Higher Education for
Sustainable Development1
in Africa (HESDA)
Dr. Kevin Chika Urama,
Executive Director, African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)
President, African Society for Ecological Economics (ASEE)
3rd Floor, The Chancery, P. O. Box 10081, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: kurama@atpsnet.org

Papers published under the ATPS Special paper Series are thosecommissioned as concept papers, think pieces, leading conference
papers and keynote addresses. In keeping with our knowledge
brokerage function, ATPS publishes, with permission of the author(s)or journal editors, papers (published or unpublished) produced by
distinguished academics/researchers for a different purpose but
judged by ATPS to be of excellent quality. These papers addresssignificant policy questions relevant to the work of ATPS and/or
support the Southern voice or an African perspective. We also
consider theoretical papers that advance our knowledge of scienceand technology policy issues.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2009
ISBN:

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

Table of Contents
Abstract

4

1. Introduction

5

2. Current Scenarios

9

3. How Can Higher Education for Sustainable
Development in Africa be Achieved? 13
4. Conclusions

18

Cited References

19

Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 3

Abstract
The paper explores the role of higher education in sustainable development in Africa. While there are many
definitions of the concept of sustainable development in the literature and many policy documentations
have adopted it as the “buzz word” for development planning since the early 1970s, operationalisation of
the concept has taken various nuances in different sectors, including higher education. However, whatevernuance it may take, the concept of sustainable development crystallizes in the definition provided by theWorld Council on Sustainable Development (WCED, 1987): “development is sustainable when it meets theneeds of the present without compromising the ability to the future generation to meet their own needs”.
The paper argues that higher education can only contribute to sustainable development in Africa if and only
if it contributes effectively to meeting the social, economic and biophysical needs of the present and future
generations of Africans. Drawing from the concepts of responsible innovation systems as the platform fordevelopment and the nexus between the social, biophysical and economic aspects of environmental flows(Urama et al., 2006), it argues that building effective platforms for effective integration and collaboration
within and among disciplines, integration and collaboration within and between all actors in national
knowledge systems, and building appropriate incentive structures for effective valorization of science arenecessary conditions for sustainable development.
Analyses show that current knowledge systems, pedagogies and incentive structures in African Higher
education are discipline based and hence precludes trans-discilinarity, systems thinking, and responsible
innovation which are necessary conditions for economic progress as well as social and environmental
sustainability. It concludes that to make Africa's higher education relevant for social, economic andenvironmental sustainability, a complete re-engineering (socialization of our knowledge systems) including
a re-design of existing curricula, teaching & learning methods, research and development, stakeholder
engagement & systems of knowledge sharing, science dissemination and communication, sciencevalorization, incentive structures and reward systems (such research assessment RAE exercises), andstaff promotion schemes are urgently required.

1

A Keynote paper presented at the 12th General Conference of the Association of African Universities, Abuja, Nigeria, 4th May 2009.

4 | Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA)1. Introduction
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is “a dynamic concept that encompasses a new vision of
education that seeks to empower people of all ages to assume responsibility for creating and enjoying asustainable future” (UNESCO, 2005). It aims to integrate the principles, values and practices of sustainable
development into all aspects of education and learning (UNESCO, 2005). Higher education for sustainable
development in Africa (HESDA) is therefore the mainstreaming of the principles of ESD in higher institutionsof learning in Africa. It is expected that adopting HESDA principles will encourage change in behavior andmindsets to create a more sustainable future in terms of environmental integrity, economic viability, and ajust society for present and future generations.
It is now widely accepted that knowledge is at the the heart of development and qualified researchers arenecessary to produce a broad base of knowledge relevant to the solution of current and future practicalproblems of development. In fact, many scholars have argued that it is very unlikely that Less Developed
Countries (LDC's) will be able to build the research capacity they need simply by adopting the researchtraining schemes developed in the advanced countries and offered by development cooperation
agencies. It is therefore apparent that if developing countries hope to prosper and if world leaders expect
globalization to foster sustainable development and poverty reduction, building Science, Technology andInnovation (STI) capacities of countries is an absolute necessity. In today's rapidly changing economy, thecritical economic development and socio-environmental sustainability question is no longer whether
countries should build STI capacity but what type of capacity to build and how to build it, given eachcountry's socio-economic and bio-physical constraints (Urama, 2008). A review of the factors underpinning
the success of the developed and emerging economies suggest that supporting policies and institutions,revalorization of traditional and local knowledge, an interdisciplinary, holistic and systems-based approach
to knowledge production and sharing, the extent to which requisite national investments in building an
indigenous knowledge base to drive the national economy vis a vis the extent to which international
developments and events drive the priority given to development and sustainability goals, etc are all critical.
Yet, Africa's education sector still remain weak and attention to mainstreaming sustainable development
principles in higher schools of learning remain outside the curriculum development planning and teachingpractices. At the global scale, the challenge is deepened by Skeptics who have espoused the idea that: “itis not the job of universities to promote particular political orthodoxy [in the form of Sustainable Development
Principle for example]; it is their job to educate students to examine critically, policies, ideas, concepts andsystems, then to make up their own minds” (cited in Scott & Gough, 2006). Scott & Gough, (2006) opined
Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 5

