Funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan

Feasibility Survey Project on Agricultural
Mechanization for the Small Scale Farmers in
Sub Sahara Africa-Acceleration of Agri-Business Final Report –First Year-

March 2014

Japan Association for International
Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry

Preface
In East Africa, the rapid population growth is causing a quantitative expansion for the demand of food, and the
production of rice and wheat cannot keep up with demand due to the change in people’s taste. There are various
factors to the problem, but their inability to free many farmers from agriculture depending on rainwater and humanpower is a hindrance. The mechanization of agriculture is noted as one of ways to overcome this difficulty.
Based on the circumstances, we, JAICAF, with subsidies from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries ofJapan, dispatched specialists from Japan to implement an agricultural mechanization feasibility test for small scale
farmers and survey of the current state of mechanization. As for the feasibility test, we conducted a test by introducing
a power tiller to a upland rice farm located in swampy areas in Uganda which used rainwater for growing rice. Basedon the NGO’s power tiller introduction case, we researched durability and changes in farming. As for the survey ofthe surrounding situations, we examined information related to the mechanization in Uganda and Tanzania. In thisproject, we specially dealt with mechanization issues in both countries and their efforts to tackle these issues. As theresult of these activities, we came to realize some mechanized farming improvements and some technical issues.
In this report, we put together the outline and the results of the above activities. We expect that our project results
will contribute to the mechanization of the region and also be utilized by private companies as well as international
cooperation related parties. We will be pleased if our report is of help to those concerned.
To implement and operate this project, we received a large amount of support from each specialist dispatched to thesite. Also, the expert committee which was separately established in JAICAF head quarters gave us guidance andadvice on planning of this project and the evaluation study. Furthermore, for the activities by our specialists in the
countries in concern, we received cooperation from the Japan International Cooperation Agency, Uganda Office,
Rice Promotion Project for Hunger and Poverty Reduction in Uganda, and National Agriculture Research
Organization of Uganda affiliated Agricultural Engineering and Appropriate Technology Research Centre. We
deeply appreciate their cooperation.
Lastly, we wish to make clear that this report was made based on our association and does not represent the opinionof the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and the Japanese Government.

March, 2014
Ryuzo Nishimaki, President
Japan Association for International
Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestryi

ii

Project Map
JAICAF made the map based on “UGANDA – UBOS District Shapefile（District boundaries 2012）”, “Uganda
Districts Information Handbook Expanded Edition 2011-2012” and Google Physical layer.
(http://www.fspmaps.com/dataportal/content/uganda-ubos-districts-shapefile：access date March 12th 2014)

iii

iv

Project Pictures

Pic１
Poverty

Rice Promotion Project for Hunger andReductionin

Ugandain

Pic４

Weeding with power tiller and weeder.

Pic５

Weeding with human power

Pic６

Feasibility test of reaper.

NaCRRI.

Agricultural machinery storehouse (center)

Pic２

Feasibility test of power tiller infarmers’ field.

Pic３

Ploughing with human power.

v

Pic７

Harvesting with human power.

Pic10

Rice

millingcomparison

test:

Engelberg Mill (left) and Mill Top (right)

Pic８

Threshing with throwing-type thresher.

Pic11

A

farmerinNankoma,Bugirihas

received support from VECO and obtained power
tiller.

Pic９

Pic12

Threshing by human power consumes time

Farmers in Nankoma area utilize power

tiller for transportation of harvest, bricks

and loses too much of their harvest.

and many other materials.

vi

Pic13

Damageinclutch

lever

is

often

Pic16

reported. Genuinespares are not obtainable,

A worn out tire. Surface is reduced andwire is exposed, but spars are not locallyobtainable.

Pic14

Trailer draw-bar is the most damageable

Pic17

part.

A v-belt not adjusted properly. Even

if durability reduces from inappropriate
adjustment, farmers cannot do anything.

Pic15

A mouldboardplough mended many times.

Pic18

It gets bent often because soil is hard.

A set of tools owned by power tillers

owner. He does not even have tools. These are
not enough for maintaining a power tiller.

vii

Pic19Power tiller training with cooperation

Pic25

AEATREC does trial manufacture andof AEATREC. As for farmer training, basic

maintenance of agricultural machineries. They

operations were taught.

are supporting power tiller owners as well.

Pic20

Higherlevel

farmertraining.

Pic26

Agricultural machinery sales agency:

Technical lessons such as adjustment are

CMC distributing four wheel tractors such as

taught.

New Holland

Pic21

Pic27

Mechanic training. Basic maintenance,

disassemble

andcleaning

weretaught.

Agricultural machinery sales agency:

ENGSOL is sellingMassey Ferguson four wheel
tractors.

viii

Pic22Demonstration of power tiller. More

Pic28

Swampland abandoned by a rice grower

than a hundred of farmers participated andbecause of the distance from home and laboursome considers purchasing one.

shortage.

Pic23

Pic29

Demonstration of power tiller and maizesheller.

Thisdemonstrationhas

A set of made-in-China power tiller

beendisplayed at business exhibition in Lira.

announced via radio to reach as many farmers.

Demand for agricultural machinery is high.

Pic24

Pic30

Demonstration of reaper caught many

women attention.

Second hand tractors distributed by

NUAC in outskirt of Nwaya. Major customers
are large scale estate owners.

ix

Pic31

Tanzania:

Lower

Moshi

irrigation

Pic34

scheme (Paddy rice field).

Tanzania:Japanesemaker’spowertiller owned by a villager in Lekitatu, Arush.
The owner is struggling to get spare parts.

Pic32

Tanzania: Privately owned tractor at

Pic35

lower Moshi irrigation scheme.（Japanese brand）

Open seminar (Tokyo): Many joined theseminar from agro-machinery manufacturers,
international cooperation agencies, and so on.

Pic33

Wheel of the tractor from Pic32. A bolt

Pic36

Progress report seminar(JICA Uganda

is missing. Lacks technical knowledge andOffice, Uganda): Many participated including

basic maintenance is not properly done.

people from private entitiesxAbbreviations List
ACE
ACF
AEATREC
AICAD
AO
ASA
BAIDA
CARD
CHAWAMPU
DADP
DSIP
EAAPP
FAO
FIP
IAEA
IFAD
IRRI
JICA
KADC
KADP
KATC
KNCU
LMIS
LOMIA
MAAIF
MDGs
MFIS
MSC
NAADS
NAFCO
NARL
NaCRRI
NAP
NARO
NDP
NEC

Area-Cooperative Enterprise
Agricultural Credit Facility
Agricultural Engineering and Appropriate Technology
Research Centre
Project for Construction of African
Institute for African Development
Agricultural Officer
Agricultural Seed Agency
Bugiri Agri-business andInstitutions Development Association
Coalition for African Rice Development
Chama cha Wakulima wa Mpunga
District Agricultural Development Plan
Development Strategy andInvestment Plan
Project of the Eastern Africa Agricultural Productivity
ProgramFood and Agriculture Organization
Framework Implementation Plan
International Atomic Energy Agency
International Fund for
Agricultural Development
International Rice Research InstituteJapan International Cooperation
AgencyKilimanjaro Agricultural Training Centre
Kilimanjaro Agricultural Development
Project
Kilimanjaro Agricultural Training Centre
Kilimanjaro Native Cooperative Union
Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme
Lower Moshi Irrigators Association
Ministry of Agriculture, AnimalIndustry and Fisheries
Millennium Development Goals
Micro Finance Institutions
Microfinance Support Center Ltd.
National Agricultural Advisory
ServiceNational Agricultural and Food
Corporation
National Agricultural Research Laboratory
Namulonge Crops Resource
Research InstituteNational Agriculture Policy
National Agriculture Research
Organization
National Development Plan
National Enterprise Corporation

xi

NIS
NUAC
NVTI
RPO
RYMV
SAA
SACCO
SACCOS
SAGOT
SIAD
SUA
TICAD IV
T.Shs
UBOS
UCA
UCSCU
UNIDO
UNRDS
USAID
Ush
VECO
VLSA
WARDA
WFP
WUA
ZARDI
ZARI

Ndungu Irrigation Scheme
NorthernUganda Agricultural Centre
Nakawa Vocational Training Institute
Rural Producer Organizations
Rice Yellow Mottle Virus
Sasakawa Africa Association
Saving And Credit Cooperative
Organizations
Saving and Credit Cooperative SocietySouthern Agriculture Growth Corridor
Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture
Development Project in Eastern Uganda
Sokoine University of Agriculture
Tokyo International Conference for
African Development IV
Tanzania Shilling
Uganda Bureau of Statistics
Uganda Co-operative Alliance Ltd.
Uganda Cooperative Saving and Credit
Union Limited
United Nation Industrial Development
Organization
Uganda National Rice Development
Strategy
US Agency forInternational
Development
Uganda shilling
Vredeseilande Country Office
Village Savings and Loans Association（現 Africa Rice Center）
World Food Program
Water User Associations
Zonal Agricultural Research andDevelopment InstituteZanzibar Agricultural Research Institute

1 USD = 2,508.94Ush (http://ja.exchange-rates.org/Rate/USD/UGX, 2014/03/12)
1 USD = 1,626.06T.Shs (http://ja.exchange-rates.org/Rate/USD/TZS, 2014/03/12)

xii

Feasibility Survey Project on Agricultural Mechanization
for the Small Scale Farmers in Sub Sahara Africa-Acceleration of Agri-Business Final Report –First Year―Table of Contents―
Chapter 1:

Project Report Summary .............................................................................. 1

1. Purpose of the project ................................................................................................. 1
2. Contents of the project................................................................................................ 1
3. Summary of the project results .................................................................................. 2
1) Feasibility experiment ............................................................................................ 2
2) Follow up of introduction of power tiller ................................................................ 33) Supplemental research ........................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2:

Research Result on Development and Promotion of Agricultural

Mechanization .................................................................................................................... 5
1. Current situation of agricultural mechanization ...................................................... 5
1) Overview of Agricultural Mechanization ............................................................... 52) Experimental research of agricultural machinery ................................................ 63) Education and training institution ........................................................................ 74) Local production of agricultural machinery .......................................................... 95) Agricultural machinery dealer ............................................................................. 10
6) Private tractor hiring services.............................................................................. 10
7) Providing agricultural machinery through extension institutions ..................... 128) Machinery use amongst farmers .......................................................................... 139) Medium and large scale rice millers .................................................................... 14
10) Small scale rice milling machine ........................................................................ 15
2. The Current State of Agricultural Credit ................................................................ 15
1) Introduction........................................................................................................... 152) Overview of Forms of Private Financial Institutions and Related Laws andRegulations .......................................................................................................... 163) The Government’s Measures and Policies for Agricultural Credit Support and
Trends in Agricultural Lending in Regulated Financial Institution ................. 174) Agricultural Funds Borrowing and Access to Financial Institutions ................. 21
5) The Present Situation of SACCO as Suggested by the Results of Interview ..... 24
6) Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 28
xiii

Chapter 3: Feasibility Experiment Results..................................................................... 31
1. Field tests in NaCCRI .............................................................................................. 31
1) Test method ........................................................................................................... 31
2) Test results ............................................................................................................ 32
2. Farming Experiment around NaCRRI .................................................................... 37
1) Test method ........................................................................................................... 37
2) Test results ............................................................................................................ 37
3. Power tiller Introduction Test Follow-up Results by VECO ................................... 41
1) Background ........................................................................................................... 41
2) Follow up results ................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 4: Development of Agricultural Business and its Challenges .......................... 47
1. Challenges for farmers ............................................................................................. 47
1) Mechanization of ploughing ................................................................................. 47
2) Improvement of ploughing.................................................................................... 47
3) Machine hiring service/human labour and their distribution ............................ 48
4) Value addition ....................................................................................................... 48
5) For purchasing agricultural machinery ............................................................... 48
2. Challenges for Ugandan companies ......................................................................... 48
1) Distributers ........................................................................................................... 48
2) Agricultural machinery manufacturers ............................................................... 49
3. Challenges for Japanese companies ........................................................................ 49
1) Supply of spare parts ............................................................................................ 49
2) Determination of breakdown causes .................................................................... 50
3) Operation induction and technical support ......................................................... 50
4) Publicity and advertisement ................................................................................ 50
5) Latest agricultural machinery importation situation ......................................... 51
Chapter 5: Outline of rice growing promotion cooperation between Tanzania and Japan........................................................................................................................................... 55
1. Current Status of Rice Cultivation .......................................................................... 55
2. Historical background .............................................................................................. 56
3. Study on Rice (mainly variety improvement) .......................................................... 58
4. Irrigated Rice Cultivation Development and Cooperation in Kilimanjaro Region 60
5. Training for Promotion of Rice Cultivation across Tanzania .................................. 64
1) KATC Plan to KATC Phase II Plan ....................................................................... 64
2) From Tanrice to Tanrice 2 ...................................................................................... 66
3) Collaboration with the irrigation development ..................................................... 71
xiv

6. Development Trend of Rice Cultivation in Tanzania .............................................. 72
1) Rice-Getting popular .............................................................................................. 72
2) Direction of Rice Development ............................................................................... 74
3) Farm Tools and Agricultural Machines ................................................................. 75
7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 77
ANNEX
ANNEX I-1

AEATRECverification test report (Report on Feasibility Survey on

Suitability of Mechanization with Small Agricultural Machinery for Smallholder
Farmers in Uganda)
ANNEX I-2

AEATREC training report (1) (Practical Training of Untrained Farmers

and Operators on Use of Power Tillers and Their Implements in Feasibility Survey Areaof Bugiri in Uganda)
ANNEX I-3

AEATREC training report (2) (Practical Training of Mechanics on

Operation and Repair of Power Tillers in Feasibility Survey Area of Bugiri in Uganda)
ANNEX I-4

AEATREC training report (3) (Refresher Training of Farmers, Operatorsand Mechanics on Use of Power Tillers and Their Implements in Feasibility Survey Areaof Bugiri in Uganda)
ANNEX II-1

DSIP

ANNEX III-1

FIP mechanization

ANNEX IV

Agricultural Credit Facility (ACF)

ANNEX V Tanzania Agricultural Mechanization Strategy (TAMS)

xv

xvi

Chapter 1 Project Report Summary
1. Purpose of ProjectIn the region of sub-Sahara Africa, the number of undernourished people accounts for a highpercentage of about 30% of the whole population. Moreover, poverty and starvation are increasingly
serious problems in this region due to the hikes of food prices worldwide in recent years. To solvethese problems, it is important to ensure the food security in this region and reduce poverty. The
measures to achieve these objectives include promoting increase in agricultural products andimprovement of their productivity through direct investments in agriculture which is the key industry
in sub-Sahara Africa.
Based on this recognition, Subsidized Project of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,"2013 Model Project for Demonstration of Development and Promotion of Agribusiness in SubSahara Africa" (hereinafter referred to as this project) was implemented with the aim of promoting
investments in agribusiness targeting farmers in the region of sub-Sahara Africa as well as increasing
incomes of local farmers and reducing poverty by conducting a demonstrative experiment to increase
production volume of agricultural products and improve their productivity through investments inmaterials and equipment, including agricultural machinery which was introduced in the region using
a rental or leasing system.

2. Contents of Project
As the target countries of this project, Republic of Uganda (hereinafter Uganda) and the United
Republic of Tanzania (hereinafter Tanzania) were selected from the countries located in sub-Sahara
Africa. In Uganda, a demonstrative experiment and its supplementary research were conducted. In
addition, in Tanzania, a supplementary research of the demonstrative experiment was conducted topromote investments in agribusiness for farmers in a wider area in the sub-Sahara Africa region.
In this demonstrative experiment, power tillers, grain threshers and rice milling machines wereintroduced mainly to farmers engaged in growing upland rice to verify the performance of each
agricultural machine and to what extent those machines could contribute to the improvement of
productivity of labor. In Uganda, as there were farmers who had already introduced power tillers madeby a Japanese manufacturer, research was conducted on what changes in the operation of farming
those farmers have experienced after introducing power tillers and what issues they have in relation to
durability and operation of the power tiller.
In the supplementary research conducted along with the demonstrative experiment, information wascollected which was necessary for introducing agricultural machinery with the aim of increasing
incomes of farmers. In addition, a training session was held during the period of dispatch of the project1

team to provide local farmers and technical experts with instructions and education on how to use andmanage agricultural materials and equipment.
From these activities, basic information necessary for the development and promotion of agribusiness
operated by private companies and other parties was collected in this project. Report on the outcomeof this project was prepared based on the demonstrative experiment result, the result of its
supplementary research and the result of review by a committee of knowledgeable key figures. In
addition, as general reporting on the project outcome, a seminar was held targeting parties involved in
manufacture of agricultural machinery and in international cooperation projects to share the vision for
the future investment direction among interested parties.

3. Summary of Project Results1) Feasibility experiment
The demonstrative experiment in this project was implemented in cooperation with AEATREC andPromotion of Rice Development Project which is operated by JICA within NaCRRI located in
Kyaddondo County, Wakiso district in Uganda. In this experiment, a farm field for seed development
and other farm fields around it within NaCRRI were leased and two work areas were set in these fields;
one work area using machines and another with human power for growing upland rice in rainfed
lowland. By comparison of these two areas, it was evaluated how labor productivity changed as aresult of introducing machinery in stages of plowing, cultivation (weeding) and harvesting. In thisexperiment, power tillers (rotary and tractor types), reapers, grain threshers and pneumatic separators
were used. A test of rice milling machines was also conducted using rice crop.
As a result of the experiment, working time was shortened and productivity of labor was improved in
all processes of rice cultivation. It was revealed that in agriculture in Uganda which is suffering a labor
shortage, mechanization of plowing was economical even with a cost of fuel, and that expansion offarm lands was possible. Efficiency in weeding work which is a heavy burden on farmers was also
improved to the same extent as plowing work. At the same time, issues faced with farmers when
actually introducing machinery were identified. In the experiment in the stage of harvesting, reapers
have remarkably improved the efficiency and it was highly appreciated by farmers. In addition, in
working with grain thresher and pneumatic separator, not only the working time was shortened but
also harvest loss was prevented, which means that higher efficiency is expected than the result values
indicate. Furthermore, in the experiment of rice milling machine, it was found that mill top type ofrice milling machine was more effective in shortening working time and reducing energy cost incomparison with the Engelberg type.
As stated above, agricultural machineries introduced in the demonstrative experiment in this project
have improved the labor productivity in each process of rice cultivation. Although improvements are
required in some areas since a system of mechanization is not fully established and operators have not2

sufficient skills, it was indicated that farm mechanization can contribute to expansion of scale offarmers involved in rice cultivation. On the other hand, effect of mechanization on crop yields per unit
area which was not clearly found in this experiment and how much increase in incomes will be
expected if agricultural machineries were continuously operated and whether it will lead to reductionin poverty are the issues to be addressed.
2) Follow up of introduction of power tiller
In this project, research was conducted focusing on farmers in Nankoma area (sub-county), Bugiri
district who purchased power tiller made by a Japanese manufacturer with the financial aid from
VECO, an NGO in Belgium. In addition to basic information regarding income, cultivated acreage
and growing products, changes in the operation of farming brought by the introduction of power tiller
and the durability of power tiller were also researched, which were difficult to grasp fully from theexperiment in the farm fields described above.
The most significant change brought by introduction of power tiller was the expansion of cultivationacreage about four times as a result of improvement in labor productivity. The farmers had increased
income by obtaining charges from renting power tiller for the use by neighboring farmers in theircultivation works, as a source power of a corn sheller, etc, and as a vehicle by connecting with a trailer
to transport crops, construction materials and water for domestic use. As a result of improvement inlabor productivity by using power tiller effectively, some farmers spent more time in faming or inparticipating in union activities, etc.
As for durability of power tiller, research was conducted by visiting the area several times and foundthat the core mechanism, engine and gearbox of power tiller were without any failure but failures were
found in the clutch lever and the connecting part with a trailer as well as significant wearing of
consumable articles (i.e. V belt and rubber tires). As supply of spare parts is difficult in rural areas,
farmers dealt with these problems by using alternative articles or asking a local blacksmith for repair.
Half of the farmers who had power tiller received training on how to use and manage power tiller but
improvements were required in maintenance. Although most of the failures were minor, a failure or
wearing arising from lack of understanding by users on proper maintenance may lead to more serious
disorder. To prevent this, further instructions on maintenance and management of power tiller weredeemed necessary. Based on this observation, in addition to the training on how to use and manage
power tiller provided for its owners, training for repairpersons and mechanics in and around this area
was provided in this project.
With regard to repayment of purchasing fund, we received the answer from farmers that they can repay
the loan for purchasing cost by due date by using power tiller not only for plowing but also forproviding source power, transportation, etc. to earn rental charges. Although some farmers had a riskof delay in repayment due to the effect of drought or insufficient management of operators,

3introduction of power tillers has shown the effects in expansion of cultivation acreage, reduction oflabor burden and increase of income and, at the same time, issues to be handled to ensure proper
operation of power tiller were identified.
3) Supplementary research
In Uganda, basic information necessary for development and promotion of agribusiness operated byprivate businesses was collected from hearing and materials from concerned organizations, privatecompanies and farmers. Main items of information obtained are listed below.
(a) Overview of agriculture productions centering on rice cultivation(b) Overview of farm economy and status of farm economy in Namulonge area, Wakiso district andNankoma area, Bugiri district.
(c) Policy and current status of farm mechanization
Dissemination status, channel of distribution, sales price, repair of machines(d) Agricultural finance, in particular, current situation of finance for small scale farmers(e) Social and cultural background in Uganda
In Tanzania, similar research was conducted as in Uganda to obtain general overview of current
situation of farm mechanization and obstacles as well as understanding the fact and trend ofgovernment policies and sales strategies of private companies in the field of farm mechanization fromhearing from concerned organizations, private companies and farmers.

