IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

The Global EV Outlook 2018
Pierpaolo Cazzola - International Energy Agency
Launch event - Institute of Energy Economics Japan, 30 May 2018IEAIEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM)
High-level global forum to promote policies andprograms that advance clean energy technology, toshare lessons learned and best practices, and toencourage the transition to a global clean energy
economy.
Three Main Activities• High-level policy dialogue at annual ministerial
meetings helps advance international collaboration toaccelerate the adoption of clean energy policies andpractices.
• Public-private engagement builds the industry,
government, and civil society cooperation needed toscale up clean energy around the globe.
• Year-round work through action-driven,transformative clean energy initiatives andcampaigns expands the deployment of clean energy
technologies, policies, and practices.

Members

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI)
Multi-government policy forum dedicated to conducting collaborative activities
that support the design and implementation of domestic electric vehicle (EV)deployment policies and programs
In 2010, EVI was one of several initiatives launched under the CEM
Currently co-chaired by Canada and China, and coordinated by the IEA
Released several analytical publications, demonstrating leadership to strengthen
the understanding of the opportunities offered by electric mobility to meet
multiple policy goals

Members

Instrumental to mobilize action and commitments (Paris Declaration on ElectroMobility and Climate Change at COP21, Government Fleet Declaration at COP22)
Launched the EV30@30 Campaign in June 2017
Now launching the Pilot City Programme
Also working with the Global Environment Facility on the preparation of a project for the support of
EV policy-making in developing regionsin 2018

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

EV30@30 Campaign
Designed to accelerate the global deployment of electric vehicles
Sets a collective aspirational goal to reach 30% sales share for EVs by 2030
Launched at the 8th CEM meeting, in Beijing, by Minister Wan Gang
Implementing actions include:• Supporting the deployment of chargers and tracking its progress,• Galvanising public and private sector commitments for electric vehicle (EV)uptake in company and supplier fleets• Scaling up policy research and information exchanges• Supporting governments in need of policy and technical assistance throughtraining and capacity building• Establishing the Global EV Pilot City Programme, aiming to achieve 100 EVFriendly Cities over five years

Supported buy several partners

Members

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Global EV Outlook 2018

• EVI flagship report by the IEA• 2018 edition includes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Data reporting (EV stock, sales, EVSE, battery costs)
Overview of existing policies
Battery technology and cost assessment
Implications on the TCO of road vehicles
Role of EVs in low carbon scenarios (2030 timeframe)
Electricity demand, oil displacement and GHG emission mitigation
Material demand
Policy recommendations• 2018 edition also paired with the Nordic EV Outlook 2018••

Focus on one of the most dynamic global regions for EV uptake
Opportunity to learn on policy efficacy and consumer behaviour

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

The number of electric cars on the road continues to growElectric car stock (millions)

3.5

Others3.0
United States

2.5
2.0

Europe

1.5
China
1.0
0.5

BEV

0.0

BEV + PHEV

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

The electric car stock exceeded 3 million in 2017
However, electric cars still only represent 0.3% of the global car fleet

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Electric car sales are on the rise in all major car markets
640

China

40%

Europe
35%

480

30%

400

25%

320

20%

240

15%

2017

2013

2017

2013

2017

2013

2017

2013

2017

2013

2017

2013

2017

2013

2017

0%
2013

0
2017

5%

2017
2013

80

2013

10%

2017

160

Electric car market share

United States

2013

New electric car sales ([thousands)

560

NorwayGermanyJapan
United Kingdom
FranceSwedenCanadaNetherlands
Market share of newelectric cars

China is the largest electric car market globally, followed by Europe and the US
Norway is the global leader in terms of market share, with 40% in 2017

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Electric mobility is not limited to cars

Electric 2-wheelers: major phenomenon in China, where there are 250 million in the rolling stock and30 million sales per year
Low Speed Electric Vehicles: estimated at 4 million units in China (sales above 1 million). Not favoured
by policy support but by cost and practicality (small size, no driving license/registration required)
Buses: 360 000 in China. Close to 90 000 sales in 2017 . Stimulated by policy support.
Growing interest in C40 cities (better economics: not only pollution and climate-driven phenomenon)

