INTER-AGENCY COOPERATION: HOW CAN IT BEST ENHANCECOMPLIANCE WITH THE LAW?
Rob Canton＊

This paper will consider inter-agency work. The expression is commonly used, but perhaps it is notalways understood by everyone in quite the same way and this could lead to confusion, especially when
agencies actually attempt to work together. The advantages of working in this way will be discussed.
While ‘inter-agency work’ plainly implies some degree of cooperation, sometimes agencies seek to go
further than this and to create arrangements in which their work is integrated. There are differences inthe degree of integration that is sought and achieved and some working arrangements from the UK will
be set out as examples. In England and Wales, the aspiration of inter-agency work has transformed
probation’s understanding of its role, and probation now sees working in collaboration with other agencies
as essential to achieving its objectives — and some other agencies share the belief that their own responsibilities and remit can best be advanced in this way. Yet the policy commitment to inter-agency work has
been expressed for many years now and still there are signs that agencies have a limited appreciation ofeach other’s roles, skills and resources. They often communicate poorly and referrals among agencies do
not always achieve quite what was intended. In short, inter-agency work does not always achieve as muchas has been hoped and if we are to make progress we need to understand the difficulties as well as the advantages.
The paper will therefore go on to consider some of the complications and challenges involved in establishing inter-agency partnerships. A parallel will be drawn between inter-agency work and inter-national
work in Europe. It is widely agreed that some problems cannot be managed by countries working on theirown, but the ambition to work together is sometimes frustrated by misunderstandings, as well as by differences of culture, law, economic resources and political priorities. The paper will conclude with an attempt
to set out the strengths and weaknesses of inter-agency work, the opportunities it presents and the threats
to their achievement, before finally offering a few suggestions about what might be done to enable interagency arrangements to flourish and achieve their potential.

I. WHAT IS INTER-AGENCY WORK?
At its most simple, inter-agency involves two or more agencies deciding to work together in partnership. It originates in the recognition by these agencies (or by policy makers at a higher level) that they
have a common concern and / or that they are often working with the same people. It is possible that anagency may not even be aware that other agencies have the same concern so that they make their contribution without regard to the involvement of others. But most agencies now appreciate that (for example)
when the offender who is under probation supervision and the drug misuser who attends the clinic are thesame person, then some degree of collaboration and information exchange will help both agencies to dotheir work more efficiently and effectively. They may then discover that this same person is unemployed
and perhaps at risk of becoming homeless and at that point they may want to liaise with accommodation
and with employment agencies.
Complex problems, then, call for the expertise and resources of different agencies. In the particularcase of criminal justice, the offending-related needs of many offenders require a coordinated and complementary inter-disciplinary response. But how close a partnership ought this to be? A useful distinction canbe made between multi-agency work — which may be said to begin when several agencies become awarethat they share concerns and clients and begin to think about how to work together — and inter-agency
work which implies at least some degree of blending, mixing or fusing. We shall say more later about theselevels of cooperation and integration.
Professor in Community and Criminal Justice, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK.

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II. WHY WORK IN THIS WAY?
The advantages of agency cooperation are obvious. Different agencies have their own duties, their own
expertise and resources. The European Probation Rules put it this way:
Probation agencies shall work in partnership with other public or private organisations and local
communities to promote the social inclusion of offenders. Co-ordinated and complementary interagency and inter-disciplinary work is necessary to meet the often complex needs of offenders and toenhance community safety. (European Probation Rules 2010: Rule 12)
These Rules affirm social inclusion as a guiding principle of probation practice. If the social inclusion of
offenders is to be achieved, probation must work in close cooperation with a wide range of other agencies.
Organisations, for instance accommodation and employment agencies or services for drug users, have aduty to provide services to all eligible clients and may need the guidance of probation to help them makesure that their services are readily and fairly accessible to offenders.
Let us look more closely at these ‘complex needs’. Many factors have been thought to influence thechances of people offending. These are set out in the table below, where the right hand column identifies
some of the agencies that may be able to make a contribution to influencing these factors.
Individual / psychological / health factors

