地域における脱炭素社会構築の可能性に関する考察－ やまなしの無尽文化を活用した市民・行政・企業の連携 －小林幸、大嶋香菜子、ジェ・シャンシン、二宮浩輔

Mujin and Decarbonization:
Japanese Local Cultural Uniqueness and Carbon-Neutral Economy Development
Miyuki Kobayashi, Kanako Oshima, Jie Shanxin, and Kousuke Ninomiya1）
Abstract   Mitigating global warming and climate change is a global necessity. Governments, the private
sector, and the public must establish a carbon-neutral society with solutions tailored to the needsof local communities. We approach carbon emissions and environmental waste from an economic
perspective based on the traditional Yamanashi cultural practice of Mujin-a unique social security
system of mutual aid that is still in effect in the Yamanashi Prefecture. Our approach continues in thesame spirit as Mujin by supporting local communities with the benefits and revitalization produced
through environmental conservation.
キーワード：無尽、脱炭素、カーボンニュートラル、気候変動、パートナーシップ
key words: Mujin, decarbonization, carbon-neutral, climate change, partnership

1．A History of Climate Change Policy

emissions have been increasing exponentially

Climate change is the long-term change inaverage weather patterns due to the risingand have been of concern to the international
community since the 1970s.

atmospheric and oceanic temperatures caused

The 1972 United Nations Conferenceby the abundance of greenhouse gases-such as

on the Human Environment was the firstcarbon dioxide（CO2）-in the atmosphere, andinternational conference regarding human2）

is directly associated with human activity.

interactions with the environment andGreenhouse-gas concentrations have been

resulted in the launch of the United Nations

increasing since the industrial revolution, withEnvironment Program（UNEP）. The 1992

the large scale exploitation of fossil fuels such

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit addressed post-

as oil and coal. Figure 1 shows the global CO2

Cold War environmental and development

3）

emissions : annual CO 2 emissions until theissues; participants included many NGO

middle of the 19th century remained almost

representatives and UN member states, who

unchanged at 2000 million metric ton per year

adopted the Agenda 21, i.e., an action planor less but increased markedly in the second

for sustainable development and global

half of the 19th century. Since the 1950s, CO2

partnerships. The Government of Japan

山梨県立大学

国際政策学部

総合政策学科

Department of Policy Management, Faculty of Glocal Policy Management and Communications, Yamanashi
Prefectural University― 63 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.17（2022）

Figure 1: Annual total CO2 emissions by world region: CDIAC
enacted the‘Basic Environment Law' inPlan”was formulated in March 2009; the1993 and built a policy framework for the“Yamanashi Energy Vision”was formulated

realization of a sustainable society. In 1997,

in accordance with the new greenhouse-gas

the 3rd Conference of the Parties of theemission targets under the national“Global

United Nations Framework Convention on

Warming Countermeasures Plan”6） in March

Climate Change（COP3）was held in Japan:

2016. As a consequence, using energy-‘A promise; Kyoto Protocol' was adopted,

saving electrical equipment is currently

aiming at reducing greenhouse-gas emissions

mandatory in Yamanashi and companies

by approximately 5％ with respect to the 1990

reliant on automobiles require an“automobile

levels between 2008 to 2012.

environment plan”. For the public, theUnder the 2015 Paris Agreement, it was

Yamanashi prefectural government createdadopted internationally that‘holding the‘Eco Memo' to promote local, environmentally

increase in the global average temperature

friendly activities and waste reduction

to well below 2 ℃ above pre-industrial levelsby allowing citizens to convert personal

and pursuing efforts to limit the temperatureelectricity consumption into CO2 emissions

increase to 1.5 ℃ above pre-industrial levels' isand also translate this energy consumption

4）

necessary ; the 2018 Intergovernmental Panel

into garbage-bag production7）.

on Climate Change（IPCC）report indicatedYamanashi Prefecture has implemented

that this goal is realistic only by reducing

other regional carbon reduction efforts: in5）

CO 2 emissions to virtually zero by 2050 .