4

Chapter 2 Research Result on Development and Promotion of Agricultural
Mechanization
1. Current situation of agricultural mechanization
1) Overview of agricultural mechanization
The level of agricultural mechanization in Uganda is lower than those in the neighboring
countries. It is said that 90 percent of the plowing depends on human power, and 8
percent and 2 percent depend on livestock and machines, respectively. In the field ofagricultural mechanization, efforts have been made to introduce tractors particularly
into the estate agriculture since the pre-independence days. However, the area forprivately owned land is limited, and the agriculture is based on a self-sufficing familylabor. A machine has hardly been owned by an individual farmer, on the one hand. On
the other hand, the Government-led hire service system (tractor hire service) has long
been used by part of the farmers. Since the end of 1980s, this system has been privatizedas part of the structural adjustment project implemented by the World Bank. However,this project is not accepted as a private business in Uganda suffering from lack of humanresources as a result of long civil war. Many of about 4,000 tractors once operating inthis country were said to have been sold to the neighboring countries such as Kenya,with the result that the number of the tractors operating in this country was reduced toa half. After that, there has been a gradual increase in the number of the machines.
According to the indicator of the World Bank, the number of the tractors is estimated at
47001 during the period from 2004 to 2007. In the meantime, the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) estimates the number of tractors within the country of Uganda at
2420. When this is divided by the arable land area of 6,050,000 hectares, the number oftractors is 0.42 per 1000 ha. This figure indicates a great departure from 20 tractors per1000 ha as recommended by FAO. This figure is much lower than 1.3 tractors per 1000
ha, representing the average figure of sub-Sahara African countries.
After 2007 when attention was focused on a world-wide food crisis, investment was madenot only in the resourceful countries in Africa but also in the sub-Sahara Africancountries. As a result, there has been a continued economic growth of more than 5
percent a year. Uganda is also favored with continued excellent investment environment1

http://www.tradingeconomics.com/uganda/agricultural-machinery-tractors-wb-data.html

2

FAO (2009) Statistical Yearbook 2009. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/am079m/pdf/am079m00a.pdf

5due to long-term stabilization of the Government under President Museveni andverification of the petroleum resources. In the east Africa, prior investment has been
made in the field of agriculture in Kenya and Tanzania. In Uganda, there is a trend ofincreasing investment in the field of agriculture. The nominal GDP per capita isestimated at 595.9 US dollars 3 , and the agricultural labor cost is also expected toincrease.
The maize and cassava said to have been the staple food have been processed into powder.
This has resulted in a spread of flour milling machines. In the meantime, in response to
the upland rice cultivation having made a rapid progress since 2000, an increasing
number of rice-cleaning machines have been introduced even in the areas other than theeastern area noted for a booming paddy-rice cultivation. Small-scale rice mills are
estimated to have been installed at more than 600 business establishments4. Further,
there have been a growing number of medium- and large-scale rice mills. The volume ofdomestically grown rice to be processed has been increased, and the quality has been
improved. However, in addition to the privately owned processing machines, there aremany small-scale processing machines introduced according to the program of theGovernment support granted to farmer groups. This does not necessarily represent a
private-sector-led mechanization based on the principle of market economy.
2) Experimental research of agricultural machinery
A test laboratory for the agricultural machine is found in the Agricultural Engineeringand Appropriate Technology Research Centre (AEATREC) established under the controlof the National Agricultural Research Laboratory (NARL) under the umbrella of
National Agricultural Research Organization, NARO). This organization wasestablished in 1949. The major research activities cover 4 fields; farm power andmechanization system, farm-level agro-processing for value addition, renewable energy
system, and water harnessing and utilization. Further, this Center as a researchlaboratory provides a training site for about 20 students of 4 national universities.
The test of the agricultural machineries is assumed to be on the same level as training,
trial manufacture and manufacture of agricultural implements, technological support

3

Word Economy Database. http://ecodb.net/country/UG/

4

Promotion of Rice Development Project. (2013) Rice in Uganda: Viewed from Various Market Channels, A
Survey Report. http://libopac.jica.go.jp/images/report/P1000013336.html

6and other activities. The objectives and significance of the evaluation test intended by
the Government of Uganda are to evaluate the performances under the solid conditions
specific to this country, and to certify the technological specifications claimed by the
manufacturer, and to provide the related sectors with proposals on the technological
performances of the machine. The machines subjected to this evaluation test include aride-on tractor, walking type tractor (with rotary), animal plow, transplanter, weeder,
pest control machine, reaper and others. In the test, a cultivated field test is conducted
after verification of the specifications and operation procedures, break-in operation, andadjustment for cultivated field test. The test is conducted on at least 4 different types ofsoils for 300 hours (by an hour meter).
The Center provides all the essential services expected from the agricultural machine
test laboratory including, including research work, evaluation test, training, trial
manufacture and technological support. However, the Center is staffed with only threeresearchers of agricultural machineries, and it is difficult to provide sufficient services
in all the anticipated areas. The evaluation test is extremely important when viewed
from the necessity of excluding the faulty products and selecting the machines best
suited to this country, which is required to import multiple foreign-made agricultural
machineries. Further, it is anticipated to find out the procedures for adjusting andoperating the machines more suited to this country through the evaluation test, and to
spread such findings to the users. The test record of a walking type tractor includes thedetails description of the specifications of this machine and working machines,
conditions of the cultivated field, and machine conditions. The test consists of 2 major
items; an efficiency test including fuel cost measurement, and a handling test. The test
is considered to cover an adequate range when consideration is given to the current
limited facilities of the laboratory. Since Uganda is located on highlands, verification of
the output of the tractor (engine) to be imported is expected to be included in the scopeof the evaluation test, although this assumes subsequent introduction and improvementof the measuring instruments. It must be pointed out that the test method and test
procedures (including the list of the items to be checked in the handling test) should berecorded and documented.
3) Education and training institution
As an advanced educational institution for agricultural machineries, the Busitema
University located in Tororo of the eastern part of this country is noted for its long history
and good performance records. In 1971, this organization was the first to open up a7

diploma course for agricultural machineries. A Bachelor course was added in 2007. It
receives about 40 students every year. About 3/4ths of these students are allowed tograduate. In each of the 2nd and 3rd years of the Bachelor course, an external training
internship is given for 10 weeks. In the 4th year, students are required to manufacturer
an agricultural machine on a tentative basis in a graduation project. The training factoryof this university consists of an engine training room, electric training room,
welding/forging/heat treatment training room, and machine tool room. However, manyof the equipment and materials are the products made in the former Soviet having been
imported at the time of establishment, and are seriously dilapidated. After graduation,
students are employed by the business companies or work as farmers. Another advanced
educational institution is the Department of Agricultural & Bio-systems Engineering of
the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences of the Makerere University wellknown in east Africa. This institution has excellent teaching staff for processing of the
agricultural products, but is not sufficiently equipped with agricultural power machines.
An occupational training school, the Nakawa Vocational Training Institute (NVTI)
located in Kampala is noted for its best educational course with excellent facilities. Thisinstitution is placed under the control of the Education and Sports Ministry. Foundedwith the cooperation of Japan in 1971, the school has been providing a 9-monthoccupational training instructor course (consisting of 6-month classroom training and 3month field training) since 2007. The training courses cover the fields of electricity,
electronics, machine tools, cars, woodworking, sheet metal/lead pipe, welding and plasterwork.

2 year training is essential before graduation. Each course receives about 25

students having been educated for 11 years. There is no course on agricultural machine.
In 2000, however, the representatives of farmers were provided with a 1-month training
course on machine tools jointly by the United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO) and Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA). Further, they were
provided with a training course on the production of threshers, cassava processing
machines and other simple agricultural machineries for farmers.
Jinja has the NGO-supported private Nile Vocational Institute, which provides training
courses for car repair and tractor operations (where both operation procedure and simple
repair technique are taught). This institute receives trainees twice a year, who have toattend a 6-month classroom training course and a 3-month field training course before
graduation. This is a boarding school where the school expenses amount to 800 US
dollars. About 10 trainees are currently studying there. The course is placed under the
charge of the instructors having diploma. The teaching materials consist of the8secondhand tractors and other actual equipment donated by the Kakira Sugar Company
in the neighboring area
4) Local production of agricultural machinery
There are not many manufacturers of agricultural machineries in this country. Most of
the manufactured machines are simple small-sized products manufactured by welding.
The TONETT Agro Engineering is an agricultural implement manufacturer located in
Kampala. The major products are the agricultural processing machines such as cassava
processing machine, maize flour milling machine, thresher and sorter. The machines forcultivated fields are manufactured only in a small volume but a wide variety of machines
are handled. Machines are produced from limited materials by devising various
manufacturing methods. This suggests that this company has a certain level of techniquecapable of producing parts other than the engine and gears, by the machine tools
available at hand. However, some of these parts must be shop-adjusted, and a stable
quality may not be ensured among the same model. The company receives orders fromneighboring countries as well. However, they basically produce machines after receiving
orders. They sometimes undertake a high volume production for donors and theGovernment. The engineers have rich experience since the owner was awarded with adiploma, but workers are self-made employees. One of the former employees of thiscompany established an agricultural implement manufacturing company in the samebusiness. This suggests that this business belongs to a growth industry.
The surrounding industry supporting the agricultural machine manufacturing businessis not much developed. The steel materials of smaller thickness are regenerated from
scraps in this country. The pulley is produced locally by aluminium casting using a sandmold. The local production of the cast iron product has not yet been observed. In the fieldof forgery, several blacksmiths are found out in Kampala. An order was placed with acertain company to manufacture the hatchet edge of a power tiller. Then the spring of acar tire was reshaped by tempering and the product was finished by hardening. However,
hardening was made by fixing a wet cloth on the surface without temperature control.
Transmission parts such as bearings and chains have not yet been produced. The V-belts
used here are the imported products, which are sold at the hardware store selling theimported tools. However, these products are not offered in a wide selection of sizes. For
example, if the bolt of a desired size is not available, it is necessary to find it out in asecondhand market.

95) Agricultural machinery dealer
The imported agricultural machinery including a tractor is available from the
distributors having entered into the sole agency agreement, and imported product sales
shops. The distributors are Cooper Motor Corporation Uganda Ltd. (CMC) handing theCASE and New Holland, and Engineering Solutions Uganda Ltd. (ENGSOL) handlingthe Massey Ferguson. Other brands include Mahindra and Sonalika of India, and Foton
of China. Many of the bands of the US and Europe have dropped by the wayside. The top
selling tractor is an 80PS-class machine for cultivation. Many of these tractors areprovided with a triple disk plow.
CMC has sold about 100 machines since the beginning of this year, as of September 2013,
and is estimated as the biggest dealer in Uganda. It provides the customer with a 1-year
quality warranty, and uses a traveling repair car to provide repair services in the eventof a trouble. This company handles the Ford, Matsuda and Suzuki vehicles as well aslarge-sized truck, in addition to the tractor, and has a high-level repair shop. Further, 6of the NARO-owned local workshops not being used will be modified to start repair
services and operation training services. In the field of working machines, the company
handles the Italian-made NARDI products. In the meantime, ENGSOL supplies theworking machines for Tatu Marchesn and Agromaster Many of the smaller machines
such as engines, power generators, reapers, power tillers and mill top rice cleaningmachines are handled by Indian or Chinese dealers. They have about 10 shops in
Kampala. Some of them have branch offices in local cities.
6) Private tractor hiring services
In response to the structural adjustment by the World Bank, tractor hire services wereprivatized in the 1980s. The National Enterprise Corporation (NEC) is a company set up
in conformance to the 1989 law under the Government leadership by the Commercial
Division of the Uganda Military Department. Its major activities cover construction,engineering, and hire services for car, electrical appliance, agriculture implement andtractor. In Kampala, the company under the name of NEC Tractor Project Ltd. provides
services of selling tractors and others to the agricultural cooperatives and individual
farmers, and tractor cultivation services. Starting the sales activities in 2008, thecompany has sold 200 tractors. In the case of direct purchase by the farmer, the company
is financed by 20 percent from the investment of the farmer and the remaining 80 percent
from the direct contract between the general band (such as Centenary Bank and Stanbic

10

Bank) and the farmer. During the reimbursement period, the bank has the property rightof the machine. Since the tractor is assumed as a security, there is no need for further
security. Financing is provided at an annual rate of 12 percent with the 2-year
reimbursement period within the framework of ACF. The tractor purchased according tothis framework is covered by a one-year quality warranty and parts are supplied by NEC
free of charge during this period. The repair charges are borne by the farmer. In thecultivation service, the plowing work is done at 100,000 Ush per acre and the harrowing
is done at 70,000 Ush per acre. The company has 4 branch offices (Iganga, Kiryadongo,etc.) in the country. The problem is found in poor farms and occasional delayed payment
after the work. Some farmers request the work to be done without stone or stump being
removed. This may damage the machine. There is a definite shortage of the repair shopwith skilled workers. Local repair services (by traveling workshop) are also provided, but
this requires much time and cost because the workers have to travel all the way from
Kampala. The company has a tie-up with Iran and Turkey. Thus, Iran-made ITMCO
tractors 75HP are used.
Northern Uganda Agricultural Centre (NUAC) is a company financed by the Danish
capital. The company is located in the Province of Nwoya. Its activities range over the
production on the agricultural land of 800 hectares, sales and repair of the agricultural
implements, and processing of the agricultural product. The company is staffed by 10
leading people, and the farm manager is a Kenyan. Secondhand agricultural
machineries are purchased from Denmark and are used in the production division. Thesemachines are also sold to a customer whenever there is any. Further, the company
provides parts sales service, parts repair service and operator training service. The major
tractors consist of Models 90PS and 130PS, including two 250PS models. The combines
are general-purpose machines, including 3 machines for maize, rice and soy bean having
a header width of 6 m. The company is based on the large-sized mechanization systemcharacterized by an integrated procedure including all the phases of the cultivation,
seeding, biological control, manuring and reaping. The tractor uses a slit mold board,which is said to be more suitable than a disk plow. In the hire service charges, the moldboard requires 140,000 Ush per acre, and the disk plow requires 80,000 Ush. the disk
harrow requires 70,000 Ush per acre and the combine costs 200,000 Ush.
West Acholi Cooperative Union Ltd. located in Gulu was established in the 1960s, andhas a farm land of 9000 acres. This organization is an association consisting of 99
cooperatives with a membership of 2,000. The major business is centered on cotton

11

production, ginning, production of oil stuff product and tractor hire service. 5 tractors
are currently available. Of these, 2 are owned by Union. The remaining 3 are owned by
the agricultural cooperatives which are its member organizations. The purchase of
tractors were financed by the Asset Facility Loan of the DFCU Bank at an annualinterest rate of 10 percent with the reimbursement period of 6 years. The periodic
inspection of the products purchased from CMC is left to the care of distributors. In thehire service charges, the plow work for members costs 60,000 Ush which is lower thanthe market value of 80,000 Ush. Similarly, the harrowing service is provided at 45,000
Ush which is lower than the market value of 60,000 Ush. In the plowing service, 1,000
acres or more were plowed in the last season during the period from November to May,but part of the services had to be outsourced. When consideration is given to the numberof members, the number of tractors have to be increased.
Some people provide hire services in the capacity of unincorporated enterprise, but the
number of these people cannot be grasped at present. An owner-manager living in thesuburbs of Kampala in the province of Wakiso has an experience of studying the
agricultural mechanics in Delhi. He started hire services by repairing and regeneratinga tractor which has been almost a scrap. In 2011, he paid 50,000,000 Ush to purchase
the MF1135 manufactured in 1982. This machine was equipped with a quintuple disk
plow. Further, he has 2 more tractors. His business is based on his own funds and theinterest-free loan from this friend. His advantage is found in the repair technique.
Accordingly, he also provides repair services. The plowing charge is 130,000 Ush per acre,
but he undertakes the work at 80,000 Ush per acre if there are 100 acres in total. He has
2 full-time operators whom are paid on a piece rate basis. Work is concentrated in the
period from January to March and from June to September. The problem is that manyof the farmers place an order after the rainy season has come, and the work efficiency islower in the land where there are anthills and stumps of trees. Another problem is thetrouble of the machine. The charges are transferred via the mobile phone network.

7) Providing agricultural machinery through extension institutions
An agency in charge of widespread use of the agricultural technology is the National
Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) placed under the umbrella of the Ministry ofAgriculture, Stock Raising and Fisheries after the structural adjustment. This agency
takes charge of establishment and growth of the agricultural organizations, and spreadof the technology on specific agricultural products selected in the region. When an

12agricultural organization wishes to start production and processing businesses, and has
met specified conditions, such an organization is provided with a support through thisagency to purchase tractors and rice cleaning machines. The equipment and material
have failed to meet the management size because a sufficient plan was not worked out
at the time of selecting the equipment and material.
So far, animal plows, sowing machines , rice-cleaning machines have been supplied to
the group of farmers by the international NGO such as SAA in addition to Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO) and World Food Program (WFP). However, sincetechnological support was not included in some of the support activities, some of themachines were not used after a trouble occurred to them, or the availability factor ofmachines were reduced in many cases. Machines are often provided free of charge when
the Government support is granted. Accordingly, the businesses engaged in sales
activities based on the principle of general competition assumes that the Government
support is a menace to the market. Vredeseilanden headquartered in Belgium
established VECO East Africa to support the hire service of the power tiller in theprovince of Bugiri. In this case, the machines are not provided free of charge. 2-year
financing is granted to the farmer having prepared the down payment equivalent to theamount reduced by half. From the viewpoint of sustainability, expectations are placedon such a support to promote the independence of the group of farmers.
8) Machinery use amongst farmers
A great number of tractors are used in the sugar-manufacturing industry engaged in theestate agriculture as well as in the tobacco and oil stuff industries. Such businessestablishments are making efforts to educate tractor operators and to develop a basically
self-sufficient system because they are provided with repair shops. Accordingly, thefollowing introduces a farmer in the suburbs of Kampala in the province of Wakiso who
has been enabled to use the power tiller through the support of NAADS, where the smallsized agricultural implement is employed. He owns a 30-acre land to cultivate
strawberries,

vegetables(qinggengcai(bokchoy),

tomato,pumpkin,garlandchrysanthemum, etc.). The harvested vegetables are sold in the market of Kampala. The
arable land area has been increased from 2 to 10 acres by the introduction of a walking
type tractor. As for the cultivation work, since rotary equipment cannot be mounted,
bottom plowing is performed 4 times (at an interval of about 1 week between the 1st
plowing and 2nd plowing.)

Both cultivation and harrowing are frequently performed.

The business season is found particularly in November and December. This farmer has

13

owned a walking type tractor for the past 4 years without any trouble such as leakage oftransmission oil or lighting failure. If a trailer (whose traction rod is currently in trouble)
can be used, the operation time will be increased. Bottom plowing performed 4 times on
the field cultivated every year does not appear to be high efficient. Harrowing by use oflake should be tried. Technological instruction from the viewpoint of adequate use will
be required in this case.
9) Medium and large scale rice millers
Tilda is the company engaged in the biggest rice cleaning business in Uganda. According
to the agreement signed with the Government on the use of commercial use of theirrigation project zone, this company is doing business in an integrated manner including
all the phases of the rice production, rise cleaning and sales. The company uses 200 fulltime workers on the 1,200-hectare paddy field, and the single harvesting is about 3.5
t/ha. Further, the company purchases paddies from the neighboring farmers of the
project zone and cleans these paddies. The company owns about 20 tractors and 5
combines. Rice paddy plowing is performed by the 400PS-class tractor and disk harrow
for the first time, by the 80PS-class tractor and Rotavator for the second time, and by
the hydro Rotavator (walking type in super-compact configuration) for the third time.
Harvesting is performed by a half-truck or a wheel type large-sized combine (an axial
flow type having a blade width of 5 m). The blade is replaced at intervals of 1 or 2 years
by the new one purchased from the United States. A partial small damage of the blade
is not repaired. Rice planting is manually performed in strips, and weeding is performedby the hand-driven rotary weeder. A small-sized airplane is used to spray fertilizers.
Further, the company owns a power tiller for tentative cultivation land. Thus,
agriculture is implemented by a combination of such a large-sized machine and humanlabor. The rice cleaning facilities include a color sorter having an annual processing
capacity of 10,000 tons, a large-sized rice cleaning system equipped with automaticweighing packaging device, a concrete drying site and a hot air dryer. A broken rice sorter
is used to package only the broken rice for sales. It appears that the color sorter is not
used or is used in a restricted manner because, after the red rice has been cleaned, red
stripes remain on some portion of the rice.
A Chinese-made rice cleaning system is introduced into many of the intermediate-scale
rice mills. The annual processing volume ranges from 3000 to 5000 tons. This figure isincreasing in recent years. There are 2 types of business models. In one of them, rice ispurchased while rice is produced. In the other model, only rice polishing is performed. In

14the former model, the handling volume must be increased by purchase, and isaccompanies by many problems such as a failure in rice collection in conformance to the
management size, and a shortage of warehouse storage capacity. The latter model isfound in the business of Upland Rice Miller Co. which was started in 2007 based on thefund including the USAID. The company has about 10,000 small-scale farmers as
customers, and collects a rice cleaning rate of 160 Ush (1 US dollar equivalent to about
2500 Ush) per kilogram. However, the warehouse can be used free of charge. To increase
the number of customers, the company has set up about 30 agents throughout thecountry to collect harvest season information and to give technological instruction. The
company provides the grower with information for improving quality by the test mill andmoisture meter.
10) Small scale rice milling machine
One of the staple foods in Uganda is posho (called "ugali" in Kenya) which is made by
the process of putting maize powder into hot water and is agitated until water is removed
and the contents are made solid. There are many flour mills in the village not suppliedwith electric power. Many of the small-scale rice cleaning businesses have diversified thebusiness from milling to rice cleaning business. After 2000, upland rice cultivation
developed even in the north and west where paddy-rice cultivation was not performed.
There has been an increase in the number of small-scale rice mills. There are estimatedto be more than 600 mills. Engelberg type mills are very rarely used. Models N-70 and
N-120 as improved version of the Engelberg (with forced ventilation function) arefrequently utilized. Further, mill tops SB-10, SB-30 and SB-50 account for almost 50
percent. Consumables such as a belt, rubber roll and screen are easily available inKampala. After removing the hulls from rice by the locally made Engelberg machine,some of the companies use another machine to clean the rice. Use of a motor reduces theenergy and repair costs than use of a diesel engine. However, due to frequently occurring
power failure, many companies use an engine. The polishing charges vary greatly in therange from 70 to 250 Ush per kilogram according to the area because of different supplydemand balance conditions.

