“Kogai” and Pollution＜Personal notes for brain-storming＞

27th April, 2018

＠GEOC
平石 尹彦
Taka Hiraishi<taka.hiraishi@gmail.com>

References2

“Kogai” vs. “Pollution”• “Kogai” is defined in Article 2, Paragraph 3of the Basic Law on the Environment; <Law
No.91, 1993> http://www.env.go.jp/en/laws/policy/basic/index.html
Note; the translation of “Kogai”, as provided by the MOEJ (shown below)
is not very accurate. The Article 2. Para 3 actually defines"Kogai" as occurrence of negative impacts caused byenvironmental pollution (of air, water, soil, noise, vibration,ground subsidence and offensive odour).
“Kogai” in Japanese means, among interference with environmental conservation, air pollution, waterpollution (including a deterioration of water's unadulterated state other than the water quality and thequality of the bottom. The same shall apply hereinafter except for Article I6 Paragraph 1.), soil
contamination, noise, vibration, ground subsidence (excluding subsidence caused from land
excavation for mineral exploitation. The same shall apply hereinafter.) and offensive odors affecting an
extensive area as a result of business and other human activities, which cause damage to humanhealth or the living environment (including property closely related to human life, as well as fauna andflora closely related to human life and their living environment. The same shall apply hereinafter.).
3

Definition of “Kogai”
３ この法律において「公害」とは、環境の保全上の支障のうち、事業活動その他の人の活動に伴って生ずる相当範囲にわたる
大気の汚染、水質の汚濁(水質以外の水の状態又は水底の底質が悪化することを含む。第十六条第一項を除き、以下同じ。)、土壌の汚染、騒音、振動、地盤の沈下(鉱物の掘採のための土地の掘削によるものを除く。以下同じ。)及び悪臭によって、人の健康又は生活環境(人の生活に密接な関係のある財産並びに人の生活に密接な関係のある動植物及びその生育環境を含む。以下同じ。)に係る被害が生ずることをいう。

4

Kogai problems in Japan• Before Meiji Restoration– Mining pollution, local water conflicts, etc. Many agriculturerelated cases.

• Meiji - Taisho era– Area-wide mining pollution cases, such as the Ashio mine
pollution case. In 1890s.)– Industrial air pollution cases (e.g., Besshi, Hitachi)– Air and water pollution cases near large cities and industrialdistricts.

• More recently;– Many Kogai cases caused by environmental pollution
from petrochemical industry zones and large cities
after WW-II.
– Health damage cases by toxic chemicals.

5Minamata Disease• Reporting of “Strange Diseases” started around 1953,
but some believe that health damages started earlier.
The symptoms were paralysis, speech impediment,
eyesight narrowing, deformed birth, etc., but there weremany discrimination incidents of patients because thecauses were unknown.
• It took a long time before the causal relationship wasestablished. Research report by a team of scientists of
the Kumamoto University was issued in July 1959, but it
was seriously criticized.
• A compensation agreement was concluded in August,
1959, which was negated by a court judgement later.

6

Minamata Disease （from E. Smith 「Minamata」）

メチル水銀が母親から胎児に移るため、出生児の症状が重くなる。
Methyl mercury was transferred to the embryo, and thus Mother’s damageis less serious!

7

Minamata Disease – was it preventable?
• Only in September 1968, the Ministry of Health andWelfare issued its official conclusion to the effect that
Minamata disease was caused by organic mercury,
generated in a chemical plant using inorganic mercury
catalyst, emitted to the sea via industrial effluent, andaccumulated in fish, and intake of such fish.
• Regrettably similar pollution and health damage cases
occurred in Niigata in 1965. (Reportedly, health damages
by organic mercury occurred in Canada in 1960s.)• Difficulties involved:– Health damages by organic mercury was known only in a very
special occupational health cases. (It was at a completely differentcontamination level.)– It was not known that inorganic mercury catalyzer (for hydration ofacetylene) can be converted to organic mercury.
– Detection of extremely low level of organic mercury (in fish orwater) was not possible.

• There were “self-defensive” resistance by the industry.

8Minamata Convention on Mercury (2013)•Adopted in Kumamoto, on 10th October, 2013. Took effect on 18thAugust 2017.
• The Convention provides for; “a ban on new mercury mines, thephase-out of existing ones, the phase out and phase down ofmercury use in a number of products and processes, control
measures on emissions to air and on releases to land and water, andthe regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale goldmining.”
TEXT
http://mercuryconvention.org/Convention/tabid/3426/language/enUS/Default.aspx
Introduction
http://mercuryconvention.org/Portals/11/documents/Awareness%20raisi
ng/FACT%20SHEETS/OVERVIEW_key%20control%20measures%20u
nder%20the%20Minamata%20Convention_05%2016.pdf
Overview in Japanese
http://www.env.go.jp/chemi/tmms/convention/treaty_outline.pdf

9Global Mercury
Assessment 2013 (UNEP)• “Global Mercury
Assessment 2013:
Sources, emissions,releases, andenvironmental transport”
was an importantbackground report for thenegotiation.
<http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/7984/Global%20Mercury%20Assessment201367.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y>10

LargeamountofMercury
exists invarioussectors ofnature,especiallyin higher
foodchain.