Otsuki City, an eco-friendly woody-biomass

As a result, each country has considered

power plant 8） was established in 2010 anddecarbonization policies based on internationalcan generate approximately 30,000 times

agreements.

the annual power consumption of ordinary
households, or 9％ of all 330,000 households in

2．Yamanashi's Current Initiatives

the prefecture; in Tsuru City, a small personal-

National efforts to comply with the Paris

consumption hydroelectric power plant

Agreement resulted in policies implemented

generates electricity for the Tsuru City Hall9）;at the prefectural and regional levels. In

in Hokuto City, which is among the areas withJapan, the“Yamanashi Prefecture Global

the highest sunshine duration nationally, theWarming Countermeasures Implementation

installation of solar power generation facilities― 64 ―

地域における脱炭素社会構築の可能性に関する考察

Table 1: Yamanashi Clean Energy Goal

is in progress10）.

solar power generation is highly advantageous

In 2020, the international, experimental“411）in Yamanashi Prefecture due to its increased. The initiative

annual sunshine duration. The Yamanashi

processes grape and peach tree branches‘Local Production for Local Consumption'from thinned trees produced by agriculture

energy strategy, formulated by the Yamanashi

in the prefecture, turns them into charcoal

Prefectural Energy Bureau in 2013, sets goals

and buries them in the soil. Carbon remains

for the promotion of renewable energy, as

in the charcoal, thereby suppressing CO 2

shown in Table 1. The largest proportion ofemissions. If the amount of carbon in the soil isrenewable energy is residential solar powerincreased by 0.4％（i.e., 4 per 1,000）each year,of less than 10 kWh. Yamanashi Prefecture's

the atmospheric CO2 increase can be offset, andgoal is to have installed solar power in 50％ of

global warming can be mitigated.

all detached houses by 2050, thereby ensuring

per 1,000”initiative started

Hydrogen is another attractive energy

1.16 million kWh of clean electricity. In 2011,source, which can be easily transported

residential solar power amounted to 45,000

and stored. The“P2G system”, an emerging

kWh; from 2011 to 2014, production increased

technology developed in research institutes inby approximately 14,666 kWh per year（Table

the Yamanashi Prefecture, converts electricity

2）. Assuming that this rate remains constant,generated from renewable energy into

approximately 45hydrogen.

will be producing solar power by 2050. Thus

％ of all detached houses

far, the installation costs of solar panels are a
3．Yamanashi's Environmental Issues

burden to the households; financial support

3-1. The diffusion of renewable energy

could alleviate these costs and further the use

Developing and utilizing renewableof solar panels.

energies is paramount for societies that

According to the Japan Chemical Industry

strive to minimize their impact on climate:

Association, thermal power generation

Each country is responsible for developing

using fossil fuels results in the emission

and adopting individual solutions accordingof approximately 690 g CO 2 per 1 kWh;to their needs. Yamanashi is a landlocked

this amount of CO 2 can be spared from theprefecture; therefore, there are few suitable

atmosphere if solar power generation issites for wind power generation; however,used instead, considering that it involves no― 65 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.17（2022）

Figure 2: Yamanashi Prefecture 10kw or less Cumulative installed capacity and Electricgenerating capacity
CO 2 emissions. The solar power target for

via establishing partnerships to achievebusinesses is 600,000 kWh; following Table

decarbonization.

1, an additional 362,000 kWh solar power
is necessary. This amount of energy equals

3-2. Reduction of plastic waste

12）

Plastic waste is recognized as a major issue（assuming that the number of operatingin Yamanashi Prefecture. According to thefacilities increases at the same rate as domestic

Ministry of the Environment, more thanadoption, as shown in Table 2）; alternatively,

8.3 billion t of plastic have been produced

it means 1.18 million kWh of solar power insince 1950, of which 6.3 billion t have been

2050, which implies that the long-term goaldisposed of as waste; if this continues, itof 600,000 kWh renewable energy by 2050 isis reported that more than 12 billion t ofachievable.

