Learning Learning

ISSN 1882-1103

学習の学習Volume 17, No. 2 Autumn 2010
Greetings あいさつ
From the LD SIG Coordinator – Hugh Nicoll
LD SIG コーディネータ ヒュー・ニコル…….………………….1
From the editors – Ellen Head and Patrick Kiernan
編集者 エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン………..……..2
From LD SIG members – Richard Silver, Paul Dickinson & Peter
CassidyLD SIG のメンバー リチャード・シルバー、ポール・ディキンソ
ン、ピーター・キャシデイ...........................................................5
Feature Articles フィチャード アーティクルズ
Helping Learners Develop Reflective Skills Through Critical
Dialogue – Junko Noguchi
クリティカルダイアログによる学生のリフレクティブスキル向上のサポート ― 野口順子.............................................................8
Helping Students Go with the Flow: Using Free Writing andGraphics of Psychological States to Teach Students to Discover‘Flow’ – Michele Ruhl
学生をフローに到達させる：フリー・ライティングと心理状態のグラフ
ィックを用いた試み― ミシャル・ルール ……………………...13

Fostering Student Autonomy Inside and Outside the Classroom –Richard Silver
教室内・教室外でのオートノミー育成 ―リチャード・シルバー……………20
Voices 読者の声
On Q: An Appropriate Methodology for Researching Autonomy?
(Part 1) – Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
Q 調査法について：自律性研究に適したアプローチ？(第 1 部)
ルーシー・クッカー、マイク・ニックス………………………24

Reviews 書評
Language Learner Autonomy: Policy, Curriculum, Classroom. A
Festschrift in honour of David Little (2010). Edited by Breffni
O’Rourke and Lorna Carson - reviewed by Alison Stewart
言語学習者オートノミー：政策、カリキュラム、教室 デイヴィッド・リトル氏記念論文集 ― ブレフニ・オローク、ローナ・カル
ソン編
アリソン・スチュワート.......……………………………………….31
Language and Culture: Reflective Narratives and the Emergenceof Identity (2010). Edited by David Nunan and Julie Choi –reviewed by Patrick Kiernan
言語と文化：内省的体験談の反映とアイデンティティの出現
デヴィド・ヌナン、ジュリ・チョイ編
パトリック・キアナン.......………………………………………….36
Looking back 報告
Reflections on Nakasendo and the Learner Development SIG
Multi-session Workshop on Self-assessment (Tokyo, June 2010) by Andy Barfield, Lucy Cooker, Leander Hughes, Anni Marlow,
Peter Mizuki, Hugh Nicoll, Debjani Ray, Alison Stewart, Brendan
Van Deusen & Stacey Vye
参加者らによる中仙道カンファレンスにおけるLD SIG主催自己評
価についてのワークショップを振り返る（2010年6月於東京）…..39
JACET 49th Convention: Tomorrow's Learners, Tomorrow's
Teachers: Autonomous Development in College English Language
Learning and Teaching (Miyagi University, 7th-9th September, 2010)– by Alison Stewart and Kay Irie
カンファレンス・レポート：第49回 JACET 全国大会：明日の学
習者、明日の教師 − 大学英語教育における学習者と教師の自律的成長 2010年 9月7 ～ 9日 於：宮城大学
アリソン・スチュワート、入江恵...............................................47
BAAL Annual Conference 2010 – Applied Linguistics: Global andLocal (University of Aberdeen, 9th-11th September, 2010) – byPatrick Kiernan
英国応用言語学学会 2010 年大会～応用言語学：グローバルとロー
カル、アバディーン大学、2010 年 9 月 9～11 日
パトリック・キアナン.................................................................50

ii

Looking forward 今後のイベント
A Moveable Feast – by Ellen Head
ムーバブル・フィースト

エレン・ヘッド.................................54“Metaphors we Learn by” Forum about Learner Development
JALT2010 – by Ellen Head and Andy Barfield「学びの比喩」JALT2010学習者ディベロップメント研究部会
エレン・ヘッド、アンディ・バーフィールド……………………57
SIG matters

インフォメーション

Financial report – by Hiromi Furusawa
LD SIG財務報告 古澤弘美...........................................................60
Contributing to Learning Learning｢学習の学習｣原稿募集………………………………………………62iii

Greetings
FROM LD SIG LD COORDINATORHUGH NICOLLLD SIG コーディネータより
ヒュー・ニコル

Greetings all,

皆さん、こんにちは。

It's been a busy year so far, and will continue to be

今年度もこの7ヶ月は忙しく過ぎ去りました。残り

for the next five months as we finish up thisacademic

year,

and

plungeahead

５ヶ月もきっと同じように目まぐるしく過ぎるのwithpreparations for the next one, now not so very far

でしょう。もうあっという間に来年度の準備も始まります。

away on the horizon.
Now almost mid-October, and in less than six
weeks we'll gather in Nagoya this year's national
conference. I am looking forward to seeing many

１０月も半ばに差し掛かり、皆さんに名古屋の全国大会でお目にかかるまで６週間を切りました。

SIG members at the SIG Forum, at the AGM, and

SIG フォーラムと、AGM 、 そして２０日土曜の夜

at the SIG party we are organizing for Saturdayに計画しているSIG パーティでは多くのメンバー

evening, 20 November. I hope many of you will beと会えることを楽しみにしています。是非皆さんのable to join us.
I especially want to thank Andy Barfield, Alison

参加をおまちしております。

Stewart, Colin Rundle, Kay Irie, and Stacey Vye for

そして、９月末にメーリング・リストのディスカ

the discussion they contributed to the Discussion

ッションで提案をしてくれたアンディ・バーフィー

Mailing List at the end of September. Back in June,in post-Nakasendo discussions we talked some of

