1

EPOK
Exchange Program Okayama

Spring 2023

EPOK Research Essay Collection

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About EPOK Research Project

EPOK リサーチプロジェクトは、岡山大学の交換留学 EPOK 生の個別研究科目です。
岡山での留学機会を活かして日本の社会や文化をより深く、実践的に探求する目的
で、個々のテーマを自由に設定し研究します。春学期の約４カ月を通じて、フィールドワークを含むリサーチを行い、成果を小論文にまとめました。多忙な留学の１
学期は、日本語や日本の習慣と格闘するうちに刻々と過ぎ、時間や言語の壁を実感しながら取り組みました。其々の調査方法を模索しながら完成した 2023 年度春期のリサーチには、11 名の EPOK 生が参加し、学期末には、恒例の研究発表会を行いました。その最終研究エッセイをここに掲載します。
In 2023 spring eleven students worked on the individual set their own research topics in
exploring Japanese culture and society, conducted the research for about 4 months. The
variety of their interest stretches from Japan’s language and literature, politics, tocontemporary and traditional art scenes. The compilation of the EPOK research essay
demonstrates the vigorous interest, effort and contribution of the students in pursuing the
topics on Japan. At the end of the semester the students presented the paper and finalized thecourse with good applause.

2023 年 8 月

Obayashi Junko 大林純子, ph.D.
EPOK Advisor
Institute of Global Human Resource Development
Okayama University

3Japanese Language
Japanese History
Social Issues
Japanese Thinking
and Forests……

Table of Contents: 2023 Spring Research Projects

Student Name

Research SUBJECT (Title)

WEIDNER Alexander

The Everyday Use of Kanji
EnglishKULITZA Fabian

Katakana

Pages

4-9

loanwords

and

their

Japanese counterparts - Perception and use in
the Japanese language

10-16

From Edo to Now: The Impact of the Sankin

STEELE Naudia

kotai system on the Formation and Integrationof Japanese Culture

BOMAN Grace

17-23"The Warrior who Surpasses Death": The

24-29

Lasting Legacy of Honda Tadakatsu
Roses and Lilies: Representation of Lesbian

RUCKER Brianna

relationships in

30-39

Japanese literature and media
VASQUEZ SARMIENTO Recognition

Danielaoftherights

of

the

Ainu

Indigenous

40-48

Statement of the social pressure in Japanese

THIMM Gabrielsociety
日本社会における社会的圧力

49-56

GURGENIDZE Lasha

Martial arts as a practice for the Self

57-63

AMBRIZ Roberto

Disparity of Athletic Opportunities

64-69

The role that universities can play in the

CANTA Donatella

promotion of a more sustainable, inclusive andethic lifestyle: the case of Kyoto University’s
VegeProject

YEH Yu Yo

70-77

Forestry in Okayama
岡山の林業について

78-84

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Use of kanji in everyday life of Japanese people
Weidner Alexander / ワイドナ－ アレクサンダー
Leibniz University Hanova (Germany)

Abstract:
日本の漢字は 10 万語以上あり、日本人の生活のあらゆる場面で漢字が使われ、文化と言語において中心的な役割を果たしている。本研究は、日本人大学生 41 人を対象にアンケートを行って、「漢字の難しさ」についての意見、スキル、使用パターンを収集することで、漢字の学習と使用の分野における意識を明らかにすることを目的とした。調査の結果、漢字の文字数の多さ、複雑な書き順、漢字間の類似性などについては難しさを感じているが、同時に、面白さや興味も感じていることがわかった。本研究の結果は、日本語を勉強したい言語
学習者、教師、研究者にとっての貴重な情報を提供するものである。

Introduction:
Kanji, the complex Chinese characters, play a central role in Japanese culture and language. With over
100.000 characters, their complexity is unparalleled in the world of languages. So it is fascinating andalso understandable that only about 2500 characters are used for the every day life of an average
Japanese person. Their use extends to all areas of everyday Japanese life, be it in contracts, incommunication with superiors or in public spaces. However, using kanji is of course not without its
challenges, and many Japanese people find them difficult. This survey was conducted to gain insight
into Japanese people's opinions, skills, and usage patterns of kanji and to examine how kanji are usedin everyday life to better understand their ground laying phenomena collect the data, a survey was
conducted in which 41 Japanese people of different ages and backgrounds took part. Participants wereasked to share their opinions on the difficulty of kanji, the most challenging aspects of learning kanji,
and their preferred learning methods like reading or writing. In addition, questions were asked about
the use of analogue and digital media in order to take into account the changes in modern languageuse. Furthermore the survey also provided an opportunity to explore participants' attitudes towards thepossible future change in kanji usage or complexity. This is of great interest because it is known thatin most regions and cultures languages start to change to function better with the modern life and5technology. The expectations of this survey were diverse. A majority of participants were expected tofind kanji because of their high complexity, difficult, supported by the general consensus. The
challenges of learning kanji were anticipated, primarily in relation to the large number of characters,
complicated stroke order, similarity between the kanji, and the variety of readings. Participants were
expected to use various methods of learning kanji, with writing being seen as a traditional and effective
method. Participants' interest in the various aspects of kanji such as the possible readings and theorigins of the words was also expected.
The knowledge gained provides valuable insights into the use of kanji in everyday Japanese life. They
help increase understanding of the challenges, interests and attitudes of the Japanese people. The
results of this survey enable a well-founded discussion about the future of the kanji system andpossible changes. This is important because a lot of existing surveys do not questions normal persons
opinions but work with existing older data and from the view of western people. The following reportpresents and discusses the detailed results and findings of this survey. This information provides
valuable insight for language learners, teachers, and researchers studying Japanese language andculture who wish to better understand the phenomenon of kanji usage.

Methodology:
To gather data on the usage of kanji by Japanese individuals in their everyday lives, questionnaire wasconducted. The survey collected data from participants that study or work at the Okayama University,
mostly students between the ages of 18 and 23. A total of 41 persons participated in the survey. The
questionnaire consisted of multiple-choice and text generating questions, designed to explore
participants' opinions, skills, and usage patterns related to kanji. The questions covered various aspects,
including the perceived difficulty of kanji, specific challenges in learning and using kanji, the level ofinterest in kanji, preferred learning methods, and attitudes towards the future of kanji. Participants
were asked to rate their kanji ability, provide their gender, age, and occupation, and indicate thenumber of years they have been learning kanji. Additionally, their preferences for taking notes in classand the situations in which they pay attention to kanji usage were also inquired. The survey wasadministered through an online platform, ensuring ease of participation and data collection.
Participants were provided with clear instructions and were given sufficient time to complete thesurvey. The survey did not collect any personal data from the asked person to maintain privacy andsustain the reliability of the data. The results obtained from the survey were analyzed and compiled to
identify trends among the participants regarding kanji usage. These findings provide valuable insights

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into the perceptions and behaviors of Japanese people towards kanji, helping in a better understandingof its role in their everyday lives. It is important to note that due to the specific target group of
Okayama University students, the findings may not be representative of the entire Japanese population.
However, the data collected from this survey offers valuable insights into the views and experiencesof this particular group regarding kanji usage in their daily lives.

Results:

Based on the collected survey data, it appears that participants think learning and using kanji ischallenging (68.3%) in various aspects. The difficulties mentioned include the abundance of kanji(56.1%), the need to memorize them, recalling and differed their meanings and readings,
understanding their structure and similarity (46.3%), and mastering the stroke order (46.3%). The
multiple meanings associated with kanji and their various readings (41.5%) were also mentioned assources of complexity. Although not all but most participants expressed that they think kanji arechallenging, there is a broad variety of opinions about the interesting aspects of kanji that almost
outshines the critic about kanji.

Picture 1: Graphic 1 and 3 from the questionnaire. Graphic 1: Are kanji difficult? Blue - yes;
Red - No. Graphic 3: Are kanji interesting? Blue - yes; Red - No; Yellow - Do not knowSome think that the complexity and structure of kanji (38.5%) is intriguing, while others appreciatedthe variety of meanings (43.6%) associated with each character. The historical origin and beauty(43.6%) of kanji characters were also mentioned as interesting elements. Regarding learning methods,
participants mentioned writing kanji repeatedly, reading books, engaging in calligraphy. The use of

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flashcards (2.4%) or games is used very rarely if not not existing. Quite a lot participants also reliedon reading texts (41.5%) and looking up unknown kanji meanings and making notes for futurereference. The consensus was that exposure to kanji through reading and writing it repeatedly aids inthe learning process.
This a lines with the information about teaching methods, most participants said that schools typicallyuse writing kanji multiple times (82.5%) or using kanji workbooks as part of homework (70%)
assignments to improve their proficiency. Reading books (50%) and incorporating kanji-related games(10%) were also mentioned as potential teaching approaches. Although way more rarely used.
Regarding the future of kanji, participants had a more or less common view. Almost all do not wantor see any big change in the kanji system. An often said wish was the reduction of the kanji in formof the reduction of the stroke or the end of the stroke order. In terms of evaluating their own kanjiabilities, participants had varied assessments. Most (60%) considered themselves to have average or
below-average proficiency, while others believed they possessed a general level (40%) of competence.
Not one participant thought about their proficiency in a way above average manner. The use of kanji
in different contexts was also discussed. Participants highlighted the importance of paying attention
to kanji usage, particularly in formal or public situations such as writing official documents or emails,
while maintaining a more casual tone in casual conversations with friends and also paying attention
at the kanji proficiency of the other person. Overall, the survey data indicates that while kanji presents
challenges in terms of its quantity, memorization, and complexity, it also offers interesting aspects
such as its structure, multiple meanings, and historical background. The learning methods commonly
employed involve repeated writing, reading texts, and using various learning materials. The use of
kanji in educational settings typically includes writing exercises and workbooks and seems very
traditional but is seen as efficient ans reliable to improve the knowledge about kanji. The future of
kanji remains uncertain, with potential changes in character complexity and increased digitization.
Evaluations of personal kanji abilities vary among respondents, and careful attention to kanji usage isconsidered essential in different contexts.

Discussion:

This survey on the usage of kanji in everyday Japanese life has provided valuable insights into theopinions, skills, and patterns of kanji usage among Japanese individuals. Participants expressed thatlearning and using kanji can be challenging (68.3%) due to the abundance of characters, the need for8memorization, and the complexities of meanings, readings, and stroke order [3]. Despite thesechallenges, participants also found various aspects of kanji interesting (80.5%), including theircomplexity, structure, multiple meanings, and historical origins. Participants mostly relied on
traditional learning methods, such as repeated writing, reading texts, and making notes or the usage ofdictionary's to look up unknown kanji. Writing kanji multiple times and using workbooks werecommonly employed teaching methods in schools [4-5]. While some participants mentioned the useof flashcards and games, these methods were relatively rare. Reading texts and looking up unknown
kanji meanings were also important strategies for improving kanji proficiency. Regarding the futureof kanji, participants generally did not desire significant changes to the system. However, there weresuggestions for simplification, such as reducing stroke count or eliminating stroke order. Participants
expressed a desire for maintaining the traditional aspects of kanji while potentially incorporating moredigitization in its usage. With an unavoidable increase of digital technology it is essential to think
about how the kanji can be adjusted to this and their use in the bounds of the new possibilities andalso in parallel retain their unique beauty and function. When evaluating their own kanji abilities, mostparticipants considered themselves to have average or below-average proficiency, with none
perceiving themselves as above average. From the gathered information it can be assumed that mostpeople are either humble or their rate their proficiency in the context of the complete kanji existence.
According to the Daikanwa Jiten [1] (book from Morohashi) 50.000 kanji are known in a general way.
Combined with older scripts the number of kanji lays by 80.000 to 100.000 characters. For the publicuse 2.137 [2] characters are common. So the today used kanji amount to about 2 % to 5 % of the total
known. Even academic people know often no more than about 6.000 characters. One of the mostdifficult kanji tests, the kentei test shows this through the results. Only 15 % of all participants canpass the test at the highest level with 6.000 characters [6]. The importance of paying attention to kanji
usage in different contexts was emphasized, with formal or public situations requiring greater
precision and casual conversations allowing for a more relaxed approach. This also is influenced
through the Japanese culture to not embarrasses and care for others. So it is common to reduce the useof kanji in presence of a person with low kanji proficiency. For example if teaching an elementary
school student or interacting with foreign language speaker. The findings of this survey contribute toa deeper understanding of the challenges, interests, and attitudes of Japanese individuals toward kanji
usage. It provides valuable insights for language learners, teachers, and researchers studying Japanese
language and culture. While the results are limited to the specific target group of Okayama University
students, they shed light on the experiences and views of this particular group and offer a starting point
for further research on kanji usage. Future research could explore the impact of digitization andtechnological advancements on kanji usage and learning methods. Additionally, investigating the9perspectives of a broader and more diverse sample of the Japanese population would provide a morecomprehensive understanding of the current state and potential changes in kanji usage. In conclusion,
this survey has illuminated the challenges and interesting aspects of kanji usage in everyday Japaneselife. It has revealed traditional learning methods, varied perceptions of personal proficiency, and theimportance of context-specific kanji usage. The insights gained from this study contribute to thebroader understanding of kanji and its role in Japanese language and culture, paving the way for further
exploration and potential advancements in the field.

Literature:[1] Kida Jun'ichirō, ed. Nihongo Daihakubutsukan – Akuma no moji to tatakatta hito-bito 日本語大博物館—悪魔の文字と闘った人々 ("Museum of Japanese – the people who battled the devil's characters").
1994. Tokyo: Just System ジャストシステム. ISBN 4-88309-046-9 (in Japanese)[2] "改定常用漢字表、30 日に内閣告示 閣議で正式決定" [The amended list of jōyō kanji receives
cabinet notice on 30th: to be officially confirmed in cabinet meeting.] (in Japanese). Nihon Keizai Shimbun.
24 November 2010. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
[3] Studying How To Study Kanji: A Practical Approach; 2015/05/01; de Sá, Michele Eduarda[4] https://www.nippon.com/en/nipponblog/m00104/; website visited: 17.07.2023, 12:52[5] https://jpn-study.com/blog/how-students-in-japanese-elementary-school-learn-kanji/; website visited:
17.07.2023, 13:15[6] https://www.tofugu.com/japanese/kanji-kentei/; website visited: 17.07.2023, 13:3

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English Katakana loanwords and their Japanese counterparts Perception and use in the Japanese language
Kulitza Fabian / クリツァ ファビアン
Leibniz University Hanover (Germany)

この研究プロジェクトでは、英語の借用語が日本語のカタカナ語として使用される背景と動機を調査した。 具体的な目的は、 借用語の使用頻度、日本語に相当する単語に対する優先順位、現代的な概念を伝える上での意義を探ることだった。日本語母語話者を対象としたアンケート調査を通して、
日本語の漢字語よりもカタカナ語を使用する動機や言語的選択の傾向が明らかになった。

Introduction
The Japanese Language is a fascinating and rich Language with many cultural and historical influences.
Compared to a greater time scale, one linguistic development stands out as fairly recent, the wideranging implementation of loanwords from the English language.

English loanwords, in the form of

Katakana words, have emerged as an elementary component of the everyday language of Japanese inmodern times. But their influence goes beyond this and can also be found in a variety of different
fields, such as in technical and educational language. The history of English loanwords in the Japanese
language dates back to the 16th century when Japan allowed trade with western countries and imported
goods and knowledge. Until this point unseen or uncommon goods or knowledge were often named
after its original name but slightly changed to fit more into the Japanese language. However, the main
source of new loanwords shifted from various European languages such as Portuguese, Dutch, German
and French to mainly English in the 19th century during the Meiji Restoration. In this period, Japanwas undergoing rapid modernization and internationalization. Implementing Western advancements,
Japan allowed global trade and diplomatic relations. With it came a big variety of foreign concepts
and knowledge, products, and ideas. However, it was the English language that eventually came to thefore as the main source of new loanwords. In the mid-20th century 80 % of loanwords in Japanese
were English loanwords with numbers increasing. This may be due to the global predominance andworldwide influence of the US American economy and media industry. English loanwords, translated
into katakana script, proved not only to be linguistic borrowings, but also evidence of cultural

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exchange. Today Katakana loanwords play an important role in everyday language in Japan. Beyond
purely linguistic interest, the use of English loanwords in Japanese reveals an interesting cultural
phenomenon. In some cases, Japanese speakers choose native Japanese kanji words, evoking a senseof authenticity and cultural or linguistic heritage. Conversely, a preference for katakana loanwords
may indicate a desire for modernity, international trends, or even a touch of cosmopolitan flair.
Additionally, the nuanced connotations and meanings associated with certain katakana words could
make them more appropriate than their Japanese equivalents in certain contexts. Therefore, theadoption of English loanwords in the form of katakana words has brought a variety of benefits andchallenges and shaped the linguistic landscape of Japanese. In some circumstances Katakana words
often convey a sense of modernity and internationality, fitting Japan's status as a global player invarious industries. By using these loanwords, Japanese speakers can effortlessly incorporate modern
ideas, technology, and trends into their daily conversations. By doing so it comes to no surprise that
Katakana words convey special meanings associated with certain concepts, mostly of non-Japaneseorigin. For this work of special interest are those words which were implemented into the Japanese
language despite already having a Japanese counterpart. While these Katakana words still offer the
beforehand elaborated benefits they might also come with some challenges. Because global trends andkatakana expressions are constantly evolving it is important for Japanese speakers to be familiar withthe latest Katakana terms. The fast pace of language change in some aspects can require constantadaptation of language use, which can be challenging for some people. Especially for some words thathave a Japanese counterpart, expressing a similar meaning, it might raise the concern of potential
dilution of cultural identity. Some critics argue that an over-reliance on foreign terms could lead to a
gradual erosion of traditional Japanese vocabulary and the cultural nuances associated with it.
The aim of this research project is to explore the motivations and preferences behind language choice.
This research project studies the use of English loanwords in the Japanese language, specificallyfocusing on their occurrence and commonness compared to their original Japanese equivalents andthe underlying reasons behind their implementation.

Methodology
In the following will the procedures be described used to collect data about the use of English
loanwords in the Japanese language. For the objective to investigate how and to what extent certain
Katakana words are implemented, perception of them as well as the opinion on the use of foreign
Katakana words, a survey targeting Japanese native speakers was held. The survey questionnaire
includes questions related to the frequency of English loanword usage, as well as inquiries into themotivations behind using katakana words. A list of sample words, comparing English words, Katakana

12loanwords and Japanese equivalents, was included in the survey to provide a context of words that
could be evaluated in terms of frequency and preference. It was further intended to explore whether
and which situation-dependency favors the use of certain words. It was intended to interview about 30
to 50 people in order to obtain statistical significance. The survey was held online, accessible througha QR-Code. For the spread of the survey, a small flyer was designed and handed out. The survey wastargeting mainly native speaking Japanese university Students but it was open for any age group to
answer.

Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and percentages, were used to summarize theinformation and the frequency of loanword usage. Moreover, responses to open-ended questions wereanalyzed qualitatively to identify recurring themes and motivations behind loanword preferences.

Results
In the following, the results of the online survey will
be presented and trends and majorities, as well as themain points of interest will be summarized. All
participants interviewed were in the age range of 18 to
25 years. Despite the fact that there were no
restrictions on age, these survey results only reflect the
young population. 33 people were interviewed, which
was within the set minimum number of participants.
First, the participants were shown a list of English
katakana loanwords and Japanese equivalents.
Figure 1: Chart showing that majority of respondents

Referring to this list of 26 katakana loanwords andlike using katakana words

Japanese equivalents, from which participants wereasked to intuitively choose preferred usage, a large majority of 81.8% responded that they use Japanesewords and katakana words of this list about equally often. A similar majority of 78.8% stated frequent
use of katakana loanwords in everyday conversations, while the remaining 21.2% reported occasionaluse. Thus, all respondents state that they use loan words in everyday life. This use of language seems
to please more than half of the respondents at 57.6%, as they indicated that they like the use of katakanaloanwords. A third of respondents (33.3%) were neutral about the use of katakana loanwords. The
reason of use given by 21 people (63.6%) is that katakana loanwords more accurately express themeaning of what they intend to say compared to their Japanese equivalents. A little more than a thirdof the respondents underline this and state that they use katakana loan words because they are better
understood depending on the context. These results correspond very closely to those of the questionof whether loan words help respondents to express meanings that they cannot express in the same way
with the Japanese words. Here, 63.6% said they would agree and 33.3% would occasionally agree.

