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The Impact of Globalization on Science and Technology in Sub-Saharan African countries.
Introduction.
We are constantly bombarded with media reports on globalization in terms of its
increasing process and potential effects on our lives. What is meant by this concept andwhy should we be concerned with its impact? The developing countries of sub-SaharanAfrica should be interested in it because of the opportunities and threats offered by
globalization. Globalization is a very wide topic. Using a search engine, I was able toenumerate four million websites on the Internet about the impact of globalization onscience and technology in developing countries. There are several search engines forfinding information and the mind boggles at the potential breadth and scope of information available on this topic. The information is literally available at the touch of a button!
The word “Globalization” is derived from the transitive verb “globalize” which means“to make worldwide in scope or application”. The word is now used to describe andexplain the many changes that are occurring in the world. In some instances, “globalization”
is seen as a logical objective of a new world order with an identifiable geo-political anddomination strategy which neatly divides the world into “North” and “South” while at thesame time loudly proclaiming the advent of ‘one world’ . In other instances “globalization”
is seen as an evolutionary successor to the industrial revolution. It is perceived as a natural
historical progression to the internationalization of economic (sic ‘new economic order’)and social policies, activities, ideas and the standardization of political structures andpractices. This interpretation of globalization has spawned the world wide (ww !) andsuch fashionable phrases as ‘structural adjustment’, ‘good governance’ and ‘information
highway’.
The mother of this globalization is Science and the activator is her daughter Technology(both affectionately called science and technology). The most visible manifestations of“globalization” are in the economic and communications spheres. The most importantcharacteristic of “globalization” is the information technology (fondly known as IT). The
IT revolution has brought about most profound changes in the way human activities andendeavours are conducted. These fundamental changes range from newer methods in theindustrial production of goods and services (e.g use of computer-aided design (CAD) andcomputer numerically-controlled machines (CNC) in the textile industry ) to standardization of patterns of consumption, social behaviour and cultural expression.
The globalization process, is however, heterogeneous and exclusive because its
conceptualization, definition and rationale are derived from the developed countries in
the North with minimal input, if any, from developing countries called the South. This2view is backed by the obvious parallels between the current relations between the Northand South and the colonial and neo-colonial experience of the developing countries. The
difference in the experiences of developing countries between the current globalizationand the colonial and neo-colonial period appears to be that the current control mechanism,
which gives supremacy to the ‘free market’ is subtle, more refined and not easy to deal
with. It should be underlined that the current relations and discrepancies between the
North and South are dictated by science and her daughter, technology.

ATPS SPECIAL SERIES NO. 3

Euphoria in the Decade of African Independence
An understanding of the impact of globalization on the sub-Saharan countries of Africa
must be understood in the context of formal education and training in science andtechnology. Formal basic education and training in science and technology are important. However, this paper focuses on university education and on research and development. The starting point is the euphoric 1960s, the period that may be called the “Decadeof African Independence ”. The achievement of independence by the majority of the subSaharan African countries during this period fulfilled Kwame Nkrumah’s dictum, “Seekye the political kingdom first and the rest shall be given unto you”.
The Decade of African Independence was characterized by heroic attempts by Africanpresidents to carve out indigenous development strategies. For example, in Ghana
Kwame Nkrumah raised Consciencism; in Zambia Kenneth Kaunda gave a sermon on
Humanism; in Tanzania Julius Nyerere inventedUjamaa; and in Senegal Leopold
Senghor rhapsodized about Negritude.
These homegrown development ideologies were rooted in the desire to re-invent Africa’s
past glory so as to mould its present, and map out its future, based on indigenous
initiatives. It was a matter of faith that achievement of political independence would
bring development and result in economic prosperity. It was expected that science andtechnology would also flourish. In this respect, African governments did, and continue
to, recognize the importance of science and technology and research and development(research and development) in socio-economic development.

Science and Technology in the Decade of African Independence
In recognition of the role of science and technology in socio-economic development
many countries of sub-Saharan Africa established science and technology policy making
bodies and research and development institutions. The United Nations Education andScientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) acted as a catalyst by organizing the
CASTAFRICA conferences for African ministers responsible for science in 1974 and1987. The 1979 Vienna global conference on science and technology for development
organized by the united nations further sensitized and spurred african countries to action.

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examples of science and technology policy making bodies and research and development
institutions that were formed during the decade of independence are the National Council
for Scientific Research (NCSR) in Zambia, the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) in Ghana, the National Council for Science and Technology (NCST)
in Kenya, and the Science and Technology Commission together with its many research
institutes and centres in Tanzania.
The recognition of the role of science and technology in development by governments
continues to this day as exemplified by putting in place national policies on science andtechnology by the enactment of science and technology legislation and by the establishment of ministries of science and technology.

