra among people and gods. “Itis impossible to enumerate all the lands, one cannot run his eyes overthem or list their names, where the Lotus Sūtra should not be read andtaught, where it would not be received with understanding.”
In the Lotus Sūtra Mahāyāna is called bodhisattvayāna or bodhisattva’s vehicle.
The attempts to substantiate the role of the bodhisattva in Buddha’s

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teaching is manifested in other early sutras—the nucleus of Mahāyāna.
One of the first scholars to try and unite these sutras into one canon wasNāgārjuna (150–250 A.D.). He is attributed the authorship of the work
called Sūtrasamuccaya—the Collection of Sutras, which has unfortunately reached us only in the nineth century Tibetan translation and the11th century Chinese translation. To designate Mah āyāna properNāgārjuna uses the word bodhisattva-du s. karācārya, meaning the system of bodhisattva’s behaviour as solving difficult problems. In trying
to protect the Mah āyāna sutras from the critique on the part of theorthodox śr āvakas, Nāgārjuna collected citations from the most wellknown sutras and classified them into 13 major topics. On the whole hecited 68 sutras from the collection, which can thus be considered early
Mah āyāna’s ones. As a basis for his classification Nāg ārjuna took theprinciple of classifying them according to āgamas (in the Pali canon)and nikāyas (in the Sanskrit canon). We are dwelling on this work
because it was the first and only attempt to classify Mah āyāna’s works
as a canon, in the form of tripi t.aka, that had ever taken place in India.
There is no evidence of any other attempts in the Sanskrit Buddhist
texts. So if we are now talking about the Mahāyāna’s tripi t.aka, this title
can only be applied to it in a relative sense. When the Chinese andTibetan translations of Buddhist texts were being codified, they wereclassified according to the principles that were completely different
from the ones mentioned above, the main of them being the division of
the texts into sutras and shastras. The latter included both comments on
the sutras and Buddhist literature by different authors.
To continue, Nāgārjuna cites one earlier sutra which also held thecode for an ideal bodhisattva—it was Mahāratnakūta-s. ūtra, that is theCollection of Treasures. This sutra enjoyed so much authority that starting from the Han epoch (second century A.D.) it was five times translated into Chinese. In the nineth century it was also translated into the
Tibetan language. However, the text that has reached us is the later Sanskrit version of this sutra dated seventh century A.D.. By that time it
had already got the name of K āśyapaparivarta-s ūtra, or Kāshyapa’s
Questions. This manuscript is now displayed at our exhibition, it holds
74 folios. The code of an ideal bodhisattva is worked out here in moredetail. Classification of the actions, types of behaviour and knowledge
is presented, which should be characteristic for a true bodhisattva. In
this sutra the term bodhi-sambhārafirst made its appearance, meaning.
what is necessary to acquire to reach Enlightenment. Extensive use ofthis term in Mahāyāna texts is the evidence of the gradual establishmentof the bodhisattva cult in canonic literature.