ルド、アリソン・スチュワート、コリン・ランドル、

the SIG's mission, and the fact that some members

入江恵、ステイシー・ヴァイに感謝をしたいと思い

feel that we need to re-dedicate ourselves toます。６月中仙道カンファレンス後に SIGのミッシ

defining our goals as a group, and to re-evaluate

ョンについて、グループの目的、活動内容を考え直our activities and practices as a SIG. In the coming
weeks, leading up to the conference, I encourage

すべきであると言う声があることについて話し合as many members as possible to read and reflect

う機会がありました。全国大会までの数週間、できon the points raised in the message Alison posted

るだけ大勢のメンバーにアリソンが投げかけてく

to the list, and to contribute your perspectives to an

れた提案を読み、考え、そして考えをディスカッシ

on-going discussion.
For my part, I would like to encourage a return toョンに投稿して頂きたいと思います。

a shared co-coordinator leadership structure, and

私としては、複数コーディネータ体制に戻るこ

to ask that members not currently serving asと、そして現委員以外のメンバーが、 SIGとしての

officers contribute their ideas and energies tohelping us fulfil our shared commitments toresearchingandreflectingonautonomyinlanguage education.
We'll be working on the agenda for the AGM
online, so please join in the conversation.
All the best,Hugh

オートノミーの研究と内省に対するコミットメン
トをもっと分かち合ってくれることを期待します。
AGMの議題をオンライン上で作成していきますので、是非あなたの声を聞かせてください。
今後ともよろしくお願いいたします。
ヒュー・ニコル1

Greetings
FROM THE EDITORSELLEN HEAD AND PATRICK KIERNAN

Hello Everyone and welcome to another edition of
Learning Learning.

編集者より
エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン

皆様、「学習者の学習」の最新号へようこそ
この最新号の執筆に携わりながら大阪学院大学

At the time of writing some of us are getting

主催の学会「ムーバブル・フィースト（移動祝祭

ready for the Moveable Feast event at Osaka日）」ヘの参加の準備をしている方もいらっしゃる

Gakuin University. Hopefully this will event will beでしょう。このイベントが今年の猛暑の中でのan opportunity to share the fruits of teaching and様々な教授活動や考えを分ち合う場、そして将来

thinking over this year’s sweltering summer as wellの議論の活性化や研究プロジェクトを生みだす場

as a chance to stimulate future discussions andとなることを願って止みません。いずれにせよ、

research projects. In any case, this issue of

この「学習者の学習」の最新号では教室内、およLearning Learning offers food for thought in theびアクセス・センターにおいて生徒の自律学習を

form of some very specific accounts from teachers

めざしている教員達の具体的な、そして生の声を

who are working with students on developing

載せてありますが、読者にとっても考える材料とautonomy in the context of the classroom and the

なってくれることを願っております。外国語を修

self-access centre. Fostering independence is

得するという大変な課題に取り組むにはどんな年

important in any learning situation where the aim is

齢層の学習者にとっても自律心を育成することは

the massive task of acquiring a foreign language

大切なことでありますが、特にこれから社会人と

but this seems particularly important when teaching

して自律してゆく大学生にとってはなおさらであyoung people such as university students who are

ります。様々な自己評価の方法論、枠組みが各論

also preparing to gain independence in the world.

文の共通したテーマとして浮上してきたのは思い

The exploration of structures for self-assessment

がけないことでありました。
「フィーチャド・アー

seems to be a common theme which has emerged

テイクルズ」の冒頭では野口順子氏が神田外語大

serendipitiously in this issue. First in the feature

学における実践的なオートノミーの学習活動につ

articles, Junko Noguchi reports on her ‘hands on’

いて報告しております。様々な疑問を投げかける

approach to autonomy at Kanda University of

学習日記に基づくダイアログを通じて、学習者にInternational Studies (KUIS). She introduces an

学習目標を明確化し、省察するアプローチを野口

approach to helping learners reflect on and refine

氏は紹介しております。野口氏のこのアプローチ

their learning goals through dialogue based on

はこの号のアリソン・スチュワート氏の書評書物

structured interviewing tools. Her approach to

同様、デイビッド・リトル氏の研究の影響を深く

encouraging autonomy draws on David Little

受けたものであります。野口氏の論文に続くのは2

Greetings
FROM THE EDITORSELLEN HEAD AND PATRICK KIERNAN

編集者より
エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン

whose legacy is also explored in the book onに続くのはミシャル・ルール氏のフリー・ライテ

language learner autonomy reviewed in this issue

イングの練習によるフローの到達とういう興味深by Alison Stewart. Following Noguchi’s article is a

い論文であります。ルール氏はフリーライテング

fascinating paper by Michele Ruhl in which she

を通じて生徒がフロー到達するという事を論文でproposes a technique for promoting ‘flow’ through a

検証しております。生徒が自分の心理状態を記録

regular practice of free writing. Ruhl illustrates how

することにより学びを自己目的的な活動としてそpractice of free writing can be developed to tap intoの質を高めることを目指した実践報告です。このa more profound involvement in learning as an

