Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)
Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s
Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa
Kosuke Ninomiya*, Takanori Hayashida**, and Taku Mori***
要旨
戦略的環境アセスメント（SEA）は、大規模な開発の計画の初期段階で行われる環境アセスメント
として、開発援助においても実施が試みられるケースが増えつつある。SEA の目的は、少ない情報を効率的に集め、環境面や社会面に配慮しながら開発の大きな方向性を示すことだが、経済、社会、文化等、国や地域を取り巻く背景は多様であり、対象となる国や地域の事情に応じた柔軟なアプローチが求められる。本研究では、過去の、日本のアフリカ諸国に対する開発援助の事例から、SEA を効果的に実施するための知見を抽出し、その意義について考察する。

Abstract
The potential usefulness of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (hereinafter referred to as SEA) approachfor the decision-making and broad consensus-building process of regional and/or nation-wide development
master plan (hereinafter referred to as MP) studies has been recognized in many nations recently. In Africa,
SEA practice is at the rudimentary stage, and several nations such as Tanzania and Kenya started to apply thisapproach around the end of 2000s for the delineation of their long- and medium-term development MPs.
SEA practice and its legal framework, developed in the European Union (hereinafter referred to as EU) regionis the most advanced across the world. However, its direct export/or transfer to developing regions such as
Africa is not straightforward due to the complicated socio-cultural backgrounds and differences (e.g., diverse,
multi-ethnoracial, and multi-linguistic societies) among these regions.
In Japan, several pilot study-based SEA practices have been initiated mainly by the Ministry of Environment
recently. Under this situation, it is notable that Japan International Co-operation Agency (hereinafterreferred to as JICA)’s environmental guidelines, used for the implementation of proper environmental andsocial considerations for Japan’s Official Development Assistance (hereinafter referred to as ODA) projects,
incorporated SEA concepts therein, and started its actual application after the year 2010. The number of SEA
practices within Japan’s ODA is increasing, but there are no consolidated SEA procedures owing to the diverse
political and social backgrounds of each ODA recipient nation concerned, and a SEA approach, suitable forJapan’s ODA projects in developing nations, is still under consideration.
Based on the review of the recent legalization process of SEA in several African nations and the latest SEA
practices conducted therein, issues to be addressed for better future SEA practice are summarized, and then,fundamental directions for possible ways of Japan’s interaction and/or support to achieve more practical andefficient SEA practices in developing nations through Japan’s ODA projects are summarized.
Key words: SEA, Master Plan Development, ODA, Developing Nations, Kenya, Tanzania,
Mozambique, Stakeholder-centered SEA, Consensus-centered SEA

1. Introduction

amounts of mining potential, have started to

1.1 SEA in the EU, WB, and JICA

experience unprecedented levels of economic growth,

Recently, several African nations, with vast

exposing the region to a wide range of development*

Yamanashi Prefectural University, Faculty of Global Policy Management and Communications
International Development Center of Japan Co. Ltd***
NTC International Co. Ltd**− 22 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa

opportunities and challenges. A range of policy

donors and recipient countries must face.

reforms and development plans and programs are

Within the development assistance framework,

being undertaken to meet these challenges, especiallymainstreaming of the environment starts at the projectin resource- and environment-intensive sectors, andlevel as the Environmental Impact Assessment

the usefulness of SEA has begun to be recognized(hereinafter referred to as EIA). EIAs are intended toamong these nations around the early 2000s although

improve the project design and its implementation by

many nations therein still lack the capacity to assess

identifying ways to prevent, mitigate, and compensate

the sustainability and implications of projects andpossible adverse environmental impacts at thestrategies.

feasibility study stage.

SEA of Public Private Partnership (hereinafter

However, due to the poor liaison and disorganizedreferred to as PPP) projects is a rapidly evolving field.

relevant information sharing system among competent

SEA aims to integrate environmental considerations

governmental agencies and/or organizations in some

into PPP and evaluate the inter-linkages with economic

nations, the build-up of project and/or plan consensus

and social considerations. The Organization foris sometimes difficult, and causes conflicts among

Economic Cooperation and Development (hereinafter

relevant stakeholders.

referred to as OECD)’s Development AssistanceTo overcome these situations, there is a growing

Committee (hereinafter referred to as DAC)

recognition for the need to consider the environmentalsummarizes the following benefits, which are gained

implications of regional and sectoral development

by applying SEA to the development cooperation:plans at the macro level. The objective of the SEA is

It can:• provide the environmental evidence to support more
informed decision-making.
• identify new opportunities by encouraging a systematicand thorough examination of development options.
• prevent costly mistakes, by alerting decision-makers
to potentially unsustainable development options at an
early stage in the decision-making process.
• build stakeholder engagement in decision-making for
improved governance.
• safeguard environmental assets for sustainable
development with poverty reduction.
• facilitate trans-boundary co-operation around sharedenvironmental resources and contribute to conflict
prevention.

Source : OECD (2006)

to mainstream environmental and social considerations
into PPP at the early formulation stage and to mitigate
negative implications and maximize potential positivesynergies through the precipitation of information
sharing and discussions among relevant stakeholders.
Major SEA-related research studies were conducted in
the 1990s in each nation of the EU region, one of themost advanced SEA-implementing areas in the world;
subsequently, the European Commission (hereinafterreferred to as EC)’s SEA Directive came in force in2001 and was applied to a wide range of public plansand programs (e.g. on land use, transport, energy,
waste, agriculture, and others). It should be notedthat this SEA Directive does not refer to policies.

Most large-scale development assistance activities

The potential usefulness of the SEA approach for thehave been started after World War II, and then,decision-making process of regional and/or nation-

conflicts among various stakeholders, due towide development MP studies has been recognized in

involuntary resettlement and/or land acquisition started

many EU nations recently.

to occur frequently. Eventually, the incorporation of

The World Bank (hereinafter referred to as WB)’s

appropriate environmental and social considerations

Environment Strategy (adopted in July 2001) includes

within the entire project cycle of any infrastructure

the more systematic use of SEA in WB operations

development works becomes one of critical issues

to promote mainstreaming of the environment by− 23 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

influencing planning and decision making processes

the country’s institutional capacity for handling theseat an early stage. In addition, there is a wide range ofeffects.

different interpretations and applications of SEA in use

JICA’s Guidelines for Environmental and Social
Consideration (hereinafter referred to as JICA

around the world, mainly in OECD nations.
The evolution of SEA at the WB mirrors its evolution

