An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory
in Urban Regeneration of The Creative Town Initiative in
Huddersfield (4)− Looking at the Background (the late 1980s) to Creative Town
Initiative in Huddersfield −ADACHI Yoshimichi
Abstract

This paper aims to examine the applicability of Nonaka’s theory of organizational knowledge creation to urban
regeneration of the Creative Town Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfield, focusing on the background activities inlate 1980s of CTI. This paper is the fourth one of a series of papers. This series of papers aims to examine
the applicability of Nonaka’s theory of organizational knowledge creation to the empirical context of urban
regeneration in the UK and the Creative Town Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfield in particular. Before examining
the application / relevance of Nonaka’s theoretical frameworks to urban regeneration through the process ofmaking the CTI proposal (in 1991-96), which will be discussed in the subsequent papers, this paper, as well as
the previous paper, looked at the background of CTI. In this paper, the activities in the late 1980s which led to
CTI have particularly been examined, regarding them as the ‘second’ knowledge spiral of cultural industries.
In conclusion, the story of the activities in the late 1980s associated with CTI supported Nonaka’s theoreticalframeworks in many ways.
Key words: Case Study, Knowledge, Huddersfield, Cultural Industries, Creative Town
Initiative (CTI), knowledge management

1. Introduction

and local political in Global Studies No.11(Adachi,

The aim of this paper is to examine the applicability of2016). This paper looks at the background activities in

Nonaka’s theory of organizational knowledge creationlate 1980s of CTI. The next papers will focus on theto urban regeneration of the Creative Town Initiative

process of making the CTI proposal in 1991-96.

(CTI) in Huddersfield, focusing on the background
activities in late 1980s of CTI. This paper is the fourthThree main areas are to be considered in this paper.

one of a series of papers. In this series of papers theFirstly, the theoretical framework to apply to Nonaka’s

applicability of Nonaka’s theory of organizational

theory will be introduced in section 2, providing

knowledge creation to the empirical context ofthe case study’s theoretical propositions. Secondly,

urban regeneration in the UK and the Creative Town

activities around the cultural sector in Huddersfield

Initiative (CTI) in Huddersfield in particular isin the late 1980s will be illustrated based on

examined. In so doing, methodology was argued in

Nonaka’s theoretical framework in section 3. Finally,

Yamanashi Global Studies No.10 (Adachi, 2015), andconclusions will be drawn on the basis of evaluating

Huddersfield and CTI in particular were placed in thethe applicability of Nonaka’s theory to urban

several contexts including demographic, historical

regeneration of CTI in section 4.

山梨県立大学 国際政策学部 総合政策学科
Department of Policy Management, Faculty of Glocal Policy Management and Communications, Yamanashi Prefectural
University−1−

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 13（2018）

Table1: Names of knowledge spirals associated with CTI (Author)
Name of the knowledge spirals

PeriodThe first knowledge spiral of cultural industries

Early 1980s

The second knowledge spiral of cultural industries

Late 1980s

The first knowledge spiral of CTI(The CTI proposal making)From 1991 to 1997

The second knowledge spiral of CTI

From 1997 to 2000

2. Theoretical framework to apply to Nonaka’s

Huddersfield.

theoryIn order to examine the applicability of Nonaka’s

The five conditions including organizational intention,

theory of organizational knowledge creation to urban

autonomy, fluctuation / creative chaos, information

regeneration of CTI in Huddersfield, as argued inredundancy and requisite variety, which Nonaka

1）

the previous paper , the integrated framework ofassumes facilitate organizational knowledge creation3）,

the TEAM linguistic structure2） and Nonaka’s five-were also regarded as the theoretical prepositions to bephase model of organizational knowledge creation

followed during data collection for the case study.

provides the case study’s theoretical propositions,which incorporates the four modes of knowledge

3. The second knowledge spiral of culturalconversion, including the socialization, externalization,industries: Illustrating Nonaka’s theoretical

combination and internalization modes, which are theframeworks in activity in and around themain concepts of Nonaka’s theory (see Figure1). This

cultural sector in the late 1980s

paper follows the theoretical propositions to examine

3.1 Five conditions for knowledge creation in thethe applicability of Nonaka’s theory of organizational

second knowledge spiral of cultural industries

knowledge creation to urban regeneration of CTI in

The Kirklees Metropolitan Council, as mentioned in

Explicitness(Externality)
Phase3:
Justifying
concepts

Phase4: Building an archetype

Phase2: Creating concepts

Combination mode
(Systemic knowledge)

