John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress in Japan:
Early Translations
Michiyo Takano
Abstract  The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan, first published in 1678, has been translated into many
foreign languages, and in this regard is ranked as the second most translated work after the Bible.
This study looks at when and how the Japanese translations of The Pilgrim’s Progress were publishedand how they were appreciated by contemporary Japanese society. The translations mainly to be
discussed are the ones published in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Special attentions
are paid to the translation by W. J. White, and the illustrations used, which might have contributed
to the popularity of the book, are examined. This study concludes that the attitudes of contemporary
Japanese people toward Western culture or civilization would be one of the factors affecting changes
in Japanese translations of The Pilgrim’s Progress.

The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan

f o r ei g n t r a d e a n d d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s（1628-88）, first published in 1678, has beencommenced in the mid-nineteenth century, thetranslated into many foreign languages, andban on Christianity was lifted in 1873, and its

in this regard is ranked as the second mostpropagation was more freely allowed. A smalltranslated work after the Bible. This study

part of the New Testament was first translated

looks at when and how the first Japanese

into Japanese in the 1830s, and about half atranslations of The Pilgrim’s Progress were

century later, complete translations of bothpublished and how they were appreciatedthe Old Testament and the New Testamentby contemporary Japanese society. The

were published in Japan. It was about thetranslations mainly to be discussed are thesame time The Pilgrim’s Progress was firstones published in the nineteenth and earlytranslated into Japanese, and it was therefore

twentieth centuries.

a rather early example of Christian writings
which became available in Japan. ThisI

translation was first printed in serialized form
John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress wasin a Christian periodical called Shichiichi

first translated into Japanese in the 1870s,

Zappo from 1875 to 76, and was later compiledin the Meiji period, by Yoshimine（or Kiho）

and published as a volume in 1879. Shichiichi

1）

The Meiji period experienced an influx

Zappo was a weekly paper published in Kobe,of Western culture and civilization, after awhere missionary activities were prominent.

long period of Japan’s national“isolation

The translation of The Pilgrim’s Progresspolicy”which started in the seventeenth

was only of the first part in sixty-six serials.

century. After the nation was opened toWhen the serial translation was complete, The

Sato.

山梨県立大学

国際政策学部

国際コミュニケーション学科

Department of International Studies and Communications, Faculty of Glocal Policy Management andCommunications, Yamanashi Prefectural University― 37 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.15（2020）

Pilgrim’s Progress was soon published as aas the first translation in that it lacked all thebook. The book was just a simple one, printedverses, and once again the Second Part wason delicate Japanese paper and bound likeleft untranslated. White's translation of The

ordinary popular Japanese booklets of the

Pilgrim’s Progress was published in Yokohama,period.

by the Japan Book and Tract Society,

Sato, the first translator, was not an English

which was established in 1876 by Christianscholar; he was a Chinese scholar. His Japanese

missionaries from Britain, three years after thetranslation of The Pilgrim’s Progress was aabolition of the ban on Christianity in Japan.

re-translation of its Chinese translation, andOne might naturally question who helped

this Chinese translation had been made by aWhite with Japanese, because it would not

Scottish missionary, William Chalmers Burns.

be easy for a Western person alone to write

Burns translated The Pilgrim’s Progress into

just like a Japanese storyteller. The Japaneseclassical Chinese and published it in 1856.

used in this book is very typical of classical

Later, Burns also translated it into mandarin

Japanese literature for casual reading, being

Chinese for a more extensive readership inboth rhythmical and amusing. 3） Moreover,

1865.2）

what is interesting about this book is that theSato borrowed the title from the Chinesecharacters appear in the illustrations dressedtranslation Ten Ro Reki Tei『天路歴程』which

in Japanese period costume. For example,

literally means“a heavenly journey,”and thisChristian has a topknot on his head andtitle remains the title of The Pilgrim’s Progress

carries a sword in the first edition. This typein Japanese even today. In his translation,of illustration can be regarded as an attempt

Sato employed colloquial Japanese forat indigenization, and will be examined moreconversations among the characters, which

fully in the next section.