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Another reason given by a quarter of those surveyed is that they use them because they are used byfriends and the media. None of the respondents reported using katakana loanwords to sound "cool" or"trendy." About half of the respondents stated that they rarely encounter new katakana loan words ineveryday life and incorporate them into their own vocabulary. However, a third state this as often.
75.8% of all respondents find the general occurrence of katakana loanwords to be very often, but are
neutral about it. 12.1% feel the amount of katakana loan words in the Japanese language in everyday
life is just right, while a small proportion of respondents at 9.1% feel the amount is too much. Thisnaturally leads to the question in which situations people tend to use katakana loanwords. Respondents
were free to answer this open question, with three patterns in particular emerging. On the one hand, it
is often used in colloquial situations among friends. Furthermore, it is also very often used in context
of Western-associated subject areas and knowledge originally imported from Western countries. The
third area is frequent use in business or in digital contexts such as computers. Respondents' attitudes
were relatively balanced as to whether there are situations in which they actively try to avoid katakanaloanwords. 42.4% reported not actively avoiding katakana loanwords in certain situations. However,
33.3% try to use only Japanese words instead of loan words in certain situations. The situations given
by most respondents were relatively similar, with business, official and school situations, as well as
when speaking to teachers or higher-ups, being the most common responses. While usage in businesssituations is somewhat inconsistent with the previously reported usage of katakana loanwords inbusiness situations, the results show a clear trend. Katakana loanwords are used by most respondents
predominantly in private interactions with friends and less in official and important situations. The
majority of respondents, 69.7%, said they believe katakana loan words improve their understandingof the English language and culture. On the other hand, only 21.2% denied this. Regarding the use of
katakana loanwords, almost all respondents with a majority of 93.9% indicated that they perceive a
difference between the generations. Since the respondents are all young people, this suggests that there
is a difference in the handling and use of katakana loanwords compared to older generations.
Furthermore, the survey results on the use of English loanwords in the form of katakana words in theJapanese language from the list of English katakana loanwords and Japanese equivalents revealed thatinteresting patterns and preferences emerge among the respondents. Of the 26 words evaluated, there
was a clear difference between those with a majority preferring the Japanese kanji word and thosewith a clear majority preferring the katakana word. For 10 of the words, the majority of the participantschose the Japanese kanji word. This suggests that in these cases, the Japanese equivalent conveys asense of authenticity, familiarity, or formality that resonates with respondents, or the meaning of theloanword may be different, making them prefer it over the katakana loanword. With 12 words, on theother hand, a clear majority of the participants tended towards the katakana word. This preferenceindicates a prevailing tendency to use expressions of foreign origin in certain contexts. The katakanaloanwords seemed to have a specific connotation or meaning that resonated better than their Japanese

14

counterparts or more closely matched theassociated meaning. It is still possible thatthese katakana words offer a contemporary ormodern perspective and an alternative topossibly outdated or cumbersome Japaneseterms. Interestingly, for 5 of these 12 katakana
words, not a single participant chose theJapanese word, but decided unanimously forthe katakana loan word. This unanimous
preference underscores the powerful appeal
and relevance of these words in modern
Japanese communication, underscoring theirusefulness in conveying specific nuances orideas that may not be fully captured by theirnative Japanese equivalents. On the other
hand, there was no unanimous choice of theJapanese kanji word for any word, as a few
respondents always chose the katakana
version. This suggests that even when aJapanese equivalent exists, some of the
population is drawn to the English-originated Figure 2: Graph showing the statistical distribution of preferred use
expressions,perhaps

becauseof

theirassociation with modernity, global trends, or aof certain katakana loanwords and Japanese words. The third chartshows roughly evenly distributed usage. Katakana loanwords inblue, Japanese Kanji words in red.

sense of internationalism. Interestingly, there were four words where the distribution of preferences
between katakana and Japanese words was roughly equal. With these words, it can be assumed thatboth versions are considered interchangeable by respondents and the choice of expression may dependon personal preference, context or regional differences in usage.

Discussion and conclusion
Through the conducted survey, a lot of interesting patterns and insights on preferences about the useof English loanwords in the form of Katakana words in the Japanese language could be obtained.
These gained valuable insights regard motivations and choices behind language selection, showing
various linguistic, cultural, and societal factors behind the use of Katakana words. One of the key
findings was the widespread usage of Katakana loanwords in everyday conversations among thesurveyed participants. A large majority of respondents reported frequent usage of these loanwords,

15

demonstrating their commonness in modern Japanese communication. This popularity reflects theintegration of global trends and concepts into the current linguistics of the Japanese language.
Katakana words allow Japanese speakers efficient communication of special meanings and expressionof modern ideas. The survey results provided insights into the motivations behind the preference for
Katakana loanwords. A significant majority of participants expressed that these loanwords moreaccurately conveyed the intended meaning compared to their Japanese equivalents. This highlights theperceived effectiveness of Katakana expressions in capturing specific nuances or concepts that may
not be fully conveyed by native Japanese words. Another notable motivation for using Katakanaloanwords was their association with specific contexts and areas of knowledge, particularly those with
Western origins. Respondents frequently cited using Katakana words in colloquial settings withfriends, as well as in Western-associated subject areas and technology-related discussions. Although
it was commonly stated that the participants often used Katakana words because of their special
meaning, many stated that they try to avoid using them in official situations or when speaking tohigher-ups. These underlines that every day Katakana words are more associated with private settings
and Japanese words carry a sense of authenticity. Interestingly, the survey results indicated adifference in the handling and use of Katakana loanwords between younger and older generations.
The majority of young respondents believed that the use of Katakana loanwords differs between
generations, suggesting a shift in language preferences and cultural attitudes toward foreign-derived
expressions. This indication is substantiated by considering similar studies done about a decade and ahalf ago, which concluded that only about a quarter of the respondents liked the use of katakanaloanwords, and nearly half disliked the use. This is in contrast to the results of this survey, in whichmore than half of the respondents like the use of katakana loan words and only a small proportion
actively dislike the use. It is possible that this result could be different with a statistically larger numberof respondents. However, it should also be noted that the people surveyed completely represent a
young target group, which was not represented in previous surveys. Therefore, this could be anindication of changing preferences in Japanese language usage and linguistic changes. The use ofEnglish loanwords in the form of Katakana words has become an integral part of the modern Japanese
language, reflecting the nation's openness to cultural exchange and global trends. The survey results
provided understanding of the motivations and preferences behind language choices among Japanese
speakers. Katakana loanwords offer significant advantages, allowing for efficient communication ofmodern ideas and facilitating cross-cultural understanding. Their prevalence in various contexts,
including colloquial conversations and specialized subject areas, demonstrates their versatility andimpact on modern Japanese expression. However, some Katakana words are also used despite thepresence of a Japanese word for the same meaning. This also brings in some instances the need forcautious consideration of the potential impact of excessive foreign loanwords on cultural identity andlinguistic heritage. As Japan continues to embrace global influences, keeping a balance between
preserving traditional vocabulary and adopting foreign expressions might remain important. As
Japan's linguistic landscape continues to evolve, a deeper understanding of the role and implicationsof Katakana loanwords becomes increasingly relevant. This research project contributes valuable16

insights into the dynamics of language adaptation and influences shaping the Japanese language. The
findings provide a basis for further exploration and discussion on language development in the context
of a rapidly globalizing world.

References
Mao, Lingshuang, and Mans Hulden. 2002 ‘How Regular Is Japanese Loanword Adaptation? A
Computational Study’. NUCB journal of language culture and communictation

Olah, Ben. 2007 ‘English Loanwords in Japanese: Effects, Attitudes and Usage as a Means of
Improving Spoken English Ability’. 文京学院大学人間学部研究紀要

Rebuck, Mark. 2016 ‘The Function of English Loanwords in Japanese’.
Proceedings of COLING 2016, the 26th International Conference on Computational
Linguistics: Technical Papers

17

From Edo to Now: The Impact of the Sankin kotai system on the Formation andIntegration of Japanese Culture
Naudia Steele
University of North Carolina at Greensboro (United States of America)

Summary
本リサーチでは、江戸時代の参勤交代の発展が今日の日本文化の中でどのように生き続け、日本社会にどのような影響を与え、それがどのような形で今日の日本文化に見られる現象に繋がるかを分析する。まず、江戸時代について紹介し、参勤交代に関連すると考えた江戸時代のいく
つかの現象について検討した。次に、それが何であったか、どのように作られたか、そしてそれが当時の日本人及び社会にどのような影響を与えたか等、参勤交代について考察した。本リサーチを実施するにあたり、学生を対象として行った調査も行った。調査結果をもって、今の若者はどれほど参勤交代について知っているか、参勤交代が日本文化に与えた影響について知っているか等を確認することができ、日本文化及び社会についての理解をさらに深めることができたのである。

Introduction
We all know that history can repeat itself, we also know that history defines many factors in today’s
world. These factors can include aspects of past culture, and society. These bits of history from thepast shape a lot of today’s current culture and societal ways of life. The questions we always ask are:“How?” and “Why?” How and why did this point in history create the significance of today’s modern
society. Through investigating instances of the past, we can answer those questions.
To begin, there is important background information to know, my focus is on the Edo period,and on how creations from then have become a part of Japanese culture and still exist today. One of
the major factors that defined the Edo period was the Bakuhan system, a historical social system thatplaced daimyo, feudal lords who were vassals of the Tokugawa, under the absolute authority andpower of the shogunate. A necessary instrument of political control developed and employed by the
shogunate was the sankin kotai system. A rule was created by this system that demanded daimyo under
the shogunate go to Edo and live there for a year. This caused many issues for those who had to travel
which caused great expenses, inability to directly control their own domains, etc. Even though thismay seem like an issue, there were quite a few positives that bloomed out of the sankin kotai system
if we continue to investigate it deeper. Along the paths that were most traveled to get to the shogunate’s
capital, many stores and rest stops would happen to pop-up. With this trade had also begun to takeroot along these paths, leading to economic growth(Tsukahira,1966).

18This one instant of history in the Edo period is proof that history can mold today’s current
culture and societal ways. The paths that the Bakuhan system opened further developed Japan’s culture
into what we see it as today. We can expand further into the Edo period to analyze even more waysthat the past shaped the present.
In this research project, I analyzed significant Edo events, specifically the introduction,function, and effect of the sankin kotai system, and considered how they had shaped today’s Japanesesociety. I collected information from history-related websites, literature, and other sources that involveor include the Edo period. I also visited historical sites, such as Yakage, that were involved in the Edo
period to better understand the culture and events of the Edo period. I conducted a survey related to
the Edo period. My focus was on the sankin kotai system. In the survey, I asked the respondents suchquestions as, “Do you know any current aspect of Japanese culture related to the Edo period?” or “Do
you know what sankin kotai is, and how this system affected the culture and economy of Japan?” Thetarget of my survey were mostly Japanese and foreign students who had some prior knowledge of thehistory of Japan and Japanese people. But I expected that some people would know, and some people
would not know about Japanese history.
It would be great to learn more about Japan’s past and the hidden meanings of everythingaround me today. The work I accomplished was overall a good learning experience that deepened myunderstanding of the topic and further enhanced my interest in Japanese society and culture.
To start, the Edo period was known for many cultural and societal innovations. The licensed
quarters are one of the innovations that came from the Edo period. Though the licensed quarters are
not around in today’s modern Japan, they still exist in different forms. During the Edo period thelicensed quarters were cultural centers as they were the setting and source for arts, literature, theater,and music. The people hired in the licensed quarters went wherever they were demanded. This can bea direct correlation to today’s nightlife. There are many places in Japan that have a more active
nightlife than other parts or prefectures. Nightlife can be a big part of many cultures, including Japan
where tourism is high, and places stay open for longer hours. While licensed quarters are not thebiggest point in the Edo period, it still offers a lot of history and value. The licensed quarters also
focused on talents and arts, which in today’s Japanese society can be seen in schools. Schools have
many clubs where people join and learn different skills, thus evolving the way people learn anddevelop talents.

Licensed Quarters

19

Language is also a big part of any culture. During the Edo period, language developed in aninteresting way. There were many dialects at the time of the Edo period. For example, you have theEdo dialect which became the national language at that time. Dialects differed in a way that certain
dialects would either drop syllables or the pronunciation would be different (Gerstle, 2000). These
differences in dialect are still clear today in Japan. Dialect being developed has also increased theliteracy of people in Japan. With this Joruri was developed. Joruri was a wonderful way to show how
tastes changed throughout the Edo period (Gerstle, 2000). Joruri is the art of manipulating puppets
with music as the background. Joruri included a dramatic narrative that was told by chanters. Joruri
may not have had the biggest impact during the Edo period, but it shows a lot about what was
happening during that time. The stories could have been passed down by generations. Stories thoughhave a significant impact on culture and society. Stories tell us how people lived and the things theyused to do during their time. This can be helpful in analyzing what has stayed throughout the years inculture and in society.
Another thing to note about stories is how they usually have repeating patterns. They haverepeating patterns as people from modern times use the stories from the past as inspiration. They use
this inspiration to fuel arts and literature or form opinions that others might view as correct. That isthe beauty of art and literature ever evolving.

1. Sankin Kotai System
As we know, modern society and culture evolved from the past. Past experiences and history thatstayed until this day. During the Edo period the government at the time developed in an interesting
way. There were two levels of government during the Edo period, each with their own high degree of
independence. One of these levels of government was called the Tokugawa shogunate. The Tokugawa
shogunate handled administration of limited territory. There were many responsibilities that they
oversaw. For example, they collected taxes, kept civil order, and so on. The Tokugawa shogunate had
developed a system called the sankin kotai system. The sankin kotai system was a big part of the Edo
period. Developed in the Edo period it was a system that some loved yet some disagreed with. The
sankin kotai was also known as the alternate residence duty. Under the Tokugawa shogunate there
were people called daimyo. Daimyo were under the Tokugawa government. The daimyo were required
under the Tokugawa shogunate to live in Edo for a year. Most daimyo did not agree with this systembecause they had to leave their family behind and only bring members that were considered important.
The daimyo were needed to stay in Edo for a year and then were able to go back to their home (Walk
Japan, 2021).
The sankin kotai’s system involved a lot of traveling. On the routes that developed due tothe sankin kotai system, the emergence of trade routes also followed. Trade routes are a reliable sourceof income for the economy and even for culture and arts. This improved a lot of national commerce
and the financial system during the Edo period. The developed trade routes also brought together
people and their ideas, making it a splendid example of Japan’s cultural unity.

20

Along the trade routes, cities had started to develop. One of these cities was Yakage inOkayama Prefecture. Yakage is one of the routes that developed during the Edo period due to thealternate residence duty. Yakage is a historical town where samurai stayed during the Edo period(Yakage, 2020). Today, the town is proud of its past, and they have many activities to show the history
of Yakage. These activities include the Daimyo Gyoretsu parade.

Yakage’s Daimyo Gyorestu
Daimyo Gyoretsu is a parade that is held in the historical town of Yakage. The Daimyo
Gyoretsu parade is held every year on the second Sunday of November. The parade is described as a
grand costumed parade, and it is said that it reenacts how the regional lords entered the town on their
way to Edo. The regional lords would travel between their territory and the capital once every two
years. There are about eighty people in the parade each year. These people include the regional lords,
their retainers, handmaids, and so on to show power and dignity (Yakage, 2020).
Yakage is a notable example of living proof of the Edo period still existing to this day. Yakage
can give us a glimpse of the Edo period that made it the town that it is today. Yakage is also where
you can see the samurai accommodations and the samurai second accommodations, respectively
named Yakage Honjin and Waki Honjin. Yakage is a wonderful place for youth or even older
generations who may know about the Edo period to experience and learn.
Though the sankin kotai was made in 1635 there was a point in time during the years of 17221730 where the system was suspended (Frederic,2002). As said in the beginning the sankin kotai
system was made so that the Tokugawa shogunate could have a better control over their daimyo
making them weak and under the control of the shogunate. For the daimyo this was an event for them.
The daimyo had to pay for everything just to live in their Yashiki, which is just another name for theirresidence in Edo (Frederic,2002). Though this was an expensive process, we also see that it broughtlots of unity within Japan and peace to the people. It has helped with the national economy and has
also contributed to the development of Edo, as well as the development of waystations and majorroads.

21

Traveling to Edo.
With all the positives that the sankin kotai system has done for the Edo period the sankin kotai
system was eliminated in the year 1862, when Japan started to approach a new era of modernization,
forgetting about the rules and customs of feudal Japan.

2. Survey about the Sankin Kotai System
As part of the procedure, I conducted a survey about the sankin kotai system. To note, this survey wassent to a class that was learning about the sankin kotai system and history of Japan in general. The
class consisted of Japanese and foreigners. What we can conclude from this is they may or may nothave had prior knowledge of the sankin kotai system before enrolling into the class. I had several
questions about people’s knowledge of Japan, or their place of study’s history which is here in Japan.
To start I asked if the people doing the survey were Japanese or foreigners. Most who answered wereof Japanese origin. The next questions all evaluated people’s knowledge if they knew anything of thesankin Kotai system or not. When asked the question “Do you know what the sankin kotai system isand the effects of it on modern Japanese society?” Given that this survey was held online via a QR
scan, I could not see their face when reacting to the question, but their answers gave them away. Whilemost was confident in their answer, many were also wary. For this question specifically since I had
already mentioned that I would be talking to foreign students who had prior knowledge of Japan’s
history, many of my answers were positive, yet most Japanese people do not know a lot of the history
that has occurred in Japan, this can even be true for people outside of Japan. Foreigners may not know
their own country's history but choose to study Japan’s history making them more likely to know about
Japanese history than Japanese people.
The next question asked was if anybody knew any routes or places that could have been
affected by the sankin kotai system. Many people did not know, but there were a few mentions of
Tokaido and Yakage. Here this is showing that either some did their research, in the past or recently.
This just goes to show that some people are unaware of the history that surrounds us.
I then asked if anybody had noticed any similarities between the sankin kotai system andtoday’s Japanese society. Majority of these answers were no. Yet that was to be expected. People areusually unaware where their history comes from, and that is why we need to research and find out that
history for ourselves. The ability and readiness to understand our history in origins can further evolve

22

current situations. It is also important to know about your past because it can affect your future in a
way that may even surprise you.
The next question was if they had known any material related to the sankin kotai system. Thiscan include anything from books or even physical objects, if they were related to the Edo period. Oneof the examples that was received was a ship called Gozasen. The Gozasen was used by daimyo in
Kyushu and Shikoku. This was interesting as this could have been involved in the routes thatdeveloped during the Edo period.
Lastly, I asked if the respondents knew anything about the sankin kotai system. This was thetrue test of their knowledge about the sankin kotai system. An answer that stood out to me the mostwas one that mentioned that the sankin kotai system was to prevent the daimyo from saving money
during the Edo period. The answer also said that the daimyo’s wife and children were to stay in Edo
as hostages. They also mentioned that Tokugawa Iemistu who was the third shogun of the Edo
shogunate was the one who started this, and it was valid until the Edo period ended is what they
thought. While the information I gathered went a little different from what this person has answered,
it is a fitting example of how history changes in the eyes of those who are hearing it. This is also in
general an interesting take because while books would say that the daimyo would only leave theirfamily and kids, this person answered that the wife and kids were being held hostage. This also shows
the differences in interpretation as well. There could be many interpretations in the books that manymight view differently from each other. That is why it is also important to try and find correct facts aswell, to dig deeper and uncover what made us the people we are today.

Conclusion
The known fact that history tends to repeat itself is known throughout the times. Yet we must ask
ourselves, do we really know our history? Do we know the truth and reasoning behind certain eventsin time and what they did to our future? The answer is not an easy one to answer. It is all up to theperson themselves to try and understand history wherever it may be. I believe with a deep
understanding of our past, history, and even current events, we would be able to understand how
people came to be. Many cultures and beliefs were instilled so long ago yet some people may not evenrealize that. A thorough understanding can lead to greater evolution of creating the future with ourown hands.

List of references:
1. 18th Century Japan. Culture and Society. By C. Andrew Gerstle. Edition 1st Edition. First
Published 2000.

23

2. Feudal Control in Tokugawa Japan. Author: Toshio G. Tsukahira. Harvard University Asia
Center. 1966.
3. Tokugawa Political System https://www.nakasendoway.com/tokugawa-political-system/ Last
accessed: 5/24/23.
4. Jōruri | Bunraku, Chikamatsu, Kabuki https://www.britannica.com/ Last accessed: 7/26/23.
5. About us(EN) https://japan-yakage.jp/aboutus_en Last accessed: 7/21/23.
6.

