Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications foronline learning design, AACE Journal, 16(2), 137-159.

Characteristics of Adult Learners with Implications forOnline Learning Design

KATHLEEN CERCONE
State of Connecticut
Milford, CT USA
kcercone@optonline.net

The online educational environment is increasingly being
used by adults and should be designed based on the needs ofadult learners. This article discusses andragogy, an important
adult learning theory, and reviews three other adult learningtheories: self-directed learning, experiential learning, andtransformational learning. During this discussion, thetheories are examined for the ways in which they may be
applied to the design of online learning environments. In
addition, the characteristics of adult learners are examined,
and an analysis of how these characteristics influence thedesign of an online learning environment is presented.
Recommendations follow regarding how to design an online
classroom environment while considering the application of
adult learning theories.

The adult learner and the manner in which he or she learns best have beenquestioned and researched since the 1920s, when adult education became aprofessional field of practice (Merriam, 2001). Today, several theories andmodels attempt to explain adult learning. One of the most well known
theories is Malcolm S. Knowles’ learning theory of andragogy, the art andscience of helping adults learn. Andragogy is a learning theory that isdesigned to address the particular needs of adults, and it is based on the ideathat there are significant differences in learning characteristics between
children and adults (Knowles, 1980).

Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)This article presents a framework for integrating adult learning theories withrecommendations for designing an online environment to meet the needs ofadult students. This article introduces the characteristics of adult learners.
Following this discussion, the concept of andragogy is presented. This
presentation will provide not only andragogy’s strengths, but also its
weaknesses and limitations. Due to these limitations, the author will present
an overview of three other important adult learning theories- self-directed
learning, experiential learning, and transformational learning. These theories
provide information that may help the instructor or instructional designer increating an online or distance learning program for adults. Considering boththe characteristics of adults and adult learning theories, recommendations
that synthesize this information will be made regarding how to design an
online environment that will best meet the needs of adult students.

ADULT LEARNING THEORIES
Today, most adults conceptualize learning as an instructor-designed andinstructor-led endeavor that occurs in classrooms where students sit to learn
from the "sage on the stage." This is the model with which most adults grewup (Tweedell, 2000). However, many adults want to take advantage of
online learning environments, primarily due to their busy schedules and theonline format’s convenience. They are using technology with different setsof expectations that are based on their personal histories (Tweedell).
Instructors need to be aware of what adults want and need. Learning theories
and models, such as andragogy, are important for instructors to understandas they work with adults in an online or distance learning environment.
Ausburn (2004) completed a study that supported the view that learners withdifferent characteristics may not only prefer, but benefit, from different
instructional features and goals. The next section of this article reviews
important characteristics of adults that should be considered when designing
an online learning environment.

Characteristics of Adult Learners
Most adults were taught in a traditional and passive classroom. Online
learning environments are also new to instructors, who have to learn new

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)methods for teaching in this kind of setting. Learners and instructors bothneed to adapt and change as they learn how to use this new medium.
Additionally, instructors, instructional designers, and other professionals
working in the design of online environments for adults must understand
adult learning theory, especially in terms of its relationship to distance oronline learning. According to Moore and Kearsley (1996), "most distanceeducation students are adults between the ages of 25 and 50. Consequently
the more one understands the nature of adult learning, the better one canunderstand the nature of distance learning" (p. 153).
More distance learning programs are being developed annually; therefore,
increasing numbers of adult learners will be tapping into this new resourcefor education. According to the U. S. National Center for Education
Statistics (2002), 56% of all 2- and 4-year degree-granting institutions offer
distance education courses for all types of students. The Sloan Consortium's
fourth annual report (2006) on the state of online education in U.S. higher
education reported: (a) almost two-thirds of all schools offering face-to-facecourses also offer online courses, (b) the growth rate of online enrollment
between 2004 and 2005 was 35%. The year 2004-2005 demonstrated thelargest increase in the number of online students as well as the largest
percentage increase in online enrollment growth (Allen & Seaman, 2006).
Adult learners are different from traditional college students. Many adultlearners have responsibilities (e.g., families and jobs) and situations (e.g.,transportation, childcare, domestic violence and the need to earn an income)that can interfere with the learning process. Most adults enter educational
programs voluntarily and manage their classes around work and family
responsibilities. Additionally, most adult learners are highly motivated andtask-oriented (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999).
Adults have many challenges today, such as multiple careers, fewer stablesocial structures to rely on, living longer, and dealing with aging parents.
The past is less helpful as a guide for living in the present. Adults are
insecure in many decisions that they need to make. Life is complex due tocareer, family, and other personal choices.
Biological changes take place as individuals age, and it has been shown thatmemory decreases with age. It is memory that helps to form links between
new and old information (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). Short-term memory
or working memory is limited to approximately five to nine bits of new