Guideline), applied to all JICA-funded projects, also

in the global context. The Bank’s application ofrequires relevant SEA studies for certain types of

SEA initially arose directly from a policy requiring

MP studies. As of October 2015, there is no specificenvironmental assessment in all investment projects

description of SEA requirements in this guideline, andand providing for the use of sectoral or regional

JICA continues to seek out appropriate SEA models

environmental assessment in specific contexts. In

tentatively. Table 1 summarizes the current SEA

1999, the requirement was extended to sectoral

implementation status of the EC, WB, and JICA.

adjustment loans, for which SEA was often the tool of
1.2 Spreading of SEA in AfricaI

choice .
1）

The WB’s Environment Strategy, approved by

In Africa, several nations started to have national

the Bank’s Board of Directors in 2001, recognized

SEA legislation. In general, the SEA practice in

SEA as a key means of integrating environment into

Africa is at a rudimentary stage although the number

the sectoral decision-making and planning processof counties practicing SEA is increasing. Several

at the early stages, and made a strong commitment

nations such as Tanzania and Kenya started toto promote the use of SEA as a tool for sustainable

apply this approach around the end of the 2000s fordevelopment. In July 2004, the Bank’s Board

the development of their long- and medium-term

approved an updated policy on development policy

development MPs.

lending, OP/BP 8.60. This new policy emphasizes

Most basic SEA-related legal frameworks in African

upstream analytical work—such as SEA, country

nations were established with the support of OECD,

environmental analysis, and other analyses done by thein particular, EU nations. However, due to theBank, the client country, or third parties—as a sourcecomplicated socio-cultural backgrounds across Africa,of information for analyzing the likely significant

it is not instilling an EU-based SEA approach therein is

effects of an operation on the borrowing country’s

not a straightforward process. Instead, several African

environment and natural resources, and for assessing

nations try to use various approaches tentatively in

Table 1 Summary of SEA Implementation Framework
EC

WB

JICA

Major
Guideline/
Directive

Directives of Strategic Environmental
Assessment (Directive/42/EC)

World Bank’s environmental
safeguards policy OP 4.01OP/BP
8.60 Development Policy Lending

JICA Guidelines forEnvironmental and Social
Considerations (2010)

Current
SEA
application
statusMandatory for public plansand programs (e.g., agriculture,
forestry, fisheries, energy, industry,transport, waste water management,
telecommunications, tourism, town
& country planning, or land use andwhich set the framework for future
development consent of projects
listed in the EIA Directive.), but do
not refer to policies.

SEA is applied in the following
four types of WB’s activities,
1. Environmental Assessment Policy
and Safeguard Policies
2. Analytical and Advisory Services.
3. Capacity Building and Training.
4. Development Policy Lending

Applied to JICA-funded MP
studies after the year 2010.

− 24 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa

order to seek out the most suitable SEA approach thatof proper environmental and social considerations forsatisfies all stakeholders as much as possible and to

Japan’s ODA project, incorporated SEA therein, andbuild up a broad consensus for the concerned policies,

started its actual application after Year 2010. SEA

plans, and programs. Most recent SEA practices inpractice within Japan’s ODA is increasing, but there isAfrica focus on how to get key stakeholders involved

no consolidated SEA procedure owing to the diverse

within the decision-making and/ or MP development

political and social backgrounds of the concerns

processes.

of each nation , and a SEA approach, suitable for

The encouragement of strong public involvement

Japan’s ODA projects in developing nations is stillis one key SEA principle, summarized by the OECD

under consideration. In other words, it can be said that

(OECD, 2006). Thus, most of the SEA approaches

Japan is seeking its own SEA model and/or approach,that have been implemented in Africa recently aresuitable for both domestic and international MP

categorized as “stakeholder meeting”-centered and/studies.

or “public participation”-based, and are compatible

In this paper, recent moves regarding the SEA

with the basic principle of the OECD (more detailed

implementation status (e.g., recent legalization processdescriptions of recent SEA practices in Africa areof SEA and the latest SEA practices) in several

summarized in a later section). In other words, SEA

emerging nations in Africa are reviewed. Then,

practice in Africa is at a transition point and willbased on that review result, fundamental directions

start to develop its own methodology, reflecting thefor possible ways of Japan’s interaction and/or

countries’ complicated multi-ethno-racial, ethno-

support to achieve a good, practical and efficient SEA

linguistic, and cultural backgrounds.

practices in developing nations via Japan’s ODA are

The African Development Bank (hereinafter

summarized. In Section 2, key features and concepts

referred to as AfDB) seeks to make SEA mandatory

of JICA’s Guideline are explained, and then, possible

for assessing the impacts of “upstream” operations,ways of supporting the decision-making process

such as budget support and investment programs,

using Japan’s SEA support model are discussed. In

the preparation of Country Strategy Papers andSection 3, recent SEA practices of three East African

Regional Integration Strategy Papers, and for policy-

nations, namely, Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique

based lending operations within the Bank’s new

are reviewed. Next, a prototype development process

Integrated Safeguards System (ISS). The AfDB isof the SEA-related legal framework of developing

also developing new tools to complement SEA suchnations is presented and the current SEA frameworks

as a climate change screening tool to be applied toof several nations are discussed in Section 4. Finally,

investments in sectors deemed most vulnerable toseveral future tasks for the development of a moreclimate change.

comprehensive SEA approach are summarized in

In Japan, a full-fledged SEA law and/or regulations,

Sections 5 and 6.

compatible with those of the EU, has not yet been
established, but several pilot study-based SEA
practices have been initiated recently. Besides, several
local governments have established their own SEA by

2. Japan’s Interaction and/or Support to achieve
Good Environmental Governance andComplianceimplementation of EIA Law in Japan. As mentioned

2 . 1 P h i l o s o p h y a n d F u n c t i o n o f J I C A’ s
Environmental and Social Consideration
Guideline

earlier, one unique aspect worth noting is that JICA’s

JICA’s Guideline has several key contexts forenvironmental guidelines, used for the implementation

realizing sustainable development in developing

laws, which is similar to what happened throughout the− 25 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

countries. First, the Guideline makes it clear thatthe government but also the local residents including“the inclusion of environmental and social costs

indigenous people, business people, and NGOs, shouldin development costs is crucial for sustainablebe given enough opportunity to offer their opinions todevelopment as well as institutional framework thatthe public. Relevant information should be disclosed

makes such inclusion possible.” This shows why

as much as possible so that all these stakeholders

JICA needs the guideline. Environmental and social

can share sufficient information each other. The

costs should be figured out before implementation

government should provide a satisfactory responseof a major development project. This also means

to the inquiries from the stakeholders and the public.

