An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s
Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban
Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town
Initiative in Huddersfield ⑴ － Methodology －ADACHI Yoshimichi
Abstract   This paper, focusing only on methodology, is placed in the first one in the series of papers.
Therefore, the continued articles would be read in sequential issues of Yamanashi Global Studies.
There has been little empirical and theoretical research which has focused on ‘knowledge’ and‘knowledge creation’ in the context of strategy-making for urban regeneration in the UK, where publicprivate partnerships are widespread. In an attempt to contribute to filling this gap, a series of papers,
which start from this paper, aim to examine the applicability of Nonaka’s theory of organizational
knowledge creation to the empirical context of urban regeneration in the UK, using Creative Town
Initiative in Huddersfield as a case study site. In so doing, in this paper the methodological approach
adopted in this whole research is only discussed. This discussion heavily draws upon Yin’s (2003)
work on case study methodology. The examination suggested it was appropriate to select a case study
method in order to address the research question.
key words: Methodology, Case Study, Knowledge, Nonaka’s SECI model

1 . Introduction

paper the methodological approach adopted

This paper, focusing only on methodology, isin this whole research is only discussed. This

placed in the first one in the series of papers.

discussion heavily draws upon Yin’s (2003)

Therefore, the continued articles would bework on case study methodology.

read in sequential issues of Yamanashi Global
Studies. There has been little empirical and

2 . Research methodology

theoretical research which has focused on

2 . 1 The research theme and approach‘knowledge’ and ‘knowledge creation’ in

The methodology is designed to examine thethe context of strategy-making for urban

hypothesis, which is shown as follows:

regeneration in the UK, where publicprivate partnerships are widespread. In an

Nonaka’s theory of organizational knowledge

attempt to contribute to filling this gap,

creation can be applied to organizations engaged

a series of papers, which start from thisin policy-making, planning & management for

paper, aims to examine the applicability ofurban regeneration in the UK in practice.

Nonaka’s theory of organizational knowledge
creation to the empirical context of urban

In the previous papers argued by the author,

regeneration in the UK. In so doing, in thisthe applicability of Nonaka’s theory in the

山梨県立大学

国際政策学部

総合政策学科

Department of Glocal Policy Administration, Faculty of Glocal Policy Management and Communications,
Yamanashi Prefectural University― 59 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.10（2015）

theoretical context of urban regeneration was

study approach in this research. Firstly,

examined by using two sets of urban planning

Nonaka’s theory is concerned chiefly with thetheories instead of urban regeneration

mechanism or processes of how knowledge

literature.

1）

In this whole research, the focus

is created in a team or an organization andof the examination is on the empirical, not thetherefore this empirical research inevitably

theoretical, context of urban regeneration.

has to focus on the how-form questionin the strategy-making process in urban

There are a number of ways of carryingout social science research.

2）

regeneration. Secondly, it is very apparent

Yin (2003)

that unlike experimentation, strategy-making

provides three sets of criteria or conditions

processes in urban regeneration cannot

when selecting the most appropriate social

be controlled by a researcher. Thirdly, thescience research method; namely, (1) the

focus of research is on a contemporary urban

type of research question, (2) whether orregeneration issue that is embedded within

not an investigator has control over actual

certain real-life contexts. Given this, it wasbehavioural events, and (3) whether the focus

deemed appropriate to select a case study

3）

method in order to address this researchis on contemporary or historical phenomena.

Table1 shows relationships between types

question.

of social science research methods and their
As most social science textbooks on research

relevant situations.

methods seem to fail to consider the use of the
The author has taken the view that the case

case study as a formal or scientific researchstudy method is suitable (1) when how andmethod, therefore, few researchers define thewhy questions are being posed (this is because

case study as a particular method (see e.g.

such questions deal with operational links

Kidder & Judd, 1986; Nachmian & Nachmian,needing to be traced over time, rather than

1992; Sato, 1999; May, 2001).4）The case study

mere frequencies or incidence), (2) whenis defined by an interest in individual cases

the researcher has little control over events,and less by the methods of inquiry used (seeand (3) when the focus is on a contemporary

Stake, 1994, p236). There is, however, an

phenomenon within a real-life context. Yin’s

exception, to this trend. Yin (2003) regards

three sets of criteria strongly support a case

case study research as a social science research

Table1: Relationships between types of social science research and their relevant situations(Source: COSMOS Corporation, cited from Yin, 2003)
Method (Strategy)

Form of researchquestion

Requires control of
behavioural events?