plastic will be in landfills or discarded in theabout 254 t CO 2 reduction over 36 years

However, there are also some concerns.

environment by 2050. In Japan, according

Table 2 shows the total number of operating 10

to the“Environmental Bureau of the Tokyo

kWh solar power businesses; when compared

13）
Metropolitan Government”, Japan's plastic

with the issued licenses by the government, thewaste in 2018 was 8.91 million and had an

only part is in operation. This is due to‘feed-

adverse effect on the rivers in the Yamanashi

in tariff', i.e., the purchase price of renewable

Prefecture, which received a considerable

energy is expected to decline and therefore

amount. According to the“River Scatteredbusinesses are wary to invest, implying that

Waste Composition Survey of the Yamanashi

estimates of future energy production targets

14）
Prefecture Energy Division”, 76

may be unreliable.

scattered waste in rivers is plastic, with direIf future energy production targets are to
be met, corporate installation needs to be％ of theimplications for natural ecosystems and theenvironment.

promoted while being mindful of the impact

CO 2 emissions from the incineration ofof such infrastructure, for it is necessary toplastic waste are currently unavoidable, andalso reduce the burden on residential solar

plastic waste that cannot be incinerated orenergy. Local communities need to collaborate

recycled is disposed in nature or in landfills.

― 66 ―

地域における脱炭素社会構築の可能性に関する考察

Table 2 CO2 emissions from the incineration of plastic waste in Kofu City in 2014.

Table 3 shows the CO 2 emissions from thesystem of a bygone era when financial

incineration of plastic in Kofu City from 2014

institutions were not widespread throughout（Heisei 26）to 2016（Heisei 28）: while theJapan; it is a mutual aid system for social

amount of CO2 emissions during this period

security, whereby a small amount of money isis gradually decreasing, it remains high, withcollected from members to be used in times ofapproximately 34378 t emitted in just the firsthardship, illness, or sudden loss. In this way,15）

. In December 2016,

Mujin promoted communication, deepened

Kofu City began collecting plastic containers

relationships, and improved well-being.

and packaging separately in an attempt toToday, with established social welfare andincrease recycling; this equated to 624.18

private insurance, Mujin's role has diminished,t（1725.9 t CO 2 ）in 2017, while in 2018 it

financing community events, socialincreased to 678.41 t（1875.5 t CO2）, i.e., 8.7％

activities, and parties instead. For this reason,increase. With regard to these figures, it isrestaurants and izakaya-typical Japanese bars-

difficult to achieve reduction of plastic waste

in the Yamanashi Prefecture often carry a sign

without governmental intervention, and it issaying:“We host Mujin meetings”. This isespecially important to promote it with the

not the case in other regions in Japan.

four months of 2016

T h e“ Y a m a n a s h i D e c a r b o n i z a t i o ncooperation of businesses and citizens in theprefecture.

Partnership”proposed here is a system thatutilizes this traditional custom through4．Overcoming Challenges: A Proposal forreappropriation of funds: by lending with

Building a Carbon Neutral Regional

little or no interest a small percentage of the

EconomyMujin funds spent at these restaurants to

4-1. Employing the Unique Yamanashi

local companies working on decarbonization‘Mujin' Culture

activities in the prefecture, environmentally

In addition to protecting the global

friendly activities and production areenvironment, addressing environmental issues

supported by the local communities, thereby

can have an impact locally by creating job

helping to create a sustainable society.

opportunities and enhancing development. By

The proposed system operates in theemploying the traditional Yamanashi cultural

following way: first, bars and restaurants thatpractice of‘Mujin', a carbon-neutral society isagree with the initiative are registered in thepossible.

system. Subsequently, a small percentage‘Mujin' is a remnant of the private financialof the money spent by Mujin parties at― 67 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.17（2022）

the registered establishments is used toproposed initiative is successful at raising

support decarbonization projects. When amoney for sustainable investments, it could

local business wishes to obtain a loan bytransition from loans into a donation program

the initiative, a proposal is submitted andin the future.

evaluated under environmentally conscious
criteria, such as the purpose and feasibility of

4-2. Detailed Mechanisms of Yamanashi
Decarbonization Partnershipthe project, and the timeframe and amountof anticipated CO 2 reduction, among other

4-2.1. Structure of the Yamanashi

factors. During the implementation of the

Decarbonization Partnershipproject, progress reports are mandatory,

Figure 3 illustrates the Yamanashi

while being disclosed for transparency.