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

EV uptake is still largely driven by the policy environment• All 10 leading countries in electric vehicle adoption have a range of policies in place topromote the uptake of electric cars
• Policies have been instrumental to make electric vehicles more appealing to customers,
reduce risks for investors and encourage manufacturers to scale up production• Key instruments deployed by local and national governments for supporting EV
deployment:o public procuremento financial incentives facilitating the acquisition of EVs and reducing their usage cost (e.g.
by offering free parking)o financial incentives and direct investment for the deployment of chargers
o regulatory instruments, such as fuel economy standards and restrictions on thecirculation of vehicles based on their tailpipe emissions performanceIEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

2017 policy updates: China• New Energy Vehicle (NEV) credits mandateo Target of the NEV credit mandate is 10% of the passenger car
market in 2019, and 12% in 2020
• Vehicle Subsidy Program: subsidies for the purchase of electric cars,
dependent on three characteristics: the vehicle range (in km), energy
efficiency (in kWh/100km) and battery pack energy density (in Wh/kg)• Electric bus sales in China also promoted primarily by subsidies
o Started in 2009 by the central government, supplemented by support from local
authorities (pilot cities) and progressively reduced over timeo Policy update in 2017 to prevent fraud: overall subsidy reduced and converted into
operational subsidies to target the support scheme to transit operators of electric buses• China is considering a national ban on ICE cars running on fossil fuels

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

2017 policy updates: European Union• Update of the CO2 emissions standards for new cars and LCVs (to 2030)
o Inclusion of an incentive scheme aiming to stimulate the uptake ofzero- and low-emission vehicles
o The incentive scheme reduces (by up to 5%) the overall CO2 target
for manufacturers that exceed the 2025 (15%) and 2030 (30%) lowand zero-emission vehicle market share thresholds (shares calculated using weights)
o No penalty for non-compliance of low-or zero emission targets• France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Sweden, UK (+ Norway) pledged to end sales of
ICEVs by 2030 to 2040
• Selected examples of policies on zero emission buses:
o Public procurement (Clean Vehicles Directive)o Netherlands: aims for all emissions-free bus sales by 2025 & all-electric stock by 2030
o C40 fossil-fuel-free streets declaration: only electric buses would added to the municipal
fleets of Barcelona, Copenhagen, London, Milan, Oxford and Paris (plus others globally)• EU roadmap: aim to reduce its GHG emissions by 80% in 2050 compared with 1990 levelso Emissions from transport could be reduced to more than 60% below 1990 levels by 2050

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

2017 policy updates: India• Dynamic situation:o FAME: incentive scheme that reduces the upfront purchase price ofhybrid and electric vehicles (launched in 2015)o April 2017: vision aiming to have an all-electric vehicle fleet by 2030
o September 2017: Tata Motors won 1st public procurement EV tender
by EESLo December 2017: SIAM white paper proposing a pathway towards all new vehicle sales
being all electric by 2047 and 100% of intra-city public transport as all electric by 2030
o February 2018: Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises stated that it had not
set any target for electric cars for 2030 and referred back to FAME scheme for EV policy
o February 2018: launch of the National E-Mobility Programme by the Ministry of Power.
Focusing on creating the charging infrastructure and a policy framework so that by 2030
more than 30% of vehicles in India are electric• Greater coordination needed, but positive signs for EVs

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

2017 policy updates: United States• Federal level revision of fuel economy standards announced in April 2018
Details of new standards still unknown• California (granted a waiver by EPA to regulate CO2 emissions) vowed tostick with the stricter ruleso A number of other States followed California on this
• ZEV mandate also increased in ambition in California and other Stateso 1.5 million ZEVs and 15% of effective sales by 2025, 3.3 million in 8 States combined (California,
Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont)o Target of 5 million ZEVs by 2030 in California• There is a risk of a double standard in the US market
o More stringent rules for cars sold in California and the States that follow its leado Weaker rules for the rest of the States