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)information at a time (Clark, 1999). The ability to perform chunking, or thegrouping of associated concepts, is important for all students (Clark). Table
1 provides a summary of recommendations regarding the biological changes
that may necessitate adaptations to the online learning environment.
Table 1
Recommendations for Online Course Development based on Characteristics
of Adult Learners
Characteristic
1. Adults may havesome limitations andthese should beconsidered in the designof the online
environment.

Recommendations
a. Maintain large, easy to read fonts and clear, boldcolors.
b. Use variety of graphics, images, and tables.
c. Ensure compliance with Americans withDisabilities Act and Federal 508 guidelines.
d. Use a clear menu structure.
e. Use a search and find function.
f. Provide practice with feedback and self tests.
g. Provide record keeping among sessions.
h. Provide frequent entry and exit points.
i. Be consistent if using a metaphor.
j. Provide a context sensitive help function.
k. Distinguish between temporary vs. permanenttermination of the program.
l. Ensure there is no cultural bias.
m. Use graphic organizers, Venn diagrams, concept
maps, and flowcharts.
n. Chunk information into 5-9 bits of information.

Learning styles are also important to consider, in that they determine how
individuals approach learning tasks. There are many definitions of learning
style. According to Felder (1996), "learning styles are characteristic
strengths and preferences in the way [learners] take in and process information" (¶1). Silver, Strong, and Perini (1997) explained that learning styles
relate to the different ways people think and feel as they solve problems,
create products, and interact.
Learning style research is a complex field that has seen the growth of manymodels and numerous learning style inventories/tools. The field has developed in response to the desire of researchers and educators to know how
students learn most efficiently. Lifelong learning may be enhanced if
students are motivated to learn by understanding their learning style(Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004).

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)In their meta-analysis of 71 learning style inventories, Coffield et al. (2004)
identified several problems common to learning style inventories: (a) lack ofa unified, common definition of learning style, (b) weakness in reliability
and validity research, (c) the classification or grouping of individuals using
categories or dichotomies, and (d) the commercial gain that authors havesought through the sale of their instruments.
In spite of these weaknesses, there are many reasons why educators should
continue to use such tests. They can help students develop increased selfawareness, and they provide an opportunity for students and instructors toengage in a discussion that may not have taken place otherwise. These tools
foster a learner-centered approach to teaching and encourage diversity.
Palloff and Pratt (2003) reported that "underlying learning style research isthe belief that students learn best when they approach knowledge in ways
they trust…. In other words, a ‘one size fits all’ approach will not work" (p.
31). Table 2 presents recommendations on incorporating learning styles inan online learning environment.
With the increasing number of adult students, interest in how adults learn
continues to grow, and research continues in the area of adult learningtheories. The next section of this article introduces learning theories withapplication to the adult leaner.
Table 2
Learning Styles and the Characteristics of Adult Learners
2. Learning styles need
to be considered.
In any group of adults
there will be a wide range
of individual differences,thus the individualizationof learning experiences
is important in many situations.

a. Ensure that students can move throughthe instruction at their own pace.
b. Ensure that the students can review
previous learning whenever they want.
c. Provides links to a wide variety of web
resources.
d. Ensure to allow ample time for students
to master the content.e. Ensure that alllearning styles are addressed by presenting
material in multiple modes including text,
graphics, audio and manipulativesf. Use
strategies such as consciousness raising,journal keeping, reflection logs, think
sheets, guided questioning.