Externalization mode
(Conceptual knowledge)

Identity(Space)Difference(Time)
Phase5: Cross-leveling of knowledge

Phase1: Sharing tacit knowledge

Internalization mode
(Operational knowledge)

Socialization mode
(Sympathized knowledge)

Implicitness(Internality)

Figure 1: Integrated framework of the TEAM linguistic structure and Nonaka’s five-phasemodel (Source: Author)−2−

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in Urban Regeneration: of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (4)the previous paper (Adachi, 2016), underwent a radical

a new leader created. This was a very young

restructuring in the late 1980s. In 1988, the Instituteman, named John Harman.6）of Local Government (INLOGOV) at Birmingham
University made a review of the performance of local

John Harman could not have succeeded without

governments in Britain. This assessed KMC as one ofan alliance with Roberts Hughes. At that timethe most problematic local authorities. In an interview

Hughes, also a dynamic, iconoclastic, outspoken andwith the author, Sean Leonard, the then officer ofinspirational leader, was appointed as the new chief

Economic Development in KMC, recalled that:

executive and was frustrated with the traditional
departmental bureaucracy at the authority andAt the time, a damning report on the local

this spurred many of the subsequent changes (seeauthority was published. If I remember

Leadbeater & Goss, 1998). In relation to Wood’s

correctly, that was by INGOV, which ranked

account, in his meeting with the author, Brain Cross

the Kirklees Metropolitan Council in very low

commented:

place. It created a very negative image of theKirklees Local Authority.4）

John Harman had creativity as the leaderof the Council. And there was also an

In fact, INLOGOV assessed KMC as a ‘basket case’enterprising chief executive. That was Roberts(Landry, 2000a), which was characterized by rigid

Hughes. …The strength of the Council led

departmentalism and no corporate spirit, convoluted

by John Harman and Robert Hughes was

decision-making, a total lack of strategic direction, athe charismatic personality and enterprisinglack of accountability, divisive senior management (noattitudes.7）

autonomy and motivation), very poor relations withmembers and no partnership with voluntary or private

It was this alliance between a reforming politicalsectors (see KMC, 2002; Landry, 2000a). This paper

leadership and a modernising management team thatviews this event as the starting point of the second

created the space for entrepreneurship to flourish. In

5）knowledge spiral of cultural industries around theother words, they recognized the changing institutional

Cultural Services Department (previously the Libraries

environment in the UK, which included the shift ofand Arts Department).

certain roles from the Council to other organizations in
Kirklees, such as Quangos (including National Health

After an internal political struggle within the Labour

Services Trusts and TECs) and competition within

Party in 1986, a compromise leadership choice was

local authority services.

made in the person of John Harman, who the old guard
thought could be controlled (Landry, 2000a). In his

According to Leadbeater & Goss (1998), themeeting with the author, Phil Wood also commented:

restructuring in Kirklees conducted by John Harman
and Roberts Hughes created at least three ‘spaces’ in

Up to 1988, the Kirklees Council was a very

which innovation and entrepreneurship could emerge.

poorly managed organization. In fact, it wasFirstly, by focusing the senior manager and politicaldescribed by INLOGOV as the most badly

leaders on strategic issues facing the authority, such as

managed local authority in Britain. Prior tocommunity safety and the environment, the Council

that, many crises had taken place that led to

was able to renew its sense of purpose by concentrating

the change of leadership in the Council withon the outcomes, rather than the outputs, it should−3−山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 13（2018）deliver. Secondly, by devolving personal responsibilityof A Thriving Economy, A Flourishing Community andto line managers it created more space for innovation

A Healthy Environment (see KMC, 1996).

and experimentation in terms of service delivery.
Thirdly, by stressing the importance of partnerships

All these above accounts clearly illustrate Nonaka’s

with outsiders, such as churches, community groups

five conditions which facilitated the second knowledge

and private companies, the authority encouraged its

spiral of cultural industries. Firstly, the negative

officers to explore new more creative relationships as

analysis itself made by INLOGOV introduced a sense

the way to develop services. In particular, the thirdof crisis of governance and the resulting fluctuating

point is important in this thesis. In her meeting with theor chaotic environments into KMC and Huddersfield.

author, Tess Butler, the director of Huddersfield Pride

Secondly, the recognition of the crisis led KMC

Ltd, an urban regeneration organization, commented:

with the help of the leadership of Sir John Harman(the then Council leader) as well as Robert Hughes

John Harman was instrumental in getting(the then chief executive) to restructure governanceinto the partnership work. He was a goodin Kirklees and as part of this to create a strategic

partnership worker. He started his partnershipvision (illustrating the local government’s intention).

and his partnership led the Council. Robert

Thirdly, the transfer of operational responsibility for

Hughes was also very much a partnershipline managers in KMC made by John Harman also

man.