Focuses on contemporary
eventsExperimenthow, why?

Yes

Yes

Surveywho, what, where, howmany, how much?

No

Yes

Archival analysis

who, what, where, howmany, how much?

No

Yes/NoHistory

how, why?

No

No

Case Study

how, why?

No

Yes― 60 ―

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield⑴ －Methodology－

method that provides a sequential logic fromsingle case study or multiple cases will beresearch design to research methods. This

conducted. Yin (2003) presents four types ofauthor defines a case study as an empiricalcase study designs, based on a four-fold matrix

inquiry that:(see Figure1).5）

●

●

●

●

investigates a contemporary phenomenon

Yin also claims that the single case can be usedwithin its real-life context (cf. History);

to determine whether a theory’s propositions

is concerned with situations which cannot

that are being examined (tested) are correct on

separate a phenomenon from its context

the basis of the empirical evidence established(cf. an experiment that focuses attention

by the research or whether alternative sets of

only on a few variables);

explanations might be more relevant. Anotheris a comprehensive research method thatrationale for the single case, according to therelies on multiple sources of evidence

author, includes an extreme or unique case. As(which may include both qualitative andmentioned earlier, the aim of this research isquantitative evidence); andto examine the applicability of the theoreticaluses a number of approaches depending

propositions of Nonaka’s theory to the urban

on the research purpose (these include

regeneration context. The strategy planning

explanatory or casual case studies,practice for urban regeneration that focuses

descriptive case studies and exploratory

on knowledge creation seems rare and unique.

case studies) (Yin, 2003, p12-14).

Given the focus of the proposed research, it
was deemed appropriate to take a single case

The case study is, in other words, a way ofholistic approach.

investigating an empirical topic that relies on
multiple sources of evidence acquired throughHaving defined the type of case study as

both quantitative and qualitative methods toa single case holistic design and based oncope with a distinctive context in which there

examination of knowledge activities in bothare far more areas of interest than quantitative

the contexts of urban planning and knowledge

research can identify. The empirical research

management discussed in previous papers,6）

presented here follows this definition of thethe criteria to select a case in this researchcase study.

were set up as follows;

2 . 2 Research design of the case study●

The extent that knowledge-creation,

Selection of a type of case study

rather than knowledge-diffusion would

In designing an empirical research programme,

be generated in a strategy-policy making

a decision has to be made as to whether aprocess in urban regeneration.

Single-case designs

Multi-case designs

Holistic (single-unit of analysis)

Type1

Type3

Embedded (multiple-units of analysis)

Type 2Type4Figure1: Basic types of design for case studies (Source: Yin, 2003)― 61 ―

山梨国際研究●山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.10（2015）

The extent that some measure of successthe time and space boundaries of the researchof employment creation is achieved(see Yin, 2003). Although the research focuses(indicative of its capability to createon the process of the CTI proposal, taking

knowledge)

into account that organizational knowledge
creation is not an event, but sequential events

Based on the above criteria and from a

in a group(s) or organization(s), which take apractical standpoint, the Creative Town

historical, temporal perspective, it was decided

Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfield in the UK was

to look at both pre and post events of the CTI

considered to offer the required scope.

proposal. In this context, the time boundary
was defined as the period from the origin

The Creative Town Initiative as a case study siteof CTI to after its implementation, with the

The Creative Town Initiative (CTI) in

focus on proposal-making of CTI. In relation

Huddersfield is, as its name suggests,

to the time boundary, the space boundary wascharacterised by its emphasis on citizen’s

defined as people and organizations engaged

7）

as a method of addressing urban

in from pre- to post events of CTI, again

problems (CTI (KMC), 1996). The premise of

focusing on the proposal-making of CTI in

creativityst

CTI is that ‘as we approach the 21 century,

Huddersfield.