Psychologists, doctors, teachers

FamilyCounsellors, social workers, child guidance, parenting guidanceSocio-economic

Financial support and advice, housing providers, employment
agencies

Peers and associates

Youth workers, police, community workers

SchoolSchool, education welfare staff

Neighbourhood

Local authorities, planning, housing agencies

A UK Government report in 2002 (Social Exclusion Unit 2002) drew attention to the number of offencesthat are committed by people leaving prison. It emphasised that in England and Wales prisoners are verysocially disadvantaged. The report identified a particular set of social influences on offending that areplainly linked with chances of reoffending or, if changed for the better, may support someone in developing
a way of living in which offending has no place. These are:⿟⿟ accommodation
⿟⿟ education, training and employment;⿟⿟ health⿟⿟ drugs and alcohol⿟⿟ finance, benefits and debt
⿟⿟ children and families
⿟⿟ attitudes, thinking and behaviour
Other countries may well recognise the factors listed here, even if they might want to add or subtract
one or two of them. The similarities between these factors and those set out in the table are also to be
noted. In the same way, these influences seem to call for an inter-agency response. A point to emphasise isthat while it is possible to set out needs separately in a list, in the lives of individuals they are not experienced in this way. Problems and needs interact and many difficulties (for example, drug misuse) makeother problems (for example, offending) even worse. Just as needs are experienced in this way,
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agencies need to take account of their interactions in their response.
It is also to be noted that most of the agencies identified are not agencies of criminal justice. A very
basic question is: which agency or agencies has a responsibility to try to reduce crime? In the UK, and I
suspect in many other countries as well, the first reaction is to think of the agencies of criminal justice —the police, the courts, the prosecutor’s office, the prison and probation services — but as we have just seen
many other agencies have a role here too. Theories of crime prevention (crime reduction is a better term)
sometimes distinguishes between situational and social crime reduction. Situational crime reduction looks
at how and where crimes take place and tries to block opportunities, by security devices or increasing surveillance — either ‘natural’ surveillance or CCTV. For example, the architecture and design of houses andshops, the lighting and layout of streets, transport routes can all make a difference to patterns of theft andassault. Product design is also very important here. Whenever a new product is being designed now, themanufacturers are being encouraged to think about how to guard against it being stolen or about the ways
in which it might be misused for criminal purposes. For instance, cars are much more difficult to steal
than they were 10 years ago. New technologies change opportunities for crimes and designers should also
be trying to anticipate crime opportunities and to block them. ‘Social’ crime prevention is what most of
this paper has been discussing so far. This recognises that educational, employment, accommodation,
health and other social provision, especially when directed towards those most likely to offend, can make adecisive difference.
What type of agency cooperation is needed to work on crime reduction may depend on whether this isapproached through situational or social measures. For example, the police know a great deal about how
and where crimes take place and so do shopkeepers, who may be victims of thefts. They need to work
together and with security experts and product designers. But if the emphasis is on social prevention, avery different team is needed. Our concern here is mostly with social rather than situational crime
reduction, but among the first and most important matters to note is that which agencies are to work
together and how depends, first of all, on the concern they are attempting to address and how the
problem is understood. And these are policy decisions.
Some of the areas that seem to need a collective response of some kind include:⿟⿟ General crime prevention
⿟⿟ Violence in the home⿟⿟ Keeping children safe⿟⿟ Drug misuse⿟⿟ Mental health
These are some of the biggest crime problems that almost all modern societies have to confront andare at the centre of criminal justice work. Rather than being something exceptional, therefore, inter-agency
work has come to be seen as the best way of trying to address these problems.
It may be of interest that some European countries report that when, in the spirit of the European
Rules just cited, probation agencies approach other organisations, the first response they often receive isthat these other agencies say they have no legal obligation or authority to work in this way: it is not their
job to work with ‘the clients of probation’. But they soon come to see that some of their most problematicclients or, just as importantly, some of the neediest people they have a duty to help but whom they arefinding it hard to reach are under probation supervision. Sometimes the initiative is taken by these otheragencies. For example, in one country where I have undertaken some work, concerns about violence in thehome, usually against women and / or children, were first identified by social services and welfare agencies
who approached probation and police in the belief that this needed a collective response. Gradually, then,other agencies are becoming aware that probation has a contribution to make to their work in some areasthat are the concern of all.