that environmental and social costs as externalities

Although the environmental and social considerationfrom development activities will be internalized

process originally takes much time, this procedurethrough the environmental and social consideration

should be done in an efficient manner with sufficient

process. Second, it points out that “democratic

respect for human rights.

decision-making is indispensable for environmental

Reviewing the conceptual foundation of theand social considerations.” Developing countries’

JICA Guideline above, it can be assumed that the

governments often lack a democratic decision making

Guideline is changing the relationship among theprocess. If it is required for better environmental

relevant players. JICA’s environmental and socialand social considerations, JICA needs to cooperateconsideration is trying to approach the citizens of thewith the recipient government and provide support torecipient country. ODA used to be conducted between

make its decision democratic. Third, stakeholders’

two governments or between the recipient government

participation and information transparency are very

and international organizations. The stakeholder

important for a democratic decision-making process.

meeting will promote communications between the

Therefore, “the measures for environmental andgovernment and the citizens of the recipient country.

social considerations are implemented by ensuring aThis process might bring about some functions thatwide range of meaningful stakeholder participation

will change the governance of the recipient country.

and transparency of decision-making, as well as byworking for information disclosure and by ensuring
In order to ensure that the Environmental and Social

2.2 Possible Ways of Supporting the Decisionmaking Process using Japan’s SEA Support
Model

Consideration proceed in a better manner, not only

JICA has recognized that SEA is necessary so that

efficiency.” (see the extracts from the Guideline below)

Policy of JICA Environmental and Social Consideration
JICA, which is responsible for ODA, plays a key role in contributing to sustainable development in developing
countries. The inclusion of environmental and social costs in development costs and the social and institutionalframework that makes such inclusion possible are crucial for sustainable development. Internalization and an
institutional framework are requirements for measures regarding environmental and social considerations, andJICA is required to have suitable consideration for environmental and social impacts.
Democratic decision-making is indispensable for environmental and social considerations. It is important toensure stakeholder participation, information transparency, accountability, and efficiency, in addition to respectfor human rights, in order to conduct an appropriate decision-making process.
In this context, with respect to human rights and in view of the principles of democratic governance, themeasures for environmental and social considerations are implemented by ensuring a wide range of meaningful
stakeholder participation and transparency of decision-making, as well as by working for information disclosureand by ensuring efficiency. Governments bear the responsibility for accountability, but at the same time
stakeholders are responsible for their comments.
source : JICA(2010)− 26 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa

it can screen major environmental and social errors at

Recipient country

an earlier stage of a development activity. However,

Old rule

there is no standardized process in place yet. Since

Donor country

function

New rulechangethe two guidelines, JBIC Guidelines for Confirmation

changefunctionof Environmental and Social Considerations andNew rule

Old rule

JICA Guidelines for Environmental and Social
Considerations, were integrated in 2010, JICA has:governance

tried to find out an appropriate process by taking
different approaches for each project. Even though

Figure 1 Mutual Function of Institutional Changesource : Ninomiya (2011)

the SEA process has not been settled clearly so

the JICA Guideline toward the change of the rules

far, the communicaiton and discussion among the

between two countries. The Guideline publication

major players will enable the promotion of themeans the change of the rule in the donor country. It

future settlemnt of the SEA support model. The

influences the rule of the recipient country and changes

environmental and social consideration advisory

the process of environmental and social consideration.

committee will be the key function to stimulate the

The interactive function between the two countries torecipient contry to ensure stakeholder participation

share the new rules can be defined as “environmental

and information transparency with respect to humanand social consideration governance” The reason being

rights and in view of the principles of democraticthat since the change takes a certain amount of time,governance.

an appropriate procedure is required to accelerate theGenerally, it is recognized that good governancewithin a country can enhance effective economic

adaption. Stakeholders’ participation and informationtransparency should be the key context.

transactions and equity among society. Since theenvironmental and social consideration process

3. Review of SEA Practices in the Eastern andSouthern Africa Region

in ODA is an international transaction, a broader
framework is needed so that more than two countries

3.1 Backgroundcan solve the underlying inter-governmental issues or
local problems that are beyond individual nations.

As mentioned earlier, SEA in developing nations
including Africa and South-East Asia is increasingly

Figure 1 shows an image about the function of

being formalized in legislation and with government

Kenya (KN)
Tanzania (TZ)
Indian Ocean
Mozambique(MZ)

Figure 2 Nations Selected for Review of their SEA Practices− 27 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

Table 2 Major Social and/or Economic Indices of Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique2012 GDP (109USD)*1

2011 Corruption Perceptions Index, CPI*2

UN Gini Coefficient*3

KN

41.12

2.2

42.5

TZ

28.15

3.0

34.6

MZ

14.6

2.7

39.6

Source : http://ecodb.net/ranking/imf_ngdpd.html, : http://ecodb.net/ranking/imf_ngdpd.html CPI 2011 Table, Transparency
International, 2011, and : http://ecodb.net/ranking/imf_ngdpd.html UNDP, Human Development Report, 2006
*1

*2

*3

institutions responsible for its application. There isMozambique in 1975. After gaining independence,no single approach or a “one-size-fits-all” approach toeach nation developed its own development strategies.

SEA. It needs to be tailored to the context, depending

In Kenya, rapid economic growth was promoted

on, for example, whether it is being applied to an

through public investment, encouragement of

abstract policy or concrete plan, the time and data

smallholder agricultural production, and incentives

available, whether it is addressing the environment

for private, often foreign, industrial investment in the

only or is dealing also with social and economic

beginning. A major program of economic reform anddimensions in an integrated manner, and how it canliberalization began in 1993. The current economy

be ‘fitted’ to support a country’s policy and planningin Kenya is market-based, with a few state-owned

processes.

infrastructure enterprises, and it maintains a liberalized

In this section, some emerging nations, namely,

external trade system. The country is generally

Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique, in the Eastern andperceived as the eastern and central African hub forSouthern Africa region are selected (see Figure 2),

financial, communication, and transportation services.

and then, a comparative study is conducted based on

Kenya’s Vision 2030 was launched in 2007 to guidethe review of the current SEA implementation status

the nation’s economic growth path. Supported byin each nation.