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)LEARNING THEORIESGold (1999) and Reeves (1994) discussed the two major educational
philosophies that have emerged in the last century. The instructivist andconstructivist approaches to teaching and learning are considered to lie ateither end of a continuum. Normally, educators choose an approach toteaching and learning that lies somewhere along this continuum. In an
instructivist approach, the instructor sets performance objectives anddevelops a systematic approach to the learning content that is independentof the learner, while the constructivist philosophy places the emphasis on
the learner and the learner’s interpretations through self-directed explorations. Learning theories have their basis in philosophy and psychology andprovide the overall framework for teaching and learning activities (Merriam& Caffarella, 1999).
Learning is about change, and adult learning is also about change. "Adult
learning theory helps faculty to understand their students and to design
more meaningful learning experiences for them. There is not one adultlearning theory that successfully applies to all adult learning environments"(Frey & Alman, 2003, p. 8).
There is no one theory that explains how adults learn, just as there is no one
theory that explains all human learning. Existing theories provide frameworks or models, "each of which contributes something to our understanding of adults as learners" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 271). Merriam
and Caffarella reported that learning is a process (rather than an end
product) and that the focus of theories is on what happens when reallearning takes place. "Adult learning theory helps faculty to understandtheir students and to design more meaningful learning experiences for them.
There is not one adult learning theory that successfully applies to all adultlearning environments" (Frey & Alman, 2003, p. 8). Learning is aboutchange, and adult learning is also about change.
The author developed a framework of 13 characteristics of adult learners toconsider when designing online instruction. The first two characteristics
have already been presented in this article. The remaining 11 characteristics
are presented in the Appendix with specific teaching strategies and recommendations to consider when developing an online learning environment.
Not every recommendation can be followed, but they form the basis of theauthor’s proposal to develop online training for adults. One must be

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)familiar with the way in which to design an online environment, understandthe strengths as well as limitations that are inherent in this type of instructional medium, and balance that with information about how adults learn.
The Appendix will be referred to throughout this section of the article.

Andragogy
Andragogy, a concept introduced by Malcolm Knowles in 1973, is learnerfocused in nature. Andragogy is also grounded in humanistic learning theory(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). This model has five assumptions to beconsidered in a formal learning environment.
First assumption. The first assumption underlying andragogy refers to adultlearners’ independent self-concept and ability to direct their own learning(Knowles, 1989). Adult learners are autonomous, independent, and selfreliant, and they are self-directed toward goals. According to Fidishun(2000), adults with previous schooling have been constructed as "dependent" learners, and it is up to the educator to move students from their old
habits, shape them into self-directed learners, and encourage them to starttaking responsibility for their learning. See the Appendix, characteristic 3,
for recommendations to assist adult learners in becoming actively involvedin their own learning.
Furthermore, it is recognized that not all adults are self-directed and thatsome may need help to become more self-directed. Some students needsome type of structure to assist them in becoming more self-directed. Doing
this may cause some students to express negative opinions, especially
students who would rather remain passive than to become actively involvedin the learning process. These students should be given "short, directed,
concrete online tasks that provide the most ‘learning for the experience’ tomake these adults see the relevancy of online learning" (Fidishun, 2000,
Section: Technology and the Assumptions of Andragogy, ¶5). Providing
scaffolding will promote self-reliance and help the student to become more
self-directed. See the Appendix, characteristic 4, for methods for theapplication of scaffolding support. Characteristic 5 also considers support
for adult learners in the new learner-centered paradigm.
According to Lieb (1991), since adults tend to be autonomous and selfdirected, they need to be free to direct themselves. To enable this to occur,
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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)instructors should actively involve the participants in the learning process
and be facilitators for this process. The instructor should only serve as a
guide. However, the instructor needs to provide the appropriate framework
to allow this growth to occur. See the Appendix for recommendations on
how to encourage active, self-directed learning (characteristic 3) as well as
on how to work as a facilitator of knowledge (characteristic 6).
Second assumption. The second assumption underlying andragogy is that"an adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is a richresource for learning" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 272). Cognitivist
learning theory supports this concept. The second assumption is based on
the need to attach instruction to relevant schemata, which are consideredinternal knowledge structures. Adult students can build on previous knowledge and experience by relating new information to past events and experience. Instructors should strive to get this information from students andshould then relate students’ experiences to the concepts being learned. It is
important for the instructor to recognize the value of experience (Knowles,
1989).
Fidishun (2000) stated that "adults want to use what they know and want tobe acknowledged for having that knowledge" (Section: Technology and The
Assumptions of Andragogy, ¶7). Kolb (1984) recognized that learning is acontinuous process that is based in experience. "Learning is the process
whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience"(Kolb, p. 38). Experiential learning is an active process that can be a
powerful method for teaching adult learners. See the Appendix, characteristic 7, for recommendations that will enable instructors to relate new information to previous knowledge as well as to the learner’s experience.
Lieb (1991) maintained that accumulated life experiences and knowledge
are related to work or to family responsibilities as well as to past education.
Adults need to connect new knowledge to past events and experience. The
instructor needs to get this information from the student and then relate it to
the concepts being learned.
Third assumption. The third assumption of andragogy is that "the readinessof an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of his or hersocial role" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 272). Merriam (2001) statedthat learning needs should be closely related to changing social roles. Lieb
(1991) suggested that adult students are goal oriented; thus, objectives and144

Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)goals should be outlined early in a course. Adult students usually know what
they want to learn, and they like to see the program organized toward theirpersonal goals (Knowles, 1989). Lieb also believed that adults are relevancy
oriented. They want to see a reason for learning something, and learning
should be applicable to work or home. See the Appendix, characteristic 8,
for recommendations that will enable instructors to improve the relevancy ofcontent to student needs.
Fourth assumption. The fourth assumption of andragogy is that "there is achange in time perspective as people mature—from future application ofknowledge to immediacy of application. Thus an adult is more problemcentered than subject-centered in learning" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p.
272). Learners need to know why they should learn something and how itwill benefit them (Knowles, 1989). The instructor should ask the online
student to do "some reflection on what they expect to learn, how they mightuse it in the future or how it will help them to meet their goals" (Fidishun,
2000, Section Technology and the Assumptions of Andragogy, para. 2).
Lieb (1991) believed that adults are practical and need to focus on what is
important to them. It is vital that the instructor makes the coursework
relevant. The adult learner believes that he or she is being prepared for tasks
and responsibilities that are more challenging or complex than current tasks.
See the Appendix, characteristic 9, for methods for incorporating problemcentered learning in the online classroom.
Fifth assumption. The fifth assumption of andragogy is that "adults are
motivated to learn by internal factors rather than external ones" (Merriam &Caffarella, 1999, p. 272). Some factors that motivate adults include thepromise of increased job satisfaction, self-esteem, and quality of life.
According to Fidishun (2000), this can be built into the online environment
in several ways. See the Appendix, characteristic 10, for methods that will
help motivate adult learners.
Lieb (1991) reported that respect should be shown to all students, no matter
what age. Adults respond positively when the learning environment is
comfortable and safe. See the Appendix, characteristic 11, for methods ofdeveloping a climate that is collaborative, respectful, mutual, and informal.
Lieb (1991) added that self-reflection is important for the adult learner. The
instructor should provide a space for the learner in an online course that
permits carefully guided reflection about his or her performance of new

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)competencies. See the Appendix, characteristic 12, for methods to encourage learner self-reflection on the learning process.

Criticisms and Concerns Regarding Andragogy
According to Brookfield (1995), it is still not very clear how adults learn.
Current learning theory does not address all aspects of how adults learn.
Everyone is different and is shaped by his or her history. Many variables
influence how individuals develop as adults. Educators need to consider
culture, physiology, cognitive style, learning style, and personality as they
develop the online learning environment for adults. To do this, educators
must be prepared to learn from their students and listen to them. The
students will teach the educator what he or she needs to know in order todevelop course material.
Merriam (2001) and Merriam and Caffarella (1999) added that there has
been a debate as to whether the assumptions of andragogy are principles ofgood practice rather than a theory, as andragogy primarily describes what
the adult learner may be like. In fact, Merriam stated, "Knowles himself
came to concur that andragogy is less a theory of adult learning than ‘amodel of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves
as a basis for an emergent theory’" (p. 5). Knowles eventually represented
these assumptions on a continuum "ranging from teacher-directed to studentcentered learning" (Merriam, p. 6). Adults’ dependence on the instructor isbased on their previous levels of knowledge of the topic. If they have limited
knowledge, they will depend on the instructor more.
Another concern related to Knowles’ theory is that it does not consider thecontext of learning. It is important to remember that each learner is unique.
Characteristics related to culture, life experiences, and gender may be more
important to learning than the fact that a learner is considered an "adult."
Pratt (1993) concluded that "while andragogy may have contributed to ourunderstanding of adults as learners, it has done little to expand or clarify ourunderstanding of the process of learning, ‘nor has it achieved the status of atheory of adults learning’" (p. 21). Smith (2002) pointed out that Knowles’
concept of andragogy is a beginning attempt to try to build a theory (ormodel) of adult learning, and that it "is anchored in the characteristics of146

Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)adult learners" (p. 3). Smith also noted that Knowles’ theory uses a model ofrelationships from humanistic clinical psychology. However, Knowles also
built on behaviorist theory by encouraging the learner to "identify needs, set
objectives, enter learning contracts…" (para. 4). Knowles’ andragogy draws
from two opposing traditions: behaviorism and humanism.
Andragogy is not perfect, but it represents an attempt to understand thedifference between adult and childhood learning. It has several weaknesses;
for instance, it has tended to ignore

issues of power and social justice, in society and in the educational
process; the need for critical reflection as a necessary component ofan adult learning process; the crucial place of dialogue and discussion
as means for learning; and a recognition of multiple ways of knowing
and learning. (Schapiro, 2003, p. 152)

Andragogy does not give the total picture of how adults learn. Due tothese identified limitations in Knowles’ theory of andragogy, theauthor is going to discuss three other research areas that have been
proposed to represent adult learning. The author feels that these
theories are important for the development of appropriate adult online
educational programs and should be considered by educators as theywork with adult learners.

Adult Learning Theories Related to Andragogy

Experiential learning. Experiential learning is a concept central to andragogy. Experiential learning is composed of three components: (a) knowledge of concepts, facts, information, and experience; (b) prior knowledge
applied to current, ongoing events; and (c) reflection with a thoughtful
analysis and assessment of learners’ activity that contributes to personal
growth. These concepts are crucial to experiential learning, and they should
provide the basis of any adult learning experience. Brookfield (1995) agreed
on the importance of experience for adult learning. According to Brookfield,
the notion "that adult teaching should be grounded in adults’ experiences,and that these experiences represent a valuable resource, is currently cited as
crucial by adult educators of every conceivable ideological hue" (para. 1).

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)According to Merriam and Caffarella (1999), "experiences that provide
learning are never just isolated events in time. Rather, learners must connect
what they have learned from current experiences to those in the past as well
as see possible future implications" (p. 223). Teaching of adults should begrounded in the learners’ experiences; it should allow adult learners toconnect what they have learned to experiences in the past, so that they cansee possible future implications.
The reader is referred to the Appendix, characteristic 11, for recommendations regarding the development of the correct atmosphere for adult learners.
Experiential learning considers experience; see the Appendix, characteristic
7, for recommendations for implementing this aspect. Recommendations forinteraction and collaboration (characteristics 12 and 13) are also presented
in the Appendix. These are needed by adult students so that they can draw
on each others’ experience.
Self-directed learning. Self-directed learning, another central concept in
adult education, suggests that the locus of control in learning lies with theadult learner, who may initiate learning with or without assistance fromothers (Lowry, 1989). Some learners need varying degrees of direction andsupport, while others are ready to be self-directed. Characteristics of selfdirected learners include independence, willingness to take initiative,
persistence in learning, self-discipline, self-confidence, and the desire tolearn more. They are able to organize time, develop plans for completion,
enjoy learning, and remain goal-oriented. Self-directed learning has been
confined to the informal learning situation until recently. Before the 1980s,
learning was believed to occur only in a formal institution. Researchers now
realize that self-directed learning is worthwhile as well as possible, andeducators should encourage this type of learning in the formal classroom(Merriam & Caffarella, 1999).
Self-directed learning underlies Knowles’ andragogy. The theory of andragogy acknowledges that as a person grows and matures, his or her selfconcept changes from that of a dependent personality toward that of a selfdirected individual. Older methods of teaching did not foster self-directed
learning and were primarily teacher-centered and passive. These methods ofeducation may be difficult habits for older students to break, since theyreflect the way in which they were taught. These students need to be guided
as they progress toward self-direction to take more responsibility for theirown learning.