that not only would the development of 'values, skills and knowledge' be inappropriate and contrived formany academic disciplines, but it is arguable that, in purely intellectual terms, the concept of sustainability is
still contestable. Similar debates in the literature have led to the sidelining of sustainable development
principles in the mainstream higher education curriculum in many continents, especially in Africa, where
curriculum have been seldom reviewed in the past decade. As will be shown in the subsequent analyses inthis paper, current higher education in Africa therefore do not contribute significantly to any of the triple
aspects of sustainable development: economic growth, social equity and environmental sustainability.
1.2
The Science of Sustainable Development and the Sustainability ofHigher Education in Africa
To examine the contributions of higher education in Africa, this section of the paper examines the science ofsustainable development in the context of the triadic model of sustainability, including the economic, thesocial and the biophysical/environmental aspects. It examines the current paradigms in higher education in
Africa and the implications for economic growth, social equity and maintenance of environmental assets forthe current and future generations of Africans.
The concept on sustainable development has been defined in many ways in the literature to the extent thatthe operationalisation of the concept in development practice now adopts many forms (Urama, 2003). Seefor example, Pearce et al., (1989), Pezzy, (1992) and Urama, (2003) for a review of the gamut of definitions
and implications for development practice. However, the paper adopts the Brundtland Commission's
definition that: “development is sustainable when it meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability to the future generation to meet their own needs”. (WCED, 1987). Embedded within this definition
are the concepts of intra-generational and inter-generational equity, and what is now popularly referred to as
the “triadic model” or “three pillars” of sustainable development. In simple terms, sustainable development
principles requires that we achieve our needs today without stripping future generations the social,economic and natural assets required for them to achieve their own needs. Operationalisation of theunderlying concepts of “intra-generational” and “inter-generational” equity and the triadic model ofsustainability therefore leads to fundamental challenges regarding how developed and developing
countries ought to implement the sustainability principles in development planning2 (see Urama, 2003,
Chapter 2 for details). To achieve the current needs of the present, African countries need to grow theireconomies, i.e. increase the productive and consumptive capacities of the population today. This would inturn exert pressures on the biophysical and social environment through resource extraction, waste disposal
and resource wars and the potential of depletion of ecosystem services.
While a discourse on sustainable development policy planning is not the subject of this paper, it is pertinent
to note here that sustainable development policy is context specific and inextricably linked to the social,economic and biophysical conditions. It is therefore heterogeneous for different countries and continents.
For on country, the policy priority may be sustainable production, while for another it may be sustainableconsumption. In all cases, growth and consumption practices MUST be decoupled from environmental
depletion3.
2

Inherent in the triadic model of sustainability is the realization of the fact that meeting the social, economic and biophysical needs ofthe present and future generations are inextricably linked. Preserving forests without meeting the current needs of the global poor istherefore not sustainable development.
3