The pace of development activities

economic, social, and political pillars, the plan aims

in these three African nations is notable, compared

for Kenya to maintain an economic growth ratewith those of South-East Asia and the environmentalof 10% annually between 2012 and 2030. Vision

legal system of each nation is trying to catch up with

2030’s economic pillar highlights sectors critical to

the speed of development activities therein. Table 2

Kenya’s success, including agriculture, manufacturing,summarizes the major economic and social indicators

infrastructure, financial services, and business processof these three nations.

outsourcing. Within each sector, it identifies flagship2）

opportunities to promote foreign and domestic
3.2 Brief Summary of Development Path after
Independence

investment, employment opportunities, and valueadded products.

The three nations are located along the Indian Ocean.

In Tanzania, socialist economic policies were

Due to the huge mining potential for gold, diamonds,

adopted after independence, resulting in severe

coal, iron, uranium, nickel, natural gas, and othereconomic decline in later years. The state controlled

minerals of these regions, international and domestic

the economy and owned all of the major enterprises.

private investments started to flow in the early 2000s

Beginning in 1986, the government of Tanzania

and have tended to grow further. Before WWII,

embarked on an adjustment program to dismantle the

Kenya and Tanzania were colonized by the British andsocialist (Ujamaa) economic controls and encourage

Mozambique by the Portuguese. After WWII, Kenya

more active participation of the private sector in the

became independent in 1962, Tanzania in 1961, andeconomy. Currently, Tanzania has a favorable attitude− 28 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa

toward foreign direct investment (hereinafter referreddesigned to protect all of the varying ecosystems

to as FDI) and has made efforts to encourage foreign

and covering important sectors like environmental

investment.

impact assessments and waste, its implementation

When it gained independence, Mozambique’s

faces a number of very serious problems. One ofindustrial base was well developed by Sub-Saharanthe most serious problems is a lack of engagement

Africa standards. However, further industrialization

with important community stakeholders. Besides,

was stopped by the hasty exodus of 90 percent ofa misunderstanding by the society at-large of theits ethnic Portuguese citizens during and after the

benefits of the project concerned, due to inappropriate

independence process, which left the Mozambican

public involvement and/or information disclosure, is

economy in a state of disarray. The situation was

also a critical factor in achieving a project consensus

exacerbated by the Mozambican Civil War (1977–

among various stakeholders. These serious issues

1992). The economy of Mozambique has developed

sometime result in little oversight of development

since the end of that civil war, but the country is still

projects with potentially huge environmental impacts.

one of the world's poorest and most underdeveloped.

As mentioned earlier, these three nations have built

In 1987, the government embarked on a series ofup a good knowledge base and systems for EIA

macroeconomic reforms designed to stabilize theimplementation but tend to face some difficulties

economy and dismantled the socialist economic

regarding the achievement of the development MP

system. These steps, combined with donor assistance

and/or project-consensus.

and with political stability since the multi-party

Although several improvements were introduced

elections in 1994, have led to dramatic improvementsin the existing EIA framework, its strengths andin the country's growth rate.

weakness began to be understood among various
stakeholders, in particular, donors. To overcome such

3.3 Development and Environment of the Threestalemate situations, there is a growing recognition for

Nations

the need to consider the environmental implications

Rapid pursuit of infrastructure development inof regional and sectoral development plans at thethe last decade, commonly found across these threemacro level at the early planning stage; therefore, thenations as well as in other parts of Africa, haveconfiguration of an SEA legal system began around thehighlighted the need for effective environmental

early 2000s in Africa. Table 3 summarizes the SEA

regulation and management of large-scale

implementation status of these three nations. A moredevelopment projects. While the legislation in thesedetailed SEA implementation status of each nation isnations is fairly comprehensive, creating regulations

described in the following sections, separately.

Table 3 SEA Implementation Status in Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique
SEA- related Law/Regulation, Guideline

Agency in Charge

Kenya・Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA, No.8 of 1999) NEMA・Environmental Impact Assessment/Environmental Audit Act (EIA/EA,
No.121 of 2003)
・EIA Guideline (2003)
・SEA Guideline (2012)

Tanzania

・Environmental Management Act (G.N. No. 20 of 2004)
・Environmental Management Act (G.N. No. 153 of 2008)

Department of Environment(DoE), Vice President Office

Mozambique

Under Preparation (As of September, 2013)

M I TA D E R ( f o r m e r
MICOA)− 29 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

3.3.1 Kenya

was re-categorized as one of the important counties

The environmental Agency responsible for SEA isin the recent decentralization process implemented

the National Environmental Management Authority

in Kenya. Within this SEA study, 72 stakeholder(hereinafter referred to as NEMA). Kenya's EIA andmeetings, three workshops , and one validation

SEA systems were simultaneously put in place withmeeting , are to be held during the entire study period.

the enactment of the Environmental Management and3.3.2 Tanzania

3）4）Co-ordination Act 1999 (hereinafter referred to as

In Tanzania, SEA is required in terms of Part VII of

EMCA), and the Environmental Impact Assessment andthe Environmental Management Act, 2005 (hereinafter

Audit Regulations that followed in 2003 (see Table 3).

referred to as EMA, see Table 3). However, there is

The Kenyan SEA framework is guided by

no specific description of the SEA procedure within

principles of early application, accountability, andthis EMA (2005). Therefore, a new EMA was enacted

open participation. The requirements for SEA are

in 2008 as G.N. No. 153 of 2008. This law consists oflaid out in the EIA and Audit Regulations 2003, andeight parts and describes a more detailed SEA study

concern the content of the assessment more so than theprocedure and its approval process. Basically, all MP

procedure. Practice has been slow to follow, as perdevelopment studies shall conduct SEA and obtainthe count of April 2006, which showed that only a few

the approval from the Vice President’s Office. The

SEAs had been undertaken. However, this number isprocess of the environmental screening is specified

now on the rise, and in 2012, the National Guidelines

in Part III while the ToR (Terms of Reference)for Strategic Environmental Assessment in Kenya

development process is in Part IV. A unique feature of(hereinafter referred to as NEMA SEA Guideline)

the SEA process in Tanzania is that the Department of

were published by NEMA, wherein more detailed

Environment (hereinafter referred to as DoE), directly

instructions on the SEA steps are described. In thisreporting to the Vice President’s Office, is the key

guideline, it is specified that all public policies, plans,agency, responsible for SEA administration. By thisand programs be subjected to SEA, and all policy/

unique structure, DoE becomes more independent thanprogram/plan owners shall initiate and undertake thethe National Environmental Management Committee