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)Refer to the Appendix for recommendations to assist learners in becoming
self-directed learners. Characteristic 4 pertains to the provision of scaffolding, and characteristic 3 addresses methods to get students to become active
participants in the learning process. Instructors should provide some support
for students as they grow into self-directed learners and include tasks that let
the students use their knowledge and experience (characteristics 7 and 8 in
the Appendix).
Transformative learning theory. Transformative learning, which is considered a constructivist theory of adult learning, was strongly influenced by thework of Jack Mezirow (1997). Mezirow proposed that individual transformation includes a change in one’s frame of reference or way of seeing theworld. According to Palloff and Pratt (1999), "the goal of transformative
learning is to understand why we see the world the way we do and to shake
off the constraints of the limiting perspectives we have carried with us into
the learning experience" (p. 129). Transformative learning helps adultlearners understand their experiences, how they make sense or "meaning of
their experiences, the nature of the structures that influence the way they
construe experience, the dynamics involved in modifying meanings, and theway the structures of meaning themselves undergo changes when learners
find them to be dysfunctional" (Mezirow, p. xii).
Frey and Alman (2003) stated that transformative learning is a process ofcritical reflection. It is about change in learners, and it is the kind of learningthat occurs when individuals make meaning out of the world throughexperiences. The goal of this learning theory is to enable the adult learner to"become a more autonomous thinker by learning to negotiate his or her own
values, meanings, and purposes rather than to uncritically act on those ofothers" (Mezirow, 1997, p. 11). This type of learning involves learning
about one’s personal life. The reader is referred to the Appendix, characteristic 12, for methods that an instructor can use to foster transformative
learning. Characteristic 3 (active learning) and characteristic 4 (scaffolding
and support) are important for self-directed learning. Learners need support
to begin the process, and they must be actively involved as they incorporate
new information into the old.

SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNING THEORIESThe compilation of recommendations for the design of the online learning
environment for adults is based on the theories presented in this article.
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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)These theories provide a foundation for organizing current knowledge. The
framework in the Appendix integrates the theories with recommendations
for the design of an online learning program for adult learners. The compilation of recommendations combines every theory presented in this article. In
the framework, each theory presented incorporates separate components ofthe characteristics of adult learners. There is no theory that uses all of thecharacteristics developed by the author. Knowles’ theory of andragogy,
which considers characteristics 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12, is the mostcomprehensive.
The biology of adults (characteristic 1) and learning styles (characteristic 2)
are not included in any theory reviewed by this author. The biology of aging
and learning styles both contribute to the individuality of the adult learner.
One’s biology and learning style is influenced by culture, cognitive style,physiology, and personality. All of these influences create the unique people
who are today’s adult learners. The consideration of the individuality ofeach person is critical to teaching adults.
Experiential learning only considers characteristics 7, 11, 12, and 13. Selfdirected learning theory considers characteristics 3, 4, and 7. Transformative
learning theory considers characteristics 3, 4, and 12. These theories are notcomprehensive and should only be considered as components of adultlearning theory. There is no single comprehensive theory that addresses allof adult learning. All of the characteristics in the table should be consideredwhen developing an online learning environment for adult learners.

CONCLUSION
This article has reviewed several aspects of adult learning, especially in
relation to the online learning environment. Several learning theories havebeen discussed, and recommendations have been presented for instructors
who teach adults using an online medium. It has become clear that there is
not one theory that can explain how adults learn. There are many theories;
each is compelling, and each has its own strengths and weaknesses. The
primary theme that has emerged is the following: Everyone is different, andeach person is an individual. Adult learners are diverse and have their own
histories to consider.
Andragogy and the other theories presented in this article all have something
to offer instructors of distance or online learning. These theories emphasize
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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)self-direction, flexibility, and the process of learning, rather than the content.
They are learner-centered and recognize the importance of a customized
approach to learning. They also focus on the fact that adults are different
from children. Adults have experience and are self-directed and independent, yet they are all different. Instructors need to consider the context oflearning and understand that culture and society shape the adult learner andadd to his or her individuality.
The primary consideration of instructors as they design online learning
environments should be that each learner is a unique being. Learners are real
people with distinct needs. Understanding adult learning theories is also
important, as is being able to change and accept change in a dynamic
learning environment. The instructor needs to be open and honest with each
student and respect each person as an individual who has experience that
may be valuable to the classroom.
Another theme discovered in all of these learning theories is that adultlearning is about change. The instructor needs to acknowledge that he or she
may be a change agent and appreciate that adult students are undergoingtransformations as they go through the learning process. Supporting learners
as they go through these changes and allowing and helping reflection require
the instructor to act as a facilitator rather than a lecturer, allowing students
to experience discovery as part of the learning process.
Research continues to be done about how adult learners learn. There isresearch regarding how adults may use the online learning environment aswell as the methods that facilitate learning in adult students. The future ofadult online learning research may be based on the theories discussed in thisarticle, even though most of these theories were developed almost 20 years
ago and in traditional classroom environments. The online environment did
not exist 20 years ago, and yet the universal nature of the theories enables
educators to consider them for the online environment.
All of these approaches to learning can help develop the understanding ofadult learning in several ways. First, the adult learner should be seen as awhole person and should be considered as more than a processor of cognitive information. He or she comes with a mind, memories, conscious andsubconscious worlds, feelings, beliefs, imagination, and a physical body, allof which can relate to new learning. It is imperative that educators understand that culture and society influence each individual differently. Second,
the learning process is more than the organized acquisition and storage of
new information. The learning process involves learning about oneself and151

Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)transforming not just what one learns, but also the way in which one learns.
It is also about sensing, visualizing, perceiving, and learning informally withothers. Interaction and collaboration should occur in the learning environment to facilitate adult learning.
Online learning will continue to grow in importance for adult learners. The
challenge for educators is to learn how to provide a positive "social"environment using an electronic medium. Technology will continue tochange as new technologies are developed. Instructors will need to adapt,change, and continue to learn about how this "electronic" environment canbe used to foster a social atmosphere, and they will need to recognize theirrole as change agents.

References
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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)APPENDIX
Recommendations for Online Course Development based on Characteristics of Adult Learners(Starting with characteristic 3)
3. Adults need to be actively
involved in the learning process.

a. Encourage learners to identify resources and devise strategies for using
resources to achieve objectives.
b. Encourage learners to formulate theirlearning objectives, giving them more
control over their learning. It is important for the instructor to discover what
the participants need or want to learn.
c. Provide regular, consistent communi
cation to individual learners andgroups.
d. Teach inquiry skills, decision-making, personal development, and selfevaluation of work.e. Make regular an
nouncements or updates and establish
regular online office hours.
f. Assure learners that discussion board
postings are being read.
g. Increase interactions with embedded
practice and feedback sequences.
h. Embed content in authentic contexts
if technology allows
i. Require learners to synthesize andproblem solve, using the information in
new ways.
j. Have learners manipulate objects on
the screen if appropriate.
k. Develop peer-learning groups.
l. Periodically review goals. Have students reflect and discuss.
m. Provide students with multiple resources of information that include differing viewpoints from diverse
authors.
n. Acknowledge the accumulated
experiences of the participants asvaluable educational resources.
o. Use learning contracts, groupprojects, role playing, case studies and simulations to enhanceself-direction.
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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)p. Use hyperlinks to allow students to develop their own path.
If they know the topic, they canskip it.
q. Provide flexibility in assignments that allow students to work
ahead.
r. Divide learning into small manageable units or subunits that canbe completed in relatively shortamounts of time for logical stopping and starting points.
s. Allow learner choice of assignments, projects, or research topics (consider learning contract).
t. Encourage and reinforce self
sufficiency through timely feedback.
u. Develop a student portfolio or
personal scrapbook
v. Incorporate text signals such as"this is a long unit," "this is very
important content," "proceed
to lesson six."
4. Adults need scaffolding to beprovided by the instructor.
Scaffolding should promote
self-reliance, and it should
allow learners to perform
activities they were unable toperform without this support.

a. Provide learner support after
the initial training in the form ofcoaching, study teams, and opportunities to learn, by watching
his/her colleagues perform.
b. Coach using audio files orother method to help in performance of a task.
c. Encourage students to articulate problems.
d. Provide resources to assist students to complete tasks.
e. Provide examples of complete
problems.
f. Provide multiple scenarios,
events, and perspectives to help
students develop decisions andplans.
g. Provide consistency amongcourses.

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)5. Adults have a pre-existinglearning history and will needsupport to work in the newlearner-centered paradigm.

a. Encourage all students to post
responses to questions, read other comments, and reflect using
tools such as threaded
discussions.
b. Encourage learners to sharewith other students their derivation of meaning and theirprogress through discussion postings, reflection papers that are
posted, or email.
c. Hold debates, create multifaceted projects with deadlines for
public display, introduce surprise, suspense, and disorder inthe midst of routine and ritual.
Ask learners to link ideas to othersubjects.
d. Recognize that it is importantto "unlearn" old beliefs and allow
learners time to work throughconflict.