What Went Wrong?
In spite of these apparent commitments by governments, science and technology has notbeen accorded the primary priority that it deserves in resource allocation. Evidence of
this lip service commitment is to be found in the absence of concrete follow-up activities
to the 1980 Lagos Plan of Action. No country in sub-Saharan Africa, South Africa
excepted, who have achieved the recommended allocation of one percent of GDP toscience and technology. There is an irony in the 1980 Lagos Plan of Action chapter onscience. In this chapter, the Heads of State call for “ political will” to enable science andtechnology become a true instrument for, and an integral part of, development. But if the
Heads of State themselves could not, there and then, muster and effect political will, whocan? As Professor Paul Vitta has observed “leaders calling for political will are like air
summoning its shadow”!
the science and technology policy making bodies and research and development
institutions were generously funded and well endowed with infrastructure when they
were first established. However, there were inherent difficulties. The critical difficultywas (and continues to be) the inadequacy of human resource. As Arpád Goncz, thePresident of Hungary, observed in his opening address to the World Conference on
Science in 1999 “without the ‘software’ of the human personality, of the human soul, thehuman spirit, the ‘hardware’ of science will never function”. Many of the policy-making
bodies and research and development institutions lack a critical mass of scientists to makemeaningful impact in finding solutions to local problems using local raw materials.
The approach towards the achievement of critical numbers of research scientists was thestrategy of Staff Development Programme. Freshly graduated science and engineering
students were recruited by universities and research and development institutions andimmediately sent to universities in developed countries. The Unesco World Science
Report 1998 states that out of 61 million students in the world, two percent or 1.22 millionof them study in foreign countries. Of these 1.22 million, 70 percent come fromdeveloping countries. Sub-Saharan African countries send the largest proportion (144percent). These students were, through bonding schemes, expected to return home oncompletion of their studies. During the 1960s and 1970s a majority of these students
returned. Today the don’t. Thus graduate studies in developed countries became the main
brain drain channels for sub-Saharan countries. The exodus of such a large body of highly
educated human resource has had a devastating impact on the ability of the sub-SaharanAfrican countries to utilize the opportunities offered by globalization of science andtechnology.

ATPS SPECIAL SERIES NO. 3

African Universities in the Decade of African Independence
The most important institutions that African governments created in pursuance ofdevelopment are universities. The institutions had, and still have, the enduring universal
mission of all universities: teaching, carrying out research, and public service.
In many cases, critical schools of natural sciences, agricultural sciences and medicine
were among the first faculties to be established in the newly created universities.
Countries like Ghana and later Zimbabwe set up universities dedicated to science andtechnology. In the early years following their establishment, the immediate objective of
the African universities was the production of the much-needed human resource to meetthe requirements of government and the public service. The African universities of the
1960’s and 1970s made great strides in the fulfilment of that mission. Academic
excellence was the hallmark of the African university as demostrated by their increasing
share of publications during the period. Other evidence of success abounds in the large
numbers of African university trained human resource working in government, the public
service and the private sector. Further evidence of the excellent progress that African
universities made is embodied in today’s fashionable terms such as “the brain drain” fromdeveloping African countries to the developed countries and “brain circulation” within
African countries. It is even possible to talk of the African educated human resource inthe diaspora.
The Sad Decline of the African University
Unfortunately, African countries failed to enhance and sustain the early achievements of
their universities. An Association of African Universities (AAU) study noted that : “ themajor reason for the failure to consolidate and sustain the achievements of the 1960s and1970s was the fact that, while the political leaders had shown some appreciation of their
universities, in many cases they did not match even the preceding colonial regimes inunderstanding and valuing universities as agents of change”. The major result has been
the sad decline of the African university. One of the contributory factors has been an
exponential growth in demand for university education which resulted in increased inenrolments. The increased student enrolments were not matched by increases in resource

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allocation to universities. The most visible evidence of the decline of African universities
include:

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low financial resources and erratic funding;he over-crowding of halls of residence, lecture rooms and science and engineeringlaboratories;
scantily equipped laboratories and workshops with obsolete equipment;
dilapidated research infrastructure;poorly stocked and out-dated libraries far removed from the “information highway;
underpaid and unappreciated professors and lecturers;
exodus of academic and research staff;
diminished scholarship as demonstrated by decreased publications;frequent student riots and lecture boycotts ;occasional go-slows by the now unionized academic staff and industrial strike action
by support staff ; and the consequent
university closures which have become the norm rather than the exception.

