Wastewater and IrrigatedAgriculture Lessons
Learned and Possible
Applications in Africa

Frans P. Huibers, Lucas Seghezzo andAdriaan Mels

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES No. 23

1.

Introduction

The production and discharge of domestic wastewater is rapidly increasing in developing countries
due to population growth, urbanization, and economic development. There is, however, a lack ofinvesting capacity worldwide for construction and operation of adequate treatment facilities (Van
Lier and Lettinga, 1999), which threatens the quality of surface waters, soils and groundwater towhich wastewater is discharged. At the same time, the water demand increases rapidly in urban andperi-urban areas, for the production of food (particularly fresh vegetables) as well as to provide
income to a large group of city-dwellers and small farmers. These two trends cause an increasinguse of partially treated and untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture in and downstream of urban
centres. It has been recognized that such use has additional beneficial effects, as the used water
often contains important nutrients. However, unbalanced application of these nutrients as well as thepresence of pollutants in wastewater has also been identified as a threat to resources (van der Zee
and Shaviv, 2002; van der Zee et al., 2004). The technical problem to be resolved for protecting
resources is complex and broad, due to the large variety of pollutants and nutrient concentrations, of
soil and geo-hydrological conditions, crops, and agricultural management (Van Asten et al., 2003,
2004). Moreover, institutional problems related to risk externalities and asymmetric information
among the stakeholders in the food supply chain, complicate appropriate management of wastewater
irrigation and may cause failure of the wastewater for the irrigation market. The management question
involves socio-economic and cultural factors which are related to e.g. policy regulations and thedegree to which these are enforced, costs, benefits, and public acceptance of waste water use inirrigated agriculture, which differ between countries and often within countries. In view of thecommonly regional setting of watershed hydrology, and the above mentioned complexity, thedevelopment of concepts for sustainable waste water use, and their implementation in sustainable
practice are a considerable optimisation problem (Huibers et al., 2002). At present, many scientificgaps on disciplinary detail issues (Kaledhonkar et al., 2001), as well as the lack of a methodology forthe integrated interdisciplinary problem, prevent the development of truly sustainable strategies.
Hence, both scientifically and in practice (both agriculture and regulatory offices) the increasing
wastewater production and growing water scarcity form an opportunity as well as an environmental
conflict that has been characterized as a paralyzed situation (van Lier and Huibers, 2004).
Several initiatives have been undertaken in recent years to place the issue on the international
agenda of both science and policy makers. Under the guidance of the International Water Association(IWA) a workshop was organized in Wageningen, The Netherlands, that built upon the interdisciplinary
approach (Huibers and Kaspersma, 2002). An expert meeting, organised by the International Water

1

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ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES NO. 23

Management Institute (IWMI) held in Hyderabad, India, in November 2002 was concluded with The
Hyderabad Declaration (http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/home/wastewater.htm), which aimed at alerting
policy makers and the research community world-wide of the importance of giving urgent attention
to using wastewater for irrigation (Scott et al., 2004). In many geographical regions that span majorparts of the different continents international and national institutes as well as networks address
problems related with irrigation, waste water treatment and its use and side effects thereof. For North
Africa and adjacent Near East, researchers from Wageningen University (WU) are in dialogue with
regional research institutes in several countries. In addition, discussions on an institutional level areongoing with representatives of the World Health Organisation (WHO) in Geneva and the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in Rome. WU researchers are also participatingin networks discussing efficient water use initiative as well as various EU research projects. The
objectives of this work can be summarized as follows:
1. Raise the issue of wastewater irrigation in Africa
2. Introduce basic concepts and definitions related to this issue
3. Provide a rapid overview of recent developments in the field
4. Explore the best study approach to tackle this subject. The water chain approach?
5. Seek potential African research partners for a project in preparation in The Netherlands.
This summary paper was prepared as a handout for scholars, research managers, policymakers,
and water administrators from more than 20 African countries participating in the two-day Conference
on Science, Technology, Water and Environmental Management held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
from November 29 to December 1, 2004. The conference was organized by the African Technology
Policy Studies Network (ATPS).