6. Adults need the instructor acting
as a facilitator.

a. Plan the course environment toallow participants responsibility
for leadership and grouppresentations.
b. Summarize key points of units
and discussions for closure.
c. Use questioning techniques to
provoke thinking, stimulate
recall, and challenge beliefs.
d. Understand that some adults
may feel intimidated and that
their egos are on the line when
they risk trying something new or
unique.
e. Use participants experience,protect minority opinions, keep
disagreements civil, and makeconnections between the opinions
and ideas presented by thestudents.
f. Display student work.

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)7. Adults need consideration of
their prior experience. The instructor
should acknowledge this priorexperience. Adults need to connect
new knowledge to past events.

a. Do a needs assessment and a
student self-assessment prior toclass starting. Relate this information to the class. Recognize
the value of experience.
b. Include tasks that let the participants use their knowledge andexperience.
c. Tell why the topic or link isimportant.
d. Provide practical information
with examples.
e. Link new topics to what has
been discussed or read.
f. Open the class with introductions that include personal andprofessional background. Instructor should do the same.
g. Involve learners in diagnosing
their own needs.

8. Adults need to see the link between
what they are learning and how it will
apply to their lives. They want to apply
immediately their new knowledge.
They are problem-centered.

a. Incorporate activities in assignments that students can relate
to, such as real situations or
events.
b. Include opportunities for solving problems in groups.
c. Ensure that assignments reflect
the maturity level of the adultlearners.
d. Encourage students to apply
their life and work experiences tolearning.

9. Adults need to feel thatlearning focuses on issues
that directly concern them andwant to know what they aregoing to learn, how the learning
will be conducted, and why it
is important. The course shouldbe learner-centered vs. teachercentered.

a. Ensure that students write theircourse goals in the beginning of
the course so they can relate thecourse goals with their current
needs and issues.
b. Explain how the course information will be of use to thelearners.
c. Provide enough flexibility toallow student's input on issues
that may be addressed by the157Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)whole class.
d. Provide models of 'best practice' behavior to let students
know what they are doing compared to a known model.
e. Maintain consistent guidelines
during the course.
f. Involve learners in diagnosing
their needs to help trigger internal motivation.
10. Adults need to test their learningas they go along, rather than receive
background theory.

a. Apply concepts to tasks or
problems.
b. Set the level of difficulty at thecorrect level. It should challenge
but not be too challenging which
could frustrate the learners.
c. Set rewards for success.

11. Adult learning requires aa. Allow the learner to voice his
climate that is collaborative, respectful, or her own opinion and treat him
mutual, and informal.
or her as equal in the learning
process.
b. Individuals have many perspectives and bring these to theclassroom; these may be a result of their religion, gender, ethnicity, class, age, sexuality, and/or physical abilities. Acknowledge these.
c. Provide an open environment
so that the students are allowed todisagree with the instructor. Not
all learners bring the same ability
to think critically, analyze results, etc. Plan accordingly.
d. Establish an environment thatlearners feel safe and comfortablein expressing themselves and feel
respected for their views.
e. Help students with similar interests find each other.
f. Know when to pull back in a
discussion and let the students
go.

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Association for the Advancement of Computing In Education Journal, 16(2)g. Keep up with the discussion
postings, and act as a summarizer, reflector, and source of external help if the group fails.
h. Recognize learner’s individual
talents and contributions.
12. Adults need to self-reflect on thelearning process and be given support
for transformational learning.

a. Provide a place in the course to
discuss the process of learning
online which may include
thoughts on how they are manag
ing in the online course.
b. Allow students to discuss options for their new roles, plan action strategies and exchange ofknowledge and skills for effective
and efficient online learning.
c. Provide ways for learners toengage in metacognitive reflection. Students may benefit fromthe use of think logs, reflective
journals, and group discussions
within a cooperative learning setting.

13. Adults need dialogue andsocial interaction must be provided.
They need to collaborate with otherstudents.

a. Allow students to introduce
themselves, develop a personal
web page, and provide anarea that students can feel free todiscuss their experiences.
b. Problem-based or case-basedlearning activities that are donein collaborative work groups.
c. Use cooperative and collaborative learning structures such aslearning partnerships, to equalize
the power relationships in groups
and encourage a sharedleadership.
d. Incorporate multiple methodsof feedback in course.
e. Grade assignments with specific, stated criteria, such as a rubric.
f. Encourage shared leadership.

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