However, the saddest and far reaching impact of the decline of the African university is
its loss of public image, prestige, and dignity. Such loss cannot be easily regained.
Student riots and lecture boycotts occur with near predictability and regularity. When
students take to the streets innocent members of the public are often viciously attacked,
injured and property damaged. The picture of “the clobbered student” and the spectacleof the “unemployed graduate” has certainly diminished the dignity and prestige of theuniversity as a centre of learning and focused scholarship. This loss of prestige isexacerbated by the university’s inability to take a leading role in offering solutions to the
problems of today and the challenges of tomorrow. The African university is, indeed now
a shadow of its former self.
Sub-Saharan African countries have paid a terrible price for not prioritizing science andtechnology. Thus while the world average per capita income rose at a rate of 3.0 percent( 7.0 percent in East Asia ) per year from 1980 to 1990, in Africa if fell by 1.0 per centper year. In other words, while everybody else was getting richer, Africans were actually
getting poorer. The 1980s were indeed “Africa’s lost decade”. Owing to the neglect ofscience and technology and research and development and the decline of universities,
African countries are ill prepared to take advantage of the opportunities offered by
globalization. They are in great danger of being left behind.

Impacts of Globalization
Location on the Globalization Spectrum

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The impact of globalization on a country depends on the position it occupies on the
globalization spectrum. For example, although Zambia and India are both developing
countries and are economically in the South, India is many ranks above Zambia on the
globalization spectrum. Thus globalization has expanded the gap not only between the
North and South but also between South and South. This gap has been brought about by
the information technology:
Information Gapö

Competitive Gap ö

Development Gap

The location of countries on the globalization spectrum is determined by investment in
human resource and in science and technology. Education and capacity in science are
critical infrastructure requirements. Without them, no real progress can be made. For
sub-Saharan African countries who are on the weak end of the globalization spectrum,
prioritized investment in formal basic education and basic science education is imperative and requires utmost attention.

Human Resource Capability in sub-Saharan African Countries
The reasons why investment in human resources has not yielded better positioning ofmost African countries in the globalization process is attributable to the exodus of its
highly educated human resource as outlined above. The brain drain has grown from atrickle in the 1960s and 1970s to a torrent by 2000. Owing to the long gestation period
of investments in human capital and the continuing brain drain it would appear that
economic development through science and technology will depend on well planned
exploitation of the opportunities and careful avoidance of the risks posed by globalization.

The Nature of Research in sub-Saharan African Countries
The focus of the work of the research and development institutions that were establishedin the 1960s and the 1970s was what can be termed “developmental research”. However,
the actual research carried out can best be termed as “subsistence research”. It should bestated, however, that this was in no way due to the personal qualities of individual
scientists but rather to the way scientific research was organized. Dominance ofsubsistence research is one of the structural problems that beset scientific research indeveloping countries. Subsistence research (like economic subsistence) is concernedwith serving the immediate needs of the society in which the research is undertaken. An

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example of subsistence research was the development of carbonated fruit beverages fromguava and pineapple which resulted in the beverage trademarked Tip Top undertaken by
the then National Council for Scientific Research of Zambia. Such research does pave
way for development but is not by itself a factor of development. .

International Collaboration in Science and Technology
Globalization offers opportunities for collaboration in “fundamental research” between
scientists in developed and developing countries. Although this is tantalizing, it offers
new difficulties. Apart from the need to bridge the gap between subsistence research in
sub-Saharan African countries and fundamental research in developed countries thequestion of changed circumstances in which research is conducted in developed countries, needs to be tackled. In developed countries promot on to higher academic andresearch ranks is no longer solely based on the age-old dictum of publish or perish.
Instead, the researcher or academic must, in addition to publishing, demonstrate ability
to attract large research grants or contracts. In such circumstances a scientist in adeveloped country may be unwilling to collaborate with an unknown African scientist
from a sub-Saharan African country.

Globalization Has Intensified As Well As Expanded Poverty
There is a tendency to perceive poverty as a problem exclusive to developing countries,
especially sub-Saharan African countries where more than three quarters of the world’s
poorest countries are located. But globalization is expanding the gap between the ‘haves’and ‘have-nots’ in the North also. There is an emerging class of ‘haves’ in sub-SaharanAfrican countries who share more social and economic characteristics with the ‘haves’of the developed countries than with their own kith and kin in the South. Their new
language is not Tonga or English; it is wealth and materialism. Today, poverty alleviation
provides a challenging new frontier to local problem solving.

