© Wild Welfare 2023 - All Rights ReservedCore Standard of Welfare Practicefor Captive Animals
Morgan D*, S. Marsh, M. Whittaker, T. Blackett, G. Groves, A. Morgan*Corresponding author: dave@wildwelfare.org

REVISED THIRD EDITION; MARCH 2023

Wild Welfare gratefully acknowledges the International Fund for Animal Welfare(IFAW) for their input and guidance towards the Third Edition of this document

Contents
Preamble ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 1: The Five Domains of potential welfare compromise ................................................................................ 7
Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Use of the standard ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
SECTION ONE: PRESCRIPTIVE CORE STANDARD ......................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Domain 1: Nutrition.................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1 Food Hygiene ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Domain 2: Environment ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Enclosure and Environmental Design ............................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Transportation and Movement of Animals ...................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Animal Transactions ......................................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Domain 3: Health.................................................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Animal Health and Veterinary Care .................................................................................................................. 15
3.2 Veterinary Facilities .......................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Euthanasia ........................................................................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Domain 4: Behaviour .............................................................................................................................................. 18
4.1 Environmental Enrichment and Stimulation .................................................................................................... 18
4.2 Animal Training................................................................................................................................................. 18
4.3 Animal Contact ................................................................................................................................................. 19
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Domain 5: Mental State ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 6 .................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Miscellaneous ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
6.1 Governance ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
6.2 Record Keeping................................................................................................................................................. 21
6.3 Escapes ............................................................................................................................................................. 22
6.4 Personnel .......................................................................................................................................................... 22
6.5 Release to wild ................................................................................................................................................. 232

SECTION TWO: DERIVATIONAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................................ 24
Husbandry and Welfare.......................................................................................................................................... 24
Physical Components ............................................................................................................................................. 24
Chapter 7 .................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Domain 1: Nutrition................................................................................................................................................ 24
1.1 Food Hygiene .................................................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 8 .................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Domain 2: Environment ......................................................................................................................................... 26
2.1 Enclosure and Environmental Design ............................................................................................................... 26
2.2 General Design ................................................................................................................................................. 26
2.3 Safety ................................................................................................................................................................ 27
2.4 Flooring ............................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.5 Size .................................................................................................................................................................... 27
2.6 Shelters and Refuges ........................................................................................................................................ 28
2.7 Environmental Parameters............................................................................................................................... 28
2.8 Hygiene ............................................................................................................................................................. 29
2.9 Social Interactions ............................................................................................................................................ 30
2.10 Water Environments ...................................................................................................................................... 30
2.11 Transportation and Movement of Animals .................................................................................................... 31
2.12 Animal Transactions ....................................................................................................................................... 33
2.13 Source of Animals ........................................................................................................................................... 33
2.14 Animal Management ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 9 .................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Domain 3: Health.................................................................................................................................................... 35
3.1 Animal Health and Veterinary Care .................................................................................................................. 35
3.2 Preventative Veterinary Medicine ................................................................................................................... 35
3.3 Biosecurity ........................................................................................................................................................ 36
3.4 Veterinary Facilities .......................................................................................................................................... 37
3.5 Euthanasia ........................................................................................................................................................ 37
Chapter 10 .................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Domain 4: Behaviour .............................................................................................................................................. 38
4.1 Environmental Enrichment and Stimulation .................................................................................................... 38
4.2 Abnormal Behaviours ....................................................................................................................................... 38
4.3 Enrichment Programmes .................................................................................................................................. 39
4.4 Environmental Security .................................................................................................................................... 40
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4.5 Environmental Challenges and Novelty ........................................................................................................... 40
4.6 Environmental Complexity ............................................................................................................................... 41
4.7. Multi-species Exhibits ...................................................................................................................................... 42
4.8. Animal Training................................................................................................................................................ 42
4.9 Animal Contact ................................................................................................................................................. 43
4.10 Visitor Impacts ................................................................................................................................................ 45
4.11 Mental Components ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 11 .................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Domain Five: Mental State ..................................................................................................................................... 46
5.1 Choice and Control ........................................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Welfare Evaluation ........................................................................................................................................... 47
Chapter 12 .................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Miscellaneous ......................................................................................................................................................... 49
6.1 Governance ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
6.2. Record Keeping................................................................................................................................................ 49
6.3 Escapes ............................................................................................................................................................. 49
6.5 Release to Wild ................................................................................................................................................. 50
APPENDIX ONE - GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Literature Cited .......................................................................................................................................................... 55
Literature Consulted .................................................................................................................................................. 60
Books .......................................................................................................................................................................... 73

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Preamble
Wild Welfare has established a need to develop and implement an international Core Standard of Welfare Practice for
Captive Wild Animals to provide an evidence-based procedure for the systematic and forensic auditing of the welfare ofanimals in captivity.
The Wild Welfare Core Standard of Welfare Practice for Captive Animals is derived from current and prevailing trends andpublished literature pertaining to animal welfare requirements in Zoos, Aquariums, Sanctuaries, Rescue Centres andRehabilitation Centres.
This Standard may be used for auditing in association with the Wild Welfare Live Collection Audit Protocol.

Introduction
Cognition is the mental process of perception, processing information and learning [1] [2] and is linked, but not inseparably,
to sentience capacity, which is the ability to feel and experience emotions, both positive and negative [2] [3]. Therefore, it
has been suggested that cognitive ability should not be the sole determinant of the degree of welfare protection an animal isafforded [2]. Yet, understanding an individual’s cognitive capacities, along with knowledge of the animal’s different
emotional states, can help assess its welfare and increasing our knowledge of sentience in the different species is critical for
improving general attitudes towards animal welfare and how animals are treated and looked after [2]. Improved awarenessto and appreciation of the range of emotions the different species of animals may experience, and their sentience isimportant to drive advances in husbandry and animal management techniques in order to ensure good animal welfare.
Vertebrate species are generally accepted as sentient beings [2] [3] and this is reflected in the level of welfare protection
afforded to them through current legislation, although specific invertebrate species have also been given legal protection insome countries. For example, cephalopods have been afforded legal welfare protection in certain countries, largely as aresult of their advanced cognitive abilities [4]. Recent research that examined similarities in the behaviours between
invertebrates and vertebrates suggests that some invertebrates have the capacity for nociception, and also may be able toexperience the emotion of pain, as well as stress, and if an animal can experience pain and stress, which are negative
experiences, then it may to have the ability to suffer [4]. Some invertebrates, such as bees and octopuses, may also display alevel of cognitive ability [4]. Therefore, increasing the knowledge and understanding of pain perception, sentience, andcognition in the many different species of invertebrates, as well as vertebrates, is important to further reinforce the need toensure that husbandry provisions are made for all captive animals that provide for appropriate biological and physicalfunction and also sufficiently promote positive experiences and minimize negative states, which will ultimately improve andsupport their good welfare.
The Five Freedoms [5] are internationally well-known. They act as a foundation, defining and underpinning fundamental
animal welfare standards and considerations and were originally produced by the UK Farm Animal Welfare Council following
the 1965 UK Report of the Technical Committee to enquire into the welfare of animals kept under intensive livestock
husbandry systems, to assess welfare in farming situations. However, they can be applied to animals in other circumstances
and are a useful method of evaluating animal welfare.
The Five Freedoms are:•Freedom from hunger and thirst•

Freedom from discomfort•

Freedom from pain, injury, or disease•

Freedom to express normal behaviour•

Freedom from fear and distress

Yet, whilst past focuses may have been on negative experiences and minimizing distress, the advancement of recent scientificconcepts has led to the consideration of positive factors and the development of various positive welfare measures,5

encouraging the management of animals to promote positive experiences and mental states, whilst also ensuring theprovision of their basic husbandry needs, in order to provide for good welfare [6] [7]. The model of the Five Domains ofPotential Welfare Compromise (the ‘Five Domains’), which has evolved since its original development [9], illustrates how
compromises in an animal’s nutrition, environment, health, and behaviour can all impact upon its mental state and hence
how each of these five domains may overlap and have combined effects on the overall welfare status of an individual animal[8]. The ‘Five Domains’ concept thus serves to offer a fresh, useful framework for the broad assessment of animal welfare,addressing the need to consider physiological and behavioural indicators of animal well-being, in association with the type ofmental experiences an animal may have [8] [10].
In the Five Domains model, the four physical or functional domains (nutrition, environment, health, and behaviour) areconcerned with biological function, or physical well-being, whereas the fifth domain, the mental state, considers the‘affective state’ or psychological well-being, and represents the animal’s overall subjective feelings and experiences andhence this fifth domain is a key element of animal welfare. An animal may experience positive or negative emotional statesand it is the balance between these subjective experiences that can influence an individual animal’s ‘quality of life’ [6], withthe phrase ‘quality of life’ generally being considered synonymously with ‘animal welfare status’ [11]. A positive affective
state arising from the presence of positive experiences and sensations, with the avoidance of, or minimal, negative
experiences, is therefore important to ensure good animal welfare and this can be achieved when the physical (nutritional,
environmental, health and behavioural) as well as psychological needs are addressed [6] [12] [8] [10]. However, anindividual’s mental state and hence its welfare can vary from one point in time to the next, aligned with the different
sensations it may experience during its lifetime, which may be positive or negative, can change [8] [10]. Thus, it is thecomplex interactions between each of the five domains that, in combination, may determine an animal’s overall welfare
status, as illustrated by the ‘Five Domains’ model [Figure 1].
With this in mind, implementing management techniques and standards that promote positive physical and mental healthfor every species accommodated within facilities holding captive animals, whilst also minimizing unpleasant experiences forthe animal, is fundamental to the care of wild animals in captivity. This can be accomplished by, for example, providing
appropriate nutrition to meet the animal’s biological needs which is presented in a manner to satisfy its feeding behaviouralrequirements, the provision of environmental choices, access to conspecifics (as appropriate) and access to a complex,
variable and stimulating environment, in addition to the continued provision of high standards of both husbandry andveterinary care. In some countries animal welfare legislation is developing and evolving to address the concept of a ‘duty ofcare’ to animals, ensuring people who are responsible for animals take appropriate steps to meet the animals’ needs andrequirements and promote good welfare through positive animal management.

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Figure 1: The Five Domains of potential welfare compromise which illustrate that the overall
welfare status of an animal arises as a result of combined interactions between the animal’s environment, its
nutrition, its health status and its behavioural and mental status. (Interpreted and adapted from Mellor et al2009 and Mellor, 2013).

Scope
This Standard is applicable to captive groups of animals held internationally, both public and private, in and exsitu, on and off-exhibit, temporarily and permanently (See Glossary), where “captivity” is defined as a “timebased state wherein animals are in a condition of confinement, both intentionally or by consequence with
their day-to-day needs, welfare and wellbeing subject to the provision of direct human intervention and care”.
In this regard, this Standard specifies the requirements where wild animal facilities seek to:a.
b.

demonstrate their ability to consistently provide compliance to the Wild Welfare Core Standard of
Welfare Practice for Captive Animals and;to enhance animal welfare through effective application of the systems, including processes forcontinual improvement of the systems and the assurance of conformity to international norms andstandards of captive wild animal welfare.

Use of the standard
This document specifies the primary welfare requirements for the maintenance of wild animals’ dependent
upon the provision of daily care by humans and the format adopted relates to the concept of the ‘Five
Domains Model of Animal Welfare Compromise’ referenced above.
The statements listed under Section One; Prescriptive Core Standard of this document are the provisions of
the Wild Welfare Standard and regarded as being mandatory in their requirements. They are fundamental toanimal wellbeing and clarify how something should be undertaken or provided. When being audited against
this Standard, a facility must be able to demonstrate its operational compliance with these statements. All
animals, either temporarily or permanently maintained in captivity, irrespective of the reason, are subject toall of the provisions of this Standard as detailed below. Some derogations to these provisions may bejustifiable, but solely in the context of animal candidates for release to the wild.
Further supporting information describing the necessity for the listed requirements is provided under Section
Two, Derivational Information. A glossary of terms used in the Standard is given in Appendix One.

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SECTION ONE: PRESCRIPTIVE CORE STANDARD
Chapter 1
Domain 1: Nutrition
1. Hydration consistent with the species behavioural and physiological biology and/or fresh, clean drinking
water of appropriate quantities, shall be available to all animals present in an enclosure at all times anddistributed in a species or individual-appropriate manner that minimizes the risk of contamination or freezing.
2. An appropriate good quality, nutritionally balanced diet, must be fed in sufficient quantities to keep theanimal in good physical and physiological health. The diet should be suitable for the animal’s species, age, size,
body condition, activity level, and reproductive and health status.
3. Food items must be sourced appropriately, be of adequate quality and must not be contaminated byherbicides, pesticides, lead shot, infectious disease agents or other chemicals or impurities that may adversely
affect the animal.
4. Veterinary or other specialist advice in all aspects of animal nutrition shall be obtained and followed.
5. All diets must be documented and where appropriate, monitored. Feeding records must be daily maintained
and shall provide information on the diet, feeding frequency and food intake of individual animals.
6. Regular documented and dated reviews of all diets should take place.
7. Storage programmes, thawing procedures and food preparation processes must be designed to prevent lossof nutrients and bacterial contamination.
8. Appropriate dietary supplements shall be used where the food or the environment does not provide therequired essential nutritional elements.
9. Suitable feeding protocols should be in place in case hand-rearing becomes necessary.
10. Feeding methods shall be safe for animals and personnel.
11. Unregulated feeding of the animals by visitors shall not occur. Where the feeding of animals by visitors is
considered appropriate by the Management Authority, only suitable and approved food should be used, andthe practice demonstrably managed to prevent over- feeding/inappropriate feeding by the public.
12. Food and drinking water/hydration opportunities must be provided in a manner that meets the animals’
specific natural feeding behaviours, timings, and motivations, prevents contamination, dominance, orcompetition from other animals in social groups, and allows sufficient access to both for all individuals at all
times.
13. Feeding methods must be balanced in relation to a routine feeding programme and as a method ofenvironmental enrichment.
14. Care shall be taken that feeding does not reinforce unwanted behaviours.
15. The unmonitored feeding of live vertebrate prey should generally not occur. It can only be considered interms of prevailing legislation, following documented veterinary input and/or review, and documented
consideration by an in- house ethics committee.
16. For animals designated for release to wild, all practical steps should be taken to avoid association ofhumans with feeding, and to assure that feeding methods are consistent with transition into wild living.

8

1.1 Food Hygiene
17. The preparation and storage of food must be carried out hygienically in a specific, separate area that is
only used for this purpose.
18. Routine and appropriate procedures for the cleaning, disinfection and sanitation of food preparationequipment and facilities must be established. Standing water, rusty surfaces and organic debris must be
avoided.
19. In the dedicated storage areas food must be protected from damp and contamination by pests (e.g.
insects, birds, rodents).
20. Perishable foods shall be kept refrigerated, unless they are brought fresh and given to the animals on thesame day, and the manufacturer’s recommendations for shelf-life and storage conditions of commercial diets
must be followed.
21. Cross contamination between foodstuffs must be avoided and care must be taken to ensure that different
types of frozen foods are isolated.
22. Food and drink containers must not be used for any other purpose.
23. Toxic substances shall not be kept in food storage or food preparation areas.
24. Personnel shall keep strict standards of personal hygiene and must follow good food hygiene practice.
25. Food and drink, and feeding and drinking receptacles, whether inside an enclosure or not, will be placed inpositions that minimize the risks of contamination from soiling by the animals themselves, or by wild birds,
rodents, or other pests.
26. Food, water and drinking receptacles, where used, shall be regularly cleaned, and appropriately disinfected
and shall not contain any chemicals or impurities that may adversely affect the animal.
27. Self-feeders, and automated watering systems where used, shall be inspected at least once daily to ensurethat they are working effectively and are not contaminated. Any faults or defects must be rectified
immediately, and an effective backup system must be in place.
28. Uneaten food shall be regularly removed, as appropriate, to maintain hygiene and shall be disposed ofappropriately.

9Chapter 2
Domain 2: Environment
2.1 Enclosure and Environmental Design
1. The requirements of the species must dictate the design and management of the enclosures and theenclosures must provide resources consistent with the needs of the species, the individuals housed, and the
purpose for which they are held captive.
2. Only animals that can be comfortably and suitably housed throughout the duration of their stay at theinstitution should be brought into the facility. The number of animals kept must not exceed the current andprevailing capacity of that facility.
3. Animal enclosures shall be designed to meet the fundamental requirements of the species and individuals
concerned, and such provisions shall be made to:a) Provide sufficient space (vertical as well as horizontal) to give opportunity for the animal to perform normal
ranges and patterns of behaviours and develop appropriate levels of physical fitness through exercise.
b) Offer protection from weather extremes.
c) Provide a comfortable area and suitable resting place.
d) Promote natural locomotion patterns.
e) Offer appropriate environmental choices, stimulation, and variability.
f) Offer security and adequately protect against fear.
g) Be safe and not cause the animal any harm.
h) Enable effective cleaning, maintenance, and animal management.
4. Enclosure size, shape, layout, and management must:a) Protect individuals from persistent and unresolved disputes with other animals within the group, or between
different species in mixed exhibits, which may result in harm.
b) Prevent individuals being overly dominated by other individuals within the group and provide enoughopportunities for animals to avoid conflict or aggression from group mates.
c) Prevent the accumulation and spread of infectious agents and parasites.
d) Enable effective removal of waste and there must be good, safe drainage of wastewater.
e) Provide opportunity for safe appropriate enclosure maintenance by personnel and husbandry practice, suchas appropriate hygiene practices, provisioning of environmental enrichment and veterinary interventions.
5. Sufficient appropriate shelter and refuge areas must be provided for all animals within an enclosure, which
are freely accessible at all times.
6. Refuges that allow animals to comfortably rest away from public view or group mates must be provided.
7. Sufficient pathways, including at varying heights where appropriate, must be provided to allow animals to
comfortably move about the entire enclosure and/or escape more dominant animals,
8. Different species or incompatible individuals must not be housed within such a distance that it will cause
distress.
9. Overcrowding within enclosures must be avoided and a review process documented, demonstrating
appropriate species management for population control.

