EFFECTIVE TREATMENT AND SUPPORT FOR REHABILITATION
OF DELINQUENT JUVENILES IN JAPANMIYAGAWA Tsubura *I. INTRODUCTION
Considering that many delinquent juveniles are immature, have disadvantaged family
backgrounds and have been abused or badly treated at home, it is important to ensure thateach juvenile and his or her needs receives adequate intervention, treatment and support.
Although non-custodial measures should be chosen for low-risk juveniles, custodial
measures are appropriate for some at-risk and delinquent juveniles. This paper discusses
the effective treatment and support for rehabilitation of delinquent juveniles in custody inJapan, mainly focusing on the functions of the institutions where they reside.
II. OVERVIEW OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN JAPANA. Definition of “Delinquent Juveniles”
The Juvenile Act 1 classifies juveniles whose cases are heard by the family court into
the following three types 2:A juvenile offender (a juvenile from 14 to 20 who committed a Penal Codeoffence);A juvenile engaged in “illegal behaviour” (a juvenile under 14 who has violated
criminal laws and regulations);
A pre-delinquent juvenile (a juvenile who is likely to commit an offence or violate
criminal laws and regulations in the future in light of his/her personality or living
environment and his/her tendency not to submit to the legitimate supervision of
the custodian).

In Japan, the police and the prosecutors refer all cases of juvenile offenders to thefamily court. The prefectural governor or the directors of child guidance centres can also
refer juveniles who engage in illegal behaviour and pre-delinquent juveniles to the family
court.
B. Delinquency Trends in JapanThe number of delinquent juveniles whose cases were cleared for Penal Codeoffences in 2017 was 35,108, which indicates a significant decrease compared to 178,950
in 1997, decreasing almost 80 per cent in two decades. Of those 35,108 juveniles, larceny
makes up the largest percentage of delinquency, which is about 60 per cent (21,340). 10.7*

Chief Instructor, Okinawa Juvenile Training School for Girls, Japan.
Act No.168 of 15 July 1948.
2
In this paper, “delinquent juvenile” refers to all three types of juveniles unless otherwise specified.
1

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per cent (3,810) of those juveniles had cases that were cleared for embezzlement, 7.2 percent (2,553) for bodily injury, and 4.3 per cent (1,546) for assault. The number of predelinquent juveniles and the number of juveniles who are referred by the police forprosecution for using or possessing stimulants also decreased. 3 The decrease may partly
be explained by the decrease of about 30 per cent in the total population of juveniles from10 to 19 over the past two decades. 4 Although there might be other explanations related
to changes accounting for the decrease of delinquent juveniles, such as the developmentof social welfare and social media, this paper will not discuss them further.
C. Assessment for Protective Measures
The family court may order a family court investigating officer to conduct aninvestigation of a delinquent juvenile’s social environment. In addition to theinvestigation, when it is necessary to conduct a hearing, the family court determines
whether protective detention is necessary. The decision commits the delinquent juvenile
to a Juvenile Classification Home (JCH), and the family court may requirecomprehensive assessment by psychologists at the JCH. There is a unified assessment
tool called the Ministry of Justice Case Assessment tool (MJCA) developed by theCorrection Bureau of the Ministry of Justice and implemented in 2013. MJCA is based on
Risk-Needs-Responsivity principles and estimates the juvenile’s risk of reoffending. The
JCH conducts classification based on the result of the assessment and submits a report tothe family court.
D. Overview of Protective Measures
In light of the result of the investigation and the classification, the family court canplace the juvenile under one of following three protective measures:Probationary supervision;Commitment to a child welfare institution;Commitment to a Juvenile Training School (JTS).

In addition, juveniles who commit particularly heinous crimes can be charged andprosecuted as adults.
The JTS is an institution under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Justice to which
delinquent juveniles are committed upon the order of the family court. JTSs have thefollowing characteristics:


They accommodate delinquent juveniles from approximately 12 to 20 5;They are single-sex facilities which accommodate either boys or girls;



There are 51 JTSs in Japan and 9 of them, including branches, are for girls

3

Refer to the “White Paper on Crime 2018” published by the Research and Training Institute of the
Ministry of Justice for detailed numbers.
4
Refer to the “Japan Statistical Yearbook 2019” published by the Statistical Bureau of Japan for detailed
numbers.
5
Strictly speaking, a young adult aged under 26 can be accommodated in a JTS. Refer to article 4 of theJuvenile Training School Act for the age limit for residence.

