Cover by Ciprian-Marius Vizitiu.
Photos for cover kindly provided by:
Gregory Basco
Brian Gratwicke
David L. Hawksworth
Dietmar Koszewski
Christian Lange
Anne Mette NielsenDavid Patterson

TERMS USED IN BIONOMENCLATURETERMS USED IN BIONOMENCLATURE:
The naming of organisms (and plantcommunities)

Including terms used in botanical, cultivated plant,
phylogenetic, phytosociological, prokaryote (bacteriological),virus, and zoological nomenclature.

Compiled byDavid L. Hawksworth
Chair, IUBS/IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature(ICB)
Departamento de Biología Vegetal II, Facultad de Farmacia,
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal,
Madrid 28040, Spain
andDepartment of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell
Road, London SW7 5BD, UK.
E-mail: d.hawksworth@nhm.ac.uk

© Global Biodiversity Information Facility 2010
Published by Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Copenhagen.
May 2010
The mission of the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) is tofacilitate free and open access to biodiversity data worldwide via theInternet to underpin sustainable development. Priorities, with an emphasis
on promoting participation and working through partners, include
mobilising biodiversity data, developing protocols and standards to ensure
scientific integrity and interoperability, building an informatics architecture
to allow the interlinking of diverse data types from disparate sources,
promoting capacity building and catalysing development of analytical tools
for improved decision-making. See http://www.gbif.org

ISBN 87-92020-09-7

A PDF version of this book can be downloaded from the GBIF website together with theTerms of Bionomenclature web application at
http://www.gbif.org/communications/resources/print-and-onlineresources/bionomenclature/

Contents

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................ 8
INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 9
SCOPE .................................................................................................. 10
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................. 11
THE CODES ......................................................................................... 13
SELECTED ADDITIONAL SOURCES .............................................. 14
SELECTED ETYMOLOGICAL WORKS........................................... 16
ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................... 19
TERMS USED IN BIONOMENCLATURE ........................................ 20

8

Terms used in Bionomenclature

Abstract
This is a glossary of over 2,100 terms used in biological nomenclature - thenaming of whole organisms of all kinds. It covers terms in use in the current
editions of the different internationally mandated and proposed organismal
Codes; i.e. those for botany (including mycology), cultivated plants,
prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria), virology, and zoology, as well as theDraft BioCode and PhyloCode. Any abbreviations, latinizations andsynonyms are incorporated, as are terms which are either no longer
employed, are used outside the formal nomenclatural Codes, or areotherwise likely to be encountered. As some of the terms used in theclassification of plant communities are identical to those of wholeorganisms, terms used in phytosociological nomenclature are also included.
The glossary has been prepared with inputs from numerous nomenclatural
specialists, especially representatives of the different Codes serving on the
IUBS/IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature. It is intended
for use as a reference work by all biologists, especially those involved withthe description or re-classification of organisms, as well as thoseinvestigating the status and application of previously proposed names.
Selected key words: algae, animals, archaea, bacteria, BioCode, biologicalnomenclature, botany, codes of nomenclature, cultivated plants, dictionary,entomology, fungi, glossary, nomenclature, PhyloCode, phytosociology,
plants, prokaryotes, protists, viruses, zoology.

Hawksworth

9Introduction
Terms used in discussions of, and in the procedures regulating, thescientific naming of organisms often appear abstruse or unfamiliar to most
biologists. The associated language and jargon has developed exponentiallysince Linnaeus endeavoured to codify procedures and terminology in the
Philosophia Botanica (1751). The situation has been exacerbated bybiologists working with different groups of organisms developing not only
unique terms, but also using identical ones but with different meanings.
Today, the accumulated terms present a major obstacle for biologists
needing to know how to introduce new scientific names, change positions
in a classification, understand why a name has been changed, or determinethat which should be used for an organism according to the appropriate setsof rules. In addition, confrontation with unfamiliar and outdated terms canbe a barrier to a taxonomist's correct interpretation of the older literaturethat has to be tackled when undertaking monographic or revisionary work.
However, it is my hope that this listing will also facilitate the understandingof nomenclatural discussions and procedures by organismal biologists as awhole.
The primary objective of the present compilation is to provide, in a single
reference work, definitions and explanations of terms for biologists of all
kinds working with, or on, the names or organisms. A secondary objective
is to discourage both the superfluous coining of new terms, and the use ofexisting terms in different senses. As will be apparent from a perusal of theentries, there is already an embarrassing number of cases of the same term
being used in disparate senses (e.g. genotype, morphotype). The
equivalence of selected terms employed in the different Codes is indicatedin Table 1.
I started compiling notes on terms used in botanical nomenclature in the
mid-1960s when as a student I found that some definitions were not always
easily located. My list grew, and a glossary of those relevant to mycology
was included in the Mycologist's Handbook (1974). I continued to makenotes as more were encountered for a putative second edition. In the mid1980s, the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) identified aneed for increased co-operation between the authorities concerned with thenomenclature of different groups of organisms. Then, at the 24th General
Assembly of IUBS in Amsterdam in 1991, the Scientific Programme

10Terms used in Bionomenclature

Committee reported that it would be advantageous to produce acomprehensive glossary of biological nomenclature. To that end, inNovember 1993 I circulated a first draft aiming to cover the five principle
Codes to several colleagues; the production of that draft was facilitated by
the glossary in Charles Jeffrey's Biological Nomenclature (1989). A second
draft was prepared in March 1994, and critically annotated by nominatedrepresentatives of the different Codes serving on the then embryo
IUBS/IUMS International Committee on Bionomenclature (ICB). Taking
note of the painstakingly prepared inputs received, A Draft Glossary ofTerms used in Bionomenclature was published by IUBS in July 1994; thishad 1175 entries. This opened the draft to comment from the wider
biological community, and I continued to compile additions and corrections
received, as well as to incorporate updates and revisions necessitated by
new editions of the Codes and the scrutiny of other publications. Yet afurther draft was made available to several colleagues for comment on theoccasion of the International Botanical Congress in Vienna in July 2005,
and at a meeting of the ICB in London in June 2009.
Such a compilation can never be exhaustive, and it is being released now as
it has reached a stage where, hopefully, it will be of value to all thoseconcerned with the naming of whole organisms. However, awareness of thepossible deficiencies of the 1994 draft, led me to place a “health-warning”
on the back cover. The present work must also be used with caution, andwhile representatives of the various Codes have assisted in the venture, it
has no formal standing in biological nomenclature.
Users who come across omissions or misinterpretation, or encounter
alternative uses of already included terms, are encouraged to submit details
to me (d.hawksworth@nhm.ac.uk) so that they can be accommodated inany future edition.

Scope
This compilation covers terms employed in the current editions of thedifferent internationally mandated and proposed organismal Codes; i.e.
those for botany (including mycology), cultivated plants, prokaryotes(archaea and bacteria), virology, and zoology, as well as the Draft BioCodeand PhyloCode. Also incorporated are abbreviations, latinizations, andsynonyms, as well as the numerous terms which are either no longer

Hawksworth

11

employed, used outside the formal nomenclatural Codes, or are otherwise
likely to be encountered. As some of the terms used in the classification ofplant communities are identical to that of whole organisms, terms used inphytosociological nomenclature are also included – but not those of socalled Dynamic-Catenal Phytosociology which includes landscape andother aspects.
Where definitions are given in the principal Codes, in general, the precise
wording they employ is used. However, where the same term is used inseveral and in identical senses, composites are provided. In order tominimize the possibility of any misleading or obfuscating definitions being
introduced here, drafts have been circulated for comments and corrections
to nomenclatural specialists working on the different Codes at various
stages during its preparation.
A few zoologists have been involved in coining spurious definitions for
additional kinds of "types" for amusement (e.g. mythicotype, scoopotype,spiritotype); although many have not been used in serious scientificcontributions, they are nevertheless included for completeness as they haveappeared in print, and so might be encountered.
Not included are terms relating to genomics, population genetics,
genecology, morphology, species and other systematic concepts, cytology,
ecology, geology, biogeography, geobotany, or bioclimatic zones – unlessthey are also used in biological nomenclature or are potentially confusing.
Etymological derivations and the meanings of the scientific names applied
to organisms are not nomenclatural terms per se, and so are also excluded.
However, as the coining of new scientific names and understanding themeaning and correct orthography of those proposed are important aspects ofnomenclatural work, a list of selected etymological reference works isprovided.

Acknowledgements
Various colleagues and correspondents generously, and often painstakingly,
submitted information on omitted terms, suggestions, and corrections to thevarious drafts of this glossary prepared since 1993. In particular I wish toacknowledge my gratitude to David A. Brown, William G. Chaloner,
Walter Gams, Werner Greuter, Philip D. Cantino, Daphne G. Fautin,

12

Terms used in Bionomenclature

Kenneth E. Kinman, Otto Krauss, John McNeill, Ellinor Michel, Michael
A. Mayo, Alessandro Minelli, Dan H. Nicolson, Daniel Sánchez-Mata,Peter H. A. Sneath, Brian J. Tindall, R. Piers Trehane, and Philip K. Tubbs(deceased). Tod Stuessy kindly supplied a copy of the typescript report on
infraspecific categories prepared by Peter C. Sylvester-Bradley for theTaxonomic Principles Committee of the Systematics Association in 1952. I
am especially grateful to my wife, Patricia E. J. Wiltshire-Hawksworth, forher patience while this work was being finalized over Christmas and New
Year, and also for her constructive comments. However, I must stress thatany errors or misinterpretations are my personal responsibility.
I also appreciate the access to the libraries of the Linnean Society of
London, the Natural History Museum London, and the Royal Botanic
Gardens Kew afforded to me during the preparation of this compilation.
I am especially indebted to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility
Secretariat (GBIF), and especially David Remsen, for providing theresources necessary to bring this compilation to publication through Project
2009-ECAT-011. Anne Mette Nielsen (GBIF) skilfully prepared the workfor publication.

Hawksworth

13

The Codes
All organisms (proposed; viruses excepted)
Greuter W; Hawksworth DL; McNeill J; Mayo MA; Minelli A; Sneath PHA;
Tindall BJ; Trehane P; Tubbs P (eds) (1998) Draft BioCode (1997): theprospective international rules for the scientific names of organisms.
Taxon 47: 127-150.
Botany (including mycology)
McNeill J; Barrie FR; Burdet HM; Demoulin V; Hawksworth DL; Marhold K;
Nicolson DH; Prado J; Silva PC; Skog JE; Wiersema JH; Turland NJ (eds)(2006) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code)adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress Vienna,
Austria, July 2005. [Regnum Vegetabile no. 146.] Ruggell: A.R.G. Ganter
Verlag.
Cultivated plants
Brickell CD, Baum BR; Hetterscheid WLA; Leslie AC; McNeill J; Trehane P;
Vrugtman F; Wiersema JH (eds) (2004) International Code of
Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. 7th edn. [Acta Horticulturae no. 647;
Regnum Vegetabile no. 144.] Leuven: International Society for
Horticultural Science.
Phylogenetic
Cantino PD; de Queiroz K (2009) PhyloCode: A Phylogenetic Code of Biological
Nomenclature. Version 4c. http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index/html.
International Society for Phylogenetic Nomenclature.
Plant communities
Weber HE; Moravec J; Theurillat J-P (2000) International Code of
Phytosociological Nomenclature. 3rd edition. Journal of Vegetation
Science 11: 739-768.
Prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria)
Lapage SP; Sneath PHA; Lessel EF; Skerman VDB; Seeloger HPR; Clark WA(eds) (1992) International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria and Satutesof the International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology and Statutes of
the Bacteriology and Applied Microbiology Section of the International
Union of Microbiological Societies. Bacteriological Code (1990 Revision).
Washington, DC.: American Society for Microbiology.

14

Terms used in Bionomenclature

VirusesInternational Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2005) The International Codeof Virus Classification and Nomenclature of ICTV. In: Virus Taxonomy:
eighth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses(Fauquet CM; Mayo MA; Maniloff J; Desselberger U; Ball L; eds): 12091214. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
ZoologyInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature [Ride WDL; Cogger HG;
Dupuis C; Kraus O; Minelli A; Thompson FC; Tubbs PK (eds)] (1999) 4th
edn. London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature.

Selected additional sourcesBlackwelder RE (1967) Taxonomy: a text and reference book. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Cowan ST; Hill LR (1978) A Dictionary of Microbial Taxonomy. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Davis PH; Heywood VH (1963) Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy. Edinburgh:
Oliver & Boyd.
Evenhuis NL (2008) A Compendium of Zoological Type Nomenclature: areference source. [Bishop Museum Technical Report no. 41.] Honolulu:
Bishop Museum Press.
Frizzell DL (1933) Terminology of types. American Midland Naturalist 14: 637668.
Gordh G; Headrick DH (2001) A Dictionary of Entomology. Wallingford: CABI
Publishing.
Hawksworth DL (1974) Mycologist's Handbook: an introduction to the principles
of taxonomy and nomenclature in the fungi and lichens. Kew:
Commonwealth Mycological Institute.
Hawksworth DL (ed.) (1991) Improving the Stability of Names: needs and options.
[Regnum Vegetabile no. 13.] Königstein: Koeltz Scientific Books.
Hawksworth DL (1994) A Draft Glossary of Terms used in Bionomenclature.
[IUBS Monograph no. 9.] Paris: International Union of Biological
Sciences.

Hawksworth

15

Howell BF (1929) Definitions of kinds of type specimens. Bulletin of theGeological Society of America 40: 219-220.
Hughes NF (1989) Fossils as Information: new recording and strata correlation
techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jeffrey C (1989) Biological Nomenclature. 3rd edn. London: Edward Arnold.
Jirásek V (1961) Evolution of the proposals of taxonomical categories for theclassification of cultivated plants. Taxon 10: 34-45.
McVaugh R; Ross R; Stafleu FA (1968) An Annotated Glossary of BotanicalNomenclature. [Regnum Vegetabile no. 56.] Utrecht: International
Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature.
Lincoln R; Boxshall G; Clark P (2001) A Dictionary of Ecology, Evolution and
Systematics. 2nd edn. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press.
Mayr E; Ashlock PD (1991) Principles of Systematic Zoology. 2nd edn. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Melville RV (1995) Towards Stability in the Names of Animals: a history of theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclatire 1895-1995.
London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature.
Ride WDL; Younès T (eds) (1986) Biological Nomenclature Today. [IUBS
Monograph Series no. 2.] Eynsham: IRL Press.
Savory T (1970) Animal Taxonomy. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Simpson GC (1961) Principles of Animal Taxonomy. [Columbia Biological Series
no. 20.] New York: Columbia University Press.
Singleton P; Sainsbury D (2001) Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular
Biology. 3rd edn. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Stearn WT (1992) Botanical Latin: history, grammar, syntax, terminology andvocabulary. 4th edn. Newton Abbot: David & Charles.
Styles BT (ed.) (1986) Infraspecific Classification of Wild and Cultivated Plants.
[Systematics Association Special Volume no. 29.] Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Winston JE (1999) Describing Species: practical taxonomic procedure forbiologists. New York: Columbia University Press.

16

Terms used in Bionomenclature

Selected etymological works
Baranov A (1971) Basic Latin for Plant Taxonomists. Lehre: J Cramer
Brown RW (1956) Composition of Scientific Words: a manual of methods and alexicon of materials for the practice of logotechnics. Revised edn.
Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Cash EK (1965) A Mycological English-Latin Glossary. [Mycologia Memoir no.
1.] New York: Hafner Publishing.
Gledhill D (2002) The Names of Plants. 3rd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Jaeger EC (1955) A Source-Book of Biological Names and Terms. 3rd edn.
Springfield, IL: CC Thomas.
Nybakken OE (1959) Greek and Latin in Scientific Terminology. Ames, IA: Iowa
State University Press.
Stearn WT (1992) Botanical Latin: history, grammar, syntax, terminology andvocabulary. 4th edn. Newton Abbot: David & Charles.
Thomas VF (2010) Botanical Latin Glossary.
http://www.vfthomas.com/botanicallatinglossary.htm. V F Thomas,
Southwest Harbor, ME

Hawksworth

17

18

Terms used in Bionomenclature

19

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations and conventions are used in the definitions presented:
bio.

In the BioCode.

bot.

In botanical (in many cases also mycological) nomenclature.

cfr

Compare with.

Code

One of the seven principal international codes of nomenclature (seeabove); in the definitions where Code(s) is used, that refers to theone(s) in the pertinent subject area(s).

cult. pl.

In cultivated plant nomenclature.

!

Flags a term not considered to have been seriously proposed.

mycol.

In mycological nomenclature alone (which is covered overall by the
botanical Code).

n.b.

Note well; used to emphasize a particularly pertinent comment.

obsol.

A formerly used term, especially one once authorized in a Code, that is
now no longer to be used.

palaeo.

In palaeontological nomenclature (which is ruled on by the pertinentsubject Code).

phyl.

In phylogenetic nomenclature.

phyt.

In phytosociological nomenclature.

pl.

Plural.

prok.

In prokaryote (archaeal and bacterial) nomenclature.

prop.

Proposed, but not adopted by, the pertinent subject Code.

q.v.

Which see; used to indicate that the entry for the term so annotatedshould be consulted.

unoff.

Unofficial; i.e. not used, or formally approved or regulated by, thepertinent subject Code(s).

vir.

In virus (and viroid) nomenclature.

zool.

In zoological nomenclature.

20

Terms used in Bionomenclature

TERMS USED IN BIONOMENCLATURE
aapm.: see amphiapomict.
ab.: see aberration.
abbreviation: a shortened form of a word, made by omitting later letters,
and followed by a full-stop (period); genus or genus group names
are often abbreviated to one or two letters, and (zool.) sometimes
also specific names cited as parts of trinomials; see acronym, author
abbreviation, contraction.
aberration, [ab.]: (1) a group of deformed atypical individuals within a
species or population. (2) (zool.) a term which, if used to denote a
number of individuals within a species, unequivocally signifies
infrasubspecific rank; a morphotype of no taxonomic status below
the officially recognized ranks; names based on aberrations areunavailable.
aborted name, [nomen abortivum, nom. abort.]: (1) (zool., obsol.)
formerly applied to a name which at the date of publication was
contrary to the Code in operation at that time; see forgotten name.
abruptotype: (zool., unoff.) type of a taxon hasitily described to meet a
project, grant, or publication deadline (!).
absence: (prok.) of a rule, one where provision in the Code covering aparticular situation cannot be found, and where established custom
should therefore be followed when this can be ascertained.
absolute synonym: a homotypic synonym (q.v.); a nomenclatural synonym(bot.); an objective synonym (zool.).
absolute tautonym: (zool.) the identical spelling of a generic orsubgenericc name and the specific or subspecific name of one of its
originally included nominal species or subspecies; see also
autonym.
abstracting journals: journals which publish summaries or abstracts ofarticles published elsewhere and also sometimes of unpublishedtheses, to the exclusion of original accounts of investigations.

21

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

acceptable name: (1) (bio.) one in accordance with the Code. (2) (phyl.) an
established name that is not a (non-conserved) later homonym andthus may potentially be an accepted name (q.v.).
accepted: of a manuscript, one which an editor or publisher has agreed canbe published, usually after peer review and revision, and is to betransmitted to a printer; many journals now indicate the date of final
acceptance on the printed versions; see also in press.
accepted name: (1) the designation adopted by an author as the correctname for a taxon under consideration. (2) (bio.) the acceptable name(q.v.) that must be adopted under the rules of the Code. (3) (cult. pl.)the earliest name for a cultivar, group, or intergeneric graft-chimaerathat must be adopted except in specified circumstances. (4) (phyl.)
the name that must be adopted for a taxon under the Code. (5) (vir.)a name recorded as approved by the ICTV (q.v.).
-acea: (zool., obsol.) the suffix added to the stem of a generic name incertain groups to form the name of a superfamily; no longer
recommended; see –oidea.
-aceae: (prok., bot.) the suffix added to a stem of a generic name to form
the name of a family; see –acea.
accession number: a number given to a specimen or culture, or othermaterial, when it is accepted for preservation by a reference or
genetic resources collection; a catalogue number.
acronym: (1) a word formed from the initial letters or first letters of several
words, either all in upper case or with a mixture of upper and lower
case (e.g. BioNET, from Biosystematics Network). (2) (cult. pl.) a
pronounceable abbreviation of a phrase consisting of the initialletters of several words. (3) (vir.) applied to the names of viruses,
e.g. ThMoV (thistle mottle virus).
act: see nomenclatural act.
ad hoc: for this particular purpose; specially.
ad interim, [ad int.]: in the meantime; provisionally; sometimes used by anauthor designating a new taxon to indicate that the recognition of thetaxon itself is not fully accepted by the author but is being used
temporarily pending further information; such names are generally

22

Terms used in Bionomenclature
not validly published (bot.); see also provisional name, question
mark.

addition sign, [+]: (1) (cult. pl.) the ideograph used to indicate a graftchimaera, either as a part of a formula (e.g. Crataegus monogyna +Mesplius germanica), or in front of an abbreviated name (e.g. +Crataemespilus gillottii). (2) (bot., unoff.) also used in a proposed
citation system for addospecies (q.v.).
addospecies, [adsp.]: (bot., unoff.) a proposed system for indicating theparents of a hybrid species, in which their names follow the notation"adsp."and are linked by an addition sign, e.g. Galeopsis tetrahit
adsp. pubescens + speciosa.
adelfotype: (zool., unoff.) a topotype (q.v.) obtained by the originalcollector of the taxon; i.e. specimens from the type locality collectedby the original collector, but not of the original type-series.
admissible name: (1) of the use of a name or epithet, in accordance withthe provisions of the Code. (2) (bot.) of a name, in a form that could
permit it to be validly published (e.g. a tautonym is not admissible inbot.); (3) (cult. pl.) an unpublished name that is in a form that it
would enable it to be established.
admixture: (1) (bot.) used of components (especially minor ingredients) ofa gathering that represent a taxon other than that intended by thecollector, and do not preclude the gathering, or part thereof, being atype specimen, the admixture being disregarded; i.e. elements
representing a taxon other than those belonging to the type of aname. (2) (bot., unoff.) a gathering or collection an author
considered to be a single species or infraspecific taxon, but which
was later shown to contain representatives of more than one suchtaxon; a mixed gathering (q.v.).
adopt: (1) to use a particular name, designation or epithet to denote aparticular taxon. (2) frequently used when the author takes up an
already existing name in preference to one that cannot be adopted asa correct name for the taxon. (3) (bot., zool.) to use a designationthat is not a validly published name or an unavailable name in a way
which establishes it as a new name with its own authorship and date;see also accepted name.

23

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

adopted list: (bio.) a list of names, in which the names and their coordinate
names are protected, subject to specified restrictions and exceptions.
adoption: (zool.) of a Part of the List of Available Names in Zoology, theacceptance of the Part by the International Commission on
Zoological Nomenclature.
aedeotype, [aedoeotypus]: (zool., unoff.) the first specimen of a species tohave the genitalia studied, together with the genital preparation; seeholoaedeotype, paraedeotype.
aequiforma: see isoforma.
aequispecies: see isospecies.
aequivarietas: see isovarietas.
aff.: see affinis.
affinis, [aff.]: (unoff.) with affinity to others, akin to; often used for aprovisionally recognized but unnamed taxon considered close to that
named, or where attribution is uncertain because of lack ofnecessary characters; see also cfr.
aggregate, [aggr.]: an informal group of species within a genus orsubgenus (i.e. not a named subdivision of a genus, e.g. subgenus or
section), or a similar group of subspecies within a species.
Sometimes denoted (zool.) by the use of a species-group nameinterpolated in parentheses; see also complex, microspecies.
agreement: of gender, the agreement in Latin grammatical gender between
a generic name and an adjectival or participal epithet (bot.) or
species or species-group name (zool.) combined with it.
agriotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) an ancestral type. (2) (zool., unoff.) a wild
taxon considered to be the ancestor of a domesticated one.
agriculture: (cult. pl.) the extensive cultivation of, usually non-woody,
food, fodder, or industrial crops.
agrotype: (cult. pl.) an agricultural variety or race; see conculta.
al., alii, aliorum: others, of others.
AL: (prok.) commonly used to indicate the name of the Approved List
(q.v.); a nomen approbatum.

24

Terms used in Bionomenclature-ales: (prok., bot.) suffix added to the stem of a generic name to indicatethat it applies to the taxon of a rank of order.
alivotype: (zool., unoff.) a live type that requires special storage andhandling; see also culto-type, escapotype, ex-type, vivotype.
all. nov., [alliancia nova]: (phyt.) used after an author citation to indicate a
newly introduced syntaxon name in the rank of alliance (q.v.).
alliance, [alliancia, all.]: (1) (phyt.) one of the four principle ranks in thehierarchical system of syntaxa, between that of association andorder; a plant community of definite floristic composition which
presents a uniform physiognomy and which grows in uniform
habitat conditions; names of alliances are terminated by the suffix "ion". (2) (bot., obsol.) a rank in a taxonomic hierarchy, treated as
equivalent to and being in the rank of order.
alliancia: see alliance.
allohomoiotype: see allohomotype.
allohomoitype: see allohomotype.
allohomotype, [allohomoitype, allohomoiotype]: (zool., unoff.) ahomotype (q.v.) of the same sex as the allotype or lectoallotype.
allolectotype: (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of the opposite sex to thelectotype (q.v.); a lectoallotype.
alloneotype: (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of the opposite sex to the
neotype (q.v.); a neallotype.
alloparalectotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen from the original type-series,of the opposite sex of the holotype, and designated later than theoriginal publication of the species.
alloparatype: (zool., unoff.) a paratype (q.v.) of the same sex as theallotype.
alloplesiotype: (zool., unoff.) a hypotype (q.v.) of the same sex as theallotype.
alloréférent: (zool., unoff.) an allotype (q.v.) of the opposite sex to that of a
specimen designated or described in a publication subsequent to theoriginal description; these specimens have no formal nomenclatural
standing as types.

25

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

allospecies: (zool., unoff.) one of the species that makes up a superspecies,
the name of the superspecies to which in belongs being enclosed insquare brackets before the epithet of the allospecies, e.g. Accipiter[gentilis] meyerianus.
allotopotype: (zool., unoff.) an allotype from the same locality as theholotype.
allotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a designated specimen (formerly amongst theparatypes) of the opposite sex to the holotype; a term not regulatedby the Code, and with no status as a name-bearer. (2) (zool., obsol.)a specimen of the opposite sex to the holotype selected by a later
worker. (3) (palaeo. zool., obsol.) a specimen chosen by the original
author of a species to show morphological features not exhibited by
the holotype; e.g. a ventral valve of fossil brachiopod when theholotype is of the dorsal valve. (4) (prok., unoff.) any one of a rangeof serologically distinguishable variant forms of an Ig molecule
produced as a consequence of allelic variation.
alternative epithet: (1) (obsol., cult. pl.) a cultivar epithet used in place ofa disagreeable epithet or one that is a translation of an original
epithet.
alternative family name: (bot.) a family name, regularly formed inaccordance with the Code, allowed as an alternative to a particular listed
family name of long usage ruled as validly published in the Code eventhough not so-formed; see alternative names.
alternative name, [nom. alt.]: (1) (bot.) one of two or more different
names based on the same type proposed simultaneously for the sametaxon by the same author; see conditional name. (2) (bot.) a pair ofnames authorized in the Code for use at an author's discretion for aparticular taxon, both being correct (e.g. Umbelliferae andApiaceae); see alternative family name.
alternative terminology: (cult. pl.) use of different terms for the same
concept.
ambiguotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) an inadequately described type; a 'Walker
type'. (2) (zool., unoff.) a type specimen, usually a primary type,with inadequate date/locality labels. (3) (zool., unoff.) an unlabelled
primary type specimen hidden in a series of paratypes or syntypes,

26

Terms used in Bionomenclature
the series of which proves to belong to a mixture of several (usuallyclosely related) species. (4) (zool., unoff.) an inadequately
designated or labelled type specimen that is found to be stored or
mounted with other specimens also fitting the exact description.

ambiguous name, [nomen ambiguum, nom. ambig.]: (obsol.) a nameused in different senses which has thus become a source of error andconfusion; a name applied by different authors to different taxa.
ambiregnal: of an organism that can be treated as belonging to more than
one kingdom according to different taxonomic opinions; used
specially for taxa treated under different Codes by different authors.
ambisense: (vir.) applied to an RNA molecule which comprises positive
sense parts and negative sense parts; both it, and its complement, act
as messenger RNAs.
amended: altered; see emended.
amendments: (bot., prok.) see proposals.
American Code: (bot., obsol.) the Code of Botanical Nomenclature
produced by the Botanical Club of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1904, but not accepted at theInternational Botanical Congress in Vienna in 1905; superseded by
the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (q.v.),
American Code typification: (bot.) see mechanical methods.
American Ornithologists' Union Code: (zool., obsol.) a forerunner of theInternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.), prepared in1885.
ampersand, [&]: and; see et.
amphiapomict, [aapm.]: (bot., unoff.) used as a ternary epithet todistinguish a series of apomicts, e.g. Festuca vivipara aapm.
jemtlandica.
amphidiploid: a plant formed by the sexual union of two unlike parents
with subsequent doubling of both chromosome sets, forming in
effect a tetraploid. The reduplication of chromosomes forms pairs
which may function as such in reproduction, and the process canthus give rise to a new taxon recognized taxonomically as a species
and therefore is not treated nomenclaturally as a hybrid.

27

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)-anae: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank of superorder.
anagram: a name formed by the rearrangement of the letters of a word orwords.
analysis: see illustration with analysis.
anamorph, [anamorphosis, anam.]: (1) (mycol.) a mitotic asexual morphof a pleomorphic fungus (the holomorph); see holomorph,pleomorphic, teleomorph. (2) (not nomenclatural) a deformed figure
appearing in proportion when viewed from a particular direction(e.g. elongated lettering on road surfaces which appears normalwhen viewed from a car).
anastomosis group: (mycol., unoff.) of populations of fungi the hyphae of
which are able to fuse together, i. e. which are geneticallycompatible; often given informal notations by researchers on
particular genera, e.g. Rhizoctonia solani AG2.
ancestor: (phyl.) an entity from which another entity is descended.
androtype: (zool., unoff.) a male specimen in the original type-series of ataxon.
animal kingdom: (zool.) in the sense of the Code, a term covering all the
taxa the names of which are treated as being regulated by the ICZN,
i.e. inclusive of Metazoa and protist names whenever they are or
have been treated as animals for nomenclatural purposes.
anirotype: (zool., unoff.) a chirotype (q.v.).
annotation: a comment or explanatory note, whether printed or not.
annotation slip: a determination slip (q.v.).
announcement: (prok.) of a name, publication in the International Journalof Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (formerly theInternational Journal of Systematic Bacteriology) of a name notproposed in that journal to effect’ its valid publication.
anonymous, [Anon.]: (1) of a work, one in which the name(s) of its
author(s) cannot be determined from the contents of the work. (2) ofa name or nomenclatural act, one of which the authorship cannot be
determined from the work itself. (3) of an author, one whose identity
cannot be determined from the work itself or otherwise.

28

Terms used in Bionomenclature

antetype: (zool., unoff.) a prototype (q.v.).
anticipation: (bot.) of the proposal of a name or epithet in the expectationof the discovery or future acceptance of the taxon .
antitype: (1) (zool., unoff.) an opposite type; a countertype (q.v.). (2)(zool., unoff.) a corresponding specimen of a type species obtainedat the same time and location as the nomenclatural type. (3) (zool.,
unoff.) every specimen other than the holotype in the type-series, or
all the specimens on which the author bases the series except any
that were referred to as variants, or doubtfully associates with thenominal species, or expressly excluded from it; see paratype.
antonym: words of opposite meaning; used in biological nomenclature(unoff.) for each name that is not a synonym
ap.: see apud.
apogenotype, [apogenotyp]: (zool., unoff.) the automatically generated
type species of a genus-group name when renamed because ofhomonymy; i.e. type fixation of a genus through substitution.
apomict, [ap.]: (cult. pl.) a plant which is able to produce viable seed orspores without fertilization, and whose progeny is therefore usually
genetically uniform.
apomixis: the process by which an apomict is produced.
apomorphy: (phyl.) a derived character state; a new feature that arose
during the course of evolution.
apomorphy-based clade: (phyl.) a clade originating from the ancestor inwhich a particular character state (apomorphy; q.v.) originated; aclade whose name is defined using an apomorphy-based definition(q.v.).
apomorphy-based definition: (phyl.) a definition that associates a namewith a clade originating with the first ancestor of specified
organisms and/or species (internal specifier taxa) to evolve a
particular apomorphy (internal specifier apomorphy).
apomorphy-modfied node-based definition: (phyl.) a node-based
definition that incorporates wording from apomorphy-based
definitions to include all extant organisms as internal specifiers
without explicitly naming them; apomorphy-modified node-based

29

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
definitions can be used to associate names with crown clades whenbasal relationships within the crown are poorly understood or when
the author intends to include in the named taxon subsequently
discovered extant organisms that possess a particular apomorphy.

apostrophe, [’]: (bio., bot.) an apostrophe in an epithet is to be deleted.
apotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) proposed as a substitute term for hypotype(q.v.). (2) (zool., unoff.) type fixation of a genus-group namethrough substitution.
application: (1) the use of a name to denote a particular taxon; theapplication of names is determined by the use of types. (2) (zool.) of
a submission to the ICZN, one proposing a solution for anomenclatural problem.
apposition: of a noun in a scientific name, one used as a substantive
epithet, not an adjectival one.
appropriate: (cult. pl.) of a name or an epithet, one which the etymology
relates to some aspect of the taxon, for example its characters,
provenance, or history.
approved : (1) (zool.) of a work, one given approval by the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature for use in nomenclature.
(2) (prok.) of a name, one validly published before 1 January 1980,
approved by the International Commission on Systematic
Bacteriology for use in nomenclature, and included in the Approved
List (q.v.); i.e. an approved name.
Approved List, [AL]: (prok.) a list, made up of approved (q.v.) names ofbacteria published in 1980; additions to the list are not permitted.
approved name, [nomen approbatum, nom.approb.]: see approved.
apud, [ap.]: (obsol.) in; according to; sometimes used in bibliographic
citations when one author validly publishes a name in the work ofanother; see ex, in.
arbitrary: (1) of a combination of letters in a scientific name, one that was
not based by its author on an existing word of a language; see also
acronym, anagram. (2) of a gender, one assigned to a name without
a linguistic gender.
archaeotype: see archetype.

30

Terms used in Bionomenclaturearchecultype: (unoff.) a strain of a microorganism cultivated by the authorof the taxon but lost or suffering irreversible modification before
exhaustive study which cannot be recognized with reasonablecertainty.
archetype, [archaeotype]: (1) (obsol., not nomenclatural) the ancestral
type or any group of organisms. (2) (obsol., not nomenclatural) an
ideal type; a theoretical or assumed type truly representative of thetaxon. (3) (obsol., not nomenclatural) a hypothetical type arrived atby the elimination of specialized characters of known later forms.
(4) (obsol., not nomenclatural) the generalized or idealized patternshared by all members of a taxon; see also morphotype.
architype, [arquetype]: (zool., unoff.) a specimen that formed the basis ofa publication of a species prior to a modern type interpretation;
unless such a specimen is included in a modern category it cannot be
included with the types.
archive: (1) as a noun, a depositary for works (q.v.). (2) as a verb, to placein an archive with the intent that it be permanently preserved there.
arithmotype: (1) (unoff.) a specimen distributed as an isotype of a taxon(e.g. bearing the same collector’s number) but belonging to a taxon
which is different from the one to which the holotype belongs. (2)(unoff.) a specimen bearing the same collecting number but notnecessarily representing the same taxon.
arquetype: see archetype.
Artenkreis: (zool., obsol.) a rank above species, now equivalent tosuperspecies (q.v.).
Article, [articulum, Art.]: (bot., cult. pl., zool.): (1) the mandatory
provisions of the Code; in bot., the Notes are integral parts of the
Articles, but Examples attached to them are explanatory and cannot
be taken as binding, unless specifically voted as such by theNomenclature Section of an International Botanical Congress. (2)(cult. pl.) a collection of associated rules and recommendations in
the Code; see voted example, Recommendations.
artificial classification: one that is proposed solely for ease of use andwhich does not purport to demonstrate phylogenetic or taxonomic
relationships..

31

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

artificial genus: (bot., obsol.) used principally for fossils and for theanamorphs of pleomorphic fungi; cfr form genus.
artotype: (zool., unoff.) type specimen of a new species with clearly
distinctive colour patterns ultimately shown to be spots of paint (!).
-arum: (zool.) genitive plural suffix used in the formation of species-group
designations derived from two or more female persons’ names.
as such: (zool.) strictly what has been cited, e.g. “a photograph as such” isan illustration on light-sensitive paper, not one printed in a work.
ascr., [ascriptum]: ascribed to; attributed to; used of the author a scientificname is attributed to; see ascription.
ascribe: the act of ascription (q.v.)
ascription: (bio., bot.) the direct association of the name of a person or
persons with a new name or description or diagnosis of a taxon; seealso attribute.
asexual propagation: (cult. pl.) the propagation of organisms without
fertilization such as by means of agamospermy, cuttings, division,
meristem culture, and micropropagation; vegetative propagation.
asexual: of fungi, see anamorph.
ass.: see association.
assemblage: (palaeo.) a set of fossils selected from a sample of rock, agroup of samples.
assignee: (cult. pl.) one who is appointed by a person or organization to act
on their behalf; to act for an originator (q.v.).
associate type, [associierte type]: (zool., obsol.) any of two or more
specimens listed in the original description of a taxon in the absenceof a designated holotype; i.e. a cotype or syntype.
associatio nova, [ass. nov.]: (phyt.) a newly proposed name and syntaxon
in the rank of association (q.v.).
associatio provisio, [ass. prov.]: (phyt.) an introduced name and syntaxon
in the rank of association not clearly adopted by the author
associated organism: an organism with which the nomenclatural type wasassociated when originally described, either as its host, substratum,32

Terms used in Bionomenclatureor with which it was mixed, or which it was living with or by; see
symbiotype.

association, [ass., associatis]: (phyt.) one of the four principle ranks in thehierarchical system of syntaxa, below that of alliance; the basic rankof the phytosociological hierarchy (i.e. in syntaxonomy); names ofassociations are terminated by the suffix "-etum".
association name: (phyt., obsol.) pre-1936 usages refer to a "sociation"(q.v.).
associatis: see association.
asterisk, [*]: (1) (obsol.) sometimes formerly used to indicate an
infraspecific rank, generally that of subspecies. (2) (bot.) used
before an Example in the Code, to indicate that it is a voted example(q.v.). (3) (cult. pl., unoff.), see registered genetic resource. (4)(unoff.) placed before and after a name to indicate that it has been
approved for use in the New Biological Nomenclature (q.v.), e.g.
*Elefanto ordotipa*.
atopotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen described from a locality where
it is known not to occur.
attribute, [attribution]: (1) (bot.) of a name, assigning it to the author or
authors considered to have published it, for example, in a
publication with different authorship by ascription (q.v.) of both thename and the description or diagnosis. (2) (unoff.) of a specimen or
taxon, to place it with others; especially used where this extends thecircumscription (q.v.) beyond the original account.
atypicotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a type stated by the author not to be
characteristic of the taxon. (2) (zool., unoff.) a type specimen of a
new species ultimately recognized as merely a colour variant of awell-known species.
auctorum, [auct.; pl. auctt.]: of author(s); often used to indicate that aname is used in the sense of a number of subsequent authors and notin the sense established by the original author, i.e. in citing
misapplied names.
auctorum anglicorum, [auct. angl.]: of English authors; see auctorum.
auctorum multum, [auct. mult.]: of many authors; see auctorum.

33

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

auctorum non, [auct. non.]: of authors, not (of); used to precede thecitation of the original author of a name where it has been
misapplied by later workers; see auctorum.
autapospecies: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) a morphologically delimited categoryof disarticulated organ that within the context of a particularcomparative study, is perceived to possess at least one uniquecharacter state (and thus is assignable to a single whole-plant
species; an unshared organ species.
authentic: (1) (unoff.) of a specimen or culture, one considered to be
representative of a particular taxon other than any category of type;often used of specimens or cultures subsequently identified or
supplied by the author of the name; see interpretotype, original
material. (2) (cult. pl.) of a specimen, one that has been verified by araiser or breeder, introducer or author of a name as being
representative of the taxonomic unit to which the name is assigned.
author: the person to whom a published work, a scientific name, or anomenclatural act is attributed; see author abbreviation, author
citation, authority, publishing author.
author abbreviation: an abbreviation of the name of an author used in an
author citation designed to both to save space and to avoid
ambiguity; (bot.) see RK Brummitt & CE Powell (1992, Authors of
Plant
Names.
Kew:
Royal
Botanic
Gardens;
www.kew.org/data/authors.html); (mycol.) see PM Kirk & AE
Ansell (1992, Authors of Fungal Names. Wallingford: CAB
International; www. indexfungorum.org/names/).
author citation: a statement of the the name(s) of the author(s) responsible
for the establishment or introduction of a name; often appended to
the name itself, and frequently followed by the year of valid
publication; (cult. pl.) sometimes also used to refer to the author of apublication; an authority (q.v.).
authority: the name(s) of the author(s) (q.v.) of a scientific name, cited assuch in an author citation (q.v.).
author's extra: an additional copy removed unchanged from an extra copyof a work, and so with parts of adjoining papers or chapters; see also
offprint, reprint, separate.

34

Terms used in Bionomenclatureautogenotype: (zool., unoff.) a type of a genus-group name fixed bydesignation in the original publication introducing the name.
autogenotypic: (zool., unoff.) of a genus, one based on the same typespecies as another generic name; see isogenotypic.
autograph: (1) a text written by hand, i.e. without the intervention of any
machine, or a reproduction of such a text. (2) (cult. pl.) also one not
reproduced by machine; see indelible autograph, manuscript.
automatic: (bot.) of the establishment of the name of a taxon merely as aconsequence of the proposal of another taxon, e.g. the publication of
a subspecies or variety that does not contain the type of the name ofthe species (or next higher taxon) automatically establishes the nameof a subspecies or variety that does contain that type; see autonym.
automatic tautonymy: (prok.) the name of a taxon above the rank offamily containing the type of a higher rank name and based on thesame generic stem; i.e. a special kind of autonym.
automatic typification: (1) (bot.) typification of a nomenclaturally
superfluous and illegitimate name by the type of the name which
ought to have been adopted under the Code. (2) (bot.) typification of
the name of a taxon above the rank of genus by the type of thegeneric name on which it is based.
autonym: (bot., prok.) a name that is established automatically; i.e. ageneric name or specific epithet repeated without an author citation
as the final epithet in the name of a subdivision of a genus or of an
infraspecific taxon that includes the type of the adopted, legitimatename of the genus or species; an automatically established name;see also automatic, -isites, -ites.
autotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a specimen illustrated by the author of s
species after the original publication; see hypotype. (2) (zool.,
unoff.) a specimen identified by the author of a species subsequent
to the original description as being identical to the holotype; seehomotype. (3) (zool., unoff.) an autogenotype (q.v.). (4) (zool.,
unoff.) a type specimen originating from a truck or a car after
having travelled some distance (!). (5) (bot., not nomenclatural,
obsol.) a self-pollinating microspecies.