1010. Social species shall be normally kept in compatible social groups. The group must consist of species
appropriate number, age, and sex ratio of animals.
11. Individuals of such social groups must not be housed in isolation, except where it is necessary for
veterinary purposes, or it is justified for other reasons (e.g., imminent birthing, rehabilitation) and where such
isolation will not jeopardize the individual’s welfare. In situations where social animals are housed temporarily
away from the group, it shall be in suitable accommodation and only for such a time that will allow theiruncomplicated reintroduction back to their social group.
12. The temperature, ventilation, lighting (both lighting levels and spectral distribution), humidity and noiselevels of enclosures shall always be suitable for the comfort and wellbeing of the species.
13. As appropriate, suitable equipment for measuring environmental variables such as humidity andtemperature shall be available and must be used correctly.
14. With due consideration of the requirements for security and convenience lighting, the photo-environmentand corresponding light cycles should be species-appropriate and as far as possible, mimic the species’ naturalenvironment.
15. Where life support systems and environmental quality are dependent on external utilities (for example,
water or electricity), adequate provisions must exist for their constant function, with adequate backup
facilities in case of failure.
16. All external services and the backup system must be inspected daily, and they must be routinely serviced
and maintained.
17. Proper standards of hygiene in enclosures, facilities and treatment rooms shall be maintained. In
particular,a) Consideration must be given to the management, monitoring and appropriate cleaning of enclosures and theequipment within them, to reduce the risk of potential harm and/or disease.
b) Suitable cleaning agents must be readily available, and the appropriate and safe means to apply them.
c) Personnel must be appropriately trained in the correct usage of suitable cleaning agents and disinfection
protocols.
d) Personnel must use protective clothing and equipment as appropriate and in accordance with theinstitution’s hygiene procedures.
e) Advice from a veterinarian or other competent person must be obtained and followed regarding the routine
cleaning requirements of enclosures or other areas.
f) If an infectious disease is identified in any animal, appropriate biosecurity protocols must be immediately
implemented.
g) Consideration should be given to cleaning practices for species that scent mark.
18. Enclosure and barrier design, construction and maintenance must be such to fully ensure the safety of theanimals, personnel, and visitors. In particular:a) Containment barriers must be positioned to allow a reasonable flight/safety distance between humans andcontact with the enclosure and adjacent enclosures containing other animals.
b) If a fault occurs in any part of a barrier or an enclosure that may result in harm, it must be promptly suitably
repaired or replaced, or the animal must be relocated to other suitable accommodation.
c) Enclosure accommodation and fittings should be well maintained and inspected regularly to avoid potential
injury to the animals.

11d) Water-filled and dry moats used for the containment of animals must provide a means of escape back into
the enclosure should animals fall into them.
e) All natural materials (for example, plants and their products, such as seeds or fruit) and non-natural
materials (for example, paint, chemicals, rubber, plastics, treated substrates and treated water) used within theenclosures must be non-toxic to the species held.
f) The enclosure construction and design must be safe for the animal, pest and predator proof and must
consider the animals’ natural behaviours so that the animals cannot escape. Trees overhanging a perimeter
fence should also be regularly inspected and trimmed to prevent any damage occurring to the fence throughwhich an animal may escape.
g) The perimeter boundary, including all access points, must be designed, constructed, and maintained to
discourage unauthorized entry and act to assist with the effective confinement of all animals within theinstitution.
h) In the case of animals designated for release to wild, partial, or complete visual barriers and ample refuges
within the enclosure should be positioned to prevent distress due to passing personnel.
19. Where appropriate, enclosure design shall provide adequate protection from the effects of natural
disasters, such as flooding or fire.
20. Attention shall be given to acoustics and possible sources of loud noises in order to avoid stress andanxiety in animals caused by excessive, repetitive or high decibel-level noise (above 80dB).
21. Documented and reviewed disaster plans for implementation in the event of a natural disaster should be
produced by the Management Authority.
22. Animals destined for rehabilitation/release to wild must not be used for public exhibition unless foreducational purposes and the potential for disturbing the animals or habituation is mitigated by facility design
and/or protocol (e.g., one-way glass, use of cameras, soundproofing, etc.).
23. Animals in aquatic environments must be provided with appropriate and documented environmental
parameters. Environmental quality control records must include:a) Water temperature.
b) Test parameters and standards for water quality (including water cultures for relevant pathogens andorganisms).
c) Test parameters and standards for water chemistry, (including water quality log).
d) Facility maintenance log.
e) Filtration operation log.
24. Pool water must be monitored daily for basic chemical parameters as appropriate for closed or open
circulation systems. In particular,a) Water must be tested often enough to ensure maintenance of a pH value of not less than 7.6 or more than
8.3.
b) Water must be tested often enough to ensure maintenance of appropriate oxidation levels that do not
exceed the specification requirements of the animal.
c) Water must be free of residual dissolved ozone.
d) Salinity of water must be maintained to suit the requirements of the species being held.
e) Measures must be taken to ensure that toxic levels of ammonia, nitrates/ nitrites are not reached.

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25. Potentially pathogenic growth in pool water must be limited through a programme of water turnover rate,skimming, disinfection, pathogen monitoring and general exhibit maintenance.
26. Indoor aquatic facilities must be ventilated by natural or artificial means to provide a flow of fresh air thatminimizes the accumulation of noxious fumes and odours. An appropriate vertical air space of at least two
metres must be maintained in all primary enclosures, including pools of water.
27. Holding enclosures or pools that allow separation of groups of animals for treatments, feeding or the
introduction of new animals should be provided, and these should be designed to be of sufficient size toenable the animals to exercise appropriately without hindrance
28. Specific water quality requirements for Aquaria:a) Species specific water quality and environmental requirements must be documented, available and on file, as
well as realistically achievable before such species are considered for display/housing.
b) Water quality monitoring must be carried out as routine. For new exhibits or ones that have undergone
major servicing, regular monitoring must include temperature, salinity, (as mg/kg or as specific gravity (SG) in
saltwater tanks), pH, total ammonia and nitrite/nitrate, and dissolved oxygen. This must be measured daily at
first and then at least twice weekly after stabilization. After a one-month period, if a tank is stable, tests can be
carried weekly.
c) At all times, there must be provision of sufficient water treatment equipment to ensure maintenance ofwater; and quality within set parameters to meet species-specific requirements.
d) Wastewater generated must in no way negatively impact on receiving natural water bodies. Where negative
impact is foreseen, wastewater needs to be pre-treated to obtain environmentally acceptable standards before
discharge, or alternatively discharged into the sewer system with prior arrangement/permission from the local
authorities.

2.2 Transportation and Movement of Animals
29. The transportation and movement of animals should conform to all applicable regional, national andinternational legislation, norms, standards and guidelines.
30. The conditions and facilities as required by IATA for the transportation of animals internationally shall be
used as minimum guidelines.
31. All necessary travel documentation, health certificates and permits must be complete and readily available
for inspection, as appropriate, to avoid any delays in the transportation.
32. A transport plan must be in place. The transport plan must include documented scheduled rest stops forfood and water where appropriate and in particular, documented contingency plans to counter the effects of
unplanned delays in transport, especially where such delays might subject the animals to excessive heat, cold,thirst or hunger. Emergency and Animal Escape protocols and necessary equipment to safeguard animal
welfare during transportation should also be produced.
33. The transport of any animal has the potential to cause that animal stress. If the stress is severe,
appropriate steps should be taken (such as the use of tranquillizers) to reduce the level of stress as much as
possible.
34. All animals must be appropriately inspected by a veterinarian prior to transportation to ensure that all
animals are fit to travel.
35. The restraint and handling techniques used must be appropriate for the species, and safe for both theanimal and the handler.

1336. A sufficient number of competent and experienced personnel shall be involved at every stage of animaltransportation to ensure the security, health and welfare of the animals during transport.
37. Transport accommodation and facilities shall:a) Be free of projections, fittings or structures that might injure the animal.
b) Be secure and appropriate in design and structure for the species of animal, age and number of animals
being transported.
c) Have suitable ventilation of appropriate airflow.
d) Provide species appropriate environmental conditions.
e) Provide flooring that, where appropriate, gives secure footing for the animals.
f) As appropriate to the species and the circumstances, and in compliance with national and international
legislation regarding imports, suitable bedding or absorbent material should be provided on transport cage
floors.
38. Where groups of naturally social animals are transported, the group must be of compatible individuals andthe transport accommodation must be of sufficient size. Animals of very different ages, weights or sizes shallnot be mixed together for transport.
39. Animals shall only be kept confined in their transport containers whilst they are in transit or during the
preparation period immediately prior to transit.
40. Animal records shall accompany all animal transfers. As a minimum requirement, the records shall provide
the recipient with sufficient information to adequately accommodate, feed and treat (if applicable) any animal
being transferred.
41. The outside of each individual container accommodating animals should have appropriate information
about the animals being transported, including the species, the number of individuals, any special handlingrequirements, whether the animal is categorized as dangerous, and appropriate feeding and watering
information. Contact details for both the sending and the receiving institution should be available.

2.3 Animal Transactions
42. Management must consider the necessity of all animal transactions. Where possible, alternative options
should be studied if there is any possibility that animal welfare may be compromised.
43. A disease risk analysis must be undertaken by the veterinarian of the institution acquiring an animal andprior to release of rehabilitated animals to the wild.
44. The institution must ensure that the animals leaving the collection are only passed to institutions with theappropriate facilities, resources and expertise to achieve comparable welfare standards. The institution
specifically should not dispose of animals to any laboratory conducting invasive research or testing of any kind,or to any hunting concern.
45. Intentional animal acquisition from the wild can only be considered following appropriate ethicalassessments in terms of conservation benefit, positive individual animal welfare outcomes and theundertaking of a thorough individual animal welfare benefit/cost analysis.
46. A regular review of all animal acquisitions to and transactions from the institution should be undertaken toassess and ensure appropriate welfare requirements compliance in all transactions.

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Chapter 3
Domain 3: Health
3.1 Animal Health and Veterinary Care
1. The Institution shall have a documented working arrangement with a veterinarian with appropriate
expertise in the veterinary care of all the species held at the Institution
2. The level of veterinary facilities and care must be consistent with the overall welfare needs of the animals in
the collection.
3. Proactive veterinary care must be clearly evident, including:a) Documented routine clinical examinations of all the animals in the Institution.
b) Documented treatment and preventative medication protocols of the Institution.
c) Health monitoring of animals (e.g., disease screening, regular blood, urine or faecal examinations,endoparasite monitoring, etc.), as indicated.
d) Safe and proper collection, preparation, handling, and appropriate forwarding of diagnostic and othersamples.
e) Ensuring that post-mortem examinations and any necessary laboratory investigations are carried out,
including the submission of suitable samples for pathological analysis, whenever possible.
f) Supervision of quarantine premises and other tasks required by law, or as part of good zoo veterinary
practice.
g) Nutrition and the development of diets.
h) The establishment of written procedures to be followed in the event of the accidental use of dangerous
drugs; andi) Secure management of all medications, including appropriate documentation, control, storage, issuing, anddestruction and disposal of such veterinary drugs in accordance with manufacturer’s guidance andrecommendations, and relevant local legislation.
4. All animals must be inspected by personnel at least once daily, except in situations such as when:a) Daily inspection may negatively affect the animal’s welfare; orb) Disturbance during the particular stage of the breeding cycle may be detrimental to animal welfare, (e.g.,presence of new-born young or egg incubation); orc) There has been a change in the environment, the introduction of new individuals or where there has been achange in social group structure, which may necessitate more frequent inspections.
d) Disturbance to animals undergoing release to wild programmes may compromise the rehabilitation process.
5. Animal care staff must be appropriately trained and competent in observing signs of good animal health andwelfare. A regular review of animal care staff’s ability to observe abnormalities in health or behaviour should
be undertaken and suitable opportunities provided for staff for training to further develop their abilities andskills.
6. Immediate appropriate action must be taken if an animal is injured or unwell, or if the animals are showing
behaviours that may suggest poor welfare. Any signs of injury, poor health or abnormal behaviour shall be
immediately reported, and a veterinarian promptly consulted as necessary.

15

7. A suitably experienced senior member of personnel must be available at all times to take decisions
regarding the euthanasia of animals. There must be provision for an effective method of euthanasia andstandard protocols must be documented (see Euthanasia 3.3).
8. Mutilation procedures on any animal for cosmetic or behavioural purposes or to change the appearance of
the animal should not be undertaken.
9. Curative and preventive veterinary medicine must be provided and appropriately documented.
10. Veterinary records must document clinical observations, laboratory procedures undertaken, the results ofpost-mortem examinations, details and dates of any treatment given (dosages, route and frequency of all
medications used) and whether an individual or the whole group was medicated.
11. There must be a regular review by the relevant veterinary and curatorial personnel, of clinical, behaviouraland pathological records and mortality. Husbandry and preventive veterinary practices must be reviewed asnecessary.
12. Clinical waste and refuse must be regularly removed and disposed of in a manner approved by the local
public authority.
13. All animal carcasses must be handled appropriately to minimize the risk of exposure of other animals at theinstitution to potentially infectious diseases.
14. A safe and effective pest control programme must be established and, where necessary, the deterrence of
predators must be carried out.
15. Where casualty wild animals are rehabilitated, the risk of introducing novel infectious diseases to freeliving wild animals and animals of other species following the recovered casualty’s release must be minimized
by appropriate veterinary checks prior to release.

3.2 Veterinary Facilities
16. Facilities must be adequately equipped for the practical veterinary needs of the animal collection. To thisend a dedicated treatment room shall be provided on site be available at all times for the use for the routine
examination and treatment of animals. The room should be of sufficient size, have washable floor and wall
surfaces, and be hygienically maintained with adequate drainage. The minimum facilities shall include:a) Examination table.
b) Hot and cold running water.
c) Safe and secure storage of all pharmaceuticals.
d) Appropriate ambient temperature.
e) Suitable ventilation.
f) Appropriate lighting.
g) Electrical power.
17. All pharmaceuticals and other veterinary products shall be kept appropriately secure with only authorized
personnel having access. Veterinary staff must regularly remove and appropriately dispose of expired drugs.
18. Complete, accurate records of drug stock, usage and disposal must be kept.
19. All used, unwanted or contaminated veterinary material or equipment must be safely and appropriately
disposed of in accordance with accepted international practice and in compliance with existing legislation.

1620. Facilities for the safe and appropriate handling and disposal of clinical waste must be available.
21. Specific accommodation must be available for the isolation and examination of new animal arrivals, and forthe care of sick or injured animals.
22. Suitable facilities and equipment for capture, restraining, treating, and, if necessary, for the administrationof general anaesthesia, for euthanasia and for the aftercare of all the species kept at the institution shall beavailable.
23. There must be strict, documented hygiene practices and biosecurity where sick, injured, isolated orquarantined animals are kept. Protective clothing, equipment and utensils used by personnel only in theisolation area must be appropriately cleaned and stored in that area only.
24. Specific cold storage facilities should be available for the appropriate storage of animal carcasses thatcannot undergo prompt post mortem examination.

3.3 Euthanasia
25. The Institution must have a documented ethical review process particularly in situations where the use ofanimals may be in conflict with the best welfare interests of the animal(s) and where likelihood of
rehabilitation success is balanced against welfare compromises inherent in the rehabilitation process. The
process must be effective in relation to allowing independent critical review and assessment of ethical issues
and it shall not be perceived as merely an agent of management and work in an open and transparent manner
whilst recognizing possible requirements for confidentiality.
26. There must be a written institution policy and standard procedure for the euthanasia of animals, which isregularly reviewed. These must show that:a) Veterinary advice and guidance regarding euthanasia and acceptable emergency methods of euthanasia has
been obtained.
b) For all the species kept at the institution, there are suitable facilities and equipment available for euthanasia,
including for the emergency euthanasia of casualties. Such facilities and equipment must be securely kept andwell maintained.
c) A competent, suitably trained senior staff member, who has access to the necessary facilities and equipment,
is contactable and available at all times.
27. Euthanasia must be carried out in compliance with regional and national legislation and in an acceptableway.
28. Euthanasia must be undertaken in a distress free manner that involves a rapid and painless death.
29. Other animals should not be present when an individual animal is to be euthanized.
30. All staff involved with the euthanasia of animals must be fully aware of acceptable euthanasia methods
and must be appropriately trained and experienced in those methods.
31. Where the killing of food animals (e.g., mice, rats, rabbits and birds) is carried out, the method must be
subject to ethical review, according to acceptable and recognized welfare standards.

17

Chapter 4
Domain 4: Behaviour
4.1 Environmental Enrichment and Stimulation
1. Enclosure design must provide:a) Security: Areas for seclusion and refuge (e.g., a den, an elevated resting place, sufficient suitable enclosure
space, a burrow, or nests with appropriate nesting materials) are important for animals to escape from humanviewing, or from the attention of conspecifics. Naturally social animals can also feel secure in the presence ofcompatible conspecifics. Refuges must be of sufficient number and size to accommodate all individuals at onetime.
b) Complexity: a suitably complex environment to encourage normal behaviours and increase exercise,behavioural diversity and stimulation must be provided. For example, some birds need access to sufficientsuitable perches and enough space for flight. The animals must be able to display their natural response to thephotoperiod.
c) Challenge: Environmental choices must be provided. Enrichment programmes shall be used to encourage
decision-making and allow animals to choose their preferred environmental conditions, exercise problem
solving abilities, and giving them more control over their environment and daily lives and providing training forlife in the wild when appropriate.
d) Novelty: a safe, variable environment shall be offered (e.g. rotation of enclosure furniture, enrichment tools,
husbandry management regimes, etc.), but the balance between environmental change and the husbandry
routine must be appropriate to mitigate stress.
2. An appropriate goal-based species-specific environmental enrichment programme must be developed andput in place for all species kept at the institution. It must be demonstrably researched, planned, scheduled andreviewed.
3. For every animal, specific requirements shall be considered in relation to any possible:a) Species-specific physiological needs.
b) Particular social requirements.
c) Behavioural developments over an animal’s life span and the impact and demand these would have on the
animal’s environment.
4. Once in place, the Enrichment Programme shall be suitably documented, and assessed on a regular basis.
Improvements or changes in the programmes shall be made where necessary.