Japan Encyclopedia by Louis Frederic. Harvard University Press, 2002

7. https://www.into-you.jp/en/places/8512/
8. https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/g00885/

24“The Warrior Who Surpasses Death”: The Lasting Legacy of Honda Tadakatsu
Grace Boman グレース ボメーン
Wichita State University (United States of America)

Summary: 本多忠勝は 1548 年から 1610 年まで生きた勇敢な武士である。彼は徳川家康の信頼できる同盟者であり、厳しい戦いの中で家康を助けた。本多忠勝は、戦いの最中に一度も怪我をしなかったことから「死を超えた武士」と呼ばれた。戦いに長け、真の武士道精神を持っていた。
徳川家康に忠誠を誓い、あらゆる戦いで家康を助ける強さを持っていた。こうした本多忠勝の徳川家に対する忠誠心と強さは彼の遺産でもあり、本多忠勝が未だ世界中の人々の関心を引き付け、彼らの憧れの的になっている理由でもある。

Introduction
Throughout the history of Japan, there have been thousands of notable samurai that made aname for themselves through their skill on the battlefield and their conduct off of it. Thesesamurai’s names have gone down in history as the greatest warriors of Japan and areremembered and studied to this very day. What makes them so memorable? Was it theirextreme skill on the battlefield as off of it, being unwaveringly loyal to their cause and doing
whatever their master asked of them, even if it led them to an early grave? Or was it somethingelse entirely? One of the many samurai that history remembers is Honda Tadakatsu, but his
name stands out among the many due to his abilities on the battlefield. He earned himself thenickname “the warrior who surpasses death itself”, and in his lifetime he helped establish theTokugawa Shogunate. Honda Tadakatsu’s legacy is vast, and yet many do not know who heis. What is the true extent of Honda Tadakatsu’s legacy, and how has it affected people today?
The Legacy of Honda Tadakatsu
Honda Tadakatsu was born in 1548 in Okazaki, Mikawa, in what is the modern-day Aichi
prefecture. Not much is known about his early life other than the fact that he dedicated himself
to serve Tokugawa Ieyasu, the third of the three “Great Unifiers” of Japan and the founder of
the Tokugawa shogunate. He was said to have participated in his first battle at the age of 12
and by the age of 15, he was already achieving fame for his military exploits. By the time hereached the age of 19, he was chosen to be a hatamoto sakiteyaku of Ieyasu, meaning he wasa direct retainer of his lord, and he lived near Ieyasu’s castle and performed as a hatamotocommander, leading others for Tokugawa Ieyasu.
Honda Tadakatsu’s legacy becomes more obvious later in his life as time and battles
progress. Despite being one of Ieyasu’s most loyal retainers and participating in countlessbattles, he is said to never have received a single injury, earning himself the title “the warrior
who surpasses death itself.” He also earned a number of other accolades. Along with a few

25other of Tokugawa Ieyasu’s most trusted and loyal retainers, he was named one of the shitenno,
or the “Four Heavenly Guardians” of the Tokugawa clan. Oda Nobunaga, another notable
warrior and the first of the “Great Unifiers,” referred to Tadakatsu as a “samurai among
samurai.” Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a retainer to Oda Nobunaga and the second of the “Great
Unifiers,” called Tadakatsu “the best samurai of the east.” Takeda Shingen said that the only
things above Tokugawa Ieyasu were “his helmet and Honda Tadakatsu.” Shingen was anothersamurai like Honda Tadakatsu with a well-known name and great influence in his region.
Even Sakon Kasugi, a member of the Takeda clan, was said to have praised Honda Tadakatsu,
claiming that he was too good of a samurai for a man like Tokugawa Ieyasu (Glenn, 2021:
178). Many people, friends, and enemies alike, praised Honda Tadakatsu for his prowess inbattle and his conduct off of it.
Honda Tadakatsu was well-known for his skills, but he was also easily recognizable
by his armor and weapon of choice. Honda Tadakatsu’s armor was lightweight, made fromraw leather that had been dried and reinforced with steel rods. Unlike most of his allies, whosearmor was heavy and bulky, his armor was made to be lightweight while remaining protective.
This lightweight armor was likely to allow him increased speed and mobility on the battlefield.
Perhaps this is how he managed to participate in so many battles without receiving a single
injury. The large deer antlers that adorned his helmet made it easy to spot him in a battle,
though they were not real deer antlers—they were paper mâché copies. He wore the antlers
to strike fear into the hearts of his opponents and to honor an memorable experience he had
following a battle. The story goes that in 1560, following the Battle of Okehazama, where
they defeated the Imagawa clan, Honda Tadakatsu was attempting to lead Tokugawa Ieyasu
back to the castle, but due to recent rain, the rivers were full. When trying to find a way across,a stag appeared and showed Tadakatsu how to cross. Tadakatsu believed it to be a sign andadopted the antlers of the stag so he could continue to guide his lord. His spear was also
known far and wide as the “dragonfly cutter,” as it was said that the spear was so sharp it
would split a dragonfly that landed on it in two (Glenn, 2021: 79,112,118).
Honda Tadakatsu was a highly effective samurai, but like most samurai of the time,
he was unable to adapt to the new world order in Japan after the Battle of Sekigahara, thelargest and most important battle of Japanese feudal history. He had grown very accustomed
to the constant war and fighting of the Sengoku period, and the peace that came during thereign of Tokugawa left him with very little to do. He was given land in Otaki for his service
to Tokugawa Ieyasu, and it was there that he built a castle where he spent the remainder of
his days. A story goes that when woodcarving, Tadakatsu received his first wound in his life,a small cut on his hand. It is said that when he saw the blood, he was angry that his first wound
was received in such a small and insignificant way, and he realized that his time had come.
He died a few months later in 1610 (Glenn, 2021: 119).
Honda Tadakatsu was often referred to as one of the best samurai of the time, and it iseasy to see why. His strength, his dedication to his lord, and his exploits make it clear why

26

people referred to him as the greatest of the samurai of the time. Honda Tadakatsu perfectly
exemplified what it meant to be a samurai. The samurai had seven principles to live by,conceptualized as Bushido in the 19th century by Nitobe Inazo. These principles wererighteousness, loyalty, honor, respect, honesty, courage, and consistency (Nitobe 2001). These
principles are the basis for the samurai, and it is expected that every samurai follow them andlive them throughout all their actions, something that Tadakatsu did.
Of the seven principles of Bushido, the ones that Tadakatsu exhibited the most are
loyalty and courage. Like all samurai, Tadakatsu was loyal to his lord, but he never once
wavered in that loyalty from when he was a young boy all the way to his death. He served
Tokugawa Ieyasu through nearly every major battle up to the Tokugawa period. Many
people’s loyalties wavered throughout the tumultuous Sengoku period, but Tadakatsu wassteadfast in his devotion to Ieyasu. His courage was also something many other samurai
looked up to him for. This is shown best in his pursuit of Toyotomi Hideyoshi despite being
severely outnumbered during the Komaki campaign. Tadakatsu was left at Komaki while
Tokugawa Ieyasu went to Nagakute. While there, he saw Toyotomi Hideyoshi lead a large
army in pursuit of Tokugawa. Tadakatsu rushed to intercept him, despite being outnumbered
by 50 to 1, and Hideyoshi was so struck by Honda Tadakatsu’s bravery that he ordered noharm come to him or his men, successfully buying time for Tokugawa to get away (Glenn
2021: 112). One of the other biggest principles of being a samurai is that samurai cannot fear
death. Tadakatsu didn’t fear death; death seemed to fear him as he escaped from every major
battle without sustaining any injuries. These facts made Tadakatsu the ideal samurai of thetime, a fact for which he was famous.
Honda Tadakatsu also showed the respect and righteousness expected of samurai. His
dedication to Tokugawa Ieyasu proved his respect for the other man. He also had respect forothers, creatures included. During the Battle of Sekigahara, when he was charging at enemy
lines, a volley of arrows shot and killed his horse. In the midst of the battle raging around him,
he took a moment to pray for his horse before continuing to fight (Glenn 2021: 118. Despite
it posing a significant risk to him in such an important battle, he still paid the proper respects
to his loyal animal companion. His righteousness is less obvious, but through his actions inbattle and his loyalty to his lord, it’s obvious that Honda Tadakatsu was a righteous man. The
respect he showed to all on and off the battlefield proves it.
Consistency was also a big part of Honda Tadakatsu’s legacy. There’s nothing moreconsistent than participating in countless battles throughout your career and dodging a single
injury the entire time. Consistency was seen in every part of his life: his training, his battles,
his loyalty to Tokugawa Ieyasu. He was even consistent after peace had been established,having grown so accustomed to the constant battles of the Sengoku period that he struggled
to adjust to the peace of Tokugawa’s rule. His consistency made him a valuable asset in battle,
but it also made him struggle when he was without battle, leaving him (and many othersamurai) scrambling for purpose in a new world where the roles of the samurai and the ideals

27of the Bushido were no longer needed (Glenn 2021: 118-119).
Survey and Analysis
Honda Tadakatsu is one of the more famous figures in Japanese history, with a name that is
easily recognizable and a long list of accomplishments, but specific history is difficult to trackdown—especially if the researcher is not a native Japanese speaker. Sources about his earlylife are few and far between, and it can be difficult to collect information about anything otherthan the aid he provided to Tokugawa Ieyasu. Most of the resources in English are surface
level, while the more in-depth information is written in high level Japanese. I was stillinterested in the topic, determined to learn more about Honda Tadakatsu and his legacy. My
concern was, do young Japanese people really know about Honda Tadakatsu? Do theyrecognize his name? Do they know about his accomplishments, the people he fought
alongside, and how well he reflects the title of samurai?
As a part of this project, to deepen my knowledge of the subject and learn about
Japanese society more, I conducted a survey. The survey was given to ten Japanese people,
all either college students or at higher levels of education. They were asked if they knew who
Honda Tadakatsu was, if they recognized the names of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Oda Nobunaga,
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Sakai Ietsugu. They were then asked to name some of the traits ofsamurai that they thought were important, and then they were asked if they were interested inlearning more about Honda Tadakatsu. The intentions of these questions was to gauge if
Japanese students knew who Honda Tadakatsu was, and to compare how many knew of
Honda Tadakatsu versus some of the other people Honda Tadakatsu regularly interacted with,starting with Tokugawa Ieyasu. They were asked about the traits of the samurai to see what
traits they deemed most important for a samurai and to see if those traits could be easily linked
to Honda Tadakatsu. Finally, they were asked about learning more about Honda Tadakatsu
further to simply see if there was any interest in furthering their knowledge of the samurai,
their history and culture.
When asked if they knew Honda Tadakatsu, five of the ten participants I asked said
they knew him. However, when asked if they knew of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Toyotomi Hideyoshi,
or Oda Nobunaga, all ten people said they knew of them. They were also asked about Sakai
Ietsugu, another man who praised Honda Tadakatsu, but only two of the ten had heard of him.
It’s interesting to see that despite his fame, and arguably better skills on the battlefield, Honda
Tadakatsu is not on the same level as other samurai. This may be in part owing to the fact that
he is simply a samurai and not a lord or the unifier of Japan, but it could also be due to Honda
Tadakatsu’s rather modest living. He dedicated his life to the glory of Tokugawa Ieyasu, notto his own glory, so it makes sense as to why his name may not be on the same level as theirs.
Another question asked was the ideal traits of a samurai. I wanted to compare these
ideals to traits exhibited by Honda Tadakatsu throughout his lifetime. Out of the ten responses
gathered, five had to do with the Bushido ideals previously mentioned. The ideals submitted
were loyalty, humility, and constantly striving for improvement, and the other two simply

28

mentioned Bushido. These are all traits that Honda Tadakatsu does exhibit, most especiallythe loyalty, as he dedicated his entire life to Tokugawa Ieyasu. He also greatly exhibited theideals of Bushido, as discussed at length above. The other five responses had to do withmilitary achievements, such as owning weapons, going out to fight, excelling in the martial
arts, and being a part of a military caste. There was even one answer saying that a samurai
was only a samurai if he had a topknot. These responses are not as much about the personalityof the samurai, but his actions, which are also highly important. Honda Tadakatsu was a brave
warrior who owned a strong spear, rode horses, and fought in many battles throughout his
career. Most importantly, he was never injured in a single battle, proving his incredible skill
in battle, which easily proves him as a greatly skilled samurai.
The final question asked of the Japanese participants in the survey was if they would
want to learn more about Honda Tadakatsu, the “warrior who surpasses death itself”. Eight of
the ten students said they would be interested in learning more, proving that the interest in hislife still exists in many places.Some might wonder what the point of all of this is. What does
the legacy of an old samurai have to do with the modern-day world? While it’s true that theresults of Honda Tadakatsu’s actions have long since passed, it is his spirit and strength thatpersist into the modern day. His abilities as a samurai and the dedicated life he lived has
captivated people throughout the modern day, making him a figure to look up to. As a part of
my research, I decided to check what English speakers on the internet know or think of Honda
Tadakatsu. In a comment left on a Youtube video titled, “Honda Tadakatsu: The Warrior Who
Surpassed Death Itself (Japanese History Explained)” by The Legends of History, one user
said, “Honda [Tadakatsu] is one of the most honorable and bravest Samurai to ever lived inhistory, His Unquestionable Loyalty to his lord, and those around him, his Sheer Brutally as
a Warrior strikes Fear into the hearts of his enemies even gaining their respect for him as awarrior by heart, Honda Tadakasu is definitely one of the most [deleted by author] Samurai
to ever lived during his time.” This sentiment is echoed by others in the comment section.
Another, viewer, said, “The very fact that samurai were notorious headhunters makes thisman’s reputation even more incredible. To go out of your way to make yourself as
recognizable as possible, be on the frontlines, and never receive an injury? Baffles the mind.”
Honda Tadakatsu’s influence has also reached into the realm of modern media. For
example, he appears in Pokémon Conquest, a Pokémon game about traveling the region anddefeating other castles to unite it. The game includes many references to Japanese history, so
it’s no surprise that such a well-known samurai makes an appearance as well. He also appears
in Samurai Warriors as himself, under the service of Tokugawa Ieyasu. He appears in the
Sengoku Basara series by game company Capcom, and in this game, he is referred to as “thestrongest man in the warring states.” Such a strong samurai makes for an interesting characterin any story, so it’s no surprise he’s made his way into a few as himself—a strong, capablesamurai serving his lord, Tokugawa Ieyasu.
It is obvious that even hundreds of years later, Honda Tadakatsu has made an impact

29

on the minds of people all over the world. Strangers from all over the globe unite in theiradmiration for this strong samurai, using his actions as a guide for being more like him—reliable, strong, and influential. Honda Tadakatsu was the ideal samurai, using his strength tobring greater glory to his lord and protecting the people around him without fail. His legacyof strength, loyalty, and greatness lives on through the history books and the hearts of people
whom he has touched.
Conclusion
While some may not recognize Honda Tadakatsu’s name, they will undoubtedly recognize
what he achieved. He served Tokugawa Ieyasu his whole life, helping him win countlessbattles and establish the well-known Tokugawa Shogunate. His whole life, he lived out thevalues of a true samurai. He was unwaveringly loyal to Tokugawa Ieyasu, he fought with skill
in countless battles without receiving a single scratch and retired in the peace of the reign ofTokugawa Ieyasu. He was a hero truly deserving of the famous title “samurai who surpasses
death”. Some Japanese people may not recognize his name, but they can recognize his skills
and the embodiment of the true Bushido spirit and the greatest traits of a samurai. His legacyof immense skill and the true samurai spirit has endured for the last several hundred years,
ensuring that people all over the world can learn from him and what he has done. His strengthand loyalty have inspired people to push themselves to greatness, and that is his true legacy—
not what he has done for the world, but how his name and ideals live on in the hearts of many.
References: Glenn, Chris. The Battle of Sekigahara: The Greatest, Bloodiest, Most Decisive Samurai Battle Ever.
Barnsley, Frontline Books, 2021.
Encyclopedia of Japan (Nipponica). “The meaning and easy-to-understand explanation of “Honda Tadakatsu””. (1984-1994).
Shogakukan

Encyclopedia

of

Japan

(Nipponica).

Shogakukan

Inc.

Recoveredfromkotobank.jp.

https://kotobank.jp/word/%E6%9C%AC%E5%A4%9A%E5%BF%A0%E5%8B%9D-15019.
Vaporis, Constatine Nomikos. Samurai: An Encyclopedia of Japan’s Cultured Warriors. ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2019.
Nitobe, Inazō. Bushido: The Soul of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 2001.

Other: “Honda Tadakatsu: The Warrior Who Surpassed Death Itself (Japanese History Explained)”. YouTube,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cXrfKkN6oag&lc=UgwYkydhRQzGKohrhnZ4AaABAg.

30

Roses and Lilies: Representation of Lesbian relationships in Japanese Literature andMedia
Rucker Brianna Nicole ラッカー・ブリアナ ニコル
University of North Carolina at Greensboro (United States of America)
Summary
メディア、特に文学は、その社会の見方を知るための優れた手段となり得る。どのようなメディアが制作され、誰に販売され、どのように受け入れられているかを調べることで、一般的な傾向や態度について多くを学ぶことができる。私の研究プロジェクトでは、日本社会がレズビアンの関係をどのように見ているのか、また、文学の中で表現されている関係が日本のレズビアンの関係を正確に表しているのかを探ります。まず、日本文学におけるレズビア
ンの関係の様々な表現について研究する。レズビアンの関係を取り上げた 3 つの文学作品を分析する予定です。 次に、日本における LGBTQ/レズビアンの関係に対する様々な見方について、アンケート調査とその後のフォーカス・グループを通して情報を収集する。アンケ
ートとフォーカス・グループでは、参加者に LGBTQ の関係や日本文学における表現についての見解を尋ねる。この研究では、1900 年代から現代に至るまで、レズビアンの関係とその主要なテーマを描いた日本の文学とメディアを観察し、分析する予定である。また、日本の若者の文学やメディアに対する現在の態度を解釈する予定である。この研究を通して、文学やメディアにおける関係の頻度と正確さを評価するつもりである。また、これらの関係性が日本の若者の LGBTQ 観にどの程度影響を与えているのかについても調査する予定である。
Media, specifically literature, can be an excellent way to find out a society's views. We can learn a lot about
the general tendencies and attitudes by examining what media is allowed to be produced, who it is marketed
to, and its reception. In my research project, I will explore how Japanese society views lesbian relationships
and if the relationships represented in literature are an accurate representation of Japanese lesbian
relationships. Firstly, I will study various representations of lesbian relationships in Japanese literature. I
plan to analyze three pieces of literature that feature lesbian relationships. Then, I will collect information
about various views of LGBTQ/Lesbian relationships in Japan through a survey and later a focus group. In
the survey and the focus group, participants will be asked about their views on LGBTQ relationships andtheir representation in Japanese literature. In this research I plan to observe and analyse Japanese literatureand media depicting lesbian relationships and its major themes from the 1900's to current day. I also plan
to interpret the current attitude towards literature and media from Japanese young adults. Through thisresearch I plan to evaluate the frequency and the accuracy of the relationships in literature and media. As
well as how much these relationships influence the view of LGBTQ people for Japanese young adults.

Introduction

31

Recently, there has been an increase in activism for LGBTQ citizens in Japan. While there has beenmuch progress, it needs to be researched how Japanese citizens feel about LGBTQ relationships andhow it affects everyday life.
Media, specifically literature, can be an excellent way to find out a society's views. We can learn a lot
about the general tendencies and attitudes by examining what media is allowed to be produced, who
it is marketed to, and its reception. In my research project, I will explore how Japanese society views
lesbian relationships and if the relationships represented in literature are an accurate representation ofJapanese lesbian relationships. Firstly, I will study various representations of lesbian relationships inJapanese literature and media. Then, I will collect information about various views of LGBTQ/Lesbian
relationships in Japan through a survey. In the survey, participants will be asked about their views on
LGBTQ relationships and their representation in Japanese literature and media. With this research, I
plan to help tell the stories of LGBTQ people in Japan. Since much of LGBTQ people are more
secretive and hidden in Japan, I hope this essay helps add the discussion that LGBTQ people in in
Japan and deserve to have their stories told.
Background
Japan has a complicated history with the LGBTQ community and specifically, Lesbians. Much of theanimosity towards LGBTQ people in western countries can be attributed to Abrahamic religions(Christianity, Islam, Judaism). But Shinto and Buddhism are the prominent religions in Japan.
Buddhism does not outright condemn homosexual relationships. Buddhism condemns all sex, nomatter the gender. Shinto also does not condemn homosexuality. There are many sects of Shinto.
There are currently twelve government registered sects of Shinto. Because of this however, it can be
hard to obtain a concrete answer on what Shinto thinks of homosexuality. But most sects and temples
either are in support of the community or have shown indifference. If this is the case, why would someJapanese have a negative view of same sex relationships in the 21st century? And why would theyexclude them from literary works and media? Well, the answer is complicated.
Same sex relationships were not a prohibited topic and were not viewed negatively for much of Japan’s
history. In fact, the samurai class had a culture of practicing same sex relationships upon themselves.
This included older samurai engaging in a sexual relationship with younger samurai. This was seen as
a way of educating the young men. As for women, since they are known to have freedom in choice of
their partners for much of the early classical period, were economically independent, and were not inneed of male companionship to ensure their livelihood, we may assume that the “freedom” allowed
them to engage in romantic relationships with partners of any gender. However, this started to change
after the introduction of Confucianist ideals. By the Edo period, in which Confucianism became theprevailing ideology, women lost their freedom both economically and in their private lives. During
this time much of the population was literate. Many Japanese people attended schools and were taught
to read. They were taught to read through Confucian text and primers. In these primers, “The32

Confucian classics championed a submissive role for women, expecting them to yield to the demandsof their natal families and in-laws.” (Ambros 2015, 102). For women specifically, they were taught tobe of the house and in submission too her family and later her husband's family. Because of these texts,
women's main objectives were to find a husband and be the best wife, mother, and daughter-in-law
possible. That did not include having sexual relationships with women. In fact, “Women were told to
avoid anger, harsh speech, arrogance, envy, and pride—supposedly innate to all women but mostapparent in those who lack proper cultivation, such as the lower classes. Instead, women shouldcultivate virtues such as obedience, chastity, gentleness, and calmness.” as well as being taught toavoid anything that could lead to licentious behavior (Ambros 2015, 103). Lesbian relationships
weren’t even an option for women.
Although this was the view that was placed on women during the Edo period, it did not mean nothing
was written about same sex relationships. On the contrary, “Instances of same-sex sexual acts between
women are recorded in a variety of literary, artistic, and other sources, unlike sex between men suchacts were not codified into a dô or "way" of loving. While male same-sex love developed asophisticated vocabulary for discussing the various roles taken on by the male partners as well as thedifferent contexts in which male same-sex love was practiced, love between women, althoughacknowledged, was not subject to similar elaboration and consequently there was little discussion of(or terminology for) women's same-sex love at this time.” (McLelland 2007, 2). So, during this time(1603-1867), women were not able to act freely, and discussion was not had about women sexuality.
However, even though there was no open discussion, creatives did not stop creating works that focusedon female sexuality. As McLelland also stated “‘Women's same-sex love’ (joshi dôseiai) was a topic
frequently discussed in the Japanese press from the early decades of the twentieth century.”(McLelland 2007, 1). There are many literary works that came out depicting women’s same sex love.
One famous one from around this era was The Life of an Amorous Woman by Ihara Saikaku. This
story does not feature a lesbian relationship but does include scenes of women having sex with other
women. However, it is important to mention that many of the works that included lesbians were writtenfrom the male perspective. This includes art. There are many works that were made to have men in a
voyeur position. This trend would follow into the 20th and 21st century.