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including;They operate under the Juvenile Act and the Juvenile Training School Act 6;
They are headed by a governor and divided into mainly two sections: theEducation and Support Section (also divided into the Education Unit and theSupport Unit) and the General Affairs Section.

The following sections summarize the system of the JTS and analyse how the system
works effectively to support delinquent juveniles’ reintegration into society.
III. FUNCTIONS OF CUSTODIAL MEASURES
A. Assessment for Effective Treatment
Correctional education for each juvenile is carried out based on an Individual
Treatment Plan (ITP), which provides the most effective treatment for each juvenile. The
process of planning the ITP is described below.
There are 15 classifications of delinquent juveniles in JTSs. Each JTS develops its
Correctional Education Curriculum (CEC), the standard courses, including the contents
and the standard duration of education, for each classification. For example, the Okinawa
JTS for girls has 11 CECs. Every JTS is required to review its curricula at least once a
year to revise them if necessary.
When a juvenile is admitted to a JTS (hereinafter referred to as a “resident”),
instructors formulate the ITP for each resident based on the designated CEC. In order toformulate an effective ITP, instructors refer to the results of the classification by the JCH
and the report of the social environment investigation by the family court to identify theresident’s risk, needs and responsivity. The ITP includes the expected duration of custody,
goals of correctional education from the viewpoint of relapse prevention and the contents
of education and treatment, including methods of the training to achieve the goals. The
goals are closely related to the step-by-step process toward release, which will be
discussed in the next section.
B. Step-by-Step Process for Social Reintegration
1. Introduction of the Step-by-Step Process
The ITP includes the expected duration of custody, of which a resident and his/herparent or a guardian will be informed. However, unlike an adult prisoner whose term of
imprisonment is stated by the sentence, the duration of incarceration can vary depending
upon the development of the resident. The duration of custody is divided into three stages,
the goals of which are clearly stated in the ITP.
Stage 3, the Orientation Stage, is the first stage starting from admission to the JTS.
During this period, a resident makes a mental and physical adjustment and prepares forrehabilitation. Instructors build relationships with the juvenile to motivate him/her tocultivate a positive approach to life in the JTS.

6

Act No. 58 of 11 June 2014.

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Stage 2, the Intermediate Stage, is the second and normally the longest one. At thisstage, a resident is expected to actively participate in education and treatment
programmes for the purpose of improvement by understanding his/her problems. The
resident also needs to consider a career path after release, such as completing school orfinding a job.
Stage 1, the Pre-release Stage, is the final stage during which the juvenile isencouraged to carefully consider life after release and prepare for the transition to society.
During this period, the juvenile undergoes a series of programmes to prepare for social
reintegration. The juvenile needs to find a guardian (if a parent is not suitable) and a place
to live since it is necessary to be released on parole. 7 As the time for release from the JTS
approaches, the juvenile is transferred to a separate dormitory to prepare for release.
2. How to Get Promoted?
JTS residents need to achieve the goals of their ITPs in order to get promoted to thenext stage; thus, the duration of incarceration will be longer than stated in the ITP if thejuvenile fails to be promoted. 8 Performance assessment shall be conducted aiming at
confirming how individual goals are achieved, and an elaborate procedure is required for
conducting fair assessments; Instructors assess the degree of achievement of the goals at
each stage, how the resident associates with instructors and other residents and how hard
he/she works on education and treatment programmes. Finally, the assessment iscompleted at the Treatment Review Board headed by the governor of the JTS.
Once the performance assessment is conducted, the resident is notified of the results
immediately. 9 Along with informing the resident of the degree of the achievement of
his/her goals, instructors clearly explain the next assignments to each resident to help theresidents work on them. A promotion ceremony is held to celebrate the promotion ofresidents to the next stage. These ceremonies are normally held twice a month and, at theceremony, a resident who gets promoted to the next stage is given a new badge by thegovernor in front of the instructors and other residents, which motivates the otherresidents.
C. Education and Treatment Tailored to Individual Needs
As stated above, the education and treatment for each juvenile is carried out based oneach ITP. Practically, the content of the education and treatment is composed ofprogrammes provided by each JTS. These programmes are divided into the following fiveareas:
1. Basic Skills Training
Basic skills training is the core educational programme at JTSs. Broadly speaking, itaims to help residents develop basic knowledge, attitudes and skills to live as responsible
members of society. The training is administered in groups and through interviews with
instructors. JTSs also provide therapeutic treatment programmes targeting each resident’s
problems. For example, anger-management and mindfulness programmes are consideredeffective for helping resident’s control their feelings and manage anger.