フローの定義とはチクセントミハイの論文に沿っ

autotelic activity by raising students’ awareness of

たものであります。教室内の学習者の自律学習のthe psychological states they go through as they

育成を目指す教育者にとっての最大の問題点は自work. The description of flow draws on papers by

律学習の妨げとなる学校制度の慣行であります。

Czikszentmihalyi. One major concern for anyone

特に試験実施においては特に教師は監視し、全責

wishing to develop learner autonomy in the

任を負うことを求められております。リチャー

classroom is that traditional institutional practices

ド・シルバーはこのような従来の試験実施方法とoften discourage it. This is particularly so when it

は違った、独自の自己評価システムを紹介し、教comes to testing where the teacher tends to be

室内・教室外でのオートノミーの育成を提唱して

expected by all concerned to take charge. Richard

おります。
「Voices／読者の声」のセクションでは、

Silver in his article on fostering learner autonomy in

ルーシ−・クッカー氏とマイク・ニックス氏のお二and out of the classroom argues that this need not

人の「Ｑ調査法」に関する２部にわたる議論をごbe the case and introduces readers to his own

紹介致します。
「Ｑ調査法」の方法論は６月の中仙

approach to developing self-evaluation in his

道の学会でもクッカー氏に紹介され定量分析と定classroom. In the “Voices” section we are excited to性（質的）分析の間隙を埋める重要な方法論であpresent the first of a two-part discussion between

ります。クッカー氏の研究は能力ではなく、自律

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix on Q methodology. Q

学習を自己評価するツールの作成に焦点をあてた

methodology makes an attempt to bridge the gap

ものであります。最新号ではシルバーの自己評価

between quantitative and qualitative research,

システム、野口氏のダイアログ、そしてルールのwhich many found of interest during Cooker’s

フロー達成に伴う心理状態の自己評価方法等、こposter presentation at the Nakasendo conferenceの自己評価システムの作成が共通したテーマであin June. Cooker’s research focuses on the creation

ります。6 月の中仙道の学会のいらっしゃれなかっ

of a tool for self-assessment, not of ability, but of

た方は「Looking Back/報告」のセクションをご一

autonomy.

読ください。また、JACET (社団法人大学英語教育

For those of you who missed the Nakasendo

学会)の今年の学会のテーマは自律学習でありまconference in June, there is a full report on this in

したが、その報告、そしてグロバライゼーション‘Looking back’ , as well as reports on the JACETをテーマとした BAAL (British Association for

conference (which was themed on Learner Autonomy

Applied Linguistics Annual Conference)の学会の報告も合わせてご一読ばいただければ思いま3Greetings
FROM THE EDITORSELLEN HEAD AND PATRICK KIERNAN

編集者より
エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン
す。締めくくりとしては私、パトリック・キアナン

this year) and the BAAL conference (which centred on

が２０１０年度で読んだ本の中でお気に入りの書物

issues around globalization). Finally, Patrick reviews

を紹介致します。有名人、そして無名な人々の言語

his favourite book of 2010, a collection of language

学習体験を綴った作品集であります。“Sweating

learning histories by famous and not-so-famous

Cheese and Thinking Otherwise” (美味？ゲタモ

people in the ESL world. Who could resist a book withノ？ブルーチーズが教えてくれた他人の視点)といa chapter entitled “Sweating Cheese and thinking

う食物の隠喩を使用した興味深い論文もこの作品集

otherwise”?

(Those food metaphors again!) It isの中に含まれております。また、「ムーバブル・フィ

worth checking out the Moveable Feast abstracts inースト（移動祝祭日）」の学会のプレゼンテーション

the “Looking Ahead” section whenever you read this,の要約も一読していただければと存じます。特にチ

if only to find out why Charles Adamson says “no” toャールズ・アダムソンが教室内でスキャフォルデイ

scaffolding and what alternatives he offers! By the

ングの替わりとなる枠組みを提案しておりますが、

way we are not offering any preview of the JALT

一読に値します。これから名古屋で開催される予定

conference in Nagoya other than our SIG Forumの JALT（全国語学教育員学会）関しましては、ここ

about Metaphor, for the excellent reason that theでon-linehttp://jalt.org/conference/jalt2010/jalt2010-s

scheduleissearchable

by

SIG

at

は

触

れ

ず

、

直

接

http://jalt.org/conference/jalt2010/jalt2010-schedulechedule のページにリンクしていただければと存じ

It just remains for us to say two more very important

ます。オンラインで大会のスケジュールをご覧にな

things: one is, do contact us with your ideas andれます。

contribute to make the next Learning Learning as

最後に、お願いしたいことが２点あります。
「学習者

fascinating as this one (details on the final page); theの学習」の次号に是非皆様の素晴らしい論文等の投

second is to extend our very sincere thanks to all the

稿を募集しております。詳細につきましては最後のcontributors and the translation team who have put

ページをご覧になっていただければと思います。まtogether summaries for each article in Japanese:

た、今回も投稿していただいた著者の皆様、そしてthank you to Kay Irie, Kayo Ozawa, Junko Noguchi,

入江恵氏を筆頭に、小澤佳世、野口順子、阿部真ら

Makoto Abe, and to Alison Stewart and Jim Ronald for

翻訳チーム、そしてアリソン・スチュアート、ジム・

helping with proof reading.

ロナルドのお二人には校正を担当していただき、改Best regards,

めて感謝を申し上げたいと思います。

Ellen and Patrick.

エレン＆パトリック

4

Greetings
In this issue we meet three members: Richard Silver and Paul Dickinson have been awarded the
Learner Development SIG's "first time JALT attender" bursaries, while Peter Cassidy is one of theauthors involved in the SIG's forthcoming anthology Realising Autonomy, edited by Kay Irie andAlison Stewart, and coming out in May, 2011.