Nishikawa Sukenobu (1671–1750)
It was not until after World War II that we saw a push for equal representation of all relationships. In
the 1920’s the Class S genre starts to gain popularity. Class S is a relationship between two young

33

girls at a girls' school. During the 1920’s many young girls were sent to boarding schools to gain
education. These schools were primarily attended by upper middle class or high-class families. At
these schools, “The patriarchal imperative for these girls to remain chaste and pure until (arranged)
marriage upon graduation” meant that they were discouraged if not forbidden from socializing outside
the school. The students were encouraged to form relationships with the other students. Thus, Class S
relationships were formed. However, we should keep in mind that these relationships “were notexpressions of affixed, innate, minority identity, but a transitory stage all girls passed through on theway to (heterosexual) adulthood.” (Shamoon 2021, 28). The relationship formed was seen as atemporary thing, meant for preparing girls for their heterosexual relationships waiting for them outsideof the school.
These relationships were then depicted in various Shoja magazines across Japan. One famous workthat is in the Class S genre is Hana Monogatari by Yoshiya Nobuko. Who was lesbian writer who
wrote specially in the Class S genre and was also an avid supporter for lesbian feminist but neverjoined an organization for reasons I will describe later. The relationships depicted were not supposed
to be accurate depictions of lesbian relationships. They were still considered hentai and therefore often
had sex acts depicted and were meant for heterosexual men. Most of the content of the time was writtenfrom the voyeur perspective of men. But also, the genre often portrayed the girls after they have left
school, as having a platonic relationship. Many believe that it is literary works in the Class S genrethat influenced the way that Japanese young girls have platonic relationships.
By the 1970’s, after the introduction of the feminist movement or Uman Ribu (women’s liberation) inJapan, we see more of a push for lesbian representation in media. This push is rather small however,
because much of the feminist movement in Japan excluded lesbians. As explained in the book
Rethinking Japanese Feminism, “Anecdotal evidence as well as the scarce references to lesbian
experiences in published ribu discourse makes it clear that the ribu sphere was, on the whole, not awelcoming space for lesbian-identified women—nor for women merely considering the possibility ofromantic or sexual relationships with other women.” (Bullock 2018). Love for women was still seen
as a carnal thing and made many heterosexual feminists uncomfortable. There are dozens of stories
from Japanese lesbian feminist talking about how they were mistreated and ostracized from the
movement all together. Because of this though, lesbian organizations started to form such as the
Wakakusa no Kai (Young Grass Club).
Current views of LGBTQ relationships are mixed. Over 70% of Japan’s population support same-sex
relationships. However, the conservative side of Japan is against same sex- relationships and has been
actively opposing the movement for the legalization of same-sex unions. Article 24 of the Japaneseconstitution, which often becomes the debate over legalization, states: “Marriage shall be based only
on the mutual consent of both sexes, and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with theequal rights of husband and wife as a basis” (The Constitution of Japan, 1947, Art. 24). The

34

conservatives use this article of the constitution to state that same-sex marriage should not be legalized.
The progressive side believes that this article was to ensure that there were no more forced marriages,that the article is outdated and should not be used to limit human rights. While many legal scholars
are still fighting over its interpretation, cities and municipalities have taken it upon themselves to giveat least some protection to same-sex unions. These practices put in place by Shibuya Ward in Tokyoin 2014 to issue partnership certificates to same-sex couples rapidly spread across Japan, reaching
4,186 by December 31st, 2022.
Methodology
The location the research was conducted was Okayama University, Okayama city, Japan. Okayama isa prefecture in the Chugoku region of Japan. The population chosen was the student population at
Okayama University who could speak English. There is a mixture of Japanese students andinternational students living in Japan at the time of the survey. I used judgement sampling andconvenience sampling to find respondents for the survey. I decided on convivence sampling as well
as snowball sampling because of the nature of the topic. Speaking about LGBTQ people in Japan isstill often times considered a taboo. For this reason, if the people who I already knew chose people toshare the survey with who they believed would be comfortable with it, it made for the best and safest
outcome. For the research itself, I used a structured, self-administered, online interview (CASI). I
created an online questionnaire to collect responses. In the survey, demographic questions were asked
as well as questions about respondents view of various topics corresponding to a LIKERT scale. The
survey was also completely anonymous. I used this because all respondents would get the samequestions and there would be no worry about interviewer bias or response effects, based on featuresof the interviewer. As Bernard states, “In self-administered interviews, people aren’t trying to impress
anyone, and anonymity provides a sense of security, which produces more reports of things likepremarital sexual experiences, constipation, arrest records, alcohol dependency, interpersonal violence,and so on.” (Bernard 2011, 497j). There was also an option for respondents to leave their thoughts
about the questions and to expand further on their ideas. I will discuss the answers in the following
section.
Discussion
The results of the survey revealed that respondents believed that Japan has an indifferent view on
LGBTQ relationships but has a more negative view of lesbians specifically. In the survey, I asked
questions about the broader LGBTQ community because I theorized that the view on lesbians
specifically would be different from the general population. From this survey, my theory was correct.
One of the respondents commented that Japan is still a majority patriarchal society. Where women areoften still seen as second-class citizens. This statement is backed by multiple sources of data andanecdotal evidence. That is why I decided to split the questions into two parts. There were multiple
questions in this format, but the following question is the one that holds the most weight.

35

Here is what one of the respondents had to say about this question...
“I think people don’t not reject LGBTQ relationships, but LGBTQ rights are not respected in the social
system. I cannot say good or bad. I think social system is delaying.”
This directly correlates to what many data sources have stated. Since the Meiji period, LGBTQ people
started to be demonized more than ever before in Japanese history. With the influence of Westernculture and media. The amount of demonized has decreased but, it is still very present in 21st century
Japan.
I then asked a question about lesbians specifically because I expected a slightly different response thanthe prior question.

Here is what one of the respondents had to say about this question...
“Especially, I think young people accept Lesbian relationships. However, my friend (she is a Lesbian)said that “I worried about my friends think I love all girls if I come out,” so I think some Lesbians
think they are not accepted/understood by other people.”
This statement caught my attention because it echoes what Bullock stated in her research on lesbians
and feminism in Japan. From my research, it seems that most women in Japan who like other women
have this experience. This could also be a contributing factor as to why much of lesbian culture is36

more secretive or hidden. Even in literature and media, it seems that when women express their interestin one another, it is often done in private. One manga that was popular in 2014, Bloom into you by
Nio Nakatani, shows this well. The story is about two young girls having an interest in each other andcoming to terms with their sexuality. In almost all the scenes where the two are affectionate, it is donein private, away from others. There is even a male character who acts as a voyeur towards the two
girls. Keeping the theme from the medieval era of lesbian activity for the amusement of men. Women
have an easier time showing affection towards each other since in Japan, “skinship” is common among
women friendships. But being affectionate to the point where it is obvious that the couple is in fact a
couple, is rare to see in Japan.
I then asked questions about media and literature. Most of the informants said that they did not read,
however, when I asked about general media with lesbian, I received the following result.

Here is what one of the respondents had to say about this question...
“Lesbian representation in Japan is quite scarce. Yaoi and Yuri both exist, but the former is much
more popular and has a much more extensive catalogue.”“I have seen media about sexual minorities, but I have not seen media with lesbian relations. There
are no special reasons.”“It's quote common to see lesbian media in the West.”
Japanese media rarely contains lesbians. That can be due to several reasons but, something that I havediscussed with respondents is while characters might not be explicitly described as lesbian, many
believe that there are characters that are coded to be lesbian. The example that was given to me was
the American cartoon Adventure Time and the relationship between two characters. The series did not
explicitly describe them as lesbians during the original show. However, throughout the show, basedon the behaviors that they display towards each other and one of the ending scenes of the show, it
could be inferred that the characters were either lesbians or attracted to each other. But many of the
respondents could not give examples of when they have seen lesbians in media or in literature. I was37

told by respondents however, that many of them remember seeing some representation in manga andwebcomics. Webcomics are like manga, but they are online and often time include color, comparedto the black and white look of manga. I felt that this was important because while most webcomics are
made in either America or Korea, it shows that young people are still being shown LGBTQ culture,even if it is not from their country.
These responses are what was expected. Much of lesbian culture is hidden and not shown publicly forthe safety of the community. Across the world, LGBTQ people face discrimination and often violencefrom their communities. Japan is not excluded from this. Japan is still a collectivist country. Thismeans that people are taught to fit in and to shun those who don’t. LGBTQ people are considered to
not fit and because of this, often experience violence. The Outright International organization
conducted research in five Asian countries about violence that lesbian, bisexual, and transgenderpeople face is Asia. Japan was one of the countries studied. They found that “Some LBT individuals
believed that reverting to heterosexual or cisgender identities would relieve their suffering fromdiscrimination and stigmatization based on non-conforming sexual orientation or gender identity.
“Corrective” rape and threats of “corrective” rape in Asia did appear in the research.” (OutrightInternational, 2023, 34). This idea that Japanese LGBTQ can be fixed has caused many of them to bementally and sexually abused. Outright International found that Japan was one of the worse countries
where “corrective” rape happens. Because of this, many people have decided to hide who they are forthe safety of themselves and their loved ones. Especially lesbians since Japan is still patriarchal andmisogynistic.
As well as people getting mistreated by their families and communities because of their sexuality.
There is manga that came out in 2018 titled I married my best friend to shut up my parents by Kodama
Naoko. This story details a woman who is nearing the “unmarriable” age in Japan (around age 28).
Keep in mind that this is a stereotype and does not accurately reflect how marriage is done in Japan
today. However, because of this stereotype, the woman's mother has been pressuring the woman to
get married. To try to get her parents to leave the topic alone, the woman and her childhood best friend(who is also a woman) decide to apply for a partnership certificate in their prefecture. After the
woman’s mother finds out, she comes to the house to abuse the woman verbally and physically before
disowning her. Sadly, this is a common experience among LGBTQ youth in Japan.
I also had the opportunity to visit the gay district in Osaka, known as Doyamacho. Even in this district,there was nothing catering to lesbians specifically and not many of the izakaya that lined the walls
openly made it known that they are a safe space for LGBTQ people. As one of the respondents stated,
there is a lot of representation for lesbians in western media. This could be due to various reasons, but
one definite reason is because of the rise of feminism. It is my theory that once feminism starts tomove forward more, and lesbians are included more, there will be more media containing lesbians.
However, more research needs to be done on this topic for more concrete conclusions.

38

Conclusion
Some may ask why research like this is needed. As the world expands ideas, as people meet people
different from themselves, and as we as humans progress, there needs to be tolerance for all peoples.
The countries in the G7 would agree with this statement. Japan is the only country in the G7 that does
not have federal protections for Japanese citizens who are a part of the LGBTQ community.
In this research, I was able to present the history of Japan and the LGBTQ community.

Fromadamant acceptance to shunning and violence from people who do not understand. Where many tropesthat are prevalent in media that contains lesbians and their origins. Like men being in a voyeuristic
position when it came to depictions of women’s same sex love. To Class S coming from the girls’
schools that were attended by wealthy families. I also describe what the youth of Japan thinks of the
LGBTQ community and lesbians. Much of Japan in 2023 are accepting of LGBTQ people and theoverwhelming majority seems to be young Japanese people. It seems that young people will be
instrumental to the fight for LGBTQ people and lesbians to be completely accepted in Japan.
However, more research needs to be done and on a broader scale. The next steps for this researchwould be speaking to young people who do not have a high English language level. I believe that there
is more data available in that population. This research, however, is a good start. As more researchcomes out and as LGBTQ people tell their stories, views start to shift. I hope through this project, I
can help others tell their stories so they can fight for their rights. As well as starting research projects
that can be developed further. So that people in Japan can, as one of the respondents stated, be whothey are.

Bibliography
Ambros, Barbara R. 2015. “The Edo Period: Confucianism, Nativism, and Popular Religion.” In Women in Japanese
Religions, 97–114. NYU Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt15r3zhw.10.

Bernard, H. Russell. 2011. Research Methods in Anthropology (version 5th ed.). 5th ed. Lanham: Rowman &Littlefield Pub. Group. http://site.ebrary.com/id/10465497.
Bullock, Kano, James Welker. 2018. “From Women’s Liberation to Lesbian Feminism in Japan.” In Rethinking
Japanese feminism, 50-67. University of Hawai ‘i Press.
Marriage for All Japan. 2023. “Same-sex partnerships in Japan.” Marriage for all Japan Website. Accessed July 29,
2023. https://www.marriageforall.jp/en/marriage-equality/japan/

39

McLelland, Mark. 2007. “From Sailor-Suits to Sadists: ‘Lesbos Love’ as Reflected in Japan’s Postwar ‘Perverse
Press.’” U.S.-Japan Women’s Journal 27: 27–50.
Nagaike, Kazumi. 2010. “The Sexual and Textual Politics of Japanese Lesbian Comics Reading Romantic andErotic Yuri Narratives.” Electronic journal of contemporary Japanese studies. Accessed June 15, 2023.
https://japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/2010/Nagaike.html.
Outright Team. 2016. “VIOLENCE: Through the Lens of Lesbians, Bisexual Women and Trans People in Asia”
Outright International. Accessed July 31, 2023. https://outrightinternational.org/our-work/human-rights-research/violencethrough-lens-lesbians-bisexual-women-and-trans-people-asia
Shamoon, Deborah. 2021. “Class S: appropriation of ‘lesbian’ subculture in modern Japanese literature and New
Wave cinema.” Cultural Studies 35 (1): 27-43. DOI: 10.1080/09502386.2020.1844259.

40

Recognition of the rights of the Ainu Indigenous
Paula Daniela Vasquez Sarmiento
Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany

Abstract:
この研究論文では、日本のアイヌ先住民の歴史的背景と現状について調査しています。日本政府の政策、植民地化の影響、およびその後のアイヌ文化とアイデンティティの抑圧にも深く掘り下げています。研究方法論は、グラウンデッド・セオリーと帰納的推論を活用し、ウポポイ博物館からのデータ収集と専門家へのインタビュー
を組み合わせています。この論文は、国連の先住民権利宣言に則り、先住民の権利を認識し保護する重要性を強調しています。

This research paper examines the historical background and current situation of the Ainu indigenous people
in Japan. It delves into the Japanese government's policies, the impact of colonialization, and thesubsequent repression of Ainu culture and identity. The research methodology utilizes grounded theory andinductive reasoning, incorporating data collection from the Upopoy museum and expert interviews. The
paper highlights the importance of recognizing and safeguarding the rights of indigenous peoples in linewith the United Nations' declaration on indigenous rights.

Last year, through a course at the University of Hannover in Germany, I had the opportunity toparticipate in the session of Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (EMRIP) congressin the United Nation (UN) in Switzerland. One of the moments that impacted me was listening to thegrievances of the Ainu people. As the speaker addressed the audience, the representative of theJapanese government entered the immense hall. Infuriated, the speaker stormed out to confront anddemand his departure. The group accompanying the Ainu representative was documenting the incident
as part of a documentary project.
Indigenous peoples worldwide have been historically oppressed, marginalized, and exploited, andtheir rights as indigenous communities have been violated (Amnesty international). Japan, despite
having implemented repressive and aggressive policies against indigenous groups, there are currently
two communities that recognize themselves as indigenous in the Japanese territory, the Ainu and the
Okinawans, live on the northernmost and southernmost islands (International Work Group for41

Indigenous

Affairs,

IWGIA)In 2007, the United Nations (UN) issued a statement to protect the rights of indigenous peoples, and144 states have adopted this declaration. This demand: “It establishes a universal framework ofminimum standards for the survival, dignity and well-being of the Indigenous Peoples of the world”(UN declaration) Japan was not an exception in adopting these measures; however, what is the current
political situation of the Ainus indigenous people regarding the state recognition?
This research addresses a brief historical compilation of Ainus community and it analyzes their current
situation, delving into the state recognition of their culture, tradition, language, territory, selfdetermination, and current way of life.
The methodology employed in this research study incorporates grounded theory and the principal
method of inductive reasoning. Among the direct observation at the Upopoy museum in the town of
Shiraoi, Hokkaido. And the conducting of expert interviews, with Professor Hiroshi Maruyama fromThe Center for Environmental and Minority Policy Studies (CEMiPoS)
Ainu’s Indigenous Status during the Meiji government and policy:

During the 15th century, the Japanese people migrated to various territories inhabited by Ainu groups
to engage in trade. However, this led to conflicts and numerous battles between 1457 and 1789.
Following the Japanese victory in the Battle of Kunasiri-Menasi in 1789, the Ainu communities wereconquered, and their territories were annexed to Japan. The modernization of Japan under the Meiji
government (1868-1889) brought about a strong sense of nationalism (Jozuka, 2019) and the idea ofJapan as a homogeneous nation (Maruyama, 2021).
Since 1869, the Japanese government had formalized its colonial policy and designated the Ainu
territory as Hokkaido. Subsequently, the central colonial office issued ordinances to justify
colonization, which significantly affected Ainu communities. This culminated in the enactment of the"Law for the Protection of Former Aborigines" in 1899, prompting many families to shift from theirtraditional livelihoods to agriculture in order to protect themselves from the new law (Mauyama &Charbonneau, 2021, p. 51).
The introduction of the Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act led to increased repression andexclusion of the Ainu language, culture, and traditions. The primary objective of this act was toeliminate the indigenous identity of the Ainu people and forcibly assimilate those identified as Ainu
into Japanese culture (Charbonneau and Maruyama, 2019). As Lewallen (2016, p. 14) highlights, theadoption of Darwinist theories in academic circles in Japan in 1884 prompted politicians to advocate

42

for the implementation of eugenics. This aimed to ensure a population deemed entirely healthy within
the construction of a nation-empire and resulted in the implementation of the "National Eugenics Law"
in 1940. This law prescribed measures of compulsory sterilization for select populations, particularly
handicapped individuals and their descendants, within the imperial territories (Robertson, 2002, p.
194).
Officials from Hokkaido prefecture concluded that the "Law for the Protection of Former Aborigines,"
which intended to integrate Ainu into modern Japanese life through educational and agriculturalreforms, did not yield the expected short-term results as envisioned by the imperial authorities.
Consequently, they advocated for biological assimilation or assimilation through intermarriage(Lewallen, 2016, p. 65).
Currently situation since 1995, local and national representation :Indigenous communities lack their own territory, autonomy, and self-determination. Historically, they
have fallen victim to settler colonialization policies that have stripped them of their places of refuge
and habitation. These policies include the acquisition of lands through manipulative practices. Since
indigenous lands are held individually rather than collectively, it becomes easier for the state or privatecompanies to purchase individual parcels from each community member. Therefore, it is crucial todefend and advocate for collective rights, such as legal recognition of their indigenous identity.
In the case of companies like the electrification company or the museum, their approach is to employ
the indigenous population as wage workers, disregarding their traditional practices, independence, andautonomy. This leads to economic dependence on wages, pulling them away from their traditional
work in agriculture and fishing.
At the international level, several organizations recognize the rights of indigenous peoples, a demandthat theAinu communities also seek in Japan. However, the Japanese government has not legally recognizedtheserights. Faced with the lack of governmental cooperation, the Ainu communities have had to turn tointernational bodies like the United Nations in Geneva and New York to assert their cases.
Among the initial demands of the Ainu communities are the right to fish and the repatriation of theirancestors' remains. The government has refused to accept these requests and has filed lawsuits against
Ainu individuals who fish for salmon in rivers, which is only permitted for ritual purposes. According
to the authors Zaman, Charbonneau, and Maruyama (2022) more than 1,600 Ainu human remains

43

have been unearthed, gathered, and stored in various research institutions throughout Japan, with somealso present in international collections. Starting from the 1980s, Ainu activists have been engaged inlegal struggles to reclaim these ancestral remains and cultural artifacts that were excavated alongsidethem. Furthermore, despite requests from various organizations for the government to return theremains of their ancestors and allow dignified burials following Ainu traditions in their sacred
territories, the state has chosen to store them in The Memorial Hall near the Uppopoi museum. Some
organizations argue that this was done to turn it into a tourist attraction complementing the museum.
To date, there has been only one Ainu parliamentarian, Shigeru Kayano, who represented thecommunity in the national congress from 1994 to 1998. This political representation is an important
example of the recognition of the Ainu community in the governmental sphere, but it has been
insufficient to fully address their needs and rights as an indigenous people.
The Ainu Policy Promotion Act of 2019
Recognizes the Ainu people as an indigenous community that has historically inhabited the northernof the Japanese, particularly in Hokkaido. In base on the description of the Uppopy museum homepage
the Act aims to promote various measures: including regional development, industrial growth, tourism
promotion, welfare improvements, and cultural preservation, catering to the needs of the Ainu people.
It also includes new subsidies to support projects implemented by municipalities and provisions forthe protection and promotion of their traditional culture, such as harvesting forest products and salmon
from state-owned forests and freshwater surfaces.
Critics such from the NGO: The Centre for Environmental and Minority Policy Studies (CEMiPoS)
argue that the Act, though seen as a step forward by some, perpetuates colonial domination andexploitation of the Ainu community by the Japanese state. They highlight two critical dimensions of
this stance. Firstly, the policy's language erroneously combines indigenity with ethnicity, failing tofully recognize the Ainu as Indigenous peoples entitled to self-determination and autonomy. Secondly,
the Act obstructs the Ainu's ability to develop their culture on their terms and infringes uponinternational agreements Japan has endorsed, including the United Nations Declaration on the Rights
of Indigenous Peoples and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.
Additionally, there are concerns that the Ainu's recognition might be a facade used to exploit them foreconomic gain, especially in preparation for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Projects like the constructionof an Ainu cultural theme park in Shiraoi have raised questions about how Japan reconciles its colonial
past with the Ainu while simultaneously exploiting their cultural heritage for tourist revenue.
Furthermore, Ainu representation in the drafting process of the policy has been minimal, with the two

44

primary advisory councils responsible for developing the Act having only a minority of Ainu members.
This lack of representation compromises the Ainu's self-determination and calls into question the
genuine intentions behind the policy's enactment.