4.2 Animal Training
5. Training objectives and goals must never compromise an animal’s physical well-being (e.g. performing
behaviours that may cause undue stress on particular body parts or joints).
6. All training objectives must meet all animal care and management objectives with approved techniques andprogress, documented.
7. An animal’s behaviour should not be modified by techniques that rely on causing the animal any pain, injury,
fear, or distress.
8. Training methods must primarily rely upon positive reinforcement techniques.

18

9. Negative reinforcement and positive punishment techniques should never form the basis of routine training
and must be avoided. The deliberate infliction of injury or pain or the use of fear-provoking stimuli is
unacceptable and should not be practiced.
10. Training areas, equipment and facilities should be appropriate and well maintained and where necessary,
appropriate barriers used.
11. Training techniques and objectives must be appropriate for the species and the individual animal, taking
into account the differences in physical and mental capabilities that may occur between individual animals.
12. The duration of training sessions must be tailored to the individual animal’s responses and condition andappropriately recorded.
13. Animals should appear to be relaxed and move naturally during training sessions.
14. Personnel involved in animal training must be experienced and competent in carrying out acceptableanimal training techniques and should be regularly assessed in terms of their competence by the institution’sManagement Authority.
15. Training techniques must be demonstrably researched, and all training methods and their aims shall beappropriately documented and subject to regular documented review.

4.3 Animal Contact
16. The only contact between animals and staff, and/or animals and visitors, must be neutral or of positive
benefit to the animal. Any animal involved in public interactions must have regularly scheduled wellbeing
assessments which include appropriate documentation.
17. The consideration of creative educational alternatives that engage and inspire visitors without
animal contact must be demonstrated.
18. All situations where the public and animals are in direct physical contact should be subject to regular,
documented risk assessment.
19. A documented policy statement on the use of animals for contact with the public should be produced andinclude an educational plan with measurable learning objectives.
20.Animals involved in contact situations must have received appropriate positive reinforcement training, besensitively habituated to such interactions, and must always be supervised and under the direct control of anexperienced, competent animal keeper. Contact situations must consider and be appropriate for the individual
animal’s age, sociability, physical and mental capability.
21. Abnormal demands must not be made on animals (e.g., continuous petting) and animals must not be madeto carry out presentations that compromise their wellbeing.
22. Contact experiences and associated sensory inputs such as noise and smell must not be distressing for the
animals and suitable measures must be in place to prevent animals from being provoked or troubled byvisitors, including a contained and closely managed environment where size and proximity of crowd can becontrolled.
23. Animal contact situations must always be strictly controlled and supervised by authorized personnel.
Suitably experienced and competent personnel with appropriate training and knowledge must be present at
all times in situations where there is animal contact.
24. Animals designated for release to wild may not be used in contact experiences or asambassador/presentation animals.

1925. Unweaned or neonate animals may not be used in contact experiences or as ambassador/presentation
animals.
26. If injury, ill health or abnormal physiological or behavioural responses are observed, the animal must not
be involved in animal contact, or the contact session immediately stopped. Individuals whose ability to display
natural behaviours is compromised, especially their ability to communicate negative states, must not be
involved in animal contact.
27. Visitors witnessing and partaking in animal contact should be routinely assessed to determine if the
programme’ s learning objectives are being met and to ensure the experience is not delivering unanticipatedor counter-intuitive educational messaging.

Chapter 5
Domain 5: Mental State
1. Management and husbandry practices must demonstrably minimize unpleasant, negative affective statesand experiences (e.g., pain, fear, etc.), whilst promoting and encouraging positive emotions and experiences(e.g., happiness, calmness, etc.) for the animals.
2. Natural behaviours shall be encouraged. Important natural behavioural considerations for each species
include:a) Foraging and feeding behaviour.
b) Excretory and elimination behaviour.
c) Agonistic and aggression behaviour.
d) Pro-social behaviours.
e) Territorial behaviours.
f) Sexual and reproductive behaviour.
g) Relaxation behaviour.
h) Comfort-seeking behaviour.
i) Investigatory or exploratory behaviour.
j) Mimicry and group behaviour.
k) Care-seeking behaviour.
l) Care-giving behaviour.
m) Play behaviour.
n) Locomotion patterns.
3. Enclosures must provide suitable sensory stimulation that is appropriate for the species within a suitablycomplex, variable and mentally challenging environment that allows for normal exercise and behaviour
expression.
4. Animal handling and restraint, when required, must be carried out with the necessary and appropriate careand consideration.
5. Differing food options must be regularly provided in a manner that allows for individual preferences andprovides the opportunity for appropriate foraging behaviours.

20

6. Thermal and photo mosaics within the enclosure environment must be provided, offering animals choiceand control over where they may locate themselves in the enclosure.
7. The enclosure environment must encourage a range of behaviours that the animals can choose to carry out
at any given time.
8. Indoor/outdoor access where appropriate to species/enclosure should be provided at all times where
possible.
9. For animals designated for release to wild, direct physical contact with humans, including visual andauditory exposure to humans, equipment, and vehicles should be for demonstrably restricted periods of timeand under conditions consistent with the animals’ welfare. All efforts must be taken to prevent any likelihoodof leading to discomfort, habituation or malprinting.

Chapter 6
Miscellaneous
6.1 Governance
1. Each institution/facility shall have a documented policy commitment to manage animal welfare appropriate
to the function and mission of the institution/facility.
2. All animal care staff members should understand the organization’s commitment to animal welfare and bedemonstrably knowledgeable with the procedures to implement this commitment.

6.2 Record Keeping
3. Records must be kept and maintained of all individually recognizable animals and groups of animals in theinstitution.
4. Where possible, animals must be suitably individually identified by a marking means that causes the animal
no long-term harm and does not adversely affect natural behaviour.
5. Records must be kept by a method that enables quick and easy access to the information and which issecure. There shall be a secure, long-term archive system in place.
a) At a minimum, animal records must provide the following information:b) Identification to specific level and scientific name.
c) Whether captive-born or wild born. Identification of parents, where known, and previous locations theanimal has been kept at, if any, must also be recorded.
d) Dates and details of entry into the collection and source, and disposal from the collection and if applicable,
to whom.
e) Date or estimated date of birth or hatching.
f) Sex (where known).
g) Any distinctive markings, including tattoos, freeze-brands, tags, rings or microchips.
h) Health records and clinical data, including details and dates of any treatment given and whether anindividual or the whole group was medicated.
i) Behavioural and life history data.

21j) Breeding records of each animal and of the group.
k) Date of death and results of any post-mortem examination and laboratory investigations.
l) Food, daily food intake and diets.
m) Details of any escapes, including damage or injury caused to the animal, or to persons or property, reason
for escape and action taken to prevent reoccurrence of such an event; andn) Additional species-specific information may need to be kept in accordance with applicable local legislation.
6. Accurate records of specific environmental parameters, as appropriate for the species, must be kept.

6.3 Escapes
7. There must be a written emergency protocol for managing animal escapes, or if unauthorized persons enteran enclosure, or have deliberate or accidental interaction with an animal through an unauthorized practice,detailing the procedures that should be immediately carried out in such an event.
8. These procedures must be understood by all staff and periodically practiced, assessed and documented in
an appropriate manner.
9. This protocol must comply with all relevant local and national legislation, be available to all members of
personnel and be regularly reviewed and up-dated, as appropriate.
10. Every attempt must be made to recover all escaped animals, live or dead.
11. There shall be a written protocol for the possible destruction of the escapee, which shall ensure that acapable and experienced, senior member of staff is always available to make decisions regarding escaped
animals.
12. Documented emergency protocols covering fire, extreme weather, natural disasters, and other suchcatastrophes must be developed in relation to managing an animal escape and implemented as appropriate,and suitable, effective contingency plans must be produced.
13. A record of all escapes shall be kept.

6.4 Personnel
14. The institution shall appoint one full-time Chief Executive Officer in charge of the facility. The said officer
shall be delegated adequate administrative and financial powers.
15. There is a clear management structure within the facility with defined roles, responsibilities,
authorizations, and restrictions, which is appropriately communicated to all personnel.
16. The number of personnel and their levels of expertise shall be sufficient to attend to all the needs of theanimals under their care at all times.
17. The Institution shall ensure that all personnel who handle animals and who make professional judgementsin this regard are competent and suitably experienced. Where necessary, they should be academicallyqualified and up to date with current knowledge in their field.
18. Animal-care personnel should demonstrably and regularly meet to discuss husbandry and welfare issues
and/or concerns.
19. The Institution shall make provision for appropriate staff training and further development.

22

6.5 Release to wild
20. Where rehabilitation/release to wild is contemplated, dedicated facilities and appropriate management
practices for this purpose must be demonstrably provided for and implemented.
21. All demonstrable efforts must be made to disassociate resource provision to the animals from humans.
22. Prior to release, a documented assessment must be carried out that demonstrates the animal has a
species-appropriate physical, health and behavioural status signifying a reasonable chance of post- release
success in terms of survival and welfare compared to other conspecifics.
23. Prior to release, a demonstrable assessment of the habitat where the animal is to be released must be
conducted. In order to proceed with the release, this assessment must unequivocally show the habitat
capable of supporting the released individual(s) in a manner consistent with the natural ecology of the species.
24. Release to the wild should not compromise the long-term health or welfare of the animal released, native
species within the release habitat, or the release habitat itself.
25. A demonstrable post-release monitoring plan for each animal or groups of animals must be in place toassess whether or not successful integration into the release environment has occurred.
26. The post-release monitoring plan must include criteria for determining when post- release interventions
are needed and what actions are to be taken.

23

SECTION TWO: DERIVATIONAL INFORMATION
Husbandry and Welfare
A positive mental state can occur when the animal’s physical needs including nutritional, behavioural, healthand environmental needs (i.e., the four physical domains) are met, resulting in a positive state of animal
welfare. Therefore, safeguarding the welfare of animals is dependent upon adequately providing for an
animal’s essential needs, including the appropriate provision of food and water, the provision of an
appropriate environment with suitable shelter and accommodation, the prevention or rapid diagnosis andtreatment of injury or ill health, the ability to display normal patterns of behaviour and movement, and theminimization of negative experiences, as depicted by the Five Domains of Potential Welfare Compromise [8],throughout the animal’s lifetime. Furthermore, good animal husbandry depends upon reliable information andknowledge about animal needs, physiological, behavioural and psychological, which will vary between
different species, in order to maintain good animal health and welfare; there is a critical need to know andunderstand the natural biology of each animal species and their fundamental physiological requirements
during all stages of their life, growth and development, as well as their natural behaviours, so as to prevent theoccurrence of conditions that may be detrimental to animal welfare.
Prior to the acquisition of new species, a management review must be undertaken to thoroughly assess thesuitably of the institution’s accommodation for each species and to consider the institution’s ability to provide
the fundamental and appropriate environments necessary to meet all of the specific species’ physiological,
behavioural and psychological needs.

Physical Components
The four physical domains emphasize how compromises in an animal’s nutrition, environment, health andbehaviour may impact upon an animal’s biological function and hence physical wellbeing. However, it isimportant to highlight that a single domain should not be viewed independently of the other four domains,since each domain may impact upon one another, and it is the combined effects of the four physical domainsthat influence the psychological wellbeing or mental state of the animal (fifth domain) which determine theoverall welfare status.
When regarding the welfare of captive wild animals, it is important to address an animal’s fundamental
nutritional, environmental, health, behavioural and psychological requirements, thereby working to promote
positive experiences, together with avoiding or minimizing negative experiences [6] [12] [8]; good welfare canbe achieved by meeting the physical and psychological needs of an animal throughout its entire lifetime.

Chapter 7
Domain 1: Nutrition
A critical basic requirement of all animals to protect their health and welfare is the need for appropriate foodand water. An appropriate, nutritionally balanced diet necessary to maintain good health and vitality andwhich meets their biological requirements must be provided daily, along with appropriate access to suitablewater [13]. Insufficient or inappropriate food may lead to hunger and predispose to disease and ill health,compromising welfare. Thirst is a motivation that can occur for a variety of different reasons, including ill
health (pathological thirst) or lack of access to water, and it can be a form of suffering [14]. Welfare
compromise can result following water deprivation, food deprivation, or malnutrition. Food deprivation, or
dehydration from fluid deprivation, can result in emotional states such as hunger, thirst, or exhaustion,
thereby causing negative experiences and an adverse welfare state.
Yet, challenges in meeting the needs of specific captive wild animals can arise due to lack of detailed
knowledge of their species-specific biology including information about their essential nutritional
requirements [10]. The nutritional requirements of animals may not only vary between different species, butalso between individuals within a species, taking into account age, physical activity, sex, size and body24

condition, as well as physiological, reproductive and overall health status. All of these factors should beconsidered, but particularly the body condition of the animals, when determining the level of feeding; obesity
can adversely affect an animal’s health, hence overfeeding should be avoided. The social structures ofindividual groups of animals must also be considered in relation to the manner of food and drinking water
presentation, ensuring that all individuals can sufficiently access food and water; various feeding sites may benecessary to avoid potential problems associated with competition from other individuals within the group[15] [16]. To maintain good health and welfare, dietary supplementation must be carried out in circumstanceswhere the environment or diet does not provide the required essential nutritional elements. Supplements
must be stored and handled appropriately.
Encouraging the management of animals to promote positive psychological states, as well as good physicalhealth, is fundamental since these components have interrelated effects on the overall welfare status of anindividual animal. Therefore, providing appropriate food to meet the biological needs of the animal, as well as
presenting it in a way that satisfies the animal’s species-specific natural feeding behavioural requirements andmotivations, is also an important component of zoo animal nutrition management. Where possible, food andwater shall be offered to each species in a way that stimulates their natural behaviour patterns, for instancearboreal (tree-living) species should be presented food off the ground.
Furthermore, food related enrichment strategies form an important part of enrichment programs. in the wild,
animals may spend a large proportion of their activity period foraging for and processing food, withcomparatively little time actually consuming the food. Species have evolved specific skills for this purpose
which may be expressed behaviours that are necessary for the health and well-being of the animal. Also,
young animals may learn foraging behaviour from the adults [16]. Therefore, appropriate food must bepresented in a manner to encourage natural feeding behaviours, as well as increased activity. For example,
scatter feeds can encourage natural foraging activities in a number of different species, although the use of
scatter feeding as a positive activity is dependent upon the species and the individuals concerned as thispractice can encourage dominance behaviours. Notwithstanding encouraging increased activity, may also help
to reduce the risk of obesity amongst captive wild animal species.
There are few animal welfare justifications for the feeding of live vertebrate prey to captive wild animals andthe practice is considered inappropriate in the vast majority of cases [17] [16]. Quickly and humanely killingprey animals before feeding out minimizes their distress and suffering. Feeding out killed animals is safer for
the intended consumer in most cases, as live prey often utilizes defence mechanisms that may harm theanimals they are intended to feed. However, there may be exceptional circumstances where the difficult
ethical decision to feed live prey is warranted when alternative strategies have been exhausted and thebenefits to the predator outweigh the risks [73]. For example, where permanently captive wild animals notintended for release consistently refuse pre-killed prey items over time putting their health and well- being at
risk. It is recognized there are limited situations when the feeding of live prey to injured or orphaned wild
animals in temporary rehabilitation (e.g., raptors) may be necessary to teach or test for necessary hunting
behaviours and skills for successful release to the wild. However, facilities must strictly adhere to any existing
local legislation regarding this matter and when the practice is under consideration, should at the very least,
be subject to veterinary oversight and demonstrable ethical review.
To protect animal health, visitors must not be permitted to provide food unless closely regulated andmonitored by qualified staff. Where visitor feeding is allowed, appropriate species must be selected (e.g.,domestic farm animals housed in contact paddocks within zoological institutions) and approved by theManagement Authority. Only suitable food provided by the institution should be used, and the amounts
controlled, to prevent over-feeding [17] [15]. Such permitted animal feeding must be strictly monitored andregulated, with the food supplied by the zoo as a part of the animal’s regular, daily allowance. Visitor feedingmust be regularly reviewed by the institution’s ethics and welfare committee and Management Authority.

25

1.1 Food Hygiene
Strict hygiene standards and practices must be observed when preparing and storing food items, and rigorous
personnel hygiene standards must be practiced when preparing and distributing food to avoid diseasetransmission both from humans to animals and vice versa. Food must also be stored appropriately andadequately protected from damp, deterioration, and contamination by pests to help protect the physicalhealth and hence welfare of the animals. Where commercial diets are used, the manufacturer’s
recommendations for shelf-life and storage conditions must be followed in order to ensure the quality andnutritional value of the diet.

Chapter 8
Domain 2: Environment
Confinement in a captive environment imposes a number of restrictions on the animals, and if the captive
environment is inappropriate for the species, it cannot provide for the individual animal’s basic biological,
behavioural and psychological needs and requirements, and poor welfare will result.

2.1 Enclosure and Environmental Design
Husbandry systems must be designed to provide species-specific appropriate enclosures and environmentswith a sufficient amount and complexity of space, proper facilities, furnishings appropriate social interactions,and they must give the animals the opportunity to carry out their full range of normal behaviours andmovements, especially those behaviours with a strong internal motivation and hence ‘need’ for expression[13]. For example, some birds require perches and sufficient suitable space to fly, whilst arboreal animals needaccommodation to allow their fundamental desire to climb and move about high above the ground to be
fulfilled. Therefore, a good knowledge and understanding of different species’ biology, environmental
requirements, natural habitats, and normal behaviours is essential to adequately meet all of the physical,
psychological and social needs and requirements of animals throughout their lifetime, whilst they are in
captivity, in order to promote good animal welfare. A barren, restricted environment imposes an unrewarding
lifestyle and may cause abnormalities in an animal’s physical health and development and have detrimental
behavioural and psychological effects [18]). Hence, the provision of appropriate environmental enrichment in
captive animal husbandry and management to increase behavioural diversity and promote positive
psychological experiences throughout the animal’s life, also plays a very important role in ensuring highwelfare standards and in protecting animal well-being.