2. The Current State of Agricultural Credit
1) Introduction
In this report, we explain the current state of agricultural credit in Republic of Uganda(hereinafter referred to as “Uganda”) by looking at trends of agricultural lending from15

commercial banks and other financial institutions, and based on a field survey targeting
Savings and Credit Cooperative (SACCO) conducted in November 20135.
The structure of this report is as follows. Part 2 and 3 outline commercial banks in
Uganda, overview of private financial institutions (including SACCO), main measuresand policies regarding agriculture credit support, and trends of agricultural lending fromcommercial banks and other financial institutions. Part 4 introduced agricultural fundborrowing by farmers and their access to financial institutions, based on results of census
study. Part 5 describes the overview of SACCO, a major financial institution in rural
areas, and analyzes the actual situation of agricultural lending by SACCO. Lastly, part
6 clarifies the current situation based on the above description and indicates some of the
future challenges.
2) Overview of Forms of Private Financial Institutions and Related Laws andRegulations(1) Forms of Private Financial InstitutionsFirstly, let’s see the overview of private financial institutions, which accept deposits andperform other financial services6. Private financial institutions in Uganda are broadly
divided into three categories (as shown in Table 2-1), i.e. (1) regulated financial
institutions, (2) semi-regulated financial institutions, and (3) non-regulated financial
institutions. Commercial banks are part of regulated financial institutions. Regulated
financial institutions are classified into Tier I, Tier II and Tier III based on various
elements, such as business affairs and amount of capital. SACCO and microfinanceservices by NGOs are part of semi-regulated financial institutions. SACCO is a cooperative financial institution that accepts deposits and channels those deposits into
lending activities, which can be established by a group of minimum 30 farmers. Apartfrom regulated financial institutions and semi-regulated financial institutions, there are
Village Savings and Loans Association (VSLA) and a number of non-regulated financial
institutions, such as micro-financing companies.

5

The Japanese for SACCO in this paper mostly written with reference to JAICAF (2010).

6

Written based on Masako Fujiie “Chapter III: Institutional Problems of Agriculture” in JAICAF (2010, Japanese).

16

Table 2-1 Overview of Financial Institutions
Number of
Financial
Institutions

Forms

(1)
Regulatedfinancial
institutions(2) Semiregulated
financial
institutions

Tier I

Number of
Branches

Applicable Rules/Regulations

Commercial banks24

496 (714 ATMs) Financial Institutions Act 2004

Tier II

Credit institutions

3

42 Financial Institutions Act 2004

Tier III

MDIs (Microfinance deposit-taking
institutions)

499 MDI Act 2003

SACCO (Savings and Credit Cooperative)

2112

N/A

The Cooperative Societies Statute
1991

Microfinance by NGO, etc.

N/A

N/A

Non-governmental Organization
Statute etc.

thousands

N/A

Laws and regulations are notapplicable

Tier IV(3) Non-regulated
financial institutions

VSLA (Village Savings and Loans
Association), micro-financing companies,
etc.

Source: JAICAF March 2010 "Agriculture and Forestry in Uganda: Present Situation and Issues for Development 2010 Edition", Bank of
Uganda 2012 , Annual Supervision Report, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development 2012, Evaluation Study of the Rural
Financial Services Programme and the Uganda Cooperative Savings and Credit Union(2) Laws and Regulations for Private Financial Institutions
Regulated financial institutions conduct activities based on Financial Institutions Act
2004, and The Bank of Uganda (the central bank) serves as the supervisory institution.
On the other hand, there is no state regulation for non-regulated financial institutions,which are positioned as informal financial services.
As for semi-regulated financial institutions, all laws and regulations (The Cooperative
Societies Statue 1991) regulating the co-operative apply to SACCO. Based on those laws
and regulations, The Uganda Co-operative Alliance Ltd. (UCA), the nationalorganization of all co-operatives, serves as the supervisory institution for SACCO.
Regulations that apply on SACCO are not only regulations related to financial services,
but also regulations related to co-operative in general. Unlike regulated financial
institutions, SACCO is not subject to the depositor protection scheme from thegovernment. There are a little under 100 SACCOs that exist in Iganga District, where
we conducted interviews. Of the figure, in the past year two co-operatives failed in theirbusiness operations, and collapsed. In these cases, depositors are not protected. In orderto address this situation, financial regulations for SACCO and a new bill on depositor
protection are being reviewed and a lot of attention is paid to future development of thisissue.
3) The Government’s Measures and Policies for Agricultural Credit Support and Trends
in Agricultural Lending in Regulated Financial Institutions
In Uganda, farmers are classified into small and micro farmers who are engaged insubsistence agriculture; medium-sized commercial farmers who grow subsistence crop17

and cash crop; and commercial farmers who conduct advanced agricultural production,marketing and processing. The Agriculture Modernization Plan designed by the Uganda
Government in 2001 stated the aim of having 5% of commercial farmers, 25% of mediumsized commercial farmers and 70% small and micro farmers by 20177. Therefore, we canpresume that at present, small and micro farmers are the majority of the agricultural
structure. In the following section, we will analyze the main agricultural credit policy in
Uganda by associating it with the agricultural structure and see the trends ofagricultural lending of regulated financial institutions that have clear data.
(1) Measures and Policies Through Regulated Financial Institutions
Financial institutions that specialize in agriculture do not exist in Uganda, but the
government has implemented measures and policies for agricultural credit support
through commercial banks (regulated financial institutions) and SACCO, one of thesemi-regulated financial institutions. It should be noted that besides measures andpolicies of the government, various international support organizations in Uganda alsooffer assistance for agricultural credit.
As a part of measures and policies through regulated financial institutions, thegovernment established Agricultural Credit Facility (ACF) in October 2009. ACF is ascheme in which the government finances half of the loan by regulated financial
institutions with zero interest rate, and the government bears the credit risk of the partof the loan with zero interest rate in order to support the medium-and long-term
financing for equipment for agriculture and agricultural products processing.
The financing conditions vary depending on the period, based on budgetary measures of
the government. Since July 2011 the government has been financing half of the loan
amount with zero interest rate, and the debtors’ interest cost is fixed at 10% annually.
The period for reimbursement of the loans (redemption period) is set to 8 years.
(2) Measures and Policies Through SACCO
Next, let’s take a look at measures and policies through SACCO. Since 1994, Ministry of
Finance, Planning and Economic Development has been receiving assistance fromAfrican Development Bank to provide support for microfinance. As part of these efforts,
Microfinance Support Center Ltd. (MSC) was established in 2001.
By financing SACCO since 2010, MSC is providing funds necessary for SACCO to extend

7

Based on classification of farmers in Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture, which was created by the Governmentof Uganda in 2001. Refer to pp. 12–13 in JAICAF (2010, English) for details.

18

loans. As of February 2013, the total loan balance of SACCO is 250 billion Ugandan
Shilling (hereinafter referred to as USH), and 20% of the total amount is financed by
MSC.
The terms of loans from MSC are as follows: 9% annual interest rate for agriculture
purpose and 13% annual interest rate for commercial purpose, with the redemption
period of 4 years maximum. However, 60% of the total loan balance of MSC (as ofDecember 2012) is loan with redemption period of 1 year or less, so we can see that mostof the provision of funds from MSC is short-term funds.
Although the financing from MSC to SACCO is not limited to agriculture purpose,around 70% of financing to SACCO is for agriculture purpose. According to interviews
with MSC, when MSC extends loan to SACCO, there are many cases where it requires
a personal guarantee from SACCO officers. MSC performs a review based on documentsthat prove assets of the officer and SACCO’s balance sheet or other materials submitted
by SACCO. The repayment rate of loans from SACCO to MSC is around 80% in 2012.
(3) Trends of Agricultural Lending by Regulated Financial Institutions
Let’s review the recent trends of agricultural lending by regulated financial institutions
and the current status of ACF scheme. Figure 2-1 shows the amount of agricultural
lending by regulated financial institutions every year since 2007. Please note that thedata is discrete because two new regulated financial institutions were established in
2011. Since 2009, there is an increasing tendency of the amount of loan. In 2012, a totalof 699 billion USH loans were made. The ratio of loans from commercial banks is thehighest, around 90% of the total loan. About 10% of total loan balance of commercial
banks is for agriculture purpose, and the ratio tends to increase.

19

Figure 2-1: Trends in Amount of Loan Extended byRegulated Financial Institutions
8,000

6,000

(hundredmillion Ush)

4,000

2,000

0

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Source: Agricultural Finance Yearbook 2012

Meanwhile, another breakdown on the total loans from regulated financial institution in2012 shows that ratio of loan for industry purpose and processing purpose stays at 20%
each, and ratio of loan for marketing purpose is the highest, around 60%. Furthermore,
the breakdown in terms of redemption period is as follows: the period 1 year or less (shortterm) is the most common, which is 72.4%, followed by 1-3 years or less (mid term), which
accounted for 19.9%. Long-term loans with more than 3 years period account for only
5.6% of the total loans.
As a factor of the small amount of long-term loans, it is pointed out that most of thewater for agricultural use in Uganda is dependent on rainwater, so farming becomes
unstable by bad weather.

Thus, it is difficult for the farmer to repay debt, which makes

the credit risk for long-term loan goes higher. In long-term financing, mismatch occurs
in financial arrangements and fund operation period because the financial arrangementsby regulated financial institutions are mostly liquid deposit. In addition, as the lending
interest rates fluctuated a lot in recent years 8 , long-term loans affected financial
institutions, such as a higher interest rate risk.
It is presumed that most of agricultural lending from commercial banks is for large-scale
farmers with large amount of loan, as we can see in the next section. Many commercial

8

Commercial banks’ lending rate (including that of non-agricultural loans) soared from around 5% in 2010 toaround 20% in 2011, and fluctuated a lot to around 15% by the end of 2012.

20

banks are reluctant from lending agricultural loans to small and micro farmers becauseof the high credit risk, small amount of loan and high transaction costs9.
When we look at the financing history using the government’s ACF scheme, in one year
period that began in July 2009, which recorded the largest amount, 20% of the total
amount of agricultural lending by regulated financial institutions was extended using
this scheme. Half of the funds were used for processing machinery (wheat, tea, coffee,etc.) or storage and other facilities, and only 30% of the funds were used for production
machinery, which shows a low ratio. Financing using ACF scheme shows a large amount
per loan with many of the borrowers being large-scale farmers, and the use by small andmicro farmers is near zero10.
Other than agricultural credit support through regulated financial institutions and
SACCO, the government related Uganda Development Bank also conduct initiatives
such as group loan for agriculture purpose. However, our interviews found that Uganda
Development Bank extends an equally limited amount of medium-and long-term loan as
regulated financial institutions.
4) Agricultural Funds Borrowing and Access to Financial Institutions(1) Funds Borrowing
Let’s take a look at the status of agricultural funds borrowing by farmers by analyzing
Uganda Census of Agriculture 2008/2009. Please note that the survey period issomewhat old. At the time of the survey, the percentage of farmers who borrowed
agriculture funds from financial institutions in the last five years was 10% of the total
farm households. 76.0% of the borrowers answered that they were required to provide
collateral or guarantor. The collateral details in order of high percentage are land rights(29.1%), guarantor (23.1%), crops (19.0%) and livestock (16.7%).
On the other hand, farmer households who had no borrowings accounted for 90% of thetotal number of farmer households. The number one reason for not borrowing
agricultural funds is “high interest rates” (27.1%), followed by “lack of collateral” (20.9%).
Many cases require land as the collateral, but more than 90% of the total land in Uganda
is not registered formally, so we can say that land is not functioning fully as collateral.
Furthermore, we asked the farmers who borrowed in the past about the lenders. The
most answer is self help group (30.8%), followed by micro finance institutions (MFIS)(28.7%), and family and friends (17.6%) (figure 2-2). Non-regulated financial institutions,9

See Agricultural Finance Yearbook 2011 pp. 155–175 for details.

10

See Agricultural Finance Yearbook 2011 pp. 14–17 for details.

21such as VSLA, are included in self-help group. If we take a look at the presence of SACCO
in rural areas, SACCO is considered as included in the choice, and falls under MFIS. In
other words, when farmers borrow fund, they tend to use semi-regulated financial
institutions and non-regulated financial institutions, while the percentage of borrowings
from commercial banks (regulated financial institutions) is merely 10.3%.

（％）

Figure 2-2 The Farmers' Agricultural Credit Status From
Financial Institutions and the Lenders in the Past Five Years(n=3,575,064)

35

30.8

30

28.7

25
17.6

20
15

11.4

10.3

10
2.9

5
0

NGOs

Commercial Banks

Money Lenders

Family or Friends（ Micro Finance
MFIS）
Institutions

Self Help Group

Source: Uganda Census of Agriculture 2008/2009

The details on redemption period of loans from commercial banks and MFIS are as
follows: loans with less than one year period accounted for the biggest percentage (57.9%
and 57.8%), followed by period of one to three years or less (35.9% and 36.2%), and periodof more than three years is 6.1% each. We can see that half of the borrowers fromcommercial banks and MFIS borrowed short-term funding, while the number of those
who borrowed long-term funding with period of 3 years or more is fairly low.
The average borrowing loan varies greatly according to financial institutions. The
biggest amount is loan from a commercial bank (1,371,000 USH), or more than twice of
MFIS (Figure 2-3). Considering that the average annual income of rural areas in Uganda
is 1.7 million USH in 200611, we can see that those who borrowed from commercial banks
are mostly large-scale farmers, not small and micro farmers. The number one use ofborrowing from commercial banks is agricultural products sales (30.5%), followed by
11

See JAICAF (2010, Japanese) p. 55 for details.

22wages (25.7%), livestock (10.8%) and agricultural machinery (4.3%).

Figure 2-3: Average Amount of Loanfrom Financial Institutions and the lenders
150

137.1

100
65.1
50
29.0

27.1

19.1

10.6

0

Family or Friends

Self Help GroupNGOs

Money Lenders（ Micro Finance
MFIS）
Institutions

Commercial Banks

Source: Uganda Census of Agriculture 2008/2009

However, if we estimated the total amount of loan from all financial institutions basedon the average loan from all financial institutions and the number of borrowers, thepercentage of MFIS of the total loan amount is 41.4%, well ahead the commercial banks(31.7%).
With all these factors, those who borrowed from commercial banks are mostly farmers
with large management (whose number is relatively small), and the fund use is mostly
for sales, rather for production. On the other hand, we can see that MFIS, including
SACCO, deals with relatively small funding requirement with most of its borrowers are
small and micro farmers, who account for a large number of farmers.
(2) Access to Financial Institutions in Rural Areas
The data on access to financial institutions in rural areas can be found in a survey byBill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which investigated the number of people who lived in
5 km distance from bank branches and SACCO in rural areas. According to the resultsof this study, the population ratio where a bank branch exists within 5 km distance is
8.4%, while SACCO is high, 37.3%. As shown in Table 2-1, the comparison between thenumber of regulated financial institutions and branches indicates a high number of23

SACCO and SACCO is a financial institution that is relatively easy to be accessed bypeople who live in rural areas12.
We can see from the above that the Government of Uganda has been implementing
agricultural credit support through commercial banks and SACCO. Commercial banks
mostly lend to large-scale farmers, such as commercial farmers, and SACCO plays animportant role in providing agricultural credit to small and micro farmers, who made up
the majority of farmers in Uganda. We would like to introduce how SACCO extends loans
by presenting the results of interview with SACCO in the section below.
5) The Present Situation of SACCO as Suggested by the Results of Interview(1) Overview of SACCOFirst, let’s have a look at the number of members of all SACCOs in Uganda. The total
number of SACCO as of December 2012 was 2,112 with total number of members
1,154,000 people (individuals and groups) (Table 2-2). However, since a SACCO is notnecessarily established by farmers, it should be noted that non-farmers may be includedin the above data.
Table 2-2 Changes in the Number of SACCO Members
June 2008

December
2012

Growth rate from 2008
to 2012 (%)

Number of SACCO

1,513

2,112

39.6

Number of members

644,318

1,154,625

79.2

Capital (million USH)

21,53859,425175.9

Deposit balance (million USH)

65,394

205,873214.8

Reference: Number of Members per SACCO, etc.
Number of members

425.9

546.7

28.4

Capital (million USH)

14.2

28.1

97.7

Deposit balance (million USH)

43.2

97.5

125.5

Data: Ministry of Finance,Planning and Economic Development 2012，Evaluation Studyof the Rural Finacial Services Programme and the Uganda Cooperative Savings andCredit Union
Source: Uganda Cooperative Savings and Credit Union Limited (UCSCU)
headquarters，2012

If we compare data of 2008 and 2012, we can see that the number of SACCO increased,
the amount of capital and deposit balance also increased, and especially, the rate of
12

However, farmers have low level of saving and lack of capability to put a minimum deposit or pay the investment
share to become a member of SACCO, which resulted in the large number of farmers that cannot use SACCO
remains unchanged.

24

increase of deposit balance is particularly high. The number of members per one SACCO
in 2012 is approximately 550. This number increased by nearly 30% from the number in2008. We can see that the increase in capital and deposits, along with the increasing
number of SACCO have contributed to the expansion of SACCO management scale.
(2) Organizational Structure of SACCO
Secondly, let’s review the current situation of 16 SACCOs based on the field survey
conducted from October 2012 to December 201313. All of the surveyed SACCOs are those
whose members are mainly farmers.
The age and scale of those SACCOs vary largely. There is one SACCO that was justestablished, while another was established more than 10 years ago. One SACCO hasaround 100 members, while other has more than 10,000 members. These are thecontributing factors to the significant difference in management scale, such as deposit
balance. Many SACCO employed more staff and consolidated their management systems
in response to management scale expansion. Some SACCOs are operating in several
districts and have several branches. Some of SACCOs were established with initiatives
from farmer group’s leaders because it was difficult for the farmers to get agriculturalloans from a commercial bank.
SACCO received assistance from MSC, which provided capital funds and UCA, thenational organizations of co-operatives. All SACCOs surveyed are using a uniform
standard in balance sheet and income statement. However, it is a common practice for
SACCO to manage their funds manually regardless of management scale. The office
work increased due to management scale expansion. Among the SACCOs surveyed, somewere assisted by UCA and have introduced the computerized management.
(3) SACCO Financial Arrangements
Financial arrangements by SACCO differ according to its management scale. A large
SACCO with an advanced management does not borrow funds from MSC or otherinstitutions; it provides financing from capital funds gathered from the members’
deposits. On the other hand, some SACCOs face management issue of securing financeresources due to their inability to provide financing from members’ deposits only. Thiscase is in particular true for small SACCOs, which were young in age. Thus, many small
SACCOs receive loans from MSC or assistance from support organizations. Furthermore,

13

Besides interviews to four SACCO by the author, this includes survey results to 12 SACCO (unfinishedmanuscript) that were carried out by JICA Uganda Office in October 2012–December 2013.

25

based on an analysis done on the balance sheets of some SACCO, we found that most of
the deposits are liquid deposits regardless of management scale, and that financing
structure is biased toward short-term loans.
We also found a large SACCO experiencing fund surplus that has been extending lowinterest loans to a nearby SACCO that has fund shortage. At present, fund flexibility
occurs only among SACCOs, and there is an advantage for SACCO that has fundshortage since they can make financial arrangements with lower interest than borrowing
rate from MSC.
(4) Actual Condition of SACCO Financing
Many SACCOs extend loans for individual farmers as well as farmers groups. In orderto respond to the diverse financing needs in rural areas, various funds for purposes otherthan agricultural purpose were founded, such as commercial, motorbike, education andhousing. The interest rate, loan limit, deferment period and redemption period have beenprescribed for each fund. However, in response to the members’ demand, many SACCOs
regularly review their funds by, among other things, raising the loan limit.
A borrower has to incur interest as well as various fees associated with borrowing. We
analyzed income statement of several SACCOs and estimated that the annual lending
interest rate is 20% per year and fees associated with borrowing are less than 10% perannum. The loan limit for groups is set greater than individuals. Some SACCOs
introduced a policy in which a member who borrows for the first time will get a small
amount of loan, and if the member pays back without problems, the loan limit will beraised gradually.
We could not grasp the percentage of loans for agricultural purpose from the outstandingloans. However, according to our interviews, a SACCO answered that its outstandingloans are mostly for agricultural purpose. A lot of SACCOs set a redemption period of 12 years for agricultural loans with a deferment period of six months. There are quite a
lot of demands for working capital to buy production materials by the members. The
practice of extending loans by SACCO at the time of purchase, in which the loan
repayment begins after harvest, is common. On the other hand, large amount loans forequipment fund, such as agricultural machinery, is quite limited.
This phenomenon was caused by the low demand by small and micro farmers to buy
agricultural machinery by loan and the low supply of lending by SACCO. The latter isdue to reasons that have been laid out previously, i.e. most of deposits in SACCO areliquid deposits and loans from MSC are mostly short-term loans. Therefore, even if there
are needs for medium-to long-term capital, extending loans is difficult.