SEA. In addition, the importance of effective public(hereinafter referred to as NEMC), agency responsible

participation within the PPP development process isfor EIA administration in Tanzania, so it would be lessstressed.

likely to have any possible external interference and/or

In 2013, the governmental organization at both

effects regarding the decision-making of SEA.

the central and local levels was restructured; more

Similar to Kenya, SEA in Tanzania is categorized

governmental power was de-centralized and transferred

as a “stakeholder” or “consensus”- centered SEA, andto local governments. The County Government

its first application of EMA (2008) is the nation-wide

Act that was published in 2012 encourages local

agricultural irrigation MP Study (the MP owner is thegovernments to conduct any regional MP study with

Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Tanzania).

a stronger public participation process. It is worth

The SEA of this irrigation MP study developed annoting that an on-going SEA study of the JCA-funded

intensive stakeholder meeting program across the

Nairobi Integrated Urban Development Master Plan

nation and took almost two years to obtain approval

Study, initiated in 2012, is being conducted based

from the DoE (Ministry of Agriculture, personalon both JICA and NEMA SEA Guidelines, while

communication, 2011). The number of SEA practices

reflecting the public participation directives, specified

in Tanzania is constantly increasing, and SEAs ofwithin the County Government Act since Nairobi City

several JICA-funded MP studies are conducted, based− 30 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa

on this EMA (2008).

sustainable development was conducted, as well as theidentification of four “priority areas for action” where

3.3.3 Mozambique

conflicts of interest are most prominent regarding

Mozambique does not possess any specific SEArelated legislation yet (see Table 3). The Framework

land-use among tourism, mining, housing and otherpurposes.

Environmental Act (Act 20 of 1997) stipulates that

It is also worth noting that a recent JICA-funded MP

the issuance of the environmental license, based

study, entitled “Support for Agriculture Developmenton the environmental impact assessment, precedes

Master Plan for the Nacala Corridor,” is also trying

any other licenses and/or permits, required for theto apply a suitable SEA model in accordance with theimplementation of proposed development activities.

country’s context. This study is ongoing (initiated in

In addition, the EIA Process Regulations (Decree 452012), and has adopted a “consensus based” approachof 2004) defines rules and procedures of EIA at therather than the “EIA-based” comparison of alternatives

project level, and attributes the function of “proceedingby quantitative parameters.

with SEA of PPP” to the National Directorate ofEnvironmental Impact Assessment under the Ministry

3.4 Summary of the Current SEA Framework andof Land, Environment and Rural Development (former

Future Directions

MICOA, hereinafter referred to as MITADER). The

SEA is a rapidly evolving field. New approaches

draft of an SEA law is now under preparation and isand areas of application are emerging all the time,

expected to be enacted soon (MITADER, personalparticularly in the fields of development cooperation

communication, 2013).

and international trade. Despite much recent progress,

In the last decade, there have been a few case studies

there is still much to do to make SEA effective andwhere SEA was applied as incipient methodology,

more widely applied. Both the UNEP and OECD/

supported by assistance from various donors. Among

DAC initiatives respond to the changes taking place

them, the “SEA for Sustainable Coastal Developmentin the agenda for international development and, in

Policy in Mozambique (initiated in July 2011 andparticular, the increasing shift away from individualcompleted in April 2013)” can be considered as the

projects toward policy-based lending and sector-

most substantial case, and is regarded as the pilot SEA

level programming. This transition has placed astudy for MITADER while reflecting major study

new emphasis on approaches and tools for strategic

results in the ongoing SEA legalization process. This

environmental assessment, broadly interpreted. It is

SEA study targeted all communities, located within

an ‘upstream’ continuation of a larger, decade-long

41 districts along the entire coastal provinces ofprocess of mainstreaming environmental and social

Mozambique, where nearly 70 % of the population isconsiderations into development cooperation.

concentrated, with the expectation that such SEA could

Recently, there has been a call for more proactive,

help overcome a number of shortcomings found in the

integrated approaches, notably in the Plan ofpast project-level EIA studies and better contribute

Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable

to the prevention of conflict between stakeholders.

Development. It is apparent that the role and methods

A series of stakeholder meetings including variousof SEA are unclear in some quarters. It is also

workshops, seminars, and community meetings

perceived to be too difficult, too time-consuming,

at each district as well as Maputo-based public

too costly, etc. In other circumstances, various

consultations were held. Within this SEA study, themethods have been used to assess environmental

comparative analysis of three different scenarios for

dimensions and integrate these in the development of

5）− 31 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

strategies, policies, plans, and programs. However,average budget of SEA study for a major MP study

these approaches have not been called SEA and thoseis skyrocketing. In other words, the next task to be

involved do not necessarily recognize them as a form

addressed for a successful SEA approach in theseof SEA.

developing nations is how to build up a consensus

As described above, the three nations of the easternamong the various stakeholders smoothly without

and southern Africa region have been developing

designing a pompous public involvement program. As

their own legal framework of SEA, and Tanzania is

mentioned earlier, SEA practices in Africa including

the most advanced nation from the viewpoint of thethese nations are evolving, and SEA studies in recent

number of SEA practices conducted therein, whereas

MP development processes therein are undertaking

Mozambique is still drafting its own SEA law althoughvarious approaches tentatively in order to make their

the effectiveness and usefulness of an SEA approachown SEA framework better fit each nation’s context.

for the MP development is recognized and shared

In the next section, the evolution dynamics of the SEA

within the competent ministries of Mozambique.

legal framework is discussed.

The main objective of SEA, implemented in
4. Evolution of the SEA Legal Framework inthese nations, is to “proceed” with any MP studies

Developing Nations

with constructive public participation and/or astakeholder meeting” process. Recently, the spatial

4.1 Categorization of SEA Legal Framework Status

frame of regional MP studies in these nations has

Based on a review of SEA practices and the relevant

shown a tendency to become larger, resulting in thelegal framework of several nations across the Eastern

involvement of various stakeholder groups within

and Southern Africa region, discussed in the previous

their public participation process. As a result, thesection, it is found that each nation takes its unique

SEA study itself tends to need more time to buildstyle/or path to make their SEA suitable for theira consensus among these stakeholders while thepeople, and their improvement efforts are ongoingII࡮Consensus-centered (Strong Community
Participation)
࡮Still short of appropriate natural and social
environmental info/or database, and relevant experts.
࡮Capable of rational building up of consensus within
the long- and medium-term span (good liaisonsamong competent ministries and/or organizations).
䊶Lots of PI and ID experience. Negative aspects of
non-symmetry of information lessened.