2.

Definitions

A good starting point for a successful multidisciplinary effort is to share a pool of basic concepts thatare key to the subject. In this sense, some terms and items must be carefully defined in order to havea common language. In this section, a number of relevant issues regarding wastewater irrigation will
be introduced.

Wastewater and sewage
Sewage is the wastewater generated by a community, namely: a) domestic wastewater, frombathrooms, toilets, kitchens, etc., b) raw or treated industrial wastewater discharged in the seweragesystem, and sometimes c) rain-water and urban runoff (van Haandel and Lettinga, 1994). Domestic
wastewater is the main component of sewage, and it is often taken as a synonym. Sand and coarse
material (paper, bottles, etc.) are not considered part of sewage. They are transported by sewage but
handled as solid waste when they arrive at a treatment facility. The sewage flow rate and composition
vary considerably from place to place, depending on economic aspects, social behaviour, type andnumber of industries in the area, climatic conditions, water consumption, type of sewers system, etc.
Besides, there are seasonal, monthly, weekly, and hourly variations in both flow rate and composition.
The main pollutants in sewage are (a) suspended solids, (b) soluble organic compounds, (c) faecal
pathogenic micro-organisms, and (d) nutrients, but sewage is not just made up of human excrement
and water. A variety of chemicals like heavy metals, trace elements, detergents, solvents, pesticides,
and other unusual compounds like pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, and hormones can also be detected
in sewage. With urban runoff come potentially toxic compounds like oil from cars and pesticides that
may reach the treatment plant and, eventually, a water body. Direct discharge of raw or poorly treatedsewage into the environment is one of the main sources of pollution on a global scale (Gijzen, 2002).
Improved sanitation would have a significant impact on people’s lives in terms of safety, privacy,
convenience, and dignity (United Nations, 2003). Sanitation is also a good starting point for addressing
long-term poverty issues and reducing children mortality because children are more susceptible tosuffer from inadequate water supply and sanitation services. The lack of water, sanitation, andhygiene for all was dubbed as “…one of the biggest scandals of the last 50 years” (WSSCC, 2003).
Simple, affordable, and efficient sewage treatment systems are urgently needed, especially indeveloping countries, where most of the conventional technologies currently in use in industrialized
nations are too expensive and complex (Grau, 1996). Sustainable sewage treatment technologies
will help to preserve water ecosystems and their biodiversity, indispensable for the provision of cleanwater, flood control, and other vital services.

3

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ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES NO. 23

Wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment implies the purification of a given wastewater until its characteristics achievea certain objective, generally related to health, environmental, or economic matters. There areseveral technological options available for sewage treatment ranging from traditional waste
stabilization ponds (WSP) to conventional aerobic systems (like trickling filters or activated sludge),from anaerobic reactors to integrated systems in which a variety of biological processes can beapplied. Anaerobic processes are attracting more and more the attention of sanitary engineers anddecision-makers, especially the upflow anaerobic sludge bed (or blanket) (UASB) reactor developedin the early 1970s by Lettinga and co-workers (Lettinga et al., 1980). Anaerobic sewage treatment in
UASB reactors is an absolute success in tropical countries like India and Brazil, but it’s also finding
its way in other regions, even in subtropical and more temperate countries. Recent studies showedthat it can be successfully applied at temperatures as low as 15°C for a variety of different types ofsewage (Mahmoud, 2002; Halalsheh, 2002; Seghezzo, 2004). Sewage treatment can be roughlyclassified in the following “levels”:a) Preliminary treatment. Aims at the elimination of coarse material like bottles, rugs, deadanimals, stones, and so on, as well as the sand that comes with sewage. The removal ismainly due to physical actions like screening, flotation and settling. The objective of preliminary
treatment is to protect pumps and pipes, protect further treatment units, and protect water
bodies. The main treatment units are screens and sand traps.
b) Primary treatment. Intends to remove most of the remaining suspended solids throughphysical processes like flotation and settling. The objective is to protect further treatment
units and protect water bodies from receiving these solids. The main units are sedimentation
tanks (settlers), but also systems like septic tanks can be classified as mainly primary treatment
units.
c) Secondary treatment. Aims to the elimination of organic matter through biological action (bymeans of bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, etc.). The main objective is to protect water
bodies, although the production of a usable effluent is also increasingly important. Biologicaltreatment can be accomplished either with aerobic (so as ponds) or anaerobic treatment
systems (so as UASB reactors).
d) Tertiary (and even quaternary) treatment. Sometimes also called post-treatment, it intends
to remove pathogens and nutrients from sewage, via chemical, photochemical, andbiological action (pH, light, bacteria, algae, and fungi). The objective is to protect publichealth, water bodies, and to produce a usable effluent for more stringent purposes. Biologicalsystems are mainly aerobic.
There are systems or processes that can cover two or more categories in the same treatment unit.
The level of treatment to be applied depends very much on the objective set up by the administrationand the use that the treated effluent will be given. However, in the vast majority of countries, tertiary
treatment (or sometimes any treatment at all) is simply not affordable. Therefore, a delicate balancemust be struck between the desired level of treatment, the costs of the facilities needed, and the risks
related to the discharge or use of the effluent. In any case, the lack of sewage treatment is not always
a technological or economic problem but a political one. In fact, governments, even from developingWASTEWATER AND IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS IN AFRICA