26

(5) Credit Protection and A Characteristic Approach to Credit Risk Mitigation
Some of the SACCOs surveyed have introduced a system of personal guarantee for grouploans, and did not require collateral. However, in principle a SACCO secures physicalcollateral (land, livestock, household furniture, etc.) and personal guarantee. A collateralin which the value of asset is several times the amount borrowed is often the case,whereas personal guarantee requires more than one guarantor.
Other than this kind of credit protection, many SACCOs conduct various efforts tomitigate credit risk. In order to prevent the borrower to divert funds for purposes otherthan the initial purpose, sometimes a SACCO staff would accompany the borrower tobuy the necessary tool or machine and make the payment directly to the store, in thecase of loans for production material. Other approaches included a requirement where aborrower shall deposit a percentage of the loan, and having members form a group, in
which any loan application shall require all members’ approval.
A large-scale SACCO that has stayed in the business long enough and made progress inmanagement purchased a tractor and has been conducting the land cultivation for a fee,in response to the request from its members. This SACCO only deals with short-termworking capital for agricultural loans. It does not leave equipment investment (topurchase agricultural machinery, etc.) to farmers or farmer groups, but instead, SACCO
does the investment. This effort is seen as a way to mitigate credit risk.
Another SACCO is seeking to cooperate with Area Cooperative Enterprise/ACE 14 , a
farmers’ organization, to efficiently run agricultural products marketing. SACCO
cooperates with ACE through Rural Producer Organizations (RPO), a farmers group
under ACE. ACE would conduct production material purchase necessary for farmers andagriculture products sales jointly, and SACCO would extend loans to farmers who aremembers of ACE. Some ACEs purchased agricultural machinery and conduct land
cultivation services to their members. As the cooperation between ACE and SACCO
progressed, farmers’ income may increase through selling their agricultural products
efficiently. ACE understands the farmers’ operations, and it is believed that by sharing
the farmers’ information, SACCO can mitigate its credit risk and extend loans smoothly.
However, while this kind of move seeking cooperation is being done, in reality, no specificcooperation has been reached yet. Many ACEs have vulnerable business infrastructure
and lack financial ability to build a warehouse. Thus, the expansion of warehousefacilities needed for joint marketing of agriculture products is insufficient. Since farmers
14

ACE is a farmers’ organization registered with Ministry of Trade, Industry and Cooperative (MoTIC).

27

have a strong consciousness to sell agriculture products when they need living expenses,
joint selling through ACE is not popular. In the future, to pursue cooperation between
SACCO and ACE, improvement of collecting capability through the development of
warehouse facilities along with profitable sale through strengthening selling capacity
will be needed.
6) Conclusion(1) Current Condition
Based on the result of analysis conducted until this stage, the current status ofagricultural financing in Uganda can be summarized as follows. The main targets ofagricultural financial support in Uganda are commercial banks and SACCO.
Agricultural loans by commercial banks show an upward trend, and are extended mainly
to large-scale commercial farmers who use the funds for processing and marketing, notagricultural production.
On the other hand, because the number of SACCO has increased, it has been expanding
its business scale, and has better access than commercial banks; SACCO plays animportant role in providing agricultural financing to small and micro farmers in rural
areas. According to the interviews, although SACCO deals with a wide range of credit
demands including the agriculture one, its agricultural financing are mostly the shortterm ones used for purchasing production materials, and loans for agriculturalequipment, such as agricultural machinery, are considerably small. Behind this no longterm loans is similar with that of commercial banks, i.e. having high risk of agricultural
credit, and most of the financing is short term one. SACCO's credit protection is basicallysecuring physical-collateral and personal guarantees. In addition, SACCO conducts
various efforts to mitigate credit risk.
(2) Future Challenges
We can see from the above that to develop small scale and micro farmers in Uganda in
the future, it is important for SACCO to provide a stable financing for those credit
demands. Based on the current condition, it is considered that SACCO faces the following
challenges to develop management further in the future.
Firstly, financial regulations and depositor protection system for SACCO have been
established, and studies in Uganda have already begun. However, if SACCO is regulated
in a similar manner to that of regulated financial institutions, depositors will be able toentrust their money in deposits comfortably, but on the other hand, SACCO is required
to cope with the regulations. If that happens, there is a possibility that conditions will28

be difficult for establishment of SACCO, and that SACCO will transform into a financial
institution that is no longer affordable to small and micro farmers. In the light of theseadvantages and disadvantages, studies are being conducted in Uganda. How theregulations will be introduced will affect SACCO greatly.
Secondly, as small and micro farmers are aiming for management development, the needfor borrowing equipment fund (such as agricultural machinery) will arise; and how to
respond to this need is a problem. Since some SACCO and ACE are conducting land
cultivation services using agricultural machinery, it would appear that there is a needamong small and micro farmers to use machinery. However, as indicated earlier,financing arrangements by financial institutions (both SACCO and commercial banks)
are extremely biased to short-term loans. If borrowing needs by farmers shall occur,financial institutions are in a difficult environment to extend medium-and long-termloans. To overcome this situation, the Government of Uganda has provided a system
where medium-and long-term loans can be extended through ACF and MCS. In spite ofthis, there are almost no medium-and long-term loans to purchase agricultural
machinery.
In addition to the problem of mismatch between financial institutions’ financial
arrangements and fund management, a detailed investigation on the impediments tomedium-and long-term loans may be necessary. Financing might be prevented if the needto borrow by farmers to purchase agricultural machinery does occur, but instability infarm management due to factors such as weather and the fact that land cannot function
as collateral due to the lack of land registration practice. In this case, a more extensive
infrastructure development is deemed necessary, such as expansion of crop insurance
system and improvement of land registration system.
These problems cannot be solved only by SACCO; a systemic change throughout thecountry is needed. SACCO has been taking measures to stabilize the farm management
and provide stable funding by seeking cooperation with ACE, which conducts joint
selling of agricultural products. If co-operative members can jointly purchase production
material needed at a low cost and sell agricultural products efficiently, their income
increases and capability to repay loans from SACCO will be improved as well. If SACCO
can comprehend the flow of household economy of its members through collaboration
with ACE, the loan review process can be done without any difficulty. The directions thatare being sought by SACCO is deemed reasonable, since the mechanism of supporting
the farmers’ management development through the comprehensive sales business andfinancial business can be found also in general agricultural co-operatives in Japan. At
present, the cooperation between both parties are not adequate because the business of29

ACE is still insufficient. It is necessary for the government to create mechanism tocontinue supporting these developments.
Currently, there are moves to form agricultural financial institution in Uganda. It isnecessary for the agricultural financial institution to carry out countermeasures aimed
at improving the lack of medium-and long-term loans, the condition that prevails so far.
In addition, the support activities by ACE and SACCO as described above will become
an issue. More notice needs to be taken of how the newly established agricultural
financial institution plays its role and function.
In Uganda, besides the government assistance, support in the agricultural sector isextended by various support organizations in abroad. Some of the farmers we surveyed
received support from overseas support groups and purchased agricultural machinery. If
farmers hold great expectation for external support, there is a possibility of a lower
incentive for the farmers to borrow funds to purchase agricultural machinery in order toimprove their productivity and to repay the debt from the revenue gained. On the other
hand, as introduced earlier, some SACCOs have been offering land cultivation service asa result of self-sustaining management development. It is crucially important that any
support related to agricultural financing shall be carried out within the framework ofpromoting the self-sustaining development of farmers and SACCO.
Citation and Reference
1) JAICAF (2010) “Agriculture and Forestry in Uganda: Present Situation and Issues forDevelopment 2010 Edition (Japanese and English)”2) JICA Uganda Office (2013) “Uganda Horticultural Crop Research Report (Japanese)”3) Araki, Yasunori (2013) “Agricultural Situation in Uganda: The Recent Agricultural
Modernization and Its Support” Agriculture, December 2013, Agricultural Society ofJapan (Japanese).
4) The Bank of Uganda, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, 2008–2012, Agricultural Finance Yearbook

30

Chapter 3 Feasibility Experiment Results

1. Field tests in NaCCRI
1) Test Method
Within the NaCCRI seed production field, a total of three sections of 30m x 35m (10.5 a)
were made: two mechanical plowing sections (section 1, using rotovator type, and section
2, using traction type) and (3) plowed manually (Figure 3-1). Mechanical power tiller
introduction experience is scarce and no mechanized system has been established in
Uganda. From the fact that within the JICA Rice Promotion Project and AEATREC we
had two types of power tillers manufactured in Japan, a moldboard plow and a diskconnected traction type, two mechanical plowing wards were prepared. Within eachsection, we investigated mainly labor productivity by using power tillers, harvesters,
threshing machines, winnowers, according to each of the periods of rice cultivation:
plowing, intertillage (weeding) and harvesting. We used NERICA4 rice type.
Figure 3-1

Farming Experiment Field Experimental Section Layout

Note: Since the soil on the east side of the mechanized (rotovator) section was harder than that of the other two
wards, we shifted the ward 10-meter westwards in order to match soil conditions.

<1> Plowing Experiment
Plowing test was performed from August 25 to September 7. Within the NaCRRI field
we extracted a region of comparatively uniform soil condition after investigating 1 ha oftest candidate field, and then set two mechanical labor sections and one manual labor
section. Within the mechanical plowing section 1 (rotovator), we performed one
moldboard plowing, then plowed by rotovator type. Within the mechanical plowing
section 2 (using traction type) we performed one moldboard plowing, then one plowing

31

by disk plow. Within the manual plowing section 3 we performed two plowings by using
hoes. As clod breaking was still rough after the plowing work in fields 2 and 3, in orderto obtain a soil breaking level similar to rotovator work in view to seeding within therain-fed lowland conditions, we performed manual soil breaking after the plowing. We
measured working time and fuel consumption within the plowing work and compared
the labor productivity of each section.
<2> Weeding Experiment
Weeding test was performed from October 23 to November 12 in each of the sections 1 to3, after the plowing test. Within the mechanical work, we performed weeding byattaching a weeder as a work machine to the traction-type power tiller. Within the
manual work section, the same operation was performed using hoes. The weeder'smechanism consists of two triangular blades (spades) disposed to the left and to the right,
so that it works on two crop lines from three within the rice field. When turning, themachine is shifted laterally by one line, so that weeding can be performed through all
the in-between space of the rice fields.
We measured working time and fuel consumption for the weeding test. Due to thecharacteristics of the weeder, the measured time is the time needed for weeding the inbetween lines (furrows). As for the spaces between plants, we decided to perform weedingaccording to needs.
At the time of the weeding test (50 days after seeding), mechanical work section 1(rotovator) was in the best conditions of clod-breaking, uniformity and growth.
<3> Harvesting Test
Harvesting test was performed from January 16 to February 11, 2014. Within themechanical work sections, we used a harvester made in Japan, a throw-in type threshingmachine made in China and a motorized winnower. A similar work was performed
manually within the manual work section. We measured work times in a similar mannerto the tests above. As within this threshing experiment we used a throw-in typethreshing machine, reaping was performed slightly upper, and not by the root.
2) Test Results<1> Plowing Experiment
Total work time needed for mechanical section 1 (rotovator) was 210 minutes, formechanical section 2 (traction type) 90 minutes were needed for moldboard and disk plowwork. Total time needed for section 3 (manual work) was approximately 127 hours for32the primary work (Table 3-1). Farming work per 1ha can be calculated as 35 hours for
section 1, 15 hours for section 2, and around 1270 hours for section 3. Therefore weappreciate that plowing mechanization by plowing machines can contribute to croplandarea extension even for small-scale farms.
Concerning soil conditions after the plowing work, section 1 (rotovator) had the finest
clod breaking and uniformity. In order to obtain similar clod breaking conditions in orderto perform seeding on section 2, manual clod breaking took approximately 87 hours.
Within this study after consultations with AEATREC, when considering a scheme of ricecultivation mechanization by traction-type machines, we adopted the plan to perform
manual clot breaking after moldboard plowing and then disk-plow work, but by thefarming survey during the present project, we consider that test result time could be
reduced, as we found out a method to apply the moldboard plow for several times.
Fuel consumption of the power tiller was 2.59 liter on section 1 and 1.30 liters on section
2. Fuel consumption can then be converted as to approximately 26 liters and respectively
13 liters per hectare, amounting to 2000 to 4000 JPY fuel cost per hectare. Manpower at
the actual place is supplied by hired people, insufficient during farming periods (5 hours/ day, 6000USH, about 240 yen). Supposing that the entire work is performed manually,
0.1ha costs would amount to about 60,000 yen and 1ha would require about 600,000 yen.
Even by hiring laborers only partially in order to complete farm work within theadequate periods cost are very high for small-scale farmers, so that the mechanizationof plowing work would be more economical in case of cropland extension.
Table 3-1

Labor Time and Fuel Consumption within Plowing Test
Total quantity of work

Test section(Labor hours and minutes ofwork as done by one person)

Fuel consumption(liters)

Mechanized Work Section 1 (rotovator)

3 hours 30 min

2.59

Mechanized Work Section 2 (traction type)88 hours 54 min-of which machine work is

1 hour 30 min

1.3

of which manual clod breaking

87 hours 24 min-

126 hours-

Manual Work Section 3<2> Weeding ExperimentThis operation needed 1 hour in each of mechanized sections: 1 (rotovator) and section 2(traction type). Within section 3 (manual work) the operation took 46 hours (Table 3-2).

33

Operation time per 1 ha would be 10 hours in the mechanized sections and 460 hours in
the manual work section. Actually, due to the fact that spaces between plants also needa reasonable weeding, the real efficiency is not as high as it is shown by the results.
However, rain-fed lowland rice-field needs three weeding operations for each cultivation
work, therefore mechanization is expected to greatly reduce farmer's labor load.
Table 3-2

MechanizedWork

Section

1

Work

Section2

Weeding Experiment Results
Quantity of

Quantity of

work

work

(mechanized)(manual)(traction type)efficiency index(vs. manual work as
1)

59 min.

46.8 times

1 hour 5 min

1(rotovator)
Mechanized

Mechanized section

Manual Work Section 3

46 hours

42.5 times

According to the farming survey performed in Nankoma, Bugiri District, mechanizationis strongly expected, as weeding labor is especially burdensome compared to otheractivities. By the present experiment, we understood that mechanization would greatly
increase weeding work efficiency. Nevertheless, we also found out that weeding laborneeds the following conditions to be respected, compared to plowing. As these conditions
are believed to be faced upon the actual mechanization performed by the farmers, wewould like to organize these problems for on-site use.
(1) Weeding Labor Start Timing Issue
In order to use the weeder, the operation should be started when weeds are smaller than
the rice plants, so that the operator can discriminate them visually. Since we were notable to match weeding timing for a part of the present experiment, we performed a
preparatory weeding in order to allow visual observation. This issue needs to be taken
into account adequately also in case of extension of arable area by mechanization.
Since the power tiller extends on three lines and passes over the center line, the time of
the third weeding should be chosen so that weed height is so that the rice plants are notdamaged. For the present experiment we considered that weeding before the basal
dressing done 21 days after seeding and before the top dressing done 54 days after34

seeding would be efficient, but optimal periods should be sought for according to plant
type, by accumulating experience for several times.
(2) The Relationship between line width and power tiller wheel width
Concerning rain-fed lowland cultivation including NERICA, in Uganda we haverecommended 30-cm line width as a standard. Seeding within this experiment was also
performed upon this standard. Basically, power tiller's tires must pass through theinside or outside of the inter-row space. With regard to this point, the wheel distance ofthe power tiller used for this experiment (the thread distance between the centers of left
and right wheel) was of 67 cm. Since wheel width was 12 cm, the machine treaded on
the rice line.
As for AEATREC, we consider that one treading over a plant does not pose any problems
concerning plant growth, but as long as weeding must be performed for 2 or 3 times,
impact upon plant is considered to be unavoidable. Although the power tiller used forthe present experiment is of an un-adjustable type we have no choice but to continue
weeding work using it. Nevertheless, upon the introduction of power tillers,consideration should be done about the possibility to adjust wheel-distance and about
the possibility to select slim steel wheels. Inter-row distance adjustment can also be
considered upon mechanization. In case of a supposed 40-cm width, although this would
lead to a lower areal productivity, when considering that mechanization would allow theextension of the cultivated area up to several times, farmers could still increase theirincome.
(3) Assuring power tiller turning area
We discovered that a buffer zone outside of the rice-field is necessary for turning themachine, as the weeder is connected to the rear of the power tiller as a working part.
This issue must be taken into account upon mechanization also in order not to damage
neighboring farm fields.
<3> Harvesting Test
Although operating time was reduced by mechanization for each of the operations ofharvesting, threshing and winnowing (Table 3-3), the efficiency improvement due tomechanical harvesting was especially remarkable, as mechanical operation time wasapproximately 30 minutes, compared to 15 hours needed for manual work (labor timeper 1 ha is 150 hours for manual work and 5 hours for mechanical work).
During the present experiment, the harvester became very famous, as many of the
farmers who attended the test said that the next product they would buy after a power35

tiller would be a harvester. On the other hand we observed challenges as: (1) machine
turning cannot be done in an optimal manner and requests a long time in case of low
handling proficiency, (2) As work extends in time, labor becomes difficult as it is harderand harder to concentrate, so that 1st gear must be used instead of the 2nd gear, (3)Bearing in mind the on-site management level, since the harvester is made of finer parts
compared to power tiller, part dropping may occur during work.
Within the threshing experiment, the results were of 187 hours of manual work and of
50 hours of mechanical work calculated per 1 hectare. Concerning manual work we chosethe method used to beat the rice-ears by bars, which is performed locally, but this method
provoked many losses due to the dispersion of a lot of rice grain, even though we tried tocollect it by extending a plastic sheet over the work field. Moreover, since improved ricetypes are difficult to thresh, the actual efficiency of mechanization is believed to be evenbetter than pointed by the results.
Within the winnowing experiment, labor was performed over 10 kg of rice. By
considering a harvested quantity of 2 t per 1 hectare, manual operation requires around27 hours, while mechanical operation requires around 3 hours. Within the practicalmanual winnowing operation:(1) Man-hour per one time is scarce and not fit for larger harvested quantities;(2) Efficiency is influenced by wind speed;(3) Impurity removal is difficult to perform by one operation;(4) Dispersed grain gathering takes even more time.
On the other hand, mechanized labor allows almost complete impurity removal by one
operation and it is believed to be even more efficient than pointed by the results, similar
with threshing.
Table 3-3

Labor Time and Fuel Consumption within Harvesting Test
Mechanical Operation

Mechanized sectionTimeefficiency index(hours: mins)(vs. manual work as 1)

14:50

0:27

33 timesThreshing

18:40

4:05

4.6 times

Winnowing

2:54

0:24

7.2 times

Operation

Manual Operation Time

Contents(hours: mins)

Harvesting

Note: With regard to harvesting and threshing, harvested product of a 0.1 hectare field was considered. Hence, we
processed 10 kg of grain within winnowing, but we calculated the operation time considering 2 ton/ha, or 200 kg/0.1
ha.

36

2. Farming Experiment around NaCRRI
1) Test Method(1) Plowing, Weeding and Harvesting Experiment
We performed the empirical test on farm fields of Seetabaale village, Busukuma, in
Wakiso District. Basically we measured operation time and fuel consumption in order toevaluate labor productivity on mechanical labor fields and manual labor fields, in asimilar manner with that used during the test within NaCRRI. As for changes, we used
only traction-type power tillers as machines, and also we set 10 mechanical labor sections
and 10 manual labor sections.
The test fields were taken on lease from farmers living around NaCRRI. We requested
the farmers using the fields and AEATREC for the labor needed for the test.
(2) Rice-milling Experiment
We performed a rice milling test from February 8 to 12, using the rice grains obtainedby implementing the above experiment. Rice-milling of rice produced in Uganda is not
performed manually, but using rice mills. As for the present experiment we considered
the rice milling by Engelberg-type rice mill (made in China) -- which has been used for along time-- as a traditional technique, and we compared its performance with the Milltop-type rice mill (copy made in China of a Japanese machine) -- appreciated as of good
performance in the western part of Hoima District where it was wide spread -- as the
improved technique.
As survey results indicated that rice milling is performed by passing grains twice
through the machine, as rice milled by the Engelberg-type presents unpolished ricegrains, we performed rice milling by the Engelberg-type for two times. As the test was
performed at AEATREC, we attempted a comparison of energy costs by measuring theenergy consumption of the facility. Upon rice milling, after performing stone removalusing a stone removing machine made in Japan, we performed a comparison of thecrushed grain ratio by passing the grains through a grader (rotary shifter) made in China.
2) Test Results(1) Test Results from Plowing to Harvesting
Operation times for plowing (twice), seeding, weeding (intertillage), harvesting,threshing up to winnowing by mechanized work and by manual work are presented inTable 3-4. Within 1 hectare of rain-fed lowland rice field, labor productivity improved by
25 times due to mechanization.

37

Table 3-4

Operation Times for Mechanized Work and Manual Work
Mechanical
Operation
SectionManual Work
Section(Calculated asdone by 1 person)

Index of
Improvement Rate
(setting amount ofmanual work as 1)

12 hours 15
min

213 hours 2 min

17.5

10 hours 31
min

222 hours 2 min

21.1

6 hours 50 min

268 hours 50 min

39.3

7 hours 29 min

621 hours 4 min

82.9

3 hours 56 min

133 hours 46 min

34.4

24 hours 40
min

182 hours

7.4

41 min.

3 hours 12 min

4.0

66 hours 22
min1643 hours 56 min

24.8

Operation Contents
First plowing(mechanical: moldboard plow)(manual: hoe)
Second plowing(mechanical: disk plow and manualclod breaking)(manual: hoe and clod breaking)Seeding(mechanical: 4-row seeder)(Manual: row seeding)Weeding (intertillage)(mechanical: 2-row weeder)(manual: hoe)
Harvesting(mechanical: 4-row harvester)(Manual: machete)Threshing(mechanical:
throw-intype
thresher)(manual: log hitting)Winnowing(mechanical: motorized winnower)(manual: winnowing basket)
Total

We calculated times per hectare from the average measured time within plots of 0.1ha in test sections.
Thresher operation requires at least 3 persons.

In fact, there is no mechanization system established locally. Moreover, as preparations
and maintenance required for mechanical labor has not been taken into account, actual
mechanization times shall be different. Seed adjusting of the seeder is especially difficult.
Also there is a problem regarding mechanized weeders. It can cover inter-row spaces but
spaces between plants needs to be done by manual work. On the other hand, grain loss
such as spilling due to log lashing of the plants after harvesting, paddy left over due tomanual threshing, or spilling when winnowing have been recognized as important, sothat improvements done by mechanization are expected.
Since farming labor times often exceed 200 hours per hectare when done manually, due
to the fact that long labor times are necessary even in case of performing them by hiring
more staff when needed, operations cannot be completed by the adequate periods andalso land extension seems to remain difficult.