8）

created more autonomy for line managers like Phil
Wood.10） Fourthly, the introduction and promotion of

Her account is echoed by Phil Wood, who explained:

partnerships with ‘outsiders’ from the Council (suchas community groups, voluntary organizations andJohn Harman had a very new idea about how

private companies) into Kirklees and Huddersfield

local government should work. Rather thanas a device of delivering the Council vision led tobeing a hierarchy, he believed in a network

requisite variety and information redundancy because

organization [a horizontally formulated

partnerships brought together a variety of knowledge

partnership system]. He argued that a Council(information) of Huddersfield from the various sectors

must have a vision, but that it could not alone

in the town. Wood explained the novelty of Harman’sdeliver such a vision and that the Council

approach in the UK as follows:

therefore must work with other partners,
including the private and voluntary sectors

Many of the things that John Harmanand local communities. John Harman thought

introduced in Kirklees have now becomethat in order to achieve his vision of economic

national policy. For example, althoughand social regeneration, he would work withnowadays the concept of the partnership is ananybody who wanted to work in partnershipordinary thing, at that time, it was a radicalwith him. It did not matter whether you wereidea.11）a grand businessman or whether you were

3.2 Phase 1: Sharing tacit knowledge: The

nobody, a humble artist. If you wanted to work
9）socialization modein partnerships, let’s talk.

According to Phil Wood, there was an interesting
In 1990, the Council adopted a Vision for the

response from the ‘cultural people’ to the

Regeneration of Kirklees and set itself three key goals

reconstruction of the governance of KMC. In an−4−

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in Urban Regeneration: of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (4)speaking. That is important. We could retaininterview with the author, Wood explained:

the meaning of what we were doing.13）
This [reconstruction of the governance of
KMC] was seen as a great opportunity for

In other words, a revitalised and receptive local

artists and small entrepreneurs [related toauthority was met with a highly motivated grass roots

culture] because up to that point, they had

cultural sector (Pratt, 1988) to convey the Council’s

been ignored by the Council. …We realized

vision. This suggests that the knowledge enablingthat with John Harman’s arrival came an

conditions (created mainly by the restructuring ofopportunity. We thought how we could take

KMC) facilitated the people related to the Culturaladvantage of this opportunity. We started aServices Department to take action, which this paper

series of (secret) meetings. …What we didconsiders generated the second knowledge spiral of

was to reform an [new] organization, which

cultural industries. As mentioned in the previous paper

was named ‘Cultural industries in Kirklees(see Adachi, 2017), the name of the organization of(CIK)’.

12）‘Cultural industries’ in Kirklees (CIK) came from thefirst knowledge spiral of cultural industries in the early

Wood’s account was echoed by Brian Cross, one of the

1980s (see Figure 2).

members of CIK, who also commented that:
The members of CIK, a newly created organization,
Although we had to learn to speak to thediscussed and researched cultural activities in

Council to convey our intentions without

Huddersfield. In an interview with the author, Brianlosing the meaning, John Harman and Robert

Cross recalled:

Hughes understood what language we werePhase3:
Justifying
concept(By KMCand John
Harman)Identity(Space)Explicitness(Externality)
Phase4: Building an archetype

Phase2: Creating concepts(Systemic knowledge)(Conceptual knowledge)

 Generating a report ‘A chance ‘The potential of culturalindustries and community
arts in the economic
regeneration of Kirklees’

Combination modeto Participate’(which made tacit knowledgeof cultural activities in
Huddersfield explicit )Phase5: Cross-levelling ofExternalization mode

Difference(Time)
Phase1: Sharing tacit knowledge

Socialization mode

knowledge

Internalization mode

(Operational knowledge)
 Towards organizing the‘Forum of Cultural
Industries’ and CTI
 Media Centre was built(Sympathized knowledge)
 Establishment of Cultural
Industries in Kirklees basedon voluntary, self-organizing
co-working, grass-roots team