5

countries, have been spending billions of dollars on water and sanitation. However, this money isoften spent on expensive, centralized, sewage treatment systems for a few privileged citizens insteadof on low-cost appropriate sanitation technologies for the majority.

Wastewater irrigation
It is now acknowledged as a fact that wastewater is an important and reliable water source in many
regions of the world, and that the nutrients present in wastewater may replace fertilizers saving a lotof money to farmers. In addition to that, it is also recognized that soil application can be an excellent
sewage treatment system (Martijn and Huibers, 2001). Farmers not only use raw or partially treatedsewage for irrigation, but also wastewater diluted with fresh water or fresh water polluted with different
types of wastewater. In a sense, the use of wastewater for irrigation can be classified as direct (when
it is used as such in the field) or indirect (when it was first discharged in a water body). The treatment,
disposal, and use of sewage can then take different ways (Figure 1). Typical issues arising when awastewater irrigation scheme is implemented are the following:§ Design choices in sanitation, collection and treatment. There are several technologicalalternatives for sewage collection and treatment. Traditional systems like the Waste
Stabilization Ponds have to be revisited in the light of the need of avoiding evaporation that
reduces the amount of water while increasing the salinity of the remaining water. The
adequate degree of decentralization needs also a careful site-specific assessment.
§ Mismatch between supply and demand of water. Certain storage capacity that may
accommodate effluent surplus (for operational or seasonal reasons), provide water in periodsof high demand and act as buffer in case of calamities may be needed. Constructed storage
in an irrigation scheme might even serve as a post-treatment unit.
§ Nutrient management. The amount and quality of the nutrients present in the wastewater
have to be known by technicians and farmers in order to guarantee a proper application.
The need of varying effluent quality during different periods of the crop period may also be anissue to discuss between farmers, irrigation experts, and treatment plant operators.
§ Irrigation techniques. Techniques may vary according to the type of effluent being used andthe region (watering cans, surface irrigation, drip irrigation). Special care needs to be taken
to avoid contamination of the field labourers, the crops, the soil, and the surface orgroundwater.
§ Cropping system. Water and nutrient availability may induce significant changes in the
optimal cropping system, linked to water demand, nutrient demand and seasonal aspects.
§ Participatory design (farmers, engineers, policy makers). The system becomes more
complex and the participation of different actors becomes indispensable to ensure a smoothprocess.
§ Economic (costs, benefits, efficiency), social, environmental and institutional aspects thatare an inextricable part of the long-term sustainability of the system.
§ Risk management. Risks have to be appropriately handled at field level (proper irrigationand management techniques, contact prevention, adequate information to farmers) and at
the food chain level (restricted irrigation around harvesting, washing produce with cleanwater, adequate information to farmers and consumers).