Analyze of Museum Uppoy :I had the opportunity to visit the Upopoy museum to gain a comprehensive understanding of the Ainu
communities, their history, cosmologies, and current way of life. From my perspective, the museum
provides a panoramic view of Ainu history. It is divided into three parts; the main hall offers ahistorical tour,
highlighting prominent Ainu writers and exploring their historical living locations. A significant
portion of the exhibition is dedicated to their customs, daily life, and lifestyle. However, I argue that
this representation is misleading and still presents the Japanese voice as dominant in the specificdepiction of the Ainu and their history.
The museum also offers various workshops and activities for tourists to participate in. During my visit
to the Upopoy museum, I had the opportunity to delve deeper into some of the Ainu traditions. Amongthe workshops offered. I participated in the performance to play a musical instrument, engaging inarchery, and witnessing one of the traditional rituals, particularly the rain ritual. Unfortunately, allactivities and explanations were conducted in Japanese, with no translation available.
Finally, the museum offers The Memorial Hall, where theremains of Ainu ancestors are deposited. For some Ainu andactivists, this aspect of the museum represents the mostproblematic part, as they see it as a concrete violation of Ainu
dignity.
For activists and Ainu citizens like Kimura, Upopoy is merely
the materialization of empty, platitudinal measures taken toparticipate in a discourse around indigeneity for the sake ofpolitical grift, while ignoring the issues and inequalities thatpersist for Indigenous individuals and communities.
According to the authors Zaman, Charbonneau, and Maruyama (2022), in the 1997 Act, Ainu culture
was considered as an aspect of Japanese history that should be preserved, disregarding the fact thatthey are elements of the lives of autonomous individuals. Additionally, it was also perceived as

45

intriguingly "exotic." These included elements of Ainu life such as dance, song, and craftsmanship,
which were recognized and protected as part of their "culture." Consequently, this "protection" became
intertwined with commercialization, as the distinct cultural attributes of the Ainu were marketed andcommodified within the tourist industry of Hokkaido. It is evident that since the enactment of the 1997
Act, the demands raised by Ainu communities have been disregarded. By establishing this museum,
the Japanese government seems to distance itself from recognizing the rights of the community as anautonomous entity and their right to self-determination, contrary to what has been stipulated by various
international organizations such as the UN. While it is given a cultural connotation, it appears that thefocus is not on preserving their traditions and political rights.
Despite the above, relevant questions arise regarding the purpose of the museum. Was it created with
the intention of promoting the integration and gathering of Ainu communities? In other words, does it
provide a space where they can meet, organize, and offer internal workshops to preserve their culture?
Or does the museum represent an exhibition of their culture primarily directed towards tourists,
without a genuine interest in strengthening intercommunity ties?
Interview with the professor Hiroshi Maruyama:In retrospect, in 2007, Japan accepted the recommendations made by the United Nations in the General
Assembly, which urged states to recognize the rights of indigenous peoples and implement public
policies for their conservation. The following year, the annual meeting of the world's richest countries,
the G8, took place in Hokkaido. Massive demonstrations occurred there, and one of the protesters'
demands was the recognition of the Ainu as an indigenous people. Subsequently, the government
decided to initiate a dialogue on the
future of the Ainu, leading to the presentation of a concept for Ainu policy. This final report was
published in 2009. Nevertheless, questions remain about the composition of the committee and how
they arrived at the conclusions presented in the final report.
The committee was composed of 8 individuals, and its objective was to hold monthly meetings. The
members were: Ando Nisuke, Director of the Kyoto Human Rights Research Institute; Kato Tadashi,
Director of the Ainu Association of Hokkaido; Sasaki Toshikazu, Professor of the National Museumof Ethnology; Sato Koji, Professor Emeritus of Kyoto University; Takahashi Harumi, Governor of
Hokkaido; Tsunemoto Teruki, Chief of the Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies of Hokkaido
University; Toyama Atsuko, Director of the New National Theatre Foundation, and Yamauchi
Masayuki, Professor of Tokyo University. Mr. Kato was the sole representative of Ainu people. Thereis an evident overrepresentation of certain sectors in the committee, such as academic groups, while alack of direct representation of Ainu communities is noticeable. There is only one person who

46

identifies as Ainu in the group, making them a minority in decisions about the future of their own
communities.
The agreements reached and the measures to be implemented after the publication of the Final Report(July 2009) include:(a) promotion of public understanding (education and awareness); and (b) promotion of measures for
Ainu culture in a broader sense (development of the "symbolic spacefor ethnic harmony," research promotion, Ainu cultural promotion,
including the Ainu language, promotion of land and resource use,business promotion, and improvement of living conditions).
Furthermore, (c) the national government should establish anorganizational framework to implement these measures.

Among the conclusions of this dialogue is the construction of a spacefor ethnic harmony, which translates into the creation of the Upopoy
museum ten years later, with the intention of promoting Ainu culture.
The director of the Ainu Association of Hokkaido agrees with thisconstruction, as he argues that it will generate more job opportunities for young Ainu.
However, for Professor Maruyana, the creation of the museum represents an insufficient measure as
it does not recognize their political and collective rights, as demanded by different internationalorganizations, including the UNDRIP, the International Covenant on Civil Rights (ICCPR), theInternational Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (CESCR), and the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), and the right to priorconsultation as established in the ILO Convention No. 169 of 1989.
The Ainu people continue to lack their own autonomy, collective territory, protected areas, and socialand political organization where their decisions as a people have an impact on local and/or national
policies. On the contrary, the cultural assimilation policies implemented by the Japanese government
over the years have had a devastating impact, leading to the near disappearance of their identity as a
distinct people. As a consequence, those who identify as Ainu now live their daily lives as Japanesecitizens, with limited access to practice their language or traditions.
In conclusion, Professor Marayuna emphasizes that the creation and implementation of a new Ainu
policy should involve more parts of the community and should be based on equal treatment,
recognizing the Ainu

47people as an indigenous nation. This approach would create dialogues from a nation-to-nation
sovereignty perspective
Conclusion:
The Ainu indigenous people in Japan have faced historical repression and assimilation, as their rights
have been systematically violated. Despite Japan's adoption of the UN declaration on indigenous rights,
the current recognition and protection of Ainu rights remain insufficient. This research underscores
the significance of acknowledging and safeguarding indigenous rights, particularly in the context of
the Ainu community, and advocates for the fulfillment of their rights to culture, self-determination,and land.

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assn.or.jp/english/life.html

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Statement of the social pressure in Japanese society
日本社会における社会的圧力
Gabriel Thimm チーム・ガブリエル
University of Strasbourg (France)

この EPOK のリサーチ・プロジェクトで、私は日本における同調圧力に注目する。研究を通して、その起源と現在の人々への影響を説明し、なぜこのような大きな社会的圧力があるのかを理解したいと思います。この研究の目的は、道徳が何らかの形で世代から世代へと受け継がれていくこと、そしてその起源は間違いなく明治時代にあることを実証することである。

Introduction
Japan is renowned for being one of the countries where social pressure is most keenly felt in
the world. Whether from an indigenous or endogenous point of view, it is presented as one of thedominant factors in societal problems and phenomena such as Hikikomori, a state of living
permanently confined to one's home, due to a variety of factors and causes. This social pressurenecessarily has its origins in the morals of the past, and like the arts and techniques, it too is passed
down from generation to generation. However, morality includes morals and traditions, which implies
that there is an effort on the part of the community to protect this transmission. Of course, it must beemphasized that morality in the city (i.e. Tokyo) is not transmitted in the same way as in a provincial
town, or even in the countryside.

Methodology
The methodology applied to this work was very laborious. Firstly, the original subject was tobe exclusively about moral education during the Meiji era. However, it was impossible to explain sucha complex subject in just a few pages, so I had to redirect the research towards questions more relevant
to present-day Japanese society. Indeed, as a Japanese studies student myself, I have been able to study
some of Japan's sociological problems and phenomena in depth and from different angles. This is why

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I chose to combine the teaching of morality in schools during the Meiji era with morality today.
However, this type of subject cannot really be covered without listening to the voice of the natives andadopting their point of view. In other words, to make the connection between Meiji morality andtoday's morality, I would necessarily have had to conduct a survey. Thus, I set up a questionnaire andthe analysis of my topic was based on discussions with a number of people from different generations,fields and working environments. But as the subject has evolved in the meantime, the answers to thesurvey turned out to be only partly relevant. The first seven questions were taken from the imperial
education law promulgated in 1890, but a translation into modern language was necessary. Most of
the people who provided answers regularly visit the L-café, a space in Okayama University dedicatedto connected international and Japanese students. The last two people don't live in Okayama but workin the research field, so I thought their perspective would be interesting while shining a lot of light on
the topic.

Transmission of the pression
a. The moral transmission
In terms of the transmission of morality, it is necessary to talk about one of the major eras
when teaching morals, both in schools at home, was approaching its peak. This happened to be during
the Meiji era (1868-1912). The importance of this era in the transmission of morals lies in Japan’s
relationship with the West at the time of its opening (Sakoku). The Meiji model followed European
countries as a reference when it came to moral education, while the authorities embarked on an
extensive propaganda campaign to promote and establish the power of the Imperial House at the centerof Japanese civilization. As such, to cement this attestation of power and leadership, the government
wrote two Imperial Rescripts, one being for children at school (Kyoiku Chokugo), and the other forthe military (Gunjin Chokuyu). In this way, the origins of the modern social pressure known to theJapanese civilization could be traced back to these two imperial texts. On one hand, the Imperial
Rescript on Education aimed at teaching doctrines, while on the other hand, the Imperial Rescript to
Soldiers and Sailors would be used to put those doctrines into practice. The doctrines covered included
hierarchical respect and filial piety, honor, devotion and other traditional ideals derived from
Confucianism. The emblematic consequence of the latter was the creation of the Special Attack Units,
otherwise known as Kamikazes (1944), a combination of social pressure (to die with honor) andmilitary/governmental pressure (respect and obedience to superiors and devotion to the emperor).
Following Japan's defeat, the education system was completely overhauled in line with the directivesof the new Diet. It took more than a decade before the teaching of morality, which had been forbidden
at the time, was reinstated in schools. Its content was oriented towards a mainly secular morality in

51which schoolchildren learned the notion of belonging (religious, national, etc.). Today, moral
education focuses on an entirely different subject. That is to say, since 2014/2015, to alleviate theproblem of the very high number of suicidal children who were victims to school bullying, thegovernment has decided to intensify civic and moral education. From there on, children would learn
what it meant to live in a community and society, as well as other themes highlighting the relationshipwith life in general.

b. Political and Social issueSocial pressure covers an extensive range of circumstances, so the focus in this paper will
be limited to a few major areas. Firstly, as stated in the introduction, morality is in essence a societal
phenomenon which, depending on the era and geopolitical context, oscillates between either politicalcontrol (propaganda) or social control. Indeed, political involvement in a given area is usuallyinterpreted as some form of control being enforced. In this regard, the Meiji period demarcates itself
from other periods through its use of what would today be referred to as "propaganda", mainly in theschool system. Because who better than a child could absorb any kind of ideology without ever (orrarely) questioning the people who teach it? Thus, it was in 1890, when the Imperial Rescript on
Education was promulgated, that moral education took a decisive turn in Japan. It became linked totraining a youth driven by a sense of patriotism, nationalism and colonialism. In other words, it was acommon identity that the government wanted to instill in the Japanese minds from a young age.
Interestingly enough, another peculiarity of this political movement, which is almost a directconsequence of it, is that people would completely adopt those doctrines and control themselves to fit
in, without the government actively intervening in their daily lives. This regulation of wanting and/or
having to conform to social and state norms was an obstacle to individual freedom. The state's policyof control was therefore not restricted to a theoretical concept but had successfully taken root in
people's minds and become an integral part of their social mores.
Secondly, social pressure, derived from morality, cannot be transmitted in the same way as
an object or knowledge. It takes the form of an invisible and discreet inheritance, voluntarily or
involuntarily transmitted. It is not instituted, yet it is clearly present. While living in Japan, by rubbing
shoulders with locals, and paying a little attention and observing interactions and reactions in details,
one can easily notice a peculiar characteristic, that under the Western eyes can be likened to selfoppression. For example, to many foreigners, it feels as if a majority of Japanese people put conscious
and unconscious efforts in making sure they do not stand out. An example of conscious effort
personally witnessed at Okayama University was some students dyeing their hair back to black before
starting their job search. Meanwhile, for unconscious efforts, the natural adherence to beauty standards,

52

especially maintaining a pale complexion for women even in the summer, or people striving forthinness by exercising (while in the West, the concept of body positivity is all the rage), is anotherexample.
Finally, we can then divide the environments in which social pressure mostly dominates
people’s behaviors into two categories. The first one pertains to the school environment, and thesecond one is the workplace. Indeed, even today in Japan, the notion of hierarchy is taught fromelementary school onwards, through the Sempai system, which is in line with the concept of respectfor elders. In the same way, when a teacher gives a lesson, his or her word is absolute and must not bequestioned. In the same line, if a student wants to get into Japan's top-ranked schools, he or she mustachieve the best possible results at the national entrance exam. This is an additional source of pressurethat is established as early as elementary school. Other honorable mentions are the strict dress codesthat dominate the school and working world, the excessive use of formal language (Keigo), which isvery difficult to master perfectly, and so on. There are so many rules to follow that being formal,
conforming to morals and customs prevents the emergence of a deep, spontaneous individuality. This
gives rise to the phenomenon of tatemae, which is often referred to merely being "Japanese culture".
It can be defined as the art of concealing one’s emotions and let only what is assumed the other party
wants to see show through.
This lead to an interesting question for this research project : is this image of a person who does not
express their true emotions, under the constraint of societal rules established centuries ago, not tangible
proof that social pressure is passed down from generation to generation?

c. Morality, from religion to minds evolution.
Compared to France or Europe in general, more and more people say they have no religion(42% in 2022), but consciously or unconsciously, people continue to perpetuate some of the traditionsof Christianity, the dominant religion since its inception. In this way, the morality of French society islargely based on the Bible. However, more and more people are criticizing this religious origin andcalling for a break with it, i.e. for a distinction to be made between religious and social morals, or formorals that are common sense (e.g.: don't commit murder; don't steal from your neighbor, etc.) to nolonger have a religious connotation. In Japan, even though morality derives mainly from Confucian
and Shinto doctrines, and even though the number of people with no religion is steadily increasing,very few people make this appeal to moral detachment. This intrinsic link is proof of the uniquenessof Japanese society, which favors transmission and adaptation rather than the revolution of ideas.
This is why we speak of Meiji "restoration" with the term "Restoration" Ishin, which alsomeans "reformation, renewal". This word does not describe a separation from the past but the reuse of

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old values to make a better future, the renewal of an old-fashioned past to illuminate the future withnew designs. This state of mind of the Japanese government can be compared with that of China in
the 1960s, when Mao Zedong's government was in power, and the Cultural Revolution was at the heartof civilization. The aim of this purely political movement was to cut all ties with the bourgeois society
and implant proletarian ideology through revisionism (revising the memory of the past). In this way,in both Japan and China, these two purely political movements occurred, yet so similar in application(using youth by formatting them) yet so different in intent. In Meiji, the Restoration was achieved by
opening up to the West, introducing modern thinking and technology into civilization, making people
literate and so on. And although the warrior system (Bakufu), in which the samurai were at the heartof the system, was severed, the preservation of Confucian values was emphasized as a means ofconsolidating imperial power. This "renewal" is seen through the prism of preserving morals but
separating them from the pre-established system. This contextualization is the starting point forunderstanding how social pressure is transmitted.

Survey results and discussion.
The survey is composed of 10 questions. The first 7 are linked as a list and more specific,
meanwhile the last 3 are more general but still related to the previous questions. In total, 9 peopleanswered. The answers obtained from the survey reveal whether there is still a link, strong or weak,
between the directives of the Imperial Rescript and the moral pressure felt by the Japanese today.
Question 1.1 was : "In your everyday life or at a certain point of your life, did or do you feel any
pressure: being filial to your parents or did it come naturally to you?". The most frequent answer isthat respect comes naturally and that no pressure is really felt. This is perhaps explained by theevolution of nuclear families, where many people leave the family nest in the countryside to live inthe city, damaging the feeling of filial piety. Questions 1.2 and 1.3 were respectively: "(If you are
currently or when you will be in a relationship) keeping the peace in your couple?", and "Not to beboastful or show yourself superior by acting modestly and/or in moderation in the society?". The
answers are quite similar, i.e. the expression "fear of..." regularly appeared in the answers. Whether in
relation to their partner or to people in general, many respondents expressed that they felt stressedfrom having to be careful not to harm others. This self-restriction can be found just about anywhere,
especially on public transportation where silence reigns. Then, certain questions such as 1.4 and 1.7:
"Learning and/or cultivating arts?", and "Always respecting the Constitution and observing the laws?",
the answers are exactly the same as we might find in France, for example. No one feels any pressure
to learn culture, it's more of a hobby that can prove useful over time. And when it comes to the law,
no one wants to confront the police. Finally, some of the answers to questions 1.5 and 1.6 which were:54"Pursuing moral correctness and activities that society appreciates?", and "Working toward the public
good and promoting common interests?", were very pertinent. They express the fact that the Japanesepeople are taught from childhood to live with discipline, and that the idea of righteousness is promoted
during this period of their life. A few ideas are also mentioned which are more a matter of moral andindividual obligation than of pressure from society, such as "I would come to the aid of people in an
accident situation". On the other hand, another response states that to get into certain highly-rated
schools, you need to have a sense of devotion to society. This puts a great deal of pressure on theschool entrance exams.
Finally, the last questions were: "According to question 1, how much social pressure do you
feel? Does it influence your choices, or do you not really care about it? If you don't care about it, do
you feel like you are excluded from the society?", "Also following up from question 1, what do you
think generates that pressure and where do you personally feel it the most?" and "Are you interested
in the promotion of morality? Do you think it's really important?". From those, a general conclusion
can be drawn. People are afraid of not following standards, and if they don't accept the pressure exerted
by their peers, a feeling of rejection will be felt. What's more, if one is outside the norm, they will be
criticized a lot or receive negative comments, resulting in the impression that one has no personality.
As for family pressure, it is progressively vanishing as people move to the city.

Sources of error and improvements
The main problem was to find a subject that would combine moral education, modern
Japanese society and transmission. So, with time, I came up with the theme of the transmission ofsocial pressure. However, I had already created and shared my survey, so the answers were not totally
appropriate. Also, many of the people I wanted to share my survey with refused because they found it
far too difficult, demonstrating my difficulty in finding relevant questions. Furthermore, talking aboutsocial pressure can be perceived as a sensitive subject for many people, so I had to think carefully
about how to ask all these questions.

Conclusion
There are many reasons why Japanese society is under such pressure. The first could be thatJapan is an island country, and until globalization reached its peak, its interactions with the rest of theworld were limited. Moreover, if we couple the long period of autarky that was the Edo era with theimperialism of the Meiji era, it can be understood that this civilization has only very recently beenable to resort to individual freedom. But morals cannot be changed so quickly, at least not in Japan
with its people accustomed to isolationism. It can be seen that social movements change very little

55(loss of the notion of filial piety with nuclear families). This is due to the Japanese population's control
over its peers, hence the popular Japanese expression which is expressed in English as "the nail thatsticks out gets hammered down". But since trends are changing, people are feeling this pressure moreor less strongly. Additionally, as more and more people want to live abroad or get acquainted withpeople from other countries, they tend to take less account of the surrounding pressure.
So, as a foreigner, I have been able to see and experience for myself the social pressure which,even if I felt a great deal of tolerance towards myself as a non-local, is still very much present. However,there is a noticeable difference between the older and younger generations. My elders are tolerant of
my mistakes, while people my age are not concerned about moral issues.
References
English language
Farmer, Richard. “The Societal Pressures That Shape Japan | InsideJapan Tours.” InsideJapan
Blog, 12 Aug. 2020, https://www.insidejapantours.com/blog/2020/08/12/the-societal-pressures-thatshape-japan/.
Hashimoto, Junya. Japanese ‘Peer Pressure’ May Prevent Return to Pre-COVID Life. 25 Feb.
2023, https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/editorial/political-pulse/20230225-93350/.
Nakamura, Hideru. “The Tohoku Gakuin University review of law and political science.” The
Tohoku Gakuin University review of law and political science. URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1204/00024472/
file:///Users/administrateur/Downloads/20210615_nakamurahideru%20(1).pdf
Tavoni, Alessandro, et al. “The Survival of the Conformist: Social Pressure and Renewable
Resource Management.” Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol. 299, Apr. 2012, pp. 152–61.
ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.07.003.