there is a widespread understanding that it
will be the creativity and innovativeness of

2 . 3 Methods of data collection

our towns and cities that will determine their

One of the methods of collecting data is to

future success’ (KMC, 1996, p3). Creativity

follow the theoretical propositions that enable

and knowledge-creation are similar concepts;

a researcher to have a certain direction in

CTI obviously focuses on knowledge-

collecting data. The integrated framework ofcreation rather than knowledge-diffusion. By

the TEAM linguistic structure and Nonaka’s

proclaiming the importance of the innovative

five-phase model of organizational knowledge

approach to urban regeneration in its proposal,

creation provided the case study’s theoretical

CTI was chosen as one of the winners of a

propositions, which incorporates the four

competition held by the European Commission

modes of knowledge conversion, including theand awarded 3 million ECU (see CTI, 2002).

socialization, externalization, combination andBy conducting the project, CTI created 168

internalization modes. (see Figure 2).8）

new jobs while safeguarding an existing 396(see CTI, 2002). Moreover, it was estimated

The five conditions including organizationalthat under this scheme 6,476 people received

intention, autonomy, fluctuation / creativesome form of training or special educational

chaos, information redundancy and requisite

experience, ranging from classes in creative

variety, which Nonaka assumes facilitate

thinking through to advanced qualifications.

organizational knowledge creation,9）were also

67 new businesses started up (see CTI, 2002).

regarded as the theoretical prepositions to be

Given this, it was deemed appropriate to selectfollowed during data collection for the case

CTI as a case study site.

study (see Table2).

The unit of analysis may be defined in terms ofCompared with other methods of data

― 62 ―

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield⑴ －Methodology－

Phase3: Justifying concepts

Explicitness(Externality)

Phase4: Building an archetype
Combination mode
(Systemic knowledge)

Phase2: Creating concepts
Externalization mode
(Conceptual knowledge)

Identity(Space)Difference(Time)

Phase5: Cross-leveling of knowledge Phase1: Sharing tacit knowledge
Socialization mode
Internalization mode
(Sympathized knowledge)(Operational knowledge)

Implicitness(Internality)

Figure2: Integrated framework of the TEAM linguistic structure andNonaka’s five-phase model (Source: Author)

Table2: Nonaka’s five organizational conditions(Source: Made by Author based on Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995))
Five conditions for knowledge creation

Meanings (related notions)

Organizational intention

An organization’s aspiration to its goal (e.g. Strategy,
knowledge vision & justification criteria)

Individual and group autonomy

Autonomy at the individual and group levels, which provides
individuals with the chance of introducing unexpected
opportunities and a group with greater flexibility (e.g. Selfmotivation & self-organizing teams)

Fluctuation / creative chaos

A chance that is hard to predict, which provides organizational
members with opportunities to reconsider their basic mindsets
and to provide a sense of crisis (e.g. ‘Breakdown’ of routines,
habits, or cognitive frameworks)

Informational redundancy

The existence of information that goes beyond the immediate
operational requirements of organizational members (e.g.
Intentional overlapping of information & loosely-connectedindividuals)

Requisite variety

A minimum in terms of organizational integration andat the same time a maximum for effective adaptation toenvironmental change (e.g. Internal diversity & a minimum fororganizational integration)― 63 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.10（2015）

collection such as experiments, surveys or

are derived from the case study propositions

histories, one of the strengths of case study

in order to corroborate certain facts. Semi-

research in collecting data is the use ofstructured interview is conducted in such a way

multiple sources of evidence, which includes

as to provide the interviewee with latitude

documents, archival records, interviews,

in order to provide information that may notdirect observation, participant-observation

have been anticipated by the interviewer,

and physical artefacts. The use of multiple

potentially enriching interpretative analysis.