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES NO. 23

6

SewageDomestic wastewaterIndustrial wastewater
Urban runoff

Collection
Treatment(1°/2°)
Disposal

Directuse

Posttreatment(3°/4°)
Discharge

Sink

Water body

Indirectuse

Agriculture

Figure 1. Basic pathways for sewage collection, treatment, disposal, and use in agriculture.

3.

Lessons Learned

It is a fact that illegal, informal, unguided, or unplanned direct and indirect use of raw, partiallytreated, or diluted wastewater is carried out in many regions of the world. On the other hand, wastewaterproduction from urban areas will double, if not triple, in most cities of the world in the coming 20-25
years and so will food requirements.

Typical situations
From experiences of wastewater irrigation developed in many countries of the world a number ofcommon features has arisen, summarized in Figure 2. For example, in urban areas like Accra,
Ghana (Figure 3, left), the farmer can be seen as going to the wastewater.
Farming is performed on small plots of land all year round. Mostly vegetables are grown for own
consumption, while surplus is sold in the local market. It is basically a livelihood issue and the main
risk is the contamination of crops with untreated wastewater. In so-called peri-urban areas like thatfound in Cochabamba, Bolivia (Figure 3, centre), the wastewater produced in urban areas is conveyed
to the outskirts where farming actually takes place. The production is mainly seasonal; farms tend to
be larger and better equipped than in the case of urban agriculture.
Less vegetables and more staple crops are grown. The main health risk found in this case is the
direct contact with the wastewater, while there is a potential pollution problem downstream originatedby the surpluses that are discharged untreated into surface waters. Finally, in regions like Nabeul,
Tunisia (Figure 3, right), where a wastewater irrigation scheme is in place, the wastewater and thefarmers move towards each other. There is a certain infrastructure, institutional arrangements andspecific legislation that regulate the system.

7

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES NO. 23

Peri-urban

Urban

FARMER(TREATED) WASTEWATER

8

Wastewater scheme

Figure 2. Typical situations encountered in wastewater irrigation around the world.

Figure 3. Wastewater irrigation in Ghana (left), Bolivia (centre), and Tunisia (right).

The water chain approach
In view of the physical and institutional complexities of wastewater irrigation systems, a so-called“water chain approach” is proposed. This approach would help to think along the line of the waterflow and would be the most appropriate basis to come to an integrated design of water measuresultimately supporting environmentally safe agricultural production in urban areas and downstream.
The water chain approach was discussed by Martijn and Huibers (2003), who proposed a conceptual
design framework to deal with wastewater irrigation issues (Figure 4).

9

WASTEWATER AND IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS IN AFRICA

Treatment capacity
Treatment technology
Degree of (de)centralization
Costs and cost sharing

Up-stream
issuesWater rights and empowerment(Partial)
treatment

Other uses

Water body,groundwater

Additional(fresh) water

Agriculture
Sustainability
Technology

Society

Water management
Farming practices
Food chain

Environment

Legislation
Health matters
Acceptance

EconomyPollution prevention
Post-treatment
Resource conservation

Figure 4. Conceptual design framework in wastewater irrigation.

Crop choiceMarket value
Water pricing

4.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Conclusions

Wastewater irrigation has a great potential in many (developing) countries.
It is a complex issue and should be dealt with in an integrated fashion.
Different disciplines are required to design a wastewater irrigation system.
Adequate water, crop, and nutrient management are required to ensure a sustainablesystem.
Proper irrigation techniques need to be used according to the local situation.
A balance between objectives, costs, and risks must be struck in each different case.
Information must be available to all stakeholders, including the farmers.