2.2 General Design
The design of animal accommodation must primarily address the needs and requirements of the specificspecies to be accommodated, which, along with high standards of husbandry and management, is critical toadequately safeguard animal welfare; a positive psychological state can occur when the animal’s physicalneeds (i.e., the four physical domains) are met, resulting in a positive state of welfare. Enclosures must be
designed for comfort and security and must be well maintained to protect animals from injury. Veterinary and
Behavioural Management [72] consultation on enclosure design may be helpful to ensure that materials safefor the animals are used and that the enclosure structure and facilities will not only provide an appropriate
environment for the species to be accommodated, but that they will also be conducive for carrying out any
necessary veterinary and other management procedures safely and securely. The shape and design of all
aspects of an enclosure should also prevent subordinates from becoming trapped by more dominant
individuals in corners, shelter areas or dead ends and should provide for a suitable refuge area where theanimals can rest appropriately, away from public view and, if necessary, away from their group mates [16].
Circular enclosures can prevent vulnerable individuals from becoming trapped in corners [16]. Pathways, bothterrestrial and arboreal, should be in sufficient quantity and design to accommodate safe movement of26

animals within the group, and situated such that subordinate animals have escape opportunities. Where
appropriate, enclosure design should also enable reasonable precautions and protection from the effects ofnatural disasters; areas of accessible high ground should be included in regions prone to flooding and, inregions where it is appropriate, adequate fire breaks should be maintained [19].

2.3 Safety
In addition to the safety of the animals, the safety of the staff and visitors is important in the overall design ofanimal enclosures. All barriers must be appropriate for the species accommodated within the enclosure, taking
into consideration the natural physical capabilities and behaviours of the animal species, providing safety andsecurity for the animals. For example, for enclosures containing animals that dig, fences should be buried an
appropriate depth into the ground. Enclosure perimeters should be designed and built to be strong andsecure, they should be free from damage or defects, and be maintained in good condition. Trees within ornear animal enclosures must be regularly inspected and appropriate action taken, as necessary, to prevent anddeter animals from escaping. Moats, both wet and dry, must be wide enough to prevent animals crossing
them, but must also be designed to offer a quick and easy exit should any animal fall into them. Dry moats
should contain a suitable soft substrate to prevent injury and harm to any animal that falls into them. For
some species, dry moats are considered too dangerous and should be avoided or replaced with a gentler slope
down to a wall. Glass and transparent barriers enable the visitors to view the animals but can also have anegative effect on animal welfare by reducing the air flow and ventilation to the enclosure, resulting in poor
thermal and humidity environmental control. Enclosure doors and gates should be locked, have a double-door
entry system, and must open inwards to prevent an animal escape. Enclosures housing potentially dangerous
captive wild animals must have an appropriate and secure containment or shift area, with a sliding door
operable from outside of the enclosure. Animals can be safely kept here during routine husbandry,
maintenance veterinary procedures, or emergency situations. A perimeter fence surrounding the institution’s
enclosures and grounds will improve site security; a perimeter fence may not only help to prevent
unauthorized personnel entry, but it may also help to discourage feral animals to enter thereby improving
biosecurity, and in the event of an animal escape, a perimeter fence may help confine escaped animals within
the institution’s grounds.

2.4 Flooring
The type of flooring and substrate provided in animal enclosures has an important impact upon animal
welfare. Flooring surfaces inappropriate for the species can result in discomfort and physical harm. Hardsurfaces such as concrete can be cold in cool weather and hot in warm weather and can cause difficulties inthermal regulation for those species housed on them. Hard concrete surfaces also do not allow for the
expression of natural behaviours such as foraging or digging and may cause undue stress and pressure on
joints. exacerbating existing conditions, causing pain and discomfort and contribute to some degenerative joint
and bone disease. Wire floors can cause pain and discomfort to the feet of animals and make the provision of
appropriate bedding and suitable regulation of the thermal environment difficult. The characteristics of thesubstrate used should be such that it helps improve the welfare state of an animal. For example, deep sandfloors in elephant houses provide the elephants with opportunities to dust bathe indoors and forage, whilst
also offering a comfortable surface for resting [16].

2.5 Size
Adequate space (vertical as well as horizontal space) should be provided for all animals to allow for the
performance of normal behaviours and movement, whilst providing the animals with a sense of security, thus
promoting positive behavioural and psychological health. Enclosures should be the appropriate size and shapefor the number and type of animals. This is particularly important when housing social groups; enclosures
allow for the escape of individuals from any conflict or aggression shown to them by conspecifics [20]. The size

27and design of the enclosures must take into account the individual species’ needs and behavioural biology,
including feeding strategies, home range/territory size, movement patterns, seasonal needs, etc. For example,
carnivore enclosures must be tailor-designed for the species to avoid detrimental effects on animal welfare carnivores having large home ranges in the wild, and are kept in inappropriate or small enclosures, frequently
develop stereotypies, and have high infant mortality rates [21]. The territoriality of different species, inassociation with social behaviour, should be acknowledged in enclosure design, with suitable space and asuitable social structure provided for highly territorial species to reduce competition [16]. Enclosure size
should be large, and its area maximized through efficient and appropriate use of both horizontal and verticalspace; climbing structures, raised platforms or perches, and pathways, can be used to maximize available
vertical space [17]. It is the quality of the enclosure space, in conjunction with the availability of the species
appropriate quantity of space that is essential to assure a positive state of animal welfare.

2.6 Shelters and Refuges
The provision of appropriate shelter for different species is another fundamental aspect of captive wild animalhusbandry. Consideration of the animal’s biology and natural behaviours should be undertaken when
determining the type of shelter that should be offered. For example, shelters should provide a comfortable
resting place and may feature nest boxes, hollow trees, natural or artificial vegetation planting, undergrounddens, rockwork or piles, or off-exhibit areas of enclosure accommodation, as appropriate for the species.
Similar consideration should be given to Aquatic and Marine species. Sufficient shelter areas that areappropriate for the species and the number of animals accommodated within the enclosure must be available
at all times and must provide suitable protection from weather extremes. The provision of multiple shelters
may be required. Nesting or denning areas should not only be protected from the weather and accessible at all
times to the animals, but facilitate escape from public view and other animals, and contain bedding or nestingmaterial that is appropriate for the species. Privacy is important for many species, and some may beparticularly disturbed by the presence of or exposure to visitors, resulting in increased levels of stress. Hencethe appropriate provision of sufficient suitable areas for rest and seclusion from visitors, that can include
partial visual barriers and sound dampening barriers, can help reduce negative effects caused by visitor
presence. Animals undergoing release to wild conditioning must not be exposed to any human viewing, humansounds, smells, and activity. This is done to the extent reasonably possible, depending on species and life
stage. Big enclosures that provide large distances between animals and the public may help reduce visitorinduced disturbance in some animals, such as rhinoceros, and therefore can minimize negative effects visitors
may have on animal well-being.
Enclosures must allow animals to move away from each other when socially housed. Dominant andsubordinate positions are natural within a social hierarchy, and group dynamics and positions may fluctuate.
Subordinate animals must have the opportunity to escape, both physically and visually, from potentiallynegative physical interactions with dominant individuals. Multiple shelters, partial visual barriers, andpathways distributed throughout the 3-dimensial space can help reduce the chance of serious injury andprovide added security for all animals within the enclosure. The availability of suitable, sufficient vertical space
can help arboreal primates escape aggressive encounters with conspecifics and satisfy their vertical flight
response and need to climb when alarmed [23].

2.7 Environmental Parameters
Different animal species have evolved and adapted to live in particular climates, environments and speciesspecific thermal ranges and altitudes, water flow/movements. Therefore, in addition to levels of humidity, light
spectrums, levels of lighting and ventilation, salinity as appropriate for their specific biological requirements, it
is important that captive wild animals are provided with appropriate thermal environments according to their
species-specific needs, at all stages of their lives, from newly born/hatched to elderly, to adequately safeguard
their welfare. This reinforces the need to understand the natural biology and fundamental physiological28requirements during all stages of life, growth, and development, as well as natural behaviours, such thatsituations potentially detrimental to animal welfare may be avoided.
Species housed outside and in a climate inconsistent with natural ranges of environmental conditions will
require some form of protection from the weather to minimize the risk of either cold stress or heat stress.
Captive animals may be physiologically challenged to cope with high temperatures and humidity. Therefore,
they must be given the opportunity to access shaded areas (e.g., shelters, burrows or areas shaded byvegetation, and/or access to wallows and pools when the environmental heat load is very high. The provisionof a gradient of temperature across enclosures can assist captive animals with thermoregulation.
Species whose natural habitats are humid tropical regions, or dry deserts, will require high and low humidity
levels, respectively. Inappropriate humidity provision for species can lead to health issues, for example
providing unsuitable environments of low humidity for reptiles originating from tropical climates can cause
abnormal skin shedding [16]. Therefore, the regular monitoring of both enclosure temperature and humidity is
critical to assure that species-specific environmental requirements are met and hence animal health andwelfare is further protected.
Seasonal changes must be taken into account, including the photoperiod cycles. Equatorial regions haverelatively constant hours of dark and light, compared to the opposite extremes nearer to the poles. Light cycles
should mimic the animal’s natural environment where possible. If animals from equatorial regions are moved
to an institution with outdoor environments located nearer the poles, there may be welfare concerns (e.g.,
acclimation time, behavioural changes prompted by the change in photo-period, and special concern for youngborn in cold or wet seasons). To mitigate adverse consequences of such a move, animals who naturally occur
in tropical climates yet are kept in temperate climate institutions, the provision of appropriate climatecontrolled, indoor housing is required for pregnant females nearing parturition, or for neonates [16].
Consideration should be given to species whose behaviours are dependent on a photoperiod cycle; if suchspecies are to be housed indoors, appropriate provisions must be made. Photoperiod cycles can influence
breeding behaviours and hibernation in certain species [16] resulting in behavioural restriction, and hence
poor welfare if appropriate photoperiods are not replicated.
The quality and type of light is important for many species, including reptiles, birds and fishes. To ensure good
health, reptiles need access to UV light and have a fundamental requirement for wavelengths of both UVA andUVB light, which are necessary for activity and vitamin D3 synthesis. Therefore, an appropriate gradient of UV
light must be provided for captive reptiles, in addition to an appropriate temperature gradient and humidity.
Alongside the necessity to provide appropriate types of lighting, adequate and suitable levels of lighting are
required to enable regular and satisfactory observation and inspection of the animals, needed for the prompt
detection of problems related to animals’ physical or mental health and well-being. Circumstances may require
more frequent inspections, for example if an animal is unwell, if there has been a change in the social groupstructure (such as the addition of a new individual), or if there has been a change in the animal’s environment[17].
Appropriate ventilation is critically important in the husbandry of captive wild animals. Poor ventilation andhence poor air quality can result in thermal stress and ill health, seriously compromising animal welfare.
Enclosure design, construction and maintenance must provide for sufficient, appropriate ventilation at all
times.

2.8 Hygiene
A high standard of hygiene is an important part of good animal husbandry, therefore the design andmanagement of the accommodation and other husbandry practices such as food preparation shouldincorporate appropriate hygiene measures, whilst also ensuring that the environmental, physiological,
behavioural and psychological needs of the animals are not compromised, taking into account different
individual animal circumstances, such as health or reproductive status, as well as the fundamental enrichment29

of the environment. Contaminated bedding or stale food or water must not be allowed to build up and a safe,
effective pest control programme must be implemented. However, as many diverse species are dependent
upon scent marking, consideration must be given to allow opportunities for the expression of these behaviours
without compromising basic hygiene.

2.9 Social Interactions
Social animals should be kept in appropriate social groups, with group size, the social structure or compositionof the group and stocking density being taken into account to safeguard welfare. Enclosures must provide
opportunities for animals to escape conflict situations in order to protect individuals from physical harm andsafeguard their psychological well-being. Inappropriate over- crowding of an enclosure can lead to increased
and intensified aggressive encounters, and result in heightened competition for important resources, such as
food and water. Chronic social isolation in species that normally live in family groups, herds or flocks can leadto the development of pathological behaviours such as stereotypes. Temporary separation from groupmembers may be required in specific circumstances, such as medical intervention and treatments, or
impending births where the new-born may be at risk from the group.
Enclosure design and environmental provisions must not only take into consideration the species’ behavioural
biology and natural history, but also must account for an individual’s needs Within a species, individuals may
present considerable differences in personalities and behaviours, which can result in individual animals
responding uniquely to varying aspects of their captive environments [4]. Therefore, providing a speciesspecific, suitably safe, stimulating and variable environment in which the expression of inherent natural
behaviours is encouraged, whilst also understanding that within a species, individuals will vary in their
behaviours and responses is an essential aspect of good welfare.

2.10 Water Environments
The environment in an aquarium requires careful management to safeguard the welfare of the animals within
the aquarium. Water quality needs and requirements will vary in accordance with the different species being
accommodated. Features that need consideration include water temperature, water depth, the movement ofwater, light spectrum, volume of water in relation to the size and number of animals kept, and waterchemistry [16]. Water chemistry addresses aspects of the water such as pH, salinity, concentrations of oxygen,carbon dioxide and ammonia, nitrite and nitrate levels. It is important that all of these features are maintained
within the parameters appropriate for the species. Water quality should be frequently and regularly monitored
so that if changes occur, then they can be promptly rectified before having a negative effect on the health andwelfare of the animals [17]. Aquarium water must be free of harmful contaminants and must be filtered.
Water can be filtered using a variety of different techniques, for example biological filtration, mechanicalfiltration, chemical filtration, or ultraviolet light filtration. The design of aquarium enclosures must be
appropriately strong and water- tight, be made of safe materials and accessible for easy cleaning to maintainhigh standards of hygiene [16] [17]. In situations where water environments are provided outside, the water
quality in pools must be protected from contamination from drainage water or excessive overflow fromsurrounding land or buildings [17]. Aquaria must provide enclosures of suitable size, design, depth and volume,and furnished to properly accommodate the species and number of individuals.
Appropriate social group composition is fundamental for certain aquatic and marine species, such as dolphins
and whales [24] and schooling fishes. The aquatic environment amplifies sounds which can disturb animals,
disrupt their communications, and result in adverse behavioural changes; cetaceans can be particularly
disturbed by noise stimuli. Therefore, careful consideration must be given to the noise level and frequencies,
and other potentially harmful sensory stimulation within the captive environment [25].

302.11 Transportation and Movement of Animals
To safeguard animal welfare and minimize the risks of injury, ill health and negative psychological states duringtransportation, a good methodology for the same is essential. Factors that may impact an animal’s physicaland psychological well-being include handling techniques, the method and duration of transport, theavailability of food and water during transportation and social grouping. In addition, differences may exist
between different countries regarding animal transport legislation, for example with the recommended spacerequirements for the transport of different animal species. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that the
movement and transportation of animals conforms to and preferably exceeds, the requirements of all relevant
regional, national and international legislation.
The methods used for handling captive wild animals for transportation purposes, as well as handling for somespecific husbandry management practices, should minimize, as much as possible, the stress experienced by the
animals and the potential for trauma. Hence, an understanding of natural animal behaviours is importantwhen handling or moving animals. The health and safety of the animals and of the attending personnel mustalso be taken into account. Appropriate risk assessments should be carried out prior to handling captive wild
animals and appropriate equipment and facilities should be available. Positive reinforcement training (PRT), asappropriate for the animal species and individual animal concerned, can help improve the safety of handlinganimals, whilst also minimizing the requirement for physical and chemical restraint. In this application, PRT isregarded as being best practice.
The transportation of captive wild animals may occur for a variety of reasons, for example, animal transfers
between institutions both regional and international, or transportation within an institution for veterinary or
management reasons. However, the whole process of transportation, including capture, handling, loading andunloading, can be a stressful experience, and can negatively affect an animal’s physical and mental well-being,causing fear, distress and in some instances high mortality [26] [27]. For some specific species, such as
cetaceans, the stress experienced by the animal during the handling and confinement associated withtransportation can result in an increased risk of death during and following transportation [25]. Therefore, it isessential that the transportation of captive wild animals involves high standards of animal management andcare.
Wild caught animals in particular may experience extreme stress and compromised welfare during capture,handling and transportation with resultant high mortality rates [28].
Removing an animal from its enclosure by the trap capture method may cause high levels of stress for the
animal. When trap capture is required, this procedure can be made less stressful habituating the animal to thetrap prior to capture. This is done by placing the trap in the animal’s enclosure, preferably in an area routinely
visited by the animal, leaving the trap open and placing food inside to entice the animal to enter the trap.
Animals can be fully trained to voluntarily enter transport crates through the application of positive
reinforcement and desensitization training, resulting in a far less stressful procedure. Crate training can reduce
the risk of animal injury and the level of stress experienced by the animal during transportation [29]. Covers
placed over crates and traps may help decrease animal stress and reduce temperature fluctuation within thecrate resulting from outside influences. Care must be given to provide adequate ventilation at all times toprevent heat stress, which can pose considerable risks during transportation [28]. Excessive noise andvibration are sensations that an animal may experience during transportation and can contribute to the stressof the experience. Both habituation and positive reinforcement training, through the application ofdesensitization, can be used to help the animal learn to tolerate some of the stimuli that will be experienced
during transport. Entering a transport crate/box via a ramp can pose challenges and frighten the animals. Steps
to minimize the animal’s adverse reaction may include covering the ramp with a soft substrate (e.g. for camels,
sand is used to cover ramps thereby minimizing the noise produced and hence helping reduce the negative
disturbance experienced during transport [16]. Entering a transport crate/box via a ramp can pose challenges
and frighten the animals. Steps to minimize the animal’s adverse reaction may include covering the ramp witha soft substrate (e.g. for camels, sand is used to cover ramps thereby minimizing the noise produced andhence helping reduce the negative disturbance experienced during loading [30], ensuring the ramps are an