Emission
sourcesofMercury

水銀に関する水俣条約の主要規定（環境省資料のサマリー）
水銀供給源と貿易（3条）• 鉱山からの水銀の産出について、新規鉱山開発は各締約国での条約発効後に禁止。
• 既存の鉱山からの産出は各締約国での条約発効から15年以内に禁止。
• 水銀の貿易（金属水銀が対象）について、水銀の輸出は、1)条約上で認められた用途、2)環境上適正な保管（第10条）に限定。（水銀廃棄物の貿易については第11条で規定）• 水銀の輸出に当たっては、輸入国の書面による事前同意が必要。

水銀添加製品（4条・6条）••••

電池、スイッチ・リレー、一定含有量以上の一般照明用蛍光ランプ、石鹸、化粧品、殺虫剤、血圧計、体温計などの水銀含有製品（附属書A、一部例外あり）について、2020年までに製造、輸出、輸入を原則禁止。（年限については、第6条に基づき、国によって必要な場合、最大10年間まで延長可）
歯科用アマルガムについて、使用等を削減。 ○禁止された水銀含有製品の製品中への組み込みの抑制、水銀を利用した新製品の製造・販売の抑制、事務局へ附属書Aに掲載する水銀含有製品の情報の提案などを行う。
締約国会議（COP）は条約発効後5年以内に附属書Aのレビューを実施。

水銀又は水銀化合物を使用する製造プロセス（5条・6条）• 塩素アルカリ工業及びアセトアルデヒド製造施設を対象に、製造プロセスにおける水銀の使用を禁止。 （それぞれ2025年、2018年まで。ただし、年限については、国によって必要な場合、最大10年間まで延長可。）• 塩化ビニルモノマー、ポリウレタンなどの製造プロセスでの水銀使用を削減。
• 上記対象プロセス（附属書Bに記載）の既存施設での対策及び新規施設での水銀利用禁止、新規のプロセスにおける水銀利用の抑制、事務局へ附属書Bに掲載するプロセスの提案などを行う。
• COPは、条約発効後5年以内に附属書Bのレビューの実施。
人力小規模金採掘（ASGM)（7条）• 使用・環境中への放出を削減、可能であれば廃絶のため行動。
• 国内のASGMがわずかでない（more than insignificant）と判断する締約国は、国家行動計画を策定・実施するとともに、3年ごとにレビューを実施。
大気への排出（8条）• 石炭火力発電所、石炭焚産業用ボイラー、非鉄金属精錬施設、廃棄物焼却施設、セメント生産施設（附属書D）を対象に、排出削減対策を実施。
• 新設施設：各締約国での条約発効から5年以内にBAT（利用可能な最良の技術）/BEP（環境のための最良の慣行）を義務付け。
• 既存施設：各締約国での条約発効から10年以内に①排出管理目標、②排出限度値、③BAT/BEP、④水銀の排出管理に効果のある複数汚染物質管理戦略、⑤代替的措置から1つ以上を実施。
• 各国が自国内の対象排出源の排出インベントリを作成。
• COPで、BAT/BEP等に関するガイダンスを採択。
水・土壌への放出（9条） 、暫定的保管、水銀廃棄物、汚染地（10～12条） 、資金・技術支援（13・14条）、など。

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Itai-itai Disease• Observed since 1920s, but the causes were left
un-known.
• Multiple bone fractures, with serious pains.
Serious osteomalacia (softening of bones)
Occurred most frequently for old women who
have delivered children.
• Malnutrition, Vitamin-D deficiency… weresuspected causes, but Dr. N. Ogino and others
led scientific research ….

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Itai-itai disease: Causes and difficulties• In May 1968, Ministry of Health and Welfare formallyconcluded that;– Those special symptoms were caused by chronic Cadmium
poisoning, which caused kidney damage and bone softening, andthey were triggered by pregnancy, breast feeding, disorder ofinternal secretion, aging and insufficiency in Calcium.
– Heavy metals including Cadmium appears to have contaminatedthe water resources for paddy fields and ground water for a longtime. . .

• Health damages caused by long-term intake of Cd wasunknown, and caused delay in actions. Scientificdiscussions had taken a long time and continued even ininternational forums …
• Removal of soil contamination, as well as management ofmine effluent, are extremely time- and fund-consumingtasks.
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Health Damages by Air Pollution• Since 1960s, respiratory health damages
increased in many industrialized and large cities.
Yokkaichi, Kita-Kyushu, Kawasaki, Osaka. . .
• In addition to air pollution control measures(stringent SOx, NOx and PM emission
regulations, including area-wide total massemission regulations and automotive emission
regulations, non-Lead petrol policy, etc.),
Pollution Patient Compensation Law wasenacted in 1973.
16

Pollution Patient Compensation System• Pollution Health Damage Compensation Law wasenacted on 5th October 1973, covering;– Non-specific diseases such as chronic bronchitis which
do not have direct specific link with the emission ofpollutant and sickness, (in the Designated Areas) and;– Specific diseases, such as Minamata and Itai-itaidiseases, that have specific relationship with emissionof causal pollutants.
• With the improvement of environmental situations, all the“Designated Areas” were cancelled in 1988.Including
rather minor patients, there was a peak of some 110
thousands patients in 1983.
17Environmental Protection Policy Tools•Goals – Environmental Quality Standards– Air, Water (river, sea, groundwater), Soil, Noise and Vibration –nationally universal or land-use specific.