Possible Applications in Africa
The application of wastewater irrigation systems to any situation is an open question and a challengethat needs to be solved locally. Some questions arise, like: Are the situations described above
applicable to any particular situation? Who are the relevant actors in the local context? Where are
the gaps in knowledge that need to be investigated and how to bridge these gaps? The relevant
issues may be different depending on the type of situation, and so will be the research questions thatneed to be answered. For example, avoiding contamination and safeguarding health could be a hot
issue in urban agriculture, while soil, surface water, and groundwater pollution may be more importantin peri-urban areas. In any case, the adequate means to provide adequate information to all
stakeholders seems to be particularly relevant. The Wageningen Institute for Environment and Climate
Research (WIMEK/SENSE) is searching funding for a project entitled “Wastewater Treatment andUse in Irrigated Agriculture. A water chain approach”. The primary aim of this Project is to identify theinternational institutes and networks in the subject, with which various levels of co-operation exist,
which are the most appropriate groups and individual researchers for closer cooperation. Search
criteria are scientific proficiency, research-funding attitude, and prominence regarding developing
countries and contacts with international research funding institutions. This will enable thedevelopment in dialogue of a research program agenda addressing the scientific gaps in the waterreuse approach. The outcome of this Project should be an active network, with a common agenda
and a proposal to be submitted for further funding. The Project is to arrive at an agreed-upon agenda
for the socio-economic and natural sciences issues that are related with the many different issues ofwastewater flows, treatment and environmentally safe use in a true interdisciplinary water chain
approach. This aim is essential to connect knowledge and insights of a broad range of disciplines
in a context that enables to define research priorities.

10References

van Asten, P.J.A., Barbiero, L. Wopereis, M.C.S., Maeght, J.L., and van der Zee, S.E.A.T.M. (2003),
Actual and potential salt-related soil degradation in an irrigated rice scheme in the Sahelianzone of Mauritania, Agricultural Water Management 60, 12-32.
Gijzen, H.J. (2002), Anaerobic digestion for sustainable development: a natural approach, Water
Science and Technology 45(10), 321-328.
Grau, P. (1996), Integrated water and waste management, Water Science and Technology (33)8,
39-46.
van Haandel, A.C. and Lettinga, G. (1994), Anaerobic sewage treatment. A practical guide for regionswith a hot climate, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, UK.
Halalsheh, M.M. (2002), Anaerobic pre-treatment of strong sewage, Ph.D. thesis, Wageningen
University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Huibers, F.P., Martijn, E.J., and van Lier, J.B. (2002), Use of treated wastewater in irrigated agriculture:
A design framework, Proceedings 18th Congress on Food production under conditions ofwater scarcity, increasing population and environmental pressures, International Commission
on Irrigation and Drainage, Montreal, Canada: 186-188 + 15pp.
Huibers, F.P. and Kaspersma, J. (2002), Use of Appropriately Treated Domestic Wastewater in
Irrigated Agriculture, Proceedings Workshop Wageningen, International Water Association,
Wageningen University, The Netherlands, Volume 1.
Kaledhonkar, M.J., Tyagi, N.K., and van der Zee, S.E.A.T.M. (2001), Solute transport modeling in soil
for irrigation experiments with alkali water, Agricultural Water Management 51, 153-171.
Lettinga, G., van Nelsen, A.F.M., Hobma, S.W., de Zeeuw, W., and Klapwijk, A. (1980), Use of the
upflow sludge blanket (USB) reactor concept for biological wastewater treatment, especiallyfor anaerobic treatment, Biotechnology and Bioengineering 22, 699-734.
van Lier, J.B. and Huibers, F.P. (2004), Agricultural use of treated wastewater: the need for a paradigm
shift in sanitation and treatment. In: Steenvoorden, J. and Endreny, T., eds., Wastewater Reuse and Groundwater Quality, IAHS Publ. 285: 5-18.
van Lier, J.B. and Lettinga, G. (1999), Appropriate technologies for effective management of industrial
and domestic wastewaters: the decentralised approach, Water Science and Technology
40(7), 171-183.
Mahmoud, N.J.A. (2002), Anaerobic pre-treatment of sewage under low temperature (15ºC) conditionsin an integrated UASB-digester system, Ph.D. thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen,
The Netherlands.