often succeeds in maintaining the realism of

The third translation of The Pilgrim’s

the original work. His translations of verses

Progress was published in 1904 by Kokichi

are also quite well expressed and true to theIke, who was a poet. Again it was only aoriginal even though they are written in thetranslation of the first part, but a translation ofstyle of Chinese poems. Sato’s translation was

the Second Part followed in 1908. Thus, for theincomplete in that it lacks the Second Part,

first time, both parts of The Pilgrim’s Progress

Christiana’s journey to the celestial city. It iswere translated and published in Japanese.

also a free translation as Sato himself makes

However, Ike was quite free in making his

clear in his subtitle. His intention was to makeown interpretations, and his translations are

it readable and approachable to everyone,often versions rather than literal translations.

including the young and the ladies. Sato’s

For example, he shortened the verses and hetranslation sold well, and was reprinted ateven deleted some passages. Although he wasleast two times during the nineteenth century.

not very accurate or very sympathetic to the

The second Japanese translation of The

original, Ike’s translation was much enjoyedPilgrim’s Progress was done by William

by readers in Japan. It seems to have sold well

John White, a Baptist missionary. This was

and was in print until the early Showa period,

published in 1886, and was a translation froma revised edition having been published in

the original English. It was not as complete

1928. Ike’s translation was published with― 38 ―

John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress in Japan: Early Translations

illustrations, and the third edition of 1908

II

carried four illustrations by Harold Copping,

Although White’s translation was often

which had been drawn in the nineteenth-criticized as being too casual and frivolous

century.

for a Christian book, one cannot deny that

The fourth Japanese translation of The

it was successful and much appreciated by

Pilgrim’s Progress was made by Unshu

contemporary readers. 5） It is true that all

Matsumoto, an established translator, and it

translations except for this one were serious

was published in 1913. He was determined

and without much trace of indigenization.

to make a translation which was more true

For example, the first translation by Satoto the original. He had earlier translated

was written in partly colloquial but mainly

Bunyan’s Holy War and Grace Abounding,literary Japanese, and the book was notand by translating both Part 1 and Part 2

illustrated. White’s translation was a goodof The Pilgrim’s Progress, he was hoping toexample of proselytization by localizing

publish all the three masterpieces of Bunyan

the Christian writings, although it did not

and make them available and approachable

elicit any successors in the same vein. It may

for Japanese readers. His translation wasseem quite ironical that all other translators

reprinted over twenty times, so we can assume

except for White were Japanese, and it is onlythat the modernized, colloquial Japanese thatWhite’
s book that presents Christian and otherMatsumoto was eager to employ in his work

characters in a Japanese setting. Sato could4）

was popular with contemporary readers.

have employed similar illustrations to the ones

Frontispiece of Ike’s translation（1908）with a print by Copping― 39 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.15（2020）in a Chinese version, for example, because

Progress. However, White and his colleagues

he was naturally much familiar with them,were eager to propagate Christianity byhaving used a Chinese book to translate it.

indigenization and actually succeeded inInterestingly, the topknot and sword

capturing readers’hearts.

were something Japanese people had beenLet’s take some examples from the fifth

encouraged to give up by that time. So, why

edition of White’s translation, and examine

was Christian depicted as a historic Japanese

Christian and the other characters illustrated

person, with a sword and topknot? In thein it. First of all, Christian in the picture on thelate Meiji period, people wore a variety offront cover looks Japanese, but the landscapestyles of clothing and their hairstyles wereis not typically Japanese. It has a universal

mixed. Some wore western clothes, sometouch, with Christian standing barefoot bywore traditional Japanese costume such as

the stream, a book in his hand and a burden

kimono; some had cropped hair, some still hadon his back. He is dressed in rags, and he looks

a topknot. Those who were more aware ofslightly upward, probably expressing hope.