（6）The Treatment of the Imperial Rescript on Education; and the Establishment of theConstitution of Japan and the Fundamental Law of Education ： 文 部 科 学 省 .
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/others/detail/1317422.htm. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/others/detail/1317422.htm
OECD. How’s Life? 2020: Measuring Well-Being. OECD, 2020. DOI.org (Crossref),https://doi.org/10.1787/9870c393-en.

56French language
BLOA, Alan LE. “En 2022, plus de quatre Français sur dix se déclarent sans religion.” OuestFrance.fr, 6 Oct. 2022, https://www.ouest-france.fr/societe/religions/en-2022-plus-de-quatre-francaissur-dix-se-declarent-sans-religion-4ef0e038-4578-11ed-8c28-88bd89a03c81.
de Montferrand, Bernard. “Japon : renouveau et tensions.” Politique étrangère, vol. Printemps,
no. 1, 2007, pp. 151–63. Cairn.info, https://doi.org/10.3917/pe.071.0151.
https://www.cairn.info/revue-politique-etrangere-2007-1-page-151.htm
Vellut, Natacha. “Le retrait des jeunes (ou hikikomori), une préférence négative.” Adolescence,
vol. T. 33 3, no. 3, 2015, pp. 593–602. Cairn.info, https://doi.org/10.3917/ado.093.0593.

57

Martial arts as a practice for the Self
自己の修練としての武道
Gurgenidze Lasha

グルゲニゼ・ラシャ

Cà Foscari University of Venice, Italy

世界中、様々な武道が人口の相当数によって修練されている。この流派の中心概念は「心技体」という理念であり、心、技、体を発展させることを目指している。この文脈で、全般的な練習を行える。これらの練習は「自己」を向上させるための修練である。
この研究の目的は、精神的な側面に焦点を絞って、運動的な修練と共に、個性、知的発達、社会的なスキルに与える影響を調査することである。
そのために、岡山大学武道部でフィールドワークを行った。EPOK 留学プログラムの間に、岡大柔道部に参加し、その後ボクシング部、空手部、テコンドー部、合気道部、岡山市の理科大学の柔道部にも行った。その上、武道に対する生徒たち意見、そしてどのように修養に活用している
かということ把握するように、十個の質問から成るアンケート調査を実行した。
研究の結果では、武術に対する傾向的な認識の方向がいくつか差し出した。ひとつ、武道、格闘
スポーツ、そして一般的なスポーツとの間に、理念的な内容の点での違いと共通点を示した。ふたつ、身体活動と心の状態の関連性を付けた。その他に、一見したところ不明が、十分に重要で、掘り下げる価値のあるいくつかの概念を指差した。

Introduction
Mental health undoubtedly is an aspect of our well-being just as vital as our physical wellness. Nevertheless,for a variety of reasons (mostly for economical insufficiency or lack of affordable, well-prepared experts)
many young people tend to neglect this factor. For this reason, it is necessary to provide other effective
alternatives, and martial arts can be one option.
In this research, I would like to explore some factual or potential benefits that can be obtained for our mental
health, intellectual abilities and social skills through practicing modern combat sports. As a subject, I choseJapanese traditional disciplines, called “武道 - Budou” in original language.
As I mentioned in the abstract, alongside with the fieldwork, I prepared a questionnaire consisting of ten
question and divided in two blocks. Forty-one students, among Okayama University and Okayama
University of Science, participated in the survey. All students actively answered to the questionnaire.
The first block of questions include, to cite a case: “How long have you practiced martial arts?”, “How did
you start or who has introduced you to martial arts?”, “Currently, do you have any personal goal?”.
Next, the second block is dedicated to a number of open questions, including: “Do you approach your58

discipline as a martial art or as a sport?”, “In your opinion what is the purpose of martial arts?”, “What is themost important thing in martial arts?”, et cetera.
Today the term “martial arts” can be used in relation to all fighting systems independently from region ofprovenience. However, this locution appears for the first time in "Takenobu Japanese-English Dictionary(Collection of the National Diet Library of Japan)" in 1918. It is an English translation of the Japaneseterm “武芸 bu-gei” (“武 - warrior”, “芸 - technique, ”), that means military arts1; either called “古武道 kobu-dou”, that stand for “ancient martial arts.

The word designates all traditional Japanese military

disciplines developed since Nara period (710-794), especially combat systems and forms that have started
being codified and conceptualized since Muromachi period (1336-1392). Subsequently, after Meiji
Restoration modern martial arts have been named “現代武道 gen-dai-bu-dou”, “modern martial arts”, orjust “武道 bu-dou”. Budo consists of Sumo, Karate, Judo, Kendo, Kyudo (archery), Aikido, Naginata (poleweapon), Shorinji Kenpo and less known Jukendo (bayonet fencing)2.
Most of these disciplines contain character “道 - dou” in their name, an ideogram that means “way”. The
presence of “do” implies that these systems are not just a number of physical exercises. Whether they go
beyond and imply that the purpose of martial arts is to improve not only one’s body but also one’s character
through continuous refinement of combat techniques. The main philosophical notion, that completely
summarizes traditional budo, is “ 心技体 shin-gi-tai”, “mind, technique and body” and it refers to all
essential elements that a martial artist has to possess in order to master the art. Nonetheless, there is also a
big number of moral, spiritual and mental related notions, developed since antiquity, such as: “残心 zanshin”, “remaining mind” or “continuous alertness” in case of danger; “気力 ki-ryoku”, “power of mind”,
indicates human activity and mental power and it is linked to the Chinese concept of “気 ki”, “energy”,
which reciprocally refers to the mindset, intention and determination; following, there are some moral
virtues that are not less important part of philosophical teachings of martial arts. These are: “忠節 - chuusetsu”, “loyalty”; “武勇 bu-yuu ”, “courage”; “信義 shin-gi”, integrity; and probably the most sociallyappreciated virtue, “礼儀 rei-gi”, “etiquette, respect”. Indeed, there many other concepts that are typical inmartial arts.
There are also some exercises focusing only on mental aspect such as meditation, “黙想 – moku-sou” inJapanese, which aims to clear practitioner’s mind and focus on training. Meditation is performed even today.
At judo club, we used meditate for a brief duration before and at the end of practice. All these concepts are
essential and are inseparable from physical exercises and “Zen influence can be considered significant”3(translation, Nakabayashi Shinji, 1981).

I. Practitioner students’ attitude toward Martial Arts (武道部に所属している大学生の武道に対する態度)
Now, when we have some conceptual and philosophical background of martial arts, we can proceed toanalyze students’ answers to the survey.
In first place, this section is required to comprehend the approach of martial artists toward their respective

59

disciplines, owing to the fact that their attitude can influence what kind of notions a student can apprehend.
Secondly, it will permit us to understand a tendentious image and perception of a small part of practitioners
regarding budo in contemporary society, and will provide some data for future researches. Furthermore, itaims to grasp what kind of values are still preserved, emphasized either lost, in today’s martial art clubs.
For this purpose, I will primarily rely on questionnaire answers; however, I will not provide any graphics or
numbers. I will a share a URL-link containing all the data (the questionnaire is completely anonymous anddo not report any private data). Instead, I will focus the discussion on the most relevant information obtained
from the survey.
After making Karate and Judo part of Olympic Games, general perception has changed. It might have
happened due to considerable increase of athletes’ number all around the globe. From statistical point ofview, the change would be inevitable because of a great amount of cultural backgrounds distinct from Japan.
It seems logic that if the general purpose of a discipline has deviated from conventional direction, as
consequence, series values will change in their turn too. Nevertheless, most of students wrote that the mostimportant things in budo are respect, mental and spiritual strength, understand the opponent, diligence,honesty, courage, cooperation, ”self-denial”, emotional and physical self-control.
The reader might fairly notice that among the disciplines there is Taekwondo, that is not a Japanese martial
art, while Boxing is a combat sport and has nothing to do with budo. Indeed, it would be a true statement.
The reason of including them was hypothesis that the approach can change in correspondence with socialand cultural context, and it was partially true. When I visited Boxing club, I did not notice any differences
between their and budo clubs’ trainings, greeting routines, attitude either environment.
However, while on one hand, a boxing club member affirmed to view Boxing as a Martial Art, on the other
hand, for my surprise, an Aikido practitioner said to approach his/her discipline as a sport. To mention,
Aikido do not possess competitive tournaments, there are only “meetings” where Aikido artists justdemonstrate their mastery, and there are no winners or losers. Even though, in my opinion, that person wasreferring to physical aspect of the Aikido, undoubtedly, it also depends on personal reasons and objectives.
Therefore, one can lead one’s own mind toward desired direction, independently of general teachings.
To the question, regarding if they think of their discipline, as a sport or as martial art, with a slight difference
the answers leaned the scale toward sports. However, there were seven answers saying “both”, and initiallyI could not properly understand what this implied. Fortunately, one of the students explained: “When it
comes to tournaments I see it as a sport, while during trainings, it as a Martial Art” (Translation). As a result,depending on purpose, they might alternatively perceive their discipline as one or another.
Another unexpected result was that only one person answered that martial arts’ purpose is self-defense. In
European countries, it is common to believe that it is one of main goals, while in Japan it seems minor reason.
As a result, I came up with following main three groups: 1) those who train exclusively for self-

60

improvement; 2) those who to only to compete; 3) those who practice for self-improvement but when they
compete for them it becomes sport.
The goal of sports is to compete, while martial arts aim to improve the self. In spite of different, or maybe
even opposite goals, “道 dou” and sportsmanship have some common points, such as respect, honesty,
perseverance, courage, calm and strong mind, concentration, et cetera.
Therefore, just as a mirror reflects the sunrays, budo reflects certain social values that have been consolidated
in Japan throughout centuries. Martial arts are what they are, owing to people who have created them. Thatis one of the reasons why they are also considered a cultural heritage of Japan and that is why certain virtues
will not be forgotten. Clearly, some of them are not as important as they were before, but that is because
there are less wars and more peace.
II. The effects of practicing martial arts on intelligence, mind and social skills (武道が知能、精神、ソーシャルスキールに与える影響)
Alongside with the effects on these aspects of the self, this section aims to provide some evidence thatmartial arts can be an effective alternative for the purpose of improving mental health.

“礼に始まり、礼に終わる”, “it begins with a bow and it finishes with a bow” was one of the answer thatstudents gave to the question of what is the most important aspect in martial. Most of the students shared thesame answer and for this reason, I decided to start by examining the influence of martial arts on our
personality from this aspect. Etiquette, respect and the significance of greetings seem to be the most valued
virtues not only for martial artists, but also for the society in general. In disciplines as Sumo, these virtues
are fundamental. This sheds light on the importance of social skills in martial arts.
Social anxiety, difficulty in bonding with new people and maintaining or strengthening the relationships isa present issue all around the world that terribly effects on one’s mental well-being and can lead to dreadfulresults.
Many students mentioned about their improvement in this aspect after joining martial arts club. Those who
had some problems with creating relationship with new people said that they learnt how to start a
conversation and became able to confidently maintain it. Some of them pointed out that they learnt how toproperly greet and converse with seniors and adults. What is the concrete reason that let these people toimprove this ability? Obviously, in social context, as sport club one has to interact with other people.
However, there might be ones able to manage the issue just by trying to communicate with others and will
gradually start feel more confident during conversation. On the other hand, there might be those who would
need more time or a different approach. In case of the second outcome, this goal can be reachable directly
via physical activity. Although it can seem there is no connection between kicking, punching or throwing
people around and creating new realtionship. Usually, it is the reason to have some issues with the Law.
However, not in this case.

61“[…]Moderate and high physical activity are inversely related with anxiety and high trait anxiety inadolescents […]”(Beata-Kisiliewska, 2019)4. Martial art as an activity itself is high intensity endeavor,
thus during this kind of physical engagement one can start to feel more comfortable to interact withothers. Most of exercises are pair or even group exercises, which gives the opportunity to create deeper
relationships.
Martial arts are as individual sports. Consequently, it is not considered as a social activity andimportance of training partner and social potentialities of this kind of activity is often neglected.
However, it is necessary to consider that one cannot improve without the aid of others and vice versa.
In addition, some disciplines, as Judo and Taekwondo, also have group competitions. By helping eachother and by thriving together for a common goal martial arts deepen interpersonal relationship andhave the capacity to create strong bonds. A big part of students who participated in the survey said
that the main reason why they continue to train is that it is fun. Hence, engaging an activity thatprovides positive emotions contributes even more for this scope.
Positive emotion do not contribute only for social skills, they also enhance cerebral activity. Martial
arts provide various intellectual benefits, such as great concentration skill, mind sharpness, strategicalabilities. Moreover, due to the presence of atypical movements, they permit to form excellent
coordination skills. At the same time, such disciplines nurture a range of mental and psychologicalcapabilities. Constant training of combat practices for a long arc of time develops better resistance tostress, as a result of necessity to control emotion and calm relax the mind. Although combat sports
provide positive emotions, to improve physical abilities the body has to undergo fatigue and stress.
This increase mental resistance and patience. In fact, some of students who answered the questionnairementioned that he/she applies this ability in everyday life to conclude the tasks that one has to do but
does not have desire to do so.
Martial arts can certainly improve one’s mental abilities, just as one improves speed or strength. It is
not indispensable that martial arts provide any moral or values. Nonetheless, they provide tools tofoster our personal virtues, give us courage to follow our own morals and the capacity put them inpractice within everyday-life.

Conclusions
Surveyed Aikido club member shared a very interesting and personal opinion. This person chosemartial arts as means to foster her/his self, to understand it better, both body and mind. This was theinspiration for the title of this research.
Precisely the completeness and complexity of budo, just as it is the “self”, qualify them to be calledpractices for the self. The self is a term that encompasses all the aspects of who we are; our body, ourpersonality, our sense of morals. For this reason, it is important not to neglect and ignore physicalfactor when in reference to our well-being.

62

Beata and Kisielewska article shows the importance physical activity for perception of the body self,
especially among adolescents. Just one tries to understand one’s own personality and way of thinking,in the same manner it is important to be conscious of one’s own body. In the article, it is explainedthat body self “consists of multidimensional body representations” and classifies three main bodies:
Body image – personal perception and opinion of our body; Body scheme - how we move, our motorial
perception of the body and of our movements; In the end, body awareness – consciousness of thesignals originating from inside of us (Beata – Kisielewska, 2019).
Our body and our consciousness are strictly connected to each other and one side is essential for thehealth of another. Being familiar with our body is also important due the fact that certain physicalabilities require certain mental states. In other words, even if we are not consciously practicing any
mental exercises, we still train our mind because otherwise we simply would not be able to achievecertain physical abilities or perform certain techniques. Hence, by training our body we also train ourmentality. For example, during Karate “Kata” demonstration a performer has to perfectly execute
every movement and every detail of the “form”, what requires clear mind and great ability toconcentrate, especially in context of competition.
Some of the students said to feel much more confident since beginning to practice budo. The reasonof this can various: Because martial arts are considered, something practiced by strong people or
because they get stronger through their path. How by training our body we also start to become familiar
with our body, by time the consciousness the body changes. Feeling more confident can be simply
connected to the fact that by exercising the body, motorial control. This is my personal opinion andbased on my personal perception; as a practitioner of martial arts I feel much more confident only
because I feel better control of my body.
As kids when we just start to learn to ride a bicycle we feel insecure and we are afraid to fall. But more
we practice more confident we become, and the fear vanishes.
Still, it should not necessarily be martial arts, probably any kind of physical activity or even physicalwork can be utilized for these means. Just like when someone is stressed or and feels the need to dosomething, for example cleans the house or wash the dishes. “Positive relations between more frequent
vigorous physical activity and the reporting of fewer symptoms of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem,
and life dissatisfaction were noticed only in self-report measures, but not in objective measurement ofphysical activity” (Beata – Kisielewska, 2019).

Reference:1

Etymology of the term is provided from - "Martial arts", Wikipedia contributors, Wikipedia, The Free

63

Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martial_arts&oldid=1167687239 (accessed August 4, 2023)
2 All the terminology mentioned before this tag and after the first tag are took from this resource - 古武道 (ko-bu-dou) - "古武道",

Wikipedia contributors, Wikipedia, https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%AD%A6%E9%81%93, (access agosto 4,2023)
3 All the notions, except “meditation”, are provided from this online on-line article: Nakabayashi Shinji, 1981, 武道の「精神性」に 関 す る 一 考 察 , Research Journal of Budo, 1981-1982, Volume 14, Issue 2, Pages 21-22, Released on J-STAGE
November27,

2012, Online

ISSN

2185-8519, Print

ISSN

0287-

9700, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/budo1968/14/2/14_21/_article/-char/ja
4 Mirucka Beata, and Monika Kisielewska. “The Importance of Physical Activity in the Normative Development of Mental

Body Representations during Adolescence.: Implications for Teacher Education.” Rethinking Teacher Education for the 21stCentury: Trends, Challenges and New Directions, edited by Marta Kowalczuk-Walêdziak et al., 1st ed., Verlag Barbara
Budrich, 2019, pp. 223–38. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpb3xhh.18. Accessed 5 Aug. 2023.
- Koji YAMAMOTO, Kohei SHIMAMOTO, Kosuke NAGAKI, The development of a scale to measure psychological skills

for judo players, Research Journal of Budo, 2014-2015, Volume 47, Issue 2, Pages 73-84, Released on J-STAGE December
26,

2015, Online

ISSN

9700, https://doi.org/10.11214/budo.47.73,

2185-8519, Print

ISSN

0287-

https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/budo/47/2/47_73/_article/-char/en , lastaccess: August 5, 2023

URL-linkforsurveyanswers:

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1uejPJhiFdz86-

i1Vcj4HzaVSXK52v68L6nWmT4xM98s/edit?resourcekey#gid=1392057141

Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank all martial art clubs and their members who contributed for this research, answered thequestioner, permitted me observe and participate in trainings and thank you for interesting conversations. I would
like to thank Prof. Obayashi for motivating and inspiring me with new ideas throughout this four month. I am
sincerely grateful.

64

Disparity of Athletic Opportunities
運動機会の格差

Roberto Ambriz Jr ロベルト・アンブリス・ジュニア
San Jose State University (United States of Ameria)

アメリカと日本ではバレーボールの機会が大きく異なります。バレーボールは、日本で熱心なファンとカジュアルなファンの両方に大きなファンを獲得することができました。しかし、米国については同じことが言えません。両国におけるスポーツの扱いの違いは、選手のプレース
タイルの大きな違いにつながっています。このレポートでは、両国の機会を比較し、それぞれの国の環境でアスリートがどのようにして非常に異なるプレースタイルを開発したかを比較します。

Introduction
The differences between American and Japanese athletic development and play styles are
hard to miss. Japan has a very distinct philosophy and methodology when it comes to the developmentof athletes in sports. Japan heavily pushes ideas of teamwork, discipline, gratitude, and so forth whenplaying sports. Virtues like these have a significant impact on the way these players develop. These
virtues are what lead these players to develop playstyles that are so similar to each other. If observing
volleyball specifically, it can be seen that each player has very similar approaches, serve tosses, arm
swings, blocks, etc. When comparing Japan to the rest of the world’s top volleyball teams, it is very
evident how different they are. For Japanese volleyball, efficiency and discipline is the name of thegame. Take a look at a country like the United States or Russia and you will find different playstyles
as well. For example, Russia is a team filled with giants. Their philosophy is height and power. While
the team itself has a system to follow and a strategy to accompany, each player plays distinctly. The
same can be said about almost every other team. What about Japan has their players so similar whencompared to the rest of the world? What makes it so different? Playing with the Okayama University
volleyball team and interviewing other students in other sports clubs at Okayama University has
helped shine a bit more light on these questions.