Details on the different nuances of sustainable development planning will be provided in another paper: “The Politics of
Sustainable Development Policy at the Global and Regional Scales”, forthcoming.
6 | Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA)1.3
Implications for Higher Education in Africa
The brief discourse on the science and politics of sustainable development show that the concept ofsustainability is complex and adaptive, and its operationalisation is context specific and dynamic
depending on the prevailing social, economic and biophysical conditions at local, national, regional,
continental and global scales. The economies of nations are integral parts of the life support system which
we popularly call the “environment”, encompassing the social, economic and biophysical life support
systems (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: The Nexus between the Social, Economic and BiophysicalEnvironments

This poses significant challenges to the implementation of HESDA in Africa. Some of these challenges are
discussed briefly below:
1.3.1

1.3.2

1.3.3

Complexity & adaptive system: The environment is “a complex adaptive system”: - adynamic and complex whole, interacting as a structured functional unit. No part of the system
can be effectively managed “sustainably” in isolation.
Collaboration: We are therefore in a “Space ship earth” where energy, materials and information
flow constantly amongst its components. Each actor in the space ship are rational and will
necessarily seek their own interests as resources are finite and without boundaries. Knowledge
will continue to be generated and shared in the global knowledge economy and these will inform
global responses and policies for addressing global sustainable development challenges.
Dynamic and multiple equilibrium: Systems are often composed of entities (actors) seeking
Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 7

1.3.4

1.3.5(partial) equilibrium but can exhibit selfish behaviour causing oscillating or exponential
behavior in the system. The science of sustainable development does not therefore respectpartial equilibrium”, or "certeris paribus" assumptions. Instead, it celebrates “complexity” andfeedback loops within the system.
Externalities: All actions by each actor in the space ship often have unintended effects(externalities) on other actors, some, with significant implications for global sustainability suchas climate change, poverty alleviation, food security, water security, etc4. Most significant
global sustainability challenges such as climate change are global phenomenon withlocalized impacts. The externalities of these global sustainability challenges on developing
countries are far reaching, especially in Africa. For example, Africa will bear the greatest
impacts of climate change while it contributed least to green house gases. If African Scholars
do not proactively engage in sustainable development, actions of other global actors will ofnecessity, have externality effects on African development. This has significant implications for
global environmental governance systems and implementation of sustainability principles
such as the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP), the Precautionary principle (PP), Payments for
Ecosystem Services (PES), Carbon markets, etc.
Uncertainty & Irreversibility: Most environmental impacts are low probability high risk
events. It is therefore imperative that African scholars should proactively and continually evolve
new knowledge to inform Africa's responses to global environmental challenges and polices
at all scales.

Based on the brief analyses above, it is evident that the sustainability of African economies is significantly
dependent on the extent to which Africa strategically engages in the sustainable development agenda at
the global, continental, national and local scales. Africa is a supper power in terms of natural resource
endowments but still ranks amongst to poorest continents in the world. Investing in HESDA is therefore anecessary condition for sustainable economic growth, social equity, political stability, biophysicalsustainability in Africa, as well as the maintenance of the global natural capital stock. It is therefore not aquestion of if African should invest in HESDA, but rather how Africa should implement HESDA most costeffectively.

4

Externalities are unintended effects of selfish behaviour of actors in the system

8 | Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA)2. Current Scenarios
To address the question of how to implement HESDA, the paper examines the current scenarios in Africa incomparison with other developed and emerging continents, drawing lessons where appropriate.
A rapid assessment of selected Higher Schools and Universities in Africa show that the current pedagogies
and incentive structures in are discipline base, focuses on literacy and publications, organized in faculties
with rigid boundaries and hence discourages collaboration, trans-disciplinarity and responsible innovation.
The disciplinary domains focus on scientific enquiry and building “academic tribes” rather than collective
learning. Single authored publications are often priced more than collaborative publications in the staff
promotion exercises and Research Assessment Exercises (RAE). Curriculum has been seldom reviewed in
the light of emerging development challenges in many countries. Science is not fully embedded in society
and corroboration of theory is often easier to publish in peer reviewed journals than falsification of theory. Thisis even more debilitating for young researchers as most of the international journals are not accessible. Mostof the journals are also hosted in Europe and America and hence are designed to address development
agenda of the North, hence scientific enquiries into African development challenges are seldom published.
There has been an increase in the emergence of African journals during the past decade, but these are still
not very popular as ISI journals attract higher impact factors and hence higher chances of promotions under
the current RAE system.
The implications of the above are that contribution of Africa's Higher Education systems to economic
growth, social equity and sustenance of Africa's rich natural resources has been dismal. In the following
section, the paper illustrates the low impact of current Higher Education paradigms in Africa on the threepillars of sustainable development.
2.1 The Impact of Higher Education on Economic Growth in Africa
Empirical studies find significant correlation between university enrollment rates and growth in national
incomes in many countries (Moyer, E.J. 2007). No educational factor correlates as strongly with national
incomes as university enrollment rates. Analyses show that attaining full primary education for all which has
been the main focus of government policies in many African countries may be a necessary but no sufficientcondition for development in most countries globally. For example, Togo and Madagascar have attained
over 90% primary school enrollment rates but this has not translated into higher national incomes. The same
relationship holds not only between countries but also over time for a single developing country (for details,
see Moyer, 2007). On the converse, university enrollment rates in sub-Saharan Africa are among the lowest
Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 9

