TYPEWRITINGANDCOMPUTER OPERATION[OFFICE SECRETARYSHIP - OSS]

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VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONHIGHER SECONDAR Y - FIRST YEARN THROUGHL

TAMILNADUTEXTBOOK CORPORATIONTYPEWRITINGANDCOMPUTER OPERATION[OFFICE SECRETARYSHIP - OSS]VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONHIGHER SECONDARY - FIRST YEAR

A publication under
Government of Tamilnadu
Distribution of Free Textbook Programme(NOT FOR SALE)

Untouchability is a sin
Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is inhuman

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TAMILNADUTEXTBOOK CORPORATION
College Road, Chennai 600 006.

© Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition – 2010

CHAIRPERSON
A.Sonny Lionel
Sr.Vocational Teacher
Voorhees Hr.Sec.School,
Vellore-632001
REVIEWER
V.Parimala Devi
Vocational Teacher,
Government Boys Hr.Sec.School,
Alangayam –635 701
Vellore District
AUTHORSJ.Shyamala
Computer Instructor,
St.Ursula’s A.I.H.S.School
Church Park,
Chennai -600 006

D. Kumar
Vocational Teacher,
Government Hr.Sec.School,
Kaveripakkam-632 508
Vellore District.

Freeda Joseph
Vocational Teacher,St.Ursula’s A.I.H.S.School,
Church Park,
Chennai -600 006

P.R. Balaji
Vocational Teacher,
Islamiah Hr.Sec. School,
Pernambut – 635 810.
Vellore District.

This book has been prepared by The Directorate of School
Education on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu

This book has been printed on 60 GSM Paper

Printed by web offset at:

CONTENTS
Unit

Title

Page

PART- A1

Typewriting and Computer Operation- An Introduction

(vi)

2

Typewriter - Key Board

1

3

Fingering Chart & Budget Book (Lessons I to VII)2

4

Typing Practice:(a) From Sentences - Lesson VIII(b) From Paragraphs - Lesson IX(c) From Script - Lesson X

9
10
11

Speed Practice - First Paper

19

PART - B
Short Notes on the Topics
Abbreviations & Symbols

37
41

1

Statements:

422.

(i) Invoices

51(ii) Credit Notes

58(iii) Debit Notes

64(iv) Account sales

70

Letters:(a) Application(b) Business letter(c) Professional letter(d) Official Letter (One authority to another)

76
84
92
100

Government Order

107

5

3.

4.

(iii)

Unit

Title

Page

PART - C
1. MECHANISM :1.

Typewriter and its parts

115

2.

History of the Typewriter - Kinds ofTypewriter- Advantages of Typewriter Identification of Typewriter.

116

3.

Key Board: Character keys - Non-Character
keys and their uses: Shift keys, Shift Lock,
Marginal Releaser, Back Spacer, Tabulator,
Ribbon Position Indicator, Key Releaser, Space
Bar and Shift systems.

117

4.

Carriage: Size of Carriage Cylinder Thumb knobs -Ratchet Wheel - Detent Roller Detent Release Lever - Variable line spacer Line space pawl - Line space Gauge - LineSpace Knob - Reed Rollers - Marginal stops Typewriter Scales - Paper Table - Rubber feet Method of typing - Eraser.

120

5.

Machine: Mainspring Drum - Draw cord
Type Guide- Type faces/Type heads Ribbon
Ribbon movement.

124

6.

Cleaning & Oiling: Cleaning Materials care taking of Typewriter - Upkeep and
Maintenance - Packing care.

127

7.

Envelope Addressing: Block Method - Indent
Method - Advantages - Pin Code Number.

129

8.

Respectable Terms....

131

9.

Question & Answers

132

(Iv)

Unit
II.

Title

Page

COMPUTER OPERATION :Knowing About Computer

135

The following 2 Chapters:(a) Introduction to Windows XP and(b) Windows Explorer can be learnt from The Text
Book - “Computer Science, Higher SecondaryFirst Year,Volume- II Practice” Published by
Tamilnadu Text Book Corporation, Chennai-600 006.

III

CHAPTER: I Introduction to Window XP
What is Windows XP Evolution of the Windows
Operating System The mouse Logging in Log
Off is at the Bottom Of the Start menu Working
with the Windows XP The Desktop The Startmenu Starting an Application Windows
Windows Dialog Boxes Help and support centre
Customizing Windows XP The Control Panel
Applications Using Applications in Windows
Working With multiple Applications

151

CHAPTER: II Windows Explorer
Files Date organization- Windows Explorer
Working with Folders Changing the View Creatinga New Folder Selecting Files and Folders Moving andCopying files and Folders Renaming Files and Folders
Deleting Files and Folders Creating Short Cuts
Search The run Command What is new in Windows XP
Guarding against Viruses.

154

IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED:163

INTERNAL EXAMINATION MARKS : 50

170

PRACTICAL I (TYPEWRITING)
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT 25 MARKSPRACTICAL II (COMPUTER OPERATION)
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT 25MARKS
IV.

171

Model Question Paper:(V)PART - A

TYPEWRITING AND COMPUTER OPERATIONAN INTRODUCTION
Our Tamilnadu Government has designed a New Educational System
in Vocational Scheme, for Vocational students in the Higher Secondary
level especially for 'Typewriting' learning pupils under OfficeSecretaryship (OSS) Group. This book has been brought in a simple way
and easy to understand by the students.
Typewriter is a device for writing with neater letters; for doing
quicker and better work; for taking more copies and for reading the typed
matters easily. It is a gift for us, and one of the Developments in 'Scienceand Technology' world. In ancient times, people used 'Palm leaves' andthen papers for their writing purposes. But, in handwriting, the letters
are not legible and understandable to read by others, which seem to be as
scribbled. By using the machine (Typewriter), we can get the work neatly
and accurately; with less strain, time saving and economy in stationery
For the welfare of our students, Pictures have been given for
explanation and they can easily understand to operate the Keyboard andlearn its mechanism ; 'Fingering' practice can also be developed. This
book contains 'hand-written scripts' for practicing and to understandother various handwritings.
When we learn Typewriting/Computer Operation, more attention
must be given to sitting posture to avoid body pain, and strain to the spinal
cord.