I࡮Establish a quantitative decision-making/or consensus
building tool, using GIS and/or applied numerical social
science models.
࡮Enough appropriate natural and social environmental info/or
database, and relevant experts‫ޔ‬Capable of rational building up consensus within the long- andmedium-term span (good liaisons among competent ministries
and/or organizations.).
࡮Lots of PI and ID experiences. Negative aspects of
non-symmetry of information lessened.
Economic Growth (e.g., GDP)III
࡮MP is developed by only a few people such as
high-ranking governmental officials.
࡮Lacks appropriate natural and social environmental
info/or database, and relevant experts.
࡮Incapable of rational building up of consensus
within the long- and medium-term span (poor liaisonsamong competent ministries and/or organizations).
࡮Limited PI and ID experience.
Figure 3IV࡮MP is developed by only a few people such as
high-ranking governmental officials.
࡮Enough appropriate natural and social environmental
info/or database, but not available in the public domain.
࡮Limited PI and ID experience. Prone to cause conflicts
and/or remain a stalemate due to non-symmetry of
information.

Categorization of SEA-based Decision-Making and/or Consensus Building Process within
Infrastructure Development− 32 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa(i.e., dynamic to evolve further). Figure 3 shows athe entire capacity to handle these systems is still atconceptual image regarding the status of SEA practicethe rudimentary stage.

in each nation in terms of the legal framework andeconomic indicators such as GDP.

However, due to the rapid democratization and strong
public participation with constructive information

In this figure, the vertical axis indicates thedisclosure across the continent in recent times, theachievement level of the environmental governanceimportance of SEA started to be recognized around theregarding the entire SEA framework, or the progress

early 2000s . SEA developments in several Africanof democratization (e.g., a kind of CPI, listed in Table

nations such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique2), and the nation concerned can be categorized into

take this path, and are currently at Quadrant II.

6）

one of four quadrants, :i.e., Quadrants I and II,

There is still a possibility that the second-step

representing nations with both good governance andtransition of this path (i.e., II →I) may not happen

a significant contribution from the general public todue to the great advances in the transparency,

consensus-building and/or decision-making of any

accountability, and governance by SEA administratorsdevelopment strategies and/or MPs; Quadrant III,and civic education. In this case, there is anotherrepresenting most of the developing nations thatpossibility to open a new dimension for SEA in thehave already established a proper environmental

next generation.

legal system but whose enforcement is weak; andPath 2 : III → IV → I

Quadrant IV, representing some developed nations

This is the case under which economic development

such as Japan, that have already established enoughsurpasses the improvement of the legal system and/social capital with an incomplete legal framework dueor governance. Some of the developed nations

to a strong bureaucracy. The horizontal axis indicatessuch as Japan have achieved significant economic

the national wellness such as the degree of economic

development without a compatible EIA/SEA-related

development (e.g., GDP and/or GINI Index, listed inlegal framework. As a prerequisite for the successful

Table 2).

transition along this path (i.e., path 2: III→IV→I),

Using this figure, the following three major

good transparency, accountability, and governancedevelopment paths regarding the consensus-build up

shall be required. There is still a possibility that the

and/or decision-making process of long- and medium-second-step transition of this path (i.e., IV→I) may notterm development strategies and/or MPs in developing

happen due to the great advances in the transparency,

nations are discussed.

accountability, and governance by SEA administrators.

Path 1 : III → II → I

Path 3 : III → I

This is a typical path, observed within theThis is the case in which a comprehensive

establishment process of the environmental frameworktechnical support for the establishment of the entire

within most of the developing nations. As mentioned

environmental administration framework including

earlier, most of the environmental frameworks in

SEA process is guaranteed from the beginning. In

African nations have been established on the basis

this case, transition and/or improvement is to beof reputable international environmental guidelines

conducted within a relatively short period, so that a

and/or directives. These legal improvements and/or

well-organized coordination among infrastructure

imports have been conducted within a relatively shortdevelopment, capacity development, and the relevantterm (e.g., several years after independence). Thus,

environmental legal framework design shall beconcepts and principles of these legal systems seemeda prerequisite for the successful transition. Thisto be new (i.e., unfamiliar) to African nations so thattransition and/or the paradigm shift would require− 33 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）a lot of human resources and time, so that, it is

and GDP indices. In this analysis, fourteen nations,quite difficult to achieve through the effort of only

namely, Brazil, Cambodia, Cost Rica, Germany,

one developing country (but it would be relatively

Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Mozambique, Myanmar,

achievable with comprehensive support from

Tanzania, Thailand, UK, USA, and Vietnam areinternational communities such as the WB).

selected for the simplification. It is noted that thispreliminary analysis is conducted using log ten values

As discussed earlier, there are many challenges
and/or tasks to improve the SEA legal framework inof each EPI, ESI, and GDP values in order to highlightthe differences among these nations.

the pursuit of good SEA practice in each developing

Figure 4 shows the preliminary categorization

nation no matter which path each developing nation

results, using two parameters—log (132 - EPI) andfollows (e.g., further capacity development, relevantlog (GDP). As shown in this figure, it is found thatdatabase and/or bank construction, and so on). As of

most of the developed nations such as UK, Germany,

October 2015, three African nations, namely, Kenya,

and Japan are located around the upper-right parts of

Tanzania, and Mozambique seem to be following Patheach graph whereas the developing nations are around

1, mentioned earlier. However, it is noted that there

the bottom-left therein. Similar tendencies wereare possibilities that the “consensus-centered” SEA

observed within the categorization results, using otherprocess, observed within the ongoing SEA practices

parameters such as log10 (146 - ESI) and/or log10 (132of these three nations, would evolve further by- Trend EPI). It is noted that the location of Costa

properly addressing implementation-related problems

Rica, one of the nations with advanced environmental(e.g., taking a long time to achieve a complete

governance is greatly varied, depending on the typeconsensus) and may move into other dimensions. A

of index used. When either EPI or ESI is used, Costa

preliminary categorization of the degree of a nation’s

Rica is always located around the upper-left whereas

environmental governance attainment is conducted,

it is located around lower-left with Trend EPI. This

using several indicators within the next section tokind of index-dependent variation is not recognizedexamine the validity of this categorization concept.

for both Myanmar and Cambodia. It is also noted that
Tanzania is placed above two other African nations

4.2 Classification of SEA Legal Framework Set-ups(i.e., Kenya and Mozambique), so that it can be said

A preliminary quantitative categorization of thethat Tanzania is somewhat advanced in term of thedegree of a nation’s environmental governancenation’s environmental governance among threeattainment is conducted for several nations, using theAfrican nations.