7

In Japan, more than 99 per cent of JTS residents are released on parole.
One failure generally causes two weeks’ extension of release.
9
A resident’s parent or a guardian is also notified of the results of the performance assessment.
8

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Problems such as violent tendencies and drug addiction are regarded as high-riskfactors of reoffending. Therefore, there are special programmes for offenders who
committed offences involving murder, physical injury or sexual assault. It is compulsory
for most sex offenders (only male) to complete 12-unit-group-based sessions based on
cognitive behavioural therapy. There is also a programme for residents who committed
murder or physical injury. This programme also consists of 12-unit-group-based sessions,as well as 21 individual sessions. Family members or relatives of the victims
occasionally visit the facility to talk to the residents since it is meaningful for theoffenders to hear stories of their grief.
Basic skills training also includes facilitating a resident’s relationship with his or her
family, which is important, especially for those who hope to live with their families after
release. JTSs regularly inform the parents or guardians of the progress of rehabilitation.
Furthermore, JTSs invite the parents or guardians to participate in events and classes toenhance their understanding of education at the JTS.
2. Vocational Training
Literature and statistics demonstrate that employment greatly supports a resident’s
reintegration after release. Therefore, JTSs are enthusiastic about enhancing residents’motivation to work and ensuring that they obtain useful knowledge, skills andqualifications for employment. It is compulsory for most residents to complete 108 unitsof the Basic Job Skills Training, which consists of an elementary course in personal
computers, communication skills training, career counselling sessions and so forth.
3. Guidance in School Courses
Residents may take the national examination to obtain qualifications equivalent to ahigh school diploma. At some JTSs, there are courses available for residents planning totake the examination. As for residents who have not completed compulsory education(normally under 15), the JTS must provide education through the junior high school level.
4. Physical Activities
JTSs provide a broad range of physical activities to foster a healthy body. Under
Article 49 of the Juvenile Training School Act, JTSs are required to give residents anopportunity for exercise or physical training at least one hour a day. For example, at the
Okinawa JTS for Girls, physical activities include jumping rope, volleyball, badminton,running, dancing (Eisa 10) and swimming.
5. Special Activities
Special activities aim to raise a moderately cultured person. It consists of club
activities (flower arrangement, music, pottery, calligraphy, kendo 11 and so forth), outdoor
activities and social contribution activities. Annual events based on Japanese tradition
such as the coming of age ceremony, the Doll Festival, the Star Festival and Christmas
gathering are also held.

10
11

Eisa is a traditional Ryukyu dance which is played with big and small drums.
Kendo is traditional Japanese martial art of swordsmanship.

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IV. REHABITLITATIVE ENVIRONMENTS OF JUVENILE TRAININGSCHOOLS
In order to provide effective interventions, ensuring rehabilitative environments ofcorrectional facilities is vital. Issues such as overcrowding, bullying among residents,
abuse by staff and corruption can occur in any correctional system, causing human rights
violations and unjust and unfair treatment of residents inside the facility. Therefore, theCorrection Bureau has been keen to address these problems in various ways.
As for overcrowding, as a result of the decrease of the number of delinquent juveniles
discussed above, the number of delinquent juveniles committed to JTSs decreased bymore than half in two decades: from 4,989 in 1997 to 2,147 12 in 2017. 13 Other problems
related to the rehabilitative environments are discussed below.
A. Protection of Human Rights
In 2009, four instructors at the Hiroshima JTS were arrested over allegations that they
abused the residents of the facility, and they were dismissed due to misconduct. This
incident revealed that the human rights of residents in JTSs had not been fully protected,
leading to amendments of the Juvenile Training School Act, which was finally enacted in
2014. For the purpose of prevention of abuse by staff, the revised act aims to increasetransparency by the measures discussed below.
1. JTS Visiting Committee
For each JTS, the revised act established a “Juvenile Training School Visiting
Committee”, whose members include doctors and attorneys. The committee studies thecircumstances of the administration of the JTS by visiting JTSs, holding interviews withjuveniles reading letters from juveniles, and receiving explanations from the JTS. The
Visiting Committee gives its findings and recommendations to the governor. 14
2. Resident Complaint Procedure
Unlike prison, a process for handling residents’ complaints had not been implemented
in JTSs until recently. That is why, when the violation of human rights took place inHiroshima, the victims could not reveal the incident to anyone. In order to prevent such
incidents, the act established a process for seeking relief. A resident may file a complaint
with the Minister of Justice if the resident has a complaint with regard to the measuretaken by the governor of the JTS. The Minister of Justice then conducts an inquiry into
the matter and is required to notify the resident of the results. Upon the inquiry, if the
Minister of Justice finds that the measure taken was illegal or unjust, the measure can be
rescinded or modified.
JTS residents may also file complaints with the inspector who conducts the inspection
at least once a year and the governor of the JTS. The inspector or the governor must also
notify the resident of the results. The protection of confidentiality of complaints isrequired, and no staff member of the JTS may treat residents adversely for having filed a
12