38

On the other hand, fuel necessary for farming labor per 1 hectare was approximately 40
liters, which is around 150,000 Ush (6,000 JPY) (Table 3-5 and 3-6). Since harvests on
the test performed on farmlands were of 2 tons of paddy (1,340 kg of milled rice) per 1
hectare both on mechanized and manual sites, by considering a price of 1,800 Ush/kg ofmilled rice, the income per 1 ha is expected to be of around 2.4 million Ush (96,000 JPY),
therefore fuel price should not be a great burden. On the other hand, cost of staff add-up
in order to complete the necessary work by manual operation are very high, therefore
farming land extension is not possible for small-scale farmers under the current
situation such as farming by manual work under family management.
Table 3-5

Fuel Cost for Mechanized Labor
Mechanical Operation
Fuel Consumption(liters)

Fuel Cost(Ush)

Fuel Cost(JPY)

First plowing

9.2

33,120

1,325

Second plowing

6.75

24,300972

Seeding

3.38

12,168487

Weeding (intertillage) (supposing 3 times)

2.59

9,324

373

Harvesting

12.45

44,820

1,793

Threshing

6.0

21,600864

Winnowing

0.45

1,620

65

Total

40.82

146,952

5,878

Operation Contents

Fuel price was considered as 3,600 Ush/liter (during present year project).

Table 3-6

Staff Salary for Manual Work
Salary for manual work
(Ush)

Salary(JPY)First plowing

255,640

10,226

Second plowing

266,440

10,658

Seeding322,600

12,940

Weeding (intertillage) (supposing 3 times)

745,280

29,811Harvesting

481,560

19,262Threshing

218,400

8,736

Winnowing

3,840

154

2,293,760

91,750Operation Contents

Total

Staff salary was considered as 6,000 Ush/ day, at 5-hour labor / day (during present year project).

39

(4) Rice-milling Experiment
As a result of the milling experiment, Mill-top-type miller provided an operation 4.4
times shorter than Engelberg-type miller. Engelberg-type miller has a longer operation
time than the Mill-top-type miller even in case of single processing. Nevertheless, theEngelberg-type miller cannot actually provide completely milled rice from the first timeand requires a second processing. Therefore more time and energy is required.
The Mill-top-type miller is proficient also in terms of energy consumption, as it saved
more energy. In a similar manner with operation time, the Engelberg-type consumed
more electricity than the Mill-top type even operating only one processing. Therefore,
results showed the Mill-top type as more proficient in terms of energy consumption andalso as providing a better labor productivity, in comparison with the Engelberg type.
Using a grain grader, we compared broken rice grain ratio of the rice milled by thetwo types above within the present project. Broken grain ratios presented no conspicuous
difference. The Mill-top type presents the problem that technical skills are required inorder to adjust gap of gum-roller as a preprocessing operation.
Table 3-7

Fuel Costs for Mechanical Work and Staff Salary for Manual WorkEngelberg typeMill-top type

31 min 44 sec.

11 min 12 sec.

71.23 kg

70.91 kg

4.11 kWh1.36 kWh

17 min 17 sec.

-

Weight after processing

67.07kg-

Weight after processing

1.48 kWh-

Total Processing Time

49 min 1 sec.

11 min 12 sec.

5.59 kWh1.36 kWh

Rice Milling Operation Time
(1st time for Engelberg type)
Weight after processing
Power Consumption(2nd time for Engelberg type)
Rice Milling Operation Time
(2nd time for Engelberg type)

Total Power Consumption

Results for both machines were calculated as for a quantity of 100 kg of paddy.

Upon the implementation of the present experiment, AEATREC, which performed
human resource support such as agricultural mechanization technicians, operators, etc.,
recommended further demonstration tests in other rain-fed lowland rice-field regions
situated in Uganda subsequently to the region of the present test. Moreover, AEATREC
promised: (1) Demonstrations of farming machines including power tillers and40

distribution of information aiming to efficiency improvement by media; (2) training
aiming to skill improvement; (3) Technological support towards farmers, NGOs,
government institutions interested in power tillers made by Japanese makers andrelevant technology and active support concerning the supply of relevant information
towards bilateral private sectors of Japan and Uganda.

3. Power tiller Introduction Test Follow-up Results by VECO
1) BackgroundIn this project we approached the farmers of Nankoma in Bugiri District, who havereceived financial support for power tiller introductions as a part of the production
improvement project of the Belgian NGO, VECO. VECO established priority on
agricultural products for production increase and farming techniques for each of thesubject lands in Nankoma in Bugiri District, Kameke in Pallisa District, Kisoko in Tororo
District, Kibuku District and other areas. It has performed financial support formechanization including (1) land development for harvest increase, (2) value-adding toagricultural products and (3) ox farming labor. Prioritized agricultural products are
peanuts, corn and cassava for Nankoma, rice, cassava and peanuts for Kameke, peanuts,
corn and onions for Kisoko and corn, cassava and beans for Kibuku District. Financial
support targets includes ox farming, power tillers and 4-wheel tractor purchase. The
financial support for power tiller purchasing was performed in Nankoma.
For case in Nankoma, VECO created a system by which they purchased and supplied to
Nankoma ACE sets of power tillers and farming machines (moldboard plow, disk plow,
trailer, cage wheels) amounting 20 million Ush (around 800,000 JPY) per set, then VECO
supplied half of the purchasing sums to interested farmers who paid the other half
amounting 10 million Ush (400,000 JPY). This scheme allows farmers who can pay 2
million Ush (around 80,000 JPY) to buy a power tiller, then to complete the payment of
the rest of 8 million Ush in two years, by paying 2 million Ush each half year.
2) Follow-up Results
From 2012 to 2013, nine units of power tillers made in Japan were bought at Nankoma
ACE. The verification test using power tillers described above permits the test of laborproductivity for each of the farming works. Nevertheless examining base cost concerning
durability, which is indispensable in order to verify mechanization, is difficult. On theother hand, information is very scarce with regard to the ways to improve farming
management as a result of the direct possession of power tillers by farmers in Uganda -41

- not limited to power tillers made in Japan -- so that these purchases become valuable
examples.
During the present project, we visited six of these farmers and interviewed themconcerning basic information such as income, cultivated areas, cultivated products, andalso about power tiller durability and changes of farm management due to theintroduction of power tillers. Locations of Nankoma ACE and of the farmers we visitedare presented in Table 3-2. We were not able to investigate the farmers who purchased
the other three power tillers due to reasons as not meeting their convenience or they
were using the power tillers in other districts.

Figure 3-2

Locations of farmers possessing power tillers in Nankoma, Bugiri District

Farmers possessing power tillers who were subject of the investigation (red circles), Nankoma ACE office(black circle)
Source: Google Earth(1) Farm management done by farmers who own power tillers
As we asked about changes after the introduction of power tillers, several farmers
answered that they extended farming surfaces up to four times due to the improvementof labor productivity. They worked not only on their own farms, but also did alternate
farming for surrounding farmers. We could observe an increase of farming surfaces in
the area. Apart of alternate tilling, some people were gaining profit by using the power
unit as motor for maize shellers (corn shedding machines). Power tillers can be also used
for irrigations by connecting them to water pumps.

42

Price of alternate farming prices are set at 60,000–80,000 Ush per 1 acre (60,000 Ush
are approx. 2,400 JPY, which is around 6,000 JPY per 1ha), they range cost of services
using 4-wheel tractor (around 80,000 Ush = around 3,200 JPY, which is around 8,000
JPY per 1ha) and ox farming (40,000–50,000 Ush; 40,000 Ush are approx. 1,600 JPY,
which is around 4,000 JPY per 1ha). Some people said that alternate farming is not wellreceived due to its higher price compared to ox farming. Nevertheless, in this region
where tilling or weeding are reported not to be done within the adequate periods due tolack of working force, power tillers are believed to be useful enough as they are fasterthan oxen.
Transport of quantities of more than 500 kg at a time is possible by joining a trailer tothe power tiller. They say that locally they used to transport agricultural products (i.e.
corn) to their homes or to the common barns by carrying them on their heads
traditionally, or loading them on bicycles then pushing bicycles by hand, or by bike taxi
(boda-boda), but due to the transport using the power tiller time and expenses reduced.
There were also persons who increased their income by transporting not only
agricultural products, but also bricks or other construction materials for a charge.
Power tillers were used also for transporting water for daily life use. According to one
possessor, before the introduction of the power tiller, his family used to go to the waterplace for water 7 times each day using three or four cans of 20 liters, but now they go
only 4 times a week as they carry water by the trailer. He said that due to this, womenand children were spared of a hard work and now water supply for people and also forlivestock can be done much smoother.
Farmers who used their power tillers skillfully were able to use most of the time thatthey saved by the improvement of the labor efficiency to other farming activities thatwere previously impossible. There were persons who spent a part of their time for union
activities.
(2) Power tiller Durability
During this project, we visited Nankoma four times between July 2013 and January 2014.
During our investigations, there were no power tiller failures concerning engine, gearbox
or main parts. On the other hand, failures of smaller parts, especially acceleration leveror clutch lever were often reported. The most often reported failure was damage of thetrailer joint part (tow rod). Moldboard plow and disk plow welding ruptures were also
observed. Apart these failures, bending of rear-wheels or of the brackets mounted to themain body hitches, by which mounting was disabled, were also observed.

43

Failure causes are considered to be inappropriate handling by operators and trailer
overload, but region-specific causes could also be considered. The reason for selecting
power tillers manufactured in Japan for application in Nankoma was their failurerobustness and their high reliability compared to cheaper machines made in othercountries. Nevertheless, these machines are conceived and sold having in mind Asian
paddy rice. Therefore, causes of the failure of various parts that could not endure: (1)handling done by local people, who are of large physique and strong, (2) very uneven dirt
farming roads, (3) Ugandan soil, especially hard and sticky soil of rain-fed lowland andmaize farms could be also considered.
From owner's point of view, the unavailability of the power tiller due to the damage ofthe acceleration lever of clutch lever, which, although minor, are parts of the main body,
is not much different from other failures, and may lower the level of reliability of thepower tiller itself. On the other hand, often failures of the plows imported at the sametime-- although they are not the main body--, also cause great inconveniences, so that asprovided these plows are recommended by makers, they need thorough consideration of
local soil conditions and usage.
With regard to consumables, such as transmission V-belts, gum tires (dirt tires),lubrication oil, etc., wearing of V-belts and gum tires was severe. Investigations pointed
to improper assembling and adjustment of V-belts, which could be a cause of theirwearing. On the other hand, since there were people who claimed failures on the next
day after replacement, it seems that product quality at the time of purchase anddeterioration due to long-term storage is also a problem.
As for gum tires, wearing was more and more severe at each further investigation; wesaw two cases of ordinary vehicle tires equipped to power tillers due to usage failure.
This kind of tires was used because of the difficulty of procuring power tiller-dedicatedtires. Nevertheless, the machine is deprived of most of its performances, since such tires
equipped to power tillers cannot adhere to surface to ensure sufficient thrust force. With
regard to this point, we investigated even large-scale tire stores in capital Kampala, but
could not obtain a clear response whether this kind of tires is available or not. Chinesemade power tiller retailers responded that they have tires in stocks, but these tires do
not fit the power tillers manufactured in Japan that are used in Nankoma.
Together with gum tires, the lack of spare parts, i.e. clutch levers, is also a problem.
Farmers are replacing them by motorbike parts, or try aggressive repairs or corrections
by blacksmiths. Basically, the dealers who sold the machines should also supply parts,
but the reality seems to be that, as long as the farmers cannot contact these dealers orpart retailers in larger cities, they do not know how to order parts.

44

(3) Daily Maintenance Management
Five of the farmers who own power tillers have already received training about usage
and maintenance from AEATREC, but there is still room for improvement ofmaintenance concerning most of the farmers. Concerning V-belts, there were cases ofpeoples who displaced the whole engine in order to adjust the V-belt, as they did notknow how to tension the V-belt when replacing it. There were also cases of people wholost engine-mounting bolts and were running their machines in a dangerous manner, byonly 3 bolts instead of 4. With regard to oil change, there were cases of people who did
not know the appropriate quantity of gear oil, so that they put too much oil and thus
caused oil leakages.
Most of the failures are minor, but there are quite many cases of users who suffer failures
or wearing due to the lack of understanding of the proper maintenance method, which
could follow into more critical failures. From this point of view, we considered thatfurther maintenance and management guidance is necessary. There were also cases
when the people who were requested to repair power tillers or work machines tamperedwith them without understanding basic structures and failed. Therefore mechanics alsoneed urgent guidance.
As we were quite concerned of this situation, more than doing training for power tiller
owners about usage and management methods, we also executed training for repairmen
and mechanics in the surrounding regions.
(4) Ownership
It seems that owners in this region use to hire operators in order to perform farming
activities. Also for the case of Nankoma, each power tiller owner hired a couple ofoperators, apart the owner himself. There were only two cases of management performedby the owner, in all the other cases machine running and management being performedby operators. There were also cases when owners just handed power tillers toneighboring farmers and only receive fees.
Under such a situation, operators can perform alternate farming on their own by
cheating about payment and fuel prices without any advice from owners. In fact, wefound such reports. Apart considering the effects of such use to the quality of plowing
work, the loss of confidence towards the power tiller itself was a point of concern, as
machine life cycle shortens due to the lack of responsibility concerning maintenance andmanagement.

45

(5) Power tiller Payment Situation
With regard to payment, there were two cases of farmers who confirmed to be able to pay
purchasing expenses within two years. As they are also using power tillers as powersources or as transport vehicles and also lend them for a charge, we conjectured thatmechanization enables capital refunding sufficiently.
On the other hand, there were responses that payment is difficult due to the drought
during the first half of 2013. Although drought effects are unclear, drought seems to be
one of the causes of the delay of the payment. Nankoma ACE detains some traces ofregistrations of activities made at the beginning of the purchases, but at present
management done by operators does not seem adequate, as such registrations have beeninterrupted. There is a chance to promote adequate usage and also prevent payment
delays by ensuring a thorough activity registration input.
Citation and Reference
1) Tsuboi, Tatsushi, Rice Cultivation Handbook, Promotion of Rice Development(PRiDe) Project46

Chapter 4 Development of Agricultural Business and its Challenges
1. Challenges for farmers
We believe that income increase for small-sized farms can be achieved by the following changes,
among others: enlarging cultivation area and optimum seeding period area; boosting unit crop yieldthrough cultivation method enhancements; raising product value by planned adjustments of shipping
periods and processing, among other measures; and sales in the markets with better pricing and terms.
In all of the above, mechanization is possible.
1) Mechanization of ploughing
We understand that farmers wish to mechanize, of all the mechanizable operations, plowing – theheaviest agricultural work. It is estimated that the maximum manual labor capacity of plowing for afamily-sized farm is around 1 ha. In fact, our interviews across Africa show that farmers usually have
3 to 4 times larger farm lands compared to the size of land they actually use, and as a result, not all thearable lands are being utilized. It should be noted that some of these lands are used in livestock raisingand orchards, but we noticed that in general a large part of those remain unused as the farmers’ manual
plowing capacity is limited.
On the other hand, farmers who introduced tractors there have successfully increased the size ofcultivated areas by 3 to 5 times, and they have succeeded in optimizing farmland use. In addition,
many of the farmers who purchased tractors are motivated to further increase their farmlands byleasing and purchase, in consideration of their mechanized capacity.
2) Improvement of ploughing
Raising the speed of farm field plowing enables seeding of these fields at the optimum periods. When
farmers introduce seed planting attachments to tractors, they become able to seed with much moreroom for maneuvering. This in turn will allow them to improve sprouting and growth of their seeds.
Furthermore, their mobility can be further boosted by combining the above with timely weeding withhoeing machines, and by attaching irrigation pumps to tractors, so that the farmers can irrigate andwater only the areas that need them, to help the growth of plants. The crops that the farmers raise to
feed themselves now can be harvested in excess, and the excess can be marketed in markets as cash
crops. This in turn will allow the farmers to enjoy a direct increase in their income. We also observedthat some farmers lease their tractors as the powering source for maze shellers and milling machines,
to further boost their income. It should be noted that their lease businesses are making contributionsin improving the labor efficiency of neighboring farms.

473) Machine hiring service/human labour and their distribution
The farming families that introduced tractors have succeeded in increasing their income by plowing
farm fields of neighboring farms for fee, while at the same time being engaged in a variety of hired
farm operations that utilize the mobility of their tractors. The neighboring farms enjoy the benefit of
the mechanization, specifically by enlarging the size of cultivated areas, while becoming able to farm
more efficiently.
When the yield increases in an area, a growing center is developed there, in the form of joint shipment
and other means. This in turn will enable farmers to win an advantageous position when negotiatingwith buyers.
4) Value addition
It should be noted that a temporary price collapse could occur as the yield increases. On the other hand,
it also becomes possible for farmers to market their crops by promoting value-added features, forexample by setting up joint processing facilities, by grading crops and adjusting shipment periods
through the establishment of storage facilities, among others.
5) For purchasing agricultural machinery
Under the current government policy of Uganda, the importance of mechanization is stressed.
However, at the same time, the government subsidy to farmers’ machine purchase is close to nonexistent. What is more, the existing financing system makes it difficult for ordinary farmers to get anapproval for their financing requests. In fact, regrettably, most of the tractor introductions in the past
involve some kind of foreign assistance. In this kind of circumstance, it would be a realistic choice forfarmers to form co-ops and other organizations to jointly purchase farming machines. With regards tofarmer organization, plans have been made by international organizations, aid agencies of various
countries, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the plans are proactively implemented
by these organizations within their frameworks.

2. Challenges for Ugandan companies
1) Distributors
Most of agricultural machine distributors are operated by Indian or Chinese trading companies andshops. Major Indian distributors market 80-horsepower-plus tractors made by Massey Ferguson. But
they are not necessarily manufactured in the United Kingdom; many of them are made in India,
Pakistan, and Brazil. Each distributor claim that what they market is more authentic than others. Whatcomplicates the matter is the marketing of pre-owned Massey Ferguson tractors. In addition, what
would be considered as large-sized tractors in Japan, manufactured by John Deere, New Holland, as
well as India’s Mahindra and Sonalika, are marketed for large-sized farm companies. Among these48

competitors, only a small number of Japanese farm machines are sold in Uganda. On the other hand,
the Ugandans’ general trust toward Japanese products, grown largely through their use of Japanese
automobiles and home electronics products, is deep, and for that reason, several distributors noted thatthey wanted to carry Japanese tractors if prices and terms are right. What is more, the Japanesecurrency has depreciated recently, making Japanese manufacturers’ tractors and Power tillers –previously expensive – more affordable for Ugandan farmers. Taking Power tillers, for example, thedistributors told us that if the Japanese product are priced at about the double of those of their Chinesecompetitors, the Japanese Power tillers would be competitive enough.
At a farm equipment store run by Chinese people, female attendants were stationed to explain theirmerchandises, from Power tillers to rice mills, that were crammed into the display space, in order toboost sales. Although Chinese products have earned the negative reputation for unreliability, we
assume that their affordability stimulates farmers’ desire to get farming equipment. We also believethat the farmers who bought the Chinese products, after enjoying their usefulness, will want to buy
better Japanese products, even if they are more expensive. In that sense, the Chinese are expanding
the small-sized farm machine market for Japanese manufacturers. At the present moment, Uganda’s
GNI (gross national income) remains at US $500 per person, which is still low; and the Ugandanmarket certainly does not look attractive as it would still not be considered a mass market. However,it remains to be true that the market is steadily expanding.
2) Agricultural machinery manufacturers
The production of some farm equipment, which can be manufactured with elementary technology at
small-sized enterprises, has started at certain private companies under the guidance of the AgriculturalEngineering and Appropriate Technology Research Centre (AEATREC), an agricultural machinery
research center. However, not only is the product variety small, but also the quality and efficiency ofthe local products is not necessarily high.
In planning for sales increase of cultivation machines, the success depends on how optimally toincrease the variety of peripheral equipment in order to maximize the operation hours of the Power
tillers. Japanese manufacturers may be able to help increasing the choice of peripheral equipment insome kind of way, which in turn will create a win-win situation for both the Ugandans and the Japanese.

3. Challenges for Japanese companies
1) Supply of spare parts
As we have noted previously, the Ugandan farm equipment market is expanding, and the trust forJapanese product is very high. Regrettably, however, post-purchase parts supply of the alreadyimported Japanese equipment is poor. This in turn results in a long down time for Japanese farming
equipment, even if the cause of malfunction is relatively minor.

492) Determination of breakdown causes
We encountered farmers’ claims that their farming equipment broke down. It is important for the
manufacturers to identify the genuine causes in such cases and send feedback to concerned parties, as
to if the malfunction is due to the way the farmers use the equipment, or if it is caused by manufacturingissues, or both.
For example, we need to know if the occasional coming apart of connecting parts is caused by thefarmers’ rough handling, or if the machines are originally designed for Thailand and Indonesia wheresuch equipment is used to cultivate rice paddies filled with water, not the Ugandan fields. If the cause
is the design issue involving the hardness of soil, it would be an idea to choose and recommend theequipment suited to cultivate Ugandan soils, so that the operating rate and life for Power tillers can beincreased. This will in turn improve the reputation of Japanese products.
3) Operation induction and technical support
If the cause of breakdown were the incorrect usage by farmers, it would be important to allocate
resources for operation training, as the vast majority of Ugandan farmers have not even experienced
cultivation using cattle power. For the time being, we recommend that training be considered andadministered for salespersons and repairpersons at dealers. As for the Ugandan government, theAgricultural Engineering and Appropriate Technology Research Centre (AEATREC) is mandated toprovide research and training, but regrettably, it does not have the sufficient supply of researchers andtechnicians who have optimal level of knowledge and experience. If farming equipment manufacturers
can proactively approach the institution, it is likely to make them appreciate the help.

4) Publicity and advertisement
In the present research, we have come up with a mechanization scheme, involving mostly Power tillers,as the aim is the promotion of mechanization for small-sized farms. On the other hand, we felt that thepossibility for large-sized farming is promising for the northern region of the country, where farming
is very active. For such areas, populated only in scattered ways in vast savannas, large-scale farming
appeared to be suited. For that reason, the sparsely populated areas seem to have a larger need forlarge-sized agricultural machines. In fact, all the dealers we interviewed answered that they wantmachines with 80 to 100 HP.
Moreover, as we have noted before, cultivation outsourcing is penetrating the market, as individual
purchase of farming equipment lags due to the underdevelopment of financing and subsidy systems.
The outsourced Power tillers are seeking large-sized tractors in order to fulfill their tasks efficiently.
For this reason, too, the Ugandan market for agricultural machines is expected to further grow in thenear future.