following four indicators: EPI , Trend EPI , ESI ,
7）

8）

9）

Figure 4 Categorization of Nations’ Environmental
Governance (EPI-GDP)

Figure 5 shows the correlation between a nation’s

Figure 5 Categorization of Nations’ Environmental
Governance (EPI-ESI)− 34 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa

EPI and ESI. As shown in this figure, clear distinctions

donors such as the WB, covering appropriate

among each nation are not recognized but most of

capacity building in order to strengthen overall

the plots seem to be located along a somewhat directenvironmental governance. Therefore, the audit andproportional line. This may indicate that there would

transparency of the environmental administration

not be a significant difference in the usage of EPI

in most developing nations are in good condition toand ESI indices in order to express the ranking of asome extent so far although most of the environmental

nation’s annual environmental performance within theministries are facing limited human resources andframework of the proposed hypothesis. It is also notedbudgets (e.g., MITADER, personal communication,that a distinction among the three African nations,2013). This means that variations, recognized inmentioned earlier, appears clearly, and Tanzania is

Figures 4 and 5, would occur due to the differences

located around the middle-right whereas both Kenyain the environmental governance, compliance, andand Mozambique are still around the lower-left amongawareness at both the administration and community

the three African nations.

level, administration budget and others among these

Based on this preliminary categorization study, it cannations, whereas the influence of corruption on thebe said that it is beneficial to analyze the environmental

environmental administration does not seem to belegal framework and governance through thissignificant.

proposed analytical approach although there are many
issues to be addressed to improve its validation and

5. Discussions

accuracy, to be obtained from the proposed approach.

(1) Gradual Spreading of SEA in the Planning StageAs mentioned earlier, it can be said that Tanzania

The effectiveness of SEA at the early planning stages

cannot be categorized into the same group to whichof the PPP formulation process has been proved inboth Kenya and Mozambique may belong, from themany countries. Recently, several African countries

viewpoint of environmental governance. There aresuch as Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique have

many factors that could have major influences on thisbeen trying to integrate the SEA concept within the

preliminary result, and corruption, one of the majordecision-making process of various development

issues across the African continent, is incorporated

MPs including donor-funded projects, and rapid

into both EPI and ESI indices.

legalizations of the SEA framework, reflecting each

Corruption in the developing world is one of major

nation’s context, are in progress. However, it is also

issues that the WB, IMF (International Monetary

found that the integration of SEA concepts and its

Fund), and other international organizations try tomethodology is not a simple and straightforward task

eradicate in order to disseminate “good practices”

in these countries where reliable, quantitative, and/discipline in both the public and private sectors

or updated socio-cultural and environmental data or

among these developing nations . In general, theinformation, for example, is not easily available. In

establishment of environmental administrations ataddition, local stakeholders with quite a wide range

each nation is relatively new, compared with theof different social and cultural backgrounds exist,

establishment of others such as Ministries in charge ofand most recent development MP studies have to pay

Public Works, Agriculture, Water Resources, National

attention to these stakeholders in order to achieve

Security and others, and most of the environmental

study consensus among the various stakeholders

administrations frameworks were established from thesmoothly.

early 1980s to the late 1990s with support from some(2) SEA Evolution Will Continue

10）of the advanced nations and/or reputable international− 35 −

Some modifications and/or devising, or “SEA

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）

evolution” tend to occur within several African nations,the consensus of the MP. A well-balanced integrationin that strong public involvement and/or consensus-of traditional social capitals as a means of facilitation,building methodologies are developed and applied

supported by qualified professional facilitators as well,in order to overcome difficulties, mentioned above,

could be a key to effective and efficient consensus

and to find better solutions. Broadly speaking, thisbuilding.

“modified approach of SEA,” recognized within SEA(4) Challenges for Better SEA Methodology and its

studies conducted in these African nations, focuses

Proper Implementationon the effective use of the existing social capital (andCurrent SEA practices, conducted in thetends to be “stakeholder-centered” or “consensus

aforementioned three African nations, are categorized

centered”), supported by a strong public participation

as “stakeholder” or “consensus”-centered, and tend

process (Quadrant II of Figure 3). Several African

to be time demanding and consuming when thenations such as Tanzania and Kenya have alreadyconcerned areas to be associated with the MP become

started such “consensus-centered” SEA studies, andwider and many stakeholder groups get involved.

the number of SEA practices is increasing among theseIn general, discussions, held at each stakeholder

nations. As mentioned earlier, it shall be noted that themeeting, seem to be lively and active, and, sometimes,

possibility exists that this “consensus-centered” typeachieving consensus becomes difficult. The orderof SEA would develop an individual metamorphosis,of magnitude of this weakness can be mitigatedthat is, it will not take the 2nd-step transition of thisby selecting qualified facilitators who can lead

path (II →I, see Figure 3) due to the great advances ofmeetings smoothly with an open and fair attitude.

communications among stakeholder groups who, forMore capacity development for both MP owners andexample, make use of a visualized approach such as

SEA administration of each African nation shall bemotion pictures to explain growth scenarios concerned,

required in order to pursue a good SEA practice. This

such as transparency, accountability, and governanceweakness, recognized within the current SEA practiceby SEA administrators and civic education.

and its framework, is expected to be lessened and/(3) Integrate Traditional Social Capitals

or minimized tentatively by gaining both lessons andAs mentioned above, the main objective of SEA,

insights from a series of actual SEA practices to be

implemented in these nations is to “develop MP with

conducted, eventually leading to improvements for theconstructive public participation and/or stakeholder

next generation of SEA .