31

appropriate design, size, incline, and made from safe material suitable for the species and individual, so as not
to cause injury [27].
All accommodations used for the transportation of animals must be secure so as to prevent an animal escape.
Containers and crates must be designed to prevent excessive movement during transport to reduce the risk ofphysical or psychological harm. Accommodation, facilities, and equipment must be suitable for the species andmust be well maintained to reduce the risk of injury, stress, and ensure the safety of the animal [27]. Animaltransport accommodation must allow the animal, to travel in a species appropriate, natural body posturewhen lying down, sitting, or standing and enable the animal to maintain body temperature within a normal
range for that species [28] [27]. Consideration must also be given to the internal design of the transport
container, including perches for some birds [28]. and hand holds for some primates. Nonslip accommodation
flooring should be correct for the species and, as appropriate, suitable absorbent bedding should be provided
on container floors. Appropriate bedding can absorb urine and faeces, whilst also providing comfort on hard
floors and a means of protection from adverse weather [27]. However, the provision of suitable bedding
material must be in compliance with national legislation; some countries do not allow some specific materials,
such as straw, to be imported [31].
If appropriate for the species, animals may be transported in suitable compatible groups (for example animals
reared together or female and young offspring) in accommodation of appropriate size, taking into account the
number of individuals involved. It is important to ensure that the individuals are familiar with one anotherbefore transport to help avoid potential problems with aggression during transport [28]. Behaviours may beheightened as a result of the stress of transportation and where there is close confinement with conspecifics.
Animals of very different ages, weights or sizes should not be mixed together for transport [27]and, as
appropriate, mature males and females should be separated from one another [32]. The specific needs andrequirements of young animals of certain species must also be taken into account for their transportation [33].
To further minimize the risks associated with transportation, animals should be transported in good health,and deemed fit to travel by a qualified veterinarian, and when possible, suitably competent and experienced
personnel should accompany the transport to monitor and observe the animal’s status. Extreme stress such asthat associated with transportation can compromise an animal’s immune system, thereby increasing
susceptibility to illness during and after transportation. Therefore, monitoring the animal’s health andbehaviour during and in the week’s following transport is essential. The use of a checklist can aid in theprocess, and a contingency plan in case of emergency should be included in the transport plan. Inadequatelevels of dissolved oxygen in the water can pose considerable danger for fish during transport [28]. Therefore,water quality must be carefully monitored by experienced staff with attention to dissolved oxygen, carbon
dioxide, ammonia, pH, temperature, and salinity; these must be maintained within the parameters
appropriate for the species [27]. Extra water is advised to allow for clean water changes if needed for longer
transports or in the case of a delayed transport.
All personnel involved in the transport of captive wild animals must be competent in the care and handling ofspecies being transported. There must be a sufficient number of suitably experienced personnel involved tosafeguard the welfare and security of the animals at every stage of the transport [28] [27].
Long distance transports pose more risks compared to shorter ones, and as such may negatively impact ananimal’s physical and psychological well-being. Long journey times will add to the likelihood of fatigue and may
increase the risks to an animal’s health. Therefore, to protect animals during long distance travel, special
accommodations must be made to make the animal as comfortable as possible during transport, andexperienced staff must accompany the animal on transport. Animals should be kept confined in appropriate
transport containers during transit and, during period immediately prior to and following transit [34]. In
situations where animals are moved within the institution, they should be confined in transport containers forthe least time possible to minimize stress of [34].
Additional factors influencing the stress level associated with transport include the duration, and method ormode of transport. For example, the transport vehicle should be equipped to comfortably and safely transport
the animals over the anticipated terrain, [27] whether it be road, air or sea. The vehicle should, be designed to32

reduce excessive motion or vibrations, and afford comfort by offering protection from weather extremes
throughout the duration of the journey. A transport or journey plan is required and should detail water, feed,
space, ventilation, and rest requirements. Contingency plans to safeguard animal welfare and avoid sufferingin the occurrence of unexpected circumstances including unplanned delays and adverse weather conditions
must be made, with appropriate action being taken in the event of such an occurrence [27]. Emergency plansin the case of animal illness or injury must be detailed and appropriate veterinary supplies on hand during thetransport; this is particularly important for longer duration journeys.
IATA (International Air Transport Association) publishes minimum requirements for the safe transportation ofanimals internationally and these guidelines and regulations should be followed, whilst also giving
consideration to individual animal needs and species-specific space requirements with regards transportation.

2.12 Animal Transactions
The monitoring and regulation of capture, transport and trade of wild animals is necessary to safeguard theirhealth and welfare during these processes, and to reduce potential adverse effects on the viability of the wild
populations. Appropriate documentation detailing transactions helps to ensure auditable welfare standards
are upheld, in addition to confirming adherence to all necessary legislation; all animal transactions mustcomply with all applicable regional, national, and international legislation to adequately protect animal
welfare, and the sustainability of wild animal populations.
If wild animals are transported between institutions in different climates, it is essential to ensure that theenvironment and climate to which animals are moved can meet the animals’ specific requirements(physiological and behavioural) and can satisfy the individual’s psychological needs to promote positive
welfare. Welfare will be poor if the animal is not acclimatized to the new environment or if the environment is
unsuitable and cannot meet species-specific needs. Animals should not be routinely transferred between
institutions if they are not in good health or not fit to travel. Equally important is that the receiving institution
can appropriately manage and accommodate the species being receiving, including that the recipient
institution has personnel suitably experienced in the husbandry and care of that species, and that the recipient
institution has an appropriate philosophy regarding the management and care of animals and animal welfare[35] [36].
Attention must be paid to minimize the risk of disease transmission between institutions during animaltransactions. Animals should receive a comprehensive veterinary examination prior to transfer which includes
required and recommended pre-shipment testing. Examinations should take place within a suitable time frame
before transportation and again immediately prior to transportation to ensure animals are in good health.
New arrivals to an institution should undergo a quarantine period consistent with recommendations for the
species and remain in quarantine until cleared by a qualified veterinarian. Quarantine duration will varydepending on the species, place of origin, and overall health of the animal, and is essential to maintain a highstandard of biosecurity, and to safeguard the health and welfare resident animals. Appropriate medical
records for animal translocations and acquisitions should be given to the receiving institution, and include any
relevant history of disease, injury, or illness, including behavioural pathologies.

2.13 Source of Animals
Animal acquisition from the wild for public exhibit is discouraged. Although an increasing number of wild
animal species are being bred in captivity enabling wild animal acquisitions from captive sources, some animals
including marine fish, birds and reptiles are still captured and brought into captivity from the wild. Animal
acquisitions must comply with all relevant legislation, and it is important that an ethical review process is inplace any time animals are obtained from the wild. Animals should only be sourced from the wild if there aredata to show that there would be no negative effects on the wild species population or its habitat andprincipally, the welfare of the individual animal must be considered and be of primary concern. A thoroughevaluation of the potential benefits and potential welfare costs to the individual animal should occur before

33any animal is taken from the wild, especially if its husbandry requirements are not fully understood.
Additionally, the potential for harm to the individual during capture, and the subsequent transportation mustbe evaluated, and measures taken to minimize these. The risk of exposure to infection, stress-induced
lowering of the immune system, and the potential of exposure to previously encountered infectious agents,
must be addressed to avoid seriously compromising the welfare of the individual animal. However, if thecontinued survival of a wild species at imminent risk of extinction, it may justify wild capture for captive
breeding programmes with the aim of future reintroduction back to the wild, but this must be subject to athorough ethical review and must comply with all applicable legislation. The Marine Aquarium Council (MAC)
has developed a MAC Certification scheme, with audited welfare and environmental standards, to help
regulate the ornamental marine fish trade and quality assurance schemes to help to promote positive animal
welfare standards for wild caught animals, whilst also addressing conservation aims and promoting ecologicalsustainability. National certified programmes also exist for some freshwater fish and terrestrial invertebrates
for acquisition from approved sustainable wild sources [36]. Details regarding the source of an acquired animalmust be provided, in addition to appropriate individual animal records of health, nutrition, reproductive status
and behavioural characteristics.

2.14 Animal Management
The number of animals held within zoological institutions requires careful monitoring and regulation, to ensurethat all animals can be appropriately accommodated, to avoid overcrowding, and/or to address requirements
for captive wild animal conservation breeding programme. This may necessitate transactions of animals
between institutions to promote genetically diverse and demographically healthy populations. In an effort tominimize the risk of inbreeding and to maintain space in a sanctuary or rehabilitation setting, controlled
breeding may be necessary and can be achieved in a number of ways, including contraception, surgicalsterilization, single sex holdings, or the movement of individual animals to another institution or enclosure[16]. However, the affect that these various methods of breeding control may have on an animal’s physical andpsychological health and hence welfare, must be considered. For example, in certain species, single sex groups
do not represent a natural social unit, and hence adverse behaviours, such as increased aggression, may result[16]. Contraception may yield undesirable side effects such as changes to behaviour and uncertain
reversibility; additionally, the ability to reproduce and raise young is considered as a natural animal behaviour
denied to the animal due to contraception [36]. Importance is yet placed on the maintenance of, appropriategroup size and sex ratio as this can highly influence positive welfare conditions [37]. Animal acquisition andtransfers between institutions is disruptive to social groups and can negatively affect animal welfare, but often
only for the short term. For example, the social group is disrupted when animals are separated and removed
from their social groups, or new individuals are introduced into existing social groups or for the formation of
new groups. Animals experience separation anxiety from familiar individuals, the known environment or
established home range, and are put in a completely novel situation with unfamiliar animals and people. [17].
Therefore, prior to any animal acquisitions or transactions, an assessment and ethical review by the
management authority should be undertaken to ensure that animal welfare will be maintained and is theprimary reason for such movements. When such a transfer is undertaken, appropriate measures are put inplace to protect all involved, for example highly social animals should be acquired or transferred in appropriategroups or pairs [17].

34Chapter 9
Domain 3: Health
3.1 Animal Health and Veterinary Care
Prompt veterinary diagnosis and treatment are critical to minimize the adverse consequences of pain, injury
and disease. When disease occurs in multiple individuals within a social group, particularly if it occurs over a
prolonged time frame, consideration must be given to the husbandry system and standards as well as thenature of the disease, whether it is infectious or non-infectious, and its epidemiology.
Within institutions that do not have a resident veterinarian, it may be necessary for the visiting veterinarian to
instruct a suitably competent member of personnel who has received appropriate training and experience, forexample a veterinary nurse, to undertake the administration of certain treatments. Effective and clear
communication between the veterinarian and institution personnel is important, and veterinary treatment
must only be performed by appropriately trained personnel following specific veterinary instruction and underveterinary supervision. Institutional personnel should not undertake the veterinary treatment of or medicate
any animal without veterinary consultation. The management, use and storage of all veterinary drugs must bein accordance with relevant local legislation.
In association with and complementing good veterinary provisions and husbandry techniques should be goodstockmanship. Regardless of the husbandry system in place, a competent, observant, and knowledgeable
stockman is crucial to protect and maintain the health and welfare of captive animals. A keeper must haveknowledge of species’ biology, basic physical and behavioural needs, and requirements. Additionally,knowledge of the normal range behaviours and preferences for all age classes is essential as young animals
may react to or show pain and discomfort in different ways. This level of knowledge and understanding is avital component of the standard of husbandry offered to captive animals and in the recognition of behaviours
that may indicate pain or suffering. Animals must therefore be frequently, regularly, and routinely observed
and inspected by qualified personnel, and abnormalities in health or behaviour promptly reported to therelevant personnel. In situations where episodes of animal ill health or injury, recent introductions of animals,a change in animal management practice, or adverse weather conditions, more frequent checks may berequired; staff may require direction regarding key observations.
The pinioning of birds is a permanent, non-reversible mutilation involving damage to the muscles, tendons,
and bone of the wing; this procedure is carried out for management purposes to prevent flight.
Preventing a bird from expressing natural flight behaviour, when flight is the primary method of locomotion,
will negatively affect the psychological health and welfare of this animal [7], and the traumatic nature of theprocedure itself will negatively impact the welfare of the animal. Therefore, the pinioning of birds should only
be performed in exceptional circumstances and as a last resort, where the health and safety of the bird may becompromised and when there is no alternative form of management available. Where it is still practiced,
regular ethical review by the Management Authority on the use of pinioning should be undertaken.

3.2 Preventative Veterinary Medicine
In addition to the provision of readily available emergency veterinary treatment, a preventative veterinary
medicine programme must be documented and put in place following appropriate veterinary consultation; thisshould include regular monitoring of all of animals, on an individual basis, as well as consider social grouphealth [38] [10]. Preventative medicine programmes are essential for safeguarding captive animal health. Suchprogrammes should consider the diseases that commonly occur in the country [19]and incorporate healthscreening protocols including, for example, regular blood, urine and faecal examinations, vaccinations as
appropriate and parasite control [39] [17]. Regular advisory visits are recommended in situations where theinstitution does not have a resident veterinarian, in order that records may be reviewed, and theimplementation of the preventive veterinary medicine programme ensured. In addition to the statutory
maintenance of detailed and accurate clinical veterinary records, a record of each veterinary advisory visit and35any ensuing treatment recommendations must be kept. Veterinary records are important tools for assessing
an individual both in the immediate moment and for tracking changes over time by providing a consistentformat to observe and interpret trends in injuries or disease. Regular reviews of husbandry and preventative
veterinary care practices and protocols by the Management Authority should be undertaken to minimize
disease risks and to assure that adequate biosecurity arrangements are in place.
A disease risk analysis should be performed for any animal that is to be released to the wild to identify
potential hazards to wild populations and develop a risk management plan to mitigate threats of diseasetransmission once the animal is released.
As a result of increases in the knowledge of zoo animal nutrition, management, and veterinary care, resulting
in longer lived animals, geriatric health is an emerging facet of care within zoological institutions, and one
which must be addressed through veterinary medicine and the provision of appropriate husbandry [16] [40][10]. Diseases such as degenerative joint disease and arthritis, and heart failure may be encountered [40] andthe provision of species-specific long-term accommodation for aged animals must be considered [16].
Therefore, the issues concerning aged animals must be addressed within a veterinary health programme andregularly reviewed by the Management Authority, with veterinary consultation on an individual, case by casebasis. Conversely, reduced longevity of some captive species, for example elephants, [41] [16] and cetaceans[24], which highlights the need to implement regular species-specific health screening protocols.
The post-mortem examination of animals plays an important role in a preventative medicine programme andthe surveillance of the health status of animals accommodated within zoological institutions [17]. Therefore,
the post-mortem examination of animals that die in the collection should be undertaken and appropriate
measures must be taken to ensure that these examinations are carried out by experienced personnel, using
suitable facilities and relatively promptly after the death of the animal. Records of post-mortem examinations
and the resultant findings should be kept and maintained. All carcasses and any tissue samples taken forlaboratory examination must be stored and handled appropriately to minimize the risk of exposure of otheranimals in the zoological collection to any potential infectious diseases and to minimize the potential risk ofthe transmission of zoonoses to staff. The safe, hygienic, and appropriate disposal of the bodies of all deadanimals must be undertaken. When possible, post-mortem examination of rehabilitated animals that die postrelease should be conducted to determine cause of death. This should be compared to common causes ofdeath for wild conspecifics and changes to the rehabilitation process should be considered based on findings.

3.3 Biosecurity
Quarantine regulations regarding the import of animals into different countries vary between each country,
but the quarantine of new animal acquisitions on arrival to an institution is critical to safeguard the health andwelfare of the resident animals. Quarantine helps to prevent the introduction and spread of disease to otherresident animals and enables the examination of the new arrivals [16]. In addition to their application in the
management of animal acquisitions, quarantine facilities can be important for the isolation of sick or injured
animals. Animals in quarantine should be deemed healthy and free from disease before
introduction/reintroduction to the institution. It is important that quarantine facilities are designed andconstructed to facilitate the safe observation, handling and examination of animals and enable themaintenance of a high standard of husbandry and hygiene, as well as biosecurity. Quarantine areas should also
provide appropriate species-specific space to enable the animals to express their normal behaviours and allow
for suitable exercise and enrichment opportunities.
A safe and effective pest control programme must also be developed and implemented since many different
species of pest (for example, free-living rodents and invertebrates) are capable of transmitting harmful
diseases to captive animals. The deterrence of predators, such as feral cats and other free- living carnivores,
must also be considered to prevent predation and the risk of the spread of disease. Care must be exercised
regarding the method of pest control and predator deterrent employed to minimize the risk to the captive wild
animals accommodated within the institution. The issues concerning predator deterrent and pest control are36

important considerations in the design and maintenance of the secure perimeter fencing and individual animal
enclosures.

3.4 Veterinary Facilities
Appropriate facilities must be readily available for the safe examination, diagnosis, and treatment of animals.
Suitable and appropriate equipment for the safe capture, handling and examination of animals shall also be
available. Where there is a resident veterinarian on site, basic diagnostic and surgical equipment andinstruments shall be available.
Veterinary facilities for the routine or emergency treatment of animals should be designed and maintained tominimize the potential zoonotic risks between animals and staff, and personnel must be trained in appropriate
cleaning and disinfection procedures and protocols. The maintenance of a high standard of biosecurity isessential to help protect the health and welfare of the animals within the institution.