50

Also, the used farming equipment market is growing, too, due to the rapid expansion of the tractor
market. Although not as attractive as the newly-manufactured product market, this, too, seems to beimportant in the near future.
5) Latest agricultural machinery importation situation
In Uganda, the Uganda Revenue Authority (URA) compiles statistical data on the import and exportof agricultural machines. Using the data obtained from URA, we will try to analyze the recent trend
in this area. Note that the numbers listed below are obtained in a hearing from a URA official, and thatthey are not verified in final forms. It should be especially important to pay attention to the number
for 2013, as it may not be statistically complete.
(1) The number of imported agricultural machines, by year
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Total

Average

4-wheel tractors

434

451

398

619

505

2,407

481.4

Power tillers

187

305

455

451

68

1,466

293.2

An average of 480 units of 4-wheel tractors is imported each year since 2009. For Power tillers, an
unnatural figure is listed for 2012, and we adjusted this, and came up with the average (estimated)annual import number of about 290 units.
Note: It is reported that in 2012, Evergreen imported 3,637 units of Power tillers from Italy. However,
we have concluded that this is a statistical error, as the firm has never actually imported farming
equipment before. This number has been subtracted from the adjusted figures in the chart above.

51

(2) The number of imported agricultural machines, by importers
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Total

Percentage inall imports(%)

AverageannualimportDistributors

151

255

209

261

234

1,110

46.1

222.0

Corporate users

131

124

119

85

148

607

25.2

121.4

Individuals

119

58

58

87

65

387

16.1

77.4

Aid agencies

8

9

10

8

11

46

1.9

9.2

1

0.0

0.2

10.6

51.2

4-wheel tractors

Foreigngovernments

1

UgandanGovernment

25

5

2

177

47

256

Total

434

451

398

619

505

2,407

Distributors

86

164

272

416

0

938

64.0

187.6

Corporate users

42

26

33

15

3

119

8.1

23.8

Individuals

6

81

44

5

65

201

13.7

40.2

Aid agencies

9

103

13

125

8.5

25

Foreigngovernments

3

3

0.2

0.6

80

5.5

16

481.4

Power tillers

UgandanGovernment

53

22

3

2

187

305

455

451

68

1,466

293.2

Import of 4-wheel tractors in the past 5 years, by importer, in percentage
販売会社
Distributors
ユーザー企業
Corporateusers
個人
Individuals
援助機関等
Aid
agencies
外国政府
Foreign governments
ウガンダ政府UgandanGovernment

By importer, the percentage of distributors is around 50%. Meanwhile, large-scale agriculturalcompanies at times choose to import farming equipment by themselves when needed. It should be
noted that individuals account for more than 10% of all imports. As the import by the Ugandan
government is only about 10%, we can safely assume that the import of agricultural machines is led
by the private sector, and that the influence of government imports is limited.

52

(3) Imports from Japan, by importer
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Total

Percentage inall imports (%)

Distributors

0

0

0

0

1

1

1.6

Corporate users

3

2

4

0

2

11

17.5

Individuals

11

8

13

8

11

51

80.9

Total

14

10

17

8

14

63

100.0

Power tillers

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Total

Percentage inall imports (%)

3

8

11

18.3

9

9

15.0

37

61.7

4-wheel tractors

Distributors
Corporate users
Individuals

1

31

1

3

1

JICA

2

2

3.3

Others

1

1

1.7

60

100.0

Total

1

37

18

3

1

Since the start of 2009, a total of 63 Japanese tractors and 60 Japanese Power tillers have been imported
to Uganda in the 5-year period, according to the numbers. These are 3.7% of all tractor imports and4.1% of all Power tiller imports, respectively. Although these figures are very small compared to thesizes of the markets, but it is hoped that active marketing efforts will be made in anticipation of afurther expansion of the markets.
The number of Japanese Power tiller imports in 2013 stood at only 1 unit. On the other hand, officials
at Akamba, a company that markets Honda Power tillers in Uganda, told us that an average of 6 unitsof Honda Power tiller are sold per year. Therefore, it is probable that some Japanese imports are notreflected in the government’s import statistics.
In any case, as we have noted, a total of 60 Japanese Power tillers – an average of 12 units a year –have been imported in Uganda in the past 5 years. It is expected that demand will remain at least at
this level for the foreseeable future. Other Japanese imports sold in Uganda include the products madeby PT. Yanmar Diesel Indonesia in Indonesia, and Siam Kubota Corp. in Thailand.
By importers, it is noted that imports of Power tillers made by Japanese manufacturers are mostly
carried out by corporate users and individuals, as dealer imports are only few. We believe that thediscovery and development of excellent dealers would make it possible to systematically market
Japanese products, and to supply parts in a stable fashion.
Note that some or all of individual imports are used products. On the other hand, sales of parts will
increase anyway if the import of main products rises, even if they are pre-owned. In addition, we

53believe that the longer Ugandan farmers use farming equipment made by Japanese manufacturers, themore durability those products will display, and that in turn is expected to prove their economic
performance. This will win more trust for the Japanese products.
With regards to the trust in Japanese products, we noted that in Uganda, Indian-made motorcycles
started to rapidly become popular, overwhelming competitors from other countries. This can be
attributed to the soaring demand for (inexpensive) motorcycle taxis, as well as the popularity of lowprice motorcycles that succeeded in penetrating in the rising middle class in urban areas induced by
the country’s economic growth. On the other hand, the share of Japanese-made motorcycles in rural
areas has not dropped. This may be attributed to the fact that benefits of urban economic growth havenot fully reached rural areas (and therefore funds available for motorcycle purchase is still small), andthat replacement demand for Japanese motorcycles is not strong because they have excellent durability
and our informants tell us that old Japanese-made motorcycles are still in use in those areas.
For Japanese manufacturers, sales of pre-owned agricultural machines may not be directly beneficial
for their performance. At the same time, however, a further penetration of Japanese brands potentiallyleads to the increase in the sales of newly-manufactured products. For that reason, the used productmarket cannot be entirely ignored.
(4) Import by manufacturer brand
The following is the breakdown of tractor imports in Uganda by manufacturer brand in 2013: 79 unitsof Massey Ferguson tractors, 54 units of New Holland, 24 units of John Deere, 18 units of Iran’s
ITMCO, 12 units of India’s TAFE, 11 units of Mahindra of India, followed by 10 units of Mitsubishi.
In the case of tractors, most popular products are mostly over 80 HP. What stands out among theimports, there are some 18.5-HP product made by Mitsubishi Shakti of India. While the customers at
estates and outsourced cultivating businesses prefer large-sized tractors, it seems likely that demandis also rising for the Mitsubishi Shakti products that have a tight turning circle and thus are suited formall- and mid-sized farms.
A total of 4 distributors sell Massey Ferguson (MF) products. However, those MF products are
manufactured in and exported from 5 different countries: the United Kingdom, Brazil, India, Pakistan,and Kenya.
The dealers told us that the popularity derives from the reliability of the body itself, as well as therelatively wide availability of repair parts. On the other hand, they also told us that mechanical detailsof Massey Ferguson products differ from a manufacturing country to another, and that they do notnecessarily use the same components. For this reason, it is possible that MF products made in certain
countries will be weeded out in Uganda in the future.

54

Chapter 5 Outline of Rice Growing Promotion Cooperation between Tanzania andJapan
1. Current Status of Rice Cultivation
Tanzania is located in the eastern part of African Continent. Its total land area is about 950,000 km2.
Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa (5,895m), Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa andLake Tanganyika, the deepest lake in Africa, are all located in this country.
The population in Tanzania has increased to 45 million people in 2012 from 12 million people in 1967.
Rice has been getting popular gradually in Tanzania and the annual consumption of rice per capita has
increased to about 20 kg in 1988 and to about 30 kg in 2012 from about 8 kg in 1967 (Table 5-1).
Table 5-1: Population in Tanzania and Changes in Rice Production, Trades and Consumption
2012/1967

1967

1978

1988

2002

2012*

Population (×1,000)

12,313

17,51323,09634,44444,9293.65

Chaff production (×1,000t)

116

321

659

983

2,024

17.45

Rice import (×1,000t)

19

42

31

135

50.9

2.68

Rice export (×1,000t)

0.66

0.08

0

8.8

35.1

53.18

7.6

14.3

19.9

22.2

29.6

3.89

Rice consumption(kg/head/year)*

Note: Population is based on population census, and the information related to rice is based on FAOSTAT.
The information related to rise for 1967, 1978, 1988 and 2002 is the average of data recorded over the last 18 months and after 18
months.
*The production volume of chaff in 2012 is the average of the volume in 2011 and 2012.
*The rice import volume in 2012 and the rice export volume in 2012 is the data recorded in 2011 respectively.
Rice consumption is assumed based on the population, rice production volume (chaff production volume ×0.65) and rice export
volume.

According to the statistics from FAO, the rice(chaff) production volume in Tanzania has
increased 94,000 tons in 1961 to 2,248,000 tons
in 2011. At the time of its independence (1961),
the harvested area of rice was 82,000ha andsince then, expanded to 153,000 in 10 years,
280,000ha in 20 years, 369,000ha in 30 years,
406,000ha in 40 years and 1,119,000ha in 50
years. On the other hand, the growth rate of riceproduction is low (Figure 5-1).

55

Tanzania Agriculture Sample Consensus (2007/08) states that the rice has been cultivated by about
1,162,000 farmers across the country (main land and Zanzibar). Shinyanga Region accounts for 19.3%,
Morogoro Region and Mwanza Region account for 13.7% respectively and Tabora Region accounts
for 11.0% to the total area of rice cultivation, which are all relatively high. The shares of ricecultivation of each region to the total cultivated acreage in each region is high as follows: Morongo
Region (31.0%), Zanzibar Region (22.2%), Mwanza Region (14.8%) and Dar es Salaam Region(11.8%). The rice cultivation area per farmer is large in Rukwa Region (1.34ha), but small in Zanzibar
Region (0.37ha). Rice cultivation volume is large in Manyara Region (3.4t/ha) and Rukwa Region(2.74t/ha), but small in Dodoma Region (0.7ha).
The area suitable to irrigation in
Tanzania is seen mainly in thenorthern

part

(at

the

foot

of

Kilimanjaro), the northwestern part(lakesideofVictoria)

and

the

southeastern part (in watershed areaof Rufiji River and lakeside ofMalawi) of the country (Figure 5-2).
These areas are used not only for
irrigated rice cultivation but also for
cultivations of sugar cane, other dryfield crop and perennial crop.

2. Historical background
Since the 10th century BC or so, there had been oceanic commerce between Africa and Asia. It is said
that the Asian rice arrived at East Africa (Zanzibar and Kilwa) approximately 2000 years ago and they
started living on rice (Pilau, Biryani), Arab merchants’ favorite foods, in the 8th century AD or so
spread across Zanzibar. In the 19th century, rice was brought into the inland area of Tanzania by trade
based in Zanzibar. In 1870s, rice was produced along River Rufiji to export to Zanzibar.
In 1886, German companies that run colonies moved into this area and the main land of Tanzania
became one of German colonies in 1890. German introduced cotton in 1904 or so, and the railways toconnect Dar es Salaam and Lake Tanganyika (Kigoma) were opened in 1914.
The main land of Tanzania was under control by United Kingdom as League of Nations’ mandate
territory in 1919 and onward after the World War I and as United Nations’ trust territory after theWorld War II. The British Government of the Mandate Territory cut down trees in its habitat from
1923 to 1929 in order to exterminate tsetse flies transmitting African sleeping sickness (zoonosis). In
1928, the construction of railway between Tabora and Mwanza was completed connecting Mwanza

56

and Dar es Salaam. In 1934, cultivation with cattle (plough) was introduced, which enabled to till
heavy soil with impermeability layer (vertisol) much easier. As cotton became their main cash crop,
cultivation with cattle spread among people in 1945 or so. The Government of Tanzania became
independent in 1961 and promoted cotton and this resulted in expansion of cotton cultivation area
mainly in Sukumaland.
It was Arab merchants that settled down there and started rice cultivation in Sukumaland. Initially,
producing rice was not as stable as producing millet or sorghum, so seemingly the inhabitants took
little interest in rice cultivation. It is said that the Indian immigrants started making furrow and ridge
for rice cultivation in 1920s. In 1930s, rice cultivation was gradually accepted in Sukumaland andbecame their valuable crop. The farmers developed rice paddy in the valley area and surrounded withsmall furrow and ridge around the rice paddy to hold rain water and surface stream water back for ricecultivation. In 1938 in Nzega in Tabora Region, the farmers constructed rice paddy with furrow andridge where there were less weed than the rice paddy without furrow and ridge and the volume of cropincreased. Sukuma is the biggest ethnic group in Tanzania and they tend to keep many cattle and have
wealth. In Sukumaland where the cultivation areas of cotton and rice were wide-spread, but their range
land became insufficient and certain part of Sukuma started moving with their cattle to other places in
Tanzania seeking grazing ground (especially southern and southern east areas). Pastured cattle by
Sukuma and Maasai had sometimes conflicts with the original inhabitants, but some Sukuma settled
down in the places suitable for rice cultivation and they expanded cultivation with cattle andcultivation with furrow and ridge.
The Government of Tanzania opened 12 animal power training centers (in 10 regions) in 1970 and 80
centers up until 1990. In 1970s, they started production of farm equipment for animal power andhuman power. During 1990 to 1995, some projects using animal power were implemented in Mbeya
Region, a southern east part of Tanzania and in Tanga Region, a northern east part of Tanzania.
In Tanzania, it is said that human power accounts for 70%, animal power accounts for 20% andmachine power accounts for 10% to the total plowing and tillage operations. Plowing and tillage byusing cattle is popular in Shinyanga Region, Mwanza Region, Mara Region, Mbeya Region, and Iringa
Region.
According to “Lower Moshi Agriculture Development Plan Implementation and Research Report(October 1980)” explains about the places to be developed as “the original inhabitants in low land
have to live with much severer living condition, such as high temperature, drought, flood, soil withhigh sold content, lack of water, malaria, schistosomiasis and so on. Their living mode is more likethe one in the primitive age, and the most of the original inhabitants live in a small and simple shedwith mad walls and banana leaves without floor. Since there is no investment in the public facilities
and social infrastructures, the villages there remain undeveloped”.

57The same report also explains about the irrigation facilities as follow; “the density of the existingdrainage network is small, especially the third drainage and the terminal agricultural fields have little
ditch. In Lower Moshi District, there is no drainage ditch at all. Drain is an earth canal, and the water
volume lost is huge. The irrigation operation at the terminal canal is not efficient since it is impacted
by the method of cultivation and the land features, and there is no general rule. The irrigated watercannot be penetrated equally over land with small undulations on its surface. Therefore, in order toimplement surface irrigation effectively, leveling and land readjustment are necessary”. As reference,
according to the same report, the volume of chaff crop by irrigated rice cultivation at that time inLower Moshi District was 1.4t/ha.
Such a scene could be seen all over Tanzania. As time went by, the irrigation facilities were graduallyconstructed and organized in some part of water-rich areas (initially as state-owned farm and collectivefarm) and the irrigated rice cultivation was introduced. The farmers actively opened the rice fields inareas around the irrigated lands and the neighboring suitable lands. In some areas, construction oftrunk lines and branch roads triggered their agricultural development.
3. Study on Rice (mainly variety improvement)
The Government of British Mandate Territory took interest in rice cultivation and in 1935, theGovernment started study on rice in Mwabagole by Lake Victoria. In Mwabagola, they tried refining
the existing breed and improving the cultivation technologies, but suspended their activities in 1956
due to cuts in the budget. After its independence, the study on rice was restarted in 1965 at ARI-Ilonga(Ilonga Agriculture Institute) in Morogoro Region, and in 1980s and onward, KATRIN (Kilonbero
Agriculture Training and Research Institute, currently ARI-Katrin in Morogoro Region) became theirmain base for the study on rice. In 1972, the study on rice was started also at Dar es Salaam University
Agriculture and Forestry Department (current Sokoine University of Agriculture: SUA).
In the field of rice research, high-yield cultivar, resistibility against pests and diseases, reactivity tonitrogen (short-stalked), shattering habit resistant characteristics, high protein content were drawing
attention. IR8 was selected in 1970s from the breed introduced by International Rice Research Institute(IRRI) and IR579 in 1980s and they were cultivated at the irrigated farm possessed by National
Agriculture Food Company (NAFCO). In 1980s, Dakawa 83, Katrin, and Subarimati were registered(for rain-fed lowland). These breeds were not widely used.
The most popular rice breed (Supa) was thought to be introduced from Suriname (South America) in
1960s. Supa is a long-stalked late maturing variety, aromatic rice with good eating quality and has
been cultivated in rain-fed lowland swamp and dry field, but it is easy to be dropped under good
cultivation environment.
In 1982, ARI-Dakawa (called ARI-Cholima) was established in Morongo Region and Supa
improvement project was started. In 1999, TXD 85 (a successor of Supa/KM67), and in 2002 TXD88

58

(a successor of TXD85/Supa) and TXD 306 (SARO 5) were all registered (TXD phyletic line is grownin Dakawa, Tanzania). SARO 5 is a crossbreed successor of Supa/P8 (Pyongong 8) and
Subarimati/Supa. SARO 5 is aromatic rice with high yield, but weak against blast disease, bacterial
leaf blight and fungus causing yellow spot and if its proper season of harvesting is missed, the crushingrate seems to be higher.
At SUA, they have worked on mutant breeding with the support from International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) and Mwangaza was registered in 2005 from a successor of the seed (Supa) radiatedby cobalt 60 gamma ray at IAEA in 1994. At the same time, a phyletic line (H232-44-1-1-1)
introduced from Africa Rice Center (Africa Rice) was registered as Kalala, a name of breed. Both ofthem are strong against fungus causing yellow spot, but the yield is the same as Supa (2–3t/ha) andthese are not aromatic rice.
A dry-land rice breed (NERICA) was given from a project called “African Institute of Capacity
Development” jointly promoted by AfricaRice and JICA in Kenya from 2001 to 2006 and a
preliminary test was conducted at ARI-Katrin. In cropping season 2007/08 and 2008/09, the breed
comparison test was conducted at 6 dry-land rice cultivation areas and at the end of 2009, five breeds(NERICA 1, NERICA 2, NERICA 4, NERICA 7, and WAB450-12-2-BL1-DV4) were registered.
Among them, NERICA 1 is aromatic rice. In Zanzibar, after going through the same process, three
breeds (NERICA 1, NERICA 10 and NERICA 12) were also registered.
In 2013, Komboka (IR05N 221) and Tai (IR03A 262) were registered from the phyletic line introducedby IRRI. Kombaka is the first aromatic rice introduced by IRRI into Tanzania.
In addition to ARI-Katrin, ARI-Dakawa and SUA, the research on rice has been conducted at ARIMikocheni (Dar es Salaam Region), ARI-Naliendele (Mtwara Region), ARI-Tumbi (Tabora Region),
ARI-Ukiriguru (Mwanza Region), ARI-Uyole (Mbeya Region) and ZARI (Zanzibar Agriculture
Research Institute). As for breed, efforts will continue to be made for improvement and not only its
yield but also its eating quality (especially aromatic characteristics), resistance against disease(especially against fungus causing yellow spot), early-growing characteristics/drought resistance(especially dry-land rice and rain-fed lowland swamp rice), quality (especially crush resistance) andresistance against cold weather damage (for highland) will draw attention.
Rice research program has been conducted jointly with World Bank East Africa Agriculture
Productivity Program (EAAPP), IRRI and AfricaRice. ARI-Katrin is also a base for EAAPP rice
research including Uganda, Ethiopia and Kenya, organizing the research facilities and equipment aswell as strengthening the capacity of each researcher and improving the seed production system of therelated authorities.
JICA supported registration of NERICA breeds in mainland of Tanzania and Zanzibar throughIrrigated Agriculture Technology Promotion Support Scheme Enhancement Plan (called “Tanrice”)
to be explained in latter part of this report, and AICAD. Also including short and long-term trainings

59

in Japan, they cooperated for strengthening the capacity of each rice researcher. In the future, thecooperative relationship with JICA will be maintained for promotion of rice cultivation in Tanzania.
As for rice seeds in Tanzania, ARI and SUA supposed to produce Breeder Seed and Pre-basic Seed,
Agricultural Seed Agency to produce Basic Seed and Certified Seed, some private companies to
produce Certified Seed and seed producers to produce Quality Declare Seed. These seeds will beinspected at Tanzania Official Seed Certificate Institute. During cropping season 2011/12, 26.7t ofPre-basic Seed, 37.5t of Basic Seed, 816t of Certified Seed and 83.5t of Quality Declare Seed were
produced. In 2012, Certified Seed (816t) produced at ASA accounted for only 5% of the total ricecultivation area in Tanzania. In case of rice most of the seeds is chaff produced by the farmers (it is
not certified as seed) and some of them are distributed among the farmers (or among areas). Good
quality seeds contribute to the yield and the quality of rice cultivation, and in order to increase its
popularity, it is necessary to consider not only its production technology but also its distribution system.
4. Irrigated Rice Cultivation Development and Cooperation in Kilimanjaro Region
The Government of Tanzania asked one region and one developed nation for cooperation for the
integrated development plan for the main regions in making the third five-year plan (1977–1981) and
the Government of Japan agreed to cooperation for development in Kilimanjaro Region. JICA
submitted in February 1978 “Kilimanjaro Region Integrated Development Plan (Master Plan)” to The
Government of Tanzania and cooperated for establishing the high-yield irrigated rice cultivation
technology through “Kilimanjaro Agriculture Development Center (KADC) from 1978 to 1986. In
1981, the construction of KADC (Kilimanjaro Agricultural Training Centre) was completed with theaid of free financial support.
In KADC, they started the experimental irrigated rice cultivation in April 1982 at the test farm (about
10ha, of which, rice paddy is 2.4ha). At the test farm, while even facing with drought (due to failure
in water pumping and lack of fuel for pump), damage by birds and cold weather damage, selection of
the breeds, establishment of standard for selecting seeds for cultivation and seed multiplication. In
November 1982, a pilot farm managed by Chekereni Village (about 100ha, out of which, rice paddy
is 18.9ha) started teaching wet-rice cultivation. Chekereni Village was opened in July 1970 as Ujamaa
Village and the villagers jointly engaged in the agricultural activities (rice cultivation, dry-field
cultivation and cattle farming) on their common lands. The pilot farm initially suffered from lack ofmaintenance and management of the irrigation facilities, short irrigation time, difficulties in watertransmission to individual farm land, low labor motivation and lack of materials for production. By
the guidance by KADC, high yield achieved by the irrigated rice cultivation and high profitability
were proved, which created opportunities for the villagers and neighboring people to take interest in
rice cultivation.