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III. DEGREES OF INTEGRATION
Once agencies have recognised a need to work in collaboration, the next question is what form thispartnership ought to take. Let us consider someone who is leaving prison with nowhere to live — very
common in UK — or perhaps leaving a halfway house to find independent accommodation. Perhaps he also
has a history of drug misuse and his unsettled lifestyle has made it difficult for him to persuade an
employer that he should be given a job. There will be a need in such circumstances for some degree ofliaison between the agencies with the skills and resources to support him in his efforts at desistance. In
order for all these agencies to do their work properly, they will need to liaise.
At a simple level of multi-agency cooperation, it may be sufficient to set in place agreements about
exchange of information; about referral — about how and when a probation worker should approach andseek to involve other agencies. For example, if a probation worker is aware that someone is at risk ofmisusing drugs, how are they to access the right kind of support for the client? Bilateral service levelagreements might be negotiated between senior managers to make sure that the agencies are working
well together, that there is a shared understanding of what each agency can expect of the other(s), aboutmechanisms of referral, about payments and so on. Each agency retains its own identity and may not needa great deal of detailed knowledge about how the other agency operates. In principle, this degree of integration ought not to pose too many problems and indeed the partners will be helping each other to fulfil
their duties. In the case of the accommodation agency, the probation service is helping the agency to fulfil
its responsibilities by putting them in touch with very needy people whom they should be keen to serve.
Yet even at this level cooperation has sometimes been frustrating. There have been any numbers ofgovernment reports and inquiries in the UK that suggest misunderstandings between individuals and organisations, that communication has been poor and that agencies do not call on one another’s services appropriately. Problems also arise when one agency feels that the other is not practising as it should — forexample it may be failing to provide its services in a way that can be accessed by some of its potential
clients — and challenges it to review and maybe to change its practises. For instance, some agencies do
not give former prisoners fair opportunities or reasonable access to their services and need to think about
how to do this.
It is easy to see how negotiations like these could develop in a direction towards inter-agency work.
Rather than seeing just two options (multi- or inter-agency), it has been suggested that these are better
seen as ends of a continuum and that there are other models that sit somewhere in between.
⿟⿟ The communication model — where agencies recognise that they have a role to play in relation
to each other, but do not go beyond communication. The communication may be one-way or
two-way, and may involve full or partial disclosure of information.
⿟⿟ The cooperation model — where agencies maintain separate boundaries and identities, but
agree to work on a mutually defined problem. This may involve joint action, or it may involve one
agency (or more) consenting to another taking the initiative to act.
⿟⿟ The coordination model — agencies work together in a systematic way; there are defined
agency boundaries but agencies may pool resources to tackle mutually agreed problems.
⿟⿟ The federation model — in this model agencies retain their organisational distinctiveness but
also share some central focus. The agencies operate integrated services.
⿟⿟ The merger model — in this model agencies become indistinguishable from one another inworking on a mutually defined problem and they form a collective resource pool. (Liddle andGelsthorpe 1994)