sources of evidence in the data collection

This technique provides qualitative depth byprocess has at least two advantages. Firstly,

allowing interviewees to talk about the subject

it enables a researcher to address a broader

within their own framework (May, 2001).

range of historical, attitudinal, behaviouraland organizational issues (Yin, 2003), which

In this research, interviewees include key

have to be dealt with in the type of empiricalrepresentatives of CTI. Every interview

research presented here. Secondly, this cancannot be considered of equal value to theprovide multiple evidence or measures of theresearch because key interviewees are often

same phenomenon (Yin, 2003). In other words,

critical to the success of case study researchwhen the events or facts of the case study(Yin, 2003). 11） It, however, should be noted

have been supported by multiple sources ofthat to avoid over-dependence on key

evidence, then any findings or conclusions

interviewees, case studies should use otherare likely to be much more convincing andsources of evidence which can corroborate

10）

the data collected from the key interviewees.

Given this, the empirical research presented

Although basic questions were generated

paid close attention to the use of multiple

along the theoretical propositions posed bysources of evidence.

the researcher (see Figure 2 and Table 2),

accurate in terms of their overall quality.

they were amended on an interviewee by
One of the most rewarding sources ofinterviewee basis because each member ofcollecting data in this type of qualitative

CTI was deemed to play different roles and toempirical case study research is the in-have other important areas of information in

depth interview, which provides rich insights

knowledge creation invaluable to the strategy-

into people’s experiences, opinions, values,

making processes, which may be consideredaspirations, attitudes and feelings (May, 2001),‘focused interviews’.

which are essential for this research. Given
its nature, the majority of empirical material

Document information, which takes manywas collected through focused interview

forms such as letters, written reports of events

technique and supported by semi-structured

and administrative data, is most likely to be(open-ended) techniques. Focused interview isrelevant for case study work. However, many

the method of collecting data in terms of theacademics have been suspicious of the heavy

research question, that is, on the basis of theuse of such documents in social researchtheoretical propositions. Respondents can be(May, 2001) and in case study research inasked about the facts of a matter as well as

particular (Yin, 2003). This is likely to be

their opinions about events. A set of questions

because the casual researcher may mistakenly― 64 ―

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield⑴ －Methodology－

assume that all kinds of documents containthe Director of ARTIMEDIA (a private media

the unmitigated truth, without considering

company), the Director of Huddersfieldthat such documents were written for some

Pride (an urban regeneration organization

specific purpose and/or specific audience.

in Kirklees), the Director of the Creative

Documentary evidence, therefore, should

Industries Development Agency (CIDA), thebe used cautiously. One of the most prudent

Assistant Head of the Cultural Services inmethods of using documentary evidence

KMC, a Professor of Entrepreneurship at theis to corroborate and enhance evidence

University of Huddersfield’s Business Schoolfrom other sources. Documentary evidence(prof. John Thompson) and the Manager ofalso helps the researcher to make ‘in-depth’

Business Generator (a Business Incubator).

questionnaires on particular events on a

All interviewees were conducted with tailor-person-by-person basis. Moreover, it leads one

made questionnaires given prior to theto make inferences, which may provide clues

interviews in order to demonstrate the nature

worthy of further investigation. Based on theof the questioning, and potentially provide

kind of awareness and purposive use outlined

interviewees with an opportunity to prepare

above, documentary evidence for this research

their answers. Wherever possible, interviews

was collected from sources such as the web

were recorded because using recording devices

site of CTI (http://www.huddersfieldpride.

provides a more accurate rendition of any

com/archive/cti/ctimain.htm), Huddersfield:

interview than any other method and the tape-Creative Town Initiative, a proposal of CTI

scripts were transcribed. These interviews are(KMC, 1996), annual and final reports, acited in the case study research and quotations

document on CTI written by Landry (2000b)

employed. Additional documents related toand a pre-conference reader ‘The Creative City’

CTI were also collected when the interviews

12）(also see references).

were conducted.