in the world, averaging 5%, compared to > 60% elsewhere and up to 72% in the United States of America.
The rate of university enrollment also varies within the region with South Africa attaining up to 15%. Overall,the contributions of higher education in Africa to gross national incomes are significantly low5.
Figure 2: Correlation between Gross National Incomes (GNI) and Enrolment
Rates in (a) Universities and (b) Primary Education (Source: Moyer, E.J.
(2007).

A more in-depth analyses provided by Moyer et al., (2007) suggest that the relative cost of higher
education per student trained as a proportion of Gross National Income (GNI) is higher in Africa than in thedeveloped countries, including the USA and Europe (Figure 2).
This leaves the African Higher Education in significant dilemma. A rapid appraisal of the system shows that
African governments are the primary source of funding for higher education in Africa. If higher education
does not contribute significantly to national income growth, it is most likely that governments will prioritize
other development challenges such as poverty alleviation, climate change adaptation, water insecurity,
peace, etc. over continued investments in higher education.
Figure 3: National Government Expenses per Tertiary Student as a Proportionof Gross Domestic Product (Source: Moyer, (2007).

5
A more detailed discussion on the importance of higher education for national income growth can be found in Moyer, (1997)
and Botman et al.,( 2009)10 | Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA)Yet, providing a reasonable level of higher education will continue to require a minimum threshold ofinvestments in the sector. This would, in turn, limit enrollment rates further as budgetary constraints increase.
Inherently, this leads to reduced standards in teaching and learning facilities as University faculties engage
in moonlighting activities and staff unions evoke industrial action (strikes) to lobby for increased investmentin the sector.
This analysis suggests that it is likely that this could become a vicious cycle unless Higher Education in
Africa finds innovative ways of increasing investments, enrollment rates and relevance to the socioeconomic and environmental needs of the continent.
2.2. The Impact of Higher Education on Social Sustainability in Africa
The hallmarks of social sustainability are participatory democracy, stakeholder empowerment and social
equity. This, in turn requires active engagement of the quadruple helix (the governance sectors, theacademia, the private sector and the civil society) in framing and shaping the social, economic andenvironmental policies of countries.
However, a rapid assessment of the institutional and operational structures of higher education in Africa
suggests that most of the governance structures are strictly hierarchical and rigid bureaucracies. Most
scholars attribute this to Africa's colonial history. University systems in Africa were designed by the colonial
masters to reproduce the characteristics of theirs (mainly British, French & Belgium). Subsequently, there
was rapid expansion in Higher Education in the early 1960s, but still within the constrained colonial systems.
In the 1970s, the global oil crisis led to reduced funding and Higher Education was viewed as a secondarypriority. Since then, Donor funding has remained influential in defining research and teaching programs anduniversity management systems. The socialisation of African science in Africa, i.e. embedding our sciencein our society therefore took the back seat.
Knowledge and technology transfer mechanisms are still largely based on the linear models of innovation
diffusion. Innovation is largely regarded as the product of research within the codified knowledge
communities (science disciplines) in which knowledge dissemination is largely an end-of-pipe activity at theend of linear process: information gathering and field observations, data analyses and hypothesis testing,and final dissemination of results. The sector within which most involvement of the stakeholders has been
observed is in the agricultural sector. Yet, within the sector, innovation diffusion process is modeled on theassumption that research findings, once packaged by extension staff, are expected to be inherently suitedto transfer to the farming community. The initiator of innovation is codified science and increase in scientificinputs into the pipeline will directly increase the number of new innovations and technologies flowing out thedownstream end. Little attention is paid to tacit knowledge held by the farming communities and otherrelevant stakeholders. Traditional farming practices such as multi-cropping and organic farming were
described as conservatism until recently when the environmental movement led to the realization that thesepractices were more sustainable that conventional modern practices (see Urama, 2003; 2005). Years ofexperience have also shown that “technical changes do not occur in a perfectly linear sequence, but
through feedback loops within the system” (OECD, 1997, p. 12).
In addition, the language of science remained the colonial languages, mainly English, French andHigher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 11