Decar bonization Par tner ship: 1）Mujin

An operating entity responsible for thecustomers use a store part of theexamination, financing, and management isdecarbonization partnership and pay the totalrequired; the entity is ideally composed ofprice plus 1％ , e.g., if 10 people attend a Mujin

experts, financial institutions, prefectural

event that costs 5000 yen per person, 500

representatives, and local companies andyen in total will be additionally charged asgovernment officials, while the operationa partnership fee. 2）The funds raised in thiscosts are part of the procured funds. A portion

way are managed by an operating entity. 3）of the interest or profit produced by loans

Establishments are given points accordingfrom this partnership will be returned to theto the amount of funds raised as a method ofrestaurants in the form of goods or vouchers

tracking contributions. 4）Companies or local

in order to honor the good will of the initial

governments that wish to obtain a loan frominvestment, while distributed proportionally

the initiative

to incentivize participants, thereby aiding

submit a proposal（including the target CO2

further engagement in the initiative. If the

reduction and timeframe）. 5）The proposal is

Figure3 Structure of the Yamanashi Decarbonization Partnership― 68 ―

地域における脱炭素社会構築の可能性に関する考察

examined by a committeethat considers theloan amount and repayments; in the ideal case,

4-2．2．Mujin Points Reward System

the loan is approved. 6）The business operator

Registered establishments receive points

who receives the loan returns a portion of

proportional to the money collected from thethe benefits that CO2 reduction has afforded

Mujin events. Points allow establishments

them to affiliated establishments that are theto select items from an inventory managed

funders in the form of rewards, according toby the oversight committee. The items on

decarbonization results. 7）The public is able tothe inventory highlight prefectural products

make suggestions for changes via the project

or ingredients that are sustainable orwebsite to which companies can respond.

environmentally friendly from companies thatAs mentioned earlier, the Yamanashi

have achieved climate goals or standards.

Decarbonization Partnership is a mechanism

Companies that use Mujin loans mustthat raises financial resources from traditional

achieve their set climate goals outlined in theireconomic activities in the prefecture in orderloan proposals to be promoted within their

to support economic activities that contributecommunity. Once these goals are achieved,

to decarbonization. The economic benefits ofthese items can be acquired by participating

environmentally friendly practices are, in part,

restaurants in exchange for points. While

returned to the local economy.

directly supporting their businesses, thisThe Yamanashi Tourism Organization

also enables participating establishments

conducted a campaign for the registration

to advertise local ingredients to Mujin

of Mujin establishments in May 2020 andcustomers, the use of which further reinforces

ended up with a total of 8460 registered

the businesses' reputation as dependable, eco-prefectural establishments; if all these Mujin

friendly companies.

establishments were to participate in theinitiative, and if the earlier example of 500

4-3．Estimating the reduction of CO 2

yen per Mujin event were to be raised every

emissionsmonth, it would result in 50.76 million yen

When a company or local prefecturalraised in one year

16）.

governing body wants to receive backing

Establishments are incentivized to join thefrom the Mujin fund, a proposal is submitted,

initiative with exposure and promotional

and a business plan to realize decarbonization

opportunities both in store with promotional

is implemented. Here, we provide threebranding in the form of stickers, online on ahypothetical examples, and the reduction

dedicated site, and through social networking.

of CO 2 emissions by each business plan isThis enables establishments to differentiate

estimated.

themselves as positively impacting theenvironment and encouraging consumer

4-3．1．Promotion of Local Plastic Production

activity; therefore, a starting fee of 1000 yen

This proposal aims to install local products

per establishment is proposed. The marketingin Yamanashi prefectural grocery stores,

benefits of this proposal make this costpromoting plastic-free local production.

prohibitive and can generate several million

According to the Toyotomi Roadside

yen to assist initial start-up costs.