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

National and local announcements for EVs and towards the end of ICEs

+ EV30@30 and country/state-level EV targets

ICE phase-out pledges have been mainly announced in Europe
China has also mentioned that it is considering the ICE phase out

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Charger deployment accompanies EV uptake
4 000

Charging outlets (thousands)

3 500
3 000

2 500

Publicly available fast chargers

2 000

Publicly available slow chargers
Private fast chargers (bus fleets)

1 500

Private slow chargers (cars)

1 000
500
0
2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

EV owners charge mostly at home or at work: private chargers far exceed publicly accessible ones
Publicly accessible chargers important to ensure EV market expansion, fast chargers essential for buses

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Charger deployment also currently supported by policy
120

900
100

800
700

80

600
500

60

400

40

300
200

km/charging station

Major markets such as China, theEuropean Union and the UnitedStates clearly have ramped up theirambition to install fast charging
facilities along highways

Target number of charging stations

1 000

20

100
0

China

EU

US

0

Minimum distance targeted between two
highway chargers (right axis)

Cities are using a variety ofmeasures to support charger
deployment
Four main categories: targets,financial incentives, regulatory
requirements (building codes) anddirect deployment of chargers

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

EVs lead to higher electricity demand…
Electricity demand due to EVs: 54 TWh (more than the electricity demand of Greece)

EV electricity consumption (TWh)60

50

United States
40

China

30
20

10
0
2015
2 Wheeler

2016
Bus

2017

Other

FranceNorwayGermanyJapan
United Kingdom
Netherlands
CanadaOthersLDVAround 91% of the power for electric vehicles in 2017 was consumed in China
The share of electricity demand from EVs was 0.8% in China and 0.5% in Norway

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018…but they enable reductions in oil use, GHG & pollutant emissions• EVs consume (in final energy terms) half to one third of the energy used by
ICE powertrainso This is due both to the higher efficiency of the powertrain and the EVs’ ability toregenerate kinetic energy when braking• EVs displaced 0.4 mb/d of diesel and gasoline demand in 2017o The majority of the displacement is attributed to two- and three-wheelers (73%), therest to buses (15%) and LDVs (12%)• EVs also allowed to reduce global well-to-wheel CO2 emission savings of
29.4 Mt CO2 in 2017, and abated pollutant emission savings in high exposureareas (urban environments), thanks to zero tailpipe emissions

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

EV batteries
Technology development and costs

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

The role of consumer electronics for Li-ion battery improvements

1995

2013
2010
2010

2016
2015

2017

2016

Consumer electronics led to cost declines (through technology progress and scale) for Li-ion in the past
This benefited both EV packs, now set to deliver the next scale up, and stationary storage

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Li-ion expected as the technology of choice for the next decadeCathodeAnodeElectrolyte

Current

Being deployed

Next generation
Lithium-ion

NMC111
N0.8C0.15A0.05

NMC622
N0.9C0.05A0.05

NMC811Graphite

Carbon alloys

Organic solvent +LiPF6 salts

2017

2020

Gel Polymer

Advanced
Lithium-ion

BeyondLithium-ion

Li Metal,
HVS

Graphite +Graphite/Silicon composite
5-10% Silicon

5V electrolyte
salts

2025

Li-Air
Li-Sulphur

Polymer2030

Li-ion will continue to improve, thanks to several enhancements possible in battery performance
Other technology options will be ready after 2025, and scaled up in the following years

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Li-ion improvements: effects of size & production volumes on costs

Note: graphics developed for BEV batteries for cars

Battery size and manufacturing capacities have sizable impacts on the cost of batteries per kWh
Over time, both these factors will help delivering significant cost reductions

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Lithium-ion batteries: further cost reductions at reach…

Battery costs (USD/kWh)