The researcher first contacted the manager

2 . 4 Methodology of data analysis

of CTI (Mr. Phil. Wood) at the time of theAnalysing evidence can prove to be a difficult

study, to ask him to send a set of the mostpart in the qualitative research process inimportant written documents relating to

general and case study research in particular

CTI since its conception and to list people

because the methods and techniques for this

who were most active in the process of

purpose have not been well established (Taocreating the CTI proposal, together with

&Wakabayashi, 2001). Yin (2003), however,details of the stakeholders. In October andprovides some general analytical strategies in

November 2003, based on the information

analysing case study data, which can assist a

provided, 9 stakeholders who agreed toresearcher to treat the evidence fairly, produce

meet up with the researcher met on a face-compelling analytical conclusions, and rule out

to-face basis. This included the manager

alternative interpretations. One such strategyof CTI, an Economic Development Officer

is the pattern-matching technique which is ain the Council, the Director of the Media

way of relating the data to the propositions

Centre, the Director of Beaumont Street

that aim to compare an empirically based

Studio (representing the voluntary sector),pattern with a predicted one. The pattern-― 65 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.10（2015）

matching technique is utilized here in thethis criticism, it is crucial here to consider how

illustration of Nonaka’s theory using CTI in

a single case can lead to generalization.

Huddersfield, which compares the theoretical
propositions presented with the empiricalWhilst acknowledging the inherent limitations

facts established by the case study.

of the case study research presented here, themajor findings derived from this research

3 . Generalisability of the research andlimitations of case studies

are expected to have resonance to other‘knowledge-creating, proposal making’ in the

As argued above, there is considerable cause

urban regeneration context. This is because afor concern about the lack of rigour in case

case study may be generalizable to theoretical

study research. This is partly because on

propositions and not to populations or

many occasions, the case study researcher

universes based on sampling techniques.

does not establish a systematic procedure

In other words, theory development is theand partly because case study research islevel at which the generalization of the caseinherently influenced by biased views whichstudy results will occur. In this instance

impact the direction of its findings (Yin, 2003).

the role of theory has been characterized as

It has therefore been argued that the result ofanalytic generalization and contrasted witha case study cannot be generalizable.

13）

Given

another way of generalizing results, known

Table3: Design of the case study research
Aim of proposed empirical To examine the applicability of Nonaka’s theory to the practical context
research hereof urban regeneration in the UK in the form of illustration
Research method employed

Case study research

Type of design for the case Holistic single-unit of analysis
study
Selected research site

Creative Town Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfield

Unit of analysis

Time: The period from the origin of CTI to post-CTI with the focus on the
CTI proposal making
Space: Focuses on people and organizations engaged in the CTI proposal
making and pre and post events of CTI

Main sources of data

In-depth interviews and documents (see References)

Principle of data collection

Following the theoretical propositions (The integrated frameworkof the TEAM linguistic structure and Nonaka’s five-phase modelof organizational knowledge creation and his five conditions fororganizational knowledge creation) (see Figure 2 & Table 2).
Using multiple sources of evidence (triangulation)

No. of interviews

9

Av. length of interview

1-2 hours

Methodology of data analysis

Pattern matching technique in the form of illustration of Nonaka’s theory(relating the empirical facts to the propositions)

Generalisability

Analytic (not statistical) generalization― 66 ―

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in The Empirical Context of UK Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield⑴ －Methodology－

as statistical generalization (see Yin, 2003).

it in either ethnographic or qualitative research (asAlthough this particular piece of research doesa data collection technique). Another common flaw
is to place case studies at the exploratory (rather

not aim to achieve statistical generalization by

than explanatory) stage of some other type ofusing statistically rich data and enumerating

research methods.

frequencies with a large number of samples,5 ）This matrix is coordinated by axes, one regarding

it does aim to expand and generalize thesingle-case designs / multiple-case designs and therelevancy / applicability of Nonaka’s theory

other regarding holistic (single unit of analysis) /embedded (multiple units of analysis) (see Figure1).

to the UK urban regeneration context,

The matrix generates four types of designs forwhich constitutes an analytic generalization.