FROM LD SIG MEMBER RICHARD SILVER

LD SIG のメンバー

リチャード・シルバー

Richard Silver has been living in
Kyoto since 2003. He is currently

リチャード・シルバーは 2003 年かworking

Ritsumeikan

ら京都に住み、現在立命館大学及University and Konan University’s

び甲南大学の平尾ビジネス学科でHirao School of Management,

様々な英語のクラスを教えている。

teaching a range of English

18 ヶ月前から JALT に所属しまたclasses. A JALT member for the

Teachers Helping Teachers

past 18 months he is also aと Learner Development SIG のメ

at

SIG

member of the Teachers Helping Teachers SIG asンバーでもある。2010 年名古屋において彼の同僚

well as the Learner Development SIG. This autumn

であるマッシュークーンバとともに発表する予定

he will be presenting at JALT 2010 in Nagoya withである。また 10 月にソウルにおいて KOTESOL の学

his colleague Matt Coomber, and at KOTESOL in会に参加し、生徒自らがプレゼンテーションとデイ

Seoul where he will lead a workshop on students

スカッションについてワークショップを行う予定

leading presentations and discussions.

である

FROM LD SIG MEMBER PAUL DICKINSONLD SIG のメンバー

ポール・ディキンソン

Hello everyone! My name is Paul

皆さん、こんにちは。私の名前

Dickinson. I’m a new member ofはポール・ディキンソンです。

the LD SIG having joined in April

今年の４月から LD SIG に参加

this

the

している新メンバーです。これ

opportunity to attend any SIG

まで SIG のイベントに参加すevents as yet, but I’m hoping to

る機会がなかったのですが、

meet other group members at

JALT2010 で他のグループのメ

JALT2010. I’ve been teaching EFL

ンバーに会えたらと思っていat various locations around theます。ここ数年、東北各地のTohoku region for several years

様々な場面で EFL を教えていnow. Prior to that, I taught ESL in

ます。その前にはオーストラリ

Australia. Since coming to Japan

アで ESL を教えていました。日

year.

I

haven’t

had

I’ve become much more aware of the importance of

本に来てからは、学習者の自主性の大切さがわかり

learner autonomy. I hope that hearing and readingました。他の SIG メンバーが経験した生徒と指導者

about the learner and teacher development relatedの成長に関する話を聞いたり、読んだりすることで、

experiences of other SIG members will enable me

生徒たち（と私自身）がもっと自主的になれるよう

to help my students (and myself) to become moreに手助けしてあげられるようになるでしょう。皆さ

autonomous learners. I’m looking forward to

んにお会いし、学習者の成長についての様々な話や

meeting you and sharing stories and ideas about

アイデアを共有できることを楽しみにしています。

learner development sometime soon!
5

Greetings
FROM LD SIG MEMBER PETER CASSIDY

LD SIG のメンバー

ピーター・キャシディ

My name is Peter Cassidy and I joined the LD SIG

こんにちは。私はピーター・キャシデイです。私はin 2009 after developing a greater interest in

現在、テーチャーズ・カレッジ日本校で学んでいま

learner autonomy through courses at Teachers

すが、修士課程を通じて特に自律学習の分野に興味College, Columbia (TC). I have been teaching
young learners in Japan for ten years andautonomy is of great importance to my teachingcontext. I became interested in the teachingを持ち、2009 年に学習者デベロプメント研究部会のメンバーになりました。日本では主に子供を対象に 10 年教えてきましたが、その現場では自律学習

profession while in high school through my first job

はとても重要だと考えています。そもそも教師といas a lifeguard and swimming instructor. I graduatedう職業に興味を持ったのは高校生の頃、水泳のコー

from high school after having completed a late

チおよび監視員として生徒に接していた頃です。高

French immersion program (grade six to grade校（６年生から１３年生）ではフランス語のイマー

thirteen)

Carleton

ジョン・プログラムを修了し、その後 1990 年に、University (English BA) in 1990. I also attended

カールトン大学で英語学の学士号を取得しました。

andlater graduated from

Lakehead University (1992 / 93) where I studied
courses geared to teachers of young learners aswell as a Native Canadian Philosophy course. My
experiences as a French immersion student as well

また、1992 年から 1993 年にかけては、特に幼児教育を専門とする教員を対象とした科目とカナダ先住民の哲学に関する科目をレイクヘッド大学で受

as the impact of the First Nations philosophy

講しました。フランス語イマージョン・プログラム

course taken at Lakehead University may have

およびカナダ先住民に関する授業が私の現在の研very well been the catalyst for my current research

究的興味（言語復興と第２言語学習における母語のinterests in respecting the L1 in L2 learning役割）のきっかけとなったのは間違いありません。

environments as well as language revitalization. I

最近では JALT 広島支部主催で行われたミニ・カン

have recently presented my research highlighting

ファレンスで、個人の社会化や独創性への影響を考

the need for “English only” policy change withregards to how it may affect socialization as well as
creativity at JALT (Hiroshima 2010) and publisheda very short article summarizing these findings in慮し、英語のみで行う授業を変える必要性を訴える
研究発表をしました。東京支部発行の機関誌
Chap’zine にこの研究発表が記載されました。テMyーチャーズ・カレッジ日本校の修士論文のテーマはresearch interest in language revitalization and「言語復興と文化的アイデンテイテイ」の予定で

cultural identity is going to be my MA submission

す。

the recent Tokyo Chap’zine publication.

for my TESOL graduate program through TC
Columbia (Tokyo campus).
Teachers College has been a wonderfullearning experience and I hope to graduate in
February 2011. This graduate program has lead to
my participation in the opening of the first Writing
Center at the Tokyo campus. This valuable