400

360

0.5-8 GWh/year

35 GWh/year

2017

2030

Plant scale
250

Other materials

70-80 kWh

2017

2030

Battery jacket

200
Battery cost (USD/kWh)20-75 kWh
Module hardware

150

Electrolyte
Separators

Battery size

100

Negative active material
Positive active material

50

Other cost components
0
LFP-GrNMC 111-Gr

NCA-Gr

NMC622-Gr NMC 811-Gr

Cathode chemistry

Chemistry155
NMC 111

NMC 811

2017

2030

120
100

0
2017

2030

The combined effect of manufacturing scale up, improved chemistry and increased battery size
explain how battery cost can decline significantly in the next 10 to 15 years20 20 20-0.15

Annual mileage (thousand km/year)… and this has implications for the cost competitivenessof EVs-0.2

15 15 15

-0.2

Annual mileage (th10 10 10

Low income
0.2

Gasoline
price:USD USD
0.8 /L- 15 price:- 15- 15
Small car- Gasoline
1.5 /L
600

Annualmileage(thousandkm) USD 0.8 /L
Annualmileage(thousandkm)km)
Annualmileage(thousandGasoline
price:

0- 400- 5 1030 30 - 30
10

- 15
- 20

- 600

40 40 40- 800
-1 000

Annualmileage(thouandl mileage(thouandkm)km) km)
nual
mileage(thouand400 USD/kWh:Largebattery
400400USD/kWh:
Large
battery
USD/kWh:
Large
battery

20 20 20
15 15 15

400

4000

10 10 10
5 5

20

5

0 0 0
50 10- 5 1050 50- 5 -10
5- 10- 10 - 10
- 15- 15 - 15

Cost difference (USD)

Cost difference (USD)

5

0
1000
- 200

600
Large
- Gasoline
price:
0.8 /L
Large
car- Gasoline
price:
0.8USD
/L /L
Large
car
-car
Gasoline
price:
USD
0.8
400USD

Cost difference (USD)

0

7000

0
1000
- 200
1000
30
40
- 200

400 2020- 20
- 600
- 800

- 400

30 30 30

- 600
- 800

10

400

200

200

600

200100005

001000 7000
4000 - 200
50 - 5 104000

40
40 40- 400
- 600

50
50 50
- 10

- 15

- 800

600

200

400

0
1000
- 200
7000

4000 10000
20

- 400
- 600
- 800

200

7000

- 600

600

400

30

1000
- 200
- 400

Gasoline price: USD 1.5 /L

600
Gasoline price: USD 1.5 /L
Gasoline
price:
0.1 USD 1.5 /L

4000

10000
0

Diesel price of USD 1.4 /L, electricity price of USD 0.13 /kWh

0.15

0.05

200

0

400
200

0 700010000
25 0 30
1000404000
501000 7000
4000
- 200
-0.05
- 200

- 400 -0.1
- 600

-0.15

35

- 400

40
7000

4000 10000

45

7000

- 600

0.15

0.1
0.05
10000
0 50

10000

25

30

-0.05

260 USD/kWh:Largebattery
260260USD/kWh:
Large
battery
USD/kWh:
Large
battery

120 USD/kWh:Largebattery
120120USD/kWh:
Large
battery
USD/kWh:
Large
battery180
USD/kWh180 USD/kWh

400 USD/kWh400 USD/kWh400 USD/kWh
600 USD/kWh
180 USD/kWh

55
35

40

0.1

0.05
0

-0.05

25

45

30
50

-0.1

600 USD/kWh
600 USD/kWh

400 USD/kWh

-0.15
-0.2

Annual mileage (thousand km/year) Annual mileag
260 USD/kWh

120 USD/kWh

20

20

Low income

1515Diesel price of USD 1.4 /L, electricity price of USD 0.13 /kWh10
BEVs
are most competitive5
in0 markets with high fuel40
- 5 10taxes
and20at high30 mileage- 10
At- 15 a USD 120/kWh battery
- 20
price
andAnnualwith
EU gasoline
mileage (thouand km)
prices,
BEV arecompetitive
Battery
price:
400 USD/kWh:
Large battery
USD/kWh: Current battery
even at low 400
mileage