60

By KADC Plan, the capacity of the related parties (counterpart, agriculture promoters, tractor
operators and farmers) was strengthened in the field of crop, irrigation and agricultural equipment.
The technologies and skilled proved by KADC for irrigation, agricultural equipment and ricecultivation were promoted to Lower Moshi Irrigated Site (LMIS) organized by the loan aid
cooperation project (1982–1987) through Kilimanjaro Agriculture Development Plan (KADP) (1986–
1993)
At LMIS, it was planned that
surface water and spring water fromthe base of Kilimanjaro was taken atdams at the two points on River Lao
andintroduced

throughmainwaterway (10.1km), the second
canal (24.6km), the third canal(65.6km), and the terminal canal(72.9km) to rice paddy (1,100ha)
and

dry

field

(1,200ha)forirrigation. As for the canal for therice paddy, channel lining using
concrete was implemented up to the third canal. Each rice paddy was adjoining to the drainage channel
and this is the first drainage-separated irrigation district (Photo 5-1).
Rice cultivation technologies recommended by KADP for LMIS are mainly; proper breed (IR54 andIR56), good quality seeds and rice seedling (group rice nursery), preparation of farm field (ditch,
weeding in farm field), mechanization (dry-field plowing, letting puddling and leveling the field withwater), planting time (about 25 days after seeding), proper planting density (20cm for both of space
between planting rows and intra-row spacing), proper fertilization (urea 100kg/0.3ha: half basal
fertilizer/additional fertilizer twice, triple superphosphate 25kg/0.3ha: basal fertilizer) and properseasonal management (weeding, water management, harvesting, thrashing). They had some obstacles
in improving irrigated rice cultivation technology, but the rice plant grown in the group rice nursery
was transplanted mostly in accordance with the water distribution plan, all grown and ripened, and theyield of chaff was over 6t/ha. In late 1990s, IR64 was introduced, and in early 2000s, LMIS gained
popularity.
At LMIS, it was planned to cultivate 1,100ha during the first cropping season (January–June) and
800ha during the second cropping season (July–December), but it was not realized due to lack ofirrigated water because the ground saturation water from the rice paddy was larger than expected andthe rice fields were opened in the upriver areas. So, from 1988 and onwards, they decided to cultivate
three times a year (it is not triple cropping) and the area for rice cultivation was 923ha in 1987 (the61yield of chaff: 6,163t) and increased to 1,525ha in 1990 (the yield of chaff: 9,943t) and the total yieldof chaff exceeded the planned yield (Table 5-2).
Table 5-2: Rice and corn crop acreage (ha), production volume (t) and yield (t/ha) in Lower Moshi District
Rice (chaff)Corn (idle farm land during the rainy season)
Production

Cropvolumeacreage

4.5

8,550

-

-

-

923

6.7

6,183

-

-

-

1990

1,525

6.5

9,943

-

-

-

1995

468

6.2

2,878

-

-

-

2001

1,009

6.5

6,558

-

-

-

2008

517

7.0

3,611

585

4.5

2,633

2013

419

6.4

2,679

684

4.3

2,942

Crop acreage

Yield

Planned

1,900

1987

Yield

Production
volumeImpacted by opening fields in the upriver areas and expanding the dual cropping area, the volume ofirrigated water to LMIS decreased. In LMIS, it became difficult to meet the administrative guidelines
and a dual cropping of rice was implemented in the irrigation blocks near the source of water while
they started cultivating corn instead of rice in the down streaming areas.
Not only organizing the irrigation facilities through the loan aid cooperation project and establishingtechnologies for cultivation through technical cooperation, but also proper seasonal operation by using
the tractors and machines (rotary, drive harrow) given by the aid toward increased food production(2KR) and large-scale rice mill constructed through free financial aid in 1989 contributed todevelopment of rice cultivation at LMIS. Each rice paddy (standard unit 0.3ha: 30m × 100m) madeeasy and direct access to drain, ditch and farm road possible and also made easy water management,
mechanization and transportation of materials (input and product) possible.
Net income out of independent farming per LMIS’s standard area of rice paddy (0.3ha) was US$618
in 1986 (immediately after the rice cultivation was started; 72% of the gross income), US$275 in 1990
(59% of the gross income) and US$327 in 2011 (44% of the gross income). Farm rent per LMIS’sstandard area of rice paddy was US$64 (1986) and increased to US$102 (1990) and US$135 (2011),
and the net income earned by the peasant was 65% out of the gross income (1986) and decreased to37% (1990) and 26% (2011) (Table 5-3).
About 3,000 farmers are cultivating rice at LMIS and one third of which is tenant farmer. Developmentof rice cultivation at LMIS and neighboring areas provided job opportunities for independent farmers
and tenant farmers as well as many inhabitants. Their houses described as “a small and simple shedwith mad walls and banana leaves without floor” were gradually upgraded to a house with block-made62

or baked-mud made wall and zinc-roof top. Some of the people who learned the method for theirrigated rice cultivation at LMIS started opening rice fields on land suitable for rice cultivation inneighboring regions.
Table 5-3: Profits and expenses out of rice cultivation in Lower Moshi Irrigated District (per 0.3ha)
November 1986

October 1990

US$

US$

%

March 2011

%

US$

%

Production cost

305.2

100.0

296.1

100.0

551.3

100.0

(farm rent)

64.4

21.1

102.0

34.5

135.1

24.5

Preparation for farm field

14.4

4.7

10.3

3.5

40.5

7.4

Transplanting

32.2

10.5

25.5

8.6

33.8

6.1

Fertilizer

17.2

5.6

9.2

3.1

93.2

16.9

Weeding

21.5

7.0

15.3

5.2

54.1

9.8

Cattle droving

21.5

7.0

15.3

5.2

54.1

9.8

Harvesting

53.6

17.6

31.9

10.8

67.6

12.3

Other costs

80.5

26.4

86.6

29.2

72.9

13.2

Gross income

858.4

100.0

469.4

100.0

743.2

100.0

617.6

72.0

275.3

58.7

327.1

44.0

553.2

64.5

173.3

36.9

191.9

25.8

Net income(independent farmer)
Net Income(tenant farmer)
Notes:(1) Assumed that the yield of chaff per standard rice paddy (0.3ha) is 25 bags (80kg each)(2) The price for chaff (T. Shs./kg) is 20 (1986), 46 (1990), and 550 (2011).
(3) Official price (T. Shs./US$) is 46.4 (1986), 196 (1990), and 1,480 (2011).

In Tanzania, decentralization of government to local jurisdictions and privatization were promoted
since the middle of 1980s. Therefore, LMIS initially operated mainly by Kilimanjaro Region (KADP)
and Water Utilization Association (WUA) started being operated mainly by the rice plant producer
union (CHAWAMPU) since 1993 or so. Unfortunately, management and maintenance of the irrigation
facilities and providing rental cultivation service by CHAWAMPU and management of the rice
milling facilities jointly with KNCU (Kilimanjaro Native Inhabitant Cooperative Union) andCAWAMPU were not smooth. In 2007, Lower Moshi Irrigation Association (LOMIA) wasestablished including the rice cultivating farms in the upstream areas at LMIS, led by the Government
and under the circumstances, LOMIA and CHAWAMPU co-existed. Since the farmers were reluctant
to reach a compromise and the local government (of Moshi) did not have enough ability for leadership,
however, harmony between the related farm villages has not been created yet.

63About four and a half centuries has passed since the construction of LMIS. Meanwhile, JICA
conducted “Tanzania Lower Moshi Agriculture and Farm Village General Development Plan
Research” and proposed expansion of the rice cultivation area by transmitting water from Kikuletwa
River in 1998, but passing the entitlement of water to the relevant party became tangled and it was notmaterialized. Using Grant Assistance for Grassroots Human Security Project, main watercourses at
LMIS were refurbished from 2007 to 2009. For managing the water source and irrigation water,
maintenance of the irrigation facilities, management of the irrigation organization and improvementof management of the rice milling facilities, it is important to strengthen the abilities of the agriculturalorganizations and the related authorities.
In 1990, intake weir, drain, ditch, farm road, rice paddy (670ha), and the rice milling facilities were
all organized for Ndungu Irrigation Site (NIS) in Same, Kilimanjaro Region with free financial
cooperation and tractors and operation machines were provided by 2KR. KADP supported promotionof the irrigated rice cultivation technology by training NIS officers, tractor drivers and farmers. At
NIS, there was not lack of irrigated water issue, but as for the irrigation facilities, agricultural machines
and maintenance of the rice milling facilities, they have the similar issue to that of LMIS. Under theleadership by the Government, they have been active in revitalization of NIS in Same since 2007.

5. Training for Promotion of Rice Cultivation across Tanzania
1) KATC Plan to KATC Phase II Plan
In order to improve the rice cultivation across Tanzania, the Government of Tanzania transferred
control of KADC that was under control of the Region, to the Government and changed its name to
KATC (Kilimanjaro Agriculture Training Center). Their tasks under KATC Plan (technical aid, theinitial aid period: 1994–1999) are “strengthening the technology level of the training leaders,
improving the training method and the training materials and improving the methods of training andpromotion for the government officials and the core farmers for the irrigated rice cultivation in thefield of agriculture promotion, training, rice cultivating, water management and agricultural machine”.
Agriculture and cattle farming development officers in each region in Tanzania who participated in
the KATC workshop requested the similar irrigation facilities and the agricultural machines in orderto promote LMIS’s rice cultivation technology across Tanzania. The pre-conditions for the irrigatedrice cultivation (management of furrow and ridge, rice field leveling) were common in Asia at thattime, but were not common in Tanzania.
Workshop participants were guided to LMIS and they saw the rice paddy there, equally smooth andsurrounded by furrow and ridge and rice plants equally growing and ripening in the paddy. The basic
in improving the rice cultivation is “cultivate equally ripened rice plants”. So, usage of same breeds,
seeds, germination condition, rice nursery management, leveling the main rice field, fertility in soil,
rice planting density, water management and growing pattern were all stressed. Also it was strongly

64explained that if they had enough water sources, it would not be always necessary to use heavyequipment or agricultural machines. Such a simple message made it easier not only for the officer incharge of development of agriculture and cattle farming, but also for the officers in charge of training,
the agriculture promoters and the core farmers to understand the rice cultivation technology.
Under KATC Plan, 1) every time about 20 agriculture promoters participate in the rice cultivation
training course (for 38 days to 45 days, 7 times), 2) each promoters who completed this course
participate in the core farmer course (for 12 days to 19 days, 14 times) together with three core farmers
and 3) made an action plan based on participation-type approach to mainly demonstrate the irrigatedrice cultivation technology. In this action plan, preparing furrow and ridge, displaying breeds andtransplanting rice cultivation and maintaining drains and so on were all included.
It was expected that the irrigated rice cultivation technology was promoted by using the resources
possessed by the farmers (land and input) through “joint trainings with the agriculture promoters andthe farmers” under the tight budget with “the structure adjustment measure”. These expectations werematerialized in relatively nature-rich environmental areas. During the extended period of KATC Plan
(1999–2001), the training on site and the cyclic guidance were conducted in the irrigation district(village) where those who finished the training are living.
Under KATC Plan, the trainings by other donors were actively conducted on a commission basis.
Lekitatu irrigation district (the irrigated area 600ha, among which, the rice cultivation area 400ha),
located at about 1,300m elevation in Arusha Region and west to Kilimanjaro Region, has a little bitcooler in temperature so that it takes longer for the rice plant to grow. World Bank repaired the drain
in Lekitatu and entrusted KATC to conduct the training for the farmers. The farmers participated in
the trainings introduced early rice, Wahiwahi (aromatic rice), and made the dual cropping possible.
Wahiwahi was found in the farm field held by the farmer in Kilimanjaro Region and refined in KATC
farm field.
Under KATC Phase II Plan (2001–2006) succeeded from KATC Plan, the training on the irrigatedrice cultivation was conducted and promoted for six domestic model sites in Tanzania (one site pereach irrigation zone). The training under this Plan, they aimed at balancing the ratio at 50:50 between
male and female participants in the training, taking the gender into consideration. They focused simple
agricultural tools and made efforts to promote push-type weeder and simple thrashing machine (grain
beating table). They also selected one irrigation district from four neighboring countries (Uganda,
Kenya, Malawi and Zambia) as model site and conducted the workshop at KATC for the related parties,“the joint training with the agriculture promoters and the farmers” and the training on site in thesecountries in the same manner as they did in Tanzania.

652) From Tanrice to Tanrice 2
The authorities that conducted the Irrigation Agriculture Technology Promotion Support Scheme
Strengthening Plan (Tanrice, 2007–2012) were five agriculture training centers (including the one in
Zanzibar) and the Rice Study Program (six Agriculture Research Centers). At the trainings for theofficers at the Agriculture Training Centers and the seminars for the officers and the related parties at
the main rice cultivating provinces (cooperative entities), the approach “he joint training with theagriculture promoters and the farmers” that KATC conducted was introduced (Photo 5-2).
At the irrigated rice cultivation
training, for 44 irrigation districts,
1) the research on site (about 50
participants), 2) the group training(two

promoters,

twoleading

farmers, and eight male and eightfemale core farmers), 3) the
training on site three times (ricenursery, preparation timing, rice
planting

timing,harvesting

timing, three to five middle-classfarmers/core farmers), 4) the
review meeting on site at the third training on site (the related parties and the general farmers wereinvited) and 5) confirmation of progress and making plans twice (after harvesting and one year after
completion of the training were all conducted (some of them could not be completed during the project
cooperation period). When the district for the training was selected, the incentive the province has forthe project (securing the budget) was put in top priority. The province was expected to be responsible
for a half of the training expenses (about US$20,000 per site).
In Tanrice, they aimed at increasing the yield of chaff per eligible irrigation district by 1t/ha. By
completion of the project, the average yield of 30 irrigation districts during their main harvestingseason based on the yield data collected before and after the training increased to 3.7t/ha from 2.6t/ha,
but only 16 districts achieved the target (Table 5-4).
In the districts eligible to the training provided by KATC and Ilonga Agriculture Research Institute,the yields were on upward trend. On the other hand, Igurusi Agriculture Research Institute had many
districts for the training (ten districts), only two districts increased the yield by more than 1t/ha, andthe yield went down in four districts. The main causes of decrease in the yield were flood, drought,
and disease (especially, fungus causing yellow spot). In order for the irrigated rice cultivation researchin Tanrice to contribute to improving the yield, it is necessary that the irrigation facilities (irrigationwater) as precondition and the cultivation environment as external condition are satisfied.

66

Among 33 irrigation districts where the research on the current status of rice cultivation was conducted(sometimes, the research was conducted at multiple district at a time), the farmers in ten districts did
not use fertilizer, 1–33% of the farmers in eight districts used fertilizer, 34–66% of the farmers in three
districts used fertilizer, 67–99% of the farmers in seven districts used the fertilizer and 100% of the
farmers in five districts used the fertilizer. The irrigation districts where all of the farmers used
fertilizer are located in Arusha Region, Kilimanjaro Region and Zanzibar (three places) and thevolume of nitrogen fertilizer ranged from 55–115kg/ha. The irrigation districts where the farmers did
not use fertilizer are located in Tanga Region, Morogoro Region, Rukwa Region, Mbeya Region,
Kigoma Region and Mwanza Region.
Table 5-4: Comparison of yield of chaff before and after the training in irrigation district of Tanrice ProjectIncreased
Agriculture

Decreased

Unchanged

Research Institute

Yield

Yield

Yield

Total

Less than 1t/ha

1t/ha or more

KATC, Moshi

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (1)

4 (1)

4 (2)

MATI-Ilonga

0 (0)

0 (0)

1 (1)

7 (1)

8 (2)

MATI-Igurusi

4 (0)

0 (0)

4 (0)

2 (0)

10 (0)

MATI-Ukiriguru

1 (0)

1 (0)

2 (0)

1 (0)

5 (0)

KATI, Zanzibar

1 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

2 (0)

3 (0)

Total

6 (0)

0 (0)

7 (2)

16 (2)

30 (4)%

20 (0)3 (0)

23 (50)53 (50)-(1) Changes in yield of chaff before and after the training during the main cultivation period in 30 irrigation districts(2) Figures in bracket show changes in yield of chaff in four irrigation districts where the dual cropping was introduced(3) The average yield of chaff during the main cultivation period increased by 1.1t/ha (2.6t/ha →3.7t/ha)(4) The average yield of chaff by dual cropping increased by 0.8t/ha (2.6t/ha→3.4t/ha)(5) The main causes for the decrease in the yield are flood, drought and disease damage

According to “The Survey on Promotion Among the Farmers” conducted by JICA in 2012 for four
irrigation districts, Mussa Mwijanga, relatively close to KATC, the basic conditions for the irrigatedrice cultivation (good furrow and ridge, surface smooth rice paddy, and rice planting in straight lines)
were substantially met even before the training, and in Kitivo District and Kiroka District, the basic
conditions were promoted after the training (Table 5-5). In Ruanda Majenje, the good furrow and ridge
were relatively we organized even before the training, leveling the field was improved but the rice
planting in straight line was not popular. The images of good furrow and ridge and smooth rice paddy
may vary the irrigation district to district. For example, the field compartment for rice paddy in Ruanda
Majenje is narrow and small, and it has gradually changing to wider compartment (Table 5-5).

67

Table 5-5: Shift in introducing basic technology for rice cultivation in four irrigation districts (%)
Year

A

B

C

Mussa Mwijanga,

Kitivo, Tanga

Kiroka, Morogoro

Ruanda Majenje,

Kilimanjaro Region

RegionRegionMbeya Region

2008

50

10

0

40

2012

75

50

< 50

50

2008

50

20

0

5

2012

75

50

< 50

50

2008

100

40

10

1

2012

100

100

90

<5

(1) A: good ridge condition, B: leveled rice field, C: rice planting in straight lines(2) The distance from KATC is about 20km (Mussa Mwijanga), about 200km (Kitivo), about 500km (Kiroka), and about 1,000km(Ruanda Majenje).

If we look at the breeds, the volume of fertilizer used and the volume of chaff in four irrigation districts
based on the monitoring conducted at Tanrice, these are showing the characteristics of each district
before and after the training (Table 5-6). In Musa Mwijanga District in Kilimanjaro Region, the breed(IR64) and the volume of fertilizer used (115kg N/ha) remained unchanged, but the yield of chaff
increased. It is likely that refurbishing the irritation facilities (intake weir or so) impacted thereon. In
Kitivo District in Tanga Region and Kiroka District in Morogoro Region, a new breed was introduced
and the number of farmers who used fertilizer, the volume of fertilizer used and the volume of chaff
were increased. In Ruanda Majenje District in Mbeya Region, the number of the farmers who used
fertilizer decreased, and the volume of fertilizer increased and the yield was also increased a bit. In
Ruanda Majenje, they are cultivating the existing breeds with high marketability and they are stick to
its marketability (eating quality). In Musa Mwijanga District, people had already implementing dual
cropping, but they started the dual cropping in Kitovo and Kiroka after completion of Tanrice training.
According to “Research on Farmer to Farmer Extension Approach”, the method to promote thetechnology called Farmer to Farmer Extension Approach is functioning, and has been well-received
by the farmers in the region, the promoters and the officers in the region. Farmer to Farmer Extension
Approach under Tanrice is uniting the promoters and the core farmers. The core farmers participate in
the group training at the agricultural training center together with the promoters, and the cooperative
relationship between them is essential for technology promotion in the District, and the core farmers
cooperating with the promoters are playing an important role for the general farmers. For the promoters,
it is useful that the farm fields run by the core farmers are scattered (farm field for demonstration) for
technical training. In addition, the agricultural workers was playing a role for promotion of thetechnology by using the technology and skills learned at the farm fields possessed by the core farmers
and the middle-class farmers at the farm fields of other farmers.

68

Table 5-6: Rice breeds, fertilization and yield comparisonsin four irrigation districts before and one-year after the training
Irrigateddistrict

Training

Main breed(Region)Musa

Fertilization(% )Volume of

Yield offertilizer

chaff(kg N/ha)(t/ha)

BeforeIR64 (70%), IR56, IR54, SARO 5

100

115

2.6

After

IR64 (80%), IR56, SAR0 5

100

115

4.2

KitivoBeforeSARO 5 (50%), IR56, IR54, TXD 220

20

28

2.9

(Tanga)After

IR64 (70%), SARO 5, IR54

90

70

5.3

10

9

2.4

80

115

5.0

20

29

3.4

5

58

3.8

Mwijanga(Kilimanjaro)

Kiroka(Morogoro)

RuandaMajenje(Mbeya)BeforeAfter

BeforeAfterSupa Mbeya (40%), Rangi Mbili, Mbawa
Mbili, Supa, SARO 5
SARO 5, Supa Mbeya, Rangi Mbili,
Wahiwahi, IR64
India Rangi Mkia (80%), Zambia, Rangi
Mbili, Mwenda Mbio
Rangi Mbili Mkia (95%)

Note: Some of the native breeds have the same name, but different breed.