3.5 Euthanasia
One of the fundamental requirements for good welfare is the maintenance of good health. This can beachieved through preventative medicine programmes, the prompt recognition of pain and illness in different
species and the rapid diagnosis and treatment of injury and disease. However, in certain circumstances where
welfare is gravely compromised due to poor physical or psychological health which cannot be adequately
improved and it is determined to be in the best interest of the individual animal concerned, euthanasia may benecessary.
Institutions should have a documented protocol detailing conditions in which euthanasia is appropriate andjustifiable, and this protocol should be regularly reviewed by the institution’s ethics committee andManagement Authority. This document should clearly state approved and acceptable standard operating
practices. The discussion with staff directly involved with the animal in each individual proposed circumstanceof euthanasia is important and must take place [36].
Euthanasia must be carried out following appropriate, approved operating standards, and according to local
legislation. Local customs and different cultural beliefs should also be considered provided that theparameters for the euthanasia or humane destruction of animals are not compromised. In all situations, thewelfare of an animal and its quality of life should be the prime consideration [35] [42] [36].
To ensure minimal pain, discomfort and stress for the animal, the euthanasia of an animal should beundertaken under veterinary supervision or by competent personnel with appropriate training and experiencein the technique to be used. Experience in the handling and appropriate restraint of the species is necessary to
reduce the animal’s stress and to ensure the safety of the operator [17]. Careful consideration must be given ineach individual case to the manner and type of animal restraint required, in addition to the method of
euthanasia. Factors that should be taken into account include the species, location of the animal, presence of
injury or disease, personnel experience and safety aspects. Minimizing animal stimulation by either sight,
sound or touch can help to reduce stress and anxiety in animals. Distressed animals may vocalize which cancause agitation in other animals, hence other animals should not be present when an individual animal is to beeuthanized.
Euthanasia must result in the death of the animal as rapidly and as painlessly as possible [35] [17] [36].
Following euthanasia, it is important that the death of the animal is confirmed, taking into account the speciesof animal and the method of euthanasia, prior to the appropriate disposal of the animal. An appropriate postmortem examination shall be undertaken.

37Chapter 10
Domain 4: Behaviour
Behavioural or interactive restriction through confinement in barren environments, or where there is longterm social isolation, is associated with emotional unresponsiveness and can lead to extreme boredom,
frustration, and the development of abnormal behaviour patterns. Consequently, the provision of species
appropriate, complex, and variable environments, space and resources that encourage exercise and enable thedisplay of a range of natural behaviours, will promote behavioural, physical, and mental health. Species
appropriate environmental enrichment should also offer the animal the ability to make choices and henceexert a level of control over its environment; by encouraging decision- making, animals can express
preferences and select environmental conditions which they favour, thus promoting a positive psychologicalstate and hence good welfare. Appropriate positive reinforcement training is one aspect of an environmental
enrichment program and should focus on and be used to encourage the display of natural behaviours, enhancethe veterinary care program, promote appropriate social interactions, and facilitate husbandry andmanagement.
Visitor presence can have both positive effects [7] and negative effects on the behaviour of some species [43][16]: the welfare of the animals must always be of primary importance and must be considered at all times.

4.1 Environmental Enrichment and Stimulation
It is vital that consideration is given to incorporate appropriate environmental enrichment into the overalldesign and construction of the captive environment. Facilities must be designed to prevent restrictions inbehaviour expression and must enable the animal to perform a full range of natural behaviours andmovements, thereby meeting psychological and physiological needs. This is dependent upon accurate
knowledge and understanding of the species’ behavioural biology and scope of normal behaviours, althoughaccurately interpreting behavioural abnormalities is crucial to promptly react to and address potential animal
welfare compromises.
Behaviours can result from a strong internal drive or motivation with an absolute need to perform theseparticular types of behaviours; they promote behavioural and mental health and are necessary in theprevention of poor welfare. For example, an animal that is strongly motivated to nest build has a fundamental
need to perform this behaviour; if restricted from doing so, serious welfare compromise will result.
Furthermore, the natural behaviour tendencies of some species may increase their susceptibility to welfare
compromises occurring in captivity. For example, some species of carnivores who naturally occupy large
natural home ranges, demonstrate a high incidence of stereotypies and high neonatal mortality in captive
populations [21] [10]. Also, the intelligence or cognitive capacity of different species must be taken into
account in the design and provision of enriching, complex environments; species such as primates andelephants, need a high degree of mental stimulation and environmental complexity, to address their
psychological needs and to prevent the development of behavioural pathologies. To improve the welfare of
captive wild animals, careful attention must be paid to animal husbandry and management to provide a
species specific, suitably stimulating and variable environment in which the expression of inherent natural
behaviours is encouraged, and environmental choices are offered, and hence a level of control by the animal
over its environment is available.

4.2 Abnormal Behaviours
Animals housed in barren, unrewarding environments with limited ability to express natural movements andbehaviours may not only develop abnormalities in their physical health [18] but are also at an increased risk ofdeveloping abnormal behaviours. Abnormal behaviours are associated with diminished welfare and reflect the
animal’s attempt to cope with an inappropriate animal-environment interaction. Abnormal behaviours range
in scope and include: abnormal consumption (e.g. coprophagy, polydipsia, pica), posturing (e.g. eye poke, ear

38

cover, salute, abnormal stances), self-directed behaviours (e.g. self-clasp, hair/feather plucking, tail/digit
sucking) which can escalate to self-injurious behaviours (e.g. self-bite/wound, floating limb syndrome) or
injurious behaviours can be directed towards others as hyper or inappropriate aggression Additionallyabnormal behaviours may be directed towards the surroundings(e.g. bar or wall licking, repetitive
banging/ramming/hitting containment). Stereotypic behaviours are a particular type of abnormal behaviour
defined as abnormal behaviours that are repetitive, persistent, recurrent, and apparently purposeless; they
are also known as abnormal repetitive behaviour or ARB. Commonly seen types of stereotypies include
locomotor (e.g. pattern walking, running, pacing or swimming), repetitive movements (e.g. swaying, head bob,head roll, head toss), oral (e.g. licking, tongue play, chewing, regurgitation/re-ingestion). Certain species areprone to certain types of stereotypies (e.g., carnivores often pace; primates self-bite; lizards pace and interact
with transparent barrier; giraffe lick and tongue play). These behaviours all reflect compromises in animal
welfare and may occur in animals for a wide variety of reasons ranging from an inappropriate animalenvironment interaction to an inappropriate or deprived social, physical environment, to a stimulus-barren
environment, etc. Animals that are chronically frustrated or stressed as a result of the imposed restrictions of
their confined environments are forced to find ways to cope due to the inability to perform natural behaviours
which would serve to help them cope [7]. Stereotypies that develop early in life or have persisted for aconsiderable portion of the animal’s life may continue as part of an animal’s behavioural repertoire beyond
the scope of their development and may not reflect the effect of present management or environmental
conditions on welfare [44] [16] [7].
Stereotypies may have species-specific characteristics, but the performance of any stereotypy is suggestive ofa negative welfare state. Stereotypies can also cause physical injuries and harm as a result of the performanceof the repetitive actions and abnormal behaviours; injuries commonly seen include chronic skin lesions causedby repeated interactions with enclosure boundaries, and/or abnormal pressure on joints caused by repetitive
movements which can lead to degenerative joint disease. Stereotypies are rarely seen in non-captive wild
animals [16]. Giving animals the opportunity to show preferences and make choices within a complex
environment, and enabling varied behavioural expression and ranges of movement, may help reduce thedevelopment of pathological behaviours.

4.3 Enrichment Programmes
Environmental enrichment is an important management technique to help increase the expression of normal
behaviours and reduce the development of stereotypies and abnormal behaviours [43] and alleviate
frustration. It can also provide the animal with a degree of choice about its environment and offer the animal
preferred resources. Environmental enrichment is a dynamic process that involves the use of appropriate
structures, enclosure furniture and husbandry procedures and techniques to create a stimulating andappropriately complex environment which increases the opportunity for, and encourages the performance of,species-specific natural behaviours, movements, exercise, and exploration, resulting in an improved mental
and physical state and ultimately improved animal welfare. For animal undergoing rehabilitation for release to
the wild, enrichment is an excellent method of providing training and exercise to promote acquisition or
maintenance of necessary skills and physical endurance for post-release survival.
Enrichment is a dynamic process for enhancing animal environments within the context of the animals’
behavioural biology and natural history. Environmental changes are made with the goal of increasing theanimals’ behavioural choices and drawing out their species-appropriate behaviours, thus enhancing animal
welfare (1999 AZA Behaviour Scientific Advisory Group)
Before the implementation of environmental enrichment programmes, appropriate planning discussions
between the animal keeper personnel and the Management Authority should be undertaken. Enrichment
programmes may involve the use of the overall structural design of the enclosure, its furnishings and different
management practices in order to provide novel stimulating experiences and to encourage the performance of
natural behaviours such as foraging, natural locomotion patterns exercise, resting and sleeping. For example,
the enclosure design should incorporate structures that functionally mimic the natural environment such as

39

pools, mature trees and suitable vegetation, rocks, ground cover and a varied landscape, in order to provide
the opportunity for exploration, and promote natural behaviours and movements. Enclosure furniture should
be suitable for the species and consist of various items, such as branches, logs, log piles, substrates, nest
boxes, resting platforms, scratching posts, perches, cardboard boxes or climbing facilities, all of which may be
used to encourage the performance of natural behaviours including exercise, self-maintenance, nesting,climbing, foraging, play and exploration. Where pools are provided for species that require both a terrestrial
and aqueous environment, animals must be given sufficient appropriate access and exit points and they must
be able to easily move in and out of the pool [17] without hindrance from conspecifics.

4.4 Environmental Security
Physical barriers within enclosures can not only offer privacy, but also provide individual animals with theopportunity to escape or avoid conflict from other individuals in the social group. The suitable use of verticalspace should be considered during enclosure design to maximize exercise opportunities and provide a
stimulating environment and offer appropriate refuges from conspecifics [44] [23]. For example, a suitablecomplex vertical space is important for arboreal apes for obtaining food, to explore, for nesting and sleeping,
and also to enable escape from aggressive interactions from conspecifics [7]. Arboreal primates have a verticalflight response, climbing when they are alarmed, which emphasizes the fundamental requirement for theprovision of appropriate and sufficient vertical space [23]. For aquatic and marine species, the water depth
serves as the vertical space and when appropriately sized, allows animals to experience changes in pressure,light levels, and more aptly simulates the natural environment.
The social environment or social grouping will likely impact the welfare of individual animals. Complex socialgroups are important for naturally social species, such as primates, ungulates, birds, fishes, and elephants, andwhen appropriate groups are formed, provide social stimulation, enrichment, and companionship [16] [7] anda sense of security. For animals that usually live in social groups, long- term isolation from conspecifics canhave detrimental effects on animal welfare. For example, animals that live in family groups, herds or flocks
gain security from the social contact with their conspecifics, providing the animals with a positive mental state,
therefore deprivation of this social contact can lead to negative states and hence decreased welfare. Chronicsocial isolation or an absence of appropriate social partners, for social species, correlates to an increased riskof the development of stereotypies and behavioural pathologies. There are adverse effects of social isolation
on animals that lead a naturally solitary lifestyle for part of their lives. Although species may live a solitary
lifestyle they will encounter and interact with conspecifics and therefore total social isolation is inconsistent
with the behaviour of wild counterparts. Species that live in monogamous pairs, also require adequate social
complexity [7].
Although species appropriate social environments can positively affect welfare, social groups can result inoccasions of negative experiences for individual subordinate animals, especially if the enclosure restricts theopportunity to avoid or escape adverse behaviours from dominant group members [45]. Social group sizes andstructures must be appropriate for the species concerned. Aggression between conspecifics can be increased if
there is inappropriate group composition and changes in the existing social group composition, for example
through the temporary removal of a group member or the introduction of a new-born animal, can result in
conflict [39]. Furthermore, stress arising from sudden changes in the social environment has been documented
to cause arteriosclerosis (heart disease) in some captive wild animal species, negatively effecting animal healthand hence welfare. Therefore, the behaviour and the severity, frequency, and duration of any aggressiveinteractions between conspecifics, should be monitored and appropriate action taken, when necessary, tosafeguard the welfare of individual animals within a social group.

4.5 Environmental Challenges and Novelty
The greater the environmental complexity, the greater the potential for a wider variation in expressed natural
behaviours, which in turn, can increase the degree of control an animal has over its environment through the40

variety of behavioural choices it can make [7], resulting in improved welfare. Species- specific problem-solving
items, puzzle feeders or objects that require physical manipulation can encourage decision-making, provide
environmental enrichment, and increase exploration [45] [44]. However, the use of species appropriate
furniture objects such as swings, cardboard boxes and other ‘toys’ should be suitably rotated to maintainvariety and a change in the animal’s environment. Although this should follow an appropriate length of time ofthe object being in the enclosure to allow for acclimatization by the animal to the object’s presence, and hence
minimize any stress experienced by the animal on the removal of the object [46]. The use of enrichment
structures, furniture and techniques should be regularly recorded and monitored by keeper personnel toassess their continued novelty to the species and the individual animals and hence the positive welfare
benefits of their use [16].
The manner by which appropriate nutritional food is provided should additionally be incorporated into anenrichment programme, as many species are strongly motivated to explore their environment and in the wild
can spend a large part of their daily routine foraging for food.; Offering food in a varied and appropriate way tosatisfy the animal’s species-specific natural feeding behavioural needs and motivations, and encourages
activity, is important to prevent poor welfare, in addition to ensuring that the nutritional requirements of theanimal are met. In some species, scatter feeding, for example, can provide the opportunity for foraging, as wellas increased exercise opportunities, whereas the supply of appropriate vegetation for browsing can beenriching for grazing and browsing animals. However, social group dynamics should be considered when foodis used as part of an enrichment programme, for example if feeding methods are used that enable dominantanimals to exert control over the food, then the subordinate animals may subsequently suffer negative
experiences [16]. Another management technique that can offer psychological enrichment to captive wild
animals is the interaction of the animals with their keepers during positive reinforcement training [45] [44].

4.6 Environmental Complexity
Appropriate facilities and enrichment programmes must suitably provide for an animal’s behavioural andpsychological needs throughout all stages of its life and development [17]. Species appropriate environmental
enrichment programmes are essential to achieve the optimum level of environmental stimulation andbehavioural variability, needed to safeguard animal welfare. Appropriate environmental enrichment canpromote good welfare by affording the opportunity to express a variety of natural, species-specific behaviours,
movements, locomotion, and exercise resulting from improved quality of the space. Mental stimulation isincreased through the provision of learning opportunities, exploration, and interaction with a complex andvariable environment, and by increasing control over environmental factors.
A lack of sensory stimulation arising from a lack of complexity in the environment can negatively affectwelfare, as can inappropriate sights, smells or sounds [47]. For example, inappropriate odours from cleaning
agents can occur during hygiene practices [47], these should be mitigated through appropriate [7]. Unsuitable
loud noise can also compromise animal welfare; crowd noise or noise created by steel structures inaccommodation buildings can negatively impact upon elephant welfare [7], whilst inappropriate mechanicalnoise in dolphinaria associated with the loud music that may accompany visitor show performances or fromthe captive environment (e.g., from pumps or filters) may negatively affect cetaceans [25]. Where applicable,
inappropriate sights that may create negative states should be avoided; some species may suffer distress ifhoused in close visual, olfactory, or auditory proximity to other species. For example, the housing of tigers inview of other tigers i can have a negative effect on tiger wellbeing and may result in an increase in stereotypicpacing [48].
However, the provision of appropriate sounds, sights, and smells, such as natural sounds and edible vegetation[45], can create a stimulating sensory environment for animals and have a positive effect on welfare;appropriate sound and odour enrichment can contribute to positive welfare states in captive wild animals suchas gorillas and elephants [16]. Ensuring the suitability of sensory information in the animals’ environment andincreasing in the complexity of the environment contribute to improved welfare.

41

The provision of appropriate lighting is essential to prompt some species to display natural behaviours andactivity levels. For example, nocturnal species should be provided with appropriately reversed lighting in a
nocturnal exhibit if activity is required during daytime hours) to prevent sleep deprivation and behaviouralrestriction [17].

4.7. Multi-species Exhibits
Multi-species exhibits can create a stimulating environment through increased complex interactions, however
careful consideration must be given to the species selected for mixing and enclosure features that willaccommodate all individuals., When mixing species, there is the potential undesirable encounters such as
aggressive interactions between the different species, or competition for food [16] and among closely related
species, there exists the risk of interspecific reproduction. Therefore, the provision of sufficient species-specificspace and appropriate furnishing to afford opportunities for escape are necessary to reduce the risk of conflict
between species. When considering species for mixed enclosures, there are many considerations that must be
taken into account, including but not limited to territorial behaviours and defence of territory, use of space(shared niche can lead to increased competition for resources), feeding strategies, reproductive biology, andsocial behaviours. Accordingly, the interactions between individuals of the different species should be
regularly monitored and assessed, and appropriate action taken to separate the species if aggressive conflicts
result in a welfare compromise. Consequently, thorough research should be undertaken with appropriate
review by the Management Authority before a mixed-species exhibit is created to prevent any compromises inanimal welfare.