IV. SOME EXAMPLES FROM THE UK
Here are some examples from England of agencies working together.

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A. Multi-Agency Public Protection Arrangements (MAPPA)
These are inter-agency arrangements designed to manage offenders who may cause serious harm toothers. Many of these are people who have served their prison term and are now in the community. The
principal agencies involved are police and probation, but prison staff (sharing their knowledge of offenders
from the time when they were in prison), psychologists, social workers (child protection), housing department (area of residence) and sometimes others may also be involved. They agree that that their sharedobjective is to work out how best to protect the community from the offender’s risks. But they may notalways agree about how this is best to be achieved and may make assumptions about what other agencies
are contributing. A central part of the process, therefore, is the MAPPA meeting where these different
personnel meet together to devise a protection plan, discuss and monitor its implementation. This includes
negotiating any disagreements and clarifying any potential misunderstandings. Between meetings, they
will often need to communicate by phone and email. They remain working as staff in their respective
agencies, where they are regarded as holding a specialist role.
This is very different from the general strategic inter-agency work discussed earlier in relation tocrime reduction. MAPPA is normally concerned with the management of particular cases rather thanwith a general policy or strategy. On the other hand, attention to individual cases will sometimes callattention to difficulties that require a change in general policy, (the distinction between policy andpractice is not always easy to discern), so this too must be reviewed periodically.
These staff have had to learn to work together and it has usually taken time to build understanding
and confidence. But MAPPA is widely believed to be successful and the model of working in this way has
been extended to other groups. There are now in England Prolific and Persistent Offender Projects where
police and probation staff work very closely together to manage the most persistent offenders — not manyof them especially serious offenders (and therefore not suitable for the intensive and expensive MAPPA
scheme). There are also Integrated Offender Management schemes in many areas, again involving both
police and probation (Home Office / Ministry of Justice 2015). In terms of the models set out earlier, this is
more than just multi-agency communication or cooperation and is moving closer to inter-agency coordination, where agencies work together in a systematic way: there are defined agency boundaries but agencies
may pool resources to tackle mutually agreed problems.
B. Youth Offending Teams
The greatest step towards agency integration in England has been Youth Offending Teams (YOTs).
The move towards this was prompted by the recognition that the behaviour of young people is a responsibility of services including but well beyond the criminal justice system. Many links are obvious — forexample, not going to school can lead to crime; drug use is associated with health risks and problems. In
1998, to response to this, Youth Offending Teams were established. These Teams have their own offices
where staff, seconded from several agencies, go to work — police, social work, probation, health andeducation services. Staff will often say that they are YOT workers, rather than (say) police officers orsocial workers.
Does this mean that a new agency has been created? If so, how does it relate to all the others? Thereseem to be two opposite risks to be avoided here. On the one hand, unless the team develops its own
working objectives and ethos, it will not have achieved the full integration intended. On the other
hand, if it does establish this separate identity, it may have become just another agency which must
now find ways of working with all the others. In some places, YOTs have started to recruit their own
staff, many of them minimally qualified and inexperienced, leading to a lack of professional identity andwithout any connection with the ‘parent’ organisation. This undermines the original policy ambition tocombine specialist expertise, with the range of different skills and perspectives that different organisations
represent. As Liddle and Gelsthorpe (1994) put it “internal factors can ... lead to a separation of individual
representatives from their own agencies, and to a perception that particular representatives are not‘bringing their agencies with them’ to the work.”

V. PROBATION AND INTER-AGENCY WORKThe move towards increasing inter-agency cooperation has fitted well with other policy initiatives inprobation in the UK. Twenty-five years ago, the UK government said, ‘Probation officers must see them84