35

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

auxiliary type: (zool., unoff.) a specimen or element to serve as type of asubordinate taxon when the type of a major taxon is inadequate toassign subordinate rank names to the type; a sustaining specimen(q.v.); see also epitype.
availability: (1) of a work, see available work. (2) of a name or epithet, seeavailable name. (3) of a nomenclatural act, see available
nomenclatural act.
available: (bot.) applied to an epithet in a legitimate or illegitimate name,the type of which falls within the circumscription of the taxon underconsideration and where the use of the epithet would not be contrary
to the Code; see available name.
available name: (1) (zool.) a scientific name applied to an animal taxon
that is not excluded from and conforms to the provisions of theCode, and so to be taken into consideration in determining thecorrect name of a taxon; an established name (q.v.). (2) (bot., prok.)a name or epithet (“available epithet”) to be taken into consideration
for the purposes of deciding the correct name of a given taxon, i.e. avalidly published legitimate name or epithet with its type (q.v.)
falling within the range of variation of the taxon; an establishedname (q.v.). (3) (bot.) a name published under the zoological Codewith a status equivalent to that of a validly published name under the
botanical Code.
available nomenclatural act: (zool.) one that is published in an available
work (q.v.).
available work: (1) (zool.) a published work in which, under the provisionsof the Code, or by a ruling of the Commission (ICZN), names ornomenclatural acts may be established; i.e. one appearing after 1
January 1758 which meets the requirements of the Code and which
has not been suppressed (q.v.).
avowed substitute: (1) (bot.) a name proposed as a substitute for apreviously published name; sometimes recognised as such only by
the citation of the older name as a synonym; a replacement name(q.v.). (2) (obsol.) a new combination, an avowed substitute for its
basionym; see combination, new name, nomen novum, replacement
name.

36

Terms used in Bionomenclature

back-cross: (cult. pl.) the cross (q.v.) of a hybrid with one of its own
parents.
balloon taxon: (palaeo.): a taxon of fossils which has grown greatly inscope through attribution of many other occurrences of specimens.
bare name: (prok.) a naked name (q.v.); a nomen nudum (q.v.).
basal rank, [basic rank]: the rank always to be used in an hierarchicalsystem of classification; in organismal systems, the category of
species, i.e. that of all the consecutively subordinate categories towhich, for purposes of the Codes, every organism (except somehybrids) is treated as belonging, species is the lowest obligatory
rank so that every organism is assigned by definition to a species,
but not necessarily to any infraspecific taxon, as these are notrecognized within every species; (phyt.) the category of association(q.v.) in the phytosociological hierarchical system.
base-taxon: (unoff.) the first originally recognized taxon for a kind oforganism, traditionally a species.
basic rank: see basal rank.
basic type: (zool., unoff.) a primary type (q.v.); i.e. a cotype, holotype,lectotype, neotype, or paratype.
basinym: (obsol.) the basionym or basonym (q.v.).
basionym: (1) (bot., cult. pl.) a previously published legitimate namebringing or epithet-bringing synonym from which a new name isformed for a taxon of different rank or position; e.g. in a new
combination (q.v.); see also basonym. (2) (phyt.) the epithet-giving
synonym in cases where a syntaxon epithet is retained in a new
combination with another syntaxon name.
basonym: (prok.) the original epithet of a name retained in a new
combination; see basionym.
behaviorotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon distinguishable only by
behavioural characteristics (!).
biasotype: (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of a species recognized as
distinct by detailed statistical treatment involving a small sample
size (!).

37

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

bibliographic address: (unoff.) the year of publication followed by a page
number after the author citation of a name; see Lanham's method.
bibliographic error: a mistake in some detail of the citation of the place ofvalid publication of a name, e.g. the number of the volume, or of the
page.
bibliographic reference: a published citation detailing the place of
publication of a scientific name or nomenclatural act.
bigeneric hybrid: (bot., cult. pl.) one resulting from the sexual union ofindividuals assigned to different genera.
binary: of a name, dual or involving pairs; see binary combination, binary
name.
binary combination: (prok., bot.) a generic name combined with a specificepithet to form a specific name; the name of the genus is followed
by a single specific epithet in the form of an adjective, a noun in the
genitive, or a word in apposition, etc.; either element may consist of
more than one word, but only if united or hyphenated; names ofsubdivisions of genera are also binary combinations, but with a rank
designation after the generic name; see also binomen, binominal
nomenclature.
binary designation: (bot.) an apparent binary combination (q.v.) that has
not been validly published.
binary name: (1) a binary combination (q.v.). (2) (cult. pl., obsol.) the
scientific name of a species consisting of two words.
binary nomenclature: (1) a system in which binary names are used forspecies names; (2) (zool., obsol.) binominal nomenclature (q.v.).
binom: (prok.) a taxon ill-defined in respect of biosystematic data but
which has been given a formal name.
binomen, [pl. binomina]: (1) (zool.) the combination of two scientificnames, the first being a generic name and the second a specificepithet, that together constitute the scientific name of a species (anyinterpolated names are not counted as components of a binomen);
applies to the whole name and not the species epithet alone; a binary
combination (q.v.) in (bot.) and (prok.). (2) (bio.) the name of ataxon consisting of a genus combined with one epithet. (3) (phyl.) a38Terms used in Bionomenclaturename composed of two words, a prenomen (q.v.) and a species
name.

Bi-nomenclature: binominal nomenclature (q.v.).
binomial: (1) (mathematical, not nomenclatural) in probability theory andstatistics, the discrete probability distribution of the number ofsuccesses in a sequence of independent yes/no experiments. (2)(cult. pl., obsol.) of a name, a binary combination (q.v.) or binominal(q.v.). (3) (zool.) a binominal (q.v.) or (bot.) binary combination(q.v.).
binominal: having or characterized by two scientific names; see binominal
nomenclature.
binominal name: see binomen.
binominal nomenclature: (zool.) the system of nomenclature whereby aspecies, but no other taxon, is denoted by a binary combination of
two names, a generic name and a species epithet (i.e. a binomen);see Principle of Bionominal Nomenclature.
BioCode: a draft proposed new Code prepared by the International
Committee on Bionomenclature (q.v.) in 1996 and designed to be
used to govern the nomenclature of all kinds of organisms in the
future after certain criteria had been met and subject to theendorsement of the different mandated international bodies.
biocode: (unoff.) a term proposed in 1990 for any system of letters or
numbers used with or in place of the name of a taxon.
biological race: see isoforma, isovarietas.
biological resource centre, [BRC]: a collection of permanently preserved
cultures of algae, fungi, prokaryotes or other microorganisms; aculture collection; a genetic resource centre (the latter term ispreferable as “BRC” is also the acronym commonly used for abiological records centre).
bionumeric code: (prok., unoff.) a numerical code in which different
groups of digits represent different ranks in a hierarchy.
biorecord: (palaeontol., obsol.) see palaeotaxon.

39

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

bioserotype, [bioser.]: (prok., unoff.) a biochemical variant of a serotype,denoted, for example by an added letter (e.g. Salmonella paratyphiB var. java); not regulated by the Code.
biotype: (1) (not nomenclatural) a given genotype (q.v.) expressed in one ormore individuals. (2) (prok.) a biovar (q.v.).
biotypus: (zool., obsol., not nomenclatural) all individuals in a pure line; aclone.
biovar: (prok.) a variant of a species, subspecies or serotype, which may be
distinguished by the possession of some special or usefully
diagnostic physiological feature; a biotype (q.v.).
bitypic: (zool., unoff.) of a taxon, one including only two immediately
subordinate principal taxa, e.g. a family comprising two genera; cfr
monotypic, polytypic.
biverbal: made of two words; used of a name or epithet that consists of twowords but is not a binary name, e.g. the descriptive phrase name
“Abutilon album”, the generic designation “Uva-ursi”, the species
epithet “felix-foemina”; sometimes erroneously referred to as abinomial (q.v.).
Blanchard Code, The: (zool., obsol.) a draft Code first presented to thefirst International Congress of Zoology in 1889, and a forerunner of
the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.).
blastovariation: (unoff.) used for specimens or groups of specimens of anuncertain infraspecific category.
Botanical Code: (bot., cult. pl.) the International Code of BotanicalNomenclature (ICBN) (q.v.); see Code.
boobootype: (zool., unoff.) a holotype that should not have been described;
e.g. where a specialist fails to recognize his or her own previously
described species(!).
botanical Latin: the language derived from Renaissance Latin and otherancient languages which is used in the descriptions and diagnoses ofscientific names, and in the formation of the names themselves; see
Stearn, W.T. (1992) Botanical Latin: history, grammar, syntax,
terminology and vocabulary. 4th edn. London: David and Charles).

40

Terms used in Bionomenclaturebottom line punctuation: (cult. pl.) the use of accents and other diacriticalsigns below letters of words (e.g. a cedilla); cfr top-linepunctuation..
BP: years before present (taken conventionally to be 1950).
brackets: parentheses; the typographic characters “( . . . )” (round brackets;
parentheses in the USA), “[ . . . ]” (square brackets; brackets in theUSA), or “{. . . }” (curly brackets) used to enclose words or
numbers so as to separate them from their context; see roundbrackets, square brackets.
branch: (1) (zool., obsol.) a category between subkingdom and phylum. (2)(phyl.) an edge or internode (connection between two nodes) on atree (graph theory); on a phylogenetic tree, commonly used torepresent a lineage, whether ancestral or terminal; sometimes also
used for an internode and all nodes and internodes distal (descended
from) it.
branch-based clade: (phyl.) a clade originating from a particular branch(internode) on a phylogenetic tree and all nodes and branches
descended from that branch; a clade whose name is defined using abranch-based definition (q.v.).
branch-based definition: (phyl.) a definition that associates a a name witha clade originating with a branch (on a phylogenetic tree)
representing the ancestral lineage of specified organisms and/or
species (internal specifiers) after its divergence from the ancestral
lineage of other specified organisms and/or species (external
specifiers).
branch-modified node-based definition: (phyl.) a node-based definition
that incorporates wording from branch-based definitions to include
all extant organisms as internal specifiers without explicitly naming
them. Branch-modified node-based definitions can be used toassociate names with crown clades when basal relationships within
the crown are poorly understood or when the author intends toinclude in the named taxon subsequently discovered extant
organisms that share a more recent common ancestor with thecurrently known members of the named taxon than with othercurrently known taxa.

41

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

breeder: (cult. pl.) the person or organization developing new or improved
groups of plants by selection, hybridization, and similar methods.
brevotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen whose name is validated on themost minimal of characters necessary to meet Code requirements.
Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, [BZN]: the official periodical of theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN),
including publication of cases on nomenclatural issues for ruling onby the ICZN, and of the binding Opinions on those cases made by
the ICZN.
BZN: see Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature.

ca, [ca., circa]: about, usually with reference to measurements of size ortime.
camera-ready copy: material supplied to a printer in a form ready forreproduction (generally photographically or by mechanical copiers).
candidatus, [candidate name]: (1) (prok.) used as a prefix to a name notvalidly published pending information on additional characters, forexample where more than mere sequence data is available but for
which characteristics required for description according to the Codeare lacking; the names following the prefix are not printed in italic
type; e.g. Candidatus magnetobacterium [new subclass ofProteobacteria or new lineage], Candidatus Liberobacter africanum.
(2) (vir.) a name proposed to, but not yet accepted by, the ICTV;
used particularly for viruses known only from gene sequences
recovered using RT-PCR or a similar technique, but which have notbeen further characterized.
case: (zool.) a nomenclatural problem presented to the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for a ruling by
publication in the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature; see alsodeclaration, direction, opinion.
case ending: an inflectional form of nouns and adjectives in grammar
which can differ, in their terminations or otherwise, according to thedeclension used (q.v.); the nominative (substantive) is used in most42

Terms used in Bionomenclaturescientific names but the genitive (possessive) is also found in somespecies epithets (bot.) or names (zool.).

caste: (zool.) in social insects, a group of individuals, belonging to a part
species or subspecies, differing in form and often in function fromother groups of individuals within the same species or subspecies(e.g. workers, drones, queens).
catalogue number: used of a serial number employed in a listing,particularly employed for cultures of microbial groups held in
genetic resource collections; see accession number.
categorical rank: (phyl.) a formal category denoting position in a hierarchyof nested taxa; the categorical ranks commonly used in taxonomy
comprise seven principal categories (kingdom, phylum, class, order,family, genus, and species), which are often treated as mandatory, as
well as additional primary categories (e.g. cohort, tribe) andsecondary categories (e.g. superorder, subfamily); note that the
species category is treated as a rank in rank-based nomenclature but
as a level of biological organization in phylogenetic nomenclature;see category.
category: (1) a formal taxonomic rank; a division in a hierarchical systemof classification; cfr. categorical rank. (2) the concept by which we
can understand or classify matter, e.g. the concept of “genus”; a setof conventional categories constitutes the taxonomic hierarchy(q.v.). (3) sometimes applied in the sense of taxonomic “rank”. (4)occasionally incorrectly used as synonymous with “taxon”.
centrotype: (not nomenclatural) the OTU (q.v.) closest to the geometricalcentre of its cluster in a numerical taxonomy study.
cetera, [cet.]: the rest; the remainder.
cfr, [cf., confer]: to be compared with; compare with.
challenge: (prok.) of an Opinion, a statement of disagreement with apublished Opinionq.v. (q.v.) submitted to the Judicial Commission(q.v.).
change, mandatory: (1) (zool.) a change in the spelling of the suffix of afamily group name required by the Code. (2) (zool.) a change inending of a specific or subspecific name required by the Code.

43

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

Chapter: (bot., prok., zool.) a primary division of a Code.
character: any feature of organisms under consideration, whether
morphological, molecular, biochemical, physiological, pathological,
or of any other nature, used for recognizing, differentiating orclassifying taxa; see diagnostic characters.
cheironym: see chironym.
cheirotype: see chirotype.
chemoconvar, [chconv.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category of cultivated plants
distinguished from the type only by physiological characters.
chemocultigrex, [chg.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category of cultivated plants
between chemoconvar (q.v.) and chemocultivar (q.v.) distinguishedfrom the type only by physiological characters.
chemocultivar, [chv.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category of cultivated plants
distinguished from the type only by physiological characters.
chemoform: (prok., unoff.) an infrasubspecific category for bacteria
characterized on the basis of its chemical constitution; seediagnostic characters.
chemoforma, [chf.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category of cultivated plants
distinguished from the type only by physiological characters.
chemosubspecies, [chssp.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category of cultivated plants
distinguished from the type only by physiological characters.
chemotype: (1) (bot., unoff.) a group of chemically differentiatedindividuals within a species of no, or of not determined, taxonomic
significance. (2) (prok., unoff.) a chemoform (q.v.). (3) (prok.,
unoff.) a representative strain for a set of chemical characteristics.
chemovar, [chvar.]: (1) (prok.) an infrasubspecific category for bacteria
characterized by the production of a particular chemical. (2) (cult.
pl., unoff.) a category for designation of a chemical race
distinguished from the type only by physiological characters.
chimaera: (1) (cult. pl.) an individual composed of two or more geneticallydifferent tissues in intimate association; a graft-chimaera (q.v.). (2)(obsol.) formerly applied to morphologically distinct lichens44

Terms used in Bionomenclature
produced by interactions of the same fungus but different
photosynthetic partners; see also hybrids, mechanical.

chironym: (zool., unoff.) an unpublished name; a manuscript name.
chirotype: (zool., unoff.) the specimen on which an unpublished name isbased; see also cheirotype, quirotype.
chorotype: (1) (palaeo. zool., unoff.) a fossil specimen from the same
stratum as the type, but from a different locality. (2) (zool., unoff.) a
local type.
chresonym: (unoff,) proposed for citations of places of publication of aname later than the one in which the name was originallyestablished; i.e. later usages of a name following the correct author
citation and place of publication of the name itself (a practicesometimes used to indicate works which have fuller descriptions ora changed circumscriptions).
chromosomotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen of a new species known
only from its chromosome smear because the remainder of thespecimen was discarded; see also crickotype.
chronospecies: (palaeo., unoff.) a species represented in more than one
geological time horizon. (2) (palaeo., unoff.) the successive species
replacing each other in a phlyetic lineage which are given ancestor
and descendent status according to the geological time sequence.
circulus: (plaeo., unoff., obsol.) proposed as a designation for an ill-defined
assemblage of approximatey isochronous specimens that it is either
inconvenient or impossible to distribute among well-defined generaor species.
circumscribe: to make a circumscription (q.v.).
circumscription: the diagnostic limits of a taxon, which separate theindividuals that belong to it from all other individuals in the opinionof an author; the circumscription adopted by a particular author may
be determined by study of the descriptions, accounts of the range ofvariation, cited synonymy, cited specimens including types, and anyother comments made by the author in the protologue (q.v.).

45

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

circumscription method: (bot., obsol.) determining application of thename by a study of its protologue, especially its circumscription;
replaced by the type method (q.v.).
cit., [citatus, -a, -um]: cited; see loc. cit., op. cit.
cl.: see clone.
clade: (phyl.) an ancestor (an organism, population, or species) and all of
its descendants; organisms interpreted as sharing an exclusive
common ancestry (i.e. taxa which are monophyletic).
cladotype: (unoff.) a portion of the same clone.
class, [classis, cl.]: (1) (bot., prok., zool.) the principal category of taxa
intermediate in rank between phylum (division) and order. (2)(phyt.) one of the four principle ranks in the hierarchical system ofsyntaxa, above that of order.
classical: of the languages of ancient Greece and Rome, in contrast withlanguages of today.
classification: (1) the systematic grouping of items. (2) a system in which
items may be grouped. (3) the arrangement of material for ease of
discussion or reference, not necessarily in a manner reflecting
relationships or ranks; i.e. a system (q.v.) (4) a system (q.v.) so
produced, the fundamental product of taxonomy.
clastotype: (bot., unoff.) a part or fragment of a type specimen; seegiraultotype, kleptotype.
climatype: (not nomenclatural) a climatic ecotype (q.v.).
clon: see clone.
clone, [cl.]: (1) (cult. pl.) two or more individuals, originally derived fromone plant by asexual propagation, which remain genetically
identical. (2) (cult. pl., obsol.) a taxon consisting of an indefinite
number of ramets derived from an ortet by asexual propagation. (3)(prok.) a series of cultures also obtained by propagation from asingle parent cell. See also apomict.
clonotype: (1) (bot., unoff.) a living cultivated specimen prepared from avegetatively propagated part of a plant from which the typespecimen was also obtained; see pre-type. (2) (zool., unoff.) an46

Terms used in Bionomenclatureasexually propagated specimen from a part of a nomenclatural type.
(3) (zool., unoff.) the phenotype or homogenous product of cloning.

Code: an abbreviation for the most recent edition of any one of theinternational codes of nomenclature, unless otherwise specified;often placed in italic type as a form of short-hand for the full nameof the relevant code.
code-name: (1) (cult. pl.) an epithet without evident meaning that is madeup of a sequence of connected letters and/or numerals. (2) (cult. pl.,obsol.) a legally protected variety denomination (q.v.).
Code of Phytosociologial Nomenclature: see International Code of
Phytosociological Nomenclature.
co-extension: (cult. pl.) a situation when all plants represented by one nameare also represented by another name; i.e. where two or more named
taxa contain the same members and no others.
coenon: (phyt., obsol.) a syntaxon rank, not accepted in the Code.
coenospecies: (bot., obsol.) species having a common origin so far as
morphological, cytological, or experimental facts indicate such an
origin.
coenotype: (1) (phyt., obsol.) a plant community of constant composition,
but without faithful or differential species. (2) (bot., notnomenclatural, obsol.) formerly used for morphologically distinct
categories of pollen.
cognomen: (unoff.) a nickname or other shorthand method, including
numbers or not, used to label material of uncertain identity withwhich a taxonomist is working, see also informal name, interim
name, provisional name, taxon label.
cohort, [cohors]: (1) (obsol.) used by some nineteenth century authors as aterm for a rank in the taxonomic hierarchy, between class and order.
(2) (bot., obsol.) taken as an equivalent to the rank of “order”; seeorder. (3) (not nomenclatural) a group of individuals of the same age
recruited into a population at the same time; i.e. an age class.
coll.: see collector.

47

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

collateral type: (zool.) any specimen used in making a description, otherthan the primary types; i.e. one excluded from the holotype orparatype citations.
collection: an assemblage of specimens compiled and maintained for
purposes of study and (or) display.
collective group: (zool.) an assemblage of species, or stages of organisms(e.g. eggs or larvae), that cannot be allocated with confidence tonominal genera; names proposed or used for collective groups aretreated as genus-group names but special provisions apply to them.
collective group name: (zool.) the name of a collective group (q.v.).
collective name: (cult. pl.) the single designation covering the progeny of aparticular hybrid; see also collective group.
collective species, [species collectiva]: (bot., unoff.) a group of species
which are individually recognizable but are very similar; see also
aggregate.
collector: (1) the person(s) or organization that obtained the material
directly from nature; often abbreviated [coll.] on specimen labels
and in older publications; see also leg. (2) a person who stores
materials of any kind, whether collected by themselves or by others.
collectotype: (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of a new species recognizedby an authority in the personal collection of a collector who refuses
to give it up for description.
colloquial name: (1) a name used locally but not widely enough to berecognized in the general dictionaries of the language concerned. (2)a common name (q.v.).
colon: (bot.) recommended for use in author citations to indicate that aname is sanctioned (q.v.) for use because it was adopted in particular
works by Persoon (1801, Synopsis Methodica Fungorum) and Fries(1821-31, Systema Mycologicum and Elenchus Fungorum) specified
in the Code (e.g. L. : Fr.); usages other than before "Fr." and "Pers."
in modern works are errors, most commonly mistranscriptions of"ex" (q.v.).
colony, [pl. colonies]: (1) (unoff.) used for specimens or groups ofspecimens of an uncertain infraspecific category. (2) (not48

Terms used in Bionomenclature
nomenclatural) of cultures of fungi and microorganisms, growths onnatural substrata or in artificial culture.

comb. nov.: combinatio nova; see new combination.
comb. rev.: see combinatio revivisco.
comb. superfl.: combinatio superflua; see superfluous combination.
combinatio nova, [comb. nov.] see new combination.
combinatio revivisco, [comb. rev.]; a revived combination; i.e. one
previously treated as a synonym but re-instated.
combinatio superflua, [comb. superfl.]; see superfluous combination.
combination: (1) (zool.) the association of a generic name and a specificname to form the name of a species (i.e. a binomen), or of a genericname with a specific name and a subpecific name to form the nameof a subspecies (i.e. a trinomen). (2) (bio., bot.) a name of a taxon
below the rank of genus, consisting of a genus combined with one or
two epithets; i.e. of a genus and species name, or of a species namewith an infraspecific epithet; see new combination, ternary
combination.
combination of letters: see arbitrary.
combined description: (unoff.) a description based on one or a number of
specimens that are assigned to the single species of a new genus inwhich those characters are diagnostic at generic and specific levels;
see also descriptio generico-specifica..
COMCOF: a Committee, Commission, or Federation within IUMS (q.v.).
commercial synonym: (cult. pl.) a name that may properly be used for acultivar in place of the internationally correct one in countries where
the latter is commercially unacceptable.
commiscuum: (bot., obsol.) all individuals connected by the possibility ofgene-exchange.
Commission on Botanical Nomenclature, of IUBS: see General
Committee on Botanical Nomenclature.
Commission: an abbreviation of either the (zool.) International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), or (prok.)49

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
Judicial Commission of the International Committee on Systematics
of Prokaryotes (ICSP).

Committee. Special: (bot.) a body appointed by an International BotanicalCongress to conduct particular business of botanical nomenclature
between Congresses and to report to the next Congress.
Committee on Phylogenetic Nomenclature: a committee of theInternational Society for Phylogenetic Nomenclature (q.v.).
common language: a modern language; any of the currently usedlanguages of the world, in contrast with classical languages nolonger in use; a vernacular language.
common name: one widely used in any language in place of a scientificname, especially of one adopted in the literature of that language;
see also colloquial name, vernacular name.
comparison record: (palaeo.) record of fossil specimens, related by theoriginal author of the record to a base taxon.
compatability group: see vegetative compatability group.
competing name: one of a number of legitimate or available names taken
into consideration in the determination of a correct name for a taxon.
complex: (1) (unoff.) a group of organisms including more than a single
taxon, but within which the circumscription of those taxa is notsatisfactorily resolved. (2) (unoff.) a group of closely related species
which are not easily distinguished, for example by morphologicalcriteria alone; cfr aggregate, microspecies.
components: (mycol.) in lichens, the fungus and alga or cyanobacteriumthat together make up a single structure.
compound: (1) of a word or a scientific name, one which combines
elements derived from two or more Greek or Latin words, a regularcompound being one in which a noun or adjective in a non-final
position appears as a modified stem; i.e. one formed by the union of
two or more basic components (i.e. excluding prefixes and suffixes),
written as one word; e.g. words composed of a stem and aconnecting vowel or hyphen, such as striatoradiatus, novaeguineae, and fritzmulleri; see also pseudocompound. (2) (phyt.)

50

Terms used in Bionomenclature
permits compound names of syntaxa that include a prefix, e.g. EuVaccinio-Piceenion, Xerobromenion.

compounding form: in a compound word or a scientific name, the form ofending of that in the non-final position; (bot.) to be formed inaccordance with the classical usage.
con-: a prefix used before the name of a taxonomic rank to indicate
separately named taxa (i.e. ones based on different nomenclatural
types) but which are considered to belong to a single taxon of thespecified rank; e.g. confamilial, congeneric, conspecific.
concept, hypothetical: see hypothetical concept.
concoctotype: (zool., unoff.) a complete holotype made from several
incomplete specimens.
conculta, [conc.]: (1) (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term between
subprovarietas and cultivar. (2) (cult. pl., unoff.) a category ofcultivars related by morphological or other characters, andsometimes cultivated together; an agrotypus (q.v.) or convarietas(q.v.).
concultivar: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term between variety andcultivar.
condensed formula: (bio., bot., cult. pl.) the name of a hybrid genus or
graft chimaeral genus (cult. pl. only) constructed from parts of thenames of the parent genera involved (e.g. xAgropogon for Agrostis x
Polypogon); treated nomenclaturally as generic names; see also
multiplication sign.
conditional: (1) (zool.) of the proposal of a name or a type fixation, one
made with stated reservations. (2) (zool.) of the inclusion of a taxon
in another taxon at a higher rank, made with stated reservations; see
provisional name.
conditionally suppressed name: (1) (zool.) the older of two names
considered as subjective synonyms which may still be used wheneither the taxa denoted by the names are regarded as distinct or it isthe valid name of a taxon subordínate in Rank to, and included in,
the taxon denotaed by the later name (e.g. a subgenus within agenus). (2) (phyl.) a name that is suppressed only in phylogenetic

51

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
contexts in which it is a synonym of a particular conserved name;see suppressed name.

confamilial: belonging to the same family.
confractum: (bot., unoff., obsol.) proposed as a designation for a clone(q.v.).
confused name, [nomen confusum, nom.conf.]: (1) (prok.) a name basedon a mixed culture. (2) (bot., obsol.) a name based on a typeconsisting of discordant elements from which it was considered
impossible to select a satisfactory lectotype; see also parahomonym.
confusingly similar names: (bot.) orthographically similar names of genera
or epithets of names of subdivisions of genera, of species, or of
infraspecific taxa likely to be confused; e.g. when the names areapplied to closely related taxa.
congeneric: belonging to the same genus.
congregatio: (bot., cult. pl., unoff.) a category used to indicate fundamentalgroups of both wild and cultivated plants.
Congress: a large international meeting that may serve as a decisionmaking body approving new editions of a Code, i.e. International
Botanical Congress (IBC), International Union of MicrobiologicalSocieties (IUMS) Bacteriology Division and Virology Division
Congresses, International Congress of Zoology (from 1971 withauthority delegated to the General Assembly of the International
Union of Biological Sciences, IUBS).
congruence sign, [≡]: often used to indicate nomenclatural (bot.) or
objective (zool.) synonyms.
connecting vowel: a vowel that joins two words to make a single word, butwhen the first of two combined words ends with a vowel, noconnecting vowel is usually needed; not intrinsically a part of either
word, and to be distinguished from stem-endings or combining
forms; i.e. “i” (Latin) or “o” (Greek).
conservation: (1) (bio.) a means of suspending the application of theprovisions of the Code in the interest of stability of nomenclature ofnames of individual taxa of the family group, genus group, or
species group, or, where adopted lists of protected names exist, or of

52

Terms used in Bionomenclature
amending such lists. (2) (bot., zool.) the process by which namesthat best serve stability can be retained even although they are nototherwise the correct name or even contravene specific provisions of
the Code; see conserved name.

conserve: (1) to preserve the usage of a name in a taxonomic sense that
otherwise would be incorrect by setting aside certain (bot.) or any(zool.) provisions of the Code. (2) (zool.) to deem a work to be
published or available despite it not satisfying the normal criteria; ineach particular case conservation is by a ruling of the appropriately
mandated body; see conserved name.
conserved name, [nomen conservandum, nom. cons.]: (1) (zool.) a nameotherwise unavailable or invalid that the Commission, by the use of
its plenary power, has enabled to be used as a valid name byremoval of the known obstacles to such use. (2) (bot.) a name of afamily, genus, or species ruled as legitímate and with precedence
over other specified names even though it may have been
illegitimate when published or lack priority. (3) (bot.) a name forwhich its type, orthography, or gender has been fixed by theconservation process of the Code. (4) (phyl.) an established namethat the Committee on Phylogenetic Nomenclature has ruled shouldhave precedence over earlier synonyms or homonyms. (4) (phyt.)
names established according to special criteria, and are protected,
irrespective of their priority, and must be retained.
conserved type, [typus conservandum, typ. cons.]: a name conservedwith a particular nomenclatural type.
conserved work: (zool.) a work that the International Commission on
Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) has ruled to be an available work.
conservotype: (zool., unoff.) a type described solely for the purpose of
having it listed as an endangered species (!).
consociation, [consocion]: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of asyntaxon, equivalent to subassociation but not covered by the Code.
consocion: a consociation (q.v.).
consortium: (prok.) an aggregate or association of two or more organisms;
names given to consortia are not regulated by the Code, and have nostanding in bacteriological nomenclature.

53

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

conspecies: (1) (unoff.) two or more species belonging to the same genus.
(2) (cult. pl., unoff.) a category for related and interbreeding speciesof wild origin (species), or originating in cultivation (specioid), or ofboth types.
conspecific: belonging to the same species.
constituent element: (1) (prok.) the type of a taxon. (2) (bot.) any
specimen or illustration included within a taxon, especially thoseindicated in the protologue.
Constitution: (zool.) an abbreviation of the title The Constitution of theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
constructotype: (zool., unoff.) a holotype created during a taxonomic
revision as a result of a mix-up of body parts, e.g. male genitalia ona female body.
contabulation: a description based on one of a number of specimens thatare assigned to a single species of a new genus in which thosecharacters are diagnostic at specific level.
content: (unoff.) of a taxon, the set of its component organisms.
contortotype: (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of a soft-bodied species thathas dried to an unrecognizable state (!); see xerotype.
contraction: an abbreviation that shortens a word by removing one or moreof its middle letters, but retaining others including both the first andthe last; e.g. “Dr” for “Doctor”.
convarietas, [convar.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a proposed rank for a group of
related provarieties, between subspecioid, or cultiplex, andprovarietas.
conveniotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon that still has its
distinguishing characters to be established (!).
conversion: (phyl.) the act of establishing a pre-existing name inaccordance with the rules of the PhyloCode.
converted name: (phyl.) of a clade, a pre-existing name that has been
established in accordance with the rules of the PhyloCode; denotedby the use of squared brackets ([. . . ]) around the citation of theauthor who published the name under a different Code.

54

Terms used in Bionomenclature

Coordination, Principle of: see Principle of Coordination.
coordinate name: (bio., zool.) a family group, genus group, or species
group name; names within the groups have equal status; see
Principle of Coordination.
coordinate status: (zool.) of names subject to the Principle of Coordination(q.v.).
copulotype: (zool., unoff.) a pair of type specimens locked permanently ina copulatory embrace (!).
copyist’s error: an incorrect spelling made in copying.
corr.: see correctus, correxit.
correct name: (1) (bot., prok., cult. pl.) the name of a taxon with aparticular circumscription, position and rank that must be adopted inaccordance with the Code. (2) (zool.) the valid name (q.v.). (3)(phyt.) the legitimate name (if necessary corrected according to theCode) that must be adopted for a syntaxon with a particular
circumscription, position and rank under its rules. (4) (bio.) an
accepted name (q.v.).
correct original spelling: (zool.) the spelling of an available name when it
is established, unless it is demonstrably incorrect under the Code.
correction: the act of correcting the spelling of a name from the form inwhich it was originally published; (bot.) permitted only throughconservation or when the original spelling was a typographic or
orthographic error; see correctus, emendation.
correctus, [-a, -um, corr.]: corrected (by). (1) (bot.) used to indicate acorrected orthography, i.e. one replaced by another considered morecorrect etymologically or more suitable; “corr.” following theauthority and preceding the name of the author who first effected thecorrection. (2) (zool.) “justified emendation”; see emendation,
justified.
correxit, [corr.]: he corrected; see correctus.
corrig.: see corrigendum.
corrigendum, [corrig.]: (1) a note published by an author, editor, or
publisher of a work, expressly to list one or more errors in that work

55

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
to be corrected, together with the corrected form that was intended
to be published. (2) added after the citation of a name to indicatethat the spelling has had to be corrected, sometimes with a reference
to the author(s) making the correction.

cosmogenre: (unoff.) a rank above that of kingdom, designating
independently evolved systems of Life, e.g. cosmogenre Geobiota
includes all Earth’s biota; only one cosomogenre can therefore berecognized on Earth.
cotype: (1) (obsol.) a syntype (q.v.). (2) (zool., obsol.) any specimen of theoriginal type material except the holotype; i.e. an isotype orparatype. (3) (zool., unoff.) any member of a type-series.
countertype: (palaeo. zool., unoff.) of compression fossils, where the rockor other medium is split open to reveal a mirrored impression of thefossil; i.e. the opposite half of the holotype; see antitype.
covariant: (cult. pl.) a plant whose characteristics are maintained solely by
regular practices of cultivation such as by pruning or training.
CPN: Committee on Phylogenetic Nomenclature (q.v.).
crickotype: (zool., unoff.) a holotype and only known specimen of a taxon
that has been completely ground up for DNA analysis (!); seechromotype.
cross: (cult. pl.) to cause to interbreed; the act of hybridization.
crown clade: (phyl.) a clade originating with the most recent common
ancestor of two or more extant species (or organisms); crown clades
are a subset of node-based clades.
crown clade definition: (phyl.) any definition that necessarily ties a nameto a crown clade, e.g. branch- and apomorphy-modified node-based
definitions and standard node-based definitions in which all the
specifiers represent extant species or organisms.
crucifix, [†]: (1) if appearing after the name of an author in a work, thesymbol traditionally indicates that the author died before the work
was published (but is sometimes also used as a footnote marker inmodern works. (2) (zool., obsol.) if appearing by a scientific namein synonymy, the symbol indicates a misidentification.
cryptic cultivar: (cult. pl.): see cryptic variety.

56

Terms used in Bionomenclature

cryptic species: (1) a hidden species; one of a group of very closely related
species which can only be distinguished from one another withextreme difficulty or are morphologically indistinguishable but
reproductively isolated or molecularly distinct (and so an
evolutionary significant unit); see aggregate, complex, microspecies,
sibling species. (2) species names hidden in the literature ("ghosts inthe literature"), used especially of names not catalogued, cited, or
adopted for long periods of time; see forgotten name.
cryptic variety: (cult. pl.) a cultivated plant with attributes that cannot bereadily be taxonomically separated from an existing cultivar.
cryptogram: (vir., obsol.): a shorthand summary of the properties of a virus
or virus taxon placed after a name in the vernacular, consisting offour pairs of symbols, describing, respectively: type of nucleic acid(in millions)/percentage of nucleic acid in infective particles; outlineof particle/outline of nucleic acid and most closely surrounding
protein (nucleocapsid); kind of host infected/kind of vector; theVirus Adansonian Classification (VAC).
cryptotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a type published in an inappropriate
newsletter or magazine so that it is unlikely to be found. (2) (zool.,
unoff.) a type specimen amongst thousands of others received fromthe estate of a taxonomist who failed to label his or her specimens.
cultigen, [cult., c., cg.]: (1) (cult. pl.) a species believed not to haveoriginated in the wild; i.e. one only known in cultivation. (2) (cult.
pl., prop.) a plant whose origin or selection is primarily due tointentional human activity.
cultigrex, [cgr.]: see conculta.
cultimorph, [cultimorpha]: see subspecioid.
cultiplex: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term between subspecioidand subcultiplex; approximately equivalent to that of variety (notcultivar).
cultitaxon: see taxoid.
cultitype: see cultotype.
cultivar class: see denomination class.

57

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

cultivar epithet: (cult. pl.): the defining part of a name that denotes acultivar; see cultivar.
cultivar group: see group.
cultivar, [cultivarietas, cv.; pl. cvs.]: a cultivated variety; (cult. pl.) an
assemblage of plants that has been selected for a particular attributeor combination of attributes and that is clearly distinct, uniform, andstable in these characteristics and that when propagated byappropriate means retains those characteristics; names of cultivars,
formerly often prefixed by “cv.”, are designated by fancy (q.v.)
epithets, appended either to the scientific name or to the common
name of the taxon to which they belong, which are not italicised andwhich must be placed between single quotation marks (e.g. Solanum
tuberosum ‘Cara’).
cultivariant: see topophysic cultivar
Cultivated Plant Code: the International Code of Nomenclature ofCultivated Plants (q.v.).
cultivated plant: (1) (cult. pl.) one whose origin or selection is primarily
due to the intentional activities of humankind; such a plant may
arise either by deliberate, or, in cultivation, accidental hybridization,or by selection from existing cultivated stock, or may be theselection from minor variants within a wild population andmaintained as a recognizable entity solely by deliberate andcontinued propagation. (2) (bio.) a cultivated plant or fungus, whose
origin or selection is primarily due to the intentional actions ofmankind, not denominated under the BioCode.
cultivated race: (cult. pl., unoff.) a biotype of spore plants that has
appeared in cultivation.
cultivated taxon: see taxoid.
culton, [pl. culta]: (cult. pl.) a systematic group of cultivated plants which
is based upon one or more user criteria; a word parallel to “taxon”
but used solely for a taxonomic unit whose nomenclature isgoverned by the Code.
culto-type, [cultotype, cultype, cultitype]: (obsol.) a living culture derived
from a holotype specimen; see also ex-type.

58

Terms used in Bionomenclature

culture collection: (bot., prok.) a collection in which cultures of
microorganisms are permanently maintained in a living state or in
one from which they can be revived; culture collections may supply
strains (including type and ex-type cultures) and provide otherservices, such as serving as International Depositary Authorities forstrains cited in patents (i.e. service collections); the more
explanatory terms biological resource centre (q.v.) or genetic
resource centre (q.v.) are increasing preferred as the name for suchcollections; commonly referred to by individual acronyms (seeWorld Data Center for Microorganisms) in the citation of cultures
examined in systematic works.
culture: (prok.) a population of bacterial cells in a given place at a given
time, e.g. in this test tube.
cultype: see cultotype.
Current use: of names, the preponderant way in which names are appliedin recent scientific publications; see also Names in Current Use.
cv., [pl. cvs.]: see cultivar.
cyclophasic cultivar: (cult. pl.) a clone with the same genotype as theoriginal parent plant but differing in its phenotype due to being
originally asexually propagated from specific tissue from a phase in
the plant’s life-cycle.
cyclus, [cycle]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a taxoid for the designation of a group of
closely related plants (mostly of hybrid origin), the features ofwhich combine in a net-like manner and whose relationships arealso net-like.
cyrioplesiotype: (zool., unoff.) the principal or typical specimen among
several plesiotypes (q.v.).
cytological characters: (cult. pl.) the characters within the cellular
structure of an organism.
cytotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a portion of a type prepared to show identical
cytological features (e.g. chromosomes) as those originallydescribed for the taxon. (2) (bot., unoff.) proposed as an
infraspecific category for plants distinguished by cytological

59

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
features (e.g. chromosome number or structure) but not at allmorphologically; see also cytovar.

cytovar.: (bot., unoff., obsol.) proposed for use in the nomenclatural
citation of a cytotype (q.v.).

dagger, [†]: see crucifix.
Dall Code: (zool., obsol.) a forerunner of the International Code ofZoological Nomenclature (q.v.), a draft of which was prepared for
the American Association for the Advancement of Science by W. H.
Dall and published in 1878; it was intended to cover (bot.) as well as(zool.) but was never formally adopted internationally.
date: (1) of a name, the date requirements for establishment or valid
publication under the pertinent Code were fulfilled. (2) (bio.) of aname, that of its registration, i.e. the date of receipt of the relevant
matter at the registration office. (3) (bio.) for purposes of precedenceof a name, the date attributed to it in an adopted list (q.v.) or, forunlisted names, the date on which it was validly published (bot.,prok.), became available (zool.) or was established (bio.). (4) of awork, the date on which copies of the work become available bypurchase or free distribution, either to the general public or tosystematic libraries; this date may or may not be the same as thedate printed on the work itself; in practice often accepted as the dateof mailing or passing to a carrier.
Declaration: (zool.) a provisional amendment to the Code, published by theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
declension: a system of cases and case endings (q.v.).
deem: to consider or rule something to be what it may or may not be; awork and its contents are deemed to be published by the author not
the publisher; the date of a publication may be deemed to have been
be a particular one whether or not that is when it was actually
published (e.g. the tenth edition of’ Linnaeus’s Systema Naturae isdeemed for the purposes of zoological nomenclature to be published60

Terms used in Bionomenclatureon 1 January 1758, whether or not it was actually published on that
date).

definite inclusion: (1) (bot.), of the type of a name, the direct or indirectreference to the type of a previously or simultaneously published
name, whether accepted or synonymized by the author, by citationof the nomenclatural type of a name or the name itself. (2) (bot.) of aname, any element directly or indirectly included when the namewas introduced and to be taken into account in its typification; seealso protologue.
definition: (1) (zool.) a statement in words that purports to give thosecharacters which, in combination, uniquely distinguish a taxon fromothers; a diagnosis (q.v.). (2) (phyl.) a statement specifying themeaning of a name (i.e. the taxon to which it refers). (3) (obsol.) a
differentia (q.v.).
definitional author: (phyl.) the person(s) who published a phylogenetic
definition for a name, either the original definition or an emended
one; see nominal author.
deme, [-deme]: (1) (not nomenclatural, obsol.) a system of special-purpose
category terms denoting a group of individuals of a taxon andformed by adding the suffix "-deme" to a stem, e.g. topodeme (agroup growing in one place). (2) (not nomenclatural) small units of
population that are evolutionarily significant that are in close contact
with each other.
denomination class: (cult. pl.) the taxonomic unit in which cultivar andGroup epithets may not be duplicated except in special
circumstances; see also varietal denomination.
depreciated name: (prok.) one included in the Approved List or validly
published after 1 January 1980 but currently treated as a synonym ofan accepted name.
derived variety: (cult. pl.) a cultivar that is derived from an openpollinated cultivar and which is not considered to be sufficiently
distinct from that cultivar to meet the criteria of a DUS test (q.v.).
dermestotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen of a type-series so badly eaten bydermestids that its identity cannot be confirmed (!); see also
psocotype.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

derogatotype: (zool., unoff.) a type of a taxon, the name of which is an
unflattering reference to another worker (!); see also libelotype.
descr.:. see description.
descriptio generico-specifica: (bot.) a single description simultaneously
validating the names of a genus and its single species.
description, [descriptione, descr.]: a statement of the features of a taxon,
or its component organism, in words, required for valid publicationof its name especially; used especially when not limited to those that
distinguish if from other taxa; see also definition, diagnosis.
descriptive name: (1) (zool.) a name taken from the distinctive charactersof the taxon; frequently a polynomial in old zoological literature. (2)(bot.) a name of a taxon above the rank of family not based on a
generic name but formed from a descriptive character, e.g. the class
Discomycetes for Ascomycota with disc-like fruit bodies.
descriptive phrase: a name, usually of several words, which at the sametime constitutes a diagnosis (q.v.) of the taxon to which it refers; apolynomial (q.v.); even when limited to two words, not a binary
name.
descriptor: (1) (cult. pl.) a word or phrase appended to the name of ataxonomic unit which is used to separate an element such as flower
colour. (2) (not nomenclatural) a key word indicating the content ofa publication.
descriptotype: (zool., unoff.) an element or elements on which an originaldescription was based.
designated priority: (zool., unoff.) of several simultaneously publishednames for the same taxon, the priority established by the firstreviser.
designation: (1) (zool.) the nomenclatural act of an author or theCommission in fixing, by an express statement, the name-bearing
type of a newly or previously established nominal genus, subgenus,
species, or subspecies; see also act, fixation, indication. (2) (bot.) aterm used for what appears to be a name but has not been validly
published; i.e. not a name (q.v.) in the sense of the Code.