Station Market's agricultural product― 69 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.17（2022）

sales posted on the Yamanashi Prefecture

challenges can be partly mitigated; therefore,

website in 2013, approximately 1,000 people

this partnership can provide financial support

per day made purchases at the store. As

by lowering the cost of installing solar poweran estimate, if each person purchased on

generation and/or by providing a package

average five products packaged in plastic

that guarantees maintenance costs.

bags, approximately 1.8 million bags were

In this simulation, the standard installation

consumed annually. If the amount of plastic

cost required for a household solar panel withper plastic bag is 2.86 g per sheet, thisa power generation capacity of 5 kWh is 1.88

becomes equivalent to approximately 5.15 t

million yen19）. The electricity usage fee for theof plastic or approximately 14.2 t CO2, which

above-mentioned three-person household is

can be reduced or eliminated17）. According

to Shimokawa et al.（2013）, there were 121

estimated to be approximately 11,116 yen permonth, or about 133,300 yen per year.

direct sales stores in Yamanashi Prefecture in
2010, and the average annual sales were 52.14
million. If 50 ％ of the direct sales stores in theprefecture agree to implement this plastic
reduction policy, these plastic-free stores can
reduce CO2 emissions by approximately 85 t
18）

CO2 per year and save about 540,000 yen .

Based on data of the New Energy andIndustrial Technology Development
Organization（NEDO）20）, the average amount4-3．2．Promotion of Residential Solarof power generated per square meter ofPower Installation

solar panel per day is 4.44 kW/ ㎡ /per day in

Supporting solar panel installation at

Hokuto City（H）with a loss coefficient of 0.73

residential units is important for creating

21）（K）. Therefore, the estimated annual powera carbon-free society. Most solar panels are

generation and investment recuperation can

durable and often last for 20 years. Even if

be calculated:maintenance costs are incurred, costs can berecovered through electricity sold and reduced

Annual expected power generation expressed

electricity usage over the first ten years ofin kWh (E) = daily power generated (H)loss

the solar panel's operation. Additionally,

(K)

solar

according to the Agency for Naturalintensity under standard conditions (r), 1 kWh.

system capacity of 5 kWh

365

Resources and Energy, the initial cost requiredfor installing photovoltaic power generation

Therefore, the following can then be calculated:systems producing 10 kWh or less is steadilydecreasing each year owing to the progress ofrenewable energy technologies.
Nevertheless, there are issues regarding thecost, installation, and supply of equipmentthat are prohibitive for the general consumer.
By supporting both consumer and local
private-sector research and development, these― 70 ―

地域における脱炭素社会構築の可能性に関する考察

When this is added to the savings generated

year when considering current power usage.

by no longer paying an electrical bill, 77 ％ ofThus, after 10 years, the initial investment

the installation cost would be compensatedwould be compensated.

in 10 years, while the remaining 430,000
yen is compensated in the 13th year. With

Summary and Future Prospects

maintenance, solar panels have a 20-year

The Yamanashi Decarbonization

lifespan; over this period, they provide

Partnership proposal envisions a sustainableapproximately 900,000 yen in profits.

society for future generations throughAs the equations show, the installation cost

reducing CO 2 emissions and environmentalof the photovoltaic system is the main obstacle

waste. Based on the culture of mutual aid

preventing people from installing solar panels;

called Mujin-unique to the Yamanashi

however, by supporting people financially, theregion-our proposal utilizes social capital topartnership assists those who wish to invest

develop and promote sustainable practices

in a photovoltaic system but cannot afford thewithin the community and provides focus

installation. If（from the 116,000-household

and accountability for communities thattarget by 2050, as seen in Table 2, above）,

contribute to achieving their climate goals and

50,000 use the loan of this proposal by 2050,

social responsibilities. By creating incentives

it will be possible to reduce CO2 equivalent by

for participation, it ensures that the CO 2

140,486 t CO2 per year（5,915.2 kWh per unit

reduction and sustainable practices with the

× 50,000 units; Eko Memo）.

support of the partnership benefit not only thecontributors, but also the wider community.