The Table for keeping Typewriter/ Computer should have theheight of 2 ½ ' and a comfortable stool/chair,(18”-6”).
This book 'Typewriting andComputer Operation' brings

enthusiasm and stimulate the students to enter into 'Vocational
Education' especially to type-wring and computer operation. Lucid style(Vi)and simple diction combined with pictures and apt illustrations make thisbook interesting and attractive, It is aimed to improve and inspire theexiting knowledge of Typewriting and Computer.
Students are the Pillars of our future Nation. This 'Vocational Education'
creates self-confidence to the children. By learning this course, thefuture students can avoid to see the 'No vacancy' board; but they cancreate their own employment under 'Self Employment Scheme' andboldly face the unemployment problems.
'Vocational Education' stands first in the developed countries ofthis World.

We should also give more important

to 'Vocational

Education' to become a self-sufficient Country and be a 'Super Nation
Power'.
At the end of this book, a model question paper and some 'important
points to be remembered' are given for Typewriting andComputer

Operation. Students can utilize these, and prepare for the examination.
Names and places, in this book, are all fictions. Some models, scripts
and pictures have been taken from DOTE-question papers and otherpublic publications for the welfare of our students' practice and we thankthe respective departments.
Finally, I thank my collogues who co-operated with me to bring out
this much successfully. On behalf of the Vocational students, Teachersand my team I thank Our Tamilnadu Government especially the
Educational Department for publishing a special Text Book through'Tamilnadu Textbook Corporation' for Vocational Education under newly
framed syllabus for ‘Typewriting and Computer Operation' .
- Author(Vii)

2. KEY BOARD

1

3. FINGERING CHART

.
1st

Row

1

2

3

4 5

6

7

8

9

0

2nd Row

Q

W E

R T

Y

U

I

O

P

3rd Row

A

S

D

F G

H

J

K

L

;

Z

X C V

B

N

M

,

4th Row.

LEARNING PRACTICES : BUDGET BOOKFIRST EXERCISE-LESSON I :asdfgf;lkjhj

SEND ON EXERCISE-LESSON II :awerqfa;oiupj;

THIRD EXERCISE-LESSON III

gftfrfhjyjujFORTH EXERCISE-LESSON IV:

azxcvfa

lkmnbj

FIFTH EXERCISE-LESSON V :abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Zyxvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcba

SIXTH EXERCISE-LESSON VI:

NUMBERS --(123454 098767)

SEVENTH EXERCISE(LEFT & RIGHT)-

LESSON VII:

USING THE SHIFT KEYS

EIGHTH EXERCISE-LESSON VIII: PRACTICING IN SENTENCE FORM
2:

4. FIRST EXERCISE - LESSON - 1
asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj

S

F
G
F

D

J
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A and ;s and ld and kf and jg and h

A

S

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Space
Bar

- by using little fingers (left and right respectively)- by using ring fingers- by using middle fingers- by using forefingers- by using forefingers

D

F

G

H

J

K

L

;

TYPE THE FOLLOWING AND PRACTICE AS PER THE
INSTRUCTION OF THE TEACHER:
asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj
asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj
asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj
asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj
asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj asdfgf ;lkjhj
ask
jag
jak
sad
dad

fad
fag
had
lad
asks

alsas
fall
gaff
adds
alas

shad
hash
dash
lash
dall
3

lads
glad
gall
hall
fall

flags
galls
flash
lakhs
glass

flask
salad
slash
dhallsshall

SECOND EXERCISE - LESSON - II
awerqfa;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj;
J
R
E
I
O
U
F
W
Q
P
A
;
Space
Bar

a and ;
w and oe and ir and uq and pf and jQ
AW

- by using little fingers (left and right respectively)- by using ring fingers- by using middle fingers- by using forefingers- by using forefingers- by using forefingers

E

R

U

F

J

I

O

P
;

TYPE THE FOLLOWING AS PER THE INSTRUCTION
OF THE TEACHER:
awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj;
awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj;
awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj;
awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj; awerqfa ;oiupj;
TYPE THE FOLLOWING WORDS EACH 5 LINES:
fish
dirks oldest apple grade falls Kodak rails jaded
dead usual sales
filed
legal lease lakes agile isles
ahead larks roses
hedge forks skill
rupee grass would
alpine jaded liked
equip quail jokes asked walks fiddle
saddle larger require defiles drawls refresh
4

THIRD EXERCISE - LESSON - III
gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj
G
F
T
R

H
J
Y
U

Space
Bar

gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjujgand fFore fingert
and fFore fingerr
and fFore fingerhand jFore fingeryand jFore fingeru
and jFore Finger

R

T

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U

F

G

H

J

TYPE THE FOLLOWING AND PRACTICE AS PER THE
INSTRUCTION OF THE TEACHER:
gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj
gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj
gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj
gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj gftfrf hjyjuj
TYPE THE FOLLOWING WORDS EACH 5 LINES:
lawyers
desiredprepare feathery repeatedetiquetteyesterday desire
waggishtypistkettlefurtherquotedledgeroutdoorpleasedtheatretortuous gallery
opposedoutflow
priority
freehold thorough dearlyassisted
adopt
allowed ploughed typewriter
5

FOURTH EXERCISE - LESSON - IV
azxcvf lkmnbj azxcvf lkmnbj azxcvf lkjmnbj

Z

X

C
V
F

J
B
N

M L
;

A
Space
Bar

a
z
and
x, k andc, v andn, b and

l
m
f
j

A

-

Little finger
Ring finger (left & right)
Middle finger
Fore fingers
Fore fingers

F

Z

X

C

J

V

B

N

;
M

TYPE THE FOLLOWING AND PRACTICE AS THE
INSTRUCTION OF YOUR TEACHER:
azxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvflkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjazxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvflkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjazxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvflkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjazxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvfazxcvflkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjlkmnbjTYPE THE FOLLOWING WORDS EACH 5 TIMES:
cat
not
met
men
bent
king
zeal
zero

jack colour
have joints
wind nerves
verb verbal
joint jackets
carry jumbled
night booklet
tonic cutting

neitherenemy
boat
Calcutta
calling
voted
very
vineyard
enlargemoney
movematerial
someone marrygivesterling
examine thousand cylinder assessment
examined struggle
possible beginninggracious grizzled
frequent meanings
becoming zodiacal exponent doubtless
6

FIFTH EXERCISE - LESSON - V
TYPE THE FOLLOWING ALPHABETS FOR FINGERING PRACTICE:

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.,,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba,.Zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfdcba

TYPE THE FOLLOWING WORDS EACH 5 TIMES:
Cosmo
Quota
necy.,
etc.,
viz.,
doz.,

instant youthful personnel
zigzags up-board witnessed
morning hitherto pessimism
brevity emphasis peasantry
written impulses tolerance
endorse judgment elevation

correspondfulfilling
technology
indulgenceprivileges
rejuvenate

xanthophylls
contemplate
distributor
formulating
controversy
sacrificing

TYPE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES EACH FIVE TIMES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Lost time is never regained.
Get- up early and do your work.
To-day's youth and to-morrow's old.
Age is a virtue when wisdom is with it.
Measure your word before it goes out of you.
My steps are measured.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
Children are innocent and should be guided rightly.
Our Land has great sages who knew the eternal truth.
Truth never fails.
7

SIXTH EXERCISE - LESSON VI
LEARNING NUMERICALS: TYPE THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS
AS PER THE INSTRUCTION OF YOUR TEACHER:

123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767 123454

098767123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767123454098767

TYPE THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS EACH 5 TIMES:

153
765
187
786
440

4586
9539
7654
1009
5599

48766
97530
65431
28761
76542

1298
6541
2244
7755
4174

96842
78646
98761
87652
9442

67,49265,431
78654
97531
805515

9,18,17,615
10,87,43,111
4,16,22,44,882
9,34,53,05,090
9,89,45,82,990

SEVENTH EXERCISE - LESSON VII(USING OF SHIFT KEYS - LEFT & RIGHT )TYPE THE FOLLOWING WORDS USING SHIFT KEY:
EACH 5 TIMES:

8

5. TYPING PRACTICE : LESSON VIII
(A). TYPE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES EACH TEN TIMES

1.

Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs.

2.

A quick brown fox slowly jumped over the lay dogs.

3.

Five prizes were quickly distributed by the judge to examiners.

4.

Handy Jack's quixotic laziness may grow to be far expensive.

5.

Gay men with extra pluck and zeal would often have quiet job.

6.

Black market fugitive should be quickly expelled with zeal.

7.

May we have Jack squires fix the big lamps for Andy Ziegler?

8.

Have you seen my brother-in-Law Jayavendan?

9.

The partition of India affected more than 506 of our people.

10.

Balaji worked with zeal and vigour.

11.

Joel & Subashini took their child on 2nd January 2005 for Kuwait.

12.

Messers Parthiban & Co., Ltd were great toy makers.

13.

The son got ¾ and the daughter Dikshaya ¼ of their shares.

14.

The French Revolution war was in the year 1709

15

Received 5 sets of Typist's Tables (2'-5”) & chairs (18” 6” )16

Now the cost of gold is very high. (One gram=Rs.1,500/=)

17

Every Indian should say “No Partition”.

18

Leave 2 spaces after (.) and (?)

19

Punctuation should be marked carefully.

20

Character builds a good family.

21.

Service to the Community is humanity.

22.

Anandan got cent percent result in his subject.

23.

We must be proud of our Nation.

24.

Untouchability is a sin. Untouchability is a crime and also inhuman.

25.

Time and tide wait for none. So, make use of the time. All the best.
9

TYPING PRACTICE : LESSON IX(B). Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degree:
Type the following paragraphs each five times:
Our National Flag has bite Ashok Chakra on it. This wheel is symbol of
DHARMA. It we always do the right things, we follow DHARMA. The twenty four
spokes in the wheel show the differences between our-people. A small circle
connects these spokes. It shows that we are one. The wheel also shows that weare going forward.
Our flag is a tri-colour. Saffron is the symbol of sacrifice and a strong mind.
White is the symbol of purity, love and peace. Green is the symbol of plenty andjoy. We hoist and salute our flag. We are ready to make sacrifices for ourcountry. We want peace and progress. We want to be pure.
Our 'National Anthem' is a song of the great poet Tagore. It was his prayer song.
He sings about the people, mountains, rivers and seas of India. He says that God
is the master of all these and everyone and everything in India praise him. We
sing this song in colours with respect.
All of us salute our National Flag and sing our National Anthem. This shows that
we are one nation. We also promise to love and respect our country, our parents,
elders, teachers and all others in India.
SOME ADVANTAGES OF HIGH SELF-ESTEEM
There is a direct relationship between people's feelings and their productivity.
High self-esteem is evident in respect for one's self, others, property, law, parents
and one's country. The reverse is also true.
LOW SELF ESTEEM
How do we recognize poor self-esteem? What are the behavior patterns of aperson with poor self-esteem? The following is a brief list, which is not all
inclusive but is indicative.

10

TYPING PRACTICE : LESSON X
(C).

11

6. SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Education and training incosmetology takes you straight to theworld of glamour and excitement andallows you to explore the opportunity towork with hair, skin or mails depending
upon your choice.
The different
combinations of chemicals allow tocreate the right type of product for hair,skin or mails. Thought the possibilities
in the field of cosmetology are endless,you do require education or training inthis field to be able to find the right pathfor yourself. The aim of a make-up
artistes to brining out beauty without
making it look like a disguise. Make-up
artists apply cosmetics to enhance aclient’s appearance as also create any
image a particular job calls for. The
artist should be inclined artisticallylike blending, shading or creating.

Volunteering your services tocommunity theatres, fashion showsetc., will not only provide experiencebut also help in establishing contact
with people who may be important toyour career. Star Campbell Place amaster of make-up artistry, says that
achieving delicate effects takes yearsof concrete training. The more time
you invest in preparing for this career
the longer your career will be and themore you will get out of it. It allows you
to be independent mobile andemployable. You can begin bydeveloping a portfolio that can bepresented to a potential client. The
portfolio can include before and after
photograph so make-over you have
performed, along with any awards orcertificates you may have earned.

A make-up artist can establish
himself in a salon with a privateclientele, become make-up director fora prestigious department store,
represent a line of cosmetics, work in
Television and Movie production, finda position with a fashion magazine orwork behind the scenes in theatre
production.
Operating as anindependent free lancer allows you tocreate your own schedule or findemployment with one company. The
make-up artists should concentrate on
chemistry and anatomy if they want tomake it to the top.
Theatreexperience, especially a study of stage
lighting can be really helpful. Six
months to one year work experience ina good salon is important after training.

The job of Skin Care Specialist(Aesthetician) here is to offer
treatments to perfect the look andhealth of the skin. The aesthetician
can work in a salon, teach, travel giving
demonstrations or become aconsultant to a cosmetic company.
The training for this job should be in a
beauty salon which specializes in oremphasizes on facial treatments.
These training courses are always
short so he should make the best useof them. The specialist must read asmuch as possible about skin care sothat there is a touch of authority in what
he says.