65

Methodology
The methodology for this paper required talking to students who currently compete or are
involved in sports here at Okayama University as well as drawing from my own experiences playing
with the Okayama University volleyball team. The questions they answered provided a better
understanding of the principles that Japanese sports stand on, and why they so heavily influence
athletes’ playstyles. Fortunately, I was able to speak with 2 foreigners who are currently in an
Okayama University sports club. This was perfect for comparing Japanese sports to their experiences
back in their home countries of France and Germany. Since they are foreigners, they were able toprovide some feedback on what they believe the Japanese clubs excel and fall short in when comparedto their home countries. I also interviewed Japanese students who were in a club sport prior touniversity or are currently in a club sport. These different perspectives show the individualistic sideof foreign sports and the collectivist, team-oriented side of Japanese sports. To compare theopportunities of both countries I will be drawing upon my experience playing with the San Jose State
volleyball team and my knowledge about the opportunities presented for volleyball in the UnitedStates as a whole.
Volleyball Participation in Japan and the United States
Despite the United States outnumbering the Japanese population by over double, the numberof people playing volleyball in Japan is almost equal to the number of people that play in the UnitedStates. A survey conducted by Alexandra Arbu shows the number of people that participated involleyball from 2001 to 2021 in Japan. A similar survey was published by the Statistica Research
Department surveying participation in Japan. The average number of Japanese participants in 20182019 was around 4.5 million people. The average number of participants in America was around 6.3
million people in 2018. Some things to consider when comparing these numbers are that the agegroups are different. The age group for the American survey was 6 years and older. The age group for
the Japanese survey was 10 years and older. This gives the American survey considerably moreparticipants. Even with the age group boosting the number of people who played volleyball, thepercentage of people who played volleyball was higher in Japan. The population of the United Statesis 332 million people. This means that the percentage of people who played volleyball in 2018 was
1.89%. The population of Japan is 125.7 million and the percentage of people who played volleyball
between 2018-2019 was 3.58%. This is a good start to understanding the difference in opportunities
provided by both countries.
Disparity of Opportunites
Sports in the United States are enormous. Namely, sports like basketball, baseball, andfootball. Other sports garner millions of viewers in the United States as well, like soccer, hockey,
MMA, etc. All of these sports are very well funded and have lifetime fans and unwavering support.
Men’s volleyball is very uncommon in the United States, as most areas of the country will have a hardtime finding a club team outside of their high school or university. Almost all competitive volleyball66

in the USA is limited to California, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, and a few other states. It is very common
for high schools to not have male volleyball programs. If people are lucky enough to have a volleyballclub in their vicinity, they now have to jump over the massive paywall. Many volleyball clubs demanda minimum of $1000 to join their club for the season. This does not guarantee playing time, it only
gets your name on the roster. Parents are also expected to pay for hotels and transportation since many
tournaments are out-of-state since the clubs do not pay for transport or accommodation. There aremany clubs that cost upwards of $3000. The lack of clubs in most of the United States and these
massive paywalls leave many parents with no choice but to put their kids in other sports. This leaves
volleyball to stay as a physical education sport with a very casual player base.
Contrarily, Japan has plenty of opportunities in volleyball starting from a very young age.
Not just volleyball, but most sports get somewhat equal opportunities for growth. Of course, some
sports get more love than others, like baseball and soccer. Most middle schools and high schools inJapan have volleyball clubs. Unlike the United States, Japan has a professional volleyball league andvery dedicated fans. Volleyball is also not just seen as a casual pick-up game, but a sport with
opportunities to go further and make a living. This can be said about many of the sports in Japan.
Japan is so full of extracurricular activities provided by schools that students can pick and choose what
they would like to do. This is not to say that every school in Japan has good volleyball programs, oreven has one at all. Plenty of schools in the Japanese countryside lack sports clubs and the funding toeven support them. There are plenty of times where a club exists, but cannot afford to hire a coach.
This makes it a very casual club with a teacher overseeing the club and a player acting as the leaderof the club. Despite this, there is enough of an interest in volleyball as a country for there to almost
always be a way to play volleyball.

These differences in opportunities and Japanese culture are heavy influences on the way
athletes play volleyball. Richard is a half-American, half-Japanese student at Okayama University

67

who also plays for the Okayama University volleyball team. I asked him if young Japanese children
focus on one sport and stick with it, or if they like playing multiple sports. He said a majority of young
athletes will usually pick up a sport and play it for several years, usually not playing anything else.
There are many young athletes, however, who will stop one sport and then pick up another later. For
the most part, these children develop skills in their respective sports for several years. This is where
efficiency and technicality come into play very heavily. Japanese volleyball players are well-known
for their “near-perfect” technique. Since these players focus on this sport their whole lives, they haveso much time to hone in on the little impurities and imperfections. Their technique is closer to“perfection” than any other country in the world.
These young Japanese athletes have developed in a way that contrasts with American
athletes significantly. Most American parents want their children to be in multiple sports. Many
children in the United States grow up playing multiple sports at the same time at different points
throughout the year. For example, a child will play a season of football for 5 months and a season ofbasketball for another 5 months. These kinds of schedules are very common since most sports are not
year-round. In middle school and high school, the opportunity to be a multi-sport is higher than ever.
American schools have fall sports, winter sports, and spring sports. These last around 3 months each,so many students will play one sport in each season in order to keep themselves busy, or they want totry another sport. American children playing all these different sports means they cannot focus on one
sport as much as Japanese athletes. American athletes develop very different skill sets compared toJapanese athletes. While American athletes are not as specialized in one sport, they benefit from better
motor and athletic development and skill transference to other sports. Each athlete will develop theirown way of playing each sport, and develop their own way of using their bodies. Japanese coaches
usually have their athletes practice each skill to perfection. Repetition is the bread and butter ofJapanese athletic development.
Differences in Collegiate Sports
The difference between practices on the San Jose State team and the Okayama University
team displays Japanese athletic values in full effect. The practices in San Jose State had a few staple
exercises that are almost always in every practice. Most of the time, every practice will be different insome way. For example, if there are a total of 15 drills the volleyball team has done in the past, one
practice might use 3 of those, another practice might use another 4, the next practice might use a mixof those 7, and so forth. Every practice feels like there is something new to work on.
Japanese practices are the complete opposite. Every day is the exact same drills in the exact
same order. The biggest focus in Japanese practice will be the fundamentals. Rather than game-likesituations, the team will spend almost all practice doing the same drills over and over again. It isreminiscent of sharpening a blade over and over again to hone sharpness. Sarah Fäth is on the women’s
volleyball team and is a foreign exchange student from Germany. She weighs in on the heavy
repetitions of Japanese practice by saying, “We do basically the same thing every practice. We havethe warming up part which is the same for every practice. Afterward, we have the same 4 or 5 routines

68

of practice that we rotate depending on what the coach wants to focus on in practice. Basically thesame thing all the time. My coach in Germany was always coming up with new things, so it wasentertaining. But in Japan, since we only do certain practices I feel like I get a lot better at thosespecific things.” This allows us to see very simple pros/cons of Japanese practice. While practice withthe volleyball team in Japan can get a bit boring and repetitive, certain skill sets are going to become
exponentially better even if it might not be as fun as her home country’s practice. There is also a very
big emphasis on team dynamics and team goals. A Japanese team will often set time aside during
practice to have a meeting with the team and discuss the goals for the season and how they feel about
their teammates. They all work and strive for one goal as a single machine. The United States iscompletely different. If there is ever an issue that comes up, it will be brought up immediately towhoever is involved or possibly the coach. Each athlete usually has their own motivation for playing.
Some might play purely for fun, others might play to win.
Possibly the most noticeable difference between most collegiate teams in Japan is theabsence of coaches. Most college teams in Japan do not have coaches due to the lack of funding tohire and pay a coach. Usually, coaches are only seen with very powerful schools. Gabriel Thimm is aforeign exchange student from France in the boxing club. Regarding the issue of coaches in Japan, heviewed not having a coach as a rather positive thing. “As long as the leader of the club has realexperience and takes it very seriously and knows what to do and is a good leader then it's ok. Thisclub is good since I am a beginner, so my goals aren’t to go pro. If my goals were to go national withboxing, then I would leave the club to go somewhere better with a coach.” He elaborated by sayingthat a club not having an official coach tends to be more open and free. There is more lenience andathletes are relatively free to exercise in the way they feel appropriate, while also having a sense of
direction provided by the club captain. He also talked about how much he enjoys the relationship he
has with the club captain. In France, his coach would have a relationship similar to a parent and child.
He said he was much more comfortable without that since he is in the club to have fun and not competevery seriously. The Okayama University women’s volleyball team has a coach and Sarah Fäthweighed in on the topic of coaches as well. “My coach in Germany was an old person and it was more
like a coach/student dynamic. Sometimes our coach here didn’t come. Usually on Sundays, hewouldn't come. I was surprised with how dedicated and disciplined the players were even without acoach. In Germany, we would usually slack off and talk.” The discipline of Japanese athletes runs
very deep that they can run practice completely on their own. These values are encouraged in theseathletes from a very young age. It is also worth noting that since Japanese practices rely so heavily on
fundamentals, the practices are easier to run. The fundamentals that have been drilled into athletes
from such an early age are practiced constantly throughout their entire sports career. Sarah mentionedthat “In Japan, all the teams I've seen and met have very similar playing styles, of course, some arejust better at playing than others.” The warmups and drills are all relatively the same and consistentthroughout Japan. It’s as if there is a curriculum in volleyball, and most teams decide to follow it.
Conclusion

69

Japan’s values shine through brilliantly when looking at their sports. Their values of
efficiency and discipline are most noticeable, no matter what club you look at. The students I
interviewed thought the same. The athletes back in the United States are not taught the same values,
but rather how to get better at the sport. Japanese sports incorporate these traditional virtues in theirteachings and create talented athletes, who play very similarly to each other and all work toward one
goal together as a unit. An added remark from a member of the men’s volleyball team, Richard, talked
about how consistent and repetitive practices make for a more disciplined and humble team. Not only
do coaches instill these values in them from a young age, but they are also able to draw from theseprinciples during their practices. It emphasized how humble and grounded Japanese sports are.
Reference:-Arba,

A.

(2022,

September

8).

Japan:

Numberofpeopleplayingvolleyball2021.

Statista.

https://www.statista.com/statistics/1331549/japan-number-volleyball-players/-Statista Research Department. (2022, December 8). Court volleyball: Number of participants U.S. 2018. Statista.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/191714/participants-in-court-volleyball-in-the-us-since-2006/-R. Calip, personal communication, June 21, 2023
-G. Thiim, personal communication, July 7, 2023
-S. Fäth, personal communication, July 7, 2023

70

The role that universities can play in the promotion of a more sustainable, inclusive
and ethic lifestyle: the case of Kyoto University’s VegeProject.
Could Okadai be the next one?
Donatella Canta
Ca’ Foscari University of Venice (Italy)

Summary:

この EPOK の自由研究のテーマは、「ヴィーガン」というライフスタイルである。

気候変動や動物福祉に対する関心が増えてきたので、ヴィーガンになっている人が多いそうである。その問題を取り組んでいる京都大学の「VegeProject」という NPO を例にとって、大学が果たすべき重要な役割を説明する。その後、持続可能性を重視する岡山大学のカフェテリアにはヴィーガンの食品も提供されているかどうかを確かめ、5 人の学生とのインタビューの結果をまとめる。この調査を通じて、持続可能性とヴィーガンの繋がり、あらゆる学生のインクルージ
ョンの大切さを示し、岡山大学の将来のに貢献できれば良いと考える。

I.

Introduction

This research concerns the growing trend of veganism, commonly defined as “the practice of eating
only food not derived from animals and typically of avoiding the use of other animal products”. Over
time it has developed into a movement advocating for wide societal and systemic change, as extensive
scientific evidence of the environmental cost of such products as meat and dairy began to surface andreach the general public, as well knowledge about the condition of animals involved in the industry
started to spread, leading people to question the moral basis underlying the consumption of animalsourced food. With the awareness that climate change could pose a real threat to our survival, questions
about the sustainability of human activities have been arising in recent years, leading the UN to issue
its Sustainable Development Goals1, a call to action to work towards equality and to ensure theprotection of the planet, with Okayama University being one of the several institutions worldwide
adopting them. Some universities in Japan have also acted independently, as is the case of Kyoto
University, which in 2013 saw the creation of VegeProject, now an NPO, by a then-graduate student
aiming to introduce plant-based meals in the university’s canteen. After providing an overview ofthe motives underlying the vegan choice, I will introduce VegeProject’s case to show how universities
can be at the forefront of producing positive change in society, not only by promoting more sustainable
lifestyle, but also by taking action to secure the inclusion of all students. Following this, I will provide
an overview of Okayama University’s cafeterias’ menus to show whether they offer any vegan meals.
Lastly, as I believe that students are essential actors in shaping their university’s character and values,
I will report the results of interviews conducted with five Okadai students, in which they expressed

71

their thoughts and knowledge on veganism. By implementing these tasks, I attempted to obtain a morecomprehensive view on Okayama University’s overall state of affairs in relation to veganism.
II.

Why do people choose to become

vegan?
While it is true that the vegan movement
can be defined as heterogeneous in nature,with people adopting this lifestyle on
several different grounds, some main
factors can be singled out. In 2019 travel
vlog

Vomad

conductedasurveyinvolving 12,814 participants who were asked why they had chosen to become vegan. Results
were as follows:

As shown in Figure 1, over half of the respondents attribute their lifestyle change to animal welfare
concerns, while a smaller percentage of respondents did so out of health and environmental reasons.

Source: Figure 1
Animal welfare
In recent years widespread social media access has made it easier for animal rights activists to reachpublic consciousness, for instance by sharing footage taken inside slaughterhouses and farms to
document the condition of livestock animals. Animal welfare NPO PETA denounced unsanitaryconditions related to the transport of pigs from the farm to the slaughterhouse2. Reportedly, pigs areoften crammed inside the trucks and do not receive food nor water until the end of the journey, withmany perishing due to scorching or freezing temperatures. Footage from an abattoir in the United
Kingdom capturing pigs in apparent distress gasping for air while being subjected to asphyxiation bycarbon dioxide has also been published by British newspaper The Guardian3. The dairy industry has
not been exempt from criticism either. In modern day farming, cows are artificially inseminatedrepeatedly throughout their life until they reach 5 years of age, when their body is too damaged anddiseased to continue the milking cycle, and are thus slaughtered for low-price meat. It is important tonote that a cow’s natural lifespan would typically be about 15-20 years. What is more, after the calf is72born, they are usually either slaughtered for veal or entered the milking production, if female4.
Awareness about such practices has thus led many people to boycott animal products by turning vegan
and rejecting such views as speciesism, defined as “the practice of treating members of one species as
morally more important than members of other species; also, the belief that this practice is justified”,
which they claim allows the consumption of farmed animals to be socially accepted in most parts of
the world.
Health concerns
Although eating vegan cannot be defined as healthy per se, as vegan food can still be highly processed,
experts claim introducing more plant-based meals into one’s diet could have several health benefits,
including a lower risk of coronary disease, high-blood pressure and diabetes. Furthermore, plant-based
food may contain all the necessary nutrients to maintain bodily functions, such as proteins, fats,carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Red meat, instead, is reported to increase the risks ofcardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes5.
Environmental concerns
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, a total number of 73,162,794,213
animals, including chickens, pigs, cows, sheep, and fishes were slaughtered in 20206. There is ample
scientific evidence that livestock raising and fishing contribute considerably to climate change andenvironmental degradation. For instance, animal agriculture reportedly accounts for 18% of total
anthropogenic greenhouse gasses emissions7, due to the digestion process of such animals as cows
involves the release of methane, a greenhouse gas that has been found to be more powerful than carbon
dioxide. Furthermore, animal agriculture has also been identified as the major contributor to
deforestation globally8, since clear land is needed to grow crops to feed billions of animals. Livestockraising also involves a massive usage of water; for instance, 8000 liters of water would be needed to
produce on pound of beef, as opposed to around 185 liters to produce a serving of black beans9.
However, despite occupying most agricultural land and utilizing a significant amount of water, animalsourced food accounts only for 18% of the world’s calories and 37% of proteins10. Questions about
the sustainability of our current fishing patterns have also been raised in recent years, with anincreasing demand for marine products pushing the industry to overlook the way their practices affectmarine life. For instance, a common practice called trawling, consisting in a net being dragged along
the ocean floor, often damages the seabed by dragging plants and coral populations, which are essential
for the survival of the ocean. What is more, fishing nets and gears account for most of marine pollution,
each year injuring or killing thousands of animals of dolphins, whales, and turtles, further damaging
the ecosystem11.

III.

VegeProject

73

Although it could be said that vegan food in Japan is yet to reach mainstream popularity, supermarkets
in the country have gradually started to introduce a few plant-based products, such as soy meat, tofu
cheese, and vegetable curry. Several of these items can be easily recognized by a “Certified Vegan by
VegeProject” mark on the package. When then graduate student at Kyoto University Haruko Kawano
founded “VegeProject” 12 in 2013, she probably would not have imagined that it was bound to play anessential role in boosting the plant-based market in Japan. It started as a project to urge theadministrator of the college cafeterias to start serving plant-based meals for vegan students, as well as
for everyone else to try them and learn about veganism. Thanks to her efforts, Kyoto University beganoffering vegan meals and continues to have a great selection to this day. In 2016 VegeProject became
established as non-profit organization and since then has been collaborating with both the public andprivate sectors. In the case of universities, VegeProject has been offering consultation to help themdevelop and introduce vegan meals in their cafeterias, as well as organizing lectures on vegan-related
topics, successfully contributing to the creation of plant-based menus in several universities, including
Tokyo University and Osaka University. What is more, the organization has also been providing
opportunities for businesses, including restaurants, interested in veganism to learn about it throughseminars and lectures, also helping them make their products be easily recognized by allowing themto use the VegeProject mark. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has also launched an annual
partnership with VegeProject to create a guidebook listing restaurants and shops offering vegan foodin the capital. With climate change pushing us to rethink our lifestyles, the demand for vegan food is
expected to increase exponentially in the coming years, and VegeProject is proof that cultural
institutions such as universities may hold great potential as the starting point for positive societal andsystemic change.

IV.

What about Okayama University?

An overview of Okayama University’s cafeterias
As aforementioned, Okayama University is among the several institutions all over the world thathave pledged to promote sustainability by taking direct action. Thus, it seemed relevant to analyze
whether and in what ways such commitments have translated into practice. Pertinent to the scopeof this research was examining the menus of the universities cafeterias to find out whether and towhat extent vegan options are offered to students. I illustrate my findings below, taking Peach
Cafeteria in Tsushima campus as a representative example, since it offers the same number ofvegan options as the rest of Okayama University’s cafeterias.
Table 1 Vegan meals at Okayama University’s cafeteria
Item

Total

Vegan

Rice, curry, donburi

22

1 (white rice)

74

Main dish (e.g., noodles)

65

0Side dish51

10,includingvegetables,

seaweed, and fruit
Soups

2

0

Desserts

32

2, including egg-free crêpesAs shown above, Okayama University’s cafeterias provide a restricted selection of dishes suitable forvegans and vegetarians, mainly limited to white rice, a few side vegetables, and some fruit.
Furthermore, it has been observed that vegan and vegetarian students, as well as other people withdietary restrictions other than allergies, would encounter significant difficulties in choosing a mealthat is adequate to their preferences, since it is not possible to access a clear list of all the ingredientsused in a dish unless one inquires directly at the Okayama University Co-op.
What do the students think?
As mentioned in the introduction to this research, I carried out an interview with five Okadai students
to learn about their thoughts on veganism. Before beginning the interview, the respondents were givena reference sheet briefly illustrating the meaning of vegan and why some people are choosing thislifestyle. I summarize their responses in Table 2
As shown in the table, all the respondents reported that no previous knowledge about veganism.
Furthermore, when asked whether they had heard about the problems related to the livestock industry,
three respondents said that the information provided was not new to them, whereas no participant
reported awareness on animal welfare issues, perhaps suggesting that such issues are not widely
known

and

discussedinJapan.

All respondents agreed that eating vegan in Japan entails a certain degree of difficulty. Each of themremarked that it is not usual for Japanese restaurants to include vegan options in their menus, forinstance making it difficult to eat out for a group of friends that include a vegan person. Two
respondents also believe that vegan food in supermarkets tends to be more expensive, discouraging
people to become vegan. This was related to such processed products as soy meat and vegan cheese,and perhaps indicates that the two respondents did not associate other, usually cheaper, plant-based
food such as vegetables, tofu, noodles, and rice with a vegan lifestyle, suggesting that they may thinkthat a vegan diet largely consists of such packaged products as mentioned above.
As for the impression the participants have of vegan food, all of them regarded it as being healthierthan non-vegan food. The male respondent also perceived vegan food as having a gendered image
and associated it with “femininity”, adding that women are perhaps more open to try and consume
such products as soy meat than their male counterpart. I believe that this may be linked to the fact thatmeat consumption is sometimes related to the concept of masculinity, as studies has proven, that it to
say that some men feel that eating animals is a way of affirming their maleness13. Another respondent

75

also believed that vegan cuisine tends to be more sophisticated and that it uses high-quality and refined
ingredients, different from every-day meals that one could easily cook at home. In my view, this isstrictly related to the perception of vegan food as being inherently healthier, possibly leading manyvegan restaurants in Japan to use bio and low-calorie ingredients in order to comply with this image.
As per the last question, all respondents expressed willingness to try a vegan dish if given the chance,
provided that it is not too expensive. One respondent regarded the presentation, that is the appearanceof the food, as one crucial characteristic that they seek in a dish, remarking that being able to take anaesthetically pleasing photo of the food to share it on social media is what often persuade them tochoose a particular dish. Although their answer cannot be representative of Japanese people’s opinions
as a whole, it perhaps shows the importance that aesthetics play in the marketability of a certain dish.
Table 2 Thoughts on veganism of Okayama University Students

Field of study

Student 1 (F)Student 2 (F)Student 3 (F)Student 4 (M)Student 5 (F)Education

Education

Science

Education

Letters

Did you know Had heard the Had heard the Had heard the Had heard the Had heard thethe meaning of word

before word

before word

before word

before word

beforevegan? Do you but was unsure but was unsure but was unsure but was unsure but was unsurehavevegan of the meaning. of the meaning. of the meaning. of the meaning. of the meaning.

familyDoes not know Does not know Does not know Does not know Does not know

members

or anyfriends?

vegan any

person.

person.