テーチャーズ・カレッジは素晴らしい学びの経験の場でしたが、それも 2011 年 2 月の卒業と言う終わりに近づいています。大学院在籍中に、ライティ
ング・センターの設立に関わることができたことを光栄に思っています。このライティング・センター誕生の発端はテーチャーズ・カレッジで行われた
6

Greetings
LD SIG のメンバー

FROM LD SIG MEMBER PETER CASSIDY

ピーター・キャシディ

resource became a reality through a workshop at

ワークショップであり、私と４名の学生がこれに関TC that had myself and four others develop the

わりました。当センターは、レボートなどの課題、

foundation for the opening of the center thatそしてプログラムの集大成である修士論文を書く

supports writers in their writing assignments and of

ために必要な学生のライテイング力を伸ばすため

course their final thesis (MA Project). This has alsoの個別サポートをしています。またこのような経験

lead to our contribution of a chapter to theが撰集「自律学習の実現に向けて」の一章「ライテanthology Realizing Autonomy. The chapter isィング・センターの設立にむけて：自律学習、相互entitled “Creating a Writing Center: Autonomy,

依存、そしてエンパワメント」の執筆につながってInterdependence,it

いったのです。この章では設立のきっかけとなった

describes the autonomous nature of both the

ワークショップが学生の自律的な活動によるもの

workshop that lead to the opening of the Writing

であったこと、そして、チューターとのセッション

Center as well as the ideals behind writing centers

およびライティング・センターの理念が自律した書

and tutorial sessions that are meant to empower

き手の育成を目指していることについて触れていwriters

The

ます。創造活動を通じて書き手が成長し、文章力を

collaborative efforts between peer readers and our

つけていくこと目標としているのです。この章の執group has been very rewarding during this process

筆にあたって、他章の執筆者とお互い査読し合う共and having multiple perspectives working towards

同作業はやりがいのあるものであり、その執筆過程

one

interdependent

において様々な視点が加わることは相互的な協力

cooperation, patience, and strategic independence.

関係、忍耐力、そして主体性を必要とするものでし

in

paper

and

their

has

Empowerment”

creative

requiredandendeavors.

I will be attending the “Moveable Feast”

た。

gathering and look forward to meeting other

多忙のため、過去の学習者デベロップメント研究

presenters. Although my schedule has not allowed

部会には参加できませんでしたが、今後そのような

for me to attend any Learner Development

機会が増え、自律学習に関心のある方々との連携に

meetings in the past, I hope that I will be able toより、学びを深めていければと考えています。どうattend more in the future and learn throughぞ宜しくお願いします。

collaborating with others interested in learnerautonomy.

7

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
Feature Article: Junko Noguchi
Helping Learners Develop Reflective
Skills Through Critical Dialogue

立性育成サポーをする際、目標設定、適切な教材やア

クリティカルダイアログによる学生のリフレクティブスキル向上のサポート

リフレクティブ（内省的)スキルを向上させるかといっ

クティビティの選択と言ったスキルを学ぶ中でいかにたことに、重点が置かれている。また、この過程を学
習トレーニングという面から捉え、Holec (1980)が推Junko Noguchi
Kanda University ofInternational Studies
野口順子、
神田外語大学奨する学生自身に「発見」をさせていくというアプローチをとっている。すなわち、日記にコメントを書く
際には、答えを始めから教えるのではなく、適切な質問を投げかけることで、学生自らが疑問を持ち、またその解決策を探し出していく手助けをするようにしている。そうすることによって、学生は自らリフレクティブ・シンキング（内省的思考）を繰り返し、そのス

神田外語大学は開学以来、学生の自立性を育成するこ

キルを磨いていく。

とに重点をおいていきた。授業のカリキュラムに関し

具体的には、目標設定や適切な教材およびアクティても、自立性育成を眼目においたものとなっており、ビティの選択に関して自分なりに様々に考え、その考また授業外学習へのサポートの一環として、一万点に察に対してアドバイザーからコメントをもらう中で、も及ぶ自立学習用教材を備えた自立学習センター、サ

学生は自身の学習についてリフレクティブ・シンキン

ルク（Self-Access Learning Centre (SALC)）が設立

グ（内省的思考）をする能力を向上させることができされた。

たようである。

サルクでは生徒の自立学習サポートの一つとして、また、学習者はアドバイザーから様々な質問をされ「モジュール（module）」とよばれる選択制の自主学習

ることにより、学習目標やその目標を達成するためにコースを 1 年生と 2 年生を対象に開講している。最初使用する教材、アクティビティの選択に関して、特にのコースである「ファーストステップスモジュール

その目標と使用する教材、アクティビティの関連性に（First Steps Module）」では学生は自らの行った学習

関してより深くその効率性を考える。学生はアドバイについての考察を日記に記し、アドバイザーがその考ザーからの質問を自分のものとしていくことで、自身察に関してコメントを書くという、日記を介した考察のリフレクティブ・シンキング（内省的思考）のスキ学習を行う。(Noguchi & McCarthy, 2009 を参照)。こルを向上させてゆく。Little (1991)は、この賢明な判のアドバイザーとの日記を介した対話を通し、学生は断をする能力は自立学習者の持つ特徴の一つと述べて多くの研究者（Holec, 1981; Little, 1991 等）が提いる。このような能力を高めることにより、学習者は唱する学生の自立性（learner autonomy）の定義と一同時に自立性も向上させてゆけると確信する。

致する、目標設定、適切な教材やアクティビティの選
択などのスキルを学んでゆく。
ファーストステップスモジュールを通して学生の自Introduction
Kanda University of International Studies (KUIS) was
8

Junko Noguchi
established in 1987 with the key concepts of fostering

to assist them in developing their capacity to reflect onlearner autonomy and designing a curriculum totheir learning while they learn how to set achievableachieve this aim.