the values of Western civilization would in a

The first picture in the book showssense denounce Japanese customs and values

Christian and Evangelist. 6） This is quite

quite readily. Some of them would have been

similar to the Chinese print, with Evangelist

among the Japanese Christian intelligentsia,

showing Christian the way to the wicket gate

and they were not willing to accommodate theby pointing the light. Christian is given a

old Japanese ways in a book like The Pilgrim’s

Japanese name“Ju Do”（ 従 道 ）.“Ju”means to

Front cover, White’s translation（5th edition, 1901）― 40 ―

John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress in Japan: Early Translations

follow, and“Do”means the way, so these two

to listen to their words. They all look quite

Chinese characters together would mean apoor, because they are all barefoot and dressed

person who follows the teachings or the rightin shabby clothing. In the next illustration,

path. Evangelist is named as“Nori Michi”（教道）

Obstinate and Pliable are depicted in kimonos

which literally means a person who teaches

and topknots. They are carrying straw hats

the right ways. Evangelist wears a long white

for travelling and have slippers, unlike

beard and is dressed in kimono. Christian

Christian. Pliable is called“Ryuta”（柳太）, andhas cropped hair, and he is holding his scroll“Ryu”means a willow tree, and“Ta”is a final

tightly. They seem to stand in the middle ofcomposition of men’s names. So Ryuta would

a wasteland, and they look staid. The next

suggest a fickle man who flutters in the wind.

illustration evokes a more local atmosphere.

The next print depicts the scene when

It depicts the scene of Christian running

Christian and Pliable fell into the slough ofaway from home, leaving his family behind.

despond. Pliable gets out of the bog quickly,

There is a man with a topknot who tries to

but Christian is rescued by Help. Help, an older

stop Christian, and he is probably one of his

gentleman, looks solemn just like Evangelist.

neighbors. Christiana also tries to prevent

He is formally dressed in a kimono, and has

her husband from leaving home. There area long beard. On a bough of the tree by thetheir two little children as well, and the older

bog, there is a horned owl, which remindss right ear ischild is actually crying. Christian’

us of a popular ukiyo-e print by Hiroshige.

plugged with his hand, since he does not want

Underneath the bough, Pliable is returning

Front covers from Ike’s（left, 3rd ed. 1908）and Matsumoto’s（right, 5th ed. 1938）― 41 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.15（2020）

home carrying a straw hat on his back andtraditional Japanese costumes in the crowded

he just looks like any Japanese traveler offair in the town of Vanity, and the illustration

the Edo period. The owl and Pliable together

looks very similar to those in contemporary

create a very Japanese atmosphere.

Japanese story booklets.7）

The most obvious example of indigenization

Besides the illustrations, the language styleis the illustration of Christian fightingused in White’s translation was very much

Apollyon. Christian looks like a sixteenth-like the style in Japanese popular stories. Five-century Japanese warrior with armour andseven or seven-five syllable meters are often

a sword. Apollyon is depicted almost as

employed, and the diction and the rhythm aredescribed in the text － the fish-like scales,

typical of Japanese imaginative literature. In

bear-like foot, a burning belly, a lion’s mouth,this sense, the language and illustrations areetc., can all be seen. What is most significant

well matched.

is that in the background of the two fighting

The sixth edition of White’s translation was

figures, we can see beautiful Mt. Fuji cappedpublished in 1903, which indicates its lastingwith snow. This definitely creates a sense of

popularity. Some critics said that White’sintimacy, because Mt. Fuji has always beentranslation was too vulgar because the style ofa symbol of Japan. Seeing this scene, readers

language was too artificial and whimsical andwould naturally have been attracted to themimicked contemporary Japanese popularstory and felt empathy with Christian. In

stories; or that the illustrations were funny

another illustration, everyone is dressed inand unsuitable for a Christian book. All these

Christian is being helped out from the Slough of Despond

Christian fighting Apollyon― 42 ―

John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress in Japan: Early Translations

remarks made by the critics could similarly beapproach rejected, The Pilgrim’s Progress

regarded as the reasons for this translation’slost its appeal to a great number of ordinary

greater popularity. However, there have beenreaders who just liked a good story and limited

no imitators of White, and all subsequent

the readership to within Christian or academictranslations have been straightforward andcircles. Ironically, this implicit appreciation

faithfully true to the original.

of Western culture was one of the factors

There is a similar example of indigenization

which denied a possibly more successful

in Japan of a European book: Mother’s Songs,

future of the book in Japan where most people

Games and Stories by Friedrich Fröbel（1782-

were not familiar with the Christian religion

1852）. This book was translated into Japaneseor the culture of the West. The book could

and published in the 1890s by an American

have nurtured readers’minds over time, and8）

missionary A. L. Howe（1852-1940）in Kobe.