62

Terms used in Bionomenclature

determination: the identification of a taxon, usually of a specimen or
culture to a species or infraspecific taxon.
determination slip: a piece of paper or label attached to a specimen on
which is written the identification, along with the details of theidentifier, the date, and other notes made at the time; an annotation
slip.
determinator: the person who made a determination (q.v.).
determinavit, [det.]: identified by; sometimes used in the citation of
specimens before the name of the determinator (q.v.).
determine: to make a determination (q.v.).
deuterogenotypic: (zool.) isogenotypic (q.v.).
deuterotype: (zool., unoff.) a replacement type specimen.
Deutsche Zoologische Gesellsachaft Code, The: (zool., obsol.) the Regeln
für die wissenschafliche Benennund der Thiere, published in 1894; aforerunner of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature(q.v.).
devalidated name: (prok., vir.) a name which would have been validly
published except that it appeared before the starting-point date of thegroup to which its type belongs, used particularly in groups withlater starting points than the principal one and that were
implemented retroactivly.
diacritic: a diacritical mark (q.v.).
diacritical mark: a mark to indicate different pronunciation of a letter or adifferent letter, e.g. an accent, cedilla, tilde, umlaut); not to be usedin scientific names or organisms; but see also diaeresis.
diacritic sign: a diacritical mark (q.v.).
diaeresis, [¨]: a diacritical mark (q.v.) of two dots placed over the second of
two consecutive vowels to indicate that they are to be pronounced
separately (e.g. Epichloë, Pöideae).
diagnosis, [pl. diagnoses]: a statement, in words, of that which in theopinion of its author distinguishes the taxon from other taxa; seealso definition, description.

63

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

diagnostic characters: features that permit an organism to be assigned to aparticular taxon or group of taxa.
diagnostic species [or infraspecific taxa]: (phyt.) species or infraspecifictaxa which are characteristic of a particular syntaxon and facilitate
the separation of that syntaxon from others.
differentia, [pl. differentiae]: (1) (obsol.) the character or characters bywhich a taxon differs from others. (2) (obsol.) those characters thatdefine a species; a definition; used in this sense by Linnaeus.
differential character: a distinguishing or diagnostic character.
differential hosts: (prok.) the species or cultivars of host plants, thereactions to which determine the physiological race of an organism;see pathovar, special form.
differential species: (phyt.) species, or infraspecific taxa, the presence of
which distinguishes a particular syntaxon from other syntaxa.
diplomatotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a type specimen of a taxon describedsoley for political purposes, e.g. to gain access to otherwise
unavailable government lands (!). (2) (zool., unoff.) the type of ataxon named after a person with whom the author wishes to havegood relations (!).
diplotype: see genoholotype.
direct reference: a bibliographic reference in which full publication details
are provided including the author, place of publication, volume,page(s) or plate references, and date.
Direction: (zool., obsol.) a term formerly used but now abandoned, which
under earlier editions of the Code was a statement published by theCommission (ICZN), giving the result of a decision completing or
correcting a ruling given in an Opinion; replaced by Official
Corrections (q.v.).
disagreeable epithet: (cult. pl.) one whose use in a certain culture mightcause offence.
disagreeable name: (obsol.) an inappropriate name (q.v.); see also
disagreeable epithet.
disclaimed: of a work, one with a disclaimer (q.v.).

64

Terms used in Bionomenclature

disclaimer: (zool.) a statement in a work, by an author, editor, or publisher,that either the entire work or all specified names and nomenclaturalactions are to be excluded for purposes of zoological nomenclature.
discordant elements: elements on which a name was based which are now
considered to belong to two or more distinct taxa; in (bot.) such
names were ruled as illegitimate until 1975.
dissectoype: (zool., unoff.) a completely dissected type; see also
crickotype.
diverged variety: (cult. pl.) a cultivar that is derived from an earlier selfpollinated cultivar and which no longer meets criteria for a DUS test
(q.v.).
divide: (unoff.) to remove as a separate taxon an element from within thecircumscription of a previously recognized taxon; to segregate(q.v.).
divinotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a new species found and collected alive
already bearing a holotype label (!). (2) (zool., unoff.) a type only
seen during séances (!).
division, [divisio]: (1) a taxon at the rank of division; in (bot.) one of two
terms for the same rank, the other being phylum (q.v.); the highest
rank of the principal categories of taxa below kingdom; a phylum(the term preferred in overall biological classifications). (2) (zool.) arank that if treated as a division of a genus or subgenus is deemed to
be of subgeneric rank for the purposes of nomenclature. (3) (cult.
pl., unoff.) a taxoid for the designation of a group of closely related
cycles (q.v.).
divisum: (bot., unoff., obsol.) proposed as a designation for a clone (q.v.).
domain: a taxonomic rank above that of kingdom; cfr empire,superkingdom.
domesticated animals: (zool.) animals distinguished from wild progenitors
by characters resulting from the selective actions (deliberate or not)of humans.
dorsotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen mounted in such a way that only
its dorsal aspect is visible for study (!).

65

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

dot, [.]:(phyl., prop.) proposed as a method of indicating a converted
species name in phylogenetic nomenclature, e.g. Sturnus.vulgaris;see also hyphen.
double citation: (unoff.) an author citation in which the author of an epithet
or name is placed in parentheses, followed by the citation of theauthor who moved it to its current position and rank, as in a new
combination (q.v.).
double cross: (cult. pl.) the repeatable crossing of two F1 hybrids.
double name: (phyt.) the name of a syntaxon composed of the names of
two subordinate syntaxon names; when each is confined to either of
the two syntaxa of the next subordinate principal rank that are
named in the original diagnosis of the superior syntaxon, the namecannot be retained when a division of the superior syntaxon
separates the subordinate syntaxa.
doubtful name: (prok.) a dubious name (q.v.).
dubiotype: see incognitotype.
dubious name, [nomen dubium, nom. dub.]: a name of unknown or
doubtful application; e.g. because of a lack of original or typematerial and sufficient information about it to make a satisfactory
typification possible, or because it is impossible to ascertain towhich taxon its type should be referred; a doubtful name (prok.)
ducotype: (zool., unoff.) a type with the head of one species glued onto thebody of another (!); a gluotype (q.v.).
duplicate: (bot.) part of a single gathering of a single species orinfraspecific taxon made by the same collector (or collectors) at one
time.
duplotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a second holotype for the same taxon. (2)(zool., unoff.) a single specimen used as holotype for two different
taxa; a redundotype (q.v.) for the later described; see also triplotype.
DUS test: (cult. pl.) the criteria of Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability bywhich a new cultivar is examined for statutory purposes such as forthe granting of Plant Breeders’ Rights.

66

Terms used in Bionomenclaturee.g., [exemplia gratia]: for example.
e.p.: see ex parte.
E-type: (zool., unoff.) a digital image of a holotype.
-eae: (bot., prok.) suffix added to the stem of a generic name to form thename of a tribe.
earlier: published prior to the date of another name or names underconsideration.
earlier homonym: (bot.) the earlier of two or more validly publishedhomonyms; a senior homonym.
earlier synonym: an older synonym.
ecological niche: (1) (not nomenclatural) the space occupied by a species,
including its physical space and function role; the biological spaceof a species conceptualized as a multidimensional hypervolume;
incorrectly equated with microhabitat. (2) (vir.) the cellularenvironment of particular species or populations of host organisms.
econ, [pl. eca]: (phyt., unoff.) a local vegetation unit.
ecophenotype: a phenotype (q.v.) showing adaptations associated with thehabitat or environment.
ecotype, [oecotype]: (not nomenclatural) a group of populations within a
species genetically adapted to a particular ecological niche;
sometimes used preceded by an hyphen to indicate a particular
category of ecotype, e.g. agro-ecotype, geo-ecotype; see also
ecovar.
ecovar.: (bot., unoff., obsol.) proposed for use in the nomenclatural citationof an ecotype (q.v.).
edition: the total number of identical copies of a work printed by the same
method from one typesetting; a later edition is one created by theseparate printing of the work, with or without any textual change;
see also impression.
Editorial Committee (prok., bot., cult. pl.): a body mandated to prepare theedition of the Code following the Congress at which it is appointed.

67

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

effective publication: (bot., phyt.) publication in accordance with theCode; the first step in considering the valid publication of a name,and achieved by distribution of printed matter (or before 1 Jan. 1953
in bot. of indelible autographic matter), so as to make the work
accessible to botanists generally; a requirement for any
nomenclatural act; see also date.
effectively published: (bot., phyt., prok.) of a name or epithet, one that has
undergone effective publication (q.v.) but not necessarily valid
publication (q.v.); (bio., cult. pl., zool.) published.
egg type: see locality type.
electotype: (zool., unoff.) in the case of a poorly preserved holotype, aspecimen from a locality other than that of the holotype which
agrees closely with the original description; see also epitype,neotype.
electronic publication: (zool., prop.) of a work, one issued and distributedby means of electronic signals; to be considered published such awork must be archived with an organization other than the
publisher.
element: (1) a constituent part of a taxon of any rank; the elements of a
species or infraspecific taxon are the individuals included within its
circumscription, or specimens prepared from such individuals, or
any figure or description of such individuals. (2) (zool.) of a genus
or subdivision of a genus, a species. (3) (phyt.) a vegetation relevé
in the case of associations and subassociations, and a syntaxon of
the next subordinate principal rank in syntax of higher rank. (4)(prok., obsol.) the type strain to which a name is permanently
attached.
elevate: (unoff.) of a taxon, to raise in rank to a higher one in the taxonomichierarchy; e.g. from that of a subspecies to a species.
elide: (zool.) to deliberately omit one or more letters within a word.
elimination, fixation by: see fixation by elimination.
elision: (zool.) a word in which more or more letters have been deliberately
omitted.
emend, [emend., emendatio]: see emended.

68

Terms used in Bionomenclature

emendavit, [emendates]: see emended.
emendation: (1) (zool.) any intentional change in the original spelling of anavailable name. (2) (zool.) an available name formed byintentionally changing the original spelling of an available name;such emendations may be justified (q.v.) or unjustified (q.v.). (3) an
emended (q.v.) circumscription of a taxon. (4) (phyl.) a formalchange in the phylogenetic definition of a name.
emended, [emendavit, emendatio, emendatus, -a, -um; emend.]: (bot.,prok.) sometimes used in author citations to indicate that an author
has changed the circumscription or spelling of a taxon; correctly
used only where the nomenclatural type has not been excluded andrecommended for use only when the change has been considerable;
such indications of emendation are not part of the formal author
citation of a name except where a type has been excluded (and inwhich case a homonym may have been published)..
empire [imperium]: (unoff., prok.): a taxonomic rank above that of
kingdom; a domain (q.v.).
-enalia: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rank ofsuborder.
ending: of a word, the termination (q.v.).
-enea: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rank ofsubclass.
-enion: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rank ofsuballiance.
entity: a taxonomic unit; see taxon.
Entomological Code, The: (zool., obsol.) a code for use in entomology,
prepared by N. Banks and A. N. Caudill, published in 1912 (with a
facsimile reprint in 2009), with no overriding committee and inwhich every user was commended to interpret the rules personally;
superseded by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature(q.v.).
epharmone: (bot., obsol.) an unstable form due to environmental
influences, arising from the usual form when those influences are
sufficiently modified.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

ephemeral: of publications, ones not intended for future reference, such as
newspapers and advertisements which ordinarily become obsoletesoon after they are issued.
ephemerotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen that disintegrates
completely after only a day and must be replaced by aneoephemerotype (q.v.) on a daily basis (!).
epithet: (bot., prok.) the final word in a binary combination and a word
following the connecting term denoting rank in other combinations;denotes an individual taxonomic unit; equivalent to specific name in(zool.); see also collective epithet, cultivar epithet, equivalentepithet, final epither, specific epithet.
epitheta hybrida: (1) (obsol.) of specific epithets, ones made up of parts ofwords from two different languages; see also compound. (2) (cult.
pl.) the names of nothotaxa.
epitheta specifica conservanda: (prok.) conserved specific epithets.
epitheta specifica rejicienda: (prok.) rejected specific epithets.
epitype: (1) (bot.) a specimen or illustration selected to serve as aninterpretative type when the holotype, lectotype, or a previously
designated neotype, or all original material associated with a validly
published name cannot be identified for the purpose of precise
application of the name of a taxon; see also hypotype,interpretotype, pragmatype, protype, teleotype. (2) (bio.) a typedesignated to fix the application of a name the type of which isdemonstrably ambiguous or cannot be critically identified for the
purposes of the precise application of the name of a taxon.
eponym: a name or epithet based on that of a person (e.g. smithii after Sir
J.E. Smith).
equals sign, [=]: often used to indicate heterotypic synonyms, i.e.
subjective synonyms (zool.) or (bot.) taxonomic synonyms; cfr
congruence sign.
equivalent epithet: (cult. pl.) one that is a permitted translation,transliteration, or transcription of an existing epithet or one that istaken to be identical even though there may be minor differences

70

Terms used in Bionomenclature
due to optional use of accents, diacritical signs, and otherpunctuation.

erect: see establish.
ergasial: see specioid.
ergatotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a worker caste in the polymorphic
Hymenoptera; see also morphotype.
err. typ.: see errore typographico.
erratum, [pl. errata]: an error (q.v.); also used for a printed correction to a
published work either printed in the work itself (e.g. in a subsequentissue of a journal) or on a separate slip of paper inserted by hand
into the work (i.e. an erratum slip).
erratum slip: see erratum.
error: in a name, or other word, an incorrect spelling.
errore, [pl. errores]: an error (q.v.), especially relating to time or place.
errore typographico, [err. typ.]: a typographical error.
escapotype: (zool., unoff.) an alivotype (q.v.) that has escaped (!).
establish: (1) (zool.) of a name or nominal taxon: to make available thename of a nominal taxon available by satisfying the requirements of
the Code. (2) of a taxon, to describe and validly publish (or makeavailable) a name for that taxon; to erect a name.
established custom: (bot., zool.) general usage or practice; advocated to befollowed in the absence of a relevant provision in a Code for aparticular situation.
established name: (1) one that meets the criteria laid out in a Code forvalid publication; an available name (zool.) or validly publishedname (bot., cult. pl., prok.). (2) (bio.) one that is published inaccordance with the Code or that, prior to 1 January 20XX (year not
yet specified) was validly published or became available under the
relevant Special Code. (3) (phyl.) a name that is published inaccordance with the PhyloCode, which may or may not be an
acceptable or accepted name.

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established neotype: (prok.) a neotype (q.v.) that was proposed two or
more years earlier in the International Journal of Systematic andEvolutionary Microbiology (formerly the International Journal of
Systematic Bacteriology) and which has not been objected to.
establishment: the process requiring certain criteria detailed in a Code to
be fulfilled on publication before a name can be taken into
consideration for nomenclatural purposes; see established name..
et, [&]: and; used, for example, in the author citation of a name which two
authors published jointly to link the names of the publishing authors;e.g. Berk. et Broome or Berk. & Broome.
et al., [et aliorum, & al.; pl. et alii]: and others; used in the author citationof a name or of literature with three or more authors; e.g. citing"Brickell, Baum, Hetterscheid, Leslie, McNeill, Trehane, Vrugtman& Wiersema (2004)" as "Brickell et al. (2004)".
et seq., [et sequens]: and the following; used, for example, in abibliographic reference after a page number to indicate that thefollowing pages should also be referred to; see cfr, ff. .
-etales: (phyt., obsol.) the suffix once used for terminating the name of asyntaxon in the rank of class; see -etea.
-etalia: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rank oforder.
-etea: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rank ofclass.
-etosum: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rankof subassociation.
-etum: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rank ofassociation.
etymology, [etym.]: the linguistic derivation of a word.
Eu-, [eu-]: prefix, true. (1) (bot., prok., obsol.) formerly sometimes used forthe names of subdivisions of genera which included the type speciesof the genus by adding the prefix, e.g. Carex sect. Eucarex, but nolonger permitted; see autonym. (2) (phyt.) sometimes used and still
permitted for the names of subordinate syntaxa with the samecharacteristic species as the higher syntaxon; see compound name.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

euphonic, [euphonius]: of the sound of a word when pronounced, one
which is pleasant to the ear; see stem.
ex: from; (1) (bio., bot., phyt.) used in the author citation of names to link
the name of an author who has not validly published a name withthat of the author who validated the same name (e.g. Stenocybe Nyl.
ex Körb. indicates a name coined but not validly published by
Nylander which was subsequently validated by Körber who credited
the name to Nylander); used in cases where the name itself has beentaken from a manuscript, letter, specimen, or the invalid publicationof the first author, but the text of the description has been provided
by the validating second author (cfr revived name, nomen revictum);see also in. (3) (bot., unoff.) in citing material examined, to indicate
the first came from a collection other than in which it is now housed,(e.g. “BM ex K” for a specimen now at the Natural History Museum
London but previously kept at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew). (4)(bot.) of the nomenclatural type of the name where that is a living
culture preserved in a metabolically inactive state (e.g. ex holotypo,
ex isotypo, ex typo); see also ex-type. (5) (phyl.) used as a prefix forthe author of a converted name (q.v.) of a clade, one based on a preexisting name established under a different Code; the “-ex” is placed
before the name of the author who published the name under thedifferent Code.
Ex.: see exemplar, Example.
*Ex.: see voted example.
ex affinis, [ex aff.]: of affinity to; sometimes used to indicate that a
specimen being identified is similar to, but not necessarily identicalwith, the named taxon.
ex grupo, [ex gr.]: of the group of.
ex parte, [e.p.]: (obsol.) in part; see pro parte.
Example, [Ex.]: (bot.) examples are given in a Code to elucidate theArticles and Recommendations; examples are not integral parts of
the Articles or Recommendations (unless they are a voted*Example, [*Ex.]; q.v.), and neither modify nor amplify them;should one be found to be in conflict with an Article, it is not to befollowed unless it is a voted example (q.v.).

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excl.: see excluded.
excl. gen.: see excluded genus.
excl. sp., [spp.]: see excluded species.
excl. spec.: see excluded specimens.
excl. var.: see excluded variety.
exclamation mark, [!]: often used after a museum or herbarium
abbreviation (e.g. FH!) or collection number to indicate that thematerial has been examined by the author of the work.
exclusion: the act of removing or eliminating some element of taxon, in
nomenclature usually of species excluded from genera or types
excluded from species; see excluded, superfluous name.
excluded, [exclusus, -a, -is, -um; excl.]: (1) (zool.), of a name, one thatcannot be an available name, or one that has been disclaimed. (2)(zool.), of a specimen or component, one that has been explicitly
omitted or removed from a type-series or a name-bearing type. (3)(bot.) any elements included in a taxon by a previous author or
authors, but considered not to belong to it by the writer andexcluded from it by the latter; see also explicit exclusion.
excluded genus, [exclusis genere, excl. gen.]: with the genus excluded.
excluded name: see excluded.
excluded species, [exclusa speciei, excl. sp.; pl. excl. spp.]: with thespecies excluded.
excluded specimen, [exclusis speciminibus, excl. spec., excl. specim.]:with the specimen(s) excluded.
excluded subspecies, [exclusis subspeciei, excl. subsp.; pl. excl. ssp.]:with the subspecies excluded.
excluded variety, [exclusis varietibus, excl. var.]: with the varieties
excluded.
exclusus: see excluded.
Executive Committee: (vir.) a body elected by the ICTV (q.v.) to consider
taxonomic and nomenclatural proposals, to prepare proposals to74

Terms used in Bionomenclature
ICTV for changes, and to publish regular reports on the current
taxonomy of viruses.

exemplar, [Ex.]: (unoff.) of a taxon, one selected to represent a taxon ofhigher rank, e.g. species representative of a genus.
exerge: (zool., obsol.) a proposed term for a rank equivalent to that ofsubspecies.
exfamiliaris: (zool., unoff.) used in a similar manner to familiaris (q.v.) toindicate feral forms of domesticated animals; see praefamiliaris.
ex-holotype [ex holotypo]; see ex-type.
ex-isotype: [ex isotypo]; see ex-type.
exotypus: (zool., obsol.) proposed as an equivalent category to form (q.v.).
explicit exclusion: (1) in a Code, a statement as to an exception to theapplication of that Code, or of particular provisions of that Code. (2)of a specimen, scientific name or type, one stated as excluded fromthe circumscription of a taxon by an author, e.g. by the use of "excl."(q.v.) before the name or specimen.
explicit typification: (unoff.) an act of typification in which an author
designates the type; cfr implicit typification.
exsiccate: colloquial non-Latin usage for exsiccata (q.v.).
exsiccata [noun, pl. exsiccatae; adjective, exsiccatus, -um]: a set of dried
specimens, usually numbered and with printed labels, distributed by
sale, gift, or exchange; e.g. Fungi exsiccati: a set of dried fungi); an
exsiccate.
extant: (1) of a taxon, having one or more living representatives(organisms) at the present time, or at some specified time sincehumans began keeping written historical records. (2) of a specimen,
one still in existence.
external specifier: (phyl.) a species or specimen that is explicitly excluded
from the clade whose name is being defined; branch-based andbranch-modified node-based definitions have external specifiers, but
apomorphy-based, standard node-based, and apomorphy-modified
node-based definitions do not; see internal specifier.
extinct: of a taxon, one having no living representatives.

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ex-type, [ex typo]: (1) from the type; used for example for microscopic
slide preparations made from type material. (2) (bot.) a living isolate
made from the type of a name when this is a culture permanently
preserved in a metabolically inactive state; the kind of type can also
be indicated (e.g. ex-holotype, ex-lectotype). (2) (zool.) part of theoriginal type specimen separated from that original.

f.: (1) form (q.v.); (2) figure (q.v.); (3) filius (q.v.)
f. sp. [pl. ff. sp.]; see special form.
F1 hybrid: (cult. pl.) a plant breeding term for the result of a repeatablecross between two pure-bred lines.
F2 hybrid: (cult. pl.) a plant breeding term for the result of self-pollination
within a population of F1 hybrids.
facies: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon, subordinate tosubassociation but not covered by the Code.
facsimile: of a work, an exact reproduction, produced by copying andreprinting the original pages photographically or by electronic
scanning; the production of a facsimile edition does not affect thedate of publication for nomenclatural purposes, which remains thatof the original.
facultative synonym: a taxonomic synonym (q.v.).
fam.: see familiaris, family.
familiaris, [fam.]: (zool., unoff.) appended in quotation marks after thename of a wild ancestor of a domesticated animal (e.g. Canis lupus'familiaris'), or placed in rounded brackets before the subspecies
epithet in a trinomen of the ancestor (e.g. Canis lupus (fam.)palustris), to indicate the taxon from which the domesticate has
been derived; see exfamiliaris, praefamiliaris.
family, [familia, fam.; pl. families, familiae, fams]: (1) (bot., zool.) a
taxon at the rank of family, the principal rank between order andgenus. (2) (zool.) a rank within the family group (q.v.).

76

Terms used in Bionomenclaturefamily group: (1) (bio.) the ranks of superfamily, family, and subfamily.
(2) (zool.) taxa at the ranks of superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe,and any other rank below superfamily and above the genus groupthat may be required, such as subtribe.
family group name: (zool.) a scientific name of any taxon of the familygroup (q.v.), and the highest ranking group of taxa whose names are
fully regulated by the Code.
family name: see name.
fancy epithet: (cult. pl.) an epithet in a language other than Latin; a fancy
name.
fancy name: see fancy epithet.
fascicle: a separately issued or bound part of a book, exsiccatae, or serial
publication; usually called a “number” in the case of journals orother serial publications.
Fauna: a published work describing the animals growing in an area; cfr
fauna, Flora, Funga, Mycobiota, Mycota.
fauna: the animals growing in an area; cfr Fauna, flora, funga, mycobiota,
mycota.
federation, [federion]: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon,
equivant to alliance, but not covered by the Code.
federion: a federation (q.v.).
fermentative type: (prok., obsol.) used as a subdivision of a serotype (q.v.)
in which the fermentation reactions differs.
ff., [folios following]: (1) after a page number reference, to indicate also thefollowing pages (e.g. p. 240 ff.). (2) as an indicator of rank, forms;
see form.
ff. sp.; see special form(s).
fide: according to, used before the name of an author whose written work is
being quoted; see also teste.
field: (1) in taxonomy, a taxon or set of taxa studied by a taxonomist. (2) ofspecimens, ones collected from or examined in nature, and not as
preserved, cultured or cultivated material. (3) of work, that carried

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
out to survey, collect specimens, so carry out in situ studies. (4) of
microbial strains, ones recently isolated from nature.

figure, [fig.]: a reference either to a numbered illustration in the text of awork, or to a numbered portion of a plate.
figure-type: (zool., unoff.) the original figure or illustration of a typespecimen; an iconotype (q.v.). (2) (zool., unoff.) a phototype (q.v.).
filius, [f., fil.]: son; used in author citations to help distinguish a father andson (e.g. L. f. for Linnaeus’ son).
-filomanoj: (unoff.) proposed termination in Esperanto for a name in therank of phylum in the New Biological Nomenclature (q.v.).
final epithet: (bio., bot.) the last epithet in sequence in any particular
combination, whether in the rank of a subdivision of a genus, or of a
species, or of an infraspecific taxon.
first reviser: see Principle of the First Reviser.
first species method: of typification, the automatic selection of the first
named species as the type of the name of a genus; not generally
acceptable (bot., zool.); (bot.) an “American Code” typification if allother conditions were not met; see mechanical methods.
fixation: (zool.) a general term for the determination of a name-bearing
type, whether by original designation, or by any other means; seealso designation, monotypy, tautonomy.
fixation by elimination: (zool.) the supposed fixation of a type species by
the subsequent transfer of all but one of the originally included
nominal species from a genus; not in itself an available method oftype fixation.
floating: of a taxon, one not classified in one or more ranks of thetaxonomic hierarchy; see incertae sedis, unassigned.
Flora: a published work describing the plants growing in an area; cfr
Fauna, flora, Funga, Mycobiota, Mycota.
flora: the plants growing in an area; cfr Flora.
floruit, [fl.]: flourished; used before the date of an author of a name toindicate when he was actively publishing, especially when the datesof birth and death are unknown.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

foederatio: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon, equivant toalliance (q.v.).
folio. [fo.]: a leaf of a book or manuscript; sometimes used to indicate
separate parts of a work; see also ff.
font: see fount.
forgotten name, [nomen oblitum, nom. obl.; pl. nomina oblita]: (1)(unoff.) a name that has not been taken up many years after its
introduction although it is the correct name for an accepted species.
(2) (zool.) applied after 1 January 2000 to a name, unused since
1899, which as a result of an action taken under the Code does nottake precedence over a younger synonym or homonym in prevailingusage; the younger name that takes precedence over the nomen
oblitum may be called a nomen protectum; the term nomen oblitum
was also applied to a disused senior synonym rejected between 6
November 1961 and 1 January 1973 under the Code editions then inforce; nomina oblita remain available names unless a juniorsynonym has been used more than a specified number of times in
the immediately preceding 50 years (i.e. 25 works published by atleast 10 authors and encompassing a span of not less than 10 years).
form, [forma, f.; pl. formae, ff.]: (1) (bot.) the lowest principle rank
recognized in the taxonomic hierarchy in the Code, and subordinate
to species (or subspecies, or variety or subvariety). (2) (zool.) a termthat if published after 1960 is deemed to denote an infrasubspecificrank, but if published before 1961 is interpreted according to special
provisions in the Code. (3) those individuals of a species differing,in a stated way, from other individuals within the species (e.g. larval
and adult forms, male and female forms, ecological forms, seasonal
forms). (4) (zool., unoff.) used as a prefix to the name of adomesticated animal, following that of its wild ancestor. (5) (notnomenclatural) shape or outward appearance; often appearing intaxonomic publications in this sense when it is not to be confusedwith the rank of form.
form-genus: (palaeo. bot., obsol.) one that is maintained for classifying
fossil specimens that lack diagnostic characters indicative of naturalaffinity but which for practical purposes need to be provided withbinary names; form-genera are artificial in varying degrees and are

79

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
not assignable to a family; see also morphotaxon, pleomorphic
fungi, special form.

form species: (1) (palaeo. bot., unoff.) a morphologically delimited
category of a disarticulated organ that, within the context of aparticular comparative study, is perceived to lack unqiue character
states (and thus is assignable to multiple whole-plant species); ashared organ species (q.v.); see also autapospecies. (2) (prok.,obsol.) species within a genus characterized by small differences inmorphology.
form-taxon: (mycol.) in pleomorphic fungi, a taxon typified by ananamorph.
forma: see form.
forma alicuius loci: (zool., unoff., obsol.) proposed for an individual
variety, which in the case of polymorphism, is restricted to a portionof the range of the respective variety or species.
forma apomicta, [pl. formae apomictae]: (bot., unoff.) an apomict of thenamed species.
forma biologica: (bot., obsol.) a biological race.
forma specialis, [f. sp.; pl. formae speciales, f. spp.]: see special form.
forma tempestatis: (zool., unoff., obsol.) proposed to indicate a "generator
variety", seasonal in Lepidoptera.
formation: (1) (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon, equivant
to class but not covered by the Code. (2) see formulation.
Formenkreise: (unoff.) used for specimens or groups of specimens of anuncertain infraspecific category.
formula mixture: (cult. pl.) a seed mixture made from known components
to a pre-determined formula for any defined market.
formula, [pl. -ae]: (1) (zool.) modifications of available names throughout
a taxonomic group by the addition of a standard prefix or suffix inorder to indicate that the taxa named are members of that group;
zoological formulae are excluded from the provisions of the Code;suffixes of family-group names denote ranks, not taxonomic groups,
and do not form zoological formulae. (2) (bot.) a designation of a

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
hybrid or hybrid group, formed by connecting the names or epithetsof the parents, or parts of these names or epithets, by arbitrary signs(e.g. “x” or a hyphen), or by uniting them into one. (3) (cult. pl.), seecondensed formula.

formulation: sometimes used for the way in which a name is formed, i.e.
the etymology of a name.
fossil: an organism, or a part of an organism, preserved by some natural
means; or the impression or petrifaction left in rock upon thedecomposition of such an organism; see subfossil.
fossil taxon: (palaeo. bot.) a taxon the name of which is based on a fossil(q.v.) type.
fototype: see phototype.
fount, [font]: the character set, i.e. letters and figures, used by a printer.
four-way cross: (cult. pl.) the repeatable crossing of four F1 hybrids (q.v.).
fragmotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen represented by a single bodypart; see also giraultotype.
frontispiece: an illustration on a page facing the title page of a book;generally unnumbered.
Funga: (mycol.) proposed name for a published work describing the fungi
growing in an area (e.g. Funga Nordica); cfr Flora, funga,
Mycobiota, Mycota.
funga: (mycol.) proposed for the fungi growing in an area; cfr fauna, flora,
Funga, mycobiota, mycota.
fungarium, [pl. fungaria]: proposed for a dried collection of fungal
specimens, i.e. a fungal herbarium; see also mycarium.
fungi imperfecti: see pleomorphic fungi.

gamete: a reproductive cell (or coenobium) capable of development as a
new individual, normally only after union with another gamete.

81

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

gathering: (bot.) used for a collection of one or more specimens made at
the same place and time, usually thought by the collector torepresent a single species or infraspecific taxon; see also mixed
gathering.
gen.: see genus.
gen. rev.: see genus revivisco.
gen. sp. nov., [gen. et sp. nov.]: used when introducing a new monotypic
genus and its’ single species in the same work, for example bypublication of a descriptio generico-specifica (q.v.).
gender: (1) a grammatical characteristic of nouns in some languages thatmay determine the way in which they, and adjectives and pronouns
applied to them, are inflected; in Latin, Greek and many modern
languages there are four genders, masculine, feminine, neuter, andcommon. (2) (zool.) of a genus group name, a grammatical property(masculine, feminine or neuter) that affects the way in which Latinor latin adjectival or participial species-group names are spelled,
since the gender form of such species-group names must agree withthe gender of the generic-group name with which it is combined; see
ending, grammatical agreement.
gene bank: a place where genetic variants are physically stored in a viablestate; sometimes also used for genetic resource centres (q.v.),
microbial resource centres and seed banks; not to be confused with
GenBank where molecular sequence data is stored.
gene pool: the range of generic variation found in a population.
geneatype: (not nomenclatural, obsol.) proposed as an alternative to thegenetical use of genotype, apparently to avoid possible confusion
with the use of genotype in nomenclature.
geneonym: see genonym.
General Committee: (bot.) a body appointed by an International BotanicalCongress and mandated to oversee the whole field of botanicalnomenclature, receive reports from other Committees, and appoint
other Committees if necessary, between International BotanicalCongresses; the IUBS scientific member for BotanicalNomenclature.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

generic designation: a name referring to any multiplicity of objects having
one or more properties in common which distinguishes it from othergroups of objects; a name itself.
generic name: (prok., bot., cult. pl., vir., zool.) (1) a scientific name of ataxon of the rank of genus. (2) (zool.) the first name of a trinomial;
see genus-group name.
generic: of taxonomic units, ones pertaining to a genus.
generitype: (1) (unoff.) the type of a generic name, i.e. the type species. (2)(zool.) a genotype (q.v.).
generotype: (zool., unoff.) the type species of a genus; see genotype.
genet: (1) (bot., mycol.) a genetically different individual or clonal
population, distinguished by its genetic make-up; see ramet. (2)(zool., not bionomenclatural) a mammal of the mongoose and civet
family.
Genetic resource centre, [GRC]: a collection of permanently preserved
viable material, such as cultures of cell lines, fungi, othermicroorganisms, DNA samples, or seeds; a biological resource
centre (q.v.); see also culture collection, seed bank.,
genetically modified organism, [GMO]: an organism with new characters
following the implantation of alien genetic material.
genetotype: (bot., not nomenclatural) proposed for sets of individuals
showing similar characters with a genetic basis and distributed moreor less at random within the geographical range of a species orsubspecies; see also genetovar.
genetovar.: (bot., unoff., obsol.) proposed for use in the nomenclatural
citation of a genetotype (q.v.).
genoholotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a single species specified by the author ofa genus name as the generic type. (2) (zool., unoff.) a figure that isregarded as the type of a genus-group name. (3) (zool., unoff.) the
species on which a monotypic genus is founded.
genoisotype: (zool., unoff.) a genotype with an isotype
genolectotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a genus selected subsequent to theoriginal description from a series of species originally placed in the

83

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
genus, i.e. one chosen from a series of syntypes; a type species bysubsequent designation; see also lectotype.

genome: (1) (not nomenclatural), the full complement of inheritable genetic
material of an organism encoded in the DNA (or in some cases
RNA). (2) (vir.) the polynucleotide molecule or molecules whichcontain(s) the information needed for productive replication on avirus in nature.
genomorph: (1) a polyphyletic taxon at the rank of genus or subgenus
which contains superficially similar, but not closely related, taxa. (2)(palaeo.) a species that differs from the type species of the genus asa consequence of evolutionary changes over an extended period oftime.
genomospecies: (prok., not nomenclatural), a species defined by DNA
relatedness, whether named or not; a genospecies (q.v.)
genomotype: (prok., not nomenclatural), a particular genetic make-up of anindividual or taxon; see also genotype.
genomovar: (prok., not nomenclatural):genomospecies (q.v.).

genomic

groupsofagenoneotype: (zool., unoff.) a genotype with a neotype.
genonym, [geneonym] : (zool., unoff.) the name of a genus.
genoparatype: (zool., unoff.) a genotype with a paratype.
genoplesiotype: (zool., unoff.) used to replace plesiotype (q.v.) whenemployed at generic rank.
genospecies: (1) (zool., unoff.) interbreeding populations of interfertile
morphs contributing to a common gene pool. (2) (prok., unoff.) agroup of strains amongst which genetic exchange occurs. See also
genomospecies.
genosyntype: (zool., unoff.) one of a series of species on which a genus
was established, where none was designated as the type by theauthor.
genotype: (1) (not nomenclatural) the total genetic make-up of anindividual, organism or taxon, regardless of its outward appearance;
see also phenotype. (2) (zool., obsol.) the specimen on which a

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
genus or subgenus is based; see also generitype. (3) (zool., obsol.)the type species of a genus; the genoholotype (q.v.). (4) (zool.,
obsol.) the type species of a section. (5) (zool., obsol.) any specimenof the type species of a genus.

gens (palaeont., unoff.) proposed for a collection of palaeospecies (q.v.) in amonophyletic succession.
genus, [gen.; pl. genera]: the principal category of taxa in thenomenclatural hierarchy between family and species; the first part ofa binomen (q.v.) or binary name (q.v.) for a species.
genus group: (1) (bio.) the ranks of genus and subgenus. (2) (zool.) in thehierarchy of classification the group of taxa between the familygroup and the species group, including taxa at the ranks of genus
and subgenus; names of collective groups and ichnotaxa establishedat the genus group level, are treated as genus group names.
genus group name: (zool.) a scientific name in the genus group (q.v.); seealso generic name, nominal genus.
genusbox: (palaeo., obsol.), see timeslot.
geotype: (zool., unoff,): a specimen from the type locality; a topotype(q.v.).
giraultotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen that is represented by only thedistinguishng character of the species.
gluotype: ducotype (q.v.).
GMO: see genetically modified organism.
Gp: (cult. pl.) group (q.v.).
grade: (1) (not nomenclatural) the product and unit of anagenesis (i.e. alltypes of biological improvement). (2) (not nomenclatural) a level ofmorphological complexity, by which organisms can be grouped, but
generally polyphyletic and a result of convergent evolution; cfr
clade. (3) (zool., obsol.) a taxonomic rank or category of thetaxonomic hierarchy between subkingdom and phylum.
graded comparison: (palaeo.) a formally stated comparison of anobservation record with a base taxon.
graft: see graft-chimaera.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

graft hybrid: (obsol.) see graft-chimaera.
graft-chimaera, [graft, graft hybrid]: (cult. pl.) a plant consisting oftissue from two or more different taxonomic units in intimate
association, effected by grafting; named in a parallel manner tohybrids using the sign “+” with either the names of the parents or acondensed formula.
grafting: (cult. pl.) the (usually deliberate) fusion of tissue from two or
more different plants.
grammatic agreement: adjectives given the inflexion appropriate to thegender, number and case of the noun to which they apply; pronouns
which have an inflexion appropriate to the gender and number of thenoun they replace.
graphic process: a method by which a large number of identical copies areprepared from a single original or master copy other thanmechanically; (bot.) this excludes carbon copies.
graphocultype: (unoff.) the first description or photograph or drawing of
the holocultype (q.v.), in the absence of the culture of a particular
microorganism.
graphotype: (zool., obsol.) a preoccupied type, i.e. one on which a namehas previously been based.
Greek: as used in bionomenclature, generally refers to ancient and notmodern Greek.
greges: (cult. pl.) the nominative plural form of grex; grexes.
grex, [gx, gr.]: (1) (cult. pl.) a type of group used in orchid nomenclatureapplied to the progeny of an artificial cross from specified parents.
(2) (cult. pl., unoff.) a subsidiary unit for the classification ofvariability within subspecies.
group: (1) (prok.) an informal taxon, based upon antigenic analysis,
consisting of an assemblage of serotypes (q.v.). (2) (zool.) an
assemblage of coordinate taxa (e.g. genus-group). (3) (cult. pl.) a
formal category denoting an assemblage of cultivars, individual
plants, or assemblages of plants on the basis of defined similarity;
Gp. (4) (vir.) a viral taxon of uncertain rank, as yet not designatedeither as a family or as a genus. (5) (unoff.) a non-committal name86

Terms used in Bionomenclature
without nomenclatural significance for an assemblage of organismsof uncertain position in the taxonomic hierarchy. (6) (notnomenclatural) a collection of organisms from a single source, e.g. a
locality, a host. See also collective group, taxonomic group, taxon.

group number: (prok., obsol.) a characterizing code used in early versionsof the Society of American Bacteriologists descriptive chart but
deleted from later versions.
gx: (cult. pl.) grex (q.v.).
gynetype: (zool., unoff.) a female type specimen; see androtype..

hallucinotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon described while the author
was under the influence of drugs (!).
hamatype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen from the type-series which was not
specified as a holotype or paratype; a syntype: (q.v.).
hand-pollination: (cult. pl.) the controlled act of pollination that should
exclude the possibility of open-pollination.
handwritten: the immediate product of a person writing; see autograph.
hapantotype: (zool.) one or more preparations consisting of directly related
individuals representing distinct stages in the life-cycle, which
together form the name-bearing type in an extant species ofprotistan; a hapantotype, while a series if individuals, is a holotype
and must not be restricted by lectotype selection; however, if ahapantotype is found to contain individuals or more than one
species, components may be excluded until it contains individuals of
only one species.
haplotype: (zool., unoff.) the single species included in a genus at the timeof the original description; see also monotype.
haplotypic: see monotypic.
haptotype: (bot., unoff.) an icotype (q.v.) collected with the holotype but
possibly taken from a different plant.
hb., [herbarium, Hb., herb., Herb.]: see herbarium.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

heautotype: (palaeo. zool., obsol.): a specimen figured by an author in an
illustration of a species or subspecies which had previously been
described by that author and compared with the type or cotype; akind of plesiotype; see also autotype, hypotype.
heberotype: (zool. unoff.) a unique type specimen that has been used formolecular analysis that failed and is only left with a barcode label toidentify it (!).
hectographing: the making of copies of text and figures from a preparedgelatine surface to which the original has been transferred.
hemihomonymy: (zool.) the situation where the names of a high-level
uninomen and a low-level uninomen are identical (e.g. the name ofan order and a genus), even when the high-level taxon uninomen is
not typified by similarly spelt genus-level name (e.g. family-groupnames and genus-level names ending in "-ina").
hemitype: (zool., unoff.) a type represented by only half of its original
body.
herbarium, [pl. herbaria; hb., Hb., herb., Herb.]: (1) a collection of dried
botanical specimens; see also fungarium, mycarium. (2) the buildingin which such a collection is housed.
heterodefinitional: (phyl.) based on different phylogenetic definitions; seesynonym.
heterogen: a variable group of organisms arising as hybrids, sports or othermutations.
heterogeneous: a taxon which as circumscribed includes two or moreelements which are considered to belong to one or more other taxa.
heterotype: (zool., unoff.) a type derived by combining the characters of
two or more different species.
heterotypic: differing from the type.
heterotypic synonym: (bio., bot.) a name based on a different type fromthat of the accepted name of taxon; a subjective synonym in zool.
and prok.; see also taxonomic synonym; syntaxonomic synonym.
heterotypical: (zool., unoff.) of a genus, one including several genericallyunrelated species.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

hic designatus: designated here; used (especially in bot.) to make clear thata lectotype/ neotype/epitype is being selected by an author.
hierarchy, [hierarchical system]: (1) a system of classification based on asequence of categories ranked by their increasing levels of
inclusiveness. (2) all the categories of taxa arranged in orderaccording to their ranks.
hipotype: see hypotype.
historical synonyms: (prok.) synonyms not included in the Approved List,and generally placed in inverted commas (q.v.) when mentioned inlists of synonyms.
hoaxotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a fraudulently planted type intended toconfuse others (!). (2) (zool., unoff.) a unique type constructed ofparts of several unrelated higher taxa; see also ducotype.
heterotype: (zool., unoff.) a type derived by combining the characters of
two or more different species.
holaedoeotype, [holaedotype, holaaedeotypus]: (zool., unoff.) an
aedoeotype (q.v.), a preparation made from the holotype of a
species.
Holocene: the epoch that covers the last 10 000 years BP; recent.
holocultype: (unoff.) the original strain of a microorganism cultivated by
the author of the taxon, fully described and cited as type by the sametaxonomist and maintained in culture without evident modification.
holograph: (bot., obsol.) a handwritten document.
holohomotype, [holohomoiotype]: a homoeotype of the same sex as theholotype or lectotype; see homotype.
hololectotype: see lectotype.
holomorph: (1) (prok., zool., unoff.) all the character states of an organism,
i.e. including morphological and physiological ones; the wholeorganism. (2) (mycol.) a pleomorphic fungal species in all its
morphs; i.e. including the teleomorph (q.v.) and one or moreanamorphs (q.v.); see pleomorphic fungus.
holoneotype: see neotype.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

holoparalectotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen from a series ofparalectotypes (q.v.) that is of the same sex as the holotype.
holoparatype: (zool., unoff.) a paratype (q.v.) of the same sex as theholotype.
holopathotype: (prok., unoff.) the single strain designated by the original
author as the type strain of a newly described pathovar.
holoplastotype: (zool., unoff.) the cast of a holotype; a plastoholotype(q.v.).
holoplesiotype: (zool., unoff.) a hypotype (q.v.) of the same sex as theholotype.
holosyntype, [holosyntypus]: (phyt.) erroneously used to replace"holotypus" in the nomenclature of syntaxa.
holotype, [holotypus]: (1) the one specimen (zool.: except in the case of a
hapanotype, q.v.), or (bot.) illustration, or other single element (e.g.
in phyt. a designated relevé) used by the author or designated by theauthor as the nomenclatural type (name-bearing type, typespecimen) of a taxon or (phyt.) syntaxon or (zool.) nominal species
or subspecies when the name (zool.: nominal taxon) was established(i.e. at the time of its original publication); see also nominifer. (2)(zool., obsol.) a genotype (q.v.)
homeotype, [homeotypical]: see homotype.
homocultype: a strain of a microorganism as far as possible identified withthe archecultype (q.v.), but from another source or isolate.
homodefinitional: (phyl.) based on the same phylogenetic definitions; seesynonym.
homoeotype: see homotype.
homoiotype: see homotype.
homologous: (1) (phyl.) of characters shared by virtue of inheritance from acommon ancestor; a character or character state shared by twoorganisms (which may represent different species or clades) is said
to be homologous if that character or character state was present inall of their ancestors back to and including their most recent
common ancestor. (2) (prok., unoff.) in serology, of the antigen used

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
to stimulate the production of antibody is homologous with that
antibody.

homology: (not nomenclatural) having a common origin; see homologous..
homonym: (1) (bot., phyt., prok.) a name spelled exactly like another namepublished for a taxon of the same rank based on a different type;
names of subdivisions of genera or infraspecific taxa with the sameepithet even if of different rank are treated as homonyms
disregarding the connecting term (q.v.). (2) (zool.) in the familygroup, each of two available names, having the same spelling, ordiffering only in suffix and denoting different nominal taxa; see alsohemihomonymy. (3) (zool.) in the genus group, each of two or moreavailable names having the same spelling, and denoting different
nominal taxa. (4) (zool.) in the species group, each of two or moreavailable specific or subspecific names having the same spelling, or
spellings deemed under the Code to be the same, and established for
different nominal taxa, and either originally (primary homonym) or
subsequently (secondary homonym) combined with the samegeneric name; see also junior homonym, senior homonym. (5) (bio.)a family group, genus group, or species group name, or one of its
coordinate names, spelled exactly like a name based on a different
type that was previously established for a taxon of the same rank.
(6) (phyl.) a name that is spelled identically to another name thatrefers to a different taxon; i.e. identically spelled clade names basedon different phylogenetic definitions. (7) (phyt.) validly publishednames based on different nomenclatural types and spelt identically.
homonymy: (1) the relationship between homonyms (q.v.). (2) the state ofbeing homonymous.
homoplastic: (not nomenclatural) of similar characters, ones not due tocommon ancestry.
homoplasy: (not nomenclatural) the situation where organisms show
similarities or resemblances that are not due to common ancestry;
see homoplastic.
homotopotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen from the original locality of a
species, but not identified by the original author of the species; see
tophomeotype.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

homotype, [homeotype, homoeotype, homoiotype, homeotypical]: (1)(zool., unoff.) any specimen that has been directly compared withthe holotype by someone other than the original author who isrecognized as an authority on the group of organisms concerned andconsidered to belong to the same species or subspecies; see also
metatype. (2) (prok., unoff.) a strain of the same species and thenomenclatural type. (3) (not nomenclatural) also used for organs
formed or constructed according to the same plan or type.
homotypic synonym: (bio., bot.) a synonym based on the same type as thatof another name in the same rank (e.g. different combinations withthe same basionym); a nomenclatural synonym; an objectivesynonym in (prok.) and (zool.).
hortulanorum, [hort.]: (bot., cult. pl.,unoff.) of gardeners; in citations ofscientific names, used to indicate a name used by gardeners.
hortus, [hort., horti; pl. hortorum]: (bot., cult. pl., unoff.) a garden, or of
the garden; in citations of specimens, used to denote material ofgarden origin.
hortus siccus: (bot., obsol.) a collection of dried plants; see exsiccata,herbarium.
host: a living organism that furnishes food and(or) lodging to another (i.e. acommensal, mutualist, parasite, or other symbiont); see also
symbiotype.
host type: see locality type.
HT: holotype (q.v.).
hybrid: the progeny of the sexual union of individuals belonging todifferent taxa; a sexual hybrid; see also graft hybrid, mechanicalhybrid.
hybrid formula: (bio., bot., cult. pl., phyl.; and zool., unoff.) an expression
consisting of the names of the parent taxa of a hybrid with amultiplication sign (q.v.), x, placed between them; designating asingle organism or set of organisms of hybrid origin.
hybrid name: (prok.) a name formed by combining words derived fromdifferent languages.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

hyphen, [-] : (1) used typographically to link together two words or parts ofa single word when it is split, e.g. when printed. (2) used to join two
parts of a compound specific or infraspecific name to show that theyshould be pronounced independently (e.g. nidus-avis); in (bot.)
hyphens cannot be introduced if not used by the author when thename was validly published, but can be suppressed by later users of
the name (i.e. usage is optional); in (zool.) permitted when the firstelement of a species-group name is a letter to denote a character(e.g. c-album). (3) the first two words of an expression if used tomodify a third (e.g. genus-group names). (4) (phyl., prop.) proposed
as a method of indicating a converted species name in phylogenetic
nomenclature, e.g. Sturnus-vulgaris, see also dot.
hypodigm: (unoff.) all the specimens personally known to and regarded at
a given time by an author as unequivocal members of a taxon, andused collectively as the sample on which the author’s inferences as
to the taxon are based; i.e. the circumscription given to a taxon in aparticular work.
hypomorphonym: (unoff.) the name of an infraspecific taxon.
hyponym: (1) (obsol.) a name that cannot be recognized because of thevagueness or inadequacy of the original description. (2) (bot.,obsol.) a name of uncertain application; i.e. the taxon to which it
applies is undetermined. (3) (zool., unoff.) a name rejected in theabsence of a type. (4) (unoff.) a synonym that represents a taxon thatencompasses a narrower range of variation than represented by thetaxons currently accepted name; see holonym, hypernym. (5) (zool.,
unoff.) a generic name not based on a type species; a provisional or
temporary name.
hypoparatype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen used in preparing the descriptionof a new taxon but not designated as a paratype.
hypoplastotype: (zool., unoff.) an artificial model of a secondary type(q.v.).
hypothetical concept: (zool.) a taxonomic concept that when publishedcontained no animal then known to exist in nature, past or present,
but only in the mind of the author whether a prediction or not.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

hypotype: (zool., obsol.) a described or figured specimen, other than thetype, used in a publication extending or correcting the knowledge ofa previously defined species; a subsequent or supplementary type;see also apotype, epitype, heutotype, plesiotype.

i.e., [id est]: that is.
IAMS: (obsol.) the International Association for Microbiological Societies;
since 1979 the International Union of Microbiological Societies(q.v.).
IAPT: see International Association for Plant Taxonomy.
IBC: see International Botanical Congress.
ibid., [ibidem]: in the same place; used as short-hand when referring again
to a just-cited publication, or in a list of specimens examined where
one is from the same locality as the last cited.
ICB: see International Committee on Bionomenclature.
ICBN: see International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
ichnogenus: an ichnotaxon (q.v.) in the rank of genus.
ichnospecies: an ichnotaxon (q.v.) in the rank of species.
ichnotaxon: (palaeo. bio., palaeo. zool.) a taxon based on a trace fossil orthe fossilised work of an animal, including burrows, borings andetchings, tracks and trackways, coprolites, gastroliths, regurgitaliths,
nests, woven cocoons, spider webs, leaf mines, some types of galls,
bite and gnaw structures; names of ichnotaxa do not compete inpriority with a name established for an animal, even the animal thatformed or may have formed the trace fossil; see also work of ananimal.
ICNB: see International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria.
ICNCP: see (1) International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants.
(2) International Commission for the Nomenclature of CultivatedPlants.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

ICNP: see International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes, formerly
the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria.
iconotype: (1) (bot., unoff.) an illustration designated as the nomenclatural
type in the original account of a taxon when a specimen cannot bepreserved. (2) (bot., unoff.) the specimen on which an illustration
designated as a nomenclatural type is based. (3) (zool., unoff.) agraphic reproduction (illustration or photograph) of the type.
icoplastotype: (zool., unoff.) a cast of an icotype (q.v.).
icotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a reference specimen used for the identificationof a taxon the name of which has not been published. (2) (zool.,
unoff.) a specimen that is a part of a type-series that has been
examined by a specialist and is used for the purposes ofidentification of the species.
ICRA: see International Cultivar Registration Authority.
ICSB: see International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology.
ICSP: see International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes.
ICTF: see International Committee on the Taxonomy of Fungi.
ICTV: see International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses.
ICVCN: see International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature.
ICZN: (1) International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.).
(2) International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.).
id., [idem.; pl. iidem]: the same, e.g. idem atuque (identical with), idem ac(the same as).
-ida: (zool., unoff.) proposed as a possible standardized suffix for names in
the rank of order.
-idanae: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank of superclass;see also –mycia..
-idea: (1) (zool.) suffix added to the stem of a generic name to form thename of a family. (2) (bot.) suffix indicating that name of plants isin the rank of subclass, except in algae and fungi.
idealotype: (zool., unoff.) an artist's model of the perfect form of a taxon.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

identification: a statement of similarity of new specimens to a named taxon
by the application of the same name.
identification number: (unoff.) a proposal to replace taxon names by
numbers first made by C. Michener in 1963, but retaining
hierarchical ranks; see also positional number..
ideograph: the distinct character or figure symbolizing the idea of a thing
without expressing the name of it (e.g. the Chinese language iswritten in ideographs)..
ideotype, [idiotype]: (1) (palaeo. zool., obsol.) a specimen from some otherlocality than the original type (i.e. not a topotype) that has been
identified by the original author of the name to which it is referred,
generally at a date subsequent to the publication of the originaldescription, but which is not also a topotype. (2) (not nomenclatural)
the conceptual ideal or archetype of a taxon. (3) (cult. pl.) theconceptual idea or archetype of a series as used in the seed industry.
(4) (not nomenclatural) the total hereditary determinants of anindividual, comprising chromosomal and extrachromosomal factors.
idiogenotype: (zool., unoff.) the first type designated after an original
publication; see lectotype, logotype.
idionym: (obsol.) a homonym due to some error in identification of two or
more specimens which were suggested to be members of the same
species (e.g. Parietaria judaica Willd. 1805 nec Strand 1759); amisapplied name.
idiotype: see ideotype.
IJSB: see International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology.
IJSEM: see International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary
Microbiology.
illegitimate name, [nomen illegitimum, nom. illegit.]: (bot., cult. pl.,phyt., prok., vir.) a validly published name that is not in accordancewith one or more rules in the Code (principally those on superfluity
and homonymy); such names must be rejected unless conserved;
illegitimate names are validly published but are not to be taken into
consideration for the purposes of priority when the correct name of ataxon is being decided.

96

Terms used in Bionomenclatureillegitimate: not legitimate (q.v.).
illustration: a pictorial representation of an organism or parts of anorganism; a figure; see also illustration with analysis.
illustration with analysis: (bot.) an illustration with a figure or group of
figures, in vascular plants commonly separate from the main
illustration, showing details aiding identification; and with orwithout a separate caption.
immaturotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen which represents theimmature stage of an organism; see also nepionotype.
immutable: (zool., prop.) of the content of a work, one that cannot bechanged after publication, even for the correction of typographic
errors.
imperfect fungi: (mycol., obsol.) fungi having no known sexual state; seepleomorphic fungi.
imperfect stage: (mycol., obsol.) an anamorph (q.v.).
imperfect state: (mycol., obsol.) an anamorph (q.v.).
imperium: see empire.
implicit typification: (unoff.) an act of typification in which an author fails
to designate a type, but whose actions indicate that only one of theelements eligible must be the intended type; cfr explicit typification.
impression: the total number of copies of a work printed at one time; an
edition (q.v.) can consist of several impressions separated from eachother by a lapse of time.
impriorable: lacking priority (e.g. a junior homonym).
improper Latin termination: (bot.) a termination of a name or epithet notagreeing with the termination mandated by the Code (particularly ofones used to indicate a name in a particular rank).
in: (1) (bio., bot., prok.) used to connect the names of two persons, thesecond of which was the editor, or overall author, of a work towhich the first contributed the validating text or made a nameavailable; not part of the author citation (q.v.) and to be used only
when giving a bibliographic reference. (2) employed in

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
bibliographic citations to link the name of a person with thebibliographic details of the work being referred to.

in adnot., [in adnotatione]: in an annotation; i.e. as written by hand or
typed on a specimen label or in a note written or pasted into a book.
in herb., [in herbarium]: (bot.) sometimes used to indicate names written
on specimen labels but never validly published.
in litt., [in litteris]: in correspondence; in a letter or other document; seealso pers. comm.
in press: of a manuscript, one delivered to a printer or publisher andaccepted for publication but which has not yet been printed anddistributed (i.e. is not yet effectively published and available) at thetime of writing; often used in bibliographic citations where theactual page numbers of the paper or book chapter are not yet known.
in sched., [in schedula]: on a printed specimen label, especially ones froman exsiccatum printed and distributed separately from thespecimens.
in situ: in the original location.
in syn., [in synonymis]: sometimes used of a name that was listed insynonymy when published.
-ina: (bot., unoff.) a suffix to signify a suprageneric taxon purposefully not
assigned by their author to any formal rank recognized by the Code.
inadmissible: (1) not admissible (q.v.). (2) (bot.) a name in a form that
precludes its valid publication, or the use of a name or epithet,
contrary to the provisions of the Code.
inadvertent error: an incorrect spelling, such as a lapsus calami, or a
copyist’s or a printer’s error, not intended by the original author.
-inae: (1) (bot., prok.) a suffix added to indicate that a name is in the rankof subtribe. (2) (vir., zool.) suffix added to the stem of a genericname to form a name in the rank of subfamily.
inappropriate name: a name that denotes a character, or a quality, notpossessed by the taxon bearing that name (e.g. a species given theepithet “africana” when the holotype was actually collected in the
USA).

98

Terms used in Bionomenclatureincertae sedis: of an uncertain seat; i.e. of uncertain taxonomic position;
usually applied to family and generic names.
incidental mention: (bot., prok.) a name mentioned in passing in a
publication by an author who does not give any indication that he or
she accepted it or intended it to be adopted by others.
incl.: see inclusus.
inclusion: (1) (bot.) of the type of a name, is effected by citation of (a) the
holotype or the original type, or all syntypes, or all elements eligible
as types; (b) of the previously designated type; (c) the illustrationsof these; or (d) citation of the name itself, unless the type is at thesame time excluded either explicitly or by implication. (2) all
specific names originally included by an author when proposing a
new generic name.
inclusus, [incl.]: included, including; sometimes used to indicate thecircumscription of a taxon by the citation of its synonyms.
incognitotype: (zool., unoff.) a type for which the labels have been lost; adubiotype (q.v.).
incorrect original spelling: (zool.) an original spelling that is incorrectunder the Code.
incorrect subsequent spelling: (zool.) any change in the spelling of anavailable name other than a mandatory change or an emendation.
incorrect termination: (bot.) of a name, one where the termination of theword is either not the correct one for the intended rank of the name,or where it does not conform to the rules of Latin grammar.
-indae: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank of superfamily.
indelible: of written or printed matter that cannot be erased; an indelible
mark cannot be removed without also removing the substancemarked by it.
indelible autograph: (bot., cult. pl.) handwritten material reproduced bysome mechanical or graphic process (such as lithography, offset, or
metallic etching).
independence: (bot., prok., zool.) of Codes, the provision that asserts they
are independent from each other except in particular specified cases.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

independent: (prok.) of names, ones that do not constitute homonyms
because they are subject to different Codes.
indeterminate, -a, [indet.]: indeterminate; of specimens or species thatcannot be identified; see undetermined.
index: an alphabetical listing of the names or subjects in a work, usuallywith references to the page numbers on which they are treated; seealso Official Index.
index fossil: (paleo., not nomenclatural) a fossil characteristic of anassemblage zone and which as far as is known is restricted to it.
Index Bergeyana: (prok., obsol.) a catalogue of the thousands of bacterial
names proposed, which was published in 1966; see Approved List.
Index Fungorum: the de facto world mycological nomenclator (q.v.),
which aims to include all names proposed for fungi since 1753; now
maintained by a partnership of CBS—Fungal Diversity Centre,
CAB International, and Landcare Research; available free at
http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/indexfungorumpartnership.htm.
Index Herbariorum: a catalogue of the herbaria (q.v.; including fungaria)
throughout the world, prepared and published by the International
Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT), and providing
unambiguous abbreviations for the collections included; available
free at http://sweetgum.nybg.org/ih/herbarium_list.php.
Index Kewensis: a catalogue of seed plant names at the rank of family andbelow published since 1753, prepared by the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, which started publication in 1893, and also now
includes ferns and fern allies; digitized in the International Plant
Names Index (q.v.).
Index Nominum Genericorum Plantarum, [ING]: (bot.) a catalogue ofvalidly published names of genera in all groups of organisms
covered by the Code, and prepared by the International Association
for Plant Taxonomy in collaboration with the Smithsonian
Institution; available online at http://botany.si.edu/ing/).
Index Seminum: (bot.) a Seed List (q.v.).

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

indication: (1) (bot., prok.) of a name or rank, making clear which
particular name or rank is being used (e.g. distinguishing between
two homonyms by providing author citations, and using “subsp.”
rather than “*”). (2) (zool.) a reference to previously publishedinformation, or a previous act, which in the absence of a definition
or description allows names proposed before 1931, and that
otherwise satisfy the relevant provisions of the Code, to beavailable. (3) (bot.) published information determining the typespecies of a generic name in the absence of an original designation(q.v.).
indicative epithets: (bot., obsol.) infraspecific epithets that purport toindicate the taxon including the type of the next higher taxon (e.g.
genuina, originalis, typica)
indigen: (cult. pl.) a species believed to originate in a wild habitat.
-idinae: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank of supertribe.
indirect reference: (bot.) a clear (if cryptic) indication, by an author
citation or in some other way, that a previously and effectively
published description or diagnosis applies; i.e. a reference other thanby a complete or precise bibliographic citation.
individual: (prok.) a term to be avoided as it may refer either to a single
cell or to a strain.
-inea: (phyt., obsol.) the suffix once used for terminating the name of asyntaxon in the rank of class; see -etea.
-ineae: (prok., bot.): suffix added to the stem of a generic name to form aname at the rank of suborder.
ined., [ineditus]: unpublished; appended to author citations to indicate thatthe name has not been published as required by the Code (e.g. ahandwritten name on a specimen label, a name in a manuscript orwork in press).
informal: (prok., obsol.) of categories, those of section subsection, series
and subseries not now permitted.
informal name: a name not intended as a formal taxon name, such as aworking designation while a taxonomic concept is being developed;

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
a working or interim name; see also cognomen, provisional name,taxon label.

informal usage: (bot.) usage of rank-denoting terms at more than one nonsuccessive position in the taxonomic sequence, not in accordancewith positions mandated in the Code; e.g. ones used at more than
one non-successive position in the same work; names involved insuch usage are validly published but unranked.
information, taxonomic: descriptions, illustrations and other matter
relating to taxa; in (zool.), such information may be taken, for the
purposes of making a name available, from published (and notdisclaimed) works which are not available (e.g. because they were
published before 1758, did not consistently apply binomial
nomenclature, or have been suppressed but not ruled to be treated as
unpublished by the Commission..
-informes: (zool., unoff.) proposed as a possible standardized suffix fornames in the rank of order.
infra-: prefix, below. (1) used of names and ranks below that indicated by
the remainder of the term. (2) (unoff.) a prefix added to a term
denoting rank indicating a category below “sub-”, e.g. the rank ofinfrafamily below that of subfamily; see also intra-.
infraclass: a rank between subclass and superorder.
infrafamilial: of any taxonomic unit below that of family.
infrageneric: of any taxonomic unit below that of genus; intrageneric.
infraorder: (1) (zool., unoff.) a rank between suborder and superfamily,
and used principally in mammals). (2) any taxonomic unit belowthat of order.
infraspecific: (1) of any taxonomic unit, or name, in a rank, below that ofspecies; intraspecific. (2) (zool.) the third name in a subspecifictrinomen.
infrasubspecific: (1) of a taxon, one at a lower rank than subspecies. (2)(bot., obsol.) any form of a species other than a subspecies; i.e.
including aberrations, seasonal forms, sexual forms.
infrasubspecific entity: (1) (zool.) taxa below the rank of species. (2)(zool.) specimens within a species differing from other specimens as

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
a consequence of intrapopulational variability (e.g. opposite sexes,
gynandromorphs and intersexes, aberrant individuals, age, sex
forms, variants of noninterrupted variability or polymorphism,
different generations).

ING: see Index Nominum Genericorum.
-ini: (zool.) a suffix added to the stem of a generic name to form a name in
the rank of tribe.
initialism: an abbreviation or phrase consisting of the initial letter of eachword in the phrase; cfr acronym.
inops: (1) (not nomenclatural) without resources or weak. (2) (phyt.) used
as an alternative to "typicum" (q.v.) as the epithet of the name of a
subassociation which has the same characteristic species as are
diagnostic of the association in which it is placed.
inq., [inquilinus]: (zool., unoff.) sometimes used to indicate a taxon thathas become naturalized.
inter-: prefix, between.
intergeneric: (bot.) of a hybrid between species belonging to different
genera; see nothogeneric.
interim name: see cognomen, informal name, provisional name, taxon
label.
internal specifier: (phyl.) a species, specimen or apomorphy that is
explicitly included in the clade whose name is being defined; every
phylogenetic definition has at least one internal specifier, and all of
the specifiers in standard node-based, apomorphy-modified nodebased, and apomorphy-based definitions are internal; see external
specifier.
International Association for Plant Taxonomy, [IAPT]: founded in 1950
at the International Botanical Congress in Stockholm, and the IUBS
scientific member for Plant Taxonomy; responsible for the operationof nomenclatural activities between International BotanicalCongresses and publisher of Taxon.
International Association for Vegetation Science, [IAVS]: founded as
the International Phytosociological Society in 1939, but reformed
and re-named at the International Botanical Congress in Paris in

103

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
1954; the International Commission of Phytosociological
Nomenclature operates under the auspices of the IAVS..

International Botanical Congress, [IBC]: now held at six-year intervals,
the Congress is the only body that by the action of a plenary session
can modify the ICBN; this is done on a resolution moved by theNomenclature Section of the Congress.
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, [ICBN]: first publishedin 1906 (as Régles Internationales de la Nomenclature Botanique)following the International Botanical Congress held in Vienna in
1905, and revised at Nomenclature Section meetings held at all
subsequent International Botanical Congresses; regulates the namingof all organisms traditionally studied by botanists (i.e. including
cyanobacteria, fungi, slime moulds, certain protists, etc. as well as
seed plants, ferns, and bryophytes); entitled the International Rules
of Botanical Nomenclature until after the Stockholm Congress of1950.
International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria, [ICNB]: the Codewhich regulates the nomenclature of archaea and bacteria, produced
under the auspices of what is now the International Committee on
Systematics of Prokaryotes (q.v.), first published in 1966, but being
renamed as the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes(q.v.).
International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria and Viruses: (obsol.)the nomenclature of bacteria and viruses were governed by thissingle Code, the last edition of which was published in 1958; seeInternational Code of Nomenclature for Bacteria, and theInternational Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature.
International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, [ICNCP]:
first published in 1953, the Code regulating the nomenclature ofcultivated plants, prepared by the International Commission for theNomenclature of Cultivated Plants.
International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes, [ICNP]: the Codewhich will regulate the nomenclature of archaea and bacteria;
formerly the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (q.v.),
and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria and Viruses

104

Terms used in Bionomenclature(q.v.); modifications are now published in the International Journalof Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (q.v.)

International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature, [ICPN]: theCode regulating the names applied to syntaxonomical units preparedby the Nomenclature Commission of the International Association
for Vegetation Science; first published in 1976 as the Code of
Phytosociological Nomenclature.
International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature, [ICTV]:
the Code regulating the nomenclature of viruses, viroids, and similar
entities, prepared by the International Committee on Taxonomy ofViruses.
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, [ICZN]: the Coderegulating the nomenclature of animals and organisms traditionallystudied by zoologists (e.g. including Microsporidia, which are now
known to be fungi), prepared by the International Commission on
Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.); formerly approved by an
International Congress of Zoology but now submitted for approval
to a General Assembly of IUBS (q.v.); first published in 1905 as the
Régles Internationales de la Nomenclature Zoologique.
International Commission on the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants,[ICNCP]: the Commission, recognized by IUBS (q.v.) and under
the auspices of the International Society for Horticultural Science, is
responsible for preparing the International Code of Nomenclature
for Cultivated Plants.
International Commission of Phytosociological Nomenclature, [ICPN]:a Commission established by the International Association for
Vegetation Science (q.v.) to act on nomenclatural proposals relating
to the names of taxa and to prepare the Code.
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, [ICZN]: theCommission, established in 1895, and now a scientific member of
IUBS (q.v.) is responsible for preparing the International Code ofZoological Nomenclature.
International Committee for the Taxonomy of Fungi, [ICTF]: an
IUBS/IUMS committee appointed to consider issues related to thetaxonomy fungi, but independent from the Permanent Committee

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
for Fungi (see Permanent Committee) and not concerned withformal proposals for the conservation and rejection of names.

International Committee on Bionomenclature, [ICB]: an IUBS/IUMS
committee originally established in 1994, and a scientific member of
IUBS from 2009, comprising representatives of the different Codes
and providing a forum for discussion and action on matters ofcommon concern.
International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology, [ICSB]: thepredecessor of the International Committee on Systematics ofProkaryotes (q.v.).
International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes, [ICSP]: a body
appointed by the IUMS Division of Bacteriology at its international
congresses.
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, [ICTV]: a committeeof the IUMS Virology Division appointed at its international
congresses.
International Congress of Zoology: the body responsible for approving
the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.) until 1972
when the original series of such congresses ended, after which the
responsibility was transferred to a General Assembly of IUBS (q.v.).
International Cultivar Registration Authority, [ICRA]: (cult. pl.) an
organization appointed by the International Society for Horticultural
Science (q.v.) Commission for Nomenclature and Cultivar
Registration to be responsible for registering cultivar and Group
names within defined taxonomic units.
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology,[IJSEM]: succeeded the International Journal of Systematic
Bacteriology in 2000; the only journal in which names or archaea
and bacteria are validly published..
International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, [IJSB]: published from
1966-1999, and succeeded by the International Journal of
Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology.
international notification: (zool.) of a name, by the name being listed in
the Zoological Record (q.v.) within five years of the publication.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

International Plant Names Index, [IPNI]: a database of the names andassociated bibliographic information of all seed plants, ferns, andfern allies (http://www.ipni.org) produced through collaboration of
the Australian National Herbarium, Harvard University Herbaria,
and the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew.
International Registrar: (cult. pl.) the person appointed by an
International Cultivar Registration Authority (q.v.) to carry out
registration activity on its behalf.
International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature: see International Codeof Botanical Nomenclature.
International Society for Horticultural Science, [ISHS]: the IUBS
scientific member for the science of horticulture.
International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, [ITZN]: founded in
1947, now operating as a not-for-profit company limited byguarantee, which acts on behalf of the International Commission on
Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.) to raise and administer funds.
International Union of Biological Sciences, [IUBS]: founded in 1939, theinternational body concerned with biological sciences within theInternational Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), comprisingordinary (mainly national academies of science and theirequivalents) and scientific (mainly international scientificorganizations) members; amongst the scientific members are thevarious bodies with responsibility for the nomenclature of.
International Union of Microbiological Societies, [IUMS]: theinternational body concerned with biological sciences within theInternational Council of Scientific Unions, which separated from theInternational Union of Biological Sciences in 1979, comprisingnational microbiological societies; responsible for thebacteriological and viral Codes.
interpolated categories: (zool.) categories of names not specified in or
legislated by the Code, i.e. above superfamily.
interpolated name: (1) (zool.) a name placed within parenthesis, used: (a)after a genericname to denote a subgenus; (b) after a genus-groupname to denote an aggregate of species; or (c) after a specific nameto denote an aggregate of subspecies; names used in this way are not

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
counted as the names in a binomen or trinomen. (2) (bot., unoff.) a
name placed in brackets (parentheses) between the name of genus
and its specific epithet to indicate the subgenus or section to which
the species belongs (e.g. Ranunculus (Batrachium) aquatilis); such
names are for information and not part of a binary name.

interpretotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen considered by the author of thename to belong to a taxon he or she described; an authentic
specimen (q.v.).
interrupted publication: (unoff.) of a publication issued in parts over a
period of time.
interspecific: (bot.) of a hybrid between species referred to the same genus:
see nothospecific.
intertaxon: (bot., unoff.) a hybrid between two taxa, e.g. two genera or two
species.
intra-: prefix, between; see also infra-.
intrageneric: see infrageneric.
intraspecific: see infraspecific.
introducer: (cult. pl.) the person or organization who first distributes acultivar.
intuotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen considered probably to be anomenclatural type but not yet proved to be so.
invalid: (1) (bot., prok.) used colloquially of names that are not validly
published according the Code, and hence, strictly speaking, notnames. (2) (zool.) of an available name, one which is either (a)objectively invalid (i.e. either is a junior homonym or a juniorobjective synonym of a potentially valid name, or must be rejectedunder the provisions of the Code, or has been suppressed by theCommission), or (b) is subjectively invalid (because it is consideredsubjectively to be a junior synonym or to be inapplicable to aparticular taxon). (3) (zool., unoff.) of a nomenclatural act, one thatis not in accordance with the Code; i.e. equivalent of incorrect(prok., bot.). (4) (zool., unoff.) of a taxon, one not recognized as
taxonomically distinct, at least at the rank in question. See also
quotation marks.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

inverted commas, [‘ . . . ‘]: (1) (bot., prok., unoff.) placed around names orepithets to indicate that they have not been validly published under
the appropriate Code; i.e. to indicate designations as opposed tonames (bot.) or historical synonyms (prok.). (2) (bot.) placed aroundnames or epithets to indicate an original spelling that was in error
and has been corrected. (3) (zool., unoff.) placed around species
epithets in binomials of domesticated animals to indicate that they
are not separated as true species from wild ancestors, e.g. Canis‘familiaris’.
in vitro: (mycol., prok.) of cultures studied, or tests conducted, in artificial
conditions in the laboratory.
in vivo: (mycol., prok.) of organisms studied, or tests conducted, in theirnormal conditions, normally in nature, or at least on their normal
hosts.
-ion: (phyt.) the suffix terminating the name of a syntaxon in the rank ofalliance.
IPNI: see International Plant Names Index.
ipso facto: in the fact itself.
iscotype: see adelfotype.
ISHS: see International Society for Horticultural Science.
-isites: (palaeo. mycol., prop.) proposed as an alternative suffix to "-ites"(q.v.) where necessary to avoid the creation of an homonym of an
existing generic name ending in "-ites".
iso-: prefix, a duplicate.
isocotype: (zool., unoff.) most probably used in the sense of topotype (q.v.).
isoform, [isoforma, isof.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category for the designationof a form distinguished only by physiological characters; seebiological race.
isogenotype, [isogenotypic, isogenotypy]: (zool., unoff.) one of two or
more generic names based on the same type species.
isolate: (1) a living culture of bacterium, fungus, virus or othermicroorganism obtained from a single source of infection or site,
and usually accorded a unique number; when shown to be

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
distinctive, an isolate may be considered as a strain (q.v.) or
accorded other infraspecific designation. (2) the action of obtaininga growing culture of a microorganism separate from a host or
habitat.

isolectotype: a duplicate specimen of a lectotype.
isoneotype: a duplicate specimen of a neotype.
isonym: (1) (bot., unoff.) proposed for one of two homotypicorthographically identical names published by different authors; e.g.
two authors making the same combination based on the same type; ahomotypic synonym (q.v.). (2) (obsol.) one of two or more names(i.e. new names or combinations) based on the same nomenclatural
type; a homotypic synonym (q.v.).
isoparatype: a duplicate specimen of a paratype.
isospecies, [isosp.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category for the designation of a
species distinguished only by physiological characters.
isosyntype: a duplicate of a syntype, not cited in the protologue (if so cited
it would be a syntype in its own right).
isotype, [isotypus]: (1) (bot.) a duplicate specimen of the holotype; i.e. apart of the single collection or gathering which included theholotype, but not the holotype itself. (2) (zool., unoff.) one of two or
more forms common to different countries.
isotypical: (zool., unoff.) of generic names, ones based on several
congeneric but heterotypic species.
isovarietas, [isovar.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category for the designation of avariety distinguished only by physiological characters.
-itae: (bot., unoff) a suffix suggested to be used as a termination for namesof uncertain taxonomic rank.
italic: the printer’s slanting type face often used to demarcate formal
scientific names in publications, or ones in a different language fromthe main text (most commonly if Latin); scientific names in the rankof genus and below are generally written in italic script; practice at
the rank of family and above other ranks varies under the different
Codes: (phyl.) requires scientific names at all ranks to be italicised;(bot., prok.) italicise scientific names at all ranks in the Codes

110

Terms used in Bionomenclaturethemselves, but (bot.) does not make this a formal requirement;(zool.) since the 1999 edition of this Code, italics are not to be used
for scientific names above genus-group; (vir.) italics are not usedbelow species rank, but are for non-Latinized names (e.g. Tobacco
mosaic virus) as well as Latinized names, virus names identical tospecies names but placed in Roman type indicate an infraspecifictaxon within the species of the same name. Note that names not
being used in a formal taxonomic sense are often not placed initalics and printed all in lower case to ensure their distinction fromformal names, e.g. Ascomycetes vs. ascomycetes). See also Roman
type.

-ites: (palaeo. mycol., prop.) a proposed suffix to be added automaticallyto a generic name for fossil fungi that appeared to be congenericwith a modern genus, without the need for a formal description or
diagnosis, i.e. as an autonym (e.g. the validation of the generic name
Pleospora being viewed as simultaneously creating Pleosporites);
see also -isites.
IUBS Commission on Botanical Nomenclature: see General Committee.
IUBS Commission on Zoological Nomenclature: see International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
IUBS: see International Union of Biological Sciences.
IUMS: see International Union of Microbiological Societies.

jordanon: (1) (bot., obsol.) proposed as a replacement for species whenused in the sense of groups of species that propagate their kindfaithfully; cfr linneon. (2) (mycol., obsol.) proposed as a term for agroup of isolates constituting a race or strain of a species, i.e. withsimilar cultural characteristics and behaviour.
journal: a serial (q.v.) publication issued at regular intervals.
Judical Commission: (prok.) a commission of the International Committee
on Systematics of Prokaryotes (ICSP) responsible for considering
between Congresses any requests for opinions on the interpretation

111

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)of the Code or particular cases, and to recommend changes to theCode, and lists of conserved and rejected names.

junior homonym: (zool.) of two homonyms, the later established, or in thecase of simultaneous establishment the one not given precedence
under the Code.
junior objective synonym: (zool.) of two synonyms based on different
nomenclatural types, the later established; see junior synonym.
junior synonym: (zool.) of two synonyms, the later established, or in thecase of simultaneous establishment that not given precedence under
the Code; a later synonym.
junior: younger.
justified emendation: (zool.) the correction of an incorrect original
spelling.

kingdom: the highest rank generally employed as a category of thetaxonomic hierarchy, above that of phylum (division). See also
domain, empire, superkingdom.
Kinman System, The: a proposed cladisto-ecletic classification oforganisms by K. E. Kinman, published in 1994, with intermediate
ranks eliminated, standardized terminations for higher taxa, and acode of letters and numbers indicating the phylogenetic status andstrength of support for the taxa.
-klasanoj: (unoff.) proposed termination in Esperanto for a name in therank of class in the New Biological Nomenclature (q.v.).
kleptotype: (1) (unoff.) a stolen type, one stolen from its original
depository, or borrowed and not returned, or mistakenly retained ina collection other that that of the rightful owner. (2) (unoff.) a
fragment removed from a holotype specimen without authorizationand kept in a different institution or collection; see also clastotype,giraultotype, merotype, schizotype.

112

Terms used in Bionomenclaturel.c.: see loc. cit.
LAD: (palaeo.) Last Appearance Datum.
land race: (cult.pl., unoff.) populations grown in a particular place andadapted to particular environmental and agricultural practices.
Lanham's method: (unoff.) a method for naming species which uses asingle uncapitalized word corresponding to the species epithet of a
Linnaean binomial followed by the bibliographic address (q.v.) andall placed in italics; e.g. multifida Linnaeus 1753: 572.
lapsus calami: a slip (or slips) of the pen; i.e. an error (or errors) made by
an author in writing a text, such as a misspelling of a name, incontrast to a copyist’s or printer’s errors.
larval type: see nepionotype.
Lat.: see Latin.
later homonym: a homonym (q.v.) published later than another; in (zool.) a
junior homonym.
later synonym: a synonym published at a later date than that of anothername for the same taxon; a junior synonym.
later: of names of taxa, any published after the first.
Latin, [Lat.]: the abbreviation may be used in explanations of etymology toindicate a word or word element is of Latin origin; see also
botanical Latin.
latinized: of a word, one given Latin form and characteristics (including a
Latin ending or a Latin suffix) which is not Latin; such words aretreated according to the grammatical rules employed in Latin.
LB system: (obsol.) a nomenclatural system using Latin binomials.
l.c.: see loc. cit.
lectoallotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen of the opposite sex to a holotype
or lectotype selected after the original publication of the name fromthe original material; an allolectotype.
lectocultype: (unoff.) a strain of a microorganism cultivated by the authorof the taxon, and selected as holocultype (q.v.) by another.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

lectogenotype: (zool., unoff.) the type species of a genus selected fromamongst the originally included species where none was designatedas the generic type by the original author; see genotype.
lectoholotype: (zool., unoff.) a lectotype (q.v.).
lectoparatype: (1) (bot., unoff.) each specimen of a syntype residue
remaining after the selection of a lectotype; a term preferred toparalectotype (q.v.) as the paratype equivalence is postlectotypification; strictly under the Code lectoparatypes are still tobe referred to as syntypes. (2) (zool., unoff.) a paralectotype.
lectopathotype: (prok.) where no holopathotype exists, one of the strains
on which the original author based the description may be later
designated as the pathotype strain by the original or a subsequentauthor.
lectosyntype, [lectosyntypus]: (phyt., obsol.) erroneously used to replace"lectotypus" in the nomenclature of syntaxa.
lectotype, [lectotypus, L.T., LT]: (1) (bot.) a specimen or illustration
designated from the original material or elements (specimens,
names, or in some cases illustrations, or in (phyt.) relevé's) as thenomenclatural type if no holotype was indicated at the time of
publication, or if it is missing, or if it is found to belong to morethan one taxon (bio., bot.) or syntaxon (phyt.); a lectotype serves as
the nomenclatural type of a name for as long as any holotype ismissing. (2) (zool.) a syntype designated as the single name-bearing
type specimen subsequent to the establishment of a nominal species
or subspecies. (3) (zool., obsol.) a type by subsequent designation
when no holotype exists, whether or not cited in the original
publication of the name (i.e. a lectoype or a neotype).
leg., [legentum]: collected by; by courtesy of; frequently used in the paston specimen labels and in details of collections in publications; seecoll.
legion: (zool., obsol.) a rank in the taxonomic hierarchy, used at various
levels, and so of uncertain modern equivalence.
legitimate: in accordance with the rules; not illegitimate (q.v.).