12

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:The invention of paper isclosely-linkedwith the history ofhuman civilization.
Although themodern printing industry is generally
considered to have bon out of theinvention of movable types of Johan
Gutenberg in 1455, the Chinese had
been printing on paper many hundredsof years earlier.
Paper was first
produced in China in about 105 AD
when papyrus and parchment werebeing used in Mediterraneancountries. Tortoise shell, bone metals,
stones, bamboo slips, wooden tables
and silk were used as writing materials
in China before the invention of paper.
It took centuries to perfect thetechnology of producing vegetablefibre paper. Initially, the raw materials
used was hemp, rope ends, rags andworn out fishing nets etc. The oldest
sample of paper from Wester Han
Dynasty wasdiscoveredin1957 in
Shaanxi Province of China.
The ancient Egyptians usedpapyrus as writing materials, which isderived from th plant Cypenus
papyrus.
The Papyrus was longcultivated in the Nile delta region in
Egypt and was collected for its stalk or
stem, whose central pith was cut into
thin strips, pressed together and dried
to form a smooth thin writing surface.
Papyrus is a grasslike aquatic plantthat has woody, blunt triangular stems
and grows up to 4.6 cm high in quietly
flowing water. The triangular stem can
13grow to a width of 6 cm. Th e Egyptians
used the stem of the pyrus plant tomake sails, cloth, mat, cords andabove all paper. It was adopted by the
Greeks and was used extensively in
the Roman Empire
It was used for the production of legal
documents. Pliny the Elder, gave an
account of the manufacture of paper
from papyrus.
The fibrous layers
within the stem of the plant were
removed and a number of theselongitudinal strips were placed side byside and then crossed at right angles
with another set of strips. The twolayers formed a sheet, which was thendampened and pressed. Upon drying
the glue-likesap of the plant acted as
an adhesive and cemented the layers
together. The sheet was finallyhammered and dried in the sun. A
number of these sheets were thenjoined together with paste to form a roll,with usually not more than 20 sheets
to a roll. As time passed, other fibrousplants started replacing papyrus.
By the turn of 3rd Century A.D
papyrus had already begun to be
replaced by less expensive velum orparchment in Europe. Parchment issaid to have been invited in the 2nd
Century. B.C., The name apparently
derived from the ancient Greek city of
Pergamum. It is the processed skin of
certain animals mainly sheep.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:In 1452, Christopher Columbus
ignored advice that the Earth was flatand tried to reach India by sailing west
rather than east.
He may havemuddled his continents, but he didn’t
fall off the edge, the Earth’s surface isof course curved. A similar question
has been bothering cosmologist fornearly a century is the universe flat
Researchers now announce that theanswer is yes. Common sense tells usthat flying through space in a straighttells us that flying through space in astraight line gets you further andfurther away from your starting point.
But common sense and cosmology(the study of the universe) have little incommon.
Researchers have no
difficulty accepting a universe in whichspace itself is curved. Fly for longenough in curved space and you could
find yourself back where you started
But the curvature of a universe does
not just bend the brain, it also has a far
more worrying conclusion.
A universe that contains enoughmass to give it a positive curvature isdoomed to a fiery end. It will graduallystop expanding and begin to shrink,ultimately imploding in a cataclysmic
big crunch. A universe, with zerocurvature, a flat universe, escapes thisdemise.
Conditions in the young
believed to have been rather like being
rather like being inside the sun.
Super-hot protons and electrons weredensely packed, too excited to form
any stable structures. Radiation wastrapped, endlessly bouncing around,in this seething sea of particles. As this14

proto universe grew, it graduallycooled. When it was about 3,00,000
years old, things finally settled down
enough for atoms to form.
The radiation that had been
trapped finally escaped, an era known
as decoupling. Since then, it has been
racing through the cosmos largely
keeping itself t itself. Over billions ofyears, it too has cooled with the
expanding universe and what must
originally have been energetic ultraviolet rays now reach us as feeble
microwaves at just a few degrees
above absolute zero. Known as the
Cosmic Microwave
Background
Radiation or CMB this radiation holdimportantclues about the early
universe, Tiny differences in density ofthe baby universe caused tiny
differences in the temperature of theescaping radiation. These density
fluctuations have grown into theclusters of galaxies we see to day
Because of the relative
simplicity of the early universe,
physicists believe they have a goodunderstanding of its mechanisms.
Armed with reliable measurements of
the CMB they would be able to windback the clock and calculate the stateof the universe at decoupling andhence workout its density andcurvature. Researchers finally got thedate they needed just few months ago
when an experiment known as
Boomerang.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:The word virus is too familiar tous and everybody would like to avoid
coming in contact with a virus. This isbecause viruses cause diseases not
only in human beings but also inanimals and plants. Virus is a Latin
word meaning slimy liquid or poison.
The list of diseases caused by viruses
is a long one. Perhaps the mostdreaded disease caused by viruses inhuman beings is Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Some ofthe other diseases caused by viruses
in human beings are infantile
paralysis, dengue, hepatitis B,
influenza, common cold herpes yellow
fever and small pox. Viruses areparasites. They need a living cell hostfor reproduction. Some viruses in fact
bacteria only and they are known asbacteria-eaters.
The biological nature of virus was
first indicated by a Russian scientist
Dimitry.
Ivanovsky and a Dutch
scientist Martinus W.Beijedrinck in thelast decade of the nineteenth century.
All viruses contain nucleic acid either
DNA or RNA and protein . it may be
noted that living cells contain both RNA
and DNA but a virus has only one of thetwo. Based on the type of nucleic acidthat a virus contains, it is classified as
DNA or RNA virus. The size and shapeof virus are determined by the amountand arrangement of nucleic acids andproteins. They vary in diameter from
20 nanometres to 400 nanometres
15(one nanometer is one billionth of ametre). Viruses are too small to be
seen with naked eyes. With a few
exceptions they cannot be seen evenwith ordinary or optical microscope.
The vaccinia virus can be visualized
under a powerful optical microscope.
Viruses come in various shapesrods,
threads, spheroids, polyhedrons andtadpole-like structure. Some viruses
come in combined shapes, forexample, a virus may have apolyhedral head attached to a rod-like
tail. The infective part of a virus, when
it is outside the host ell is called thevirion. It contains atleast one protein
synthesized by a specific gene of thenucleic acid of the virus. All viruseshave a protein coat called a capsid
around the nucleic acid. Some virus
like disease causing organisms whichhave only nucleic acid and no
structural proteins are known asviriods. It protects the nucleic acid of
the virus from digestion by enzymes
called necklaces.
It help the virion to penetrate
through the cell surface membrane orin some cases to inject the infectious
nucleic acid into the interior of the hostcell. It provided sites on its surface
which recognize the receptors on thesurface of the host cells for attaching
the iron. Virus is host specific, that is. A
virus may not harm one type of host but
can severely damage another.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Land and Labour in modern
economic parlance are the basic
factors of creation on this planet.
Between the two, labour is supreme,
for it is he who makes conscious anddeliberate efforts to unravel the laws
and mysteries of land and makes useof them for his own development.
Indeed, his own development is the beall and end-all of his entire conscious
effort. Looked at in this light, humandevelopment has been the objective ofhuman Endeavour ever since Adamand Eve first appeared on this earth.
Yes in the beginning, the thrust of
human Endeavour was in the directionof spiritual development, but now it is in
the direction of material development.
In the earlier years, it was
primarily the responsibility of anindividual to develop himself, but now
it has become the responsibility of theState to arrange for all rounddevelopment of human beings. Thishas put human beings in new light. The
shift in emphasis from individual effort
and spiritual development to Stateplanning and material development
has turned human into a factor of
production an economic. Resource tobe brought up developed and used formaterial development of the country as
a whole. Population growth at an
alarming rate comes in the way ofthese social objectives in a big way.
Rapid growth of population, therefore,
has rightly been cause of concern injour country since the early fifty's.
16