The economic case for5electric two-wheelers is050 - 5 102030
40
strong:in countries
with50- 10high fuel taxes electric
- 15
- 20
two-wheelers
areAnnual mileage (thousandkm) alreadycost
competitive
260 USD/kWh: Large
battery
120 USD/kWh: with
Large battery
260 USD/kWh: Current battery
120 USD/kWh: Current battery
gasoline models
10

35
55

-0.1

- 20
Annual mileage
(km)
-0.15
800
-1 000 -1 000- 800 Annual -mileage-1 000(km)- 800
- 20- 20 - 20
Annualkm)
Annual(km)mileage (km)Annual mileageAnnual(thousandkm)
AnnualAnnual mileage(km)mileage (thousand
Annualmileage(thousandkm) mileage
mileage(thousandkm)km)
Annualmileage(thousand-0.2Annual mileage Annual
mileage(km)(km)
Annualmileage (km) -0.2
180 USD/kWh
400 USD/kWh
600 USD/kWh Annual mileage (thousand km/year)

Large car - Gasoline price: USD 0.8 /L
Small
car
- Gasoline
price:USD
0.8/L 120120
400 USD/kWh:Current
battery
260 USD/kWh:Current
battery
120 USD/kWh:Current
battery
400400USD/kWh:
Current
battery
260260USD/kWh:
Current
battery
USD/kWh:
Current
battery
USD/kWh:
Current
battery
USD/kWh:
Current
battery
USD/kWh:
Current
battery
Cost difference (thousand USD)

10000

0.2

Dies

0.15

0.2
Electric
buses travelling
0.15
40 000-50000 km/year are
0.1
cost0.05competitive in regions
0
with-0.05highdieseltaxation
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
-0.1
regimes
if battery prices
are -0.15
below
USD 260/kWh-0.2

TCO differential (ICE-BEV)(USD/km)

Cost difference (thousand USD)

20600
price:400
USD 0.8 /L
15Gasoline
price: USD 0.8 /LGasoline

15

Gasoline
price:
0.8200/L
eineprice:USD
0.8USD/L /L
price:
USD
0.8
10

600

20

- 20- 20 - 20

0.2

High income

Large car -Gasoline
Gasolineprice:
price:USD
USD 1.5
1.5 /L/L

Cost difference (USD)

20

Annualmileage(thousandal mileage(thousandkm)km)
nnual
mileage(thousand
400km)

Diesel price of USD 0.9 /L, electricity pric
Buses

Diesel price of USD 1.4 /L, electricity price of USD 0.13 /kWh2-wheelers

Dies

TCO differential (ICE-BEV)50 50 50

TCO differential (ICE-BEV)(USD/km)

LDVs
- BEV
- 10- 10 - 1040 40 40

TCO differential (ICE-BEV)(USD/km)30 30 30

Cost difference (USD)

20 20 20

TCO differential (ICE-BEV)(USD/km)

40 40 40

Cost difference (USD)

30 30 30

Cost difference (USD)

20

5

0 0 0
50 50- 5 50
- 5 10-10
5 10

Cost difference (USD)

5 5

TCO differential (ICE-BEV)(USD/km)

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

-0.15

Large
- Gasoline
price:
1.5 /L
Large
car- Gasoline
price:USD
1.5USD
/L /L
Large
car
-car
Gasoline
price:
USD
1.5

Gasoline
price:
1.5 /Lneprice:USD
1.5USD/L /Loline
price:
USD
1.5

Annual mileage (thousand km/year)

400 USD/kWh

260 USIEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

OutlookIEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Million vehicles

Global EV deployment under the NPS and the EV30@30 scenario

240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2017
PLDVs - BEV

New Policies Scenario

2020
PLDVs - PHEV

2025
LCVs - BEV

240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2030 2017
LCVs - PHEV

Buses - BEV

EV30@30 Scenario

2020
Buses - PHEV

2025
Trucks - BEV

2030
Trucks - PHEVThe EV30@30 Scenario sees almost 230 million EVs (excluding two- and three-wheelers), mostly LDVs,
on the road by 2030. This is about 100 million more than in the New Policies Scenario

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Benchmarking scenario results against OEM targets for PLDVs
250