Implicitness(Internality)
Figure 2: The second knowledge spiral of cultural industries within Nonaka’s
five-phase model framework (Source: Author)−5−

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 13（2018）

The people who were involved in the [CIK]

organizations and a private company associated withactivity were Jim Lister, Proper Job and thearts or cultures illustrates the cross-functional, self-

main editor and writer was Tessa Gordzieko.

organizing team with autonomy at both individual and

She was contracted to bring the ideas and fullcollective levels, in which Nonaka assumes it is easy

research together to write the report. She wasto create new knowledge.

very good at that. Gill Bond, she belonged to
a company called Satellite. ….All this work

3.3 Phase 2: Creating concepts: The externalisation

was initially done on a voluntary basis. We

mode

met and discussed and came up with ideas and

The approach of CIK to urban regeneration was also

a great level of commitment was shown. We

influenced and supported by the accounts of academics

could actually say our strength [of CIK] is co-

or consultants (see CIK, 1989). For example, while

work, bottom-upwards and grass roots. When

Myerscough had just published a seminal report on the

you looked at the range of people we worked

economic value of cultural activity in 1988, Bianchini

with, [There were] culturally diverse groups.

et al. (1988) and Landry (1989) published reports on

We worked with disabled groups, we worked

the relationship between cultures and economics inin a culturally sensitive way with a certain

the urban regeneration context. Through discussions

14）

with a variety of ‘cultural people’ and influenced andcommunity. We worked with women’s groups.

supported by the accounts of academics or consultants,
The importance of the activities taken by CIK

the members of CIK came up with the new concept

was more clearly explained by Toby Hyam whoof ‘the potential of cultural industries and community

commented:

arts in the social and economic regeneration of
Kirklees’ (CIK, 1989). This concept clearly represented

There was an organization called CIK which

the linkage between community arts and economic

acted as a network for creative business

regeneration and moved the argument about the arts

and artists in Huddersfield. …It is clear thataway from an ‘art for art’s sake’ agenda to one where

without this network, it is unlikely that theculture was seen as a tool for achieving wider Council

15）

development of CTI would have occurred.

objectives of urban regeneration in Huddersfield. This
concept-creation illustrates Phase2 of Nonaka’s five-

The face-to-face closed meetings held by the grass

phase model (see Figure 2).

roots team (working with a wide range of groups andmaking networks) employing interview-based research

According to Nonaka (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995),

on existing cultural activities, illustrate Phase1 ofa frequently used method of creating a concept is to(Nonaka’s concept of) sharing (and accumulating)combine deduction and induction. CIK combined thesetacit knowledge among the members of CIK on cultural

two reasoning methods when developing their new

voluntary activities in Huddersfield (see Figure 2). In

concept. While this was deduced from the Council’s

other words, the direct contact with ‘cultural people’(Harman’s) ‘vision for Kirklees’, which highlighted

in Huddersfield, generated embodied knowledge (thethe importance of economic regeneration, at the same

individual dimension of tacit knowledge) on culturaltime, it was also induced from empirical interview-

activities in Huddersfield. Moreover, the organization

based research on community arts in Kirklees

type of CIK (which is a voluntary cross-agent team)conducted by CIK. In this sense, as mentioned earlier,including the involvement of the directors of voluntaryorganizational (Council’s) intention clearly facilitated−6−

An Examination of The Applicability of Nonaka’s Theory in Urban Regeneration: of The Creative Town Initiative in Huddersfield (4)its concept-creation in CIK in particular.

All these accounts suggest that the report not only
sought to bridge economic regeneration and cultural

3.4 Phase 4: Building an archetype: The

activities (including community arts), but also

combination mode

provided explicit evidence of the existing cultural

In 1989, a report called ‘A Chance to Participate’ wasactivities in Kirklees which might have economic

produced by CIK. Commenting on this paper, Wood

importance. In other words, the report made tacit

explained:knowledge of ‘cultural activities’ (which had not beenvisible before) in Huddersfield suddenly explicitly

They [the members of CIK] produced ‘Avisible and combined (incorporated) a variety of

Chance to Participate’. …They provided

cultural activities in Huddersfield into the framework

the evidence base [of cultural activities inbased on the concept created. That is, from the

Huddersfield] because they proved there

perspective of the linguistic framework, it can be said

were already a lot of activities and alreadythat the report made cultural activities in Kirklees

quite a few people employed [in the culturaland Huddersfield transmissive, which is one of thesector]. Things before having been invisible

linguistic meaning functions and falls into the same

suddenly became visible through ‘A Chance toquadrant as the combination mode. This illustrates

16）

Participate’.