4.8. Animal Training
Training should be founded on and used to encourage the display of natural behaviours including natural
movement patterns, physical activity, and socialization, reduce anxiety or fear, and/or behaviours necessary toenhance daily husbandry care and veterinary practices. Establishing training goals and objectives will help
focus efforts towards the promotion of positive welfare. All training techniques and objectives should bethoroughly researched and regularly assessed to safeguard animal welfare and must not be harmful to theindividual animals involved. The training of captive wild animals should only be undertaken after detailed
appropriate research and consultation, and with the ultimate aim of improving animal well-being. Providing
the opportunity and capacity to express natural behaviours is a fundamental physical and psychological need.
Appropriate training is part of an enrichment program and can be used to facilitate the provisioning of a morerobust and comprehensive enrichment program. Training animals helps to meet psychological needs byfacilitating both exercise and mental stimulation to reflect intellectual and physical abilities and gives animals
the opportunity to have a degree of control over their surroundings and environment. Appropriate training is
also important facilitate routine husbandry and health management procedures essential in the care of captive
wild animals. Appropriate training is also important to assist with the undertaking of routine husbandry andhealth management procedures that may be necessary in the care of captive wild animals. Training canenhance socialization, improve introductions, and assist animals as they learn to navigate assorted social
situations.
Training can help reduce stress commonly associated with routine husbandry practices and veterinary
procedures. When animals are willing participants in daily husbandry and veterinary practices, the need forphysical and chemical restraint or forced procedures is greatly reduced or eliminate, thereby facilitating arelaxed examination and treatment wherein the animal experiences reduced stress during the procedure [39][49] [7]. Positive reinforcement training techniques have been successfully used to train innumerable species
to readily present or show different parts of their body for examination [7]. Consequently, by assisting withroutine veterinary procedures, training can help improve the overall health and well-being of animals.
The welfare of the animal should always be the prime consideration during training sessions and thedevelopment of training programmes. Poor training and handling methods will compromise an animal’s

42

welfare. The use of physical punishment in training may result in the development of undesirable behaviours
such as aggression and increased anxiety [50] [51], self-directed and introverted behaviours, and is harmful tothe individual animal, negatively affecting animal well-being. Training techniques and practices thatcompromise an animal’s normal physical or behavioural health, development, psychological well-being, or
welfare may not be used.
Animal-training methods should primarily rely on positive reinforcement techniques. The use of positive
reinforcement training involves offering the animal something it enjoys, for example a food reward, forperforming the desired behaviour. It is the voluntary cooperation of the animal during positive reinforcement
training that affords the animal greater choice and control over its environment and can additionally increase
the animal’s psychological stimulation [45].
Patience, composure, kindness, and the use of rewards are key principles for humane, effective and successful
training [50] and there should be the development of a positive, collaborative relationship between the animal
and trainer. The trainer should respect the animal, have a good understanding of the species’ natural
behaviours and biology, and should also regard each animal individually so as to effectively monitor progress.
Personnel must be competent in the undertaking of acceptable animal training practices and should receive
appropriate regular tutoring in approved training techniques [39].
The nature of the relationship between keepers and animals may be enhanced by the keeper interacting withthe animal through a barrier rather than via entry into the enclosure [52] which may intimidate or frighten
some animals. Working with animals from the other side of a barrier is referred to as ‘protected contact’,
which is routinely used in the management of elephants and further emphasizes the significance of positive
reinforcement training methods in the management of captive wild species [7].
Protected contact is a system for managing elephants that uses positive reinforcement training as the primarymethod to modify behaviour; directing the positioning and movement of the elephant is achieved through theuse of targets. Keeper safety is achieved by elephant and keeper positioning relative to each other and to abarrier, which typically separates human and animal spaces. Trainer’s function outside the elephant social
hierarchy and do not attempt to establish a position of social dominance.
All training methods and objectives, programmes and educational talks should be documented and approvedby the Management Authority prior to their implementation, regularly assessed, and have an appropriate
ethical review. Training policies should detail the philosophy of animal training practices, the application of all
animal training programmes, be in accordance with any local legislation, and should be regularly reviewed.
Appropriate records should be kept detailing the objectives, goals, and method of an animal training
programme, as well as the actual undertaking and its progress [53].
Educational talks may incorporate trained animals and these public demonstrations should responsibly
promote visitor understanding of natural animal behaviours, responsible animal management practices andshould always be a positive experience for the individual animals concerned. Animal demonstrations orpresentations must not be detrimental to the physical health of the animals or result in negative mental
experiences for the animals involved [17].

4.9 Animal Contact
Visitor encounters with live animals, for example via touch pools, walk-through exhibits, and hands-on
education lessons, can offer informative and educational experiences for the public, but the welfare of theanimals must be considered at all times to maintain positive welfare. Public and staff safety must never becompromised. In all situations where contact with captive wild animals occurs, it must focus on educating
visitors about natural animal behaviours, animal biology and conservation issues, and it must be strictly
regulated and controlled to adequately protect the welfare of the animals, as well as the health and safety ofmembers of the public.

43

Walk-through exhibits may involve a number of different species including birds, bats, lemurs, marmosets,butterflies and lizards, whilst drive-through exhibits are a component of safari parks. In order to safeguard thewelfare of the animals within these exhibits, it is important for visitors to understand the need to keep to thedesignated pathways/roads and not to feed, touch or interfere with the animals and animals must have refuge
areas to escape from visitors. Additional strict and specific safety measures must be enforced for visitors todrive-through exhibits, including remaining in a secure vehicle at all times [54] and local legislation specificallyrelating to drive-through exhibits must be adhered to. Children’s petting zoos or touch paddocks may featuredomestic farm animals and permit visitors to enter some of the enclosures and touch and feed the animals
with authorized food provided by the institution. To protect the animals’ health, only appropriate foodsupplied by the institution should be fed to permitted animals in touch paddocks and the consumption of foodby visitors in any animal contact area must not be allowed. Walk-through and drive-through exhibits andpetting areas must be designed with appropriate barriers and double gated entrances and exits to prevent the
animals escaping from the exhibit. Diving in zoos and aquaria and swim-through experiences are othersituations where visitors may experience contact with captive wild animals. In all institutions where diving iscarried out, a dive manual must be maintained, detailing, for example, standard operating diving procedures,
diver conduct and risk assessments, and within which the welfare of the animals is a fundamental element of
the operating practices.
In situations where visitors may encounter free-ranging animals via, for example, walk-through exhibits, swimthrough drive-through exhibits, or in circumstances where there is direct animal contact, such as touch pools,
hands-on education or petting areas/touch paddocks, the health, safety and welfare of the animals and thevisitors must be ensured. This can be achieved by stationing trained staff members within enclosures at all
times; needed numbers of personnel will be determined by the situation. Appropriate staff supervision andstaffing levels l, taking into account the species of animal involved, are essential in all circumstances where
there is contact with animals in order to protect the welfare of the animals [17] [55]. Appropriate documented
emergency protocols must be instigated in the event of unauthorized visitors inside an animal enclosure.
All staff involved in animal contact situations should be appropriately trained in animal handling, and must
recognize signs of ill health, injury or disease and behaviours indicative of compromised animal welfare. Any
abnormal behaviours or signs of ill health must be promptly and appropriately reported. If there is any
indication that the health and welfare of an animal used in a contact situation is compromised, then theepisode of contact should stop immediately. Animals involved in contact situations with the public must be
trained through desensitization or habituation to tolerate such interactions and must be under the directcontrol of an experienced keeper. Care should be taken when removing approved animals from their home
cages for visitor hands-on contact; the behaviour of all animals can become less predictable when they are in
unusual surroundings or uncomfortable, and therefore animals must always be accompanied by suitablycompetent person [54]. Animals should not be removed from environments and surroundings that are
fundamental for their survival. For example, animals that are dependent on a water environment must not be
removed from that environment or else poor welfare will result. All animal handling should be undertakenwith the animal’s welfare in mind and should not cause the animal any unnecessary discomfort, fear, distress,
or injury.
Personnel should be trained in and understand the importance of good hygiene practices and of minimizing
disease risks, in accordance with the institution’s hygiene protocols. With all situations where there is contact
with animals or objects touched by animals, hygiene is paramount and appropriate hand-washing facilities
must be provided. Staff and visitors should wash their hands before and after animal contact to reduce the riskof exposure to infectious agents, as well as minimizing the risk of exposure of members of the public andpersonnel to zoonotic diseases. Handwashing is particularly critical in contact situations that involve
invertebrates; nicotine is fatal for many invertebrates; hence it is vital for people who smoke to adequately
wash their hands before coming into contact with these animals [55]. With regards diving- or swim-throughexperiences, appropriate measures should be taken to minimize the spread of disease to animals in different
tanks by divers, such as freshwater showers between diving in different marine tanks.

44Individual records for all animals used in contact circumstances should be kept up to date and include detailsof husbandry, health status (including deaths), behaviours and frequency of handling and use in contact
encounters [55]. Records enable the monitoring of the effects of contact encounters on well- being and theearly identification of any problems and subsequent implementation of measures to rectify them. Mortalities
of animals in contact areas or of those involved in contact experiences should be investigated by post-mortem
examination and appropriate disease screening undertaken.
All contact between animals and visitors should be supervised and contact time restricted. Neonates andbreeding animals should not be used in contact situations [55]. There must be sufficient rest periods that allow
animals to be fully away from direct visitor contact. This may be facilitated by rotating animals used for contact
and by ensuring that the frequency with which the animals are used for contact is appropriate [55]. All walkthrough exhibits, touch pools and touch paddocks/children’s petting areas should be of a suitable size andhave suitable refuge areas which the animals can readily access to move away from visitors. If touch pools
allow direct contact, they should be continuously monitored by a competent member of staff, and the animals
rotated to help reduce stress. Painful procedures, to make animals safer to handle, are unacceptable and mustnot be performed; these include but are not limited the removal of teeth, claws, or stingers [55].
Animals in sanctuaries and those intended for release to the wild should not be used for visitor contact
experiences. Unweaned, or neonate animals, similarly, should not be used for visitor contact.
All events involving contact between the animals and public should be documented and approved by theManagement Authority prior to their implementation and regularly assessed. An appropriate ethical review
should occur.

4.10 Visitor Impacts
Although animal contact encounters can offer educational experiences for visitors, the effect of general visitor
presence on captive wild animal well-being must be considered. Visitor presence may create a positive orenriching experience for some animals [7]), but the presence of the public can also have deleterious effects on
the behaviour and hence welfare, of some species, such as primates [43] [16]. Disturbances in the groupdynamics of chimpanzees and other primates have been documented during peak visitor numbers, withincreased aggressive contact observed [43]. For some primates, combining positive training techniques withsocial unstructured play sessions may help improve animal well-being and social group dynamics, and may
result in a reduction of negative behaviours observed during visitor presence [43]. It has been suggested thatlarge enclosures may help reduce the detrimental effects of visitors on zoo animal behaviour. Lessening animal
disturbance from visitors can be accomplished by increasing the distance between the animals and the visitors[22]. Furthermore, for animals that seem particularly sensitive to visitor presence, exposure to visitors and any
associated negative effects can be reduced by obscuring viewpoint windows (e.g., with camouflage netting),
providing sufficient appropriate areas within the enclosure for seclusion and refuge from visitors, or bymasking enclosure perimeters [16]. The overall design of enclosures should also take into account minimizing
the negative effects of visitor presence on animals; lowering the height of visitor viewpoints can reduce
aggressive behaviours in arboreal primates when visitors are present [56].

4.11 Mental Components
Good mental health and well-being are associated with the animal’s biological and physical requirements (asrepresented by the four physical domains) and can be accomplished when all these needs are met, andpositive welfare states can be achieved when the individual’s psychological or mental needs (fifth domain), as
well as the physical needs, are addressed [6] [8] [10]. Yet, animals may experience different ranges of
emotional and mental states according to their sentience and different cognitive capacities. Not only doanimals vary in relative sentience, which is the ability to experience positive states, such as happiness, andnegative states, such as pain and fear [57], but sentient animals may experience different emotions from one
point in time to the next. In addition, within a species, individual differences in personalities and behaviours

45

may occur, which can result in individual animals responding differently to aspects of their captive
environment [4]. Therefore, when considering the management of wild animals in captivity and how to best
ensure that their psychological needs and requirements are met, it is important to take into account species’
differing cognitive capacities and their sentience, in addition to variances of individual animal traits, and thesemust be considered throughout the animals’ lifetime.

Chapter 11
Domain Five: Mental StateAn individual’s mental state may be determined by the physical and biological health of the animal, the type of
sensations it experiences, whether they be positive or negative, along with cognitive feedback from external
environmental stimulation [6] [8], which, in turn, can affect the animal’s overall welfare state. Suffering is aterm referring to an unpleasant mental state: a level of cognition is necessary for mental suffering, as well as
sentience. With this in mind, taking into account the animal’s cognitive capacity, there can be a large range ofdiffering negative mental states that may lead to suffering and a poor state of welfare, including pain,
frustration, fatigue, boredom, distress, and loneliness. Pain can cause aggression, as can overcrowding,inappropriate social grouping and fear. Prolonged and extreme pain, fear or stress negatively affects thewelfare of individual animals.
Pain is a sensory input that protects the body from damage and harm, but physical pain is an unpleasantsensation and can lead to suffering. The ability to recognize the range of behaviours that may indicate pain inanimals and the knowledge that different ages of animals may have different behavioural expressions of pain
is fundamental in animal management and husbandry in order to appropriately offer relief of pain. Trauma
and injuries may occur for variety of reasons, for example, from abnormal self- mutilation behaviours,
aggressive conflicts, damage from rough surfaces in accommodation enclosures (e.g., poorly maintained
flooring), or from poor handling during transport, and different types of trauma and injuries can cause
different experiences of pain. Additionally, disease is a significant cause of suffering and there is often pain
associated with the diseased area. The degree of suffering experienced as a result of disease depends on thenature of the particular disease and can negatively affect the mental state of an animal by causing a range ofnegative experiences, such as breathlessness, fatigue, nausea and pain [8], thereby resulting in poor animal
welfare. Therefore, appropriate measures must be taken to ensure good physical health through the prompt
detection and treatment of illness or injuries to minimize unpleasant sensations and hence safeguard positive
welfare.
Animals can also experience positive emotions, including a sense of security, playfulness, calmness, andcontentment, which may result from good physical health and positive interactions with the environment andother animals and conspecifics [58] [8].
A positive state of welfare may be achieved by ensuring that captive wild animals are provided withappropriate situations and environmental conditions that enable them to meet their physical and biologicalneeds. For example, social groupings that are appropriate for the species and ages of the animals can facilitate
play, companionship, and a sense of security. Yet if specific circumstances in social groups are sub-optimallymanaged, such as overcrowding or an unnatural ratio of males to females, individual animals may experience
distress with a resultant adverse psychological state. If negative emotions are severe or prolonged and theindividual animal, because of its circumstances, cannot escape or avoid them, welfare will become poor.
Additionally, the use of environmental enrichment techniques to provide a more complex and stimulating
environment can help prevent frustration and boredom [59] with the quality of the environment being animportant factor in reducing stress [16] [60]. An increase in the expression of a range of natural behaviours,
such as exploration, foraging and play, can be associated with a suitably stimulating and variable environment
promoting a positive mental state, and ultimately improving the welfare status of the animal. Providing
individual animals with choices and the ability to make decisions within their environments is essential for
creating positive affective states.

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Consequently, the core function of captive wild animal husbandry and management should be to promote
positive experiences, to minimize stress and negative experiences, and to provide opportunity for natural
behaviour and for making choices within environment that allow the exertion of some measure of control.
Promoting positive, pleasurable experiences for the animals may also offset any unavoidable negative
experiences [59].

5.1 Choice and Control
In addition, and consequent to the above, provisions should be made for an animal to have choice and control
within the confines of its environment, helping to promote conditions of optimal welfare. Traditionally, where
zoo-housed animals spend their time, whether on- or off-exhibit, is determined by humans and animals haveless choice and control than they would in the wild [61]. Choice can be limited in captivity as a result of boththe social and physical environment. Limited opportunity for appropriate social interactions, a limited diet, lackof physical activity diverse space, and limited control over using such spaces are all examples where thechoices an animal has are reduced compared to wild counterparts. Removing the ability to choose how tobehave can be detrimental to an animal's well-being; therefore, protocols and practices should promote as
many choices as possible within the captive environment.
Providing choices offers individuals the opportunity to select preferences and encourages more rewarding. For
example, captive chimpanzees will exert extra effort to receive preferred foods [62]. Zoo- housed giant pandas
and African elephants have responded better to training requests when they are rewarded with preferredfoods [63].
Research also indicates that the opportunity to have choices is more important than actually using the choices.
When giant pandas, which were typically kept in their outside enclosure at a zoo, were given the choice to go
into a small room out of the public eye, they were less agitated and showed a decrease in stress, as measured
by urinary cortisol, even when they chose to remain outside [64]. When given a similar choice over where tospend time in their exhibit, polar bears also showed positive behavioural changes – their positive social
behaviour increased, and their abnormal behaviours, including pacing, decreased [65]. In both studies, theanimals benefited from the additional choice to go to an inside area, even though they rarely went to theseother areas. The pandas used their off-exhibit room 33 per cent of the available time, and the polar bears usedtheirs less than 2 per cent of the available time.
While choice lets an animal react to its environment, control allows the animal to proactively change its
environment [65]. It is critical that an animal is able to react to its environment in a manner that feels
comfortable. And having control over the environment helps to ensure this. We can facilitate control byproviding plenty of species appropriate choices such as resting sites, feeding and foraging options, numerous
and varied locomotion pathways, and environmental gradient choices.

5.2 Welfare Evaluation
As previously discussed, the ‘Five Domains’ concept offers a useful template for the general assessment ofanimal welfare, addressing the need to consider physiological and behavioural indicators of animal well-being,in association with the various mental states an animal may experience [8] [10]. Yet, the assessment of animal
welfare and an individual animal’s affective state or psychological health provides challenges as it cannot bemeasured directly. Although assessment of the affective state can be performed indirectly via observations of
its physical state and behaviour and may indicate the presence of positive or negative experiences orsensations. Experienced observation and interpretation of species-specific behaviours is required. Therefore,
assessments of animal welfare should involve reviewing animal-based measures, as well as resource-based
measures. Animal based measures, which can provide guidance to the welfare state of the individual animal,
are important for understanding and ultimately achieving good animal welfare and must therefore be taken
into account when considering the overall welfare of captive wild animals, in addition to resource based
measures that involve an assessment of the provisions of the animal’s environment, such as appropriate

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nutrition, suitable shelter, etc., as depicted in the four physical domains (nutrition, health, environment andbehaviour).
Animal based measures may incorporate a number of different assessment techniques which in general
involve behavioural measures, physiological measures, health assessments (injury occurrence, disease
presence and mortalities) and animal group or population data analysis [10]. However, each of these fouranimal-based measures or assessment techniques should not be considered alone, since independently eachone has limitations, whereas if outcomes from more than one assessment method
are used, a more reliable indication of an animal’s welfare state may be achieved [10]. For example, anindividual animal may be in good physical health with normal physiological measures, yet its mental state andhence welfare may be poor if its fundamental need to burrow or nest cannot be met. Population data is usefulwhen assessing the welfare of big groups of animals where it may be difficult to determine the identification ofindividuals.
Observing what behaviours different animals perform, the duration of the expressed behaviours andcomparing these observations to the behaviours displayed by wild counterparts has been used as a method toassess welfare [66]. Behavioural measures of an individual’s welfare may include the observation of abnormal
behaviours such as stereotypies, avoidance, over-grooming, self-harming, excessively low levels of activity,
poor maternal care, or hyper-aggression [67]. Yet, poor maternal care may occur for a variety of reasons; it canbe associated with stress or result from ill health of the mother and therefore may not be a lone indicator ofdiminished welfare.
The performance of stereotypies is suggestive of a negative welfare state; they are considered indicators ofpoor animal welfare. Stereotypies may develop in animals for a variety of different reasons, but are often
associated with suboptimal environmental provision, chronic social isolation and chronic stress or frustration
as a result of the confined environment and its associated imposed restrictions [7]. Stereotypies can cause
physical injuries and harm that result from the animal’s repetitive actions and abnormal behaviours. Although,stereotypies may help the animal cope in its current environment and situation, they remain suggestive ofdiminished welfare [60]. However, if the occurrence of stereotypies is used as an animal based measure of
welfare, it should also be noted that stereotypies can reflect previous, historical experiences in the animal’s
lifetime and therefore may not represent the effect of present management or environmental conditions on
welfare [44] [16] [7]; where the observation of stereotypies is used as a welfare assessment method, othermeasures of welfare should be used in conjunction with stereotypy observation to give a more reliableindication of an animal’s welfare state.
Physiological measures such as heart rate, measures of stress hormones (corticosteroids such as cortisol) andother biological parameters of physical health and stress, can provide insight. Cortisol can be measured via
blood samples, saliva, faeces or urine, although like other physiological measures, changes in cortisol levels
may not specifically relate to negative experiences; they also indicate positive experiences by the animal andhence should be interpreted in association with the specific environmental circumstances and conditions at
the time of sampling [66]. Body weight changes may result from a number of different causes, such as
seasonal fluctuations, changes associated with age or the presence of disease, and hence, alone, should not be
used as a reliable measure of animal welfare.
It is imperative that the interpretation of all animal-based assessments be carefully considered with specificreference to the environmental and management conditions experienced by the animal at the time ofobservation or sampling.