However, popular perception in thisregard has undergone a sea changeover the last couple of years.
In early fiftys, socio-economic
implications of population growth werea matter of concern largely in thecontext of the argument that rapid
population growth is an obstacle todevelopment.
But now it isincreasingly recognized that therelationship between population
growth and development is not that
simple it is rather much more complex.
In 1994, it has been forcefully argued
and accepted that rapid population
growth itself is in many ways the resultof a lack of development. In course oftime many other dimensions havebeen added to this relationship which
was once viewed to be unidirectional.
After the ICPD Conference population
issue is placed in a much large context
of sustainable development. Over theyears, the concept of development
little has undergone a change.
In the context of peoplecentered development, many
dimensions like gender equity,
women's empowerment,
environmental degradation, uplift of
the weaker sections and humanresource development have assumed
considerable significance. From thispoint of view, it is essential to look in to
the implications of population.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:There are different forms ofgovernments in the world like,m o n a r c h y, d e m o c r a c y a n d
dictatorship.
Every government
should have a good administrative
system or machinery to levy andcollect taxes, maintain law and order,
to administer justice and to implementv a r i o u s s c h e m e s , f o r e ff e c t i v eadministrative machinery was felt, inthe ancient days also. There wereexcellent administrative set up even at
the village level, in India in the ancientdays. Similarly the Romans gad ab
excellent administrative set up,
similarly also the British, french andthe Greeks. However the nature of
recruitment and appointment to thevarious posts, were more on
hereditary ;basis than on any otherconsideration, in those days
The duties of the Governments inthe ancient days were limited to theextent of providing security to thepeople, and defending the country
from foreign invasion. A small andselected administrative machinery
was sufficient in those days but thescience and technology have changed
the entire set up of the society. The
living conditions of the people havei m p r o v e d c o n s i d e r a b l y.
Theprovisions of hospitals, educational
institution, accommodation, highways
and transport etc. Have became theprimary duty of any modern
government.
As a result, theadministrative machinery has not only
to be geared up to meet the demand
but also transformed to suit themodern conditions.
17

The administrative machinery
has therefore been divided into a
number of departments like civil
administration, police, education,
health, engineering and judiciary etc.
In the present days. The qualifications
have been prescribed for every one ofthe posts each department along withthe procedure for recruitment andappointment to those posts.
The
service commissions recruitingboards have been constituted in all thecountries, to recruit the persons, forthe various posts in the different
departments.
They have been
accorded status free fromgovernmental interference andsecurity of tenure to the members
forming the board with a view to ensurethat the recruitment is madeimpartially without fear or favour.
These bodies conduct examinations,interviews and select the suitable
candidates to the various posts
grades.
The modern administrative system
has become much more important inthese days of the decorative
governments. The representatives
elected by the people need notnecessarily have neither
administrative experience nor talent.
The representative so elected ,therefore have to depend mainly on
the administrative machinery todischarge their duties, in their elected
offices as ministers.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Edward Janner was a doctor in
England. He became world-famousthrough his vaccination for Small Pox.
Janner was born on 17th of May, 1749
in Berkely at Glon Cestershire,
England. His father was a clergy.
Janner was sent to a local school forelementary education when heshowed keener interest in the study of
medicine. Studying for medicine inthose days was an ordeal: one had toget one-self trained under an eminent
surgeon. Later, he had to study in a
medical college for a period of 2 years.
In a small village called Sedbury, near
Bristol, Janner underwent training insurgery under an able surgeon. At theage of 21, he went to St. George
hospital in London, where he had tostudy further and work. After his
graduation in medicine, Janner went
back to his native home to practice
medicine.
During his training period amilkmaid approached her trainee
surgeon to get herself treated for
Cowpox.
Cow Pox was a mild
sickness common to prevail amongmosfc of the milk-vendors. However
Janner momentously thought ofconducting investigations on Cow Pox.
By this time, his training was getting
over and Janner could take up theissue more vigorously. After many
years of practice in his native homeand occasional investigation into thecow pox that had afflicted his milkmaid. Janner trailed to achieve any
type of success. He also started
working on Small pox with the casesthat had come to his clinic and at last it
18