studies, which are single-case holistic designs

Moreover, it has to be acknowledged that(Type1), single-case embedded designs (Type2),

the results of this research could be further

multi-case holistic designs (Type3), and multi-caserefined by conducting additional case studies

embedded designs (Type4).

in similar urban regeneration contexts tofurther test the conclusions reached. Table 36 ）See Adachi(2007), Adachi(2008) , Adachi(2010),
Adachi(2012) and Adachi(2013)
7 ）CTI does not seem to clearly define ‘citizen’s

summarizes design of the case study research.

creativity’. However, in the proposal document(CTI, 1996, p3), CTI claims ‘Today towns andcities like Huddersfield only have one crucial

As mentioned earlier, this paper, focusing only

resource - their people: their cleverness, ingenuity,

on methodology, is placed in the first one in

aspirations, motivations, imagination andthe series of papers. Therefore, the continued

creativity’. In this sense, ‘citizen’s creativity’ seems

articles would be read in sequential issues ofto means the potential power of citizen’s thinking

Yamanashi Global Studies. The next article inand ideas, which can solve urban problems.

the next issue would start with actual analysis

8 ）The theoretical integrated framework of the fivephase model and the TEAM linguistic structureof CTI as a case study.

has developed in Adachi (Yamanashi Global
Studies No.6, Figure 2-9), which Figure2 modified
as a working model.

Notes9 ）See Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995)

1 ）See Adachi(2007),‘Examining Communicative10）There has been a certain amount of criticism of the

Rationality in Communicative Planning in terms

use of case studies and this includes claims thatof the TEAM Linguistic Theory’（ 日 本 都 市 計 画

a case study researcher ‘subjectively’ collects the

論 文 集 ）and Adachi（2008）,‘ An Examination

data, failing to develop a sufficiently operationalof Systems Theories and Rational Theories of

set of measures. The introduction of the linguistic

Planning in terms of Knowledge’ (Proceedings ofapproach to the hypothesis-formulation, as thisInternational Symposium on City Planning).

paper has been applied for (see Adachi, 2010 in

2 ）These include experiments, surveys, histories, casemore details), may address such potential problems

studies, ethnography (fieldwork), action research,archival information and official statistics analyses

of validity.
11）The key interviewees not only provide the case

(Robson, 1993; May, 2001; Yin, 2003).

study researcher with insights into a variety of3 ）According to Yin (2003), although a certain

matters, but also may initiate access to additional

method (strategy) is suitable in certain situations,

important sources.

the various methods are not mutually exclusive12）Regarding other sources of data, as an archival

and therefore, multiple methods are used in any

record (which may also be useful in case study

given research (e.g. a survey within a case study or

research), reports on the Creative City Conferencea case study within a survey).

25th - 27th May 2000 were collected for this case4 ）One common account of the case study is to view

― 67 ―

study. Physical or cultural artefacts (such as a

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.10（2015）

technological devices, tools or instruments, built

Kidder, L. & Judd, C. M. (1986), Research Methods inenvironments or some other physical evidence)

Social Relations (5th ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart

as other sources of evidence have less potential& Winston

relevance to the case study in question owing

Kirklees Metropolitan Council (KMC) (1994), Made In

to the research focus on the process of strategymaking. Although 4,117 square metre areas which

Kirklees
Landry, C. (2000a), Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban

were made up of derelict industrial and commercial
property and were renovated by implementing

Innovators, London: Earthscan
Landry, C. (2000b), Creative City (Pre-conference

CIT projects, are important physical artefacts, they

Reader)May, T. (2001), Social Research (3rd ed), Buckingham:

are not deemed to be of prime concern.
13）It is true that a single case (or multiple cases) is
not chosen based on statistical procedure such as aOpen University Press
Nachmias, D. & Nachmias, C. (1992), Research Methods

sampling technique.

in Social Sciences, New York: St.Martin’s
Nishibe, S. (1996), Structure of Intelligence, Tokyo:
Kadokawa Haruki jimusyo (in Japanese)
Nonaka, I. (1991), ‘The knowledge-creating company’

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― 68 ―