As part of fostering learnergoals and choose appropriate materials and strategies

autonomy outside the classroom, the Self-Accessfor those goals. Considering this process as learner

Learning Centre (SALC) was created. The SALC is a

training, I take the approach that Holec (1980)

state of the art center designed to help students

promotes. He states that we should train learners bybecome more autonomous.

As learning advisors at

letting them discover the answers to the problems on

the SALC, we encourage students to exercise the righttheir own since, by trial and error, they train

to make decisions on their learning while giving themthemselves progressively.

feedback on those decisions. Through this criticalorder to foster learner autonomy, I should ask the

dialogue between the students and the learninglearners questions instead of just throwing answers,

advisors, it is hoped that the students will develop

corrections or suggestions in their faces from thereflective skills.

beginning.

Since the capacity to reflect critically

Therefore, I believe that in

By asking questions, I give themon learning is one characteristics of autonomous

opportunities to discover their own solutions, which I

learners (Little, 1991), we hope that by developing thisbelieve can enable them to develop critical thinking

capacity we are also helping them learn to become

skills. For example, when one student said she wanted

more autonomous.

to improve her vocabulary skills, I asked her what kindof vocabulary (i.e. academic vocabulary, businessFirst Steps Module

vocabulary,

Learning advisors and students primarily conduct theirneeded the most. She replied to me saying she had

critical dialogue through the First Steps Module.

The

never thought about what kind of vocabulary she

First Steps Module is one of a range of optional

needed the most since she had not paid attention toself-directed courses that the SALC provides todifferent “kinds” of vocabulary. She decided to learn

freshman and sophomore learners. It is designed toconversational vocabulary because she wanted to behelp students develop skills such as goal-setting,able to watch and understand English dramas withoutchoosing

selectingsubtitles. Some students quickly understand these

These skills align with manykinds of metacognitive questions. On the other hand,researchers’ (Holec, 1981; Little, 1991) definitions ofothers have difficulty understanding how to answer.

learner autonomy. The skills are developed throughThis shows that students demonstrate a wide range ofwritten dialogues with a learning advisor. As students

awareness of their learning process.

appropriate

appropriate activities.

materials,

andconversational

vocabulary

etc,)

she

complete their modules, they write reflections on theirlearning and in return their advisor gives feedback on

Goal-setting activities

the reflections (see also Noguchi & McCarthy, 2009).

In the First Steps Module, the first thing the learners
are required to do is to pick a language learning goal.

Reflecting On effective ways of learning

Many freshman students often have difficulty in

As a learning advisor at the SALC, my main focus

deciding on which skills to improve.

whenexperience of setting their personal goals for theirtryingtohelp

students

becomemore

autonomous learners during the First Steps Module is

They have little

English communication skills outside of class.

Most
9

Junko Noguchi
likely, this is because of the Japanese education

to choose, the students do a needs analysis to help

system, which tends to be teacher-centered. Students

them think about the specific situations in which they

are used to being told what to do and how to do it.

need to use English and what skills they need to use

Their language learning goal up to this point has

the most in those situations. For example, students

usually been to pass the next exam. Therefore, tothink about a situation such as going overseas andmake choosing a goal easier and help them narrow

choose a general skill such as speaking that they feel

down their focus, the module breaks language skills

will be most important. They then select a specificinto two groups:

skill focus in this area, such as spoken vocabulary.
When going through this goal setting process, what isGeneral Skills:

emphasized the most is that they need to narrow theirspeaking, listening, writing, reading

focus to decide on a specific and achievable goal.

Specific Skills:
vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation

It is common for freshman learners to have trouble
choosing a specific skill that supports their general skill.
For example, one student said she wanted to be able

The general skills group consists of four different forms

to read English books faster and also she wanted toof communication in which language can be used. The

improve her vocabulary skills for conversation. In otherspecific skills group includes three different aspects ofwords, she chose a specific skill that did not relate toknowledge about language, which can help learners

her general skill.

perform the general skills better. In other words, by

was choose two separate general skills to work on:

knowing more about vocabulary, grammar and/or

reading and speaking. What she should have done ispronunciation, one can improve speaking, listening,to think about which specific skill she needs to improvewriting and/or reading skills. However, using a specificthe most in order to be able to read faster and choose

skill (e.g. vocabulary) to improve one general skill (e.g.

it as a goal. Instead, she had thought about anotherspeaking) is different from using the same specific skill

general skill she wants to improve and chose a specific(e.g. vocabulary) to improve another general skill (e.g.

skill in order to do so, as seen in the table below.

In fact, what she had really done

writing). For example, remembering correct spelling
may be a big part of vocabulary skills for writing while itis not necessary for speaking.
Learners must choose one skill from the general

General Skills
1 ReadingSpecific Skills
Not decided

2 Speaking (conversation) Vocabulary

skills group that they want to work on during themodule.

Next, they choose a specific area within that

When this happens, it is a good opportunity to help

skill to focus on. The combination of a general skill

students to improve their reflective skills.

with a specific skill within that area constitutes theexample, for the student who chose two separate

learner’s goal for the semester. We emphasize thegeneral skills to work on, I pointed out that her specificimportance of narrowing down their focus so that theyskill did not support her general skill and asked her

can intensively work on their target skills and see the

how we could fix it. In reply to my comment, she told

improvement more clearly.

me that she wanted to improve her reading skills to

To help them decide which general and specific skill

For

improve her reading speed, but also wanted to10

Junko Noguchi

improve her speaking skills for casual conversation

speaking skills.

with her English-speaking friends. Without realizing it,

When I see this kind of mismatch between ashe had mixed up these two goals and put them into alearner’s goals and their materials/activities, I write

single goal. That was why her goals were not focusedcomments to point out the mismatch or ask questions

and why she had a difficult time making her study plan

to help them realize that the materials/activities they’ve

based on them. She was very happy about the fact

selected aren’t connected directly to the goals. For

that she figured this out herself and thanked me forexample, one student decided that for her general skill

helping her.