was possible for him “to succeed ingetting it solved and treated.
He published his work in 1796
after having studied 27 cases. He
noticed that in the people who had cow
pox they did not contact small pox,
after they were inoculated the fluids ofcox pox. This led him to undertake ahigh risk of inoculating an eight year
old Jimmy Phipps with cox pox virus
which he extracted from the fingers ofthe milkmaid who had cow pox. The
boy contacted cox pox. After sevenweeks, he inoculated small pox virus
into the same boy, which he extracted
from the patient of small pox. But theboy did not now contact small pox.
Now, he inoculated the same virus intoanother healthy person, he contacted
small pox. The he proved beyond
doubts that people suffering from cox
pox would not contact small pox andthey contacted cox pox from the cows.
In those days, people believed that
one a person had small pox andrecovered from it is he would never get
small pox again. This was for truth inmost of the cases. In other wards,
people and had believed that cox pox
and small pox are two different
infections while he proved that people
will not be affected in case they are
inoculated with the attenuated virusesof cox pox.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Indian scientists deserve kudos forhaving developed an appropriatetechnology in order to meet the fuelrequirements of the rural folk byrecycling locally available organic
resources.
Rapid changes andmodifications have taken place since1950 when the floating dome modelwith counter weights was developedby the Indian Agricultural ResearchInstitute. It provides centre guidesystem for smooth movement of gas
holder and supply of gas at constantpressure/ This applied technology
was looked upon as only of academic
interest of in the early forties but has
turned out to be of immense
importance since the last decade due
to spiraling prizes of petroleum
products, chemical fertilizers andother sources of energy.
This technology gained importancealso on account of the ever-risingdemand for petroleum products which
can only be met by enhanced imports
leading to a further drain on ourmeagre foreign exchange resources.
The recycling of indigenous resources
has at least met a fraction of ourdemands and acted as a deterrent on
this count. The gas plant is a boon to
the Indian farmers. The two main
products of the project from whichmaterial gains accrue are enrichedcompost manure and Methane gas
made from local resources available inthe villages.
Whereas compost
19

manure helps to meet the fertilizer
requirements of the farmers in a more
economical and efficient manner andthereby boost agricultural production,
biogas is used for cooking and lighting
purposes. It is also used in case oflarger plants, as motive power for
driving small engines. In fact the wide
scale utilization of Gobar the mostappropriate answer to solve threenational inter-connected major
problems with which the country is
faced today food, fertilizer and fuel.
The anaerobic decomposition oforganic wastes leads to the productionof methane, which can be readily used
as an energy sources. The mixture ofmethane, carbon dioxide, hydrogenand nitrogen produced in this manneris called biogas. The complex organic
molecules present in the organise
wastes are first broken down tosimpler compounds such as acetate,hydrogen oxygen, etc. By the action of
a number of different micro organisms.
The simple compounds so
produced are utilised by methogenic
bacteria to produce methane.
Methogenic bacteria can hydrogenand carbon dioxide for methane
production.
There are two majoradvantages of this type of energy
source, which are the production ofgas and the residual manure.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Indian planning has shifted its
emphasis from self-sufficiency in foodgrains to rural development throughagricultural development. Though it
continues to be the traditional sector,
progress has become rapid on the
agricultural front. A continuous flow oftechnology is coming out of theresearch stations. To get the best outof it, information about its implication
on decision behaviour and policy
should be made available to thefarmers without time lag. Policies andprogrammes in various sectors andlevels and their justification depend for
effectiveness on dependableknowledge. Operational research inagriculture an rural development mustobserve conditions which arechanging rapidly due to technologicalbreak-through the data on these are
not available from the existingsources.
Information has to be updated
frequently foe an effective information
system for agricultural development.
The centre for agricultural and ruraldevelopment studies of the Tamil Nadu
Agricultural university established arural observatory in support of its
developmental research with thespecific objectives of carrying out thesurvey of resources, production.
employment and organisational
pattern. Tamil Nadu was divided into
eight regions based on agro-economic
Conditions. To have rural and urban
contents, one municipality, one town
panchayat and one village panchayat
were selected in each of the above
20

three regions. These centres formed
the observation centres for the study.
The data were collected and village
level information showed thatirrespective of the size of theobservation center, the distribution of
population among maleand female is almost; equal. The
percentage of weaker section
depends on the nature of the center.
The prosperity of a region depends on
industrial development also industrial
were concentrated in themunicipalities and not in rural areas.
The availability of infrastructural
facilities resulted in the location ofindustries in urban centres. The lengthof road and the number of vehicles
operating is directly related to thedegree of urbanisation. The bullock
cart formed the major mode oftransport in town and village
panchayats. Regulated markets, cooperative marketing societies ande ve n co mmi ssi o n ma n d i e s a r e
operating with urban base only. Thisshows the need for dispersal ofpurchase and sale centres to help thevillagers.
The detailed household survey
showed that while more than forty
percent of the houses were thatched
ones about sixty percent were tiled
houses. As the degree of urbanisation
increased, the percentage of living in
owned houses decreased.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:The major objectives ofnationalisation of commercial banks
as set out by the prime minister may besummarised that removing the control
over commercial banks by few large
industrial houses. Providing adequate
credit to the hitherto neglected sectors
such as agriculture, small business,
small scale and professional. To
introduce professional management incommercial banking. To provide
adequate training and reasonable
service conditions for bank
employees. The banks have really
lived up to the expectations ofparliament and the prime minister
The commercial banks havebecome powerful institutions
contributing for agricultural and ruraldevelopmental and also the upliftmentof weaker sections of the ruralcommunity. Some of the significant
achievements are rapid branch
expansion expansion, of rural credit,
strengthening of the co-operative
sector and support to village and ruralindustries. The commercial banks in
India had organised themselves along
the lines and patterns of British banks.
They are more comfortable with tradeand large industrial houses than withthe agriculture sector and small
industries. A number of changes hastaken place in mral areas after
commencement of the planning era.
The concept of rural developmental
has nether been concise consistent.
21

Gandhiji’s ideas are different fromthose of jawaharlal Nehru and they areagain different from the ideas of indira
gandhi.
These three dominantpersonalities, who played a significant
role in the economic development of
the country, have left their imprints.
Tumultuous and far reaching changes
have taken place after thenationalisation of commercial banks.
Even before 1969, agriculture andallied activities were experiencing
rapid growth under suggested five
year plans. The national credit council
pointed out a large credit gap in therural economy. It has suggested
measures to improve and monitor theflow of credit to the rural sector andalso recommended a multi agency
approach instead of depending on the
co-operativecredit societies alone.
While the banks prior to nationalisation
were reluctant to enter rural areas andlend for rural acitvities in support ofvarious governmental programmes.
Even during the British rule, theGovernment had recognised theimportance of agriculture anddeveloped the co-operative
organisations to take care of
agricultural credit. At that point of timeand perhaps up to 1975,ruraldevelopment was seen merely as
agricultural development.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Classica dance in India adheres to arigorous code, though some minor
improvisations have been attempted
and accepted in recent times.
According to the Hindu mythology,
when Lord Sive shook a hand drem,
the world beatits first rhythm. And as
he moved his body in tune with its beat,the universe came into being. The
dancing Siva is known as Nataraja andall classical dancers invoke Nataraja
as the symbol of cosmic energy. In
India, the e\aesthetic theory is thatdance, music and drama areinseparable, This principle was firstenunciated in Bharatas treatise Natya
Sastra, written in the 3rd century;
B.C.Indian dance essentially tells astory poetically, with movements ofhand mudras and foot and gesture ofeye and row abhinaya, all this issupplemented and complemented bya set pattern of music.
A characteristic feature of theclassical dance is the intricate
footwork, tala which is emphasized by
the jingling of ankle-bells by the dancer
as well as the rhythm maintained by the
drummer. There are four main schoolsof Indian traditional dance. By far theoldest of the classical styles is Bharata
Natyam, which follows the ancient
treatises more closely than any otherstyle. With its roots in Tamilnadu, thisdance, which has retained its purest
form is usually performed solo andcomprises movements of pure rhythm,
reamatic rendering of a story or
depiction of a mood Bharata Natyam
22