Portuguese. This mutually excludes the civil society, the government and the private sector in knowledge
generation and knowledge valorization in Africa. Students are often taught about food crops in their locality
in Botanical (or Latin) names which make no sense to the student beyond the class rooms. Different
discipline evolved its own specialized language “disciplinary jargons” that precludes any form of bilateral or
tri-lateral collaboration and interdependencies between university faculties, knowledge networks, theprivate sector, local communities actors, policy makers, etc. Also, flexibility, creativity and innovation remain
seldom rewarded by the research assessment exercises (RAEs) as preference is mainly given to
publications in international journals. Science in African Universities has therefore been described as an
artifact of Africa's colonial past. Recently, the Chairman of NEPAD Steering Committee urged institutions ofhigher education in Africa to create “a culture of developing new knowledge and skills for generating
solutions to Africa's development challenges” (cited in UNESCO, 2005).
Empirical results of a focus group discussion carried out with stakeholders in Kenya in 2009 as part of amulti-lateral project on socialization of science and technology in developing and emerging countries findthat the systems remain largely unchanged. The main constraint to socialization of science in Africa remains
the lack of collaboration amongst the quadruple helix. Delegates at the focus group ascribed this lack ofcollaboration amongst the quadruple helix in Africa to a number of factors, including:
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.2.7
2.2.8
2.2.9
2.2.102.2.112.2.122.2.132.2.14Lack of institutional/policy framework for collaboration,
Low incentives for multi-disciplinarity and trans-disciplinary research,
Donor driven research agenda due to dependency on external donors for STR research funding,
Low investments by national governments to invest in science, technology and innovation
programs and scientific equipment,
Perceived superiority of Western Science and Western Scientists,
Perceived and real demand for international experts by Government and Private Sector Actors,
Focus by African Politicians on short-term value addition,
Multiple Ministries and Government Parastatals handling various aspects of the innovation systemeach with different agenda,
Difficulties of dealing with uncertainty,
Colonial structures and curricula still being maintained in most higher education establishments,
Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) is still based on foreign criteria, e.g. publications ininternational journals;
Insufficient legal frameworks for Intellectual Property Rights, and other knowledge appropriation
strategies, etc,
Low quality of science leading to false or failed predictions and lack of trust in African science bystakeholders, andLack of systemic, holistic and interdisciplinary approaches in African science, etc.

The results of the focus group also underscored the fact that current pedagogies and incentive structures inAfrican Universities are discipline based and hence precludes systems thinking, collaboration andresponsible innovation which are necessary conditions for economic progress as well as social andenvironmental sustainability.