After more consideration, she decided

she wanted to improve her speaking skills andthat improving her conversation skills was more

specifically, she wanted to improve her spoken

important than improving her reading skills because

grammar skills.

she wanted to be able to communicate more smoothlythat she would watch an episode of the English TV

in class discussions and therefore chose speaking as

drama “Friends” and write down some phrases andher general skill and conversational vocabulary as her

expressions she didn’t know.

specific skill. This student realized the importance ofplan was that it seemed like her chosen activity andappropriately selecting goals and therefore was one

her goals didn’t match because she was focusing on

step closer in her journey towards autonomy.

vocabulary and not grammar. I asked her what she

However, she said for her study plan

My reply to this study

could do to fix it. After reading my comment, she
Choosing appropriate materials and strategies

changed her study plan so that she would write down

As students complete the module, they will get aexamples of new grammar that she noticed instead ofchanceandnew phrases or expressions because she realized thatstrategies/activities to improve their targeted skills.

she was not making a direct connection between her

Many students often end up choosing the same

goals and her activities.

materials they used to prepare for exams even though

activities that directly help her achieve her goals, she

their goals have changed to communicative ones.

critically thought about her decisions, which hopefully

For example, a student might choose to improve theirwill lead her further in her journey towards autonomy.

toexploredifferentmaterials

In the process of selecting

conversational vocabulary by memorizing words froma TOEIC test preparation book. They seem to beConclusion

unable to make the connection between their goals

Effective goal setting and material/strategies selection

and the materials and strategies they will use tois a very important first step towards successfulachieve those goals.

They appear to believe thatlearning. However, most freshman college students

regardless of what activities they do, as long as it isthat I advise have difficultly doing these things unaided.

related to English, they will somehow achieve their

By completing the goal-setting and materials/strategies

goal. As another example, a student might say her

activities in the First Steps Module and engaging ingoal is to improve her conversational skills but the

dialogue on their decisions with a learning advisor,

activity she chooses to achieve this goal is to listen tolearners can develop their capacity to reflect critically

CNN every morning.

Clearly, although listening toon their learning. I believe that questioning learners

CNN might help her improve her listening skills, it won’t

about their decisions helps them to reflect on the

directly help her meet her goal of improving her

effectiveness

of

their

choices,

especiallythe11connection between their goals and the activities they

Meeting Individual Needs. Oxford: Pergamon.

do to achieve the goals.

pp.30-45

Hopefully, students

internalize this questioning and this in turn will help
them improve their reflective skills.

They can thenmake their learning more effective by making better
decisions.

As Little (1991) states, the capacity tomake good decisions is one of the most important

Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and Foreign Language
Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Little, D. (1991). Learner Autonomy. 1: Definitions,Issues and Problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Noguchi, J., & McCarthy, T. (2010). Reflective
Self-study: Fostering Learner Autonomy. In A.

skills for autonomous learners.

Stoke (ed.), JALT2009 Conference Proceedings.
References

Tokyo: JALT. Retrieved from:

Holec, H. (1980). ‘Learner training: Meeting needs in

http://jalt-publications.org/proceedings/2009/conte

self-directed learning.’ In H. B. Altman & C. V.
James(eds),

Foreign

Languagents.php

Learning:

12

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
Feature Article: Michele Ruhl
Helping Students Go with the Flow:
Using Free Writing and Graphics of
Psychological States to Teach Students
to Discover ‘Flow’

この他には不安、リラックス、制御、心配、無気力、学生をフローに到達させる：フリー・ライティン
グと心理状態のグラフィックを用いた試みの学生がフローを体験したと報告している。学生自身

倦怠感などが挙げられた。これら、それぞれの心理状
態は、活動の難易度と学習者のスキルとのバランスを表している。１５週間の間、約 1/4 が覚醒, さらに 1/4にフローを認識させ、その体験を増やすことにより、学びの質を高めることに繋がると考えられる。
Introduction
This paper reports on a pilot study in which students
were asked to self-monitor their psychological state
after doing free writing for weekly homework. My
hypothesis was that free writing might be one way ofMichele Ruhl
Nagasaki University
ミシャル・ルール、長崎大学

accessing a state of flow and might impact positively
on English writing fluency (defined simply as increased
written

output).

“Flow”

wasidentified

byCsiksezentmihalyi (1990) as a psychological state in
本稿は毎週の課題としているフリー・ライティング後

which the challenge is in balance with the learner’sの心理状態をセルフ・モニタリングすると言う予備的

skills. According to Csiksezentmihalyi, flow equates

研究の報告である。これは、フリー・ライティングがwith a high degree of engagement and intrinsic

フロー到達の手段の一つとなり、 英語の流暢さ

motivation in the practice of activities which integrate（fluency）に良い影響を及ぼすと言う仮説を検証する

the mind and the body, in optimal ways. Free writing is

ものである。チクセントミハイ（１９７５）によれば、

characterized by emphasis on fluency and also by a

フローとは、能力の水準と課題の難易度とのバランス

certain level of physical engagement, both of whichの均衡が保たれている場合の精神状態を表す。これはmake it suitable for promoting the state of flow. I

心身を融合させる活動における最高の集中状態と本質

believe that if we can help students to recognize and的な価値による動機づけがなされていることを意味す

increase flow experiences, it will impact on the qualityる。フリー・ライティングはその流暢さに重きがおかof learning not only in English class but also in other

れ、一定の身体的な動きも伴うため、フローへの到達

areas of their life.