Of the total number, the ratio of larceny offenders is 34.6 per cent (743) and that of bodily injury is 15.3
per cent (330). Except for penal code offences, 48 juveniles were committed to JTSs for using or
possessing stimulants.
13
White Paper on Crime 2018.
14“Connecting Tomorrow: Pamphlet of Juvenile Training School”, Correction Bureau, Ministry of Justice,Japan.

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complaint.
3. Proper Procedure Regarding Human Rights
Increasing transparency requires proper procedures regarding the restriction of aresident’s rights. Until the implementation of the revised act, most restrictions were left tothe discretion of the governor of the JTS, along with regulations of each JTS. In 2014, theprocedures on restriction of a resident’s rights were clearly stated in the revised act, suchas correspondence, visiting, use of retained articles and so forth.
One of the significant improvements is the procedure for disciplinary punishment. In
cases where a resident breaks the rules of the JTS, an investigation by instructors shall be
conducted. When the investigation is completed, the Treatment Review Board is held todecide whether it is necessary to punish the resident and, if so, what punishment isappropriate. There are two kinds of punishment: admonition by the governor andsuspension for up to 20 days. 15 The procedure is clearly stipulated in the revised act, andevery punishment is formally recorded in each resident’s file. The revised act guarantees
that a resident shall have the opportunity to convey his or her opinion to the Board, which
was not the case before.
B. Supportiveness and Safety
The rehabilitative environment of the JTS also includes a supportive and safe
atmosphere. Bullying, fighting or violence shall never be allowed in a correctional
facility, especially in one for juveniles. In JTSs, formulating a support group is effective
to maintain the rehabilitative environment.
The daily life of residents of a JTS is basically group based. The group-based lifestyle
helps residents develop interpersonal relationships, communication skills and other social
skills. For example, sharing a room and equipment inevitably means that the residents
need to cooperate with each other to keep the dormitory clean and comfortable, which is agood opportunity for the residents to learn social skills.
Another function of group living is to motivate residents to work on their educationand training in earnest. For example, since only residents of the first stage are assigned
important roles in their dormitories, such as being selected as a monthly leader, otherresidents respect them, learn how to contribute to the group and are determined to work
hard to get promoted. Rewards are also effective to cultivate motivation. The Juvenile
Training School Act contains articles about rewards, and every reward is formallyrecorded in each residents’ file. Residents are normally rewarded when they pass an
examination, obtain good grades on performance assessment or perform well in classes.
By being commended at the promotion ceremony in front of instructors and otherresidents, this motivates and improves the self-esteem of the residents.
Although residents live in a group, it should be noted that the residents are prohibitedfrom discussing their personal lives with each other for their own safety. In general, they
are prohibited from revealing their age, hometown and the crime they committed. These
concerns often distract their attention from rehabilitation and lead to the formation of
informal groups among the residents, which often results in bullying. In addition to safety,
15

According to the facts of or reasons for disciplinary offences or the degree of reflection, admonition by
managerial staff may be taken in lieu of disciplinary punishment.