was once part of therites of worship in
temples and was performed by
dancing girls attached to temple.
Kathakali frkom kerela is aspectacular and powerful dancedrama, in which the artists don anelaborate make-up and enact tales
from the epics. Kathak began as areligious performance and underMughal lpatronage in the 16th and 17th
centuries evolved as a court-dance.
The Manipuri style of Manipur ineastern India, revolves round thepranks of Krishna when he was young.
Some of the other schools of Indian
dance are the Kuchipudi of Andhra
Pradesh, Odissii of Orissa, Mohini
Attam of Kerala and the Yakshagana of
Karnataka. For variety, colour anddrichness of emotion, the Inian dance
forms have pdractically no parallel inany other part of the world. In fact,
Indian classical dances have traveledoout of the country to influehelp the art
forms of neighbouring Sri Lanka,
Indonesia, Thailand and even Japanand America.
India has also a variety of Tribal and
Folk dances. To the tribals and village
folk, dance seems to be the mostnatural medium of expressio n .
Occasions like marriages. Births,
festivals, fairs, harvests and hunts are
all marked by dancing. The more
popular of the folk dances are the
Bhangra (Rajasthan), Ghumer andGibba (Punjab), Garba (Gajarat),
Kolattam (Tamilnadu and Karnataka)and Kaikottikali(Kerala).

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:During the period 1895 1905,
many path breaking discoveries weremade which not only ushered inrevolutions in several disciplines ofscience but also changed our very
understanding of some of theprevailing concepts in science. The
discovery of electron by Joseph John
Thomson in 1897 was one suchdiscovery. In fact, the discovery ofelectron is one of the greatest
discoveries of modern physics. The
electron was the first of fundamental
constituents of all matter to be
proposed and in the last hundredyears. It has withstood all the tests ofelementarily.
The discovery of electron has
not only revolutionized scientificthought but also our ways of life. Onceelectron was proposed as afundamental constituent of matter, thescientists started building models of
atomic structure.
Atoms in theirnormal states are not electricallycharged. So, as the electrons arenegatively charged, it became obviousthat the atoms also dairy a charge of
positive electricity to counterbalance
the negative charge. Gradually, thephysicists built up an idea how thesecharges were arranged in an atom.
Among these models, the Rutherford
model had the most lasting influence.
Rutherford discovered that the atom
consisted of a heavy positively
23

charged core surrounded by electrons.
The existence of proton wasrecognized in 1914.
In 1931, neutron was
discovered by James Chadwick andthe number of elementary particles
rose to three i.e. electron, proton andneutron. However, with the advent ofparticle accelerators, hundreds of socalled elementary particles werediscussed. To scientists, it was a realshock. They were not prepared to face
so many elementary particles. Fromthe very beginning of humancivilization, the idea of fewer basic
constituents of nature has fascinatedman. To over come this complexity, a
new model viz. quark model was
proposed. According to this model, all
the particles experiencing strong
interactions are made of quarks was
experimentally supported in 1969.
Today the elementary particles andinteraction between them aredescribed the Standard Model.
According to this model,
elementary particles are classified as
leptons i.e. these particles interact
withelectro magnetic andgravitational fields but beyond thatthey interact only through weakinteractions, hadrons and gaugebosons. Le[tons and hadrons interact
by exchanging gauge Bosons

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Many illnesses are caused byirregular meals or from the habit ofeating whatever catches the fancy or
happens to come in handy. Such“carelessness” results in decreased
efficiency too. You are what you eat.
Hence, eating good means on time isvery important.
Scientific mealplanning is knot too difficult. It may
appear complicated to a beginnerwhen he or she is told that a complete
and balanced diet is essential to meetthe needs of the individual. The needsof a person depend on his or her age,sex, body size type, temperament,
nature of work, the climate and the it
ate of health of his or her mind andbody. The term daily diet means all thefood a person eaters during the day.
Die ; may refer to either food ordinarily
eaten or that selected with reference toa particular state of health. A few
simple rules combine all therequirements, and a little practicemakes direct meal planning second
nature.
Nutritionists define good meals
as those which supply nutrition to meetbody needs, protect the body against
disease and are enjoyable to eat. With
the knowledge of nutrition, one caneasily choose food to fulfill the first two
requirements; yet how much one
enjoys one's food depends on one's
taste and attitude in eating. You can
train yourself to enjoy all essential
foods. It is not clearly understood why
24some children seem to dislike certain
foods. But experience shows that apersistent effort I overcoming mostdislikes is rewarding.
Researchers have discoveredthat the custom of three meals a day isbased on convenience and not on
biological needs. Tests show thatblood sugar concentration andmuscular efficiency are lowest before
breakfast and remain at this level until
a meal is taken. After eating, blood
sugar rises sharply and efficiency
increases but the two fall again to a low
level within two-and-a-half to fourhours unless another meal is taken.
From these facts, it appears that a highlevel of energy can be maintained byeating every two and a half to threeh o u r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y.
Experiments on factory workers have
proved this to be true. Today, manyfactories, offices and schools haveincorporated in their schedules a“nutrition” or “snack” period midforenoon and mid-afternoon,
The bed time snack is a matterof individual preference. Top avoid
interfering with sleep, it should either
be omitted or be very light and containlight food such as milk or fruit. An overweight person and the elderly should
avoid food before retiring.
It isunfortunate that breakfast is so often
slight. People who stay in bed. Late,rush with dressing and eat on the run.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Rene Descartes was born oncommented to be 'the greatest single