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selves less as exclusive providers of services and facilities, and more as managers of supervision programmes’ (Home Office 1990). Given the wide range of social needs associated with offending and with desistance, it made sense for probation to work with other agencies of civil society. There are other organisations whose task it is to help people who are homeless, help them to find accommodation, offer drug
treatment and so on. Rather than try to create these services within the probation agency, it would bebetter for probation to work in partnership with these other organisations to make sure that offenders
have fair and reasonable access to their service in just the same way as other citizens.
As well as seeking to consolidate cooperation with established agencies, however, this initiative led tothe emergence of a variety of voluntary independent agencies (NGOs). For example, instead of offeringcounselling to a drug user, probation staff were now expected to refer them to a drug agency. These
trends were not universally welcomed. Some probation staff were doubtful about the quality of service
provided by others and highly suspicious that the partnership enterprise might undermine their job
security. Probation officers were keen to guard what they regarded as their ‘professional autonomy’. There
were accordingly differences in the quality of partnership activity between areas in different parts of thecountry. “Moreover, the inexperience of senior managers in developing and supporting contracted services
contributed to early difficulties in resolving tensions between practitioners at ground level.” (Rumgay 2007).
As time went by, however, levels of mutual confidence and trust increased.
“Confidence in its ability to protect its boundaries, recognition that voluntary sector workers had
little interest in taking over core Probation Service responsibilities and a diminution of central
interest in this particular variety of partnership were perhaps strong factors in a relaxation ofprobation officers’ preoccupation with this threat to their autonomy during the later 1990s.” (Rumgay
2007)
Here, perhaps, is another important general message about inter-agency work. It can take time todevelop. People need to come to understand and trust each other and this is best achieved by actual experience of discovering each other’s skills and reliability in working with particular cases. It cannot just be
made to happen by the instruction of senior management.
Inter-agency work, then, is one of the origins of the idea of offender management. This has given its
name to modern English probation — which is part of a National Offender Management Service. The
probation officer is now called the offender manager and coordinates the involvement of other specialist
agencies, including making referrals and checking with them that any work they undertake with individual
offenders is proceeding as it should. The offender manager, in relation to a particular case, can be seen as
a leader of a team involved in a collective endeavour. This too is a most important point. If many workers
are involved, there is a risk that a collective responsibility will end up being the responsibility of
no one at all. A key worker or case manager holds final responsibility, even though they do notundertake all the tasks personally. This is yet another model of inter-agency work. Here it is not always
necessary for every agency to be concerned with the involvement of every other. Rather than the image ofthe jigsaw on the slide, a better image may be of a wheel — the different agencies being the spokes andthe offender manager the hub of the wheel.
This offender manager / probation officer also offers a consistent figure for the individual offender. A
professional relationship is central to the success of this way of working 1. The offender manager /probation officer is best placed to hold that role in the UK, although of course other arrangements apply inother countries. This person is also responsible for enforcement — making sure that the individual does
what is expected of them and responding to non-compliance. Thus, if an individual is required to undertake
drug treatment but does not cooperate, the drugs agency will report this to the probation officer who will
1 A strong relationship with the professional probation officer — or as often in Japan a volunteer probation officer — isneeded to help the offender to make sense and to benefit some of these interventions and opportunities. And researchsuggests that a relationship — based on trust and mutual respect — is every bit as important as the particular treatment
method adopted. A recurring finding from research is that no method or intervention is any more effective than the rest;
rather it is common aspects of each intervention that bring about change — for example, warmth, respect, genuine concern,
patience and avoiding negative judgement. Relationship skills are at least as critical in reducing reoffending as programme
content. And ex-offenders are much more likely to recall the influence of a person than of a programme.

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take appropriate action. In this respect too, the professional relationship is critical. It is believed that people
are much more likely to comply when they trust the person with whom they are working, recognising thelegitimacy of the requirements expected of them and aware that this is a professional who has a genuine
concern for them.