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

legitimate name, [nomen legitimum, nom. legit.]: (1) (bot., cult. pl.,phyt., prok., vir.) a validly published name that is in accordance withall rules in the Code; i.e. one which must be taken into account indetermining the correct name for a taxon; see also illegitimate name.
(2) (bot., obsol.) one distinguishing a plant species from all those of
the same genus; used in this sense by Linnaeus.
level: (unoff.) sometimes used in the sense of rank (q.v.).
libelotype: (zool., unoff.) a derogatorotype (q.v.).
ligature: the typographic union of two letters (e.g. “æ”); not to be used inbot., prok. or zool. but transcribed (e.g. "ae").
limbotype: (zool., unoff.) a type of which the current place of deposit isunknown (!).
line: (cult. pl.) in plant breeding, a term used to describe plants resulting
from repeated self-fertilization or inbreeding.
Linnaean: an adjective based on the surname of Carl Linnæus (latinized as
Carolus Linnaeus); see Linnean.
Linnaean system: in nomenclature, the system in which, fundamentally,binary combinations (i.e. names) are used for species, consisting ofa generic name and a specific epithet.
Linnaean tautonym: (zool.) the identical spelling of a generic orsubgeneric name established before 1931 and a pre-1758 name cited
as a synonym of only one of the species or subspecies originally
included in that genus.
Linnean: an adjective based on the enobled name for Carl Linnæus, i.e.
Carl von Linné; see Linnaean.
linneon: (obsol.) proposed as a replacement for the term species in the
Linnaean sense, i.e. groups of individuals that resemble one anothermore than they do any other individuals; cfr jordanon.
lipotype: (zool., not nomenclatural) a life-form, the absence of which ischaracteristic of the fauna of a particular place.
lineage: (phyl.) a series of entities (e.g. organisms, populations) that form asingle unbroken and unbranched sequence of ancestors anddescendants; that a lineage is unbranched does not deny the

115

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
existence of side-branches, which are not parts of the lineage inquestion, or of branching at lower organizational levels (e.g.
organelle lineages within a population lineage); there may even be
branching at the organizational level in question as long as it isjudged to be temporary.

list: see Approved List, List of Names in Current Use, Official List.
Lists of Names in Current Use, [NCUs]: lists of names published by theInternational Association for Plant Taxonomy (IAPT) and for whicha protected status was sought in 1993 but not granted.
lithograph: (1) (obsol.) a printing from stone, parts of the surface of which
had been made retentive of ink. (2) a printing from any surface
made retentive of ink as distinct from type (almost invariably
photographic).
LITUs, [Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units]: proposed as an alternative tothe notion of species; named monophyletic groups identified byunique shared similarities (apomorphies) which at present are notfurther subdivided.
loc. cit., [l.c., loco citato]: in the place cited; used to avoid the repetition ofa bibliographic reference already given.
locality type: (zool., unoff.) one of a series of expressions proposed toillustrate type terms reduced to absurdity (!); cfr egg type, host type,larval type, mimetic phase type, pupal type, seasonal type, sexual
type.
locotype: (zool., unoff.) a topotype (q.v.).
logonym: (zool., unoff.) the name of a species which became the type of agenus-group name by subsequent designation.
logotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a genus-group name designated after
the publication of the name; an idiogenotype (q.v.).
logotypic: (zool., unoff.), of a generic name, one with a logotype (q.v.).
Lois de la Nomenclature Botanique: (bot., obsol.) drafted by A. P. de
Candolle, and approved by the Congrès International de Botaniquein Paris in 1867, the Lois were the forerunner of the International
Code of Botanical Nomenclature (q.v.).

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

LT, [L.T.]: see lectotype.
lump, [lumping]: (unoff.) to treat as members of a single taxonomic unit
elements which have been previously considered as belonging tomore than one such unit; see split, unite.
lumper: a taxonomist involved in lumping, i.e. one who has a broadconcept of the limits of a taxon; cfr splitter.
lysotype: (prok., obsol.) formerly used for infrasubspecific populations ofbacteria based on reactions to bacteriophages; a phagovar (q.v.).

m.: see Mihi.
macron, [¯]: a diacritical sign sometimes placed above vowels (e.g. ā) toindicated that they should be pronounced long; an overscore; notused in scientific names, but sometimes indicated in etymologicalstatements.
maintain: retain; see maintenance.
maintaintor: (cult. pl.) the person or organization responsible for thecontinuing existence of a maintenance (q.v.).
maintenance: (1) continued use for the name of a taxon as a result of its
conformity with the code; (zool.) equivalent nomenclaturally toretention; see retain. (2) (cult. pl.) a seed-raised cryptic variety
which, although not treated as a separate cultivar, may require
special designation; or the designation of such by a statutory Plant
Registration Authority. (3) (prok.) of a culture, preservation in aliving or dormant condition.
mandatory change: see change, mandatory.
manuscript, [ms., MS, msc., MSc., mscr., MScr.; pl. mss., MSS]:
handwritten or typewritten material existing in only one or a few
copies; writing in which each letter is placed on paper in sequenceby hand, whether manually or mechanically, without any subsequentmultiplication.
mark, diacritic: see diacritic mark.

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masc., [masculus]: (zool., unoff.) masculine; sometimes used to indicate
the sex of a specimen or type.
mataeonym: (unoff.) a superfluous name introduced when there was anolder valid name based on the same type (a typonym, q.v) or on
another member of the same group (a metonym, q.v.).
matronymic: of a name, one involving a matronymic suffix (e.g. Icelandic“-dottir”, Russian “-evna”).
mechanical hybrid: a naturally occurring intimate mixture of individualsof two genetically distinct species to form a single functional unit
(e.g. a lichen thallus formed from asexual propagules belonging todifferent species).
mechanical method: of typification, any method of selecting a type which
is based on an automatic procedure (e.g. the first species method,q.v.); not now acceptable in bot. or zool.
megafossils: (palaeo., unoff.) fossils which are large enough to study
without a microscope.
merocultype: (prok., unoff.) a strain of a microorganism derived from amixed or impure (contaminated) holotype.
merotype: (bot., zool., unoff.) a part of the organism that furnished the typeof a species, for example a part which has been removed andconserved separately; see also clastotype, giraultotype, kleptotype.
mesofossils: (palaeo., unoff.) fossils of intermediate size, especially used
for pieces of plant cuticle, wood, and large spores.
metacultype: (unoff.) a strain of a microorganism modified but derived
from the holocultype (q.v.).
metallotype: (zool., unoff.) an allotype (q.v.) of the opposite sex to that of a
specimen designated or described in a publication subsequent to theoriginal description; these specimens have no formal nomenclatural
standing as types.
metatopotype: (zool., unoff.) a metatype (q.v.).
metatype: (1) (zool., obsol.) a specimen from the type locality (i.e. a
topotype, q.v.) identified by the original describer of the species orsubspecies to which it is referred, but at a date subsequent to the118

Terms used in Bionomenclature
publication of the original description; a metatopotype. (2) (zool.,
unoff.) a specimen determined by the original author of a name after
comparison with the type subsequent to publication; see alsoauthentic specimen, homotype.

metonym: (1) (unoff.) a later name given to a specimen (other than thetype) of a taxon that already had a valid name, i.e. an unnecessary
name; a taxonomic synonym. (2) a mataeonym (q.v.).
metonymous homonyms: (unoff.) homonyms based on different
nomenclatural types which are considered to belong to a single
taxon.
microcard: a copy of a published work, much reduced in size, on opaque
photographic card, ad requiring a special reader.
microfiche: a copy of a published work or manuscript, much reduced insize, with often many pages copied onto single photographic film
sheets and requiring a special reader; also used to copy historicherbarium material and literature.
microfilm: a copy of a published work or a manuscript, usually much
reduced, onto a continuous strip of transparent photographic
material.
microform: a term including microfiche and microfilm.
microfossils: (palaeo., unoff.) fossil remains, whether entire organisms orparts of organisms (e.g. spores), so small that they cannot be studied
without some form of a microscope.
microspecies, [msp.]: (1) (bot., unoff.) a unit of a species aggregate (q.v.),
with very little internal variation; microspecies are treated as species
for nomenclatural purposes: see also cryptic species, sibling species.
(2) (bot., unoff.) a small division of apomictic complexes which arecharacterized by considerable constancy by virtue of their apomictic
mode of reproduction, e.g. Panicum maximum msp. robustum.
microsubspecies: (bot., unoff., obsol.) a small but distinct population
limited to a small geographical area; not normally given a scientificname but sometimes recognized as a variety; sometimes indicatedby the term “var. (geogr.)”.

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Mihi, [mihi, m.]: (obsol.) to me (dative singular of ego, I); formerly usedby some authors after a name to indicate their responsibility for its
proposal but without using their actual names; see nobis.
mimeography: a method of producing numerous copies of text (andfigures) by means of ink applied through a stencil.
mimetic phase type: (zool., unoff.) see locality type.
mimotype: (zool., not nomenclatural) one of two or more similar morphs(analogous forms) of a taxon occurring in different areas.
min. parte, [pro minore parte]: for the smaller part; sometimes used toindicate that a name has sometimes been used in a particular sense.
minidefinition: (prok., unoff.) a brief description, especially of a genus,
containing only the essential characters for distinguishing it fromothers; a diagnosis (q.v.).
minimal standards: (prok.) a series of tests or other features that arerecommended to be included in a description when validly
publishing a new taxon; these are drawn up from different groups ofbacteria under the auspices of the Judicial Commission andpublished in the IJSEB.
minimum edition: (zool., prop.) of printed works on paper, therecommended minimum number to be printed before any are
distributed; 25 has been proposed.
miragotype: (zool., unoff.) a type in which the distinguishing characters
are only visible under particular conditions (!).
misapplication: of a name, see misapplied name.
misapplied name: (bot.) a name applied to a taxon in a sense that excludes
the type of the name, i.e. a name incorrectly applied.
misapply: to apply, deliberately or otherwise, a name in a sense which is
not correct under the provisions of the Code (e.g. in a manner not inaccord with the name-bearing type); see misapplied name.
misidentification, [†]: the assignment of a specimen, population or taxon toa taxon to which it is generally (or later) considered it does notbelong.
misidentify: (zool.) to mistakenly attribute a specimen to a particular taxon.

120

Terms used in Bionomenclaturemisplaced term: a rank-denoting term used contrary to the relative orderspecified in the Code; e.g. an order within a family.
mixed gathering: a gathering (q.v.) which comprises more than a single
species or infraspecific taxon.
mixomorpha, [mx.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a category for the designation offorms of chimaeras distinguished only by morphological or
histological characters.
mixtospecies, [mixsp.]: (bot., unoff.,) a species resulting from a genetic
change leading to the formation of a sterility barrier between it andthe parent species; it has been proposed to indicate the origin of sucha species from another by using the interpolated abbreviation"mixsp.", e.g. Pisum arvense mixsp. abyssinicum.
mixture: (cult. pl., unoff.) an assemblage of different lines from a series.
mobilitotype: (zool., unoff.) a type represented only by a particular
banding pattern on a polyacrimide gel(!).
modern language: one currently in use; normally restricted to one which isalso written; a common language.
modificatio: (bot., obsol.) proposed as a category below the rank of form
for plants changed in some way.
mongrel combination: a hybrid word composed of elements from two
languages.
monobasic: (zool., unoff.) of a generic name, one with a single included
species at the time of publication; see monotypic.
monocultype: (unoff.) a monosporial (monogenetic or monocytogenetic)strain of a microorganism derived from the holotype.
monodelphous homonyms: devalidated names (q.v.) taken up by different
post-starting point authors independently but validated withdifferent nomenclatural types.
monogeneric: of a suprageneric taxon, one including only a single genus.
monogenotype, [monogenotyp]: (1) (zool., unoff.) the single species
included in a monotypical genus at the time of its publication; ahaplotype (q.v.). (2) (zool., unoff.) a type by original fixation.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

monomorphic: of a taxon or population, one showing no genetically fixed
discontinuous variation.
mononomial: a uninomial (q.v.).
mononym: a uninominal (q.v.).
monopathotype: (prok.) the single strain used by an author whenintroducing the name of a new pathovar, but which was notdesignated as the holopathotype in the original publication.
monophyletic: (phyl.) a set consisting of an ancestor and all of its
descendents; usually used for groups the members of which share amore recent common ancestor with one another than with any nonmembers, though monophyletic groups of organisms within sexually
reproducing species/ populations may not have this property.
monotaxic: of two or more taxa, ones belong to the same taxon.
monotype: (1) (unoff.) a single element on which a taxon was based where
the author did not explicitly state that this element was to be
regarded as the nomenclatural type of the taxon; an implicit
holotype. (2) (zool., unoff.) the holotype of a taxon based on a single
known specimen. (3) (zool., unoff.) the type of a monotypic genus.
(4) (prok., unoff.) a single strain on which a new taxon was based,
but not designated as a holotype in the original publication.
monotypic: (bot., prok.) having only one immediately subordinate taxon;e.g. of a genus with a single validly published species); see also
monotypic genus, monotype, monotypy.
monotypic genus: (bot., prok.) a genus for which a single binomial isvalidly published.
monotypical: (zool., unoff.) of a genus, one including only a single species
at the time of publication; see monotype, monotypical genus.
monotypy: (zool.) the situation arising: (a) when an author establishes anominal genus or subgenus for what he or she considers to be asingle taxonomic species and denotes that species by an available
name (the nominal species so named is the type species bymonotypy); or (b) when an author bases a nominal species-grouptaxon on a single specimen but does not explicitly designate it as
holotype (holotype by monotypy); see also subsequent monotypy.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

monstrosity: a specimen showing an abnormal (non-hereditary) structural
condition; names based on type specimens that were monstrosities
were formerly to be rejected in (bot.), but that provision of the Codehas now been deleted.
more than . . . . less than, [< . . . . . >]: (phyl.) an ideograph placed aroundthe citation of the name of an author of the original definition of ahomonym that has been conserved for the purpose of emending adefinition.
morph: shape; used of a specimen or stage in a life-cycle with a particularor unusual, and generally morphological attribute.
morpha, [pl. morphae]: (unoff.) used for specimens or groups ofspecimens of an uncertain infraspecific category; cfr taxon.
morphology: the study of a structure; morphological terms are those that
denote structural parts of an organism (e.g. radix = root, caulis =stem).
morphon: (zool., unoff.) a definitely formed individual.
morphonym: (zool., unoff.) the name of a species; the specific name.
morphotaxon: (palaeo. bot.) a fossil taxon which, for nomenclatural
purposes, comprises only one part, life-history stage, orpreservational state represented by the corresponding nomenclatural
type; any fossil taxon that is described as including more than one
part, life-history stage, or preservational state is not a morphotaxon.
morphotype, [morphotypus]: (1) a group or population ofmorphologically differentiated individuals within a species, often
used of ones of no, or of undetermined, taxonomic significance. (2)(prok.) a variant of a species distinguished by the presence of somespecial or unusual morphological feature, for which the term
“morphovar.” is recommended by that Code. (3) (palaeo. zool.,
obsol.) a specimen that has been figured in print not adding to what
was previously known about the morphology of the taxon to which
it is referred. (4) (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of a different
morph of a dimorphic or polymorphic species. (5) (obsol., notnomenclatural) the generalized or idealized pattern shared by all
members of a taxon; an archetype (q.v.).

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

morphovar: (prok.) an infrasubspecific variant of a species distinguishedby the presence of some morphological character(s); a morphotype(q.v.).
MS, msc, MScr., Mscr., MSS: see manuscript.
multiconvar: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank of cultivated plants
equivalent to variety (not cultivar).
multigeneric: (bot., cult. pl.) of hybrids resulting from the sexual crossingsof individuals assigned to three or more different genera.
multiline: (cult. pl.) in plant breeding, a term used to describe a cultivarthat is made up of several closely related lines.
multinomen: a multinomial name; a name composed of several words; apolynomial (q.v.).
multinominal: having many names; see nominal, polynomial.
multiple authorship: of a name proposed by more than one person; see etal.
multiple original spellings: (zool.) two or more different original spellings
for the same name.
multiplication sign, [x]: (1) (bio., bot., cult. pl., phyl.) in nomenclature, theideograph used to indicate the hybrid nature of a taxon in acondensed formula (q.v.) or a hybrid formula (q.v.); in a condensed
formula, now (bio., bot, cult. pl.) placed in front of and directlyagainst the name (with no space between the sign and the scientificname) where the sign is available for printing (e.g. xAgropogon,
Melampsora xcolumbiana) but formerly often used with a separating
space; in a hybrid formula (bio., bot., cult. pl.) placed between thenames of the taxa (e.g. Mentha aquatic x M. spicata); see condensed
formula. (2) (zool., unoff.) used in a similar way to (1 [above]) tolink the names of the parent taxa (e.g. Capra hircus x Ovis aries)and sometimes with the sex of each parent also indicated by an
ideograph (e.g. Capra hircus ♂ x Ovis aries ♀). (3) (prok.) whenplaced before the citation of the name of an author and inparentheses, indicates that the name was used by that author before
1 January 1980 but the name was not included in the Approved List

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
but has subsequently been revived; e.g. Prochloron didemni (xLewin 1977) Florenzano et al. 1986, sp. nov., nom. rev.

multispecies: (1) (bot., zool., unoff.) a group of two or more species thatremain distinct taxa despite hybridizing and producing fertile
offspring. (2) (not nomenclatural) a set of broadly sympatric species
that exchange genes in nature.
mus., [museum]: sometimes used before an acronym or town name toindicate where a specimen is preserved.
mutatis characteribus, [mut. char.]: with the characters (usually thecircumscription) changed but without exclusion of the type;emended (q.v.).
mutant: an individual or organism produced as a result of a mutation (q.v.).
mutation: a discontinuous heritable variation; a change to the nucleotide
sequence of a genome arising spontaneously, by general physical orchemical treatment, or by a particular alteration in a “site-directed”
manner.
mycarium, [pl. mycaria]: proposed for a dried collection of fungal
specimens, i.e. a fungal herbarium; see also fungarium.
-mycetes: (mycol.) suffix used to indicate that the name of a fungus is in therank of class.
-mycetidae: (mycol.) suffix used to indicate that the name of a fungus is in
the rank of a subclass.
-mycia: (mycol., unoff.) suffix proposed for names of fungi in the rank ofsuperclas.
MycoBank: (mycol.) an online depositary of nomenclatural information on
names of fungi at all ranks, operated under the auspices of theInternational Mycological Association (q.v.); the main mycologicaljournals (and also Taxon) now require the MycoBank numbers
allocated to new taxa to be cited in the protologue.
mycobiota: (mycol., unoff.) sometimes used as a collective term for all thefungi in a particular habitat or place, or in publications as anequivalent to “Flora” (q.v.) for fungi; see also funga, mycota.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

mycota: (mycol., unoff.) sometimes used as a collective term for all thefungi in a particular habitat or place, or in publications as anequivalent to “Flora” (q.v.) for fungi; as this is a phylum
termination, the alternatives of funga or mycobiota are to bepreferred.
-mycota: (mycol.) suffix used to indicate that the name of a fungus is in therank of division or phylum.
Mycotaxon: (mycol.) a quarterly peer-reviewed journal exclusively devoted
to all phases of the taxonomy and nomenclature of fungi (including
lichens), founded in 1974; from 2009 including formal
nomenclatural proposals relating to fungi that also appear in Taxon.
-mycotera: (mycol., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank ofsuperphylum or superdivision in fungi.
-mycotina: (mycol.) suffix used to indicate that the name of a fungus is in
the rank of a subdivision or phylum.
mythicotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a mythological taxon (!).

n., [nob., nobis]: to us, dative plural of ego, I; used after a name to indicate
the authors’ responsibility for its proposal.
n-: see notho-.
naked combination, [nude combination]: (bot., unoff.) a name which
circumstantial evidence suggests was intended as a new combination(e.g. by employing a particular specific epithet in a particular
context) but where there is no indication whatsoever of the actual
basionym (e.g. not even in an author citation).
naked name, [nomen nudum, nom. nud.]: (1) (zool.) a name published
before 1931, which fails to conform to the Code, or if published
before 1930 fails to conform to other provisions of the Code; such a
naked name is not an available name, and therefore the same namemay be made available later for the same or a different concept; insuch a case it would take the authors name and date from that act of
establishment, not from any publication where it was a nomen
nudum. (2) (bot., prok.) a name of a new taxon published without a126

Terms used in Bionomenclaturedescription or diagnosis or reference to a description or diagnosis,
and so not validly published; a bare name (prok.); see also nomen
subnudum.

name: (1) (not nomenclatural) a word, or ordered sequence of words,
conventionally used to denote and identify a particular entity (e.g. a
person, place, object, concept). (2) (zool.) equivalent to scientificname (q.v). (3) (zool.) an element of the name of a species-grouptaxon. (4) (bot., cult. pl.) a name that has been validly published (orestablished), whether it is legitimate or illegitimate; see alsoavailable name, designation, epithet, scientific name. (5) (phyl.) a
word or words used to designate (refer to) an organism or group oforganisms; see acceptable name, accepted name, established name,replacement name, scientific name, taxon name.
name-bearer: see name-bearing type.
name-bearing type, [name-bearer]: (1) (bio.) the element to which thename of a taxon is permanently attached, whether it is an acceptedname or not. (2) (zool.) the type genus, type species, holotype,lectotype, series of syntypes (which together constitute the namebearing type), or neotype or type slide or hapantotype, that provides
the objective standard of reference whereby the application of thename of a nominal taxon can be determined; the nomenclatural type(q.v.).
name-group: (zool.) an assemblage of nomenclaturally co-ordinate
categories (e.g. family-group, genus-group, species-group; see
Principle of Coordination.
Names in Current Use, [NCU]: (bot., prop.) ones currently accepted as thecorrect names for organisms; see List of Names in Current Use.
natio: (1) (unoff., obsol.) used for specimens or groups of specimens of anuncertain infraspecific category. (2) (zool., obsol.) a subspecies "ofthe second order", i.e. a taxon with the same relation to thesubspecies as the subspecies does to the species.
natural order: see ordo naturalis.
NBN: see New Biological Nomenclature.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

neallotype, [neoallotype]: (zool., unoff.) an allotype (q.v.) of the opposite
sex to that of a specimen designated or described in a publication
subsequent to the original description; these specimens have noformal nomenclatural standing as types.
neanotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a pupal stage in entomology.
nebentype, [nebentypus]: (phyt., obsol.) a syntaxon rank, used for an
edaphic variant of a subassociation, and not accepted in the Code.
nec, [neque]: and not, nor; used to indicate names which are misappliedhomonyms, or misidentifications by the author cited before “nec”;
see non.
necrotype: (1) (not a nomenclatural term) a taxon extinct in a particular
locality. (2) (palaeo., unoff.) an unspecified category of fossils.
negative sense: (vir.) applied to an RNA molecule which is complementary
to a positive sense, that is it cannot be translated by ribosomes but
its complementary sequence can.
neglected name, [nomen neglectum, nom. negl.]: (zool.) an overlooked
but nevertheless validly published and legitimate name or epithet fora taxon; usually used of names not listed in catalogues of names; seealso forgotten name.
neglectotype: (zool., unoff.) an uncurated type specimen not found formany years until an office was cleaned out (!).
neoallotype: see neallotype.
neocotype: (zool., unoff.) one of two or more syntypes selected to serve as
the type for a name when all the original material of the first
selected type has been lost or destroyed; a replacement syntype;
inadmissible under the current Code; see also lectotype.
neoephemerotype: see ephemerotype.
neogenotype: (zool., unoff.) a type species of a genus-group namedesignated when the original type species was considered
unrecognizable.
neoholotype: (zool., unoff.) a neotype (q.v.).
neonym: (unoff.) a new name proposed to replace either a junior homonym
or a name of a new combination.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

neoparatype: (zool., unoff.) a paraneotype (q.v.); see also hypotype.
neopathotype: (prok.) a strain proposed by valid publication to represent apathovar where none of the strains upon which the originaldescription was based can be located.
neosyntype, [neosyntypus]: (1) (phyt.) erroneously used to replace"neotypus" in the nomenclature of syntaxa. (2) (zool., unoff.) a
neocotype (q.v.).
neotype, [N.T., NT]: (1) (bio., bot., prok.) a specimen or illustration
selected to serve as nomenclatural type if no original material isextant or as long as it is missing. (2) (prok.) a new type selected toserve as the nomenclatural type of a name the previously designatedtype of which has become unsuitable for any reason; see also
epitype. (3) (zool.) the single specimen designated as the namebearing type of a nominal species or subspecies when there is a needto define the nominal taxon objectively and no name-bearing type isbelieved to be extant; if stability and universality are threatened,because an existing name-bearing type is either taxonomicallyinadequate or not in accord with the prevailing usage of a name, theCommission (ICZN) may use its plenary power to set aside that typeand designate a neotype. (4) (phyt.) an element that is chosen as thenomenclatural type when neither the holotype nor an element
suitable to be chosen as the lectotype occurs.
nepionotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) the type of the larva of a species-groupname. (2) (zool., unoff.) a type specimen which is the larval stage ofa species.
neutral term: (1) of a term, one which is not equated with any particular
rank; e.g. syntaxon, taxon. (2) (zool., unoff.) a category for units
whose rank in a taxonomic hierarchy is uncertain, e.g. a species
complex.
New Biological Nomenclature, [NBN]: a proposed parallel alternative
nomenclatural system with scientific names in Esperanto rather than
Latin, first proposed in 1971 and with a detailed guide issued in
1991, and prepared by Wilhelm de Smet on behalf of the
Association for the Introduction of New Biological Nomenclature;in this system, names are of two words, the family name is the first129

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
element and species name the second; names to be used were to beapproved by an international committee; see also asterisk.

new clade name: (phyl.) a newly proposed name that has been establishedin accordance with the rules of the PhyloCode; see converted clade
namenew combination, [combinatio nova, comb. nov.]: a combination formed
from a previously published legitimate name (basionym, q.v.) andemploying the same final epithet (or employing the name itself if
formed from a generic name); new combinations are made becauseof a change of position or rank; in (bot.) also used by authors whenpublishing new combinations for the first time; see also
combination, naked combination, semi-naked combination.
new name, [nomen novum, nom. nov., n.n.]: (1) (bot.) a newly publishedname; this may be the name of a new taxon, a new combination, aname at a new rank (i.e. status novus), or an avowed substitute(nomen novum) for an existing name; most commonly used in thislast sense. (2) (zool.) a replacement name; see also avowed
substitute, new clade name, new replacement name, new scientificname.
new replacement name, [nomen novum, nom. nov.]: (zool.) a nameestablished expressly to replace an already established name; anominal taxon denoted by a new replacement name (nomen novum)
has the same name-bearing type as the nominal taxon denoted by the
replaced name; see also emendation, substitute name.
new scientific name: a scientific name, available or unavailable, newly
proposed for a taxon.
new species, [nov. sp., species nova, sp. nov.; pl. nov. spp., spp. nov.]: thelatinized version or more commonly the abbreviated form is addedby an author after the name of a species that author is describing as
new to science.
new transfer: see translatio nova.
nidus: see conculta.
nixus: (bot., obsol.) a hierarchical rank treated as being equivalent to that oforder.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

nm.: see nothomorph.
no., [numero, no]: number; sometimes used in bibliographic citations toindicate separately published parts of a work.
nobis, [nob.]: (obsol.) by us; formerly sometimes used to indicate that an
author was introducing a name which should be attributed to him orher; see mihi.
node: (phyl.) a point or vertex on a tree (graph theory); on a phylogenetic
tree, a node is commonly used to represent the split of one lineage toform two or more lineages (internal node) or the lineage at thepresent time (terminal node).
node-based clade: (phyl.) a point or vertex on a tree (graph theory); on aphylogenetic tree, a node is commonly used to represent the split of
one lineage to form two or more lineages (internal node) or the
lineage at the present time (terminal node).
node-based definition: (phyl.) a definition that associates a name with aclade originating at a node (on a phylogenetic tree) representing themost recent common ancestor of specified descendant organisms
and/or species (internal specifiers).
nodum: (phyt., obsol.) a syntaxon rank, not accepted in the Code.
nomen, [nom.; pl. nomina]: name; in nomenclatural practice, some usages
have become more familiar in the singular (e.g. nomen novum),while others are commonly encountered in the plural (e.g. nomina
conservanda).
nomen abortivum, [nom. abort.]: (obsol.) formerly applied to a namewhich at the date of publication was contrary to the Code inoperation at that time.
nomen alternativum, [nom. alt.]: an alternative name (q.v.).
nomen ambiguum, [nom. ambig.]: an ambiguous name (q.v.).
nomen ambiguum rejiciendum, [nom. ambig.; pl. nomina ambigua
rejicienda]: (phyt.) a list of ambiguous names of syntaxa ruled as
not to be used by the Nomenclature Commission (q.v.).

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

nomen anamorphosis, [nomen amamorphosium, nom. anam.]: (mycol.)a name based on an anamorph of a pleomorphic fungus; stat.
imperf., stat. conid., stat. pycnid.
nomen approbatum: an approved name (q.v.); (prok.) see approved.
nomen carentum, [nom. car.; pl. nomina carentia]: without a name;sometimes used in bibliographic citations to indicate a taxon
published without a formal name.
nomen cladi conversum: (phyl.) see converted clade name.
nomen cladi novum: (phyl.) see new clade name.
nomen confusum, [nom. conf.]: a confused name (q.v.).
nomen conservandum, [nom. cons., nom. conserv.]: a conserved name(q.v.).
nomen conservandum propositum, [nom. cons. prop., nom. conserv.
prop.]: a name proposed for conservation; see conserved name.
nomen correctum, [nomen corrigendum, nom. corr.]: a corrected name;sometimes used to indicate that the orthography of a name has beencorrected from the form originally published because oforthographical or typographical errors in the name as first proposed.
nomen corrigendum hoc loco, [nom. corr. hoc. loco.]: (phyt.) a phrasethat must be appended, after 1 January 2002, to the author citation of
the name of a syntaxon when the name is being corrected in orderfor the correction to be validly published under the Code.
nomen differentiale: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) the epithet of the name of a
fossil pollen or spore, corresponding to the specific name of an
extant species.
nomen dubium, [nom. dub.]: a dubious name (q.v.).
nomen hypertelicum: a mataeonym (q.v.).
nomen hybridum, [nom. hybrid.]: a hybrid name (q.v.).
nomen illegitimum, [nom. illegit.]: an illegitimate name (q.v.).
nomen imaginatum: a ficticious scientific name coined merely for the
purpose of providing an example to illustrate a discussion of anomenclatural topic.

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nomen invalidum, [nom. inval.]: an invalid name (q.v.); see also
designation, name, nomen non rite publicatum.
nomen inversum, [pl. nomina inversa]: (phyt.) a name of a syntaxon
which was not formed according to the Code when published withregard to the order of the names, but which has been corrected, andthe correction accepted by the International Commission of
Phytosociological Nomenclature.
nomen inversum propositum, [nom. invers. prop.; pl. nomina inversa
proposita]: (phyt.) a name of a syntaxon which was not formed
according to the Code when published with regard to the order ofthe names, the corrected order of which has been submitted to theInternational Commission of Phytosociological Nomenclature for
acceptance or rejection.
nomen inversum rejiciendum, [nom. invers. rej.; pl. nomina inversa
rejicienda]: (phyt.) a name of a syntaxon which was not formed
according to the Code when published with regard to the order ofthe names, which has been submitted to the International
Commission of Phytosociological Nomenclature and the proposedchange in the order of the names rejected.
nomen monstrositatum, [nom. monstr.]: a name based on a monstrosity(q.v.).
nomen mutatum, [nom. mut.; pl. nomina mutata]: (phyt.) a name of asyntaxon formed from a taxon name that is no longer used in themost important taxonomic and floristic literature of the past 20
years, or is only quoted in synonymy, but updated to thecontemporary taxonomic nomenclature; names corrected in this way
retain the original author citation, and the change must be adopted or
rejected by the Nomenclature Commission.
nomen mutatum propositum, [nom. mut. prop.; pl. nomina mutata
proposita]: (phyt.) a change in the name of a syntaxon so that it
follows contemporary taxonomic nomenclature which has been
proposed to the Nomenclature Commission for a ruling on its
adoption or rejection.
nomen neglectum, [nom. negl.]: a neglected name (q.v.).

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nomen non rite publicatum, [nom. non rite publ.]: (unoff,) a name notproperly published; sometimes used in citations of synonyms toindicate a name that has been effectively but not validly published.
nomen novum, [nom. nov.]: a new name (q.v.).
nomen nudum, [nomen nud.]: a naked name (q.v.).
nomen oblitum, [nom. oblit.]: a forgotten name (q.v.).
nomen oppressum, [nom. oppr.]: (bot., unoff.) a name published in a
suppressed work (q.v.) and at a rank specified therein andconsequently treated as not validly published.
nomen periculosum, [nom. peric.]: a perilous name (q.v.).
nomen perplexum, [nom. perplex.]: a perplexing name (q.v.).
nomen protectum, [nom. prot.]: a protected name (q.v.).
nomen provisorium, [nom. provis.]: a provisional name (q.v.).
nomen reclitum, [nom. recl.]: a revived name (q.v.).
nomen rejiciendum, [nom. rej.]: a rejected name (q.v.).
nomen rejiciendum propositum, [nom. rej. prop.]: (bot.) a nameproposed for rejection under the Code but awaiting ratification
either by a Committee or by a subsequent International BotanicalCongress; see conservation, rejected name.
nomen revictum, [nom. rev.]: a revived name (q.v.).
nomen sed non planta: (bot., obsol.) the name but not the plant; formerly
used in citations of synonyms to indicate cases where an author
introducing a new combination or new name applied the name to ataxon other than that to which the type of the basionym belongs, i.e.
a method of indicating a misapplied name.
nomen seminudum: a semi-naked name; see nomen subnudum.
nomen subnudum: (bot., unoff.) a name with limited or unusualdescriptive information provided in the protologue which is not
sufficiently diagnostic to permit its recognition apart from others(e.g. a tall plant with white flowers) and so raises doubts as to its
valid publication..

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

nomen substitutum: (phyl.) a replacement name (q.v.).
nomen superfluum, [nom. superfl.]: a superfluous name (q.v.).
nomen tantum, [nom. tant.]: name only, used of names not applied in thesense of their type; a misapplied name.
nomen translatum, [nom. trans.]: (zool.) a name that has been changed inhierarchical rank with a changed suffix.
nomen triviale, [nom. triv.; pl. nomina trivialia]: a trivial name (q.v.).
nomen typicum abstractum: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) the first name of thebinomial of the name of a fossil pollen or spore, corresponding to
the genus name of an extant taxon; see also sporomorph..
nomen typicum concretum: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) a name inserted inbrackets after the nomen typicum abstractum (q.v.) in the name of a
fossil pollen or spore, e.g. Hexorites (Nothofagidites) oblata; i.e. in
use corresponding to that of a subgeneric name of an extant species.
nomen utique rejiciendum: (bot.) a name ruled as rejected by an
International Botanical Congress; it and all combinations based on it
are not to be used, and these names are listed in the Code; seerejected name.
nomenclator: (1) a taxonomic catalogue or other listing of names
distinguishing between accepted names and their synonyms; e.g.
Index Animalium (CD Sherborn, 1920-33), Nomenclator Botanicus(EG Steudel, 1824). (2) (obsol.) one who creates scientific names.
(3) a person who compiles a nomenclator.
nomenclatorial: relating to nomenclators (q.v.); formerly used in the senseof nomenclatural (q.v.).
nomenclatural: relating to nomenclature.
nomenclatural act: (zool.) a published act which affects the nomenclatural
status of a scientific name or the typification of a nominal taxon;
such acts may be available, invalid, unavailable, or valid (q.v.).
nomenclatural combination: (phyt.) the name of a subassociation,
consisting of an association name followed by a subassociation
epithet.

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nomenclatural filter: (unoff.) a flow diagram indicating the sequential
steps necessary to arrive at the correct name of taxon under a Code.
nomenclatural hierarchy: the consecutively subordinate ranks of taxa
defined by a Code.
nomenclatural novelties: new names and descriptions or diagnoses of new
taxaor syntax.
nomenclatural standard: (cult. pl.) a specimen or other device to which
the name of a cultivar or Group is permanently attached.
nomenclatural status: see status.
nomenclatural synonym: a homotypic synonym (q.v.); an obligate
synonym; (zool.) an objective synonym; see also heterotypicsynonym, objective synonym, taxonomic synonym.
nomenclatural type: (1) (bot., prok., zool.) the element to which the nameof a taxon is permanently attached; this applies whether it is acorrect name or a synonym; the nomenclatural type is notnecessarily the most typical or representative element of a taxon; aname-bearing type (q.v.); see also cotype, epitype, holotype, isotype,lectotype, neotype, nominifer, onomatophore, paratype, syntype. (2)(phyt.) of a syntaxon, the element of the syntaxon to which the nameof the syntaxon remains permanently attached; the nomenclatural
type need not be the most typical (characteristic) or one that is
outstanding owing to its particular frequency.
nomenclature: (1) a system of names, and provisions for their formation
and use; see also binominal nomenclature. (2) the system of names
so produced, or any part thereof; the result of (1).
Nomenclature Commission: (phyt.) see International Commission of
Phytosociological Nomenclature.
Nomenclature Section: (bot.) a body convened in accordance with theCode immediately prior to an International Botanical Congress;
proposals to modify the Code are debated and voted, and decisionsof Permanent Committees are ratified.
Nomenclature Session: (mycol., prop.) proposed for a meeting convenedon the occasion of an International Mycological Congress (IMC),
the first to be held in 2010, to debate and vote on proposals relating

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
to the nomenclature of fungi; the results from the Session will thenbe forwarded to the Nomenclature Section of the subsequentInternational Botanical Congress.

nomenifer: see nominifer.
nomenspecies: (1) (unoff.) the naming species; the nomenclatural type of ageneric name. (2) (unoff.) a taxon treated as a species for purposesof nomenclature whatever status it otherwise merits. (3) (prok.,
unoff.) strains identical to the nomenclatural type of a species name.
(4) (prok., unoff.) a category designated more by name than by thecharacters of the included strains; cfr phenospecies.
-nomial: (not nomenclatural) a suffix referring to mathematical (algebraic)terms, and best avoided in biological nomenclature; see binomial.
nominal: of or in names; see binominal, multinominal, polynominal,
nominal taxon, uninominal.
nominal author: (phyl.) the person(s) who first published a name,regardless whether it was phylogenetically defined; see definitional
author.
nominal family-group: see family group.
nominal genus-group: see genus group.
nominal species-group: see species group.
nominal taxon [pl. nominal taxa]: (1) (bio.) the unit formed by a nameand its type (e.g. a generic name and its type species). (2) (zool.) a
concept of a taxon which is denoted by an available name (e.g.
Mollusca, Diptera, Bovidae, Papilio, Homo sapiens); each taxon in
the family, genus or species groups is based on a name-bearing type(although in the latter two groups such a type may not have been
actually fixed); see also taxon.
nominant: (cult. pl.) the person who invents or coins a name.
nominate: (zool., obsol.) a term used in previous editions of the Code fornominotypical (q.v.).
nominifer, [nomenifer]: (prok., zool., obsol.) a nomenclatural type.
nominotypical: (zool.) the nominal taxon at a subordinate rank within thefamily group, the genus group, or the species group that contains the

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
name-bearing type of the nominal taxon to which it is subordinate
and having the same name as the superior taxon; see also autonym(bot.).

non: not; either used alone in the citation of homonyms to indicate that theyrefer to taxa other than those described by the authors of the earliest
homonyms, or to indicate misidentifications; see nec.
non fossil taxon: (bot.) a taxon the name of which is based on a non-fossil
type.
non-statutory registration: (cult. pl.) registration by any organization,agency, or individual entrusted with registration by agreement ofinterested parties.
non vide, [non vidus, non visus, non viso, n.v.]: (unoff.) not seen, added
to citations of specimens or bibliographic references to indicate thatthe original materials (especially types) have not been examined by
the author but are included on the authority of others; see also cfr,
fide, teste.
norm: (palaeo., zool., unoff., obsol.) of a specimen, one chosen to illustrate
the variation of a species.
notation: (1) (zool.) see qualifying phrase. (2) (not nomenclatural) the
representation of numbers, quantities, and measurements, etc., bysigns and symbols.
not published name: (phyt.) a not effectively or not validly published
name.
Note: (prok., bot.) in the Code, an explanatory text comprising an integral
part of the Article to which it is appended, and inserted to amplify or
clarify the more generalized wording that makes up the body of thisarticle; in (bot.) the provisions in Notes are mandatory, but this is
not stated explicitly in (prok.).
notho-, [n-]: (bot.) a prefix added to the term denoting the rank of a taxon
to indicate that it is of known hybrid origin (e.g. nothogenus,
nothogenus); equivalent to a multiplication sing (x).
nothogenus: (bot.) a hybrid genus; i.e. a nothotaxon between two or moregenera.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

nothomorph, [nothomorpha, nm.]: (1) (bot., obsol.) any hybrid variant,whether F1, segregate or backcross derived from the same parent
species forming a taxon of this category. (2) (bot., obsol.) a rankdenoting term formerly used for a subordinate taxon within anothospecies; names published at the rank of nothomorph are treatedas if names of varieties.
nothospecies: (bot.) a hybrid species; i.e. a nothotaxon between two or
more species.
nothotaxon: (bot.) a hybrid taxon; the result of hybridization between two
or more different taxa.
Notification List: (prok.) a compilation into a single list of names first
introduced in the International Journal of Systematic andEvolutionary Microbiology which is published in issues of thatjournal; see also Validation List.
noun phrase: a compound word consisting of a noun combined withanother noun or modifying adjective, the compound being treated asa noun in apposition (e.g. "capillus-veneris" meaning “hair ofVenus”); if the adjective is the final element in a species-groupname, its ending is determined by the gender of the noun it modifies(and not by that of the generic name with which the species-groupname is combined).
nova, [n., nov., novus, novum]: new, used when publishing a new
designation for a taxon, whether as new to science or as a new
combination or new name.
nude combination: see naked combination.
numericlature: the use of numbers instead of names to indicate taxa, which
may be arbitrary (e.g. accession numbers) or coded descriptions;several such systems have been proposed, but none are currently
accepted or in general use.
numerotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a type specimen only with a collection
number, other data being lost or destroyed; see also ambiguotype.
(2) (unoff.) a type represented by numbers in a character matrix
compared with others by computer analysis.