Concentration of Scientific Innovations and Progress in Developed
Countries
Scientific innovations and progress in developed countries have had a serious impact on
sub-Saharan countries. For example, Africa is in crisis because of the HIV/AIDS
epidemic. But the most advanced diagnostic and treatment regimes are controlled bypharmaceutical companies in the developed countries. They determine who receives
HAART (Highly Active Anti-Aids Retroviral Therapy), at what price and under what
conditions. Yet these pharmaceutical companies have the capacity and capability to8build, operate or upgrade existing biomedical and clinical laboratories to study HIV/AIDS in situ in any sub-Saharan African country such as Zambia. As Nobel laureate Luc
Montagnier observed in his address to the World Conference on Science “the relative lackof interest (in HIV vaccine development) on the part of the pharmaceutical industry andfunding agencies is because the market for AIDS vaccine will reside mostly in countries
read sub-Saharan African countries) unable to afford its price”. The HIV/AIDS epidemic
and debt crisis bedeviling sub-Saharan African countries symbolize globalization more
concretely than any other examples. Africa’s survival depends on surviving the scourgeof HIV/AIDS but Africa has little control over many of the care and support strategies
so badly needed in the sub-Saharan region.

ATPS SPECIAL SERIES NO. 3

Lost Identity Through Loss of Power To Set Standards For SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY in Africa
Globalization has increased the scientific and intellectual arrogance of some scientists indeveloped countries. Perhaps owing to the fact that globalization has been defined andrationalized from developed country perspectives, some scientists have become contemptuous of legitimate skepticism emanating from developing countries on somescientific questions. An example is the debate regarding the views of Thabo Mbeki,
President of South Africa, on HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS is the most threatening event toAfrica in living memory. It is more powerful than colonialism and will have a farreaching impact. However, in the true tradition of science, Mbeki legitimately raised aquestion about the cause of AIDS. It is in the nature of science to entertain, allow andwelcome different views, however controversial. Instead of presenting scientific arguments, some scientists have adopted a political perspective (i.e. power perspective) todeny Mbeki a right to voice his dissent. These scientists seem to have forgotten that forover three hundred years Galileo remained excommunicated by the all powerful Catholic
Church for his views which were contrary to the then popular belief.

Market Liberalization.
Globalization has brought to the sub-Saharan countries loss of control of their own
destinies. This loss of control of destiny is more evident in the economic field embodied
in the cry “free market” being proclaimed by developed countries. The focus of the new
economic order on deregulation and liberalization is not accidental. It is a reflection of
the interests of the developed countries who are dominating the globalization process.
Whereas the developed countries vigorously promote free movement of products , thesame countries have not advocated liberalization of free movement of the Africancountries’ abundant labour supply. Neither have they advocated liberalization of

ATPS SPECIAL SERIES NO. 3
9scientific and technological know-how which would have a significant effect on levellingthe economic field. In order to maintain the developed countries’ edge and lead ininternational competition, the Uruguay Round Agreement on Aspects of Trade-RelatedIntellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) has made the transfer of technology more restrictive.
Market liberalization works well and provides healthy competition among equals.
However, sub-Saharan countries have been obliged to enter into this competition with themore powerful developed countries, so to speak, “ with hands down”. This is because
natural resources are no longer the key to effective competition in a globalized economy.
The key is knowledge. For example, for the price of present household articles, 20 percent
accounts for ‘actual material’ and a colossal 80 percent accounts for knowledge. Even
investment of capital that is supposedly a beneficial effect of economic globalization has
flown over the sub-Saharan countries. This is because investment decisions, which now
depend on the interdependency between science and industry, are no longer based onabundant natural resources and cheap labour. Investment decisions are now based on
availability of specific skills (acquired through formal education and training ), scientificcapability and capacity and relevant know-how. The market is not efficient in allocating
resources to such areas. Developed countries have used market liberalization as a carrot
for handing out “development” aid and as a bait for accessing loans. The loans are
exclusively consumer oriented rather than targeting them to productive investment. The
end result is that globalization and market liberalization have made it difficult for subSaharan African countries to create wealth.

Conclusion
If sub-Saharan countries are to take advantage of the opportunities offered by globalization,
they must re-discover, albeit a with 20/20 vision, the zest that pervaded the Decade of
African Independence for development using indigenous initiatives. They must not only
will their future but must create the necessary enabling environment which will allow thatwilled future to be realized, concretized, nurtured and sustained. A start can be made bybringing back home the many teachers, scientists, engineers, medical doctors, andtechnological personnel who equal, perhaps number more than, the expatriate personnel
currently working in the sub-Saharan African countries.