4-3．3．Zero Carbon Campus Plan

This will improve the understanding of

Universities worldwide understandglobal environmental issues and encourage

the importance of creating a sustainable,

sustainable living, with less environmental

carbon-free society. In Japan, more than

impact.

100 universities participate in the CarbonNeutral University Coalition, scheduled to be

Acknowledgments

launched in 2021 to eliminate CO2 emissions

This study was motivated by the“YOUTH

by their campuses. Based on this movement,

Climate Change Policy Competition”

we consider CO 2 emissions at Yamanashi

sponsored by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Prefectural University（YPU）:

held in January 2021. Achieving Referee's

In 2019, the YPU Iida Campus used 672,286

Special Award, we gratefully thank thekWh, equating 319,336 kg of CO2 emissions.

referees and other related parties for their

For the YPU Iida Campus to reach the sameinvaluable feedback during the competition,

CO2 reduction target as the Yamanashi Energy

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other

Vision, a reduction of 81,431 kg（25.5 ％）byorganizations who organized and supported

2030 is necessary. This amounts to 171,432

the competition, and all people who responded

kWh of power. The initial investment toto interviews and provided the material forachieve this goal through a photovoltaic

our research.

system would be 37,950,000 yen; however, it

Furthermore, we are profoundly grateful

would save the university 3,730,000 yen per

to Mr. Edward Cary for his devoted support― 71 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.17（2022）

jjske/12/1/12_49/_pdf. Yamanashi University

to our discussion and English translation. We
could not completed our work without his

・Change, viewed 29 October 2021, https://www.

help.

jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/know/whitep/3-1.html
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electricity, gas, gasoline, etc. emitted by morethan 3,500 households in the prefecture can be
aggregated, analyzed, and converted into data. See

地域における脱炭素社会構築の可能性に関する考察

Yamanashi Prefecture 2020.
8） See the information on the Otsuki City Woody
Biomass Power Plant, Obayashi Group Otsuki
Biomass Power Co., Ltd. 2018.
9） Approximately 85% of the total power generationin 2017 was used by government buildings;
surplus electricity was sold.
10）See the information about“Solar Panels in Hokuto
City”, Hokuto City, n.d.
11）Yamanashi Prefecture aims also to create abrand for“environmentally friendly agricultural
products”, which are made by the 4 per 1,000
initiative. See Yamanashi Prefecture n.d.a.
12）CO 2 emissions from thermal power using fossil
fuels are calculated at approximately 690 g per
1 kWh; hence, 690 g * (600,000 - 232,000 kW)/ 100,000 = 254 t. Find detail in Yamanashi
Prefecture 2016.
13）See Ministry of the Environment n.d..
14）See Yamanashi Prefecture n.d..
15）The CO2 emission factor for plastic incineration is2.674.
16）Calculated as 500 yen x 12 months x 8460 cases.
17）Calculated with a CO 2 emission factor of 2.764
due to plastic cancellation based on the material
provided by the Environmental Administration of
the Environment Department of Kofu City in 2019.
18）Calculated as 14.2 t CO2 x 0.1 x 121 x 0.5. See Lee
2011, p.56..
19）5 x 1 kW solar panels for existing houses at
376,000 yen each.
20）Includes solar panels, power conditioners, mounts,
and construction costs. See NEDO 2020.
21）The loss coefficient considers mainly the loss
caused by power conditioners and cables, andis 0.73 in the NEDO Technology Development
Organization Photovoltaic Power Generation
Introduction Guidebook. In addition, 1 kW / ㎡ is
the solar radiation intensity in the standard state,and since it is equal to unity, it does not affect thecalculation. See NEDO 2020.

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