March 31, 1596, in France. His father

step ever made in the progress of exact

was a member of the nobility. He lostsciences'. He started, in 1619, work

his mother a year after his birth. He

on his magnum opus Discourse on thewas raised by his maternal

method of Rightly Conducting the

grandmother and by a nurse to whom

Reason, which stamped

he was devoted. In 1606, he entered a

immediately as one of the great

Jesuit College that was establishedthinkers of his age. He postulated his

for the education of the young nobility

notion of the unity of all science whichand completed in 1614 the eight-year

was a revolutionary concept whichcourse of studies. His studies left him

contradicted the notion of Aristotle.

himwith a felling of dissatisfaction at theextent of his own ignorance. But he left

The book contained three minor

behind a mark of extreme brilliance.

appendices on the behaviour of lenses

He spent the period from 1618 to 1626,

meteors and geometry. A 106 page

divided between participation in manyfoot note outlined analytical geometry,campaigns of the Thirty Years War inwhich he did it is an endless wavy line,

D8tch.

He wasthe exact graphic equivalent of thedoing military service without salary,pulsating ebb and flow of electric

Descartes spent most of his time in thecurrent in a power cable, which has

study of mathematics. By the age ofpractical application in electrical

22, he began to develop his analyticalengineering.

He never married.

geometry under the title 'La Geometric'by which the mathematicians stillaffectionately refer to it.

Descartes showed, forinstance, that all quadratic equations,when graphed as connected points,

It set forth the idea that a pair of

become straight lines, circles, ellipses,

numbers can determine a apposition

parabolas or hyperbolas.

on a surface; one number x as abeyond the quadratic, he establisheddistance measured horizontally, thethat each class of equations of higher

other

degree brings into being a whole newy as a distance measured

vertically.

In the concept of co-ordinates, he gave a method
25

Going

tribe figure of eight, hearts, hummocks
and petal shapes.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:Science affects the average man
and woman in two ways already. He or
she benefits by its applications, driving
a motor car or omnibus instead of ahorse-drawn vehicle, being treated for
disease by a doctor or surgeon rather
than a priest or a witch, and being killedwith an automatic pistol or shell inplace of a dagger or a battle-awe. It
also affects his or her opinion. Almost
everyone believes that the earth isround and the heavens nearly empty
instead of solid. And we are beginningto believe in our animal ancestry andthe possibility of vast improvements inhuman nature by biological methods.
But science can do something far
bigger for the human mind than thesubstitution of one set of beliefs foranother, of inculcation of skepticism
regarding accepted opinions. It was
gradually spread among humanity as awhole the point of view that prevails
among research workers and has
enabled a few thousand men and a
few dozen women to create thescience on which modern civilization
rests.
For if we are to control our own
and one another's actions as we arelearning to control nature, the scientificpoint of view must come out of thelaboratory and be applied to the eventsof daily life. It is foolish to think that theoutlook which has alreadyrevolutionized industry, agriculture,
war and medicine will prove uselesswhen applied to the family, the nationor the human race. Unfortunately, the26

growing realization of this fact is
opening the door to innumerable false
prophets who are advertising their own
pet theories in sociology as scientific
Science is continually telling us
through their mouths that we aredoomed unless we give up smocking,adopt or abolish birth control and soforth. Now it is not my object to support
any scientific theory, but merely thescientific standpoint. What are thecharacteristics of that standpoint? In
the first place, it attempts to be truthfuland therefore impartial. And it carries
impartiality a great deal further thandoes the legal point of view. A goodscientist will be impartial between Mr.
Smith a tapeworm and the solar
system. He will leave behind him his
natural revulsion of the tapeworm,
which would lead him to throw it away
instead of studying it as carefully as a
statue or a symphony and his awe forthe solar system, which led his
predecessors either to worship its
constituents or at least to regard themas inscrutable servants of the
Almighty, to exalted for humancomprehension.
Such an attitude leads thescientist to a curious mixture of prideand humility. The solar system turns
out to be a group of bodies rather smallin comparison with many of theirneighbors and executing the
movements according to simple andeasily intelligible laws.

SPEED PRACTICE
Type the following in double line spacing with a margin of ten degrees:The brain is the essential organof mind. As the chief focus of thenervous system the brain, with its vast
number of cells closely inter-linked, isrelated to all the tissues and organs of
the body by means of nerves. The
reception by the brain cells of
messages from the various senseorgans arouses what is called
sensation and consciousness, whichfrom a physiological point of view, issimply awareness of sensation. All
mind functioning is therefore primarily
dependent on efficient sense organs
and healthy nerves to transmit
impulses when these sense organs
are stimulated.
In turn, consciousness depends
upon the integrity of the brain cells
and should these cells be injured, as inconcussion from a blow or damaged by
the poisons of alcohol or disease, thenconsciousness may be reduced orcompletely suspended. All forms ofmental activity use up energy in thenever cells and this need is met with byan increased flow of blood containing
nutriment to the brain triples between
birth and adulthood- reaching a final
weight of about 1 kilogram fro men and1.3 kilogram for women. By the age of
50 though, it shrinks slightly, losing
about 30 grams.
There is nocorrelation between brain size andintelligence. A man's brain is usuallyslightly larger than a women's but inboth sexes the brain makes up a27

similar proportion of total body weight.
Two writers hold opposite records forbrain size. The writers hold opposite
records for brain size. The brain of theRussian author Ivan
Turgenev
weighed 2.012 kilogram.
The brain of the French writer
Anatole France (1844-1924) weighed
little more than half that figure, 1.017
kilogram. The grain is divided into twohemispheres, each a mirror image ofthe other.
The right hemisphere
controls the muscles of are receives
information from the left half of body.
The left hemisphere monitors arecontrols the right half of the body. In
right handed people, the majority, theleft side the brain is concerned withsuch skills reading, writing and talking.
The right hemisphere deals withartistic activity and the workings of theimagination. In left handed people thefunctions the two hemispheres manybe reversed.
The average brain
contains about ten thousand million
neurons-microscopic nerve cells.
Each cell has a slender
projection call an axon which links if toother parts of the central nervous
system.
Some axons stretch thelength of the spinal cord making themmore than a meter (23.3 ft) long andthe longest cells in the body. Eachneuron is also linked to neighboring
neurons by upto 50,000 connections
knows as dendrites.