References
1.
Mwindaace N. Siamwiza, “Commitment to Science by African Governments,
Scientists and Private - Sector Stakeholders”, Bulletin, Vol. 33 No.1, Unesco Nairobi
Office, 1998.

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2.
World Conference on Science, UNESCO Publishing, 1999.
3.
Paul B. Vitta, “Technology Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa: Why the Dream
Remains Unfulfilled”, World Development, Vol. 18, No. 11, 1990
4.
Shamika Sirimanne, “The Information Technology Revolution: What about theDeveloping Countries”? Development Express, International Development Information
Centre, http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/xpress/dex/dex9604.htm, 28 October 2000.
5.
Globalization: What does it mean for the South?
h t t p : / /www.southcentre.org/papers/nam/namannex2-01.htm, 28 October 2000
6.
Julius Court, T. Yanagihara, Project: Asia and Africa in the Global Economy;
http://www.unu.edu/hq/academic/Pg area4/August-intro.html, 28 October 2000
7.
The University in Africa in the 1990s and Beyond, Summary Report; AssociationofAfrican Universities and UNESCO Nairobi Office, Eastern and Southern African
Consultation on Higher Education, Nairobi, 12 - 14 February 1997
8.
Ajayi, J.F., Goma, Lameck K. H., Johnson, Ampah G. The African Experience with
Higher Education. The Association of African Universities; Accra; Ohio University
Press,
Athens, Ohio, U.S.A
9.
Sciences in the 21st Century: Challenges and Perspectives. UNESCO International
Scientific Advisory Board. 20 -21 January 1997, Paris [Siamwiza, M. N., Personal Notes]
This paper was originally delivered as the keynote address at the 7th Annual Conferenceof the African Technology in Lusaka, Zambia, on Novermber 1-5 2000.

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THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN COUNTRIES
Mwindaace N. Siamwiza works at the Department Of Chemistry,
School of Natural Sciences, University of Zambia. He can be reached on Tel: +260 (1)28 13 65; Cell: +260 (1) 097 80 02 40 or on e-mail: siamwiza@zamnet.zm

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PrefacePublications under the Special Paper Series are commissioned by ATPS as concept
papers, think-pieces, leading conference papers or keynote addresses. In keeping with
the network's knowledge brokerage function, ATPS publishes published or unpublishedpapers from distinguished academics and researchers addressing policy issues relevantto the work of ATPS in support of the Southern voice or an African perspective.
Theoretical papers advancing knowledge of technology policy issues are also publishedunder this series.

For more information on ATPS, please contact Dr. Osita Ogbu, Executive Director,
African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS), 3rd Floor, The Chancery , P.O.
Box 10081, 00100 General Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya.
Email: oogbu@atpsnet.org
Telephones: 254-2-723800/ 714168/ 714498 Fax: 254-2-714028

Dr John Mugabe is the Executive Director of the African Centre for Technology Studies(ACTS) in Nairobi, Kenya. He is a former Programme Officer of the International
Diffusion of Biotechnology Programme at the International Federation of Institutes ofAdvanced Study (IFIAS), Maastrich, The Netherlands. He can be reached at the African
Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), P.O. Box 45917, Nairobi, Tel 254-2-524713;
Fax 254-2-524701; E-mail j.mugabe@cgiar.org

Biotechnology in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Towards a Policy Research Agenda

John Mugabe

ATPS SPECIAL SERIES PAPER NO. 3

Biotechnology in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Towards a Policy Research Agenda

John Mugabe

February 2002

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS), P. O.
Box 10081, 00100 General Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya.

@ 2002 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

Formatted by Magayu K.Magayu
School of Journalism
University of Nairobi
P. O. Box 30197
NairobiKenya

Printed by Mung'etho Consult, P. O. Box 57227, Nairobi

ISBN 9966-916-51-2

For more information on this series and ATPS, please contact:
The Executive Director
The African Technology Policy Studies Network
3rd Floor, The Chancery
Valley Road
P.O. Box 10081
00100 General Post Office
Nairobi, Kenya.
Telephones: 254-2-714168/092/498
Fax: 254-2-714028
Email: info@atpsnet.org

ISBN 9966-916-51-2

Contents
Biotechnology in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Introduction

1

Global Trends in Modern Technlogy

3

Biotechnology in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Status Overview
Policy Issues for Africa

19

A Research Agenda: Activities and Methodology
Bibliography

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