139

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)-obionta: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank of
subkingdom.
-obiota: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank of kingdom.
objective: demonstrably true, not a matter of individual opinion, in contrast
to subjective.
objective synonym: (zool.) each of two or more synonyms that denotenominal taxa with the same name-bearing type, or (in the case offamily- and genus-group taxa) that denote nominal taxa with namebearing types whose own names are themselves objectively
synonymous; see homotypic synonym, nomenclatural synonym.
obligate synonym: a homotypic synonym (q.v.); a nomenclatural or
objective synonym.
oecotype: see ecotype.
off-type: (cult. pl.) a plant showing a non-typical phenotype or one thatdiffers from a ideotype; a rogue.
Official Correction: (zool.) a correction, issued by the Commission(ICZN), of an error or omission in a previously published Opinion;
see also Direction.
Official Index: (zool.) an abbreviated title for any of the four indexes,
maintained and published by the Commission (ICZN), citing works
or names that have been rejected by rulings of the Commission. The
indexes are: Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Works in
Zoological Nomenclature, Official Index of Rejected and Invalid
Family-Group Names in Zoology, Official Index of Rejected andInvalid Generic Names in Zoology, Official Index of Rejected andInvalid Specific Names in Zoology). The Official Lists and Indexesof Names and Works in Zoology (Melville RV; Smith JDD, eds;
1987) catalogues 9900 names and works on which the Commission
had ruled over the years 1895-1985; a supplement covering 1986-90
is also available.
Official List: (zool.) an abbreviated title for any of the four lists maintained
and published by the Commission (ICZN), citing available works or
names that have been ruled upon in the Opinions of the140

Terms used in Bionomenclature
Commission; see Official Index, Official Register of Zoological
Nomenclature.

Official Opinion: see Opinion.
Official Register: (zool., prop.) the Official Register of Zoological
Nomenclature (q.v.).
Official Register of Zoological Nomenclature: (zool., prop.) a record of
information about names and nomenclatural acts, maintained by the
ICZN in electronic or paper form; see also ZooBank.
official text: (zool.) of the Code, a text, in any language, which has beenauthorized by the Commission (ICZN); all equivalent in force,
meaning, and authority.
offprint: see author's extras, reprint, separate.
-oidea: (zool.) suffix added to a stem generic name to form a name in rankof super family.
-oideae: (prok., bot.) suffix added to a stem generic name to form a name in
the rank of subfamily.
-oj: (unoff.) proposed termination in Esperanto for a name in the rank offamily in the New Biological Nomenclature (q.v.).
older synonym: (1) (bot.) the earlier of two names in the same rank which
apply to the same taxon; a senior synonym (zool.). (2) (bot., unoff.)
an older name that although published earlier cannot be used as thecorrect name of the taxon under the Code for some nomenclatural
reason.
oldest name: (1) (prok., bot.) the first validly published name for a taxon.
(2) (zool.) the first available name for a taxon; the senior name.
oligotype: (bot., unoff.) proposed as a category of types, comprising scanty
ones that are in danger of being used up when examined; whenmaterial so tagged is examined, any drawings, photographs,
chemical data, microscopic slides, notes on microscopical details
and measurements made should be kept with the type material.
olim: formerly.
onomatophore: (unoff.) the name-bearer; a strain or specimen that acts as
the nomenclatural type of a name (prok.) or nominal taxon (zool.).

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onomatotype: see onomatype.
onomatype, [onomatotype]: (obsol.) a specimen which has been cited inprint but which does not add anything not previously known about
the morphology of the species or subspecies to which it is referred;an unessential type (q.v.).
ootype: (1) (zool., unoff.) the type of an egg; an ovotype (q.v.). (2) (notnomenclatural) a genital organ in certain tapeworms.
op. cit.: opere citato (q.v.).
opera utique oppressa: see suppressed works.
operational taxonomic unit, [OTU]: the lowest taxon being studied in aparticular investigation; i.e. an assemblage of individual collections,
isolates or taxa of any rank used in scoring data for subsequent
analysis, usually by phenetics methods.
opere citato, [op. cit.]: in the work cited (but not the page); used to avoid
the need to repeat a bibliographic reference cited earlier in the same
publication; see also loco citato.
-ophytanae: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank ofsuperdivision or superphylum; see also –mycotera.
Opinion: (1) (zool.) a formal publication by the Commission (ICZN)
containing a ruling that applies, interprets, or suspends provisions of
the Code in a case affecting one or more stated names,
nomenclatural acts or works; an Opinion states how the Code is tobe applied or interpreted, or the course to be followed in aparticularcase. (2) (prok.) a decision of the Judicial Commission of theInternational Committee on Prokaryote Systematics (ICPS).
-opsida: (bot.) suffix used to denote a name in the rank of class, except inalgae and fungi.
-ordanoj: (unoff.) proposed termination in Esperanto for a name in the rankof order in the New Biological Nomenclature (q.v.).
order, [ordo]: (1) (bot., prok., zool.) the principal category of taxa
intermediate in rank between class and family; indicated by thesuffix -ales (prok., bot.); see also ordo naturalis. (2) (phyt.) one of
the four principle ranks in the hierarchical system of syntaxa,
between that of alliance and class.

142

Terms used in Bionomenclatureordinal adjective: a numerical adjective indicating the place in aconsecutively numbered series.
ordo naturalis, [ord. nat., ordo]: (obsol.) a natural order, formerly used as
the principal category of taxa immediately above genus in rank;
most frequently used in the sense of family; see also cohors.
organ genus: (palaeo. bot., obsol.) a genus of fossils whose diagnostic
characters are derived from single organs of the same morphologicalcategory or from restricted groups of organs connected together; anorgan genus is assignable to a family; see form-genus, morphotaxon.
organ species: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) any morphologically delimited
category of disarticulated organ; see also autapospecies, form
species.
organ taxon: (palaeo. bot.) a fossil taxon of any rank based on charactersderived from a single organ.
organism: an individual living thing.
original author: the first author who used and published a name or epithet.
original designation: the designation of the name-bearing type of a new
taxon when it is established (validly published).
original form of name: (phyt.) the form of the name used in its first valid
publication.
original material: (bot.) specimens and illustrations indicated in the
protologue of a name; the elements used by the author of a name ofa taxon in the preparation of the protologue, comprising (a) thosespecimens and illustrations (both unpublished and published either
prior to or together with the protologue) upon which it can be shownthat the description or diagnosis validating the name was based, (b)the holotype and those specimens which, even if unseen by theauthor of the description or diagnosis validating the name, wereindicated as types (syntypes or paratypes) of the name at is valid
publication, or (c) the isotypes or isosyntypes of the nameirrespective of whether such specimens were seen be either theauthor of the validating description or diagnosis, or the author of the
name.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

original name: (phyt.) the form of the name used in its first valid
publication.
original publication: (1) the work in which a name or nomenclatural act
was first published. (2) of a name or nomenclatural act, publication
for the first time.
original spelling: (1) (bot.) the spelling employed when a name was validly
published. (2) (zool.) the spelling or one of the spellings of a nameemployed when it was established. (3) (bio.) the spelling employedwhen a name was submitted for registration.
originally included nominal species: (zool.) of a nominal genus-grouptaxon, the nominal species deemed to be originally included.
originalis, [orig.]: (unoff.) original; sometimes used to indicate that a
specimen is the original material, or a part of that material.
originator: (1) (cult. pl.) the initial producer or discoverer of a cultivar. (2)(unoff.) the person describing an observation record or taxon for the
first time.
ornatype: (zool., unoff.) a topotype (q.v.).
ortet: (cult. pl.) the one original plant from which a clone ultimately
derives.
orthographia, [orth.].: see orthographic.
orthographia mutata, [orth. mut.]: with an altered spelling; see also
correctus.
orthographic: relating to spelling; see also orthographia, orthography.
orthographic error: an unintentional spelling error; specified orthographic
errors in names can be corrected by later authors without a change in
the author citation.
orthographic variant: (bio., bot., prok.) one of various spellings,
compounding, and inflectional forms of a name or its epithet, only
one nomenclatural type being involved; an alternative and usually
incorrect spelling of the same name; note that if these alternative
spellings are based on different nomenclatural types they are treatedas homynyms; in (bio.) also used to include typographical errors;
see also equivalent name.

144

Terms used in Bionomenclatureorthography: spelling; the conventional or correct spelling of a word orname.
orthography conservation proposed, [orth. cons. prop.]: a nameproposed for conservation with a particular spelling; see
orthography conserved.
orthography conserved, [orth. cons.]: a name conserved to preserve a
particular spelling, usually one different from that in the originalplace of publication of the name.
orthotype: (zool., unoff.) the type species of a genus that was originallydesignated as the type in the original place of publication; see also
genotype.
orthotypic: (zool., unoff.) of a genus-group name, one with an orthotype(q.v.).
-ota: (bot., unoff.) suffix proposed for names in the rank of superkingdom.
OTU: see operational taxonomic unit.
out-cross: (cult. pl.) hybridization of an existing population of cultivatedplants which extends its gene pool and may therefore alter theoverall characteristics of that population.
overscore: see macron.
ovoholotype: see ootype.
ovoparatype: see ootype.
ovotype: see ootype.

p. [pl. pp.]: page.
P, ([P], P): (phyl.) when placed in squared brackets or a superscript after ascientific name, used to a designate a name governed by the
PhyloCode and not one of the pre-existing rank-based Codes, e.g.
Teucrioideae [P] or Teucrioideae P; see R.
p.p.: pro parte (q.v.).
p.v.: pathovar (q.v.).

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

page reference: (bot.) citation of the page or pages on which a basionym orreplaced name was validly published; not the pagination of thewhole publication, unless coextensive with the protologue.
palaeobiogroup: (palaeo., unoff.) a major morphological and nonhierarchical grouping of types of fossils.
Palaeontological Data-Handling Code [PDHC]: (palaeo., unoff.) a
proposed alternative method of handling information on fossils,
incorporating information from observational and stratigraphic
records.
palaeospecies: a chronospecies (q.v.).
Palaeotaxon Record: see PTR.
palaeotaxon, [pl. palaeotaxa]: (palaeo., unoff.) a form of immutable basetaxon of fossils, previously referred to as a biorecord.
paleobiogroup: see palaeobiogroup.
paleotaxon, [pl. paleotaxa]: see palaeotaxon.
Paleotaxon Record: see PTR.
Pan-: see panclade name.
panclade name: (phyl.) a name that is derived from the name of a crownclade by the addition of the prefix Pan- and is used to designate thetotal clade of that crown clade.
par., [parenca]: (unoff.) a term in Esperanto proposed to be used inrounded brackets to indicate that species are related in the New
Biological Nomenclature (q.v.); e.g. *Delfeno (par.) ordotipa*.
para-: a prefix, by the side of; used to indicate categories of subsidiaryelements (e.g. paratype).
paraallotype: see parallotype.
paracolon: (prok., unoff.) a word to be avoided because its meanings arealmost as numerous as its users (!).
paracultype: (unoff.) a strain of a microorganism cultivated by the authorof the taxon and quoted in the original description, but not the
selected holotype.

146

Terms used in Bionomenclatureparaedeotype, [paraedotype]: (zool., unoff.) an aedeotype (q.v.) where thepreparation is from a paratype.
paraedotype: see paraedeotype.
paragenotype: (zool., unoff.) a genotype (q.v.) designated later than one by
the first reviser.
parahomonym: (1) (cult. pl.) one of two or more words orthographically orphonetically so similar to each other that they are likely to be
confused; see homonym, orthographic variant, paronym. (2) (bot.)one of two or more names based on different types and spelledsimilarly but which are likely to be confused because they apply torelated taxa or any other reason, and therefore treated as homonyms(q.v.).
paralectotype: each specimen of a former syntype-series (zool.) or a
syntype residue (bot., q.v.) remaining after the designation of a
lectotype; a lectoparatype (q.v.).
parallotype: (zool., unoff.) paratypes of the same series and sex as theallotype (q.v.) described by an author other than the original authorof the taxon name.
paramorph: (1) (unoff.) any variant of a species, especially one that, forlack of information, cannot be more accurately defined; seemorphotype. (2) (bot., obsol.) any taxonomic category below that ofspecies.
paraneotype: (zool., unoff.) an illustrated specimen used in addition to aneotype when a neotype is being designated; a neoparatype (q.v.).
paranym: (unoff.) a shortened version of a parahomonym (q.v.).
paraphyletic: (phyl.) a set including an ancestor but excluding some or allof its descendants.
parasort: (cult. pl., unoff.) an inheritably constant morphologicalbiological state originating naturally, and existing as a collection ofgenerations as cultivated plant populations, or in a pure state as acollective pattern; used, e.g. of variegated populations.
parataxon, [pl. parataxa]: (1) (palaeo. bio.) fossil non-algal botanical taxa,
which for nomenclatural purposes comprise only those parts, lifehistory stages, or preservation states of organisms that are

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
represented by the corresponding name-bearing types, and whosenames for purposes of priority compete only with names based on a
name-bearing type representing the same part, life-history stage orpreservation state. (2) (zool., unoff.) a taxon, usually of fossils,
based on some part less than the whole organism, e.g. form genera(q.v.) of fossil plants based on dispersed spores, detached leaves,names applied to individual fossil teeth, and any ichnotaxon (q.v.).
(3) (zool., unoff.) a taxon that corresponds only to definite stages in
the life-history of an organism; see also anamorph, teleomorph. (4)(zool., unoff.) a domesticated taxon, kept apart from its wild
ancestor only by human vigilance.

paratopotype: (zool., unoff.) a paratype from the same locality as theholotype.
paratype: (1) (zool.) all specimens other than the holotype on which a
species-group name is based and so designated in the original
publication of the name. (2) (bot.) a specimen cited in the
protologue that is neither the holotype nor an isotype, nor one of the
syntypes if two or more specimens were simultaneously designatedas types; see also paralectotype. (3) (prok., obsol.) a form of abacterium possessing the sum of the characters of the normal form
but differing in one or more respects.
paratype allotype: (zool., unoff.) a paratype from a different locality fromthe holotype; a paratype (q.v.).
paratype omotype: (zool., unoff.) a paratype from the same locality as theholotype; a paratype (q.v.).
parenthesis, [pl. parentheses]: see brackets.
paronym: (1) (unoff.) a name related etymologically to another but spelt
differently (e.g. Bougainvillea and Buginvillaea) (2) (cult. pl.) a
name so similar orthographically or phonetically to another namethat they are likely to be confused. See also paranym.
parte: see pro parte.
partially suppressed name: (zool.) the older of two objective synonyms
which is suppressed for the Principle of Priority alone, without also
being suppressed for the Principle of Homonymy.

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partim, [part.]: partly, in part; (unoff.) sometimes used in citations toindicate names used partly in one sense; cfr pro parte.
parvi-: (bot.) prefix used to signify a category of a rank between thosedenoted by the prefixes “infra-” and “super-”, e.g. parviclass,parviorder, parvisubkingdom.
passim: here and there.
pathotype: (1) (prok., obsol.) a pathovar (q.v.). (2) (vir.) in use in the senseof pathovar.
pathovar, [pv.]: (prok.) a strain or set of strains with the same or similar
characteristics, differentiated at infrasubspecific level from otherstrains of the same species or subspecies on the basis of distinctive
pathogenicity to one or more plant hosts; a pathotype. The namingof pathovars of plants is subject to the International Standards for
Naming Pathovars of Phytopathogenic Bacteria prepared by theCommittee on the Taxonomy of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria of theInternational Society for Plant Pathology.
patent name: (prok.) a name cited only in patent application; such names
are treated as if not effectively published; see also plant patent.
patronym: (not nomenclatural) the name of a person; see patronymic.
patronymic: (1) of a name, one involving a patronymic prefix (e.g. Belgian“Van”, Dutch “van”, Irish “O”, Scottish “Mac”, “mc” and “M’”) or
suffix (e.g. Russian “-vich”, Danish”-sen”, English Scandinavian”son”); see also matronymic. (2) (unoff.) sometimes also used in thesense of an eponym (q.v.).
patronymotype: (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of a new species in the
personal collection of a collector who will donate it to an institution
if the new species is named after him or her (!).
PDHC: Palaeontological Data-Handling Code (q.v.).
per: (bot., obsol.) used in place of “ex” in author citations by somemycological authors when a pre-starting point name was being
validated; see revalidated name, sanctioned name.
perfect state: a teleomorph (q.v.).

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perilous name, [nomen periculosum]: (prok.) a name for a taxon where
confusion in the application of the name may lead to accidents
endangering health or life or both, or have serious economic
consequences.
period classification: (palaeo., unoff.) a classification of fossils confined torecords from a named geologic period (e.g. the Cretaceous Albian
Period classification is a 100-classification): see also subtroop.
periodical: a publication issued at intervals; a serial (q.v.) publication.
Permanent Committee (bot.): one of five committees appointed by an
International Botanical Congress mandated to consider
nomenclatural proposals, especially for the conservation or rejectionof names, related to particular groups, viz. Algae, Bryophyta, Fossil
Plants, Fungi, and Vascular Plants.
perplexing name, [nomen perplexum, nom. perpl.]: (prok.) a name theapplication of which is known, but which causes uncertainty if usedbecause the spelling is uncertain or causes difficulty.
personal communication, [pers. comm.]: information received from a
named person verbally or in personal correspondence.
phaenotype: see phenotype.
phagotype, [phage type]: (prok., obsol.) a phagovar (q.v.).
phagovar: (prok.) an infrasubspecific strain of a species distinguished by
its reaction either to a particular bacteriophage (a typing phage), orby a distinctive pattern of sensitivity to a set of specificbacteriophages; formerly referred to as a phagotype or phage type;see also lysotype.
phalanx: (zool., unoff) a rank used at various levels between kingdom andsuperfamily, and so of uncertain modern equivalence.
phase: (1) (cult. pl.) a distinct stage in the growth cycle of a plant. (2)(prok.) in Enterobacteriaceae, a well-defined stage of naturally
occurring alternating variation.
phase type: (zool., unoff.) a type exhibiting a phase different from that of
the holotype (e.g. sex, dimorphic form).

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Terms used in Bionomenclaturephenome: the phenotype as a whole, not as manifested by a specificgenotype; see phenotype.
phenon, [pl. phena]: (1) (prok., unoff.) a taxonomic group in which thedegree of similarity has been established by numerical methods. (2)(zool., unoff.) a sample or group of phenotypically similarorganisms.
phenospecies: (prok., unoff.) a group of bacteria whose phenotypic
description is known and which is judged to have a rankcorresponding to species; cfr. nomenspecies.
phenotype: the sum total of the observable characters of individualorganisms; the physical expression of the genome or genotype; seealso phenome.
phenotypic: pertaining to the phenotype.
phonogram: a character of symbol representing a spoken sound.
photographotype: (zool., unoff.) a phototype (q.v.).
photosyntype: (zool., unoff.) one of a series of photographs representing a
species.
phototype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a photograph of a type specimen; a fototype.
(2) (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of a taxon known only from asingle photograph. (3) (mycol.) suggested as an alternative tophycotype (q.v.). (4) (not nomenclatural) a method of printing andused in that sense since 1859.
phrase name: (1) a polynomial (q.v.). (2) (unoff.) an element in a taxon
label (q.v.).
phycotype: (mycol., not nomenclatural) one of two or moremorphologically distinct lichenized structures involving the same
fungal partner but different algae or cyanobacteria.
PhyloCode: (phyl.) a phylogenetic Code of biological nomenclature; anintegrated set of principles and rules governing the naming of taxa
and the application of taxon names that is based on the principle ofcommon descent; see International Committee on Phylogenetic
Nomenclature.
phylogenetic: (phyl.) of or pertaining to the history of ancestry and descent.

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phylogenetic definition: (phyl.) a statement explicitly linking a taxon namewith a particular clade.
phylogenetic hypothesis: (phyl.) a proposition about the relationships
among biological entities (e.g. species) in terms of common
ancestry.
phylogenetic system: (phyl.) of nomenclature, an integrated set ofprinciples and rules governing the naming of taxa and theapplication of taxon names that is based on the principle of common
descent; see PhyloCode.
phylogenetic tree: (phyl.) the diagrammatic representation of phylogeny asa tree in the sense of a minimally connected graph (number ofbranches = number of nodes minus one).
phylogeny: (phyl.) evolutionary history; the history of descent withmodification, whether in general or a particular part thereof; theterm is also sometimes used for a hypothesis of phylogenetic
relationships, e.g. reference phylogeny (q.v.); cfr tokogeny.
phylotype: (prok., unoff.) a phylogenetically identifiable taxon, i.e. one
with a molecular signature indicating its placement in aphylogenetic tree.
physiological race, [physiologic race]: (mycol., prok., unoff.) an
infraspecific category for strains distinguished by physiologicaltraits, especially the ability to grow on particular hosts; see pathovar,
special form.
physiological variety: see chemical race.
phytocoenosis [pl. phytocoenoses]: (phyt.) the plant community in aparticular locality, ecosystem, or biome; such units are notthemselves considered as syntaxa under the Code.
phytotaxoid, [phytotaxd.; pl. phytotaxoides.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) acollective designation proposed for individual taxonomic categories
for the systematic classification of cultivated plants; suggested as anequivalent term to taxon (q.v.) but restricted to cultivated plants; seetaxoid, zootaxoid.
phytotaxon, [phytotax.; pl. phytotaxa]: (bot., unoff.) a taxon of plants.

152

Terms used in Bionomenclaturepiesmotype: (zool., unoff.) an illustration prepared form a plate with animprint made mechanically from a merotype (q.v.).
Pl., [pl., plate]: a full-page illustration; elements within a plate are
generally referred to as figures and indicated by separate numbers or
letters.
plant: (bot.) in the Code, any organism traditionally studied by botanists;
i.e. regardless of the current classification of the organism which
may be outside the plant kingdom.
Plant Breeders’ Rights: (cult. pl.) a breeder’s legal protection over the
propagation of a cultivar.
Plant Variety Rights: see Plant Breeder’s Rights.
plastocotype: see plastoholotype.
plastoholotype: (zool., unoff.) an artificial specimen moulded directly form
a holotype.
plastolectotype: (zool., unoff.) an artificial specimen moulded directly
form a lectotype.
plastoneotype: (zool., unoff.) an artificial specimen moulded directly forma neotype.
plastoparatype: (zool., unoff.) an artificial specimen moulded directly
form a paratype.
plastosyntype: (zool., unoff.) an artificial specimen moulded directly forma syntype.
plastotype: (zool., unoff.) an artificial specimen moulded or otherwise
reproduced directly from a type; particularly used for fossils.
plenary power: (zool.) the power of the International Commission on
Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) to suspend or modify theapplication of the Code in the way which it considers necessary toserve the interests of stability and universality of nomenclature in aparticular case.
pleoanamorphic: (mycol.) of a fungus in which the holomorph has morethan one morphologically distinct anamorph; see synanamorph.

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pleomorphic: (1) having many forms. (2) (mycol.) of a fungus having two
or more distinct phases or states in its life-cycle; see anamorph,holomorph, synanamorph, teleomorph.
pleonasm: the use of generic names and specific epithets with an identicalor similar meaning, either by similar word-forms (e.g. as in Bidens
bidentoides), or different words identical or almost identical inmeaning (e.g. Andropogon barbatus).
plesiogenotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen provisionally included in agenus at the time of description of the genus, but which was
subsequently designated as the type of that genus.
plesiomorph: (unoff.) a primitive character; i.e. one that has not changed inform from that seen in its ancestors.
plesiotype: (1) (palaeo. zool., obsol.) a specimen which was not used in theoriginal description of a species or subspecies, but which is used fora later redescription supplementing the description or illustration
published subsequent to the original description; a hypotype; seealso epitype. (2) (zool., unoff.) a specimen related to the typespecies of a genus-group name but from another biological province
or geological formation. (3) (zool., unoff.) a figured or described
specimen which has been compared with the type specimen or
original figure. (4) (zool., unoff.) a specimen identified by a later
author as the same as a type.
pliogenotype, [pliogenotyp]: (zool., unoff.) the type of a generic namewhich is a synonym of an earlier generic name.
pluviotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen damaged in a flood andencrusted in silt (!).
poecilomorph: (palaeo., unoff., obsol.) proposed as a designation for a"form-variety".
pollutotype: (zool., unoff.) a type so encrusted or damaged by pollutants
that it is no longer recognizable (!).
polybasic: (zool., unoff.) of a genus-group name, one which had several
species included within it when first published; cfr monobasic.
polybrid: (cult. pl.) a group name for a number of hybrids with the same
parental genera, species, or varieties.

154

Terms used in Bionomenclaturepolymorph: a taxonomic unit with many variants.
polymorphic: of a species, one with many “forms”; often used of species
with many infraspecific taxa or morphotypes.
polynomial: (1) a name in the rank of species, consisting of three or more
separate words not hyphenated or separated by terms denoting rank,
employed by most pre-Linnaean authors (e.g. Lichenoides
pulmoneum reticulatum vulgare, marginibus peltiseris Dill., Hist.
Musc.: 212, 1742) and in essence descriptive phrases; not “names”
in the sense of the Codes as not in the binomial (binary) Linnaeansystem; see binominal, multinominal, polynominal. (2) (zool.) a
name constructed from an immutable original binomen prefixed orinterleaved with the name of the genus (and when relevant subgenus
and subspecies) in which the organism is now classed, e.g. Benyllus
Togea formosana indicating that Togea formosana is now placed in
the genus Benyllus.
polynominal: see polynomial.
polyonym: (unoff.) a name of quite different and permanently confusedmeanings; a nomen ambiguum (q.v. ) or nomen confusum (q.v.).
polyphasic: of taxonomy, the use of a range of radically different
techniques on the same set or organisms in order to produce aclassification.
polyphyletic: (phyl.) a group that has multiple phylogenetic origins andthus excludes the most recent common ancestor of its members.
polythetic: of a classification, one where the taxa are defined by a
combination of characters any of which might be possessed by othertaxa and any of which may not be possessed a particular member ofthat taxon; one in which the organisms with the most sharedchanters are grouped together.
polytypic: (zool., unoff.) of a taxon, one containing two or more taxa in theimmediately subordinate category; cfr monotypic.
population: all individuals of one taxon growing in a particular region orplace (usually considered as a single biological unit).
pornotype: (zool., unoff.) a type based primarily or totally on characters of
the genitalia (!).

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position: the place of a taxon relative to other taxa in a classification,
regardless of rank.
position precedence: (zool.) the position of a name or a nomenclatural act
before another in the same work, i.e. on an earlier page; all otherthings being equal, position in a work (page or line) may be usedeither by a first reviser in giving precedence to a name,nomenclatural act, or spelling, or by an author in designating a typespecies; but its use is not mandatory.
positional number: (unoff.) a proposed system in which the position of ataxon in a classification is indicated by a number preceding ascientific name, e.g. "2.2.2.2.4.6 Mecopteroidea".
positive sense: (vir.) applied to an RNA molecule which can be translated
by ribosomes to form proteins.
Post-Linnaean System: (unoff.) an alternative system of classification,
proposed by M. Ereshefsky in 2001, based on 11 recommendations,and claiming to represent the needs of cladists but not being itself
strictly cladistic; the recommendations include eliminating the"Linnaean" ranks and binomials no longer indicating the rank orplacement of a taxon.
post-type: (zool., obsol.) rejected in favour of neotype (q.v.).
potentially valid name: (zool.) an available name which is not objectively
invalid.
p.p.: see pro parte.
pp.: of a work, used to indicate the total number of pages or a particular
page range.
praefamiliaris, [praefam.]: (zool., unoff.) (zool., unoff.) used in a similarmanner to familiaris (q.v.) to indicate wild animals in the process ofdomestication, usually in an archaeological context; see
exfamiliaris.
pragmatotype: a pragmatype (q.v.).
pragmatype: (zool., unoff.) specimen selected to serve as an interpretative
type for a species name when the primary characters diagnostic forthat species are not observable in the existing type, a contracted
version of “pragmatotype”; see also epitype, hypotype, protype.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

Preamble: (bio., bot., phyl., zool.) used of introductory statements in a
Code which explain its purpose and scope.
precedence: (1) (zool.) the order of seniority of available names ornomenclatural acts determined (a) by application of the Principle ofPriority, or (b) in the case of simultaneously published names, or (c)by a ruling of the Commission using its plenary power; see also
position preference, priority. (2) (phyl.) the order of preference
among established names, used to select the accepted name fromamong them; in general, precedence is based on the date ofestablishment, with earlier-established names having precedence
over later ones, but later-established names may be conserved overearlier ones.
pre-empted name: (prok., unoff.) a name previously applied to a taxon andtherefore not therefore useable for a different taxon in the same rankor group; a preoccupied name.
pre-existing Codes: (phyl.) the rank-based Codes that were in operation
before the PhyloCode was drafted (1997-2000), specifically thoseconcerned with bacteria, botany, viruses, and zoology.
pre-existing name: (phyl.) a scientific name that, prior to its establishment
under the PhyloCode, was either (a) legitimate (bot., prok.),potentially valid (zool.), or valid (zool.), or (b) in use but not
governed by any Code (e.g. zoological names ranked above thefamily-group).
prefix, [pl. prefixes]: a letter or group of letters attached before the mainpart of a word and usually used only in forming derived words andnot as a separate word (e.g. Eu- and Para- in Eutettix and Paratettix
respectively); see also compound, suffix.
pre-holotype, [pre holotypum]: (bot., unoff.) proposed for application to aliving cultivated plant from which the holotype of a name wasprepared.
pre-Linnaean: names or works published prior to 1 May 1753 (bot.) or 1
January 1758 (zool.), the accepted dates of publication of’
Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum and Systema Naturae (edn 10), which
are the starting points for nomenclature in the groups concerned;

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
works published by Linnaeus prior to these dates are regarded as
pre-Linnaean for nomenclatural purposes.

prenomen [pl. prenomina]: (phyl.) the first part of a species binomen in
phylogenetic nomenclature; the prenomen of a species binomen in
phylogenetic nomenclature is spelled the same as a genus name ofrank-based nomenclature, but is not necessarily associated with therank of genus.
preoccupied name: (zool.) one already in use for another taxon with adifferent type.
pre-paratype, [pre paratypum]: (bot., unoff.) proposed for application toa living cultivated plant from which paratype material was prepared.
preparation: (bot.) in the sense of the Code, a specimen or specimens
permanently preserved by some other means than drying andmounting on a sheet of paper, e.g. a microscope slide.
preprint: a work published, with its own specified date of publication(imprint date), and sometimes independent pagination, in advance of
its later reissue as part of a collated cumulative work; preprints may
be effectively published (bot.) or published (zool.) for the purposesof nomenclature; see also reprint, separate.
preserved : (1) of specimens, so treated as not to decay. (2) of fossils, ones
whose remains or casts have survived; see fossil.
pre-starting point: (bot.) names or works published prior to the starting
point date for the nomenclature of the group to which the name orwork belongs.
pre-type, [pre typum]: (bot., unoff.) proposed for application to a living
cultivated plant from which the nomenclatural type was prepared;
see also clonotype.
prevailing usage: of a name, that usage of a name which is adopted at leastby a substantial majority of the most recent authors concerned withthe relevant taxon, irrespective of how long ago their work was
published.
prevalid: (bot., unoff.) of a designation, one proposed before the starting
point date of the group concerned; not therefore validly published.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

primary homonym, [ǁ]: (zool.) each of two or more identical specific ofsubspecific names established for different nominal taxa andoriginally combined with the same generic name.
primary type: (zool., obsol.) the specimen on which the description of a
new species-group name is based; a basic type (q.v.) or proterotype(q.v.); see also holotype.
primogyne: (zool., unoff.) the primary type female of a species.
principal: (bot.) of a rank, one of the categories to which every individual
plant (certain hybrids accepted) belongs; see supplementary rank.
Principle: in a Code, a fundamental precept or general law which thearticles of a Code are designed to satisfy; see also Preamble.
Principle of Binominal Nomenclature: (zool.) the principle that the nameof a species, and not of a taxon at any other rank, is a combinationof two names (a binomen, q.v.); the use of a trinomen (q.v.) for therank of subspecies and of uninominal names for taxa above thespecies group is in accord with the Principle.
Principle of Coordination: (zool.) the principle that within the familygroup, genus group, or species group, a name established for a taxon
at any rank in the group is deemed to be simultaneously establishedwith the same author and date for taxa based on the same namebearing type at other ranks within the group.
Principle of the First Reviser: (zool.) the principle that the relative
precedence of two or more names or nomenclatural acts publishedon the same organism or different original spellings of the same
name, is determined by the first reviser.
Principle of Homonymy: (zool.) the principle that the name of each taxon
is unique; consequently a name that is a junior homonym of anothermust not be used as a valid name.
Principle of Priority: (zool.) the principle that the valid name of a taxon is
the oldest available name applied to it (taking into consideration
provisions of the Code), provided that the name is not invalidated byany provision of the Code or by any ruling of the Commission.
Principle of Typification: (zool.) the principle that each nominal taxon in
the family group, genus group, or species group has, actually or

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
potentially, a name-bearing type fixed to provide the objective
standard of reference by which the application of the name isdetermined; see typification.

printed matter: text or illustrations mechanically reproduced by printing inconsiderable quantities and in intentionally permanent form, and inwhich each letter of text, or each illustration, is formed from afabricated master.
printer’s error: an incorrect spelling or other error made in type-setting; atypographical error.
printing on paper: the production of numerous identical copies of text orillustrations on paper, by transferring an image of text orillustrations in wet ink from a prepared surface (e.g. type,
lithographic stone, lithographic plate, engraved plate, wood block,gelatin) onto paper (compare xerography); in zool. photography (i.e.
the production of images on light-sensitive paper) does notconstitute printing.
prion: (vir.) a small protinaceous infectious particle that resists inactivationby procedures which modify nucleic acids; prions cause
transmissible neurodegenerative diseases of animals.
priorable name: (1) a name that is established and is to be taken in accountfor purposes of determining the accepted name of a taxon. (2) (bot.,obsol.) sometimes used in a restricted sense for a legitimate namewhich cannot be adopted in a new position because of resultant
problems of homonymy.
priority: (1) (zool.) seniority fixed by the date of availability; see Principleof Priority. (2) (bot.) a right to precedence established by the date ofvalid publication of a legitimate name or of an illegitimate earlier
homonym, or by the date of designation of a type. (3) (vir.) not
observed in the naming of taxa and viruses.
pro hybrida: as a hybrid; (bot.) used in citations to indicate that a binaryname regarded as that of a species was originally published as thatof a hybrid.
pro parte, [p.p.]: in part; used in citations to indicate that a taxon as
circumscribed by an author covered more than a single taxon only
one of which belongs to that being referred to.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

pro specie, [pro sp.]: as a species; used in citations to indicate either that abinary name regarded as that of a hybrid was originally published asthat of a species, or as a synonym of another.
pro synonymum, [pro syn.]: (bot., unoff.) as a synonym; used in citations
to indicate that the name, when first published, was merely cited as asynonym of another name accepted by the author.
profanotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon the name of which isoffensive, for example because of its sexual nature(!).
progeny: (cult. pl.) the result of propagation.
progressotype: (zool., unoff.) the type specimen of a species the original
habitat of which became an urban development, and so is probably
now extinct(!).
proles, [prol.]: (1) (bot., cult. pl., unoff.) a rank between subspecies andvariety, used for the designation or a group of varieties conformablefrom the ecological-morphological and often also geographicalpoints of view. (2) (bot., obsol.) a race.
proposal, [propositus, prop.]: (1) (bot.) a suggested addition oramendment to the Code or a proposal for the conservation or
rejection of a name to be considered by the appropriate PermanentCommittee or by a subsequent International Botanical Congress. (2)(zool.) an action, whether successful or unsuccessful, to establish anominal taxon or name or to carry out a nomenclature act. (3) (zool.)an application to the Commission (ICZN) for the adoption of a partof the List of Available Names in Zoology; see conditional proposal.
proposed conserved name, [nomen conservandum propositum, nom.
cons. prop.]: (bot.) a name formally proposed for conservation but
on which a decision from the relevant Permanent Committee ispending.
propositum, [prop.]: proposed.
prostitutotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen sold by the describer to thehighest bidder(!).
prostype, [prostypus]: (obsol.) a pattern or model in representation.
-prota: (zool., unoff.) proposed as a suffix to be used to indicate protistangroups in the rank of phylum.

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protected name, [nomen protectum, nom. prot.]: (1) (bio.) a listed nameand its coordinate names treated as if conserved against earlier
homonyms and unlisted competing synonyms. (2) (bot., unoff.)suggested to indicate the status of names on a List of names in
Current use (NCU) approved by an International BotanicalCongress; i.e. names protected against earlier homonyms andcompeting names with the orthography, authority, place and date of
publication, and typification as listed. (3) (zool.) a name which has
been given precedence over its unused senior synonym or seniorhomonym relegated to the status of nomen oblitum.
proterotype: (1) (zool., unoff., obsol.) a primary type (q.v.). (2) (zool.,
unoff.) all the original specimens collected at one time from which
the type(s) were selected.
protograph: (1) (zool., unoff.) the original illustrations illustrating aholotype, i.e. those appearing in the protologue. (2) (zool. unoff.) the
single illustration of a primary type made by the author of the nameat the time of its original description.
protologue, [prolotog]: everything associated with a name when it was
first established (phyl.), validly published (bot., prok.), or madeavailable (zool.), or in the publication in which it is eligible forestablishment (bio.); e.g. description, diagnosis, phylogenetic
definition, registration number, designation of type, illustrations,references, synonymy, geographical data, specimen citations, andcomments.
protonym: an effectively but not validly published name, especially of one
taken up and validly published at a later date; not generally used ofdevalidated names.
protoplastotype: (zool., unoff.) the cast of a proterotype (q.v.).
prototype, [prototypus]: (1) (zool., unoff.) a primary type or proterotype(q.v.). (2) (not nomenclatural, obsol.) the most primitive
representative of a group; most often used for a hypotheticalancestor; see archaetype. (3) (bot., obsol.) used by Linnaeus forgroups he considered to have been originally made by God, theprincipal ones being roughly equivalent to natural orders.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

protype, [protypus]: (1) (zool., unoff.) a specimen which because of its
completeness supplants a fragmentary holotype; a proxy type orepitype (q.v.). (2) (bot., obsol.) an epitype (q.v.); see also
pragmatype. (3) (obsol.) a prostype (q.v.). (4) (prok., obsol.) a
neotype (q.v.). (5) (obsol.) used by Linnaeus in connection withseveral genera of "fevers".
provarietas, [provar.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a proposed rank between
subconvarietas and subprovarietas; a taxoid equivalent in rank tothat of variety in wild plants.
provenance: (cult. pl.) the known geographic origin of plants or seed, usedmainly by foresters to describe worthwhile selections fromindigenous populations.
province: (obsol.) a rarely used rank inserted between subkingdom andclass.
provision: in a Code, a term equivalent to an Article or a Rule.
provisional name, [nomen provisiorum, nom. provis., nom prov.]: (bot.)a name proposed in anticipation of the future acceptance of thetaxon concerned, or of a particular circumscription, position, or rankof the taxon, and so not established; i.e. a name not accepted (and so
not established) by an author when originally published; see also ad
interim, cognomen, informal name, interim name, question mark,taxon label.
proxy type: (zool., unoff.) a protype (q.v.).
pseudocompound: a name or epithet which combines elements derived
from two or more Greek or Latin words and in which a noun or
adjective in a non-final position appears as a word with a caseending, not as a modified stem; e.g. Myosotis formed by “myos” and“otis” (ear of mouse).
pseudogenotype, [pseudotyp]: (zool., unoff.) any species absent from an
originally described genus which was later designated as the typespecies of that genus.
pseudogenus: (prok., zool., unoff.) a generic name which when first
introduced did not include any named species.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

pseudoisonym, [pseudo-isonym]: (1) (prok., unoff.) a false isonym (q.v.);
i.e. a name which at first appears to be based on the same type as
another but is actually not. (2) (bot., unoff.) one of two or morenames where different authors make the same combination based on
the same subordinate element, but the inclusive higher-rankelements have different types.
pseudonym: (1) a false or assumed name of a person; a nom-de-plume (e.g.
the mycologist C. G. Lloyd writing under the name of N. J.
McGinty); in (zool.) such works were formerly ruled as
unnacceptale. (2) (phyt.) a name of a syntaxon used with the original
author citation or reference to it but misinterpreted by later authors.
pseudorecombinant: (vir.) an isolate of a multipartite genome virus which
was formed by mixing genome parts from distinct parental isolates;
see also reassortment.
pseudotaxon, [pl. pseudotaxa]: (unoff.) segregates of a taxon whichappear to be subordinate taxa, but in reality cannot be segregatedand so cannot be classified.
pseudotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) the type of a genus-group name which has
been erroneously designated; a false type. (2) (zool., unoff.) a
duplicate of a type specimen which was not studied by the author
describing the taxon (e.g. one with the same collection details but
deposited in a different institution).
pseudotypic: (zool., unoff.) of a genus-group name, one with an invalid
type.
psocotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen damaged by psocids.
PTR [PalaeoTaxon Record]: (palaeo.) a form of presentation of data for abase taxon only.
publication: (1) (not nomenclatural) any published work. (2) of names, theact or process of making names available in the public domain; seeeffective publication, valid publication. (3) of books, pamphlets,
periodicals, and other printed materials, the act or process of
distributing printed matter through sale, exchange or gift into the
public domain; see date of publication, effective publication,
electronic publication. (4) (bio.) the distribution of text or images(but not sound) in multiple identical, durable, and unalterable

164

Terms used in Bionomenclaturecopies, in a way that makes it generally accessible as a permanent
public record to the scientific community, be it through sale or
exchange or gift, and subject to restrictions in the Code.

publication date: see date.
Publication, electronic: see electronic publication.
publication year: (phyl., zool., and increasingly bot.) commonly citedimmediately after an author citation following a scientific name,with an intervening "," in (zool.), and in round brackets (sometimes
in bot.) or not (sometimes in bot., commonly in mycol.); in (zool.)
also used in parenthetical citations to authors of basionyms, e.g.
Cubiceps gracilis (Lowe, 1843).
publish: (1) to issue any publication. (2) to issue a work that conforms to
the appropriate Code. (3) to make public in a work conforming to
the requirements of the appropriate Code, any names ornomenclatural acts or information affecting nomenclature.
published: of a name, (bio., cult. pl., zool.) one that fulfils the requirementsof publication in a Code; (bot., prok.) effectively published.
published work: (1) (bot.) a work effectively published within the meaningof the Code. (2) (zool.), see publish.
publishing author(s): (1) an author or authors who publish a scientificname coined by but not established (validly published) by anotherworker. (2) an author who mentions such a name coined by anotherworker incidentally. (3) the person who prepares written material,
usually for publication.
publishotype: (zool., unoff.) a holotype described after rumours of staff
cuts (!).
pupal type: (zool., unoff.) see locality type.
putative synonym: (prok., unoff.) a name produced in good faith for ataxon, but which included the type of a name that should have beentaken up; a subjective or taxonomic synonym.