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Chapter 12
Miscellaneous
Peripheral to the Five Domains, other elements that are significant factors contributing to animal health andwell-being are a documented institutional policy on animal welfare, the maintenance of good animal records,
the prevention of an animal escape, and documented contingency plans for the management of an escape.

6.1 Governance
Mellor [68] recommends that each facility develop an animal welfare charter for the organisation that reflects
a clear commitment to animal welfare principles. Such a charter may be in the form of a policy statement or amore detailed document of commitment outlining procedures and protocols. All animal care personnel withina facility should be familiar with this commitment and apply its doctrine to their daily work routines.

6.2. Record Keeping
The maintenance of accurate, well documented records forms a necessary element of good animal husbandry
and care. In some jurisdictions it is a legal requirement for zoos to keep records [16]. Records must be kept bysuch a method that enables quick and easy access to the information. Computerized records are especiallyconstructive in that information may be easily incorporated into web-based, global zoo animal databases suchas the Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS) offered by the USA-Based Species360 organisation.
However, stand-alone computerized records must be adequately and securely backed up. Records detailing
health, husbandry and behavioural observations enable the assessment and monitoring of patterns, whilst also
providing a method of assessing animal welfare. Health records, alongside recorded daily behavioural
observations, can facilitate the interpretation of trends in disease and observed mental health and hence may
be used as indicators of general welfare. Demographic or population data is also valuable for the assessmentof welfare in groups of animals). However, when considering individual animal welfare, the observations andrecords of individual animals should be interpreted collectively alongside the records of other individuals
within the social grouping; enhancing the behaviour in one individual, can negatively affect the welfare ofanother individual in the group.
In addition to monitoring of the health and welfare of both individuals and groups of animals, records also playa role in breeding management. Many zoos and aquaria actively participate in co-operative breeding
programmes. Whether the aim is to maintain genetic diversity of captive populations of species, or as part of areintroduction programme, accurate records are vital [39].
In order for accurate records to be kept, the identification of each individual animal is vital. Individual animal
identification of some species can be done through distinctive natural markings or appearance of the pelage.
However, most animals can be individually marked using a suitable marking system [69] [70]. Only thosemarking systems that have minimal adverse effects on the animal should be used [69] [70]. Individual
identification using the subcutaneous implantation of a unique microchip is frequently used. Where thepermanent marking of animals using external marks or microchips is undertaken, it should only be performedby trained and competent personnel, using suitable equipment, under hygienic conditions. Marking systems
for individuals should be appropriate, easy to apply with negligible discomfort to the animal, and the tag or
microchip should not cause any impairment or irritation [70]. It is essential that the health, locomotor patterns
and natural behaviour of the animal are not compromised through the identification system used [16].

6.3 Escapes
The prevention of the escape of captive wild animals from their enclosures is vital to safeguard the health andwelfare of each individual animal accommodated within the enclosure. Furthermore, escape prevention
ensures the safety of personnel and members of the public and protects the local biodiversity and the viability49

of local ecosystems. The escape of an animal from an enclosure may not only result in potentially serious
injury to persons or damage to property, it also has the likely consequence of the escaped animal itself being
subject to significant injury and harm. Therefore, it is imperative that sufficient thought and consideration are
given to the secure design and maintenance of animal enclosures, and the facility’s perimeter fencing. These
represent primary containment barriers and must be of appropriate height, strength, and construction. Entries
to all animal enclosures must be locked not only to prevent animal escape but equally significantly, to preventthe unauthorized access by members of the public.
The deployment of a documented emergency animal escape protocol with scheduled review is indispensable.
The protocol must further cover the procedures undertaken in the event of an unauthorized person entering
an enclosure, or accidental or deliberate unauthorized contact with an animal. All personnel must be familiar
with the protocol, comprehend its implementation, and documented training and practice drills regularly
undertaken. Under certain circumstances, the humane destruction of the escapee may be necessary: theprotocol must incorporate this possibility and ensure that an experienced member of staff with the necessary
authority is available at all times to make such a decision. This emergency protocol must additionally address
the requirements of local legislation and the notification of the local authority within required time frames.
Environmental disasters, climatic extremes and other catastrophes have the potential to severely compromise
animal welfare. Each species of animal is adapted to living within particular environmental conditions that
include specific thermal ranges and humidity levels. Severe changes in weather patterns will compromise
welfare by exposing animals to thermal stress. Consequently, fires, extreme weather, natural disasters, andother catastrophes must be planned for and incorporated into documented emergency protocols. To make thepoint: it is critical to ensure that appropriate contingency measures to safeguard the welfare of the animals
held at the institution are devised and ready for immediate implementation should such events occur.
The welfare of an escapee free roaming a local natural environment may be compromised through physicaland/or psychological injury, and also through potential exposure to novel pathogens against which it may havelittle immunity. Therefore, every effort must be made to effect recovery of all escapees. Upon live recovery,
the potential risk to the health and welfare of the other resident animals should be considered and mitigatedthrough quarantine.

6.5 Release to Wild
There may be various reasons for temporarily held captive animals to be returned to the wild and range fromreintroduction programmes utilizing captive-bred or relocated wild stock to the situations of animals being
displaced as a result of sickness, stranding, injury or orphaning. Many animals are displaced as a direct result of
human actions, for example as victims of the trade in live wild animals. However, release to the wild is notwithout risk to the health and welfare of the animal released, native species within the release habitat, therelease habitat itself, or nearby human communities [75] [76]. Further, while post-release monitoring isnecessary to determine if an animal has integrated successfully into the release environment (and to gather
data to inform future decisions on rehabilitation and release), some post-release monitoring methods may
have potential to negatively impact [77] [78] the welfare of the animal and the associated social group where
relevant.
Prior to release a qualified practitioner should determine that the animal meets species appropriate physical,
health and behavioural criteria indicating that it has a reasonable chance of post- release success in terms ofsurvival and welfare compared to other conspecifics [74]. Release to the wild should not compromise the longterm health or welfare of the animal released, native species within the release habitat, or the release habitat
itself. In order to ensure that these criteria are met, it is important to select release sites carefully and tomonitor the animal post-release [89] [80].

50Release protocols should consider the Precautionary Principle at all times and cover the following topics:a) Knowledge of the origin of the released animal as well as knowledge of the population into which it isreleased– including knowledge of genetics of subspecies where relevant.
b) Knowledge of and adherence to the relevant legislation pursuant to the jurisdiction in which the animal(s)are to be released.
c) Knowledge of and adherence to existing conservation efforts and guidelines relevant to the species being
released (e.g., IUCN Species Action Plan or Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) Species SurvivalPlan) as well as relevant to the ecosystems and populations into which the species is to be reintroduced.
d) Knowledge of and adherence to guidelines published by authorities having jurisdiction over releases ofmarine and terrestrial species.
e) Health/disease status of the released animal, including minimizing any infectious disease risk its releasemight pose to conspecifics or to other species present within the release habitat [81]f) The ability of the habitat into which the animal is released to support the individual in a manner that is
consistent with the natural ecology of the species (e.g., sufficient size and quality of space (including space notoccupied by territorial conspecifics)), suitable shelter, proper terrain and vegetation, year-round availability of
appropriate amount and quality of food and water, opportunity to establish territorial areas, access tocompatible mates, habitat qualities necessary for the rearing of young, sufficient opportunity to avoid humans
including releasing animals a suitable distance from human development [74}. Where possible, animals should
be released where there are a minimal number of predators [74]. Political (legal and enforced) protection of theenvironment or habitat into which an animal is released should also be considered.
g) Behavioural assessment of the animal to be released to ensure suitable behaviour necessary for survival andto minimize the possibility of human-animal conflict. Post-release monitoring must be considered an integral
part of any release initiative [77] [82]. This means having a plan for monitoring to the best available standard
based on current research.
The objectives of post-release monitoring are to:a) Determine that the animal has integrated successfully into the release environment.
b) Gather data from releases to be used to make informed decisions on rehabilitation and release for the
future.
c) When possible, to establish that a released animal is reproducing in the wild which in many cases would bean ultimate gold standard for successful integration.
The post-release monitoring plan should include criteria for determining when post- release interventions areneeded and what actions are to be taken. These actions may range from increasing monitoring frequency toshort term in situ interventions to removal from the wild. There is a range of tools for post-release monitoringthat may be used in this process (such as banding or tagging, visual monitoring or when appropriate andavailable technologically sophisticated monitoring techniques such as camera traps and acoustic, satellite, orradio tracking). The potential for negative impacts on the welfare of the monitored animal and its associatedsocial group, where relevant, should be understood and must be balanced with the need for the informationeach method is likely to reveal. The monitoring technique which has the least negative impact on the animal,
while able to gather the necessary information should always be used. In all cases, any monitoring technology
worn by individual animals should weigh less than 5% of the animals’ total body weight.
Compliance with all existing legislative requirements throughout the entire the process of return to the wild,
including monitoring (e.g., when certain tagging or monitoring is required as part of licensing by the
responsible government agency) is required.

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APPENDIX ONE - GLOSSARY
NOTE: The meaning of definitions is determined by context
Acceptable: Acceptable in terms of international norms.
Adequate: Sufficient and suitable for the intended purpose.
Animal: Any mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish, invertebrate or other sentient organism that is not a plantor a fungus.
Aquaculture: The managed production either through intervention in the breeding process, or throughstocking, feeding or predator control programmes, of aquatic animals.
Barrier: Structure built to contain or prevent passage.
Containment barrier: The primary barrier that in its effect confines the animal.
Safety barrier: The barrier designed to keep humans at a safe distance from the animal enclosure and toprevent human / animal conflict.
Behavioural enrichment: Is a concept which describes how the behavioural repertoires of animals underhuman care can be managed and enhanced for their well-being.
Behavioural Management: Is a comprehensive, pro-active approach to enhancing the care and well-being of
captive animals that involves four elements including positive reinforcement training, environmental
enrichment, operational considerations, and facility design.
Biosecurity: Is a means of reducing the risk of disease occurring or being transmitted to other animals.
Captivity: A time-based state wherein animals are in a condition of confinement, both intentionally and byconsequence, with their day-to-day needs, welfare, and wellbeing subject to the provision of direct humanintervention and care
Cognition: The mental process of acquiring knowledge through the senses, experience, understanding andthought and which involves reasoning, perception, awareness, intuition, and judgement.
Commercial breeding centre: A facility where live animals are bred, produced, or cultured for purelycommercial purposes.
Commercial exhibit facility: A legal facility where living animals are exhibited to the public for exclusively
commercial purposes.
Pet shop: A mercantile facility for the retail sale of live animals and related goods or services.
Competent: Capable of executing one’s duties effectively.
Conspecific: An animal belonging to the same species as another.
Domesticated animal: An animal that has been genetically modified through selective breeding over many
generations in order to serve various human objectives.
Domesticated pet: A domesticated animal kept by humans for household/personal companionship.
Environmental enrichment: A dynamic process for enhancing animal environments within the context of theanimals’ behavioural biology and natural history. Environmental changes are made with the goal of increasing
the animals’ behavioural choices and drawing out their species-appropriate behaviours, thus enhancing animal
welfare.
Epidemiology: The investigation of disease as it affects groups of animals.

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Exotic pet: An animal kept by humans that is not fully domesticated and that belongs to a species notindigenous to the geographical area where it is kept, but which is kept by humans for household/personal
companionship and pleasure.
Euthanasia: The humane, painless, and distress-free termination of an animal’s life where it is considered to bein the best interest of the individual animal concerned, using a method which produces concurrent loss of
consciousness and central nervous system functioning.
Feral animal: A domestic animal that is living in a wild state which has poor habituation to, and fear of,humans. Placing such an animal into a typical household situation would as such, have detrimental effects on
its wellbeing.
Justifiable: Supportable by argument.
Longevity: The length or duration of life.
Management authority: Senior Personnel within the facility responsible for day-to-day management andadministration.
Normal behaviour: Behaviour that occurs at a frequency, duration and intensity within the range expressed byfree-living wild conspecifics.
Operant Conditioning: A type of learning in which the probability of a behaviour recurring increases ordecreases based on the consequences associated with that action or behaviour; reinforcement, punishment
and extinction are the consequences that either strengthen or weaken a behaviour.
Permanent (Captivity): The instance of permanent, life-long captivity where there is no intention of return-towild for that individual animal.
Precautionary Principle: A principle of science that prescribes caution or conservative action in the face of
scientific uncertainty or lack of data in order to reduce or alleviate threats of harm to the wellbeing of humans,
animals or the environment pending further scientific investigation.
Private collection: A collection of animals without visiting public access, for the exclusive benefit to a private
individual or individuals.
Punishment: Anything that decreases the chance of a behaviour recurring.
Rehabilitation: A period of time (hours to years) where specialized care is provided to improve the health of
the affected animal to the point where it can be successfully released and integrated back to its original
habitat whenever possible / practicable or to a suitable alternative habitat.
Rehabilitation Centre: A permanently sited facility without visiting public access, exclusively administered forthe short term, temporary care of indigenous wild animals with the primary aim of their return to the wild.
Reinforcement: Anything that increases the chance of a behaviour recurring.
Positive reinforcement: Following an act with something the subject wants, thereby increasing the chance of
the act recurring.
Negative reinforcement: Following an act with the removal of something aversive that the subject wants toavoid, thereby increasing the chance of the act recurring; this is also called escape-avoidance training.
Sanctuary: A permanently sited facility exclusively administered for on-site, long term or lifelong, individual
animal care. A sanctuary is a facility that rescues and provides care for animals that are in need of appropriatecare, or have suffered abuse, injury or neglect, or have been abandoned or confiscated. Sanctuaries do notbreed, buy, sell, or trade animals and do not allow public contact with animals in their collection. Animals are
only taken offsite for medical treatment or emergencies.

53

Sentience: Is the capacity to have subjective experiences and feel and perceive emotions such as pain andpleasure. It implies a level of conscious awareness and the ability to suffer.
Species: A kind of animal that does not normally interbreed with individuals of another kind and includes any
sub-species, cultivar, variety, geographic race, strain, hybrid, or geographically separate population.
Specimen: Any living or dead animal, egg, gamete, or propagules or part of an animal, capable of propagation
or reproduction or in any way transferring genetic traits; any derivative of any animal.
Stereotypy: The persistent repetition of a behaviour for no obvious purpose
Suffering: An adverse mental state that negatively affects the welfare status of an animal and is associatedwith negative experiences such as pain, distress, extreme boredom, injury and disease.
Suitable: Appropriate for the intended purpose
Taming: This is a process which involves changing a wild animal’s behaviour, but not its genetic characteristics.
Taming is different from domestication, which is a process that changes the genetics of the animal over a long
period of time by selective breeding. Tamed wild animals do not lose their innate wild characteristics.
Technical: According to principle; formal rather than practical and relating to or employing the methodology ofscience.
Temporary (Captivity): The circumstance where an animal is temporarily maintained in captivity where theintention is to return the animal back to a wild, self-sustaining situation through a process of physical andpsychological rehabilitation.
Veterinarian: Any person legally registered as a veterinarian with the appropriate legislative body in the
country within which the institution is located.
Welfare: Animal welfare refers to a state that is specific for every individual animal; it is how the animal
experiences its own world and life through its association with pleasant experiences specific for that species
such as vitality, affection, safety and excitement or unpleasant experiences such as pain, hunger, fear,
boredom, loneliness, or frustration.
Wellbeing: A state of harmony between the animal’s physical and psychological functioning
Wild: Living in a state of nature and not under human control and care
Wild animal: A species of animal not domesticated in terms of this document, and which retains its wild traits.
Wildlife rehabilitation: The treatment and temporary care of orphaned, injured, confiscated, diseased, anddisplaced indigenous animals, and the subsequent release of healthy animals to appropriate habitats in thewild
Zoo/aquarium: A permanently sited facility primarily open to and administered for the visiting public, where
living animals are maintained under predominantly ex situ circumstances.
Bird Park: A facility specializing in the public exhibition of live birds.
Reptile Park: A facility specializing in the public exhibition of live reptiles.
Zoonosis: A disease that is communicable between vertebrate animals and man. (Zoonoses – plural).

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13. Girling S. (2003). Veterinary nursing of exotic pets. Blackwell Publishing.

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