VI. SOME COMPLICATIONS AND CHALLENGES
Since there has been such a long-standing commitment to inter-agency work and no one really opposes
it, it is worth asking why this agenda has not made even more progress and continues to pose challenges
and complications — at least in the UK. Some of the reasons for this include:⿟⿟ agencies have different responsibilities and priorities;
⿟⿟ there are differences in power and influence — some agencies can ‘set the agenda’ much more
readily than others;⿟⿟ some organisations send their most senior staff to inter-agency meetings while others send morejunior representatives — this ought to depend on the purpose of the meeting, but at a policy level
the representative must be seen as credible and someone with the status and authority to commit
their agency to any agreement;⿟⿟ staff have different professional backgrounds and training — this is a strength, of course, but it
can also lead to misunderstandings and, at worst, even to professional rivalries;⿟⿟ senior managers set targets or key performance indicators for their own agencies and these may
take precedence over the targets negotiated among different organisations; the targets and priorities of different agencies are likely to be different and they may not fit together easily; internal
imperatives and priorities can hinder sensible cooperation;
⿟⿟ the involvement of too many people can make for difficult committee meetings and excessively
complex working arrangements;
⿟⿟ while inter-agency work should help everybody to work more efficiently and effectively, it can takea lot of resources to make it work; smaller agencies may struggle to find capacity to contribute asmuch as they would like and to attend all the meetings;
⿟⿟ agencies may have different ideas about what exactly the problem is that needs to beaddressed collectively and what would count as a solution to it ;⿟⿟ sometimes arrangements are agreed at a senior management or policy-making level, as we haveseen, but do not work so well at the level of practice⿟⿟ on the other hand, practitioners may have mutual confidence and understanding, but are nothelped by differences at the level of policy and targets or are let down by uncertain agreements
among the organisations involved. (Pycroft and Gough 2010)

VII. INTERNATIONAL WORKThe next part of this paper may seem like a sharp change of direction, but I hope that its relevance
will soon become clear. The European Probation Rules were mentioned earlier and a bit more needs to besaid about these. This is a map of Europe with the 47 member states of the Council. You will see that thisis much larger than the European Union and includes many countries outside the EU — for example, theRussian Federation, Turkey, Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan.
It is Europe’s oldest political organisation (1949). The EU is first and foremost an economic union. The
Council represents a European commitment to human rights.

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Starting with the European Convention on Human Rights, the Council sets
standards in many areas and especially inthe area of criminal law and punishment.
It inspects practice (notably the Committee
for the Prevention of Torture) and alsoenables cooperation and development.
Europe is increasingly aware that its
several nations face many common crime
problems. For example:
⿟⿟ International crime⿟⿟ Drug trafficking
⿟⿟ Human trafficking
peoples⿟⿟ Immigration and movement of⿟⿟ Most prisons in Europe hold very large numbers of people from other countries
⿟⿟ Transfers are often appropriate
None of these problems can sensibly be addressed just at the level of the nation state, and the need totry to manage them through international cooperation is obvious. Perhaps the parallels with inter-agency
work within a single country are already becoming apparent. While all countries believe that they must
work together, they immediately encounter the challenge that they have:⿟⿟ Different legal systems
⿟⿟ Different agency arrangements
⿟⿟ Different histories, cultures, attitudes towards law enforcement⿟⿟ Various economic / political pressures⿟⿟ Differences in prison conditions and overcrowding (which complicates transfer)
Perhaps the reason for introducing this topic into a presentation on inter-agency work is now clear. All
are agreed on cooperation, but the way in which this is to be achieved is not at all straightforward.

VIII. STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS (SWOT)
OF INTER-AGENCY WORK
A. Strengths
⿟⿟ Complex problems need the expertise and resources of different agencies
⿟⿟ It makes no sense for agencies to duplicate the services that are offered by other experts and specialists
⿟⿟ The whole can be greater than the sum of the parts
⿟⿟ A collective endeavour is potentially much more efficient and effective