meetings.” Therefore, the next issue to be addressed(5) Toward a Future SEA Framework in Japan

is to how to build up consensus among various

To summarize this discussion, the challenges tostakeholders smoothly. In general, communities

further improve the SEA methodology and its proper

and/or tribes in Africa have their unique traditional

implementation would include the following issues:social capital or philosophy for consensus buildingi) a more effective (but not excessively resource-

such as Ubuntu (e.g., Richard, 2002). When both theconsuming) method of consensus building amongtemporal and spatial scale of medium- and/or long-

stakeholders; ii) the use of a visualized and/or moreterm development MP surpasses the their livelihood

concise presentation materials for constructive

space (sometimes identical to the limit of theirinteraction with grass-root stakeholders in orderunderstanding and/or perception), then, it starts toto achieve a quick, deep understanding of thecause some confusion and/or misunderstanding among

entire MP concerned and the resultant constructive

stakeholders partially, and sometimes leads to an

discussions; iii) a mechanism of enforcement andalmost never-ending stakeholder meeting process until

follow-up of a SEA-related legal system; and, iv)− 36 −

Good Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Practices in Developing Nations: Based on Japan’s Support Experiences in Eastern and Southern Africa

a more flexible SEA framework that would makepeople and society with different historical and culturala “long-term discussion and learning platform”

backgrounds. Working with recipient governments

possible for the various stakeholders. As discussed

from the earlier stage of the decision-making process,so far, there is a palpable stirring of change within

the Japanese government will be able to find more

the planning process in developing nations and mostopportunities to include environmental and socialof the African nations are trying to incorporate SEA

costs in development costs and the social andwithin their planning process unlike in Japan. Upon

institutional framework that will contribute to make anconsidering the recent planning tendencies observed

environment-friendly society in developing countries.

in Japan, the establishment of a comprehensive SEA

In other words, the interactive transaction between

framework that would encourage the introduction ofdonor and recipient regarding environmental anda participatory planning process is one of the urgent

social considerations influence the good governance ofissues that need to be discussed. Similar to what

the developing countries .
13）

happened in the legalization of an EIA framework

Most African countries in particular are undergoingin Japan, the development and consolidation of a

rapid economic development and need sufficient

SEA legal framework may take place quickly once a

support from international society in order to ensure

relevant legal system is established. At that moment,that these development projects are integrated andthe knowledge and experience obtained and/or to beharmonized within a sustainable growth framework.

collected from SEA practices in developing nations

There are relatively many ongoing development

may help to make this transition and/or paradigm shiftprojects in Africa whereas this is not the case in Japan.

smooth and robust.

In other words, there would be many opportunities toinitiate more intensive interactions between African

6. Conclusions

nations and Japan through an ODA-based masterplan

Even though a rule is changed in a formal way, it

and/or policy development studies in Africa, and then,still takes a certain amount of time for a change into accumulate comprehensive knowledge and wisdoms

the informal rules. The establishment of the JICA

for better SEA practices in both Africa and Japan for

Guideline has changed the rules of the environmental

the development of Japan’s future SEA model.

and social consideration process of Japanese-funded
ODA. We need to ask, then, how these rules are
enforced and how they may be changed informally .
12）

It is not realistic to expect that the change of theformal rules in the donor country would directly resultin a change in economic performance in the recipient
country. Economic performance will be influenced
not only by private costs and benefits but also bysocial costs and benefits. If the Japanese government

Notes１）See http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ENVIRONMENT.
２）Both Hayashida and Mori have SEA study experience inthese nations.
３）A citywide workshop is to be held after a certain number of
district-level stakeholder meetings are terminated.
４）A validation meeting is to be held for the final explanationof the SEA Final Report.

wants to ensure that the new rules are enforced５）Three (3) coastal-region growth scenarios such as (i)better, it needs to focus on the historical and cultural

Development-oriented. (ii) Conservation-oriented, and (iii)Intermediate of the former two, are used for its relevant

backgrounds of the recipient country’s people andassessment within this SEA study (Impacto, personalsociety.

communication, 2012).

A standardized SEA process can be an effective way６）See Shultz and Weingast (1998) as one of the representativefor donor countries to approach a recipient country’sreferences regarding democracy and good governance.

− 37 −

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No. 11（2016）７）Environmental Performance Index (EPI) is a methodof quantifying and numerically benchmarking the

Economic History 49 (4, December): 803-832
Ninomiya K., 2011, “Institutional Change and New Governanceon Environmental and Social Consideration of Japaneseenvironmental performance of a nation's policies.
８）Trend EPI was developed to rank nations based on theODA.” Journal of Economic Policy Studies Vol.8, No.1 (25,January): 56-79

environmental performance changes that occurred during
the last decade, enabling one to establish which nations are

Ninomiya K., T. Hayashida, C. Osada, 2013, “Urban
Infrastructure Development and Environmental

improving and which are declining.
９）Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) is a composite

Consideration--A Study on Effective SEA.” Yamanashi
Global Study No.8: 65-75

index published from 1999 to 2005 that tracked 21
elements of environmental sustainability covering natural

O’Connor, D.C., 1994, Managing the Environment with Rapid

resource endowments, past and present pollution levels,

Industrialization: Lessons from the East Asian Experienceenvironmental management efforts, contributions to(Development Centre Studies), OECD

protection of the global commons, and a society's capacity

OECD, 2006, Applying Strategic Environmental Assessment,

to improve its environmental performance over time.

Good Practice Guidance for Development Co-operation

10）The first WB-funded “Anti-corruption” workshop was held

Richard B. H., 2002, Understanding African Philosophy,
Routledgein Uganda in 1994, and the IMF declared its intention to
tackle corruption in member countries in 1996 (e.g. World

Shultz, K. A., and B. R. Weingast, 1998, “Limited Governments,
Powerful States.” In Randolph M. Siverson, ed., Strategic

Bank, 1999).
11）Japan’s EIA Law was enacted in 1997, and it was the last

Politicians, Institutions, and Foreign Policy. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Pressamong OECD nations to do so due to interference fromseveral powerful stakeholders such as the former MITIWorld Bank, 1999, An Anti-Corruption Strategy for Revenue(Ministry of International Trade and Industry). Before
this, each provincial government conducted its own
environmental administration, mainly based on the “Local
Government Act (1947),” comparable to the EIA law ofother nations, to ensure a sound local environment (e.g.,
O’Connor, 1994). However, after the enactment of the EIA
Law, the entire EIA framework was established quickly
although there are several issues that need to be improved
further.
12）See North (1990) or North and Weingast (1989) for a
detailed discussion regarding institutional change andeconomic performance.
13）Ninomiya examined the relation between environmental
and social consideration process and good governance indeveloping countries. See Ninomiya (2011).

References
JICA, 2010, JICA Guideline for Environmental and Social
Considerations
MITADER, 2012, Draft Final of Project for Strategic
Environmental Assessment of the Coastal Zone –Mozambique, Volumes I – III
North, Douglass C., 1990, Institutions, International Change andEconomic Performance. New York: Cambridge University
Press
North, D., and B. Weingast, 1989, “Constitutions andCommitment: Evolution of Institutions Governing Public
Choice in Seventeenth Century England.” Journal of− 38 −

Administration, PREM Notes, October Number 33