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ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES NO. 23

Martijn, E.J. and Huibers, F.P. (2001), Use of treated wastewater in irrigated agriculture. A design
framework, Working document WP4-3, CORETECH Project, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Scott, C.A., Faruqui, N. and Raschid-Sally, L. (eds.) (2004), Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture:
Confronting the Livelihood and Environmental Realities, CABI/IDRC, Ottawa, Canada.
Seghezzo, L. (2004), Anaerobic treatment of domestic wastewater in subtropical regions, Ph.D.
thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
United Nations. (2003), Water for People-Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development
Report, UNESCO Publishing, Berghahn Books, Paris, France.
WSSCC (Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council). (2003), A guide to investigating one of
the biggest scandals of the last 50 years, Third World Water Forum, Kyoto, Japan.
Van der Zee, S. and Shaviv, A. (2002), Wastewater re-use in irrigated agriculture: Soil Quality,
Proceedings Workshop Wageningen, International Water Association, Wageningen University,
The Netherlands, Volume 1.
Van der Zee, S.E.A.T.M., van Uffelen, C.G.R., and van Asten, P.J.A. (2004), Modelling sodification fordeveloping management practices, Proceedings International Conference on Sustainable
Management of Sodic Lands, Lucknow, India, in press.

Abstract

The use of wastewater for irrigation is a fact of life in most developing countries although thispractice is generally not officially recognized or even banned altogether by local governments. The
use of raw or treated wastewater for irrigation allows for a more regular, year-round agriculture andcan save poor people a lot of money because the nutrients present in wastewater replace most of thecurrently applied chemical fertilizers. Besides, soil application is an excellent and cheap sewage
treatment system. In this paper, some basic concepts and definitions related to wastewater irrigation
are introduced together with a brief overview of recent developments. Typical situations encounteredwhen wastewater is used for irrigation are discussed based on practical experiences in Ghana,
Tunisia, and Bolivia, and a conceptual design framework to deal with wastewater irrigation issues is
proposed, based on the so-called “water chain approach”. This paper was also intended to seek
potential African research partners for a project in preparation in The Netherlands.

ABOUT THE AFRICAN TECHNOLOGY POLICY STUDIES NETWORKThe African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multi-disciplinary network of researchers,
policy makers, actors in the private sector and other end users interested in generating, promoting
and strengthening innovative science and technology policies in Africa. With a regional secretariat in
Nairobi, the network operates through national chapters in 23 countries, with an expansion plan tocover the entire sub-Saharan Africa.
One of the objectives of the network is to disseminate research results to policy makers, legislators,
the organized private sector, civil society, mass media and farmers’ groups through publications,dialogue and advocacy. Among its range of publications are the Working Paper Series (WPS),
Research Paper Series (RPS), Special Paper Series (SPS) and the Technopolicy Briefs.
Papers published under the ATPS Special Paper Series are those commissioned as concept
papers, think pieces, leading conference papers and keynote addresses. In keeping with
our knowledge brokerage function, ATPS publishes, with permission of the author(s) or
journal editors, papers (published or unpublished) produced by distinguished academics/
researchers for a different purpose but judged by ATPS to be of excellent quality. Thesepapers address significant policy questions relevant to the work of ATPS and/or support
the Southern voice or an African perspective. We also consider theoretical papers that
advance our knowledge of science and technology policy issues.
ATPS is supported by a growing number of donors including the International Development ResearchCentre (IDRC), the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Rockefeller Foundation, the World Bank,
the OPEC Fund, Ford Foundation, Coca-Cola Eastern Africa, the African Development Bank, InfoDev,
and the Royal Dutch Government.

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network, P.O. Box 10081, 00100
General Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya.

© 2006 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

PUBLISHED BY ATPS COMMUNICATIONS DEPARTMENTPRINTED BY ZEALOT PRINTERS

ISBN: 9966-916-23-7

Table of Contents

Abstract
1

Introduction

1

2

Definitions

3

3

Lessons Learned
3.1 Typical Situations
3.2 The Water Chain Approach

7

4

Conclusions

10

5

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Email: Frans.Huibers@wur.nl