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the restriction prevents them from contacting each other once they are released from thefacility because socializing with ex-residents could drag the juvenile back into adelinquent life.
C. Medical Care
Since proper health management of JTS residents is required, medical care isprovided for free by medical staff who work for the facility, and drugs are prescribed if
necessary. Based on a doctor’s decision, a resident can see a doctor or a dentist outside
the facility when escorted by staff. If constant medical care is necessary for a sick or
injured resident, the resident will be referred to a medical JTS.
V. JTS RESOURCES
There is no doubt that the lack of adequate capacity and resources deteriorates therehabilitative environments of correctional facilities. Thus, every JTS should be well
staffed, and living conditions should be reasonably comfortable. The following part ofthis section discusses the resources of JTSs, such as budget and staff, and also mentions
resources outside the facility.
A. Budget
1. Materials Supply
In order to make the life of residents comfortable, proper management of the facility
is essential. JTSs supply all the materials for the residents for free. Examples of suppliedmaterials are as follows:

clothes (school uniforms, training wear, pyjamas, underwear, socks, caps, shoes,
sandals);

stationary and school supplies (bags, notebooks, pencil cases, pencils, pens,textbooks, dictionaries);

toiletries (towels, soap, shampoo, toothpaste, toothbrushes, sanitary items).

All the materials for the residents should be reasonably clean and supplied fairly. At
the same time, it is possible for the residents to buy additional items if they can afford
them. They are given an opportunity to order goods at least once a month.
2. Meals
JTS staff cook and serve meals to residents three times a day, and they also servesnacks occasionally. The meals need to be not only nourishing but also moderately tasty
so that the meals delight the residents, which is very important at a custodial facility. 16
Vegetables grown at a farm in the facility by the residents as a part of the vocational
training curriculum are sometimes cooked and consumed there.
A Menu Meeting is held at least once a month with managerial staff of the facility to
discuss the menu, budget and food allergies of the residents. It is also required to conduct
16

An example of three meals at the Okinawa Juvenile Training School for Girls in November 2019: white
rice, miso soup, natto (fermented soybeans), and seasoned laver (seaweed) for breakfast; boiled pumpkin,meat-stuffed cabbage roll and milk for lunch; vegetable curry, salad, pickles and yogurt for dinner.

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a survey by asking residents to complete a questionnaire about the menu. On the other
hand, the residents are strictly prohibited from bringing food or beverage into the facility.
3. Facility
JTS residents usually live in a furnished shared room in a dormitory, and they also
share a living room, bathroom, toilet and appliances such as a washing machine and a
television. At daytime on weekdays, training and programmes are held in classrooms inseparate buildings or outside for farming and gardening. For exercise and physicalactivities, a playground, a gymnasium and a pool (only available at some JTSs) areprovided.
B. Staff
Most correctional officials who work for JTSs are officials called “instructors”. In
order to be employed, one needs to pass a specialized examination to become an
instructor. Once employed by a JTS, a broad range of training programmes is provided
according to their experiences and aptitudes. As explained above, JTS instructors work
closely with residents on a personal basis to help them through the rehabilitation process
and re-join society. Their work may be different from that of other countries because an
instructor’s duties can be described as a combination of multiple occupations such as acounsellor, a teacher and a guard.
It is also noteworthy that most of staff members 17 of JTSs are instructors, including
the governor and staff of the General Affairs Section. Consequently, even if an instructor
is not directly involved in education or treatment of residents, he/she contributes to therehabilitation from the viewpoint of an instructor. Some descriptions of their daily work
are as follows:
1. Dormitory Staff
Dormitory staff members are instructors assigned to a dormitory, and the staff
members work together as a team of each dormitory. It is assumed that most delinquentjuveniles have not been well cared for or educated at home or school. Therefore, in that
context, instructors play multiple roles as an older sibling, parent or teacher in order tomentor the residents. They advise the residents about healthy eating, teach them how toclean the dormitory and do laundry, exercise together, help them with reading and writing,and encourage them to read books.
The dormitory staff not only provides daytime guidance in the form of educationalclasses and treatment programmes but also works the night shift to provide evening
guidance from 5 to 9 pm and to patrol the facility at night. The patrol is necessary to
prevent escape from the facility, violation of regulations, fights among residents orbullying. In order to work in close cooperation, the dormitory staff members share
information about all the residents in the dormitory on a daily basis.
2. Individual Assigned Instructor
Individual assigned instructors are key players in the treatment of residents. Every
resident is allocated an individual assigned instructor, an instructor who takes charge ofthe resident, among the dormitory staff. The individual assigned instructor advises the17

Exceptions are medical staff and a psychologist who was originally employed at a JCH and temporarily
works for JTSs.