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According to Mahāratnakūt.a-sūtra, in order to reach Enlightenmenta bodhisattva has to acquire a number of qualities, which are grouped
into two sets. The first is punya-sa
mbhāra,or the group of merits,.
.
which includes six pāramitās or six kinds of perfection. The first two—d āna, or generosity, and śila, or high morale—contribute to reaching
the other two—k s. ānti, or intellectual receptivity, and virya, or persistence, efficiency of continuous moral effort. The four p āramitās wereprerequisites for reaching the two final ones—dhyāna, or perfect meditation, and prajñ ā-pāramitā, the superior excellence resulting in differentiating comprehension.
The second set of necessary qualities is jñ āna-sambhāra,or the.
knowledge group. It is aimed at penetrating the śūnyat ā, or emptinessthat we have already discussed today. The comprehension of śūnyatā isonly possible through pr ājña. The meaning of this term as given in the
dictionary is wisdom, while its philosophical meaning, which Mahāratnakūt.a-s ūtra deals with, is discoursed intellectual comprehension, differentiating comprehension, that results in jñāna—or absolute intuitive
knowledge.
The teaching about the two types of qualities necessary to acquire
Enlightenment, i.e. of two sambhāras,
was further developed in the.
works by Nāgārjuna and other later sutras.
On the whole the Mahāratnakūt.a-sūtra holds 88 dharmas, 44 of thembelonging to the true bodhisattva—the Sanskrit bh ūta-bodhisattva and,correspondingly, 44 acts, that can be the evidence of the bodhisattva
having lost the qualities of the true bodhisattva and having become
pratirūpaka-bodhisattva, i.e. a bodhisattva by name only. In the generalised sense, the essence of an ideal or true bodhisattva in the Mahāratnakūt.a-s ūtra and in Nāgārjuna’s works can be represented in the formof the following seven components, or bodhi-sambhāra:.
He has command of the four superior psychic states—the Sanskrit
catu-dharmavih āra;
He has command of the five kinds of knowledge beyond all boundaries—abhijñ ā;He possesses all qualities necessary for reaching the jñ āna—theabsolute intuitive knowledge, i.e. he has acquired jñ āna-sambhāra;.
He directs all the live creatures on the way to liberation, regardless of
how good or bad they are, and never leaves them;
He has learned the ways and techniques to convince his audience—up āya-kauśalya. This term, as a quality characteristic of Buddha
received detailed interpretation in the second chapter of the Lotus Sūtraas Expedient Means;

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Everything that he has said or promised is immediately brought intolife;
He is continuously accumulating good merits—pu nya-sa
mbhāra.
.
.
We can thus see that the codex of the ideal bodhisattva that had madeits appearance in the early Mahāyāna texts as a substantiation of the real
help that a bodhisattva can offer to people gradually accumulates
minute details; through this codex, the major philosophical categories of
Mah āyāna are revealed, such as the śūnyat ā, the six p āramit ās and theten lands of bodhisattva, bodhisattva-daśa-bhūmi in Sanskrit, or the 10stage way of a bodhisattva.
Finally, between the second and the fourth centuries some moresutras make their appearance, which describe and classify the featuresof an ideal bodhisattva. Two of them are of most importance; however,they have only reached us in Chinese and Tibetan translations.
Chronologically, the first to appear was the so-called Bodhisattvapi t.aka-sūtra—a sutra, which is a basket of bodhisattva’s qualities. The
second was the Ak s. ayamati-nirdeśa-sūtra—a sutra holding an exhortation to the bodhisattva Ak s. ayamati. The name of this bodhisattva ismentioned in the Lotus Sūtra. Nāg ārjuna’s Sūtra-samuccaya holds 22
citations from Aksayamati-nirdeśa-sūtra. In its turn, Aksayamati.
.
nirdeśa-s ūtra has many citations from Bodhisattva-pit.aka. In spite of
the precise classification of the qualities characteristic of an ideal bodhisattva, both sutras use jātakas to illustrate them, the latter being stories of the early reincarnations of Buddha Shakyamuni. In Bodhisattvapit.aka, for instance, there are 14 stories like that. This serves to support
our suggestion that it was Buddha Shakyamuni who was the prototype
for the image of bodhisattva, while the j ātakas turned out to be the firstworks to hold the image of a bodhisattva. A number of terms that they
have in common with the Lotus Sūtra suggest that all the three sutras
were codified in the same monastic environment. However, the texts of
Ak s. ayamati-nirdeśa and Bodhisattva-pit.aka underwent considerable
editing. This may have taken place beyond Indian borders. Besides
j ātakas, both sutras hold m ātrikas—lists of terms—of abhidharmic
nature, for instance, lists of 80 inexhaustible (in Sanskrit—ak s. aya)skills and attributes of a bodhisattva, for which the j ātakas serve as
sense fillers. The way of a bodhisattva is described in the followingway:
The basis for bodhisattva’s practices is the same, as in the Lotus
Sūtra—it is consecutive mastering of pāramit ās—six perfections—sixfold training. Meanwhile there are some additional details in explanation of this process in the sutras in question: the foundation of all things