165

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)q.e., [quod est]: which is.
q.v, [quod vide]: which see; used to direct the reader to a comment on theindicated word.
quadrinominal: (zool., obsol.) a scientific name in four parts, for example
that of a variety within a subspecies (e.g. Myrmecocystus melliger
semirfus testaceus).
qualifying clause: (phyl.) a part of a phylogenetic definition hat specifies
conditions under which the defined name cannot be applied.
qualifying phrase: (prok.) a tag appended to a scientific name, usually
after an author citation, to indicate the nomenclatural or taxonomic
status of the name; e.g. nom. rej., mut. char., emend.
quasi-species, [quasispecies]: (vir.) a group of virus species related by asimilar mutation or mutations, and competing in a highly mutagenic
environment; quasi-species have no taxonomic meaning under theCode.
question mark, [?]: sometimes used as an indication of taxonomic doubt,
for example as to the genus in which a new species is being
described; such names can be validly published in (bot.) and (zool.),but not in (prok.); see ad interim, provisional name.
quinquenominal: (zool., obsol.) a scientific name of five words, forexample that of a variety within a subgenus and a subspecies (e.g.
Camponotus (Myrmentoma) caryae discolour cnemidatus).
quirotype: see chirotype.
quoad: (obsol.) as to (the), as regards (the), to this extent; occasionallyformerly used in citations to indicate what part of a taxon as
circumscribed by a previous author is being referred to by theauthor.
quod vide, [q.v.]: which see; cfr.
quotation marks, [“. . . .”, ´. . . .´]: (1) (bot., prok., unoff.) used in thecitation of names to indicate original spellings when these have beencorrected in accordance with the Code. (2) (prok.) also used fordesignations that are not validly published or not yet validated byannouncement in the International Journal of Systematic andEvolutionary Microbiology. (3) (cult. pl.) single quotation marks are166

Terms used in Bionomenclatureplaced around the name of a cultivar (q.v.). (4) (zool., unoff.) single
quotation marks placed around species epithets in binomials ofdomesticated animals to indicate that they are not separated as true
species from wild ancestors; see inverted commas.

r.: see recto.
R, ([R], R): (phyl.) when placed in squared brackets or a superscript after ascientific name, used to designate a name governed by one of thepre-existing rank-based Codes, e.g. Ajugoideae [R] or AjugoideaeR;
see P.
race: (1) (mycol., prok., unoff.) an infraspecific rank, used in a plethora ofways, to denote a group of individuals possessing common features
which distinguish them from other groups of the same kind within
formally recognized species or infraspecific taxa; see pathotype,
pathovar, physiological race, special form. (3) (cult. pl., unoff.)
proposed as a rank term equivalent to variety (not cultivar); see also
proles. (3) (zool.) a subspecies. (4) (not nomenclatural) genetically,
and as a rule geographically distinct, mating groups within a species.
ramet: (bot., mycol.) an individual member of a clone; i.e. a part of agenetically identically asexually reproducing clone; see genet.
rank: (1) the position in an hierarchy. (2) the relative position of a taxon ina hierarchy of nested taxa. (3) the relative position of a category inthe taxonomic hierarchy.
rank-based codes: the Codes that employ a rank-based system of
nomenclature (i.e. bio., bot., cult. pl., phyt., prok., vir., zool.)rank-based system: of nomenclature, an integrated set of principles andrules governing the naming of taxa and the application of taxon
names that is based on taxonomic ranks (e.g. kingdom, phylum); i.e.
the traditional hierarchical system of biological nomenclature
Rassenkreise: (1) (zool., unoff.) used for specimens or groups ofspecimens of an uncertain infraspecific category. (2) (zool., unoff.) apolytypic (q.v.) taxon.

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reassortment: (vir.) formation of a novel multipartite genome by making
new combinations of genome parts from two “parental” isolates.
Rec.: see Recommendation.
Recent: of geological time, sometimes used in contradistinction to fossil;
non-fossil (q.v.).
recombination: (1) sometimes applied to the placing of a name in an
unaltered rank within the same genus or species but under adifferent taxon of higher rank (e.g. moving a “form” from under one“variety” of a species and placing it under another variety of thesame species), or transfer of a species from one genus to another;best avoided due to possible confusion with genetic recombination;
see combination, new. (2) (vir.) formation in vivo of a new nucleic
acid sequence by ligation of pieces of nucleic acid.
Recommendation, [Rec.]: an advisory statement in a Code which is notmandatory, but considered good practice to be followed.
record: (palaeo.) statement of occurrence of any fossil (or other geologicalphenomenon).
recordotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon distinguished only by asound recording. (2) (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon only known
from sound recording.
recto, [r.]: sometimes used to indicate the right-hand page of an open book;see verso.
redeposition: the transference of a taxon to a new position with or withouta change in the name or epithet.
reestablishment: (unoff.) of a name, one in which a name or epithet which
was previously unavailable for use under the particular Code has tobe taken up when the taxon is changed in position or rank.
reference, bibliographic: see bibliographic reference, direct reference,indirect reference, page reference.
reference phylogeny: (phyl.) a phylogenetic hypothesis that provides acontext for applying a clade name by means of its phylogenetic
definition.

168

Terms used in Bionomenclaturereference strain: (prok.) one which is neither a holotype nor a neotype
strain, but a strain used in comparative studies.
Reformed Code of Botanical Nomenclature, A: a code "edited andimproved" from the official Code, prepared by P.G. Parkinson in
1990; it has no international status as a Code.
Régles Internationales de la Nomenclature Botanique: see International
Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
Régles Internationales de la Nomenclature Zoologique: (zool., obsol.)
issued in 1905, and the first International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature (q.v.) to be adopted at an International Zoological
Congress.
register: (1) (zool., prop.) to enter onto the Official Register (q.v.)
information about a name, author, nomenclatural act, work, or otheritem tracked for purposes of zoological nomenclature. (2) (bot., cult.
pl.) see registration.
registerable: (bio.) of a name, one that meets the requirements forregistration (q.v.).
registered genetic resource, [rgr.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a taxonomic andgenetic category for the denomination of a genetic resource sample
with specific, desirable and defined character states, but notdeveloped to the status of cultivar and denoted by the use of anasterisk (*) before the rgr. name (e.g. Trifolium pannonicum rgr.
'*Giant').
registered name: (cult. pl.) a name accepted by the relevant international
Registration Authority (IRA; q.v.).
registered trademark: (cult. pl.) a trademark that has been formally
accepted by a statutory trademark authority, distinguished by theinternational ideograph ®.
registering office: (bot., obsol.) an office designated by the IAPT for the
purposes of registration (q.v.).
registrant: (cult. pl.) the person filling in and submitting a registration form
for a cultivar to an International Registration Authority.
registration: (1) (cult. pl.) the act of recording a new name or epithet withan International Registration Authority (q.v.). (2) (bio.) of names,

169

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
effected by (a) submitting the published matter that includes the
protologue(s) or nomenclatural acts to a registering officedesignated by the relevant international body, or (b) where an
official medium for establishment of names has been designated, by
publication in that medium. (3) (bot., obsol.) the sending of printed
matter that includes the protologue(s), with the name(s) to beregistered clearly identified, to any registering office designated by
the IAPT; this provision, included in the 1994 Toyko Code wasdeleted from the St Louis Code of 2000; cfr Validation List. (4)(phyl.) submission of the name and other required information to the
PhyloCode registration database. (5) (zool., prop.) of names andnomenclatural acts, inclusion in the Official Register of Zoological
Nomenclature (q.v.), and required for a new scientific name to be
published in an electronic work; see electronic publication.

registration number: (zool., prop.) a unique identifying number or alphanumeric code assigned in the Official Register (q.v.) to a particularitem.
-regnanoj: (unoff.) proposed termination in Esperanto for a name in therank of kingdom in the New Biological Nomenclature (q.v.).
Reihe: (bot., obsol.) a name of a rank taken as being in that of order.
reinstate: of a name, to restore one previously rejected as being asecondary homonym or for some other reason once rejected, whencertain conditions are fulfilled.
reject: (1) (zool.) to set aside, in accord with the provisions of the Code; inthe case of a name, because of taxonomic judgement; in the case ofa work, for the purposes of zoological nomenclature. (2) to set asidea name of a taxon in favour of another name; see rejected name,rejected work, suppression.
rejected name, [nomen rejiciendum, nomen rejectum, nom. rej.]: (1)(bot., prok.) a name the use of which is prohibited, either by formal
action overriding other provisions of the Code; i.e. a name thatwould otherwise cause a disadvantageous nomenclatural change;
names so ruled are placed on a list of such names which, and all
combinations based on them, are not to be used; the placement ofnames on such a list must be ratified by an International
Bacteriological or Botanical Congress; see conserved name. (2)170

Terms used in Bionomenclature(bot.) a name that was nomenclaturally superfluous when publishedor a later homonym. (3) (zool.) any name which, under theprovisions of the Code cannot be used as a valid name and which is
set aside in favour of another. (4) (zool.) a name, which, as a matterof taxonomic judgement, is rejected as a junior subjective synonym(q.v.) of a name used but which is believed not to be applicable tothe taxon under consideration. (5) (cult. pl.) one not be used as aresult of failure to comply with particular provisions of the Code.

rejected synonym: (prok.) a name, other than the correct one, of aparticular taxon.
rejected work: (zool.) any work included by the Commission (ICZN) in
the Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Works in Zoological
Nomenclature; see also suppressed name, suppressed work.
relative order: the sequences of categories in the taxonomic hierarchy
specified in the Codes.
relevé: (phyt.) a compiled list of scientific names of plant species orinfraspecific taxa from a sample plot with quantitative indication of
their occurrence following the standard scales; the relevé must
include the environmental features of the studied habitat to bevalidly published; the basic element of physosciological science.
remodel: (unoff.) of a taxon, to divide or unite with others in a way which
involves the alteration of its circumscription and diagnostic
characters.
remorsotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon the original author ofwhich regrets having described (!).
replaced synonym: (bot.) a name replaced by an avowed substitute (q.v.);
see nomen novum, replacement name.
replacement name: (1) (zool.) a nomen novum (q.v.); a name established
to replace an already established name. (2) (zool., unoff.) an
available synonym or new name adopted to replace an earlier
preoccupied name (q.v.). (3) (phyl.) a new name explicitly
substituted for a previously established name that is not acceptablebecause it is a later homonym; a replacement name is equivalent to anomen substitutum in this Code; see also superfluous name,unnecessary substitute name. (4) (bot.) an avowed substitute (q.v.).

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

replacemotype: (zool., unoff.) a better specimen used to replace a primary
type in a poor condition or which has been destroyed; this practicealso occurred in (bot.), especially in the seventeenth and earlyeighteenth century.
replicate, [pl. replicates]: (mycol., prok., unoff.) of subcultures, ones madeat the same time from the same inoculums; particularly used forlyophilized ampoules prepared from one suspension under identicalconditions
representative: of a specimen or cultured strain, one characteristic of thetaxon which is not necessarily the nomenclatural type of the name.
reprint: (1) a reissue of a work without any change in typography;
especially used for books. (2) a part of a periodical or other work,often the contribution of a single author, printed separately from theregular issue of the main work, and usually intended for private
distribution by that author; author's extra, offprint, separate.
republished name: (prok.) a re-used name (q.v.). (2) an available synonym
adopted to replace an earlier unavailable name (q.v.) (3) (zool.) a
name introduced as a replacement for a name that is not available(i.e. preoccupied.)
request: (prok.) a request for an opinion (q.v.).
reserved name: (cult. pl.) one that has not been established but that may
have been recorded by an International Cultivar Registration
Authority as likely to be duly registered; such names have no statusunder the Code.
residue method: (obsol.) of typification, the practice of taking the single
species left in a genus, after the transfer of all other original
members to one or more different genera, as the type of the name;no longer permitted in (bot.).
restricted emendation: (phyl.) a formal change in a phylogenetic
definition that requires approval by the Committee on Phylogenetic
Nomenclature; a restricted emendation is intended to change theapplication of a name through a change in the conceptualization of
the clade to which it refers; see unrestricted emendation.

172

Terms used in Bionomenclatureresubmission: (bot., obsol.) of a name submitted for registration (q.v.)
which did not meet one or more of the other conditions for valid
publication when originally submitted and sent in again to theregistering office after these conditions have been met.
resurrected name: a name that has been re-introduced; e.g. one not used
for many decades because its publication was overlooked, the typematerial could not be located, or it had been incorrectly treated as asynonym of another taxon.
resurrectotype: (zool., unoff.) an original type specimen rediscovered after
a neotype had been designated because the original material wasthought to be lost or destroyed.
retain: to continue to use a name as the correct name or as the epithet of acorrect name, especially used in case where a taxon has been
divided.
retroactive: active back in time; nomenclaturally, unless expressly stated, aprovision in a Code is operational regardless of the date when it
became a part of that Code, and applies equally to any and all names
proposed after the accepted date at which establishment (valid
publication) for a particular group began (i.e. the starting point date
for that group).
reused name: (prok.) a name validly published prior to 1 January 1980 noton the Approved List and adopted after that date, but not validly
republished; see revived name.
revalidated name: a devalidated name taken up and validly published in a
post-starting point work; see also per.
reviser, first: see Principle of the First Reviser.
revision: in taxonomy, the result of a critical re-appraisal of theclassification of a particular group of organisms.
revived name, [nomen revivivum, nom. rev.]: (prok.) a name validly
published before 1 January 1980, but not included in the Approved
List and taken up after that date by a later author for a taxon with thesame circumscription, position and rank as given by the original
author; such names date from their inclusion in a Notification List ora Validation List (q.v.); see also multiplication sign.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

rgr.: see registered genetic resource.
rite: according to the rules.
Rochester Code: (bot., obsol.) an enunciation of principles of botanicalnomenclature produced in 1892 which served as a basis for theAmerican Code (q.v.).
rogue: see off-type.
roguing: (cult. pl.) the removal of living off-types (q.v.) from a crop.
Roman script: a writing system using the Roman alphabet.
Roman type: the printer's normal vertical type-face (as in these words). (1)(zool.) proscribed for scientific names above the rank of genus fromthe last Code; not regulated by the previous Codes. (2) (bot., prok.)used for ranks either above family or above genus in some editorial
traditions, but not in the Code itself where italics are consistently
employed. (3) (cult. pl.) used for the names of cultivar and Group
designations; (4) (vir.) infraspecific names; see also italic type.
romanization: the placing of ideographs, signs or letters of a non-Roman
alphabet writing system into Roman script; cfr transcription.
round brackets, ( ( . . . . ) ): (1) (bot., phyl., phyt., prok., zool.) around thename or abbreviation of an author in an author citation of a name,indicating that that author employed the epithet or name in adifferent position or rank from that in which it is being used. (2)around a date following an author citation, the date of establishment(availability, valid publication) of the name. (3) (bot., unoff.) arounda subgeneric name inserted after a generic name, indicating thesubgenus to which a species belongs (e.g. Ranunculus (Batrachium)aquatilis). (4) (bot., zool., unoff.) around one generic name inserted
after another generic name to indicate that the species is sometimes(or was formerly) placed in the bracketed genus (e.g. Pilosella(Hieracium) flagellaris). (5) (mycol., unoff.) around one genericname inserted after another generic name to indicate the genericplacement of the teleomorph of an anamorph (e.g. Aspergillus(Emericella) nidulans). (6) (zool.) around a specific name placed
between a genus-group name and another specific name to indicatethat the species belongs to a particular species aggregate (e.g.
Ornithoptera (priamus) croesus); see also interpolated name.

174

Terms used in Bionomenclaturerules: the regulations in a Code which are mandatory; the provisions of aCode, set out as Articles or Rules.
ruling: (zool.) a decision by the Commission (ICZN) published as an
Opinion, Declaration, or Direction.

s.s.: sensu stricto (q.v.).
S1 hybrid: see synthetic hybrid.
saltation: (1) (not nomenclatural) the sudden appearance of an unexpectedcharacter, for example by mutation; a sport. (2) (mycol., obsol.) a
permanent variation or mutation arising from a growing mycelium,
usually in artificial culture.
saltem: at least.
sanctioned name: (1) (mycol.) the name of a fungus treated as if conserved
against earlier homonyms and competing synonyms, throughacceptance in one of two sanctioning works (q.v.); see colon. (2)(cult. pl.) one in which an otherwise illegitimate cultivar epithet ismade permissible under certain conditions.
sanctioning work: (mycol.) a work in which names are sanctioned; i.e. C.
H. Persoon’s Synopsis Methodica Fungorum (1801) for names in
Uredinales, Ustilaginales and Gasteromycetes s.l., and E. M. Fries’s
Systema Mycologicum (1821-32, with additional Index and Elenchus
Fungorum) for other fungi (excluding slime moulds).
sanctotype: (mycol., unoff.) proposed for a specimen or illustration
selected to serve as the nomenclatural type of a sanctioned name(q.v.) from among any element associated with the name in the
sanctioning work (q.v.).
satellite: (vir.) a subviral agent which compromises nucleic acid molecules,
with or without capsid proteins, that depend for their productive
multiplication on co-infection of host cell with a “helper” virus;
satellite nucleic acids contain substantial nucleotide sequencesdistinct from that in the genome of either helper virus or host.
scheda, [sched., pl. schedae]: a label (of a specimen).

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

schizotaxon: (unoff.) the one of two or more taxa formerly included under
one name and subsequently split into two or more taxa of the samerank.
schizoholotype: (zool., unoff.) a significant fragment or part of a holotype.
schizolectotype: (zool., unoff.) a significant fragment or part of a lectotype.
schizoparalectotype: (zool., unoff.) a significant fragment or part of aparalectotype.
schizotype: (1) (bot., unoff.) a syntype which a later author implies heregards as the nomenclatural type of a taxon, e.g. by excluding allother syntypes from the taxon, but does not specifically state he or
she has selected a type for the taxon; i.e. an implicit lectotype. (2)(zool., unoff.) a single specimen which is the type of two valid taxa.
(3) (zool., unoff.) a piece of a type (that may also be a kleptotype);commonly used in this sense amongst workers on colonial animals.
scientific name: (1) a name that is formed according to and governed by
one of the Codes, or is of a similar latinized from (e.g. zoologicalnames ranked above family-group); see available name, name. (2)(zool.) of a taxon, a name that conforms to the Code, as opposed to avernacular name; the scientific name of a taxon at any rank above
the species group consists of one name, that of a species of two
names (binomen), and that of a subspecies three names (a trinomen);a scientific name is not necessarily available.
scilicet, [sc.]: namely.
scoopotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon that was described more
rapidly by one author than another also planning to describe thesame taxon (!).
seasonal type: (zool., unoff.) see locality type.
sec., [secundum]: according to.
secondary homonym,[#]: (zool.) each of two or more identical specific orsubspecific names established for different nominal taxa andoriginally combined with different generic names but subsequently
combined with the same generic name.

176

Terms used in Bionomenclaturesecondary type: (zool., unoff.) a specimen used to supplement or correctknowledge of a previously described species; a heautotype, neotype
or plesiotype; see also epitype.
section, [sect.]: (1) (bot.) a category of taxa intermediate in rank between
subgenus and series. (2) (zool.) a rank that if treated as a division ofa genus or subgenus deemed to be of subgeneric rank for the
purposes of nomenclature. (3) a taxon at the rank of section.
Section, Nomenclature: see Nomenclature Section.
secundum, [sec.]: (1) (unoff.) according to; see fide, teste. (2) (unoff.)
proposed for use in author citations to indicate either the author
whose circumscription (taxonomic concept) is adopted, or the work
used in identification (e.g. Dicranum fuscescens Sm. 1804 sec.
Ludwig et al. 1996); when used to indicate different
circumscriptions, use with a range of ideographs has been suggested
to indicate more inclusive (>), less inclusive (< ), identical (= =)usages, etc.
sedis mutabilis, [sed. mut.]: (unoff.) used to indicate a changed taxonomic
placement.
Seed List: (bot.) a printed list of the names of plants that a botanic garden
has seeds of which are available as a gift or for exchange with otherbotanical gardens; an index seminum (q.v.).
segregate: (1) (cult. pl.) a hybrid individual in which characters of one or
another parental stock (as contrasted to characters intermediate
between those of the parental stocks), are apparent. (2) a part of ataxon that is split into two or more parts.
selection: see maintenance.
selling name: see trade designation.
semaphoront: (zool., not nomenclatural) each morphological phase of anorganism in different times in which it is examined during its
lifetime (e.g. egg, larval and pupal stages, and adult).
semi-naked combination: (bot., unoff.) a new combination (q.v.) in which
all the bibliographic information required by the Code for valid
publication is not supplied (e.g. the page number in the work where
the basionym was validly published; see also naked name.

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semi-naked name: see nomen seminudum, nomen subnudum, semi-naked
combination.
semispecies: (1) (zool., not nomenclatural) used to indicate the intermediate
nature of geographically isolated populations for which the exact
ranking is difficult to determine on the evidence available. (2)(zool., unoff.) the component species of a superspecies; see also
allospecies. (3) (bot., unoff.) an incipient species, not a rank term; agroup of actually or potentially interbreeding populations, which are
chromosomally somewhat different, but not effectively
reproductively isolated from other such groups.
senior homonym: (zool.) of two homonyms, the first established, or in thecase of simultaneous establishment the one given precedence under
the Code.
senior synonym: (zool.) of two synonyms, the earlier established, or in thecase of simultaneous establishment that given precedence under the
Code; earlier synonym, older synonym.
sensu, [sens., s.]: in the sense of; often used to refer to the use of a name bya cited author in a sense different from that of the original or someother previous author; see misapplied name.
sensu amplo, [sens. ampl., s. ampl.]: in a broad sense.
sensu lato, [sens. lat., s. lat.]: in a broad sense.
sensu novo: (prok., unoff.) in a new sense; used after author citations toindicate that a name is being used with either a wider or a narrower
circumscription.
sensu stricto, [sens. str., s. str., s. s.]: in a strict sense. (1) of a taxon, in thesense of the type of its name, or in the sense of its circumscription
by its original describer. (2) (zool.), of a taxon, used in conjunction
with a name when referring to the nominal taxon in the narrow senseof its subordinate nominotypical taxon.
separate: a copy (reprint or offprint) of a work contained in a part of abook or other larger work (e.g. a journal), intended for distribution(usually privately by the author(s)) detached from the larger work
which contains it but with its own specified date of publication(imprint date); in (zool.) the distribution of separates after 1999 does

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
not constitute publication for purposes of zoological nomenclature;
see also author's extra, offprint, preprint.

sequotype: (zool., unoff.) the specimen immediately following a holotype
in the author's collection sequence.
ser.: series (q.v.).
serial: a publication issued at regular or irregular intervals; see journal.
series: (1) (bot.) a category of taxa intermediate in rank between section
and species. (2) (bot., obsol.) an infrageneric category formally usedby some workers using names based on the included species. (3)(cult. pl.) in seed marketing, a number of cultivars based upon acertain ideotype and differing from each other usually only in one
character, normally flower colour. (4) (cult. pl., unoff.) a category
for the designation of a group of closely related proles (q.v.), or of agroup of related species forming a conspecies (q.v.). (5) (zool.,
unoff.) a rank between subkingdom and phylum.
series mixture: (cult. pl.) in seed marketing, a mixture of cultivars from aseries.
serological type: a serotype (q.v.).
serotype: (1) (prok.) a variant of a species or subspecies distinguished fromother such variants of the same species or subspecies on the basis of
its antigenic structure; a serological type. (2) (vir.) a strain or groupof strains, particles of which react well with one or more antibody
preparations and which are distinguishable from other strains orgroups of strains by this reactivity.
serovar: (prok.) an infrasubspecific strain of a species distinguished fromother such variants by antigeneric characteristics; a serotype.
Session, Nomenclature: see Nomenclature Session.
seu: either, or.
sexual hybrid: see hybrid, mechanical hybrid.
sexual type: (zool., unoff.) see locality type.
s-g., [s-gg.]: see subgenus.
shared organ species: see form species.

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sibling species: one of two or more closely related species which are very
difficult to separate: cfr cryptic species, microspecies.
sic: thus; in this manner; used in citations in parentheses after a name ornumber to show an exact transcription, usually of an orthographic orother error.
siccatus: dried; sometimes used of dried specimens, especially of plants.
sig.: see signature.
siglum, [pl. sigla]: (vir.) a name made up from a few, generally initial,
letters (e.g. Reovirus from respiratory enteric orphan viruses); such
names may be employed as the names of viruses or viral taxa,
provided that they are meaningful to workers in the fields and arerecommended by international virus study groups.
sigmataxon, [pl. sigmataxa]: (phyt.) the syntaxon which represents themature state in a particular sigmetum.
sigmetum, [pl. sigmeta]: (phyt.) all the plant communities, or collection ofstages, that can be found in similar ecologically homogeneous
territories or geographic areas as a result of succession processes;
names of sigmeta are not considered as syntaxa and are not coveredby the Code.
signature, [sig.]: (1) (not nomenclatural) letters or figures placed at the footof a page of printed matter, recommended in (zool.) for use whenpages are unnumbered to facilitate their identification. (2) (notnomenclatural) of a book, sections of the work printed and folded
separately, the first page of each having a mark to indicate thesequence these are to be bound in; in some large works, signatures
are distributed separately as prepared and have different dates ofeffective publication.
silviculture: (cult. pl.) the extensive cultivation of woody plants.
simultaneous publication: (bot., zool.) the publication of two or morenames for a single taxon in the same work, other than alternative
names when simultaneously published names compete; see firstreviser.
sine: without.
sine descriptio: without a description.

180

Terms used in Bionomenclaturesine numero, [s.n.]: sometimes used in citing lists of specimens after acollector’s name to indicate the absence of a collector’s number
sine typo: without a type.
single cross: see F1 hybrid.
sister clade: (phyl.) one member of a pair of clades originating when asingle lineage splits into two; sister clades thus share an exclusive
common ancestry and are mutually most closely related to one
another in terms of common ancestry.
sociation: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon, equivant tofacies but not covered by the Code.
socion: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon, equivant tosynusia but not covered by the Code.
solutotype: (zool., unoff.) a type kept in a liquid of extremely high or low
pH so that it has dissolved into the solution (!).
sortotype,[sortotypus]: see conculta.
sp.: species (q.v.); often used after a generic name where the identity of thespecies is unknown.
sp. indet., [sp. ind., species indeterminate]: used to indicate that the
species to which a specimen belonged could not be identified.
sp. nov.: species nova (q.v.).
sp. rev.. [species revivisco]: a species revived or reinstated, e.g. fromsynonymy.
spec.: see specimen.
special classification: (prok., unoff.) a classification derived for a special
purpose, i.e. ones which are based on a selection of characters
pertinent to a selected purpose.
Special Committee: (bot.) a body appointed appointed by an International
Botanical Congress to address a particular question, usually an issue
not resolved by a Congress.
Special Code: (bio.) one of the Codes dealing with particular groups oforganisms; a Code other than the BioCode.

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special form, [forma specialis, f. sp.; pl. formae speciales, ff. spp.]: ataxon of parasites, especially fungi, characterized from aphysiological standpoint (e.g. by their ability to cause disease inparticular hosts) but scarcely or not at all from a morphologicalstandpoint, the nomenclature of which is not governed by the Code;in (prok.) permissible, but pathovar (q.v.) is now used in preference.
species: (1) a taxon at the rank of species. (2) (bot.) the category of taxa ofthe lowest principal nomenclatural rank. (3) (zool.) the rank below
the genus group; the basic rank of zoological classification; seebasic. (4) (phyl.) a segment of a population-level lineage that is
evolving separately from other such lineage segments as indicatedby one or more lines of evidence (e.g. distinguishability,
reproductive isolation, monophyly).
species aggregate: see aggregate.
species collectiva: see collective species.
species epithet: the second part of the binominal of a species name (thefirst being the name of the genus in which the species is placed).
species group: (1) (bio.) taxa at the ranks or species and subspecies. (2)(zool.) the lowest-ranking group of taxa the names of which are
regulated by the Code; the species group includes all taxa at theranks of species and subspecies.
species incertae sedis, [sp. incert. sed.]: see incertae sedis.
species indeterminata: (unoff.) a species that cannot be identified from theoriginal description.
species inquirenda, [pl. species inquirendae]: species of doubtful identity,
and needing further investigation; in monographic works, such
names are often treated in a separate section.
species name: (1) a scientific name of a taxon at the rank of species. (2)(zool.) a binomen, the combination of a generic name and a specificname; an interpolated name, such as a subgeneric name or aninterpolated species-group or species aggregate name, when used, is
not counted as one of the names in a binomen; see name, scientific
name.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

species nova, [sp. nov.; pl. spp. nov.]: used after a name by an author
describing a previously undescribed, or previously invalidly
described, species for the first time.
specific name: (zool.) the second name in a binomen and in a trinomen; seeepithet, scientific name.
specifier: (phyl.) a species, specimen, or apomorphy cited in a phylogenetic
definition of a name as a reference point that serves to specify theclade to which the name applies.
specimen, [spec.]: (1) an organism or part of an organism, or a fossil, or anumber of small individuals, or (zool.) the work of an animal,preserved as a unit for scientific studies. (2) (bot.) a gathering, orpart of a gathering, of a single species or infraspecific taxon made at
one time, disregarding admixtures. (3) (bio.) normally a single
individual or parts thereof, but may sometimes consist of (parts of)more than one individual of the named taxon, on the condition thatthey were all collected or isolated at the same time and place, andare conserved permanently as a single curatorial unit (e.g. museum
jar, herbarium sheet, slide preparation, or mounted set of freezedried ampoules).
specioid, [spd.]: (cult.pl., unoff.) a taxoid of cultivated plants equivalent to
the rank of species in wild plants.
spelling: the choice and arrangement of the letters that form a word; seecorrect original spelling, incorrect original spelling, multiple
original spellings, original spelling, orthographic variant, subsequent
spelling, unjustified original spelling, variant spelling.
spermotype: (bot., unoff.) a specimen taken from a representative plantgrown from the seed of a type.
sphalm., [sphalmate]: by mistake; sometimes used to indicate a mistake orerror.
spiritotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) a type specimen stored in spirit for so longthat it is virtually invisible in the container. (2) (palaeo. zool.,
unoff.) a much hoped-for type (!).
spiritus asper: a rough breathing in the Greek language, indicated by thesign “ ῾”over an initial vowel, transcribed as “h” when Greek words

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
are transliterated into Latin for use in botanical nomenclature; i.e.
“ά” to “ha”.

spitotype: (zool., unoff.) the type of a taxon described expressly to vex acolleague (!).
split: of a taxon, to divide into two or more units.
splitter: of a taxonomist, one who employs a narrow circumscriptive
concept and divides taxa into several at the same rank; cfr lumper.
sporomorph, [sporomorpha, spm.; pl. sproromorphae]: (palaeo. bot.,
unoff.) proposed as a neutral term for “pollen and spore species”
given independent scientific names.:
sport: (1) (cult. pl.) an apparent mutation which has occurred on part of aplant. (2) (zool., unoff., obsol.) an unexpected morph arisingrandomly within a species or infraspecific taxon.
SPRA: Statutory Plant Registration Authority (q.v.).
square brackets, ([ . . . . ]) (1) (not nomenclatural) placed around words orphrases inserted to clarify a quotation taken out of context. (2) inbibliographic citations, placed around the name of an author toindicate actual authorship where the work was publishedanonymously, or around a date of publication when this is either notprinted on the work or differs from that on the work itself. (3) (bot.)when followed immediately by an “ex” used to indicate a prestarting point date author in groups with later starting point dates
than 1753. (4) (phyl.) used to indicate the author of a pre-existing
name that has been converted, e.g. Hypotheticus [Meekins] Larson.
(5) (obsol., bot.) formerly used to indicate pre-starting point dateauthors in groups with later starting point dates than 1753. (6)(unoff.) when used around a term for rank to indicate the rank an
author is assumed to have intended to use even though a term
denoting rank was not used (e.g. Parmelia conspersa [var.]stenophylla, an epithet originally published as Parmelia conspersa
β. stenophylla); see also taxon vagum. (7) (zool., unoff.) placedaround the epithet of a superspecies in the citation of an allospecies(q.v.). (8) (prok., unoff.) in Salmonella formulae, used to enclose
antigenic factors not present in every strain of the serotype.

184

Terms used in Bionomenclaturestabilate: (prok., unoff.) a population of an organism preserved in a viablecondition on a unique occasion; i.e. living material in which thebiological characters have been preserved, for example bylyophilisation.
stage: (prok., bot.) see state.
standard list: (obsol.) a list of names recommended for adoption forgeneral use, either nationally or internationally, until a subsequent
revision of the list; such lists were generally prepared by committeesof specialists appointed by scientific bodies to undertake the task;
see also Names in Current Use.
standard portfolio: a device in which a nomenclatural standard and allied
information is kept together.
standard species: (obsol.) formerly used before the term “lectotype”
became established in referring to the types of generic names; agenotype (q.v.) by subsequent designation.
standards, minimal: see minimal standards.
Standing Committee: (bot.) a Permanent Committee (q.v.).
standing: (obsol.) status; in nomenclature, the nomenclatural status of a
name.
starting point: the date on which establishment of names in a particulartaxonomic group begins.
stat., [status]: status or rank.
stat. conid., [status conidialis]: (mycol., obsol.) an anamorph (q.v.).
stat. imperf., [status imperfectus]: (mycol., obsol.) an anamorph (q.v.)
stat. nov., [status novus, stat. n.]: (1) (bot.) assignment of a taxon to adifferent rank within the taxonomic hierarchy, e.g. when an
infraspecific taxon is raised to the rank of species or the inversechange occurs, usually employed where the name or epithet fromthe name in the old rank is being retained. (2) (cult. pl.) used in an
author citation to indicate that a taxon has been changed in status,
from specific to hybrid or vice versa.
stat. pycnid., [status pycnidialis]: (obsol.) a pycnidial anamorph (q.v.).

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state: (1) (prok.) one of certain variants which arise in cultures of many
bacteria and which bring about a change in the gross appearance of aculture. (2) (bot., mycol.) a phase in a life-cycle; see also anamorph,teleomorph.
status: (1) (zool.) of a name, nomenclatural act or work: its standing in
nomenclature (i.e. its availability or otherwise, and in the case of aname its spelling, the typification of the nominal taxon it denotes,
and its precedence relative to other names: the nomenclatural
standing of a name. (2) (bot.) nomenclatural standing with regard toeffective publication, valid publication, legitimacy, and correctness.
(3) the rank of a taxon within the taxonomic hierarchy. (4) the
property of a name that corresponds to rank as a property of a taxon.
(3) (bot.) the condition of a taxon as of hybrid or non-hybrid nature.
status conidialis: see stat.conid.
status imperfectus: see stat. imperf.
status novus: see stat. nov.
status pycnidialis: see stat. pycnid.
Statute of Limitation: (zool., obsol.) the former provision in the Codepreventing the use of names that had not been taken up as seniorsynonyms for 50 years, now revised extensively; see forgotten
name.
Statutory Authority: see Statutory Plant Registration Authority.
statutory epithet: (cult. pl.) an epithet denominated by a Statutory Plant
Registration Authority (q.v.).
Statutory Plant Registration Authority, [SPRA]: (cult. pl.) an
organization established by legal enactment of a particular country,
or by legal treaty between countries.
statutory registration: (cult. pl.) registration of the name of a cultivar by a
Statutory Plant Registration Authority.
statutory: (cult. pl.) established by a legal enactment or process of acountry, or by legal treaty between countries.
stem: (1) the portion of a Greek or Latin word which is retained unchangedin the grammatical process of inflection, except for euphonic

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Terms used in Bionomenclature
variations usually formed from the genitive singular; the nominative
singular, the form most frequently encountered in botanicalnomenclature, is often such a variant (e.g. styrax (nominative
singular) and styrac-(other cases) based on styracis). (2) (zool.) thatpart (or the whole) of the name of the type genus to which is added afamily-group suffix, or that part of a name to which is added agenitive ending when forming a species-group name which is a nounin the genitive case.

stem augmentation: the addition of a letter to the stem of a Latin word
before adding a suffix beginning with a consonant; e.g. the extra “i”
added to personal names in latinization.
stem-based clade: (phyl.) a clade conceptualized in terms of branch orstem (i.e. a clade consisting of one entire branch stemming from aparticular node on a phylogenetic tree); a clade whose name isdefined using a stem-based definition (q.v.).
stem-based definitition: (phyl.) see branch-based definition.
stem-modified node-based definition: (phyl.) see branch-modified nodebased definition.
still-born synonym: (zool., unoff.) a name first published as a synonym of
another name which was accepted as the correct one by the author of
the work.
strain: (1) (prok., mycol., unoff.) the descendents of a single isolation inpure culture, sometimes showing marked differences from otherstrains or isolations; analogous to clone (q.v.). (2) (cult. pl.) often
referring to a seed-raised cryptic variety. The naming of strains isgenerally outside the system of Codes, workers on particularorganisms developing independent notation systems suited to their
particular needs.
stratotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) the type of the soldier class in ants. (2)(palaeo. zool., unoff.) the original or subsequently designated typeof a named stratigraphic unit or boundary, used as the standard for
identification and definition.
Strickland Code, [Stricklandian Code]: (zool., obsol.) a forerunner of theInternational Code of Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.), which was
prepared by a committee of the British Association for the

187

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
Advancement of Science in 1843; various amendments and versions
were issued up to 1865 (reprinted in 1869).

sub-: below; used as a prefix to a term denoting a category) and indicating asubordinate division of a category of taxa or syntax of higher rank,e.g. subassociation, subclassis, subdivisio, subordo, subfamilia,
subforma, subgenus, subspecies.
subassociation, [subassociatio]: (phyt.) the syntaxon rank below that of
association (q.v.) the names of which end with the suffix to"etosum".
subclass, [subclassis, subcl.]: (bot., zool.) a hierarchical rank between classand order.
subconculta, [subconc.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term between
conculta (q.v.) and cultivar.
subconvarietas, [subconvar., subconv.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as arank between convarietas and provarietas.
subcultigen, [scg.]: see cultivar, subcultivar.
subcultiplex, [subcpl.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term between
that of cultiplex and convarietas.
subcultivar, [subcv.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term below thatof cultivar.
subcyclus: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a category below cyclus (q.v.).
subdivision, [subdivisio]: (1) (bot.) an hierarchical rank between divisionand order; a subphylum. (2) (cult. pl., unoff.) a subdivision of ataxoid used for the designation of a group of closely related taxoids
in the rank of cyclus (q.v.).
subdivision of a family: (1) (bio.) taxa of a rank between family group andgenus group. (2) (bot.) any taxon of a rank between family andgenus.
subdivision of a genus: (1) (bio.) taxa of a rank between genus group andspecies group. (2) (bot.) any taxon of a rank between genus andspecies.

188

Terms used in Bionomenclaturesubfamily: (1) (zool.) a family-group rank below family; subfamily names
end in “-inae”. (2) (bot., zool.) a taxon at the rank of subfamily;
subfamily names end in "-ideae".
subfederatio: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon, equivant tosuballiance (q.v.).
subformation: (phyt., obsol.) an hierarchical rank of a syntaxon, equivant
to order but not covered by the Code.
subfossil: (1) a specimen of post-Pleistocene age, usually belonging to an
extant taxon, found under fossil (q.v.) conditions. (2) (palaeo. bot.)that is geologically young, generally soft in texture, organic incomposition (but including e.g. shells), and usually found in a soft
deposit, such as peat; the equivalent of fossil for nomenclatural
purposes.
subgenomic: (vir.) applied to an RNA molecule which is part of a genome
segment of a virus and which functions as a messenger RNA.
subgenotype: (zool., obsol.) the type species of a subgenus; see genotype.
subgenus [subgen., s-g.; pl. subgenera, s-gg.] (1) (zool.) the genus-grouprank below genus; a taxon at the rank of subgenus. (2) (bot.) an
hierarchical rank between genus and section.
subgrex, [subgr.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a subcategory of grex
(q.v.).
subjective: depending on judgement, a matter of individual opinion; incontrast to objective (q.v.).
subjective synonym: (1) (zool.) each of two or more names whose
synonymy is only a matter of individual opinion, i.e. it is not
objective.(2) (bot.) a heterotypic synonym; see also taxonomic
synonym.
subjectively invalid: (zool.) of a name which, in the opinion of an author,
is not to be applied to a particular taxon because it is a juniorsubjective synonym, nomen dubium, junior secondary homonym, orconditionally suppressed.
subnatio: (zool., obsol.) a proposed category below natio (q.v.).