indigenization may have succeeded if someone

It is beautifully illustrated with engravings

had followed in the same style as White andof the contemporary Japanese scenes. For

maintained the book’s popularity. There

example, children are playing Japanese

were actually those who were lamenting

musical instruments instead of the piano, andthe contemporary situation in Japan where

mothers and children are steaming Japanesepeople were denouncing their own culture

traditional sweets instead of baking cakes.

and alternatively accepting Western values

Without these localized illustrations, thisreadily.

book would have had much less appeal tocontemporary readers who did not have muchknowledge or experience of Western culture. It

The translations discussed above are

was the translator’s intention to have her bookexamples of the earliest Japanese translations

illustrated by a Japanese artist to raise its levelof The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan.

of intimacy. This idea was successful, and the

Even after the mid-20th century, several morebook sold fairly well and was reprinted in attranslations and versions were published,

least four editions.

and some of them are still in print. Further

We notice here that both times it was aninvestigations are necessary, especially in

American who thought that indigenization

terms of the early translations of The Pilgrim’s

would work well. Contemporary readers

Progress into other languages, such as Chinese

appreciated the indigenization, and theseand Korean, for example, and how theybooks sold well and were reprinted. However,were appreciated in each country. That will

as in the case of The Pilgrim’s Progress, theenhance our understanding of the reactions toopinions of other translators or religious

its introduction to Japan.

leaders were not favourable. Some thought

Although The Pilgrim’s Progress is notthat an important Christian book like The

among the books Japanese children would

Pilgrim’s Progress should be more serious

read, it is sometimes regarded as children’sand that Christian portrayed as a Japanese

literature. This might be because it has beencharacter looked ridiculous. Consequently,

more often used in Sunday schools, rather

later translations did not inherit the familiar

than in ordinary situations, and it may havestyle of language and prints. With this friendly

once again limited the readership. If the book― 43 ―

山梨国際研究山梨県立大学国際政策学部紀要

No.15（2020）

Sofu Taketomo, criticized this translation of

had not been regarded as a children’s book,Matsumoto’s as being imperfect, and not goodit might have enjoyed a wider readership inenough, in the introduction to Taketomo’s ownJapan.

translation of The Pilgrim’s Progress.

The attitudes of contemporary Japanese5 ）One of the translators, Unshu Matsumoto,people toward Western culture or civilization

mentions in the introduction to his translation

would also be among the factors whichthat Christian with a topknot looks absurd in theaffected the shifting styles of the Japanese

illustrations of White’s book.
6 ）The first illustration in the first edition was oftranslations of The Pilgrim’s Progress.

Christian with a sword and topknot, looking like asamurai.
7 ）In Africa, for example, indigenization of The
Pilgrim’s Progress is most remarkable. There

1 ）It is commonly believed that the translator was

are many translations, in which you often find

not actually Sato, but Shunkichi Murakami, theillustrations of Christian and others in engravings

editor of Shichiichi Zappo. cf. Shin’ichi Takamura

or even in photos depicted as native people. Isabel“A History of the Translation of The Pilgrim's

Hofmeyr’s book The Portable Bunyan（Princeton

Progress in Japanese（I）”Annals of the Institutea n d O x f o r d : P r i n c e t o n U P , 2 0 0 4 ）g i v e s afor Comparative Studies of Culture, Tokyo Woman's
Christian University 40（1979）, 1-24.
2 ）For early Chinese translations of The Pilgrim’s

comprehensive account of the African translations.
8 ）Howe’s book was a re-translation of an American

Progress, see Xiaobai Chu,“Memories of the Gate:
On the Rhetoric in The Pilgrim’s Progress and Its
Chinese Versions”Religions（May 2019）.
3 ）The actual translator was commonly supposed to
be Kaiseki Matsumura, a Christian pastor in the
1880s.
4 ）Later in 1950, a well-known scholar of English,― 44 ―

translation of the book. See Yoko Shirawaka,“F. Frobel’s‘ M u t t e r - S p i e l u n d K o s e l i d e r ’
examined, and its introduction to America andJapan in the late nineteenth century: Part 2 The
introduction to Japan and discussion on the book, ”
http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/81000269.
pdf（accessed on October 1, 2019）