12 | Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA)3. How Can Higher Education for
Sustainable Development in
Africa be Achieved?
From the foregoing, it is evident that to achieve higher education for sustainable development in Africa, thereis the need for a complete re-engineering of the education system in Africa, staring from the Primary to the
Tertiary levels. As aptly noted by (Mamdani, 1996), Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) “does not
simply involve an 'adoption' of institutional rhetoric on Sustainable Development, or development of new
structures and projects in universities. It requires a deeper engagement with the remaining institutional
legacies of colonialism (and neo colonialism) in Africa (Mamdani, 1996). It requires that we think of how we
can root African universities in African soil (ibid). This was again emphasized by Moja, (2004): “…there is aneed to transform African systems of Higher Education to make sure that Higher Education will contribute toeconomic development within a globalised economy” (Moja, 2004, p. 22).
This paper makes the same clarion call for the socialization of African Science as the sene qua non forsustainable development and the sustainability of higher education in Africa. This will require a reform of
curricula, teaching & learning methods, research and development, stakeholder engagement & systems ofknowledge sharing, science dissemination and communication, science valorization, incentive structuresand reward systems (such as RAE), and staff promotion schemes to make them relevant to Africa's
development agenda. I argue that by socializing African science, i.e. making Africa's Higher Education
relevant for social, economic and environmental sustainability, and embedding the science curricular in
African's realities, Higher Education in African will contribute more effectively to national income growth,social cohesion and efficient use of Africa's rich natural capital. Collaboration amongst the quadruple helix
will also not only generate new innovations for development but will also facilitate the sustainability of higher
education in Africa. Private Sector and Public Funding for Higher Education will also increase as a demand
led process in exchange for the new relevant technologies and responsible innovations that will beespoused by the collaboration platforms and networks generated.
The paper therefore makes six key recommendations focusing mainly on what the Higher Education sector
needs to do, and provision of favourbale policy environments for innovation cultures to flourish:
3.1

Pedagogical Reforms: to move from disciplinary science to trans-disciplinary science;
Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 13

3.2

3.3

3.4
3.5

3.6

Structural Reforms: to move from current models of science & technology knowledgetransfer to providing collaborative platforms for responsible innovation, such as Centers of
Excellence, Innovation Incubation Centers, etc;
Mindset Reforms: to move from sector based approaches in teaching and learning (silothinking) to integrated holistic approaches in knowledge generation and knowledge circulation(systems thinking);
Governance Reforms: to move from knowledge hierarchies to participatory governance andfull socialization of scientific and technological research
Incentive Structures Reforms: to move from “publish or perish” to a more inclusive impact
based incentives and reward systems including publications, but also societal relevance / local
impacts,co-patents and co-publications, private sector citation index, proximity to specialized
knowledge centers, relevance to national policy simulations and formulations, etc., andPolicy Environment Reform: to provide favorable policy environments and legislative
frameworks to enable cultures of innovation to thrive and flourish at national, regional and global
levels.

These recommendations are discussed briefly below:
3.1 Pedagogical Reforms - From Disciplinarily to Trans-Disciplinarily: Trans-disciplinarity is theprinciple of integrating forms of research comprising a family of methods for relating scientific knowledge
and extra-scientific experience and practice in problem-solving. It is a form of joint problem solving among
Science, Technology and Society. Unlike disciplinary sciences which examine, at most, one and the samelevel of reality, and in most cases, concerns fragments of one level of reality; trans-disciplinarily espouses
collaboration amongst different knowledge communities and utilizes extra-scientific experiences and tacitknowledge in its approaches. This is also distinct from inter-disciplinarity and multi-disciplinarity. Bothmultidisciplinarity and inter-disciplinarity approaches overflows disciplinary boundaries while the goal
remains limited to the framework of disciplinary research. The core differences between disciplinaryscience and trans-disciplinary science are shown in Table 1:
Table 1: Differences between Disciplinary and Trans-Disciplinary Approaches