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resident on overall life in the facility by interviews and exchange of notes. Although it isdifficult for the instructor to build a relationship with the resident because many of them
have serious trust issues influenced by abusive experiences, building a close relationshipwith the resident is critical.
3. General Affairs Section Staff
An instructor not only works for the education and support section but also for the
General Affairs Section. Instructors assigned to the General Affairs Section are in chargeof administration, budget management, planning menus and preparing meals, maintaining
the facility including simple repairs, and supplying materials as explained above. They
also work on the night shift when necessary and even work as guards in emergencies.
C. Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships
The above section discussed the resources provided by the JTS. However, it is evident
that the JTS alone is not able to provide all required support for residents. This section
introduces private and public sector support for corrections and also an example of apartnership with the Okinawa JTS for Girls and existing community resources.
1. Close and Cooperative Relationships with the Public and Private Sectors
Since building bridges from a correctional facility to the community is required forsmooth reintegration into society, cooperation and coordination between institutional andcommunity corrections are essential. For this reason, conferences and meetings are
regularly held several times a year, and a case conference is held to strengthen support
after release. If a resident is planning to go back to school, cooperation with the school isalso necessary. JTSs regularly send reports about the progress of residents’ education to
the school.
In order to support residents’ employment, the local public employment agency works
closely with the JTS. A career counsellor of the agency visits the JTS to interview
residents or lecture about their courses after release. As a part of the private sector,
registered employers are cooperative resources that help residents find jobs. They
sometimes visit the facility to conduct job interviews so that the resident can obtain a job
before release. In some cases, they even provide a residence if the resident cannot livewith his/her family.
2. An Example of a Multi-Stakeholder Partnership
The last part of this section introduces an example of a multi-stakeholder partnershipof the Okinawa Juvenile Training School for Girls. JTSs work closely with existing
community resources and build robust partnerships with them.
In 2019, the Okinawa Juvenile Training School for Girls launched a new project
named “3Re-Smile”, 18 collaborating with multiple sectors of society. The Okinawa
Prefectural Government is aiming to cull (euthanize) fewer stray dogs and cats byencouraging their adoption. For that reason, it has begun outsourcing the training andmanagement of the adoption process to the Centre of Protection and Management of
Animals of Okinawa. The centre keeps abandoned dogs and cats and tries to find new18“3Re-Smile” means “Rehabilitation”, “Reward” and “Return”, and also refers to the three smiles of aresident, a dog and people in the community.

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owners for them before they are culled. Training the dogs is important to finding anowner in a short time.
The “3Re-Smile” project involves training dogs inside the JTS and finding an ownerfor the dog in collaboration with the centre. A resident of the Okinawa Juvenile Training
School for Girls spent nearly four months training a dog supported by a professional dog
trainer sent by the centre. At the same time, all the residents worked together to create aposter to find an owner for the dog. In order to publicize the project, the centre updated its
social networking site (Facebook) with photos of the training. Finally, a couple applied
for and became the owner of the dog.
Upon the closing ceremony of the project, the resident handed the lead of the dog tothe owner in tears, which showed the emotional development of the resident. Throughout
the project, including preparation beforehand, the Okinawa Juvenile Training School for
Girls succeeded in promoting partnerships with multiple sectors and public understanding
about rehabilitation in the facility.
VI. CONCLUSION
Although less restrictive sanctions or dispositions should be considered prior tocustodial measures, a correctional institution is responsible for effective rehabilitation as
the “last resort”. This paper introduced and discussed the system and functions ofcustodial measures for delinquent juveniles in Japan mainly from three perspectives: first,
JTSs run a broad range of educational curricula and treatment programmes based on anelaborate plan formulated for each of them; second, JTSs establish rehabilitativeenvironments for residents; third, JTSs make effective use of resources such as budget,
staff and multi-stakeholder agencies. Instructors support residents’ rehabilitation througha holistic approach. Through these key measures, the JTS system effectively supports
residents’ reintegration into society.

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