Million electric LDVs

200
150
100
50
0
2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

OEMs announcements (estimate)

2024

2025

2026

2027

New Policies Scenario

2028

2029

EV30@30

Estimates based on manufacturers’ projections suggest an uptake of electric LDVs
ranging in-between the New Policies and the EV30@30 scenarios by 2025

2030

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Regional insights on the GEVO 2018 scenarios

Market share (%)

EV market share bymode in a selectionof regions, NPS and
EV30@30 scenario,
2030

100%

China

Europe

100%

80%

80%

80%

60%

60%

60%

40%

40%

40%

20%

20%

20%

0%

0%

0%

NPS
100%

Market share (%)

100%

BEV

EV30@30
PHEV

NPS

BEV

EV30@30
PHEV

NPS

100%

100%

80%

80%

80%

60%

60%

60%

40%

40%

40%

20%

20%

20%

0%

0%

0%

NPS
BEV

EV30@30
PHEV

BEV

EV30@30
PHEV

Rest of the World

India

United States

Japan

NPS
BEV

EV30@30
PHEV

NPS

BEV

EV30@30
PHEV

China and Europe are the global regions with the fastest development of EVs
in both scenarios and in virtually all modes

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Power demand projections

TWh

United States
300

300

250

250

250

200

200

200

150

150

150

100

100

100

50

50

50

0

NPS

0

0

EV30@30

NPS

300

300

250

250

250

200

200

200

150

150

150

100

100

100

50

50

50

0
NPS

EV30@30

PLDV

LCV

EV30@30

Rest of the World
300

0

NPS

EV30@30

India

Japan

TWh

China

Europe300

0NPS

Bus and Minibus

EV30@30

HDV

NPS

EV30@30

2/3 wheelers

Two-wheeler and bus electricity demand make China the highest consumer of electricity for EVs in bothscenarios. In the EV30@30 Scenario, electricity demand for EVs is more geographically widespreadIEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

GHG emissions

Mt CO₂800

EV30@30

NPS

800

700

700

600

600

500

500

400

400

300

300

200

200

100

100

0
0
2017
2020
2025
2030
2017
Avoided emissions, without grid decarbonisation, compared to equivalent ICE fleet
Avoided emissions due to grid decarbonisation
Emissions from EVs

2020

2025

2030

In 2030, CO2 emissions associated with the use of EVs is lower than those of equivalent ICE vehicles at a
global scale, even if electricity generation does not decarbonise from current levels

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

2 500

2 500
2 000
1 500
1 000
500
0

2017

2020

2025
NPS

EV30@30

2030

Battery capacity additions (GWh/year), 2030

Battery capacity additions (GWh/year), 2030

Battery capacity

2 000

1 500
1 000

500
0

NPS
LDVs-BEV

LDVs-PHEV

EV30@30
Buses

Trucks2/3 Wheelers

Demand for battery capacity for electric vehicles, primarily PLDVs, is projected to increase to 0.78 TWh
per year in the New Policies Scenario and 2.2 TWh per year in the EV30@30 Scenario and to 2030

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Material demand
Cobalt

350

350

300

300

250
200
150

100

250
200
150
100

50

50

0

0
NPS
2017
Historical

Lithium

400

Metal Demand (kt)

Metal Demand (kt)

400

2030
Low cobalt chemistry

2030

2017
High cobalt chemistry

EV30@30

NPS

EV30@30

Central estimate

Lithium and cobalt demand from electro mobility in 2030 will be much higher than current demand
Developments in battery chemistry can greatly affect future demand

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

Policies favouring the transition to electric mobility• Carbon pricing of fuels• Public procurement• Bridging the price gap• Emission regulations/fuel economy standards• Local initiatives to regulate access• Complementing fuel taxes with road pricing• Supporting the roll out of private and public chargers• Achieving demand- and business-driven EVSE development• Ensuring that EVs are effectively integrated in the electricity grid
• Managing changes in material demand from EV batteries• Managing the battery end-of-life treatment

IEEJ：May 2018 © IEEJ2018

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