Phase4 of building an archetype (or the combination
mode of knowledge conversion) in Nonaka’s five-

Wood’s account was echoed by Brian Cross who also

phase model (see Figure 2).

commented:

3.5 Phases 3 and 5: Justifying concepts and crossWe drew on the experience of many people

levelling knowledge

in the community arts and it became a very

The report made by CIK was justified against thesignificant time. We made a presentation,Council’s (John Harman’s) vision (which corresponds

showing photographic skills, script writing

to Phase 3). According to Wood, John Harman was

skills, public speaking and communication

very pleased with the report and said that ‘this is good,s k i l l s . We c o u l d s c r i p t v e r y p o w e r f u lthis is what I wanted to see and I am going to support

presentations. We could actually place anthese cultural industries’. 19） Some of the members

argument within the right context.17）

in CIK then became the main actors in the neworganizations, called the Forum of Cultural Industries

These accounts are also supported by Toby Hyam who,

and then the Creative Town Initiative (CTI). This fact

in a meeting with the author, commented:

illustrates Phase 5 of cross-levelling of Knowledge(see Figure 2). The Media Centre, which then became

It [A Chance to Participate] demonstrated

the symbolic and physical core of the Creative Clusterthat there was a group/network/cluster ofin Huddersfield, was also realized based on the idea

enterprises who were growing in the town

created through CIK.

and who illustrated a cultural focus for sucha proposal. …Thus it provided a rationale for

4. Conclusions

the project, evidence of early success and aThis paper has attempted to answer the question

18）

vision for potential growth.

of whether Nonaka’s theory is applicable to urban
regeneration of CTI in Huddersfield, looking at the−7−

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 13（2018）activities in the late 1980s which led to CTI. The

Notes

activities were regarded as the second knowledge

１）See Adachi, Yamanashi Global Studies No.10
２）TEAM linguistic structure (theory) is a fundamental

spiral of cultural industries.

theory of the social science developed by Nishibe, who
is paying attention to the meaning of language and at the

The story of the previous activities associated with CTI

same time acknowledging the multiplicity of that meaning.

in the late 1980s has supported Nonaka’s theoretical

Nishibe (1996) divided the meaning function of language
into four; namely, functions of (T) transmitting meaning,

frameworks in many ways. Firstly and overall, the(E) expressing meaning, (A) accumulating meaning, andbackground to CTI in the late 1980s in Huddersfield(M) measuring meaning. The integrated framework of the
TEAM linguistic structure and Nonaka’s five-phase model

to considerable extent illustrated the relevance ofof organizational knowledge creation was developed by

the integrated framework of (the TEAM linguistic

the author in order to justify the applicability of Nonaka’s

framework and) Nonaka’s five-phase model, which isrelated to the four modes of knowledge conversion. As
evidence of this, the activities in the ‘late 1980s’ which
led to CTI were regarded as the second knowledge
spiral of cultural industries to contain the five phases
which are knowledge creation processes required
knowledge creation. However, that fact that Phase3
came after Phase 4, which differs from Nonaka’s
five phase processes, weakens the relevance of theframework.

theory in UK context.
３）See Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995)
st４）Interviewed on October 31 2003
５）The activities which led to CTI in the ‘early’ 1980s havebeen illustrated as the first knowledge spiral of culturalindustries in the previous paper (see Adachi, 2017)６）Interviews on October 28 2003th７）Interviewed on October 29 2003th８）Interviews on October 29 2003th９）Interviews on October 28 2003th10）Interviewed on October 28 2003 and also see Leadbeaterand Goss (1998)th11）Interviewed on October 28 2003th12）Interviewed on October 28 2003th

Secondly, the activities in the late 1980s haveillustrated the five knowledge-enabling conditionsin the knowledge spiral. All of the five conditions
were found in the knowledge spirals around ‘cultural
people’. The case study analysis also suggested thatby introducing crisis into urban development, theprocess of knowledge creation could be enhanced.
Moreover, the examination suggested that the conceptsof requisite variety and information redundancy are13）Interviewed on October 29 2003th14）Interviewed on October 29 2003th15）Interviewed on October 31 2003th16）Interviewed on October 28 2003
st17）Interviewed on October 29 2003
st18）Interviewed on October 31 2003th19）Interviewed on October 28 2003
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