Did you know Had
aboutvegan any

person.

vegan any

person.

person.

previous

previous

previousnoprevious

knowledge of knowledge on knowledge on knowledge on knowledge ofissues and the such issues.

environmental

animal welfare

and

and

healthconcerns. Had concerns. Had concerns. Hadofheard of health heard about it read of suchconcerns

vegan

no Reported some Reported some Reported some Had

the previous

environmental

vegan anyenvironmental

health andenvironmental

health andsuch issues.

healthanimalbenefits of soy on TV.

issues on the

agriculture?

meat in a TV

internet.

program.
Do you think it Yes,

because Yes, because it Yes, because it Yes,

is difficult to restaurants
sustain a vegan Japan
lifestyle
Japan?

because Yes,

in is difficult to is difficult to restaurants

rarely findbecausein restaurantsinvegan eat out.

Japan usually Japanin Plus,such do not offer include vegan

in include vegan options

rarelyoptions in their restaurants.

products as soy vegan food.

options in theirmenus.

meat and tofu

menus.

76

cheese are not Also,
affordablevegan

to products

everyone.

insupermarkets
are

quite

expensive.
What is your Healthy

Healthier than Healthyand Healthyand Healthy,

impression ofother kinds of uses

high- feminine

suitablevegan food?

cuisines.

Would you be Yes,but

it Yes,but

quality

image. Women those who wish

ingredients.

areSophisticatedkeenerimage.

consume it.

it Yes, but it has Yes,

probably to lose weight.
tobut

it Yes, but only if

willing to try depends on the depends on the to be cheap.

depends on the it’svegan food if price.

price. The foodprice.

given

needs to lookthechance?

notexpensive.

good so to beable to take anice picture.

V.

Conclusion

Through this research I attempted to highlight the link between sustainability and veganism and toillustrate the positive role that universities may play in the present and coming future, as climatechange and ethical issues prompts humanity to reconsider its way of live. VegeProject is one
representative example of how the creativity and determination of students can achieve positivechange extending beyond the academic realm and reaching common people, and how it is crucial foruniversities management to be flexible and receptive of such change. By looking into the foodselection offered by the cafeterias in Okayama University, I discovered that for the moment they are
not ready to guarantee complete and balanced meals for all students regardless of dietary restrictions.
However, it is my view that several of the dishes offered could be made vegan by removing one or
two ingredients, thus facilitating the process of rethinking the menus. Through the interviews I aimed
at gaining a deeper understanding of how the Japanese youth think about the food system and to what
extent the problems caused by animal agriculture are commonly known in Japan. While it is true thatthe number of people involved in this study may not be sufficient to delineate any general conclusion,
I believe it still provided an interesting glimpse of what students regard as important when choosing
their meals. Perhaps this could turn out to be helpful in case Okayama University will consider
introducing

vegan

meals

in

its

for

cafeterias

at

some

point

in

the

future.

It is my hope that this research, however simple, will contribute to foster the inclusion of all students

too

77

at Okayama University, as well as the importance of transitioning to a more sustainable way of living
friendly to the environment, to the animals and to humans alike.
References
1 UN Sustainable Development Goals https://sdgs.un.org/goals

2

Pig transport and slaughter at: https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-food/factory-farming/pigs/pig-transport-slaughter/ [Last accessed: 29/07/2023]
3 C. Calley, A. Wasley Suffering of gassed pigs laid bare in undercover footage from UK abattoir, The Guardian at:https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/02/suffering-of-gassed-pigs-laid-bare-in-undercover-footage-fromuk-abattoir [Last accessed: 29/07/2023]
4Dairy cows: how long do they live? Do they suffer? at: https://thehumaneleague.org/article/dairy-cows#:~:text=Industrial%20dairy%20cows%20go%20through,are%20around%205%20years%20old. [Last accessed:
29/07/2023]
5 Evelyne Battaglia Richi et Al. Health Risks Associated with Meat Consumption: A Review of Epidemiological Studies at:https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26780279/ [Last accessed: 29/07/2023]
6 Crops and livestock products

https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL; 7Environmental impact of meat consumption,

The University of British Columbia at: https://cases.open.ubc.ca/environmental-impact-of-meatconsumption/#:~:text=Specifically%2C%20livestock%20feed%20and%20meat,responsible%20for%2010%25%20greenh
ouse%20emission [Last accessed: 29/07/2023]
8

Environmental Impacts of Food Production at: https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food

9 Water at: https://agreenerworld.org/challenges-and-opportunities/water-use/; Madel R. What’s for Dinner? Protein — andits Large Water Footprint at: https://foodprint.org/blog/water-footprint-ofprotein/#:~:text=You%20can%20save%20water%20by,beans%20take%20only%2049%20gallons [Last accessed:
29/07/2023]
10

Reed, K., Reducing food’s environmental impacts at: https://www.leap.ox.ac.uk/article/reducing-foods-environmental-

impacts [Last accessed: 29/07/2023]
11 The environmental impact of the fishing industry at: https://www.theclimatechangereview.com/post/the-environmental-

impact-of-the-fishing-industry [Last accessed: 29/07/2023]
12 VegeProject at: https://vegeproject.org/en/about-us-en/#mission_jp

13 Rothgerber, H. Real Men Don't Eat (Vegetable) Quiche: Masculinity and the Justification of Meat Consumption at:https://vegstudies.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/p_foodethik/Rothgerber__Hank_2012._Real_Men_Dont_Eat_Vegetable-__Quiche._Masculinity_and_the_Justification_of_Meat_Consumption.pdf [Last accessed: 29/07/2023]

78

Look into Forestry in Okayama
岡山の林業について
Yeh Yu Yo
National Taiwan University (Taiwan)

Summary: During my stay in Okayama, Ｉ visited many places about forestry. After that, I interviewed
a forestry worker, and learned the following facts: 1)People become forestry workers because they areinterested in forestry; 2)Natural disasters cause problem in forestry and forests under inadequate
management causes problem; 3)Forestry work is routine in one year; 4)SDGs make more people interested
in forestry; 5)Forest environmental tax is not changing forestry in Okayama.

1. 岡山県の自然環境と森林
令和 3 年 3 月の資料によれば、岡山県の面積は 711,435ha であり、そのうち森林の面積は485,091ha であり、全体の 68％を占めている。国有林は 35,689ha を占め、民有林は人工林の168,253ha を含んでおり、総面積は 447,108ha である。〈近代岡山県における林産物と森林環境〉(2018)によると、岡山県の地質は花岡岩が多い、林地崩壞を招きやすいので、はげ山がよくある。岡山は全国ヒノキの生産量の一位である。県内生産木材は総需求量の 78％の323 千㎥である。岡山森林組合の「森林組合だより」ニュースレターによると、令和 3 年度
は 21,967,000 円の純利益を稼いだ。

2. 森林専攻で岡山の林業に深く理解したい
私は国立台湾大学の農学部の森林学科で勉強している。特に木材の利用について学んでいる。木は製材されてから、大きな板などの建材として家を建てることができる。しかし、最近の木は小さく弱くなっており、新しい技術が必要である。CLT という技術は、木を組み合わせて小さい木から固くて強い建材を作ることができる。しかし、CLT でも利用されない木の部分もある。例えば、枝や製材後の廃木材である。そのようなものはチップに粉砕され、木質バイオマスとして利用される。岡山県には CLT 工場や木質バイオマス発電所があり、情報収集のために見学した。

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このレポートでは、岡山県の木質バイオマスの現状と岡山の林業従業者の声について明らかにすることを試みた。先行研究として、政府資料と論文をレビューし、現地調査とインタビューでデータを集めた。これからは時間順でイベントについて述べる。

3. 「第 74 回全国植樹祭 岡山 2024」 1 年前記念イベント（2023 年 5 月 20 日西大寺緑花公園）
岡山の林業について情報を収集するため、西大寺で開催された「第 74 回全国植樹祭 岡
山 2024」 1 年前記念イベントに参加した。会場に林業 PR のコーナーがあり、そこには岡山県森林組合連合会と岡山森林組合が一緒に作った体験活動と問題シートが用意された。
スギ、クスノキ、ヒノキとクリの丸太を展示されており、樹皮と年輪を使って、樹種当てク
イズを正しく答えた人は、記念品のヒノキの栞がもらえた。この活動を通して、市民によく見える国産材の特徴を紹介した。
また、クイズラリーで岡山県の森林面積、丸太の生産量、森林の仕事について学んだ。さらに、現場作業のチェーンソー、服装（図１）、ドローン（図２）が展示されていた。林業は進化しており、労働条件が改善されつつある。子供の参加者も多く、このようにして、林業に対する興味関心を高める試みを行っていた。

4. 真庭のバイオマスツアー（2023 年 6 月 27 日真庭市）
真庭前バイオマスツアーに参加した。チップの安定供給を確保する真庭バイオマス集積
基地を訪ねた。7 年前アメリカから 7,000 万円で購入した固定式粉砕機の代わりに、新しく移動できる粉砕機を購入したが、コロナと戦争の影響で、一年くらい遅れて届いた。昔はば
らばらに積み込んだ木材を粉砕機のところまで運ばなければならなくて、危なくて時間がかかった。粉砕機が移動できると、積み重ねた木材に寄せられて、効率的に作業を進める。
その後、真庭バイオマス発電所で、働きの状況を見学した。2015 年 4 月から稼働開始した発電所は過ごしずつ地元の施設へ売電している。初めて見たの私は発電所がとても大きい施設だと思うが、この施設はまだ不安定なので、伝統的な発電所の代わりにはなれない。
さらに、日本一の CLT 工場を持った銘建工業の事務所でを CLT について学んだ。事務所の一階は強いヒノキ CLT で、二階はより弱いスギ CLT で建たれた。銘建工業は CLT の生産とともに出た木粉を利用して、ペレットを作っている。ペレットは発電所の燃料として使
われた。

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最後に真庭市役所本庁舎を訪れ、そこもバイオマス発電を行っている。2 億 2000 万円で建てたバイオマスボイラを使い、チップとペレットを燃やして、Rankine cycle を用いて暖冷房をしている。冷房時は高温水を吸収式冷凍機に送って、冷たい空気を作る。暖房の時は直接に空調機に温水を送って、本庁舎の内を温める。本庁舎には気持ちよかった、言われなかったら、バイオマスエネルギーを利用しているなんて、想像できない。
今回のツアーで様々な場所を見学した。授業でチップもペレートも CLT について勉強したが、実際に見学することで現状をより深く理解できた。これらの知識と経験を用いて、今後、さらにバイオマスの製造や発電の効率について深く理解していきたい。

5. 岡山林業従事者のインタビュー（2023 年 7 月 4 日）
「第 74 回全国植樹祭 岡山 2024」 1 年前記念イベントで、林業の作業について様々な質問をしたが、不明な点が多々あったため、7 月 4 日に御津の岡山林業組合で岸本さん（業務課 課長）を訪問した。林業従事者はどんな人たちなのか、資料の情報だけでは十分に理解できない点を、以下、聞いてみた（図 3）。
5.1 従業者は林業に関心も持つ人
岸本さんは林業に興味と関心を持ち、チェンソーで伐採してみたいという気持ちから、緑の雇用事業注）を通じて、中途で林業に従事しはじめた。組合の職員で、実家が林業の家は少ない。職種による定年も異なり、総務系が定年 60 歳で、業務系が 65 歳である。定年退職しても、契約社員として務め続ける人もいれば、やめる人もいる。組合で働きながら林業を理解していく中で、自ら重機を購入して独立する人もいる。これらの事実を考えて、森を持っていない人も森林組合で働くことが推測される。
岸本さんは組合のスタッフは管理をして、現場作業はほとんど業務系の下にある作業員に頼んでいる。現場の作業をあまりしないといっても、山に登るための体力が必要である。
インタビューは午後に行われたが、岸本さんは午前中に現場に行ったとのこと。山が好きだ
けなく、暑さに耐えられる必要がある。実際に、暑さのために 6 月に退職する人が多い。
注）「緑の雇用事業」とは、2003 年度から日本国内における林業労働力の確保育成施策である。新規就業者は、職場での現場実習と都道府県単位での集合研修を経て、三年間の研修を受けてフォレストワーカーになることができる。岡山森林組合にも緑の雇用の研修生がいる。2023 年度には新規の人を四人雇用している。公的資金を活用して資格を取得する育成支援がある一方、林業を学び興味を持つ学生はなかなかいないようである。
林業従事者として、岸本さんは将来、日本の林業を担う世代に伝えたいことがある。人工針葉樹林の放置は災害を招く。手入れされない人工林では、樹木は栄養と光不足でやせて倒81

れやすく、伐採された木材は使いにくくなるため、デメリットだらけである。林業に興味がある方には、新規職員のリクルート活動が行っており、インターネットを活用している。また、林業に従事したくなくても、もっと木材を使って欲しいとの願いもある。
5.2. 3K な職場なのに、嬉しいと感じされることがある
林業は農業と同じく、天気に影響を受ける職種である。「林業をしていて大変だと思うことを教えてください」と聞いた時、岸本さんは梅雨の時期、現場作業は天候に左右されて、作業ができない日あると答えた。そして、夏には日射病と熱中症が恐ろしいため、作業のときは空調服を着る。また、業務は環境が見える朝 6 時から午後 3 時までに行っている。岡山は雪をあまり降らないので、冬も木を切る。ちなみに、木は冬に休眠するため、この時期には木を伐採にとって一番いい。
森林の天災は風による根返りや乾燥による山火事などが含まれる。天災に対して、森林保険がある。人の保険については、労災の中に種類があり、林業の者も加入している。林業は3K（きつい、汚い、危険）な職場で、リスクが高いため掛け金が高くなる。ケガをする人も亡くなる人もいる。厚生労働省の労働災害統計によると、災害に至る項目には、飛来・落下、激突され、切れ・こすれが圧倒的に多い。これはチェーンソーを使った「伐木作業中の事故」
だと考えられる。また、安全のために、虫やスズメバチに敏感な人はエピペンを携帯している。
しかし、林業をしていて「嬉しい」と感じることもある。岸本さんは少し考えた後、「嬉しいことよりも、しんどいことが多い」といった。例えば、山にいて山の整備をし、山主が喜んでくれること。コロナ禍前は小学生向けの林業ワークショップを行ったりもした。インターネットで募集をかけて 30 名くらいの参加者が集まった。ワークショップでは、草刈り、枝打ちの体験で、木工、椎茸、本棚づくりなどを行った。参加者は岡山市の小学生で、山が少ない岡山南部の子がほどんと占めていた。
5.3. ルーチン作業で木を育て、伐採する
林業にはルーチン作業が多い。年間 4 月、5 月が業務量が少なく、主に山主と契約して業務を行っている。毎年同じな業務をすることが多いが、管理的にしやすさからすれば契約をする方がいい。山主に林業経営について提案もすることもある。
毎年木を植える。針葉樹のスギとヒノキだけなく、広葉樹も植える。2022 年度では 27.3％
を広葉樹の山桜とコナラに充て、残った 72.7%はヒノキと杉を植えた。広葉樹を植えるのは、山を自然に戻すためである。樹を植えた後、5 年間は下草を刈って面倒を見てあげる。御津は鹿が少なく、幼齢木ネットなどの獣害対策用品は使わないが、ウサギとイノシシがいる。
イノシシと遭遇することがある。5 年後、樹木は高くなって草に覆われないから、草刈りをしなくてもよくなる。

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針葉樹は 20～30 年後、伐採する。林業には木材価格の長期低迷や労働力不足の問題が起こっている。作業費と人件費は価格より高く、赤字になる。作業費は木材の価格ではなく、量によって決まっている。
伐採された木の主な用途は原木市場に出荷することである。原木市場月に３回あり、新見、勝山、津山の３ヶ所で行う（図 4）。毎年初めの原木販売は初市という特別市として行われる。11 月のコンクール特別市は高級材の杉と檜が売られる。原木市場ではなんでも持ち込んでいけるが、ニーズがある方が売れるため、ニーズに応じた品目を持っていく網がいい。また、これらの木はバイオマスとしても使われることがあり、真庭に持ち込まれる。
5.4. SDGs、税などの外部の影響について
SDGs とは、持続可能な開発目標の略で、人類がこの世界で安定して暮らし続けることための実施指針である。SDGs は現場の作業にはあまり影響しなかったが、興味を持ってくれる人は増えた。
コロナ禍も戦争は林業に影響を与えたが、特に値段の面である。コロナによる出社中止と作業中止とかはなく、特に工程に影響はなかったが、戦争の影響で燃料費が高騰したり、航路中止のため部品が入れなかったり、作業が間接に影響された。ウッドショック時に価格は一時的に上がったが、また、元の価格に戻った。ウッドショックとは、小枝和弘（2022）によると、COVID と戦争の影響で、海外からの木材輸入が困難になり、木材の値段が上昇したこと。 しかし、感染拡大防止のため、過去２年間は森林組合の総大会が開催できなかった。
岸本さんは 2024 年から導入される森林環境税で林業は変わらないと考えている。もともとある財源である「おかやま森づくり県民税」と名前が違うだけで、森林環境税とは、2024（令和 6）年度から国内に住所のある個人に対して課税される国税である。国が集めた税金
は市区町村に森林環境譲与税として配分される。2024 年には 100％交付されるので、すでに少しづつ始まっている。岡山では、県や市区町村が森林環境税を使って間伐などを行い、組合にも間接的に恩恵があるとされている。
6. まとめ
私はこの 4 ヶ月の間、文献を読んだり、植樹祭 1 年前記念イベントを行ったり、真庭のバイオマスを参加したり、調査を行った。調べたことを基づいて、問題リストを作って、林業従事者にインタビューした。
収集した情報を通じて、以下のことが明らかになった。
ア）林業に興味を持った人が、林業従業者になっている。新規就業者は緑の雇用事業によって支援され、林業従事者数は増加した。緑の雇用事業には集合研修と OJT を組み合わ83

せた研修があり、林業に必要な資格取得に加え、安全かつ効率的な林業に必要な知識・技能を実地で 3 年間で習得する。
イ）植樹祭関連イベントやバイオマスツアーなど林業のプロモーションにおいては、林業の実態を知ってもらうために装備や機械を展示し、安全なかつハイテクな林業を伝えていた。そして、キノコ栽培や樹種の見分け方を教える等して、森林に対する理解を高める努力をしている。
ウ）林業組合では、自然災害に対する森林保険と労働災害に対する労働保険に加入している。伐採の経費は木材の価格ではなく、量で決まる。木材を作る経費は木材の価格より高くなることもあり、全国的には赤字傾向にある。
エ）林業にはルーチン作業が多い。森林組合は山主と契約して、現場作業を行う。組合の総務スタッフは管理業務をして、現場の作業は作業員が行う。
オ）作業は天気に影響される。特に、夏は暑いので、早く始めて早く終わる。新規に林業に従事した人は、気温が高くなると退職するケースもある。岡山市は冬の間あまり雪が降らないので、冬も通常通り作業を続ける。
カ）岡山は平成 17 年 6 月末に「持続可能な開発のための教育（ESD）」の地域拠点（RCE）」
として認定された。それ以来、SDGs の推進を進めている。SDGs は林業に直接な影響を与えないのにもかかわらず、人々に林業に興味を持たせる効果がある。
キ）真庭市のバイオマス発電は期待される技術であり、林業のモデルとして他の地域への移転期待されるが、他の自然エネルギーの発電設備と比べて、きめ細やかな運転ノウハウが必要とされる。
このレポートでは、岡山の林業の概要について論じると同時に、林業に関わる問題点が記載されている。私はさらに林業や木材について学び、木材の価格の上昇を促進する技術の開発など、林業の課題に対する解決策を導き出し、林業の赤字を減らすことに貢献がしたいと考えている。

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図 1. 「第 74 回全国植樹祭 岡山 2024」
1 年前記念イベントでの聞き取り

図 2.

ドローン。大きくて赤いものは15 ㎏までの資材（苗など）の運搬が可能、

小さくて白いものは空中撮影を行う。

図 3. インタビューの後で、岸本さんと図 4. 岡山県森林組合連合会の岡山森林組合の前で写真を撮った。

木材共販（原木市場）日程表の説明

Reference：
岡 山 県 農 林 水 産 部 林 政 課 (2023) 岡 山 県 林 産 業 の 概 要 https://www.pref.okayama.jp/page/detail-15040.html[2023/7/28]
岡山森林組合(2023) 森林組合だより, 岡山森林組合
厚生労働省(2023) 労働災害統計 https://anzeninfo.mhlw.go.jp/user/anzen/tok/anst00.html [2023/7/28]
小枝和弘 (2022) 木材の新たな価値,

Monthly report : 東瀬戸内をつなぐ経済情報誌 / 岡山経済研究所 [編] 45(532), 14-23, 2022-05 岡山経済研究所
農林水産省統計部木材統計調査（2023）
https://www.e-stat.go.jp/statsearch/files?page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00500217&tstat=000001014476&cycle=7&year=20210&month=0&tclass1=000001014477&tclass2=000001164526 [2023/7/28]

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The EPOK Research Project Presentation held on August-2-2023

🌸Published by:
岡山大学グローバル人材育成院
Institute of Global Human Resource Development
Okayama University
Okayama, Japan
August 20, 2023