••
••
•

Emission Regulatory Standards (point-based and region-based).
Chemicals control.
Incentive/disincentive-based (Economic tools)
Preventive measures (e.g., Environmental Impact Assessment)
Regional Environmental Planning
Environmental facilities (e.g., sewer system)••

Environmental Monitoring and reflection to actions.
Environmental Research and Development.
18

FromFailures toSuccesses<http://www.city.kitakyushu.lg.jp/kankyou/file_0264.html>19

Environmental Quality Trends• Environmental quality, today (English Summary)
http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2017/index.html• Japanese (Original Report)
http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/h29/pdf.html
SO2 Trends
FY 1970-201520

Flue Gas Desulfurization Facilities

21

“Towards a Pollution-freePlanet”- a publication for UNEA3 •UNEA3 was held from 4th to 7th December in
Nairobi, focusing on “Pollution”.
“Pollution is not a new phenomenon. Nor is action tocounter it. A substantial framework of international
conventions and national laws has been constructed totackle some of the harms and worst excesses. Notablesuccesses include the ongoing repair of the ozone
layer and the phasing out of numerous bannedpesticides and chemicals.”• It overviews “Pollution”; Air pollution, Land and soil
pollution, Freshwater pollution, Marine and coastal
pollution, and Cross-cutting sources of pollution;
Chemicals and Waste.
• Economic impacts and countermeasures andpolicies, including preventive ones, are reviewed.

http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/21800/UNEA_towardspollution_long%20version_Web.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=yIn Conclusion• Japan has experienced numerous sorts ofenvironmental pollution problems, including
Kogai situations (even health damages).
• With unprecedented high determination andactions (by national and local governments,industries, civil societies and academia) andcosts, Japan has coped with most of them. Suchexperiences could be, internationally speaking,extremely valuable resources.
• There are still many longer-term challenges –that all of us should be aware of, concerned withand take actions.
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Taka Hiraishi•Born in Tokyo on 3rd December 1944.
•B.Sc. (1966) and M.Sc. for Industrial Chemistry (1968) from Tokyo University.
•Joined Ministry of Labour (Occupational Health and Safety Department) in April 1968.
•Moved to the newly-established Environment Agency in 1971 and, till 1996, worked in the fields of offensive odour, acid rain, ozone layer,
hazardous wastes, hazardous chemicals and water pollution, except the overseas posting shown below.
•1987-1989: Director, Water Pollution Control Division, Environment Agency (current Ministry of the Environment) (1987-89)
Overseas posting:•1975-1978: Environment Attache (liaison with UNEP) and Second Secretary for bilateral technical co-operation (for Kenya, Uganda andMalawi) at the Embassy of Japan in Kenya.
•1980-1982: Principal Administrator (A-4, information exchange on chemicals control policies, including chemicals management policies indeveloping countries), Chemicals Division, Environment Directorate, OECD Secretariat.
•1989-1998: Worked for UNEP as (consecutively);Co-ordinator of Support Measures, Programme Bureau (D-1),
Officer-in-Charge, Environmental Law and Institutions Centre,Deputy Director of Policy Division,
Deputy Director of Environment Programme Division,
Assistant Executive Director for Environmental Information and Assessment (D-2).
(President, UNEP Staff Association (in 1996))
More recently,•1999-2006: Visiting Principal Researcher, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan.
•1999-2015: Member, IPCC Bureau and Co-chair, IPCC Inventories Task Force Bureau•1999-2015: Senior Consultant, and Member, Board of Directors, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan (Part-time),•February-April 2001: Special Advisor to the Minister of the Environment, Japan (Chair of Communique Drafting Group for G-7 Environment
Ministers).
•2002-2010: Special Advisor to the Minister of the Environment, Japan. (on OECD sustainable development activities, Part-time)•2005-2009: Specially assigned Professor (Risk Management and Global Environmental Issues), Osaka University, Japan (Part-time)•Vising Lecturer for Tokyo Institute of Technologies, Sophia University, Gakushuin University, Osaka University, Atomi University.
•2001- : Contributed to the work of the Ministry of the Environment in Japan for CDM, J-VER, JCM, adaptation and “co-benefits”•2002-2011: UNFCCC, member of CGE (Consultative Group on non-Annex-I national communications).
•2004-2008: UNFCCC, member of EGTT (Expert Group on Technology Transfer)
Currently:•Counsellor, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Japan (Volunteer),•Member, Board of Directors, Japan Association for UNEP (NPO) (Volunteer)