Disciplinary Sciences

Trans-disciplinary Sciences

Simplicity

Complexity

Singularity assumptions

Heterogeneity assumptions

Insulated boundary conditions

Hybrid conditions

Linearity assumptions

Non-linearity assumptions

Unity assumptions and results

Unifying approaches and multiple scenarios

Building consensus in results

Seeking agreement on scenarios

Fragmented models

Coherent models

Universality

Dialogue at multiple scales

Partial equilibrium conditions

Multiple and Dynamic equilibrium conditions

14 | Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA)Trans-disciplinarity therefore provides a useful model for addressing current global challenges, including
climate change, poverty, and global financial crisis which are mutually exacerbating. There is now growing
consensus amongst social and environmental scientists that these complete global challenges can only beeffectively addressed through effective partnerships amongst different science disciplines, and amongst
the quadruple helix.
3.2 Knowledge Structures Reforms: From Science and Technology Transfer to Responsible
Innovation
The Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines technology as (i) applied science, (ii) a technicalmethod of achieving a practical purpose, or (iii) a totality of the means employed to provide objects
necessary for human sustenance and comfort.
Banjo, (1988) therefore defines technology as 'the application of knowledge, including the skills necessary
to deploy principles, procedures, and processes that can be used to modify, manipulate and otherwise
produce changes in the specific features of the physical world to serve human or social purposes” (cited in
Urama 2003). In other words, technology can be defined simply as knowledge used to solve problems(Urama, 2003).
On the other hands, the concept of Responsible Innovation pertains to the introduction of new products,
processes and services and to organizational and societal renewal, i.e. the valorization (use / application of
the results of science and technology for development). Innovation is therefore neither scientific research,
nor technology, but rather the application of knowledge in development. The knowledge might be acquired
through learning, research or indigenous experiences, but until it is applied in the production of goods orservices it cannot be considered an innovation. It is therefore necessary to build national system ofinnovation as the bedrock for development of nations.
A National System of Innovation (NSI) is a system of interconnected institutions to create, store and transfer
the knowledge, skills and artifacts which define new technologies (Metcalfe, 1995). It comprises the national
institutions, their incentive structures and their competencies, that determine the rate and direction oftechnological learning (or the volume and composition of change generating activities in a country (Pateland Pavitt, 1994). It has to be stressed here that NSIs are heterogeneous for different countries. Countries
differ in the way in which knowledge flows are structured and in the relative importance of the different typesof institutions, actors or linkages for their respective production and consumption systems. Each country
must therefore chart its own sustainable development trajectories taking into account the peculiarities of its
own NSI.
3.3 Mindset Reforms: From Silo Thinking to Systems Thinking
Systems thinking is the process of estimating or inferring how local policies, actions, or changes influence
the state of the neighboring universe. Development challenges are seen as parts of an overall system, rather
than reacting to present outcomes or events and potentially contributing to further development of
undesired effects or new problems, popularly referred to as externalities. Systems thinking framework isbased on the belief that the component parts of a system can best be understood in the context ofrelationships with each other and with other systems, rather than in isolation. In many ways, systems thinking
espouse the principles of collaboration which breeds innovation.

Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 15

3.4 Governance Reforms: From knowledge hierarchies to participatory governance and Full
Socialization of Science & Technology
The whole aspects of scientific practice, scientific mediation, scientific communication, evaluation ofscience, innovation in science, science governance, gender representation, and scientific cognition are
now under serious processes of socialization in the developed countries. The paper therefore
recommends that measures should be put in place to ensure that African science is fully embedded in
African societies. The socialization process should take into consideration the different knowledge
communities (both tacit and codified), amongst science disciplines, faculties and institutions, andamongst all actors in the value chain at national, regional, continental, and global scales. Details on theprinciples of socialization of science can be found in an ongoing process for the development of a
Manifesto for Science and Technology in Africa (see http: //www.ste-dev.eu), for details.
3.5 Incentive Structures Reform: From “Publish or Perish” to a more Inclusive Performance
Incentives Systems
This recommendation regards a reform of the Research Assessment Exercises to move away from thecurrent paradigms of “Publish or Perish” to a more Inclusive Performance Incentives to favour problem
solving, innovation and socialization of science in Africa. The paper recommends an inclusive weighting
system comprising:
3.5.1
Quantity and quality of scientific publications;
3.5.2
Relevance to development policy. This can be measured by:
3.5.2.1 Policy impact indicators
3.5.2.2 Number of policy briefings produced, and3.5.2.3 Public sector citation index
3.5.3
Number and quality of collaborative activities and innovations generated. This can be measuredby:
3.5.3.1 Public sector citation index
3.5.3.2 Number of joint research activities; joint innovations, etc;
3.5.3.3 Co-patents and co-publications
3.5.3.4 Private sector citation analysis
3.5.3.5 Firm surveys index
3.5.3.6 Number of specialized knowledge centers working with the university, etc, and3.5.4
Societal Relevance. This can be measured by
3.5.4.1 Societal panel reports, and3.5.4.2 Stakeholder analyses
While the proposed RAE system may appear arduous, it is expected that once the system is put in place,the added value of using a more inclusive system will override the initial costs of developing the new system.
Some countries in the developed world espousing responsible innovation are already using different
aspects of the proposed system. For example, the Responsible Innovation (MVI) program of theNetherlands NWO program now requires research projects to be evaluated by a Society Panel as well as ascientific Panel, to ensure both science and social relevance of funded programs. It is now an establishedempirical fact that research cooperation correlates with improved innovative performance in most sectors(cf: Silicon Valley in California (near Stanford University and the University of California); Biotechnology
Clusters in the Boston area (near the Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and Communications Clusters(near Princeton University). The same relationships exist in Germany, Norway, Finland, etc. In fact, the16 | Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA)European Commission now proactively award research grants to encourage trans-disciplinary studies andcollaboration amongst the quadruple helix across continents.
Evaluation of cooperative research programs in the EU find that it leads to behavioural additionalities, e.g.
increased competencies and skills that lead to innovative capacity, networking capabilities and ability toidentify and adapt useful technology. In addition, inter-faculty and student exchanges can address the huge
gaps in expertise and inertia for collaboration and innovation in some regions.
3.6 Policy Reforms: - to create enabling policy environments for:3.6.1 Increased enrollment in Universities,
3.6.2 Trilateral university-industry-government partnership / collaboration,
3.6.3 Bilateral collaboration between university students, faculties and universities
3.6.4 Performance based inclusive incentive systems,
3.6.5 Long-term investment in trans-disciplinary science and innovation studies,3.6.6 Participatory governance and socialization of S&T in African countries,
3.6.7 Change in mindset: to enhance personal commitment of both teacher and learners toaddressing Sustainable Development Principle,
3.6.8 Pedagogical/Paradigm shift: to mainstream trans-disciplinarity, systems thinking andinnovation,
3.6.9 Stakeholder engagement in knowledge generation, valorization and RAE,
3.6.10 Build effective “contractual” student loan programs,
3.6.11 Invest in research infrastructure and existing faculties,
3.6.12 Identify and support existing centers of excellence and knowledge networks, andcelebrate African Science and Scientists,
3.6.13 Invest in entrepreneurship incubation programs and / or small business innovation
research grants, and3.6.14 Skills re-orientation and re-tooling - at the disciplinary levels to integrate Sustainable
Development concerns.

Higher Education for Sustainable Development in Africa (HESDA) | 17

4. Conclusions
The paper explores the role of higher education for sustainable development in Africa. It explores the
emergence of trans-disciplinary sciences, systems thinking, and responsible innovation and theirimplications for education for sustainable development innovations (ESDI) in Africa. It argues that current
pedagogies and incentive structures in African Universities are discipline based and hence precludes
systems thinking, collaboration and responsible innovation which are necessary conditions for economic
progress as well as social and environmental sustainability.
The paper therefore argues that to make higher education relevant for social, economic and environmental
sustainability in Africa, a complete re-engineering (socialization) of our knowledge systems (curriculum
design, teaching & learning methods, research and development, stakeholder engagement & systems ofknowledge sharing, dissemination, valorization, incentive structures including research assessment
exercises (RAEs) and promotion criteria, etc.) are urgently required.
The recommendations hinge around six interrelated aspects of our knowledge systems needing urgent
reforms: the current pedagogy, knowledge diffusion structures, mindsets of the actors, institutional
governance structures, and policy frameworks.
It advocates for re-design of curricula to mainstream sustainable development principles including transdisciplinarity, systems thinking and innovation; expansion of RAE systems to include societal relevance,
innovation indicators, policy relevance, etc; reform of institutional governance structures and teaching andlearning methods to mainstream participatory democracy, stakeholder engagement, participatory learningand full socialization of science in Africa; change in mindsets to move from doing different things to doing
things differently, learning to learn rather than teaching codified knowledge as the superstructure fordevelopment. At the policy level, it recommends investments in tans-disciplinary entrepreneurshipincubation centers and knowledge networks to foster innovation and systems thinking; establishment ofstudent loan programs, etc.

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