Kitivo District in Tanga Region is one of the districts where the Tanrice training was very successful.
Comparing the situation before and one-year after the training, we can see that selecting rice seeds insalty water, introducing reed-shaped rice nursery and planting in straight line were wide-spread.
Tanrice training contributed to improvement not only in the yield of chaff but also the rate of payment
for water usage (Table 5-7). Dual cropping was started in Kitivo and its area was expanded to about
150ha in 2009 and to about 170 ha in 2010. These achievements and the impact are the fruits of thegreat efforts made by the local government of Lushoto that won the budget for the training for Tanrice
and the related parties in Kitivo District (the agriculture promoters, the officers at the organization
managing the payment for water usage, the core farmers and the middle-class farmers) that conducted
the training smoothly.
Under Tanrice, 1) the training on management of the irrigated district organizations upon recognition
that the sustainability of the irrigated rice cultivation is secured by the proper maintenance of theirrigation facilities and operation of the irrigation districts, 2) the gender training in order to have andstrengthen common understanding about the division of labor, profit sharing and decision making bygender in housekeeping, producing and processing agricultural crop (rice) and 3) the marketing
training in order to share the awareness of role of and profit sharing with the farmers and the processing

69

companies and suppliers in improving the quality of rice were all conducted. In terms of the gender,
they considered the ratio of participants in the trainings and the workshops should be balanced between
men and women and encouraged to increase the ratio of women in the management team of the union
managing the payment for water usage. The training by subject was conducted within five days inprinciple and that included the action plans and monitoring. For securing the sustainability in the
districts where the yield of chaff increased by organizing the irrigation facilities and promoting thetechnology, the irrigation districts (six districts) where the training was conducted through LMIS, NIS
and KATC Phase II Project were also taken care of through conducting the training by subject.
Table 5-7: Changes in rice cultivation in Kitivo irrigation district in Tanga Region

Rice cultivation area (ha)Main breeds (%)
Seed selection in salty water (%)
Well Organized Bed for Rice nursery (%)
Rice field without furrow and ridge (%)
Rice field with good furrow and ridge (%)
Rice field where leveling is required (%)
Transplanting after 21-30 days (%)
Planting in straight lines (%)
Using push weeder (%)
Yield: (t/ha)
general farmer
Low yield farmer
High yield farmer
Payment for water usage by farmers (%)

Before the training(6/11/2008)

After the training(23/7/2009)

One year after the training(11/8/2010)

141
SARO 5 (50)
0
30
20
10
80
70
40
0

205
SARO 5 (50)
1
20
5
85
15
20
80
10

270
IR64 (70)
98
100
0
60
40
90
90
25

2.9

5.1

5.3

1.5
4.8
29

2.9
6.8
48

3.4
7.3
76

For NERICA training conducted in the second half of Tanrice, they recruited the development officer
in charge of cattle farming in the Province, four promoters for farming in the village and 16 core
farmers (4 per one promoter: in halves by gender). 20 kg of the seeds of NERICA was provided per
the core farmer (5kg × 4 bags). The core farmers appointed three middle-class farmers jointly with thevillage promoters and the seeds were shared with the middle-class farmers. The core farmers were
instructed to display NERICA in the place of about 0.1ha jointly with 3 middle-class farmers inaccordance with the guideline for NERICA cultivation. The village promoters monitored the progressin the farm field displaying NERICA and reported it to Tanrice through the officer in charge of that
Province. The environment in the dry-rice cultivation changed a lot throughout a year and there weremany cases where the expected yield of chaff was not achieved, but the method they implemented
through NERICA trainings was helpful for the irrigated rice cultivation trainings conducted later on.
In the Rice Promotion Support Plan Project (Tanrice 2: 2012–2018), the aim is to improve theproductivity, marketability and sustainability of the rice cultivation across Tanzania (irrigation, dry
70field. rain-fed lowland swamp) and they have been supporting consideration of the production
technology and challenges (management of the irrigation districts, marketing for rice, the gendermanagement) and strengthening the ability of the related parties (7 officers in charge of agriculture
training, the officer in charge of agriculture and cattle farming in the province, the agriculture promoter
and the farmers). “The joint training for the agriculture promoters and the farmers” initiated with
KATC Plan has been gradually shifting to the trainings based on awareness of sharing roles andcooperation of labor among the officer in charge of agriculture and cattle farming in the province(making plan, evaluation), the village promoters (implementation and monitoring) and the core
farmers (implementation).
The number of the agriculture promoters was cut during the transit period for adjusting the structurein the past, and in 2006 it was decided that the number of the agriculture promoters would be increased.
Actually it has been increasing since 2009 or so. They are planning to allocate the agriculture
promoters to about 13000 villages in the mainland of Tanzania, and it is essential to strengthen theability of the promoters. The sustainability of the promotion of farm villages including rice cultivation
would be secured if the agricultural training authorities mainly perform their primary tasks (long-term
general training for the agriculture promoters before engagement and the short-term subject training
after engagement) and each related authorities (the related parties) can play their own rules properly.

3) Collaboration with the irrigation development
Japan (JICA) cooperated for making the irrigation development master plan and the action plans acrossTanzania through the development research called “National Irrigation Master Plan Research” (2001–
2004). After that, they implemented the technical cooperation project called “Province Agriculture
Development Plan (DADP) and Making Irrigation Business Guideline and Planning Trainings”(2007–2010) and they mainly supported 4 eligible irrigation zones in terms of 1) making “DADPs
Comprehensive Irrigation Business Guideline” including management construction control,
maintenance and training, 2) strengthening the ability of the office in the irrigation zone technicallysupporting implementation of the business in the province, and 3) strengthening the ability of theirrigation technical expert in the province to implement the irrigation business through the training
provided by the office in the four irrigation zone. “Plan for Strengthening the Ability for the Province
Agriculture Development Plan (DADP) Irrigation Business Promotion” (2010–2014) has continued
to be implemented, and they have supported strengthening the ability of the related parties in order toimplement the irrigation business across Tanzania in accordance with the guideline.
Mahande District in Arusha Region and Mbarangwe District in Morogoro Region were the eligible
districts to making Tanrice and DADP irrigation business guideline/training plan. In Mahande District(275 farmers, the irrigation area 142ha), the training was conducted by KATC (2007–2008), and after
that, the irrigation facilities were refurbished. The yield of chaff in Mahande District was 1.6t/ha

71

(2007) before the training but, increased after the training to 2.9t/ha (2009), 4.9t/ha (2010) anddecreased to 3.9t/ha (2011). In Mbarangwe District (76 farmers, the rice cultivation area 72ha), thetraining was conducted by Ilonga Agriculture Institute (2010) after completion of constructing theirrigation facilities, and then the yield of chaff increased to 4.5t/ha after the training (2011), comparing
to 1.3t/ha before the training. In Mahande, the furrow and ridge as well as transplanting wereintroduced, but the training contributed to progress in field leveling and proper seasonal operations.
In Mbarangwe, they did not introduce furrow and ridge yet and cultivated in rain-fed direct seeded
cultivation (scattering-seeded), but they introduced furrow and ridges and transplant production.
In Japan, they provided the cooperative support to Coast Region (technical cooperation with
Bagamoyo Province) and Morogoro Region (free financial cooperation for Mwega irrigation business)for promoting rice cultivation. In 2013, a contract for loan aid cooperation project was signed for “theSmall-scaled Irrigation Development Business “ and thereby cooperation for constructing new
irrigation facilities, refurbishing the existing irrigation facilities and procuring the related equipment
was agreed in order to expand the irrigation area. Also a part of fertilizers provided by 2KR was
distributed to the farmers in the irrigated areas, and a part of its remuneration was used for constructing
and refurbishing the irrigation facilities and providing the trainings for the related parties. Experts
were sent to Arusha Industrial University in order to cooperate for designing develop irrigation
development, constructing and maintaining the irrigated farm field and facilities and training humanresources for water management.
6. Development Trend of Rice Cultivation in Tanzania
1) Rice-Getting popular
They eat a variety of crops (grains, root vegetables, banana) in Tanzania as staple food and the main
grain is corn. In 1960s, sorghum and millet followed corn, but recently the production volume of rice
has significantly increased to become the second largest grains harvested in Tanzania. On the other
hand, the production volume of millet and cassava has not increased so much (Table 5-8).
The quality and eating quality of rice produced in Tanzania varies and the consumers in town areas
are so sensitive in terms of the quality, eating quality and the price. The existing breed (especially
Supa and similar breeds) has good aromatic characteristics, and is traded at higher price. Rice producedin Kyela in Mbeya Region is transported not only to Dar es Salaam but also to Zanzibar where suffered
lack of rice and to northern part of Tanzania. They are traded at high price than that of general imported
rice. As for improved variety, SARO 5, aromatic rice, is drawing attention.

72

Table5-8: Production Volume of Main Crop in Tanzania (average/last 10 years)
and Changes over the last 40 years
1961–70

1971–80

1981–90

1991–00

2001–10

Change109,100

207,882

305,162

417,747

693,707

6.36

120,605

274,700

491,846

661,047

1,312,887

10.89

Yield (kg/ha)

1,134

1,358

1,587

1,603

1,892

1.67

Maize: Harvest area (ha)957,300

1,178,490

1,588,954

1,535,861

2,747,417

2.87

681,800

1,237,900

2,165,800

2,292,476

3,804,018

5.58

750

1,025

1,362

1,572

1,571

2.09

345,700

516,375

530,645655,805

685,468

1.98

160,249

326,892

527,381

636,838

664,653

4.15

708

609

1,064

972

954

1.35

188,500

290,000

287,243

267,255

288,645

1.53

130,883

231,708

300,812245,533

225,592

1.72

Yield (kg/ha)

697

774

1,108

931

778

1.12

Wheat: Harvest area (ha)30,70057,49848,09958,65155,495

1.81

32,36875,00080,46473,00078,990

2.44

1,038

1,386

1,675

1,285

1,767

1.70

Rice (chaff): Harvest area (ha)Production volume(t)

Production volume(t)
Yield (kg/ha)
Sorghum: Harvest area (ha)Production volume(t)
Yield (kg/ha)
Millet: Harvest area (ha)Production volume(t)

Production volume(t)
Yield (kg/ha)

Source：FAOSTATThe import volume of rice in Tanzania is larger than the export volume of rice, but the export volume
of rice is on upward trend and the rice produced in Tanzania is well received in the neighboring
countries. In Tanzania, the Government imposes a ban on export of grains in case of food shortage.
Therefore the farmers in the main rice producing areas and in the main corn producing areas as wellas the governments of the neighboring countries are unhappy about it.
In Moshi and Arusha, rice called Japani (meaning Japan) is sold that is produced in LMIS and otherneighboring countries. Comparing to Kyela rice and Morogoro rice, its price is lower, but the distance
between the place of production and the place of consumption is short and the price of chaff at farmer’sgate in Kilimanjaro Region (Lower Moshi) is higher than that in Mbeya Region (Kyela). In northernpart of Tanzania (Kilimanjaro Region, Arusha Region, Tanga Region), rice is running short and theseareas are adjoining to Kenya, the rice importing country. Therefore, the rice cultivation mainly in73Lower Moshi, Kilimanjaro Region (northern part of Tanzania) is expected to grow in terms of
production technology and its processing and distribution.
2) Direction of Rice Development
In general, the rice cultivation in Tanzania is sorted out to rain-fed lowland swamp rice and wet-landrice (irrigated rice) (Table 5-9). According to the National Rice Development Strategy announced in
2009, the rice cultivation area in Tanzania is estimated to be 681,000ha (dry rice: 17,000ha (2.5%),
rain-fed rice in lowland swamp: 464,000ha (68%), wet-land rice: 200,000ha (29%)). Also it isestimated that about 72% of the rice cultivation area in Tanzania (510,000ha) is lowland swamp and
8% to 10% is paddy field.
Table 5-9: 10-year plan to increase rice production in Tanzania
Rain-fed lowland

Dry landswamp

Production
Area

Yield

Irrigated rice plant

Production
Area

Yield

volumeTotal

Production
Area

Yield

volumeProduction
Area

Yield

volumevolume

2008

17

0.5

9

464

1.0

464

200

2.13

426

681

1.3

899

2013

21

1.0

21

374

1.5

561

290

3.0

870

685

2.1

1,452

2018

31

1.6

50

274

2.0

548

390

3.5

1365

695

2.8

1,963

Note: Cultivation area (1000ha), yield of chaff (t/ha), production volume of chaff (1000t)
Source: Tanzania National Rice Development Strategy Final Draft, May 2009

Development scheme by the Government of Tanzania is agriculture-oriented and includes promotionof irrigation. The Government is active in developing new irrigation facilities and refurbishing theexisting facilities, and the farmers are active in opening rain-fed lowland swamp field suitable to ricecultivation. Part of rain-fed lowland swamp (rain-fed rice paddy) will be changed to irrigated rice field(rice paddy) and new rain-fed rice paddy will be developed, too.
NERICA is resistant against drought and early rice breed, meaning that it may spread into areas notproper for rice cultivation (lack of rain, slope, etc.). NERICA has been spreading into the rain-fed
lowland swamp (for example, Ngage Province in Tabora Region) and will draw attention as relatively
resistant against stress (drought, diseases).
On the other hand, in the areas where changes in the weather impact significantly, the areas for ricecultivation and rain-fed rice cultivation are decreasing. For example, the quantity of water in River
Lao running through Moshi has been decreasing significantly over the last 20 years. The yield ofSegera’s dry rice cultivated in Korogwe Province in Tanga Region, located almost midway between

74

Dar es Salaam and Moshi (in some years, rain-fed lowland swamp rice) was almost zero for five years
between 2007 and 2012 due to drought.
For sustainable development of the irrigated rice cultivation and the rain-fed lowland swamp ricecultivation, maintaining the proper conditions in upriver of water source and managing irrigated waterand surface water properly will be important factors. As for promotion of dry rice, we need to pay
attention to the slopes in the dry fields and take actions to avoid runoff of earth and sand. Important
thing is how we can improve the productivity and the quality of rice while reducing environmentalload, rather than how much % we can expand the crop cultivation areas out of the cultivatable lands.
3) Farm Tools and Agricultural Machines
Farm tools and agricultural machines are developed and introduced in order not only to economicallyconduct agricultural operations at proper timing at high task accuracy but also to reduce heavy labor.
In Tanzania, hoe, sickle and chopper (panga) are common and other farm tools and agricultural
machines are not so popular.
In most of the irrigation areas in Tanzania, their main means are human power (using hoe) for
preparing furrow and ridge, plowing, puddling, and leveling the field (Table 5-10). Among 32
irrigation areas where Tanrice did interviews, only man power was used in ten areas (28%) and man
power was used for 66%–99% of the total plowed and puddled fields in eleven areas.
Plowing by using cattle was done in more than 2/3 of the total area in Mahiga (100%) and Sawenge(88%) in Mwanza Region, Uwachero (95%) in Mara Region, Kasybone-Kisegese (90%) and Mshewe(70%) in Mbeya Region, Mfumbi (80%) in Iringa Region. Tillers were used in Ngage (75%) in
Manyara Region, Mahande (50%) in Arusha Region, Musa Mwijanga (40%) in Kilimanjaro Region,
Uturo (25%) in Mbeya Region, Mfumbi (15%) in Iringa Region and Mvumi (15%) in Morogoro
Region. Tractors are not so much used except Kitivo (90%) in Tanga Region and Kibokwa (20%) in
Zanzibar Island.
In about half of the irrigated area, puddling and leveling have been done only by man power.
Comparing to plowing, it is much less, but in Mahiga (75%) in Mwanza Region and Uturo (20%) in
Mbeya Region, puddling and leveling using cattle was popular. Puddling and leveling using tiller was
popular in Ngage (75%) in Manyara Region, Mfumbi (70%) in Iringa Region, Mahande (50%) in
Arusha Region, Musa Mwijanga (40%) in Kilimanjaro Region, Kwemgiriti and Kituani Mwezae(20%) in Tanga Region, Uturo (20%) in Mbeya Region, Kibokwa (20%) in Zanzibar Island, Ilonga(15%) and Mvumi (15%) in Morogoro Region (15%). They did not use tractor for leveling.

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Table 5-10: Comparison of first plowing, puddling and leveling of the field in irrigation area
First plowing (33 districts)

Puddling and leveling (32 districts)

Manpower

CattleTillerTractorManpower

CattleTillerTractor

100%

27.3

3.0

0.0

0.0

50.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

99–67%

33.3

15.2

3.0

3.0

31.3

3.1

6.3

0.0

66–33%

12.1

6.1

6.1

0.0

9.4

0.0

6.3

0.0

32–1%

21.2

27.3

27.3

21.2

9.4

15.6

25.0

0.0

0%

6.1

48.5

63.6

75.8

0.0

81.3

62.5

100.0

Total

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

Note: Lower Moshi irrigation area and Ndungu irrigation area are not included in the irrigated area. They did rain-fed direct seedingin one district, and they did not do puddling and leveling.

In LMIS, plowing using tractor (using rotary in dry field) and puddling and leveling (using drive
harrow under submerged condition) have been implemented since 1980s, but in late years, only
puddling the field have been implemented (using rotary under submerged condition). The number oftractors decreased, and puddling the field have been implemented using tiller and man power in acertain areas.
The Government of Tanzania has provided the training for the operators and the operators in chargeof mechanization of the agricultural machines by using the tractors and tillers provided throughtechnical cooperation. Setting the first priority on agriculture, the Government of Tanzania has
instructed each province to procure the agricultural machines (especially tillers) and distribute themto the farmer organizations, and in KATC they have been entrusted with training on the agricultural
machines from the Government and the provinces. In order to promote the agricultural machines, its
maintenance is important challenge. KATC has been recognized as training center related to tractor
and tiller in Tanzania, and the needs not only to learn its operations but also to learn how to repair itwill increase. Big surge toward the mechanization in agriculture can be seen, but they need to solve
some issues in order to secure its sustainability.
In KATC, agricultural tool for leveling, push weeder, grain beating table were produced. Especiallyby the push weeder, the male farmers have taken interest in weeding and weeding is becoming popularin some irrigated areas. In order to reduce agricultural labor, not only introducing the agricultural
machines but also improving the farm tools is meaningful. Preliminary plowing, plowing, puddling,leveling, weeding, harvesting, operations after harvesting are all heavy labor works, and it is expected
so much that a farm tool and a method of farming would be developed and improved in order to release
people from agricultural heavy labor.

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7. Conclusion
By an initiative to increase the volume of rice in Asia (it is called, “Green Revolution” started at theend of 1960s, the irrigation, breeds, fertilizer and pesticide contributed to improving the productivity.
The production volume of rice increased at that time in Tanzania mainly due to expansion in area, sothat the productivity remained unchanged.
In LMIS, constructed in 1987, water was distributed, plowing, puddling and leveling were
implemented under guidance by KADP, and rice seedling growing in the group rice nursery wastransplanted at proper timing, and harvested, thrashed and dried chaff were milled by a large-scale rice
mill. High yield rice cultivation in LMIS was achieved in a form of the irrigated rice cultivation (in asurface smoothed rice paddy surrounded by furrow and ridge). Rice cultivation in LMIS achieved
improvement in its productivity, but there still remain some challenges in managing water source andoperating the irrigation area.
Form of rice cultivation as essential
factor in LMIS and KADP was
succeeded by KATC, and the abilities
at other agricultural institutes havebeen strengthened (Photo 5-3). The
principal

intheirrigation

rice

cultivation is the same as in Japan(Asia) and in Tanzania (Africa).
The succeeded form of the irrigatedrice cultivation has been settled downin each districts in Kilimanjaro
Region, Arusha Region (Lekitatu and
Mahande), Tanga Region (Mombo
andKitivo),Morogoro

Region(Mkindo and Kiroka), Mbeya Region(Mbuyuni),

RuvumaRegion(Mahiga), Zanzibar Island (Mtwango)and so on, and spread into otherirrigated areas (Photo 5-4). Together
with the form of the irrigated ricecultivation, planting in straight lines
gradually can be seen in many areas in
Tanzania, and also dual cropping,77

early season cultivar (Wahiwahi and NERICA 1) and push weeder have spread into a certain areas as
example to show the impact by the cooperation in the rice cultivation promotion.
The cooperation in the rice cultivation promotion after the period to adjust the agricultural structure in
Tanzania, since the core farmers actively participated in the activity and the productivity was improved
to some extent even during the period where the number of the farmer promoters reduced or the budget
was cut. The core farmers and the middle-class farmers who participated in the training together withthe promoters demonstrated that the yield would increase if the irrigated water, technology, skill,materials and equipment were introduced to the rice paddy in the form of the irrigated rice cultivation.
The promoters and the farmers became to have knowledge about the rice cultivation as well as they
put them into practice, and therefore the general farmers gradually become to be able to cultivate
equally grown and ripened rice plants (for example, Kitivo in Tanga Region).
By the rapid increase in rice price internationally in 2008, the Government of Tanzania recognized theimportance to produce rice for its own country and the possibility to export rice. The Government of
Tanzania has been putting the first priority on the agriculture, promoting the irrigation, increasing the
agriculture promoters, introducing the input (fertilizer) assistance scheme (Voucher System),promoting machines and equipment into the agriculture, introducing Saving and Credit Cooperative
Society (SACCOS) and Warehouse Receipt System and promoting the private sector investment, andfurthermore, practicing the large-scale rice cultivation promotion business such as Southern
Agricultural Growth Corridor (SAGOT).
The Government of Japan has supported promotion of the rice cultivation in Tanzania since 1970s,
and recently, World Bank, USAID, IFAD, International Agriculture Research Institute (IRRI,
AfricaRice), the emerging supporting countries (South Korea, China, India), NGO (Oxfam, Aga Khan,
BRAC) and Japanese companies (consultants, agricultural machine makers), research institutes,
universities, NGO and so on are all drawing increasing attention. We hope these activities arecontributing to improving the living standard of the rice cultivation farmers, development in the ricecultivation farms and stable rice supply to the citizens in Tanzania.
It is important to maintain the irrigation facilities and manage the irrigated water in order to increase
and stabilize the yield of the irrigated rice cultivation. For that purpose, it should be encouraged thatpeople have initiatives to establish standards, keep awareness and take actions based on a concept “theirrigation facilities should be maintained voluntarily and continuously by its beneficiaries” (Photo 55). In order to harmonize with the limited water resources, technology development, trainings andpromotions should be encouraged as well, leading to water-saving type of irrigation at scheme and78

plot levels. While referring to theexperiences in Japan and Asia, it isworth sharing the cases seen in
Tanzania and Africa.

79