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⿟⿟ There are some examples of inter-agency cooperation working well, notably MAPPA, andcertainly other countries would have examples to offer
B. Weaknesses
⿟⿟ Disagreement about priorities
⿟⿟ Communication is not always effective
⿟⿟ Referral to other agencies is important, but just giving individuals the address of the other agency
and telling them to go there is unlikely to be effective; probation has no control over the quality ofservice offenders then experience⿟⿟ Lack of clarity about aims and objectives
⿟⿟ Disputes about roles and responsibilities⿟⿟ Misunderstandings about other agencies
⿟⿟ Evidence of effectiveness is quite weak⿟⿟ Shared responsibility can lead to a lack of coordination and a reluctance to take lead responsibility
⿟⿟ Confusion for service users
⿟⿟ Needs trust — and can take time and resources to build this up
⿟⿟ Sometimes works well at practice level, but not at management level⿟⿟ Sometimes the other way round
C. Opportunities
⿟⿟ For a community to be responsible for responding to crimes⿟⿟ Mutual respect and understanding⿟⿟ Communication
⿟⿟ Organisation
⿟⿟ Joint training⿟⿟ Joint targets / key performance indicators
D. Threats⿟⿟ “Partnership has itself become an industry, spawning an expanding population of consultationgroups, steering committees, working parties and inspectorates designed, perhaps unintentionally,
to have the effect of perpetuating the process rather than producing the outcomes of multi-agency
collaboration.” (Rumgay 2007)
⿟⿟ Markets and private sector involvement can turn partners into competitors
⿟⿟ Partnership initiatives come to be valued only for their effectiveness in crime prevention

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IX. EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT INTER-AGENCY PRACTICE
Some of the reasons why inter-agency arrangements do not always function as hoped are well summarised by Judith Rumgay:
The complexities of delivering effective inter-agency work include issues in establishing appropriate
and committed leadership, achieving clarity of aims, objectives and professional roles, and determining action plans and evaluative measures. None of these requirements are easily met and the historyof many inter-agency working relationships have been troubled by conflicts, often rooted inignorance of other agencies’ priorities and constraints, professional perspectives and resources.’(Rumgay 2007)
Not easy indeed, but certainly achievable. Among the factors that can contribute to sound inter-agency
work are:⿟⿟ Establishing agreement about overall aims
⿟⿟ Acknowledging the legitimacy of other points of view, especially other conceptions of what
the problem is and what a solution would be like⿟⿟ Being willing to subsume agency loyalty to a partnership identity
⿟⿟ Being aware of the risk of inter-agency or inter-professional rivalries
⿟⿟ Retaining strong connections with parent agency even as you work towards a shared ethos
⿟⿟ Agreeing clear guidelines regarding accountability and what might be realistically expected fromeach participating agency
⿟⿟ Ensuring full and regular communication. (Liddle and Gelsthorpe 1994). In some (especially verylarge) organisations, internal communication is already difficult. Even when different divisions or
departments are engaged in the same business for the same employing agency, there will
sometimes be misunderstandings and miscommunication. Communication between different
agencies will always be challenging and must be worked at patiently and continuallyInter-agency work is not a single and static arrangement. There are different ways of establishing interagency work and the configuration of agencies and the structures needed to support their work will
depend on the areas of practice in which they are seeking to cooperate. As the work progresses, there will
be a need to consider whether the lines of accountability and the supporting management systems are fit
for their task. The aspiration of inter-agency work is compelling and is surely right in its principles, but as
we have seen it is not easy to achieve and needs strong leadership — including leaders with the good
sense and humility to learn from the experience of practitioners — mutual respect and trust between
agencies, resources and time.
References
European Probation Rules (2010) — <https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1575813>.
Home Office (1990) Supervision and Punishment in the Community: A Framework for Action, Cm 966.
London: HMSO.
Home Office / Ministry of Justice (2015) Integrated Offender Management: Key Principles <http://tinyurl.
com/h432r79>.
Liddle, M. and Gelsthorpe, L. (1994) Crime Prevention and Inter-Agency Co-Operation, London: Home
Office.
Pycroft, A. and Gough, D. (2010) Multi-agency working in criminal justice: Control and care in contempo89

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rary correctional practice, Bristol: Policy Press.
Rumgay, J. (2007) ‘Partnerships in probation’ in in Loraine Gelsthorpe and Rod Morgan (eds.) Handbook ofProbation, Cullompton: Willan Publishing.
Social Exclusion Unit (2002) Reducing re-offending by ex-prisoners, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister –available online at <http://tinyurl.com/lpthfwr>.

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