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

suborder, [subordo]: (1) a rank between order and family. (2) (bot., obsol.)once sometimes used as a equivalent to the rank of family when“order” was used as a family term; see order natural.
subordinate taxon: a taxon at a lower rank than the taxon or the coordinate
group (zool.) or rank (bot.) with which it is compared; subordinate
taxa are considered to form a part or whole of a taxon of higher
rank.
subphylum: a rank in the taxonomic hierarchy immediately below that ofphylum; a subdivision (q.v.).
subprovarietas, [subprovar.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term
between provarietas and conculta.
subrace: (cult. pl., unoff.) proposed as a rank term approximately
equivalent to form or group, and above that of cultivar.
subsequent designation: the designation of a name-bearing type of a taxon
published after the taxon was established (validly published).
subsequent monotypy: (zool.) the situation arising when a nominal genus
or subgenus was established before 1931 without any included
nominal species, and when only a single taxonomic species denotedby an available name was first subsequently referred to it.
subsequent spelling: (zool.) any spelling of an available name other thanan original spelling.
subspecies, [subsp., ssp.; pl. subspp., sspp.]: (1) (zool.) the species-grouprank below species and the lowest rank at which names are
regulated by the Code; a trinomen (q.v.). (2) (bot.) a rank between
species and variety. (3) (prok.) the only formally recognized rank
below that of species.
subspecific epithet: (bot., prok.) the word following the indication ofsubspecies rank; the equivalent of a subspecific name (zool.).
subspecific name: (zool.) the third name in a trinomen; the equivalent of asubspecific epithet (bot., prok.).
subspecioid, [subspd., sspd.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a subcategory of specioid
between specioid and convar (or cultiplex), and equivalent tosubspecies in wild plants.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

substitute culture: (prok., unoff.) a culture selected to replace a strain
which has become contaminated or is no longer viable; see neotype
substitute name: (zool.) any available name, whether new or not, used toreplace an older available name; see emendation, nomen novum,
replacement name, synonym.
substitute type: (bot., obsol.) species arbitrarily taken as types of genera in
the case of any "exceptions to rules for generic types".
substitution: (zool.) the act of introducing a substitute name (q.v.).
substrate: (mycol., prok., not nomenclatural) of the growth of
microorganisms, the nutritional substances forming the growth
medium.
substratum: (mycol., not nomenclatural) the material or host on which afungus grows in nature, whether obtaining nutrients from it or not.
subtribe: (1) (zool.) a family group rank below tribe; such names have thesuffix “-ina”. (2) a taxon at the rank of subtribe.
subtroop: (palaeo., unoff.) the term for a unit in a Period classification(q.v.) incorporating about 100 palaeotaxa or species; see troop.
subturma: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) a rank between genus and turma (q.v.), e.g.
Subturma Triporines.
sub-type: (zool., obsol.) a rank in the category of subphylum (q.v.).
suffix, [pl. suffixes]: a letter or group of letters added to the stem of a word,
as in terminations denoting rank (e.g. (zool.) “-idea” and (bot.) “aceae” in family names) or in forming generic names or specificepithets; see compound, prefix, termination.
sup. cit., [supra citato]: cited above.
super-: above; (zool.) used as a prefix added to the term denoting a rank toindicate a position above that rank but below the next principal rank
in the hierarchy; see also supra-.
superfamily, [pl. superfamilies]: (1) (zool.) a family-group rank above
family; such names have the suffix “-oidea”; the highest rank at
which names are fully regulated by the Code. (2) a taxon at the rankof superfamily. (3) (zool., obsol.) a category included in the samegroup as family and subfamily.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

superfluous combination, [combinatio superflua, comb. superfl.]: (bot.)a new combination (q.v.) made in the belief that it had not been
made before, but actually unnecessary as that combination had
already been validly published.
superfluous name, [nomen superfluum, nom. superf.]: (1) (bot.) a nameapplied to a taxon circumscribed by the author to definitely include
the type of a name which ought to have been adopted, or of which
the epithet ought to have been adopted, under the Code. (2) (phyl.) a
name that was substituted for another name that was acceptable andshould therefore have been used. (3) (phyt.) a new name for asyntaxon whose original diagnosis contains the original diagnosis ofa syntaxon published earlier or at least the nomenclatural type of its
legitimate name (which may be given merely in synonymy) that istherefore illegitimate.
superior rank: (unoff.) the next higher category in the nomenclatural
hierarchy to which a taxon or syntaxon is assigned.
superior taxon: (unoff.) a taxon in the next higher category in thenomenclatural hierarchy to which a particular taxon is assigned.
superordinal: (zool., unoff.) a rank above that of order.
superspecies: (1) (prok., zool., unoff.) a monophyletic group of very
closely related and largely or entirely allopatric species, too different
to be included in a particular species; a rank above species andbelow genus. (2) (bot., unoff., obsol.) one with additional
chromosomes, e.g. an aneuploid or tetraploid.
supplementary rank: of a rank one of the categories to which every
individual organism can be referred but which is not mandatory touse (e.g. it is not mandatory to use a subgeneric name in a genus notdivided into subgenera); see principal ranks.
supplementary type: (zool., unoff.) a described or figured specimen used
in a publication in extending or correcting the knowledge of apreviously defined species; a hypotype (q.v.) or secondary type(q.v.).
suppressed name: (1) (zool.) an otherwise available name ruled by theCommission (ICZN) as not be used as valid in all or particular
circumstances; see suppression, conditionally suppressed name,192

Terms used in Bionomenclature
partially suppressed name, and totally suppressed name. (2) (bio.)
one placed on a list of suppressed names. (2) (phyl.) a name thatwould normally have precedence but does not, due to a decision by
the Committee on Phylogenetic Nomenclature to give precedence toa later synonym or homonym; see also suppression.

suppressed work, [opera utique oppressa]: (1) (bot.) works, ruled as
suppressed, in which in which names in specified ranks are notvalidly published; suppression is subject to the decision of anInternational Botanical Congress. (2) (zool.) a work that theCommission (ICZN) has ruled to be unpublished or unavailable; see
suppression.
suppression, [suppress]: (1) (zool.) a ruling by the Commission (ICZN),
using its plenary power, (a) that a work is to be deemed, fornomenclatural purposes as unpublished, or that names and acts in it
are not available, or (b) that an available name is never to be used asvalid because (i) it is only available for the purpose of homonymy(i.e. partial suppression) or (ii) it is not available for the purposes ofpriority and homonymy (i.e. total suppression, but a totally
suppressed species-group name may still denote the type species ofa nominal genus or subgenus, or (c) the available name is only to be
used as valid under stated conditions (e.g. when not considered asynonym of a particular later name (i.e. conditional suppression). (2)(bot.) of a work, see suppressed work; of a name, see rejected name,suppressed name. (3) (bio.) of a name, its placing on a list of
suppressed names on the authority of the ICB because it would
cause a disadvantageous nomenclatural change
supra, [sup.]: on the upper side; above.
supra-: a prefix used when referring to all ranks above a particular one.
supra citatato, [supra cit.]: of a work, one cited above.
suprafamilial: of a taxon, one at a rank higher than that of family or familygroup.
suprageneric: of a taxon, one at a rank higher than that of genus or genus
group.
supraspecific: of a taxon, one at a rank higher than that of species or
species group.

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sustaining specimen: (zool., unoff.) an auxiliary type (q.v.).
symbiotype: (zool., unoff.) the host specimen from which a new parasitic
or mutualistic taxon was described.
symbol: (1) (not nomenclatural) a character or mark used to represent
something; an ideograph (q.v.). (2) (cult. pl.) a device which isappended to a name, which is in itself no part of that name, yetwhich provides extra information about the taxon concerned.
symphytocoenological unit: (phyt.) a vegetation complex of some kind;such units are not considered as syntaxa.
syn., [synonymum]: a synonym (q.v.); often used in the abbreviated form
before a name to indicate it is a synonym of the name properly to be
used for the taxon concerned.
synanamorph: (mycol.) one of two or more different anamorphs (q.v.) thatare part of the same holomorph (q.v.).
synapomorphy: (phyl.) a shared, derived character state; a shared, derived
character state inherited from a common ancestor that possessed thatstate; a shared, independently derived character state is notconsidered to be a synapomorphy in the sense the term is used in the
PhyloCode.
syncultype: (obsol.) any strain of a microorganism cultivated by the authorof the taxon and quoted in the original description when a holotype
has not been selected.
syndiagnostic: (obsol.) of groups formed by Linnaean diagnoses, as
opposed to ones characterized by breeding freely (syngamic), in a
privative fashion (asyngamic), or breeding from a common parent(epigony).
synisonym: one of two or more names having the same basionym; seenomenclatural synonym.
synonym, [synonynum, syn.]: (1) (zool.) each of two or more names of thesame rank used to denote the same taxonomic taxon. (2) (bot., cult.
pl.) a name considered to apply to the same taxon as the accepted
name. (3) (phyl.) a name that is spelled differently than anothername that refers to the same taxon; in the case of clade names,
synonyms may be homodefinitional or heterodefinitional (q.v.). (4)194

Terms used in Bionomenclature
any designation applied to a given taxon other than the one by which
it should properly be known; see also homotypic synonym,
heterotypic synonym, junior synonym, nomenclatural synonym,
objective synonym, senior synonym, subjective synonym,
taxonomic synonym. (5) (phyt.) names in the same rank that
denominate the same syntaxon or syntaxa considered as the same
syntaxon without regard to their position. (6) (unoff.) a later usageof a name cited following the correct author citation and place of
publication of the name itself (a practice sometimes used to indicate
works which have fuller descriptions or a changed
circumscriptions); a chresonym (q.v.).

synonymotype: (zool., unoff.) that constituent element of a taxon quoted
by an author as identical with his or her newly described taxon.
synonymy: (1) the existence of two or more names applied to the sametaxon; (2) the relationship between synonyms. (3) the names
considered to apply to a given taxon other than the name by which it
should properly be known; (4) a list of synonyms.
synoptic collection: a group of taxa that have been authoritatively
identified and which serves as the basis of comparison for theidentification of other specimens.
synoptic key: an artificial key in which diagnostic characters are listed andthe taxa showing that character are indicated below it, usually byreferences to numbers allocated to the taxa in the publication.
synoptic table: (1) one which indicates the characters of one or moreorganisms in a tabular form, especially characters which are used forthe separation of the taxa. (2) (phyt.) one comprising a number of
relevé's on a statistical form; a synthetic table.
syntaxon, [pl. syntaxa]: (phyt.) an abstract unit of phytocoenoses of any
rank, defined by floristic-sociological criteria, which may (inprinciple) be incorporated into a hierarchical system.
syntaxonomic synonym: (phyt.) a synonym based on a different
nomenclatural type, but considered to belong to the same syntaxon;
with a changed circumscription of the syntaxon, such a name canbecome nonsynonymous.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

synthetic hybrid, [S1 hybrid]: (cult. pl.) a plant breeding term for the
result of open pollination within a number of defined, controlledlines.
synthetic table: see synoptic table.
synthetograph: (zool., unoff.) an illustration made from two or moreindividuals of a type-series.
syntype, [syntypus]: (1) (bot.) any specimen cited in the protologue (q.v.)
when no holotype was designated, or any of two or more specimens
simultaneously designated as types; see also lectoparatype. (2) one
of two or more specimens simultaneously designated as type. (3)(zool.) each specimen (and prior to 1911 those referred to by
bibliographic reference) of a type-series from which neither aholotype nor a lectotype has been designated, including (prior to1931) those referred to by a bibliographic reference; the syntypes
collectively constitute the name-bearing type. (4) (phyt.)erroneously used to replace "typus" in the nomenclature of syntaxa.
(5) (obsol.) a specimen, other than the holotype, upon which an
original description was based.
syntype residue: (bot., unoff.) former syntypes remaining after theselection of a lectotype.
synusia, [pl. synusiae]: (phyt., obsol.) a vegetation unit composed ofsimilar life-forms with a particular ecological requirement; names ofsynusia are not considered as syntaxa under the Code.
system: (1) of classification, the arrangement of groups relative to eachother. (2) the result of a given classification of a number of livingorganisms, usually one dealing with a taxon of high rank (e.g.
kingdom, phylum, division).

T, T., [type, typus]; usually used as short-hand to denote the nomenclatural
type (q.v.); (prok., bot.) commonly added after the type strain
designation where the type is a permanently preserved culture (e.g.
DSM 1234T or DSM 1234 T).
t., tab.: tabula (q.v.).

196

Terms used in Bionomenclaturetabula, [t., tab.]: (obsol.) a (usually numbered) plate (q.v.).
tagotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen that has been completely
destroyed except for the label; see also crickotype, herberotype,take up: of a name, the valid publication of a name previously usedinvalidly or devalidated.
tantum: (obsol.) only, merely; see nomen tantum.
tautogenotype: (zool., unoff.) see monogenotype.
tautonym: a binary combination in which the specific epithet exactly
repeats the generic name without the addition of a transcribedsymbol, or where the specific or infraspecific name repeats exactly
the generic name; permissible in zool. but not bot.
tautonymy: (zool.) the use of the same word for the name of a genus-grouptaxon and for the species-group name of one of its included species
and/or subspecies; see absolute tautonymy, Linnean tautonymy,
virtual tautonomy
tautotype: (1) (zool., unoff.) the type of a genus whose species-group nameis identical in spelling to the genus-group name. (2) (zool., unoff.)
the type species of a genus selected because of absolute tautonymy.
Taxacom: an e-mail biological systematics discussion list, which started
operations in 1987, and posts comments relating to the nomenclatureandsystematics
of
all
kinds
of
organisms;
http://mailman.nhm.ku.edu/mailman/listinfo/taxacom.
taxocene: (phyt., unoff.) a taxonomically defined fraction of a plantcommunity.
taxoid, [taxd.; pl. taxoides.]: (cult. pl., unoff.) a collective designation for
individual taxonomic categories for the systematic classification ofcultivated plants; used as an equivalent term to taxon (q.v.) but
restricted to cultivated plans; see phytotaxoid, zootaxoid.
taxon [pl. taxa]: a taxonomic unit or group at any rank, which may be
named or not; i.e. a population or group of a populations oforganisms which are usually inferred to be phylogenetically related
and which have characters in common which differentiate the unit
(e.g. a geographical population, a genus, a family, an order) fromother such units; a taxon encompasses all included taxa of lower

197

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
rank (i.e. subordinate taxa) and individual organisms; in (phyl.), taxa
may be clades or species; see taxoid, taxon name.

Taxon: official journal of the International association for Plant Taxonomy(IAPT) in which proposals to modify the Code, or to propose theconservation or rejection of names or works, and reports ofCommittees are required to be published; from 2009, proposals
relating solely to fungi are also published in Mycotaxon.
taxon label: (unoff.) a unique, stable, text-phrase applied to an unpublishedtaxon concept; the label should link the concept to reference
specimens or a locality and be in a form that is unusable as a taxon
name, e.g. Ocyptamus sp. MZH S142_2004; such informal
designations are commonly used in submissions to GenBank. The
Council of the Heads of Australian Herbaria (CHAH) proposed tostandardize these in the form “Genus name sp. Phrasename(Voucher specimen identifier) Source” where the phrasename wasbased on the locality and the source was the concept’s proposer; seealso cognomen, informal name, interim name.
taxon name: (phyl.) the word (or in pre-existing Codes, words) used todesignate a taxon.
taxon novum, [tax. n., tax. nov.]: a new taxon; sometimes used in (zool.)when a name in a particular rank is derived from a pre-existing
generic name for the first time.
taxon vagum, [tax. vag.]: (unoff.) a name used in an uncertain rank (e.g.
Usnea [tax. vag.] implexa).
taxonomic category: a subdivision of a hierarchical system; see category.
taxonomic doubt: (prok.) of a name, one published with a question mark orother suggestion that the author is uncertain or doubtful about it,even if the name is accepted by the author.
taxonomic group: (1) the group in which a number of similar individuals
may be classified; a taxonomic unit. (2) a taxon or assemblage oftaxa, e.g. the taxonomic group Insecta which consists of all insects
and the taxa in which they are classified.
taxonomic hierarchy: see hierarchy, taxonomic.
taxonomic position: see position.

198

Terms used in Bionomenclaturetaxonomic purpose: (zool.) in lectotypification, a statement of thetaxonomic purpose of the designation of the lectotype; required by
the Code for lectotypifications made after 1999 to be valid.
taxonomic rank: see rank.
taxonomic synonym: a heterotypic synonym (q.v.).
taxonomic taxon: (zool.) a taxon (e.g. family, genus, species) includingwhatever nominal taxa and individuals a zoologist at any time
considers it to contain, in his or her endeavours to define theboundaries of a zoological taxon (q.v.); a taxonomic taxon isdenoted by the valid name determined from the available names of
its included nominal taxa..
taxonomic unit: the group into which a number of similar individuals may
be classified; a taxon.
taxonomy: the theory and practice of classification of organisms; seetaxonomic taxon.
taxospecies: (prok., unoff.) a group of organisms or isolates that have ahigh coefficient of similarity.
tectoparatype: (zool., unoff.) a paratype used for microscopic examination
to demonstrate generic or specific characters.
tectopleisiotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen used for microscopic
examination to demonstrate generic or specific characters,
subsequent to the original description.
tectotype: (zool.) any type comprising a microscopic slide preparation or
section.
teleomorph: (mycol.) the meiotic sexual morph in pleomorphic fungi, i.e.
the morph characterized by the production of asci/ascospores,
basidia/basidiospores, teliospores, or other basidium-bearing organs;the name accorded to the holomorph (q.v.); see also anamorph.
teleotype: (mycol., unoff.) proposed for a specimen or illustration
representing the teleomorph (q.v.) of a fungus and designated toserve as both an interpretive and a nomenclatural type for a namepreviously applied solely to an anamorph (q.v.) and typified by ananamorphic type; cfr epitype.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

teletype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen whose description reads like areport in the New York Stock Exchange and has about as much
usefulness (!).
template: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) all of the categories of organ species thatare necessary to complete the conceptual re-assembly of a wholeplant species.
tentative species: (vir.) a virus species of which an ICTV Subcommittee is
uncertain with regard to the genus or family assignment.
ter.: see teratological specimen.
terata: (obsol.) divergences from the type of a genus; monsters.
teratological specimen, [ter., terat.]: an abnormal specimen or a
monstrosity.
teratology: the study of abnormalities or monstrosities.
teratotype: (zool., unoff.) a type based on an abnormality or monstrosity.
term: (bot., prok.) of a word used to designate a morphological oranatomical structure in contra-distinction to “name” as used in theCode.
termination: of a word, the ending; an inflection; the part of a word added
to a Greek or Latin stem when the word is inflected.
ternary: composed of three items.
ternary combination: (1) (bot., prok.) any combination (q.v.), consisting of
the binary name of a species followed by a term denoting rank andby an infraspecific epithet. (2) (obsol., bot.) cases where a term
denoting rank was either often omitted or represented by sometypographic device.
ternary hybrid: (cult. pl.) a hybrid resulting from crosses among threetaxa.
ternary name: a trinomen (q.v.).
teste: according to, especially of verbal testimony received; see also fide.
text, official: see official text.

200

Terms used in Bionomenclature

thanatocultype: (unoff.) a dried or preserved, not living, specimen or a
microscopic slide prepared from the holocultype (q.v.).
three-way cross: (cult. pl.) the repeated crossing of three F1 hybrids.
timeslot: (palaeo., unoff.) a substitute for the genus taxon consisting only of
the name of a stratigraphic timescale division.
-tipa: (unoff.) the proposed suffix added to the end of one species name in a
family, usually the best known, in New Biological Nomenclature(q.v.).
token words: (bot.) words used to indicate a taxon to which the author
wishes to refer, but to which he does not give a name.
tokogeny: (not nomenclatural) the study of, for example, relationships
between individuals in a sexually reproducing species, including
parents and offspring; i.e. of relationships within and between
groups, in contrast to phylogeny (q.v.) concerned with theevolutionary history
tomo citato, [tom. cit.]: in the volume cited.
top-cross: (cult. pl.): a plant breeding technique in which cultivars arecompared by crossing them all with the same pollen parent (line)
and then assessing the progeny.
tophomeotype: (zool., unoff.) a specimen from the original locality
identified by an authority; see homatopotype, metatopotype.
top-line punctuation: (cult. pl.) the use of apostrophes and accents andother diacritical signs above letters of words; cfr bottom-linepunctuation..
topophysic cultivar: (cult. pl.) a clone with the same genotype as its
original parent plant but differing in its phenotype due to it being
originally asexually propagated from specific tissue on the parent.
topotype: (1) (unoff.) any specimen originating from the type locality of
the nomenclatural type of the species or infraspecific taxon to which
it is thought to belong. (2) (zool., unoff.) whether or not the
specimen is part of the type-series. (3) (palaeo. zool.) fossils fromthe same horizon at or within a “few miles” of the locality of thename-bearing type.

201

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

topovariant: (cult. pl.) a distinguishable group of plants grown from seedfrom a given provenance.
total clade: (phyl.) a clade composed of a crown clade and all organisms(and species) that share a more recent common ancestor with thatcrown clade than with any extant organisms or species that are notmembers of that clade; total clades are a subset of branch-based
clades.
totally suppressed name: (zool.) the older of two homonyms which issuppressed for the purposes of both the Principle of Priority and thePrinciple of Homonymy.
trade designation: (cult. pl.) a device that is used to market a plant when
the original name is considered unsatisfactory for marketing
purposes.
trademark: any sign, made from words, letters, numbers, often employing
a recognizable typography, and(or) an icon applied to goods todistinguish the goods of a particular enterprise from those of its
competitors: see also registered trademark.
transcription: (1) to copy exactly from one written work to another. (2) the
rendering in written form of human speech, especially of languages
employing ideographic or phonetic characters.
transfer: a change (with or without a change in name) in the position of ataxon, by implication also, transfer of the epithets involved.
transformed: see generically modified organism.
translatio nova, [trans. nov.]: (zool., obsol.) a new transfer; occasionallyformerly used in citations to indicate that a taxon has been altered inposition (either horizontally or vertically) but retains in its name theepithet from its name in the former position.
translation: the rendering of words from one language to another, as
opposed to transcription (q.v.) or transliteration (q.v.).
transliteration: a literal transcription, the replacement of letters of one
alphabet by equivalent letters of another.
tribe, [tribus]: (1) (zool.) a family-group name below subfamily. (2) ataxon at the rank of tribe, between subfamily and genus; in such
names have the suffix “-ini” (zool.) or “-inae” (bot.); in (mycol.)202

Terms used in Bionomenclaturetaxa termed tribes (tribus) in Fries’s Systema Mycologicum (182132) are treated as validly published names of subdivisions of genera,
although the term tribus was misplaced by Fries.

trinomen, [pl. trinomina]: (1) a name consisting of three elements. (2)(zool.) the combination of a generic name, a specific name, and asubspecific name, that together constitute a scientific name of asubspecies; no rank-denoting term is used; the equivalent ofsubspecific name in (bot.) and (prok.) where a rank-denoting term isrequired. (3) (cult. pl.) a binominal name followed by an epithet insome infraspecific rank. (4) (bio.) the name of a species combinedwith an infraspecific epithet; see also combination.
trinomial name: (1) (zool.) a trinomen (q.v.). (2) (palaeo., unoff.) a formal
three-element name set for a fossil in PDHC (q.v.), i.e. palaeogrouptimeslot-palaeotaxon. (3) a trinomial combination (q.v.).
trinomial combination: a combination of a genus and species name withthat of a subspecies (zool., prok.) or any infraspecific taxon (bot.)with (bot., prok.) or without (zool.) the citation of a rank-denoting
term; see trinomial name, trinomen.
triplotype: (zool., unoff.) a single specimen used as the holotype for three
separate new species.
trivial name, [nomen trivial, nom. triv.; pl. nomina trivialia]: (bot.,prok., zool.) a specific epithet; used in this sense by Linnaeus.
troop: (palaeo., unoff.) a term for a large unit in a Period classification(q.v.) incorporating notionally about 1000 palaeotaxa or species; seealso subtroop.
turma: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) a morphologically-based suprageneric rank
used in the artificial classification of fossil pollen and spores
unassigned to families, e.g. Turma Poroses.
typ. cons., [typus conservandus]: a type which has been conserved.
type, [typ., typus, T.]: (1) a term used alone, or forming part of acompound term, to denote a particular kind of specimen or taxon.
(2) (bot., prok., zool.) an element on which the descriptive matter
fulfilling the conditions of availability (zool.) or valid publication(bot., prok.) for a name is based, or is considered to have been

203

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
based, and which by its taxonomic position decides the applicationof the name; see name-bearing type, nomenclatural type. (3) (zool.)
often used as short-hand for a holotype of a species-group name. (4)(zool., unoff.) any of the original type materials. (5) (prok., unoff.) avariant within a species, showing certain distinct features, but oflower than subspecific rank; the use of the term in this sense is notrecommended by the Code, even in compounds such as morphotype
and serotype (q.v.), in which it has long been used; the use of thesuffix "-var" is recommended instead (e.g. morphovar, serovar). (6)(phyl.) in pre-existing Codes, the specimen, specimens, or
subordinate taxon to which a taxon name is permanently attached.
(7) (obsol.) any of the original type material. (8) an unspecified kindof type. (9) (not nomenclatural) in printing, the style (i.e. typeface),
size, shape and boldness of the letters and other characters. (10)(obsol.) a rank in the taxonomic hierarchy equivalent to phylum(q.v.). (11) (bot., not nomenclatural) used as a category forpalynomorphs (i.e. pollen and spores) which cannot be separated
microscopically, e.g. the "Alisma type" which includes pollen from
species of Alisma, Baldellia and Luronium.

type concept: (prok., zool.) an extension of the meaning from type of aname to type of a taxon (i.e. a circumscription); the type method(q.v.).
type culture: (1) (bot., mycol.) a living culture derived from a holotype
specimen; sometimes, incorrectly, a living culture on which a new
taxon has been based; see ex-type. (2) (prok.) a strain designated as
the nomenclatural type of a bacterial species or infraspecific taxon.
type fixation: see fixation, fixation by elimination.
type fossil: (palaeo., not nomenclatural) an index fossil (q.v.).
type genus: (1) (zool.) the nominal genus that is the name-bearing type of anominal family-group taxon. (2) (bot., prok.) the generic namewhich is the nomenclatural type of a name in a rank between genus
and family.
type horizon: (palaeo. zool.) of fossils, the geological stratum from which
the name-bearing type of a nominal species or subspecies wascollected.

204

Terms used in Bionomenclature

type host: the host species with which the name-bearing type of (zool.) a
nominal species or subspecies or (bot.) species or infraspecific taxon
was associated; see associated organism, symbiotype.
type locality: the geographical (and, where relevant stratigraphical) placeof capture, collection or observation of the name-bearing type of(zool.) a nominal species or subspecies or (bot,) species orinfraspecific taxon; in zool., if the name-bearing type was captured
or collected after being transported by boat, vehicle, aircraft, orother human or mechanical means, the type locality is the placefrom which it, or its wild progenitor, began its unnatural journey.
type material: all specimens and other elements used by an author in theoriginal description of a new species-group name (zool.), or of a
new species or infraspecific taxon (bot.).
type method: (bot., mycol.) the permanent association of a name (i.e. a
nomenclatural type) and a taxon (i.e. a circumscription); the typeconcept (q.v.).
type relevé: (phyt.) the name-bearing relevé (q.v.) of the name of an
association or subordinate syntaxon.
type-series: (zool.) the series of specimens, as defined in the Code, on
which the original author bases a new nominal species-group taxon
in the absence of a holotype designation, any such specimen iseligible for subsequent designation as the name-bearing type(lectotype); prior to lectotype designation, all the specimens of thetype-series are syntypes and collectively they constitute the namebearing type; excluded from the type-series are any specimens thatthe original author expressly excludes or refers to as distinct
variants, or doubtfully includes in the taxon.
type species: the species (bot., prok.) or nominal species (zool.) that is thename-bearing type of a genus (bot., prok.) or nominal genus (zool.),
or a taxon between the ranks of species and genus (bot., prok.) andwhich fixes the application of the name.
type specimen: (1) a general term for the name-bearing specimen of a
species or infraspecific taxon, or (zool.) for a specimen of the typeseries (q.v.); these are generally permanently preserved in areference collection (e.g. a genetic resource collection, herbarium, or205

The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
museum) but in (zool.) can be live animals in zoos or describedfrom nature (including DNA sequences obtained from living birds
captured and then released back into the wild). (2) (zool., obsol.)
formerly used in the Code for a holotype, lectotype or neotype, orfor any syntype.

type strain: (prok.) the living or permanently preserved culture which is thenomenclatural type of a species or infraspecific taxon.
typesetting: see printing, conventional.
typical: of a specimen or culture, one with characters corresponding tothose of the type material.
typicum, [-us]: (1) typical. (2) (phyt.): used as the epithet of the name of a
subassociation to indicate that it is typical of the association inwhich it is placed (i.e. the same species are diagnostic), e.g. GalioCarpinetum typicum; see also inops.
typification: (1) the act of designating or selecting a nomenclatural type fora name; see nomenclatural type. (2) (zool.) the fixation of a namebearing type of a nominal taxon to provide an objective standard ofreference for the application of the name of a taxon; see Principle ofTypification.
typified name: a name whose application is determined by a nomenclatural
type under a rank-based Code.
typographic error: an error introduced by a printer.
typography: the visual presentation of printed words and numbers; thedesign and style of printed matters including the form of the letterschosen.
typology: (1) the use of types to fix the application of names. (2) (notnomenclatural) an invariant, generalized or idealized pattern sharedby all members of group.
typonym: (1) (unoff.) the type of a name. (2) one of two names based on
the same nomenclatural type but which is neither the basionym nor a
synisonym; e.g. a later name given to the same type specimen, ageneric name based upon a species which has already been used as
the type of a different generic name. (3) (obsol.) a name based on anindication of a type species or type specimen. (4) (bot., obsol.) a206

Terms used in Bionomenclaturename rejected when there is an older validly published name basedon the same type. (5) (zool., unoff.) a trivial name (e.g. typus,
typicus) used in designation of the type species of a generic name.

typonymus homonyms: (unoff.) typonyms that are the same time
homonyms.
typotype: (unoff.) the type of a type; the material from which an illustration
was prepared where the type of a name is an illustration.
typus conservandus, [typ. cons.]: see conserved type.
typus: see type.
tyrranotype: (zool., unoff.) a type designated by the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (!).

unambiguous reference: (phyt.) one with the place of publication correctly
provided (e.g. journal or book name, volume and page number)either following the author citation or in the bibliography.
unassigned: (1) of a taxon, one not classified in a particular or several
higher taxonomic categories; e.g. a family not classified in an
accepted order; see incertae sedis. (2) (vir.) the status of a genus
when it is not classified into a family because of uncertainty as towhich, or if any, family is appropriate; a floating genus.
unavailable name: (zool.) one that does not conform to the requirements of
the Code or is otherwise excluded and so may not be used.
unavailable nomenclatural act: (zool.) one published in an unavailable
work (q.v.).
unavailable work: (zool.) a published work (q.v.) in which, under theprovisions of the Code, or by a ruling of the Commission (ICZN),
names or nomenclatural acts cannot be established; such works
include those which (a) were issued before 1758, or (b) do notconsistently apply the Principle of Binominal Nomenclature (q.v.),or (c) are published anonymously after 1950, or (d) carry adisclaimer (q.v.), or (e) the Commission (ICZN) has ruled to be
unavailable.

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unconditionally suppressed name: (phyl.) a name that has been
suppressed by the Committee on Phylogenetic Nomenclature in all
phylogenetic contexts (see suppressed name); there are no
conditions under which it would have precedence over any othername.
undetermined: of species or specimens not identified; see indeterminate.
unessential type: (obsol.) of a specimen, one figured or cited to whichreference is made in a published work, but which adds nothing to
the knowledge of the characters of the species; an onomatype (q.v.);
also in this category are homeotypes, ideotypes, metatypes, andtopotypes.
uninomen: see uninominal.
uninomial: (1) (not nomenclatural) a mathematical term, but frequently
used in the past in the sense on uninominal (q.v.). (2) (bot., obsol.) a
unitary designation (q.v.).
uninominal, [uninomen; pl. uninomina]: (1) (zool.) consisting of a single
name; the one word used for the name of a taxon of higher rank than
the species group; see also unitary name. (2) (palaeo., unoff.) the
name of a base taxon consists of one word until a genus or genus
equivalent is added to aid filing as a binomial. (3) (phyl.) the second
part of a species binomen that is being treated as the name of a
species (though the names of clades are also uninomina); see also
Lanham's method.
union: (1) of taxa, see unite. (2) (phyt., obsol.) a syntaxon not accepted in
the Code but equivalent to association (q.v.). (phyt., obsol.) a
layered community of one or more species of similar physiogamy orlife-form.
unit, taxonomic: see taxonomic unit.
unitary designation: (obsol.) a single word applied as a name of a species
by some eighteenth century authors using non-binominal
nomenclature; sometimes mistakenly considered to be genericnames.
unite: to combine or treat as elements of a single taxon elements that werepreviously considered to belong to a different taxa.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

unjustified emendation: (zool.) any emendation (q.v.) other than a justified
emendation (q.v.).
unjustified original spelling: (zool.) the spelling of a family-group namebased upon an unjustified emendation of a generic nameunnecessary substitute name: (zool.) a replacement name (q.v.)
introduced when no such name was required.
unpublished name, [unpubl.]: a designation that has not been effectively
published, i.e. not “names” in the sense of (bot.), used mainly withreference to designations in manuscripts or on specimen labels; cfr
ined.
unpublished work, [unpubl.]: a work that is not (zool.) published or (bot.)effectively published, or in (zool.) one that the Commission (ICZN)
has ruled to be treated as unpublished.
unrestricted emendation: (phyl.) a formal change in a phylogenetic
definition that does not require approval by the Committee on
Phylogenetic Nomenclature; an unrestricted emendation is intended
to prevent undesirable changes in the application of a particularname (in terms of clade conceptualization) when the original
definition is applied in the context of a revised phylogeny; see
restricted emendation.
unshared organ species: see autapospecies.
unused name: see forgotten name, nomen oblitum.
UPOV: (cult. pl.) Union Internationale Pour la Protection des Obtentions
Végétales (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties
of Plants), the international body mandated with overseeing theadministration of Plant Breeder’s Rights.
urkingdom: (unoff.) proposed as a term for a hierarchial rank above that of
kingdom, to include one or more kingdoms.
usage: the sense in which a name has been applied, whether correctly or
incorrectly according to a Code; see existing usage, prevailingusage.

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v.: see vel, verso, versus, vice, vide.
VAC: see cryptogram.
valid name: (1) (zool.) of an available name, one acceptable under theprovisions of the Code and which is the correct name for a taxon in
an author’s taxonomic judgement. (2) (bot.) a validly published
name, i.e. one published according to criteria for valid publicationaccording to the Code; an effectively published name fulfillingcertain requirements, and before considerations of legitimacy are
entertained; only designations that are validly published are namesin the sense of the Code; see also publication. (3) (vir.) a nameconforming to the Code and pertaining to established taxa; see also
accepted name.
valid nomenclatural act: (zool.) one that is to be accepted under theprovisions of the Code, i.e. the earliest available nomenclatural act
relevant to a particular name or nominal taxon which does notcontravene any provisions of the Code.
valid publication: see valid name.
validate: (bot.) to make valid, used in the context of valid publication of aname, either with reference to an existing designation (q.v.), or indescribing the method by which this is effected.
validated: (zool., obsol.) of a name, formerly used in the sense ofconserved, i.e. a name that was considered and accorded potentiallyvalid status by the Commission (ICZN).
Validation Lists: (prok.) lists of names effectively published elsewhere
which are compiled and published in issues of the International
Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology to achievevalid publication.
validly published name: (bot.) a name effectively published and inaccordance with the requirements of the Code for valid publication;see valid name.
vampirotype: (zool., unoff.) a type specimen, usually an insect, mountedwith an oversized pin for the size of the specimen so that it appears
impaled (!).
var.: see variety.

210

Terms used in Bionomenclature-var.: (prok.) suffix used to indicate infrasubspecific rank, not regulated by
the Code, e.g. pathovar, serovar; recommended for use instead of thesuffix “-type”.
var. (geogr.): see microsubspecies.
variable spelling: see variant spelling.
variant: (1) (cult. pl.) a plant or group of plants which shows some measureof difference from characteristics associated with a particular taxon.
(2) (prok., unoff.) a culture not identical with the parent in all its
characters, and also used for unnamed variation within a species.
variant spelling: (zool.) different spellings of specific or subspecific namesthat are deemed to be identical for the purposes of the Principle of
Homonymy (q.v.).
varietal denomination: (cult. pl.) the name for a cultivar designated under
the terminology of statutory plant registration authority; see also
statutory epithet.
varietas: a variety (q.v.).
variety, [varietas, var.]: (1) (bot.), a category in the taxonomic hierarchy
between that of subspecies and form. (2) (cult. pl.) used in somenational and international legislation to denominate one clearly
distinguishable taxonomic unit below the rank of species fromothers; generally, in such legislative texts, a term exactly equivalent
to cultivar (q.v.). (3) (zool., obsol.) a term that if published after
1960 is deemed to be of infrasubspecific rank, but that if published
before 1961 is to be interpreted according to the Code as subspecific
if the author used the rank of variety or form and did not expressly
give it infrasubspecific rank. (4) (prok.), see –var.
VCG: see vegetative compatability group.
vegetative compatability group, [VCG]: a group of fungal strains which
vegetatively anastomose or fuse to form stable heterokaryons.
vegetative reproduction: (cult. pl.) see asexual propagation.
vel, [v.]: or.
vernacular name: (1) a name for an organism or organisms in a language
used for general purposes as opposed to a name proposed only for

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
nomenclatural purposes; a colloquial name; a local name; seecommon name. (2) (vir.) a name in common usage which does notconform to the Rules of virus nomenclature and which has not beenformally approved by the ICTV.

verso, [v.]: sometimes used to indicate the left-hand page of an open book;see recto.
verosimiliter, [verosim.]: probably.
versus, [v., vs.]: against; as opposed to.
vice, [v.]: in the place of; in succession to.
vide, [v.]: consult.
vide etiam, [v. et.]: see also.
vidi!: indicating that the author has seen the material or work; see
exclamation mark.
-virales: (vir.) a suffix which denotes a taxon of the rank of order.
-viridae: (vir.) a suffix which denotes a taxon of the rank of family.
-virinae: (vir.) a suffix which denotes a taxon at the rank of subfamily.
viroid: (vir.) unencapsidated, low molecular weight, circular, singlestranded RNA molecules which replicate autonomously when
inoculated into host plants; some are pathogeneric while others
replicate without eliciting symptoms; used as the last part of speciesnames of viroids in the rank of species (e.g. Potato spindle tuber
viroid).
-viroid: (vir.) a suffix which denotes a taxon of viroids at the rank of genus.
-viroidae: (vir.) a suffix which denotes a taxon of viroids at the rank offamily.
-viroinae (vir.) a suffix which denotes a taxon of viroids at the rank ofsubfamily.
virtual tautonym: (zool.) the nearly identical spelling, or the same origin
or meaning, of a generic or subgeneric name and the specific orsubspecific name in a binomen or trinomen; also used where
original species of a genus have a specific or subspecific nameeither as the valid name or as a synonym which is almost the same

212

Terms used in Bionomenclatureas the genus name; not a term regulated by the Code; see also
autonym.

-virus: (vir.) a suffix added to a word or name, however, formed to make ageneric name for a virus.
Virus Adansonian Classification, [VAC]: see cryptogram.
vivotype: (zool., unoff.) a living type specimen requiring special handlingand storage; see also alivotype, ex.
von Maehrenthal Code, The: (zool., obsol.) published in 1904, and aforerunner of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature(q.v.).
voted example, [*Ex.]: (bot.) an Example (q.v.) mandated by an
International Botanical Congress to be inserted in the Code in orderto legislate nomenclatural practice when the corresponding Article isopen to divergent interpretation or does not adequately cover thematter (as contrasted with other Examples provided by the Editorial
Committee); such examples are prefixed by an asterisk (*) in the
Code and are to be followed.
voucher specimen: a nominated specimen representing the taxonomic unit
mentioned in a work, which may or may not be any category oftype, for example, a specimen used in a physiological study orretained as evidence that it was found in a particular location.
vowel, connecting: see connecting vowel.
vs.: see versus.
vulgar: (obsol.) of designations, one in the vernacular (q.v.); a common
name.

Walker type: see ambiguotype.
WFCC: World Federation for Culture Collections (q.v.).
whole-plant species: (palaeo. bot., unoff.) a morphologically delimited
conceptual aggregate of all of the organ species (q.v.) required to

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)
complete the relevant template (q.v.), including at least one
autapospecies (q.v.).

wild: (cult. pl.) of plants that originated in the wild; see indigen.
wild-type: (mycol., prok., unoff.) used of microorganisms as they exist innature, e.g. a pathogen occurring in the tissues of a host.
word compound: see compound.
word element: (1) a component part of a word. (2) the parts of a word
separated by one or more hyphens.
work: in nomenclature, any pertinent written information whether
published (e.g. books, journals, separates) or unpublished (e.g.
manuscripts, proofs, microfilms).
work of an animal: (zool.) the result of the activity of an animal (e.g.
burrows, borings, galls, nests, worm tubes, cocoons, tracks), but notpart of the animal; the term applies to trace fossils (see ichnotaxon)
but does not apply to such fossil evidence as internal moulds,
external impressions, and replacements.
working strain: (prok.) a reference strain (q.v.).
World Data Centre for Microorganisms, [WDCM]: an international
database on the centres holding living cultures of microbial groups
and cultured cells, operating under the auspices of the World
Federation for Culture Collections (q.v.) and allocating uniqueacronyms
totheincluded
centres;availableat
http://wdcm.nig.ac..jp/.
World Federation for Culture Collections, [WFCC]: a scientific member
of IUBS and IUMS, concerned with the collection, authentication,
maintenance and distribution of cultures of microorganisms andcultured cells; also responsible for the maintenance of the World
Data Centre for Microorganisms (q.v.) and promoting good practicein the maintenance of microbial genetic resource collections.

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Terms used in Bionomenclature

x: see multiplication sign.
xerography: any method of producing numerous identical copies based
upon an electrostatic process; copies produced in this way arecommonly known as “Xerox copies” or “photocopies”; notconventional printing; see printing, conventional.
xerotype, [xerotypus]: (1) (unoff.) a deliberately dried type; e.g. a dried
culture of a fungus, a dried-down originally fleshy mushroom, adried skin of a fish. (2) (zool., unoff.) a type that has been stored in
fluid but the fluid has dried up.
younger synonym: (zool.) an available name in the same rank as thecorrect name of the taxon to which it belongs, but which is not itself
the correct name for it for reasons of priority; a junior synonym, or
later synonym.

zoological name: the scientific name of an animal taxon in binominal
nomenclature.
zoological nomenclature: the system of scientific names for zoologicaltaxa and the provisions for the formation, treatment, and use of
those names.
ZooBank: (zool., prop.) intended as the online version of the Official
Register of Zoological Nomenclature (q.v.); launched on 1 January
2008; see http://zoobank.org.
Zoological Commission: see International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature.
Zoological Record: (zool.) a print and electronic index of zoologicalliterature that also serves as the unofficial register of scientificnames in zoology; it started publication in 1864 by the ZoologicalSociety of London as the Record of Zoological Literature, andchanged to the present name in 1870; since 2004 it has been
published by Thomson Reuters; available online as a part of the ISI
Web of Knowledge.
zoological taxon: (zool.) a natural taxon of animals (which may, or may
not, have had a name applied to it); see taxon, zootaxon.

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The naming of organisms (and plant communities)

zoologist: anyone, regardless of profession, who studies animals.
Zootaxa: an international journal of animal taxonomy, founded in 2001,
specializing in the publication of new taxa of animals; available inhard copy, and also electronically at http://mapress.com/zootaxa/.
zootaxoid, [zootaxd.; pl. zootaxoides.]: (zool., unoff.) a collective
designation proposed for individual taxonomic categories for thesystematic classification of domesticated animals (breeds, races,etc.) to parallel the system used for cultivated plants; suggested as
an equivalent term to taxon (q.v.) but restricted to domesticatedanimals; see phytotaxoid, taxoid.
zootaxon, [zootax.; pl. zootaxa]: (zool., unoff.) a taxon of animals.

Professor David L Hawksworth CBE is Chair of the IUBS/IUMSInternational Committee on Bionomenclature (ICB), and an editor of
the last four editions of the International Code of BotanicalNomenclature. He has positions in the Universidad Complutense de
Madrid and the Natural History Museum in London, is a former
President of the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS), an
Honorary President of the International Mycological Association(IMA), was the last Director of the former International Mycological
Institute, and is Editor-in-Chief of Biodiversity and Conservation. His
research focuses on the systematics of fungi (including lichens) using
traditional and molecular phylogenetic approaches, but he is also
known for studies on the bioindication of air quality. He is author or
co-author of over 800 new scientific names, including 74 genera new toscience. Previous books include Coevolution and Systematics,
Improving the Stability of Names: Needs and Options, Ainsworth &Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi, Prospects in Systematics, and The
Changing Wildlife of Great Britain and Ireland. He was appointed
Commander of the British Empire by HM Queen Elizabeth II in 1996
for services to science.

ISBN 87-92020-09-7