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is freedom, which allows a bodhisattva to lead a life of high morale. It
is this behaviour that enables him to take all the hardships patiently thathe encounters on his way. The patient perception of things aroundengenders intrinsic energy. As for meditation, it paves the way to differentiated comprehension—pr ājña-pāramit ā. After achieving differentiated comprehension the bodhisattva continues his earthly existence forthe sake of supporting people. This way is entirely contrary to arhat’s
way in śrāvakayāna. The ability to meditate leads an arhat to the superior birth, further progress on his way to liberation and to the stage of
non-returning—anāgamin.
The second phase on bodhisattva’s way, partly overlapping the first,
is ten stages—or ten lands—daśa-bhūmi. Let us refrain from discussing
each stage, the more so, since they go into detail about reaching the six
p āramit ās. We shall only comment on the last one—dharma megha, or
the stage of differentiating between a multitude of dharmas. This stage
signals bodhisattva’s entrance into contemplation. The one who hasgone through all the ten stages of the way is regarded as possessing thestate of an ideal bodhisattva—bodhisattva-vihār ā h. in Sanskrit.
Thus, the ability to meditate is considered as one of the major bodhisattva’s qualities. Success in meditation is achieved due to the four
qualities which are called unmeasurable (Sanskr. apramā na):benevo.
lence (maitri), compassion (karu nā),
sympathy, joy at seeing the well.
being of live creatures (mudit ā) and composure (upeks. ā). It is these four
qualities that are conducive to free penetration and differentiating comprehension.
Formation of the codex of an ideal bodhisattva entered its final stage
when in the seventh century A.D. the Chinese scholar and translator
Bodhiruchi brought together 49 sutras into one code called
Mah āratnakū t.a. It comprised 24 sutras, which were dealing with some
aspects of the status of an ideal bodhisattva, including Kāśyapaparivarta-sūtra and Bodhisattva-pit.aka-sūtra.
The very bodhisattva-pit.aka is sometimes used in other sutras and literary comments. In parallel to the three pit.akas constituting tripit.aka,
some researchers were of the opinion that it served to denote the fourth,
independent pit.aka of Mahāyāna.1 The analysis of the context in which
this term was used shows that bodhisattva-pit.aka was the name mostoften applied to Mahāyāna itself (cf. bodhisattva or bodhisattva’s vehicle as the name for Mahāyāna in the Lotus Sūtra). In this meaning bodhisattva-pit.aka was contrasted to śr āvakay āna.
Bodhisattva-pit.aka was also used in a different sense. It was used todenote the sutras from Mahāyāna, in contrast to the dh āra nı̄-incanta.

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tions and vajrayāna texts. The Mahāyāna sutras never mentioned themagical skills of bodhisattvas or incantations that could activate them.
What practical lessons can our today’s audience learn from what has
been said? First, support given to the others, mutual support is the major
function of a bodhisattva, which should be inherited by those studying
the Lotus S ūtra today.
Second, it was to bodhisattvas that Buddha bequeathed his greatest
treasure—the Lotus Sūtra. Bodhisattvas should spread it in all theworlds, all the lands and all the corners of the universe. Those who are
studying and spreading the sutra today are fulfilling Buddha’s behest.
One more lesson. The history of the teaching shows that bodhisattva’s image attracted a lot of followers to Mahāyāna. However, broad
masses always crave for a miracle and demand instant help. To satisfy
the public Mahāyāna had to create a pompous ritual of bodhisattva worship. Temple officials and Buddhist clergy often used the profits fromthe influx of believers to their own advantage. Moreover, it was bodhisattva’s image that ultimately became a prototype for the vajrayānatype deities. It happened to be in some Buddhist schools of China especially. The purity of an ideal bodhisattva who had covered a hard way
came to be lost in the vajrayāna. The very voicing of the incantations
was to bring immediate help. This trend in Buddhism deviated quiteconsiderably from its sources, from the teaching about an ideal bodhisattva as a symbol of pure behaviour and profound comprehension of
the world. That is why those who still keep believing in the help of an
ideal bodhisattva are the closest to the lessons taught by Buddha in the
Lotus Sūtra. We can only wish them to follow the same way further on.
Notes
1
See: Ulrich Pagel, The Bodhisattvapitaka.—The
Institute of Buddhist Studies,.
Tring, U.K., 1995.