に適していると考えられる。この仮説に基づき、筆者

In this paper, I will first explain more about “flow”

は学生に時間制限を設けたフリー・ライティングを毎

before outlining how the project was presented to

週の課題とした。そして、どれぐらい書いたかを明確

students and how graphic representations of “flow” andにするため、課題終了時に、日付と語数をグラフに印

other psychological states were used by students to

してもらった。学生は学期半ばに自己評価を行った。

record their states after writing.

最終クラス前に、学生はチクセントミハイのフロー状

how students reacted to both free writing and graphing

態を示すグラフを見た上で、心理状態の自己評価を行

their psychological states. Finally I will argue that theった。 フローは覚醒(arousal)の次に多く報告された。

combination of awareness-raising through graphic

I will give details of

13Michele Ruhl

representation of psychological states can help

find “flow” in complex activities instead of turning tostudents to develop skills in self-monitoring bothpassive and simple activities that often result in inner

self-study

turmoil,andin-classstudy,

withimportantconsequences for their ability to select self-study tasks
and to give helpful feedback regarding classroom
learning.

frustrationanddisappointment(Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, p. 191 & 321).
Characteristics of the psychological state of flow
include the following:•developing

peak

performance:balancebetween arousal and control

More about flow
The psychological state called “flow” is inherently•

focused energy

connected to self-expression, autonomy and life-long•being aware and in the moment

learning. People with autotelic personalities have more•

being in touch with our emotional lives –communication with ourselvescomplex flow activities in their life. “Flow” is the key
characteristic found in autotelic activities. These are•consistent engagement with tasks that demand

activities that we do for their own sake, not for somea high degree of skill and commitment.

external goal but because they are important and(Csikszentmihalyi, 1997, p. 31)

valuable in their own right (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997, p.
116). In terms of learning, flow is a psychological statein learning in which the challenge is in balance with thelearner’s skills.

Other psychological states include

arousal, anxiety, relaxation, control, worry, apathy, andboredom. Each state reflects the balance between thechallenge and the learner’s skills (see Figure 1). The
remarkable thing about “flow” is that we can develop
activities that put us in this state so that we are in “flow”
more often. With practice we can learn how to assess
the balance between skills that we possess and thechallenges we face in activities that we do, andmanage our learning process by having the goal toincrease

our

daily

“flow”

experiences.

This

is

significant because experiencing peak performance

Figure 1: FLOW Adapted from Czikszentmihalyi,

and the additional by- product of increased feelings of1990.

well-being is beneficial psychologically, spiritually andphysically. The state of “flow” promotes positive

Introducing timed free writing to students as alearning cycles and has positive long–term effects

possible flow experiencesuch as higher self-esteem and the ability to work

A pilot study was done to investigate the effectivenesslongerillnessesof free writing to increase English writing fluency and(Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, p. 186). Meaningful learning

the possibility of using graphs of the psychologicalexperiences result when enough skills are mastered tostates related to “flow” as a way of raising awarenesswithout

stress-related

14

Michele Ruhl

students’write, they can be encouraged to continue with positive

engagement with class activities. First year students inself talk such as, “I don’t know what to write now. What

the pilot study were from the following faculties at

can I write now? Who can I write about? What can I

Nagasaki University: Economics, Education, Fisheries,

write about?” This kind of practice keeps the students

Technology and Environmental Science. Data was

focused on the possibilities and potential to write aboutcollected from 129 first year students in the second

something that they know about. After writing, the total

semester of 2009. Previously, data collected fromword count including English words and mistakes isstudents who answered a questionnaire in Japanese

noted beside the writing and then transferred to a free

about their motivation to do English class activities

writing graph, with “date” on the x-axis and “number ofindicated that motivation to do writing in English atwords” on the y-axis. Typically, students are not asked

university is lower than that for speaking, listening, andto count each other’s totals because free writing aims

reading in English. It was hoped that regular free

to be a safe place in which writers are developing theirwriting practice would increase both students’ level offluency while taming their inner critic (Brande, 1934;

performance and motivation in relation to writing.

Cameron, 1998).Writers should feel free to express

Therefore, a statistical study was made to examine thethemselves without inhibitions. Any criticism or slightincrease in the number of words students wrote in 10

correction could have a negative effect on what we areminutes of free writing at midterm and at the end oftrying to nurture: a focus on what can be written

term, and the correlations between totals from the startinstead of what the “critics” think should be written.

and midterm and midterm and the end of term.

Instead of reading each other’s free writing, talking

Qualitative data was also collected at those times inabout free writing and what they wrote about isthe form of written feedback in English or Japanese

encouraged and a quick glance at classmates’ writing

about free writing in general. Finally, students wereis recommended to ensure that students: 1) feel a

asked

sense of responsibility; 2) feel that their writing efforts

of

how

to

psychologicalreportonstateswhat

reflect

psychologicalstatecharacterized their free writing experience.

are recognized and 3) gage the increasing length ofeach other’s writing. The following goals are set for

Introducing free writing: Parameters and ground

English free writing: 150 words (including mistakes) inrules

10 minutes by midterm and 250 words in 10 minutes

Free writing is introduced to students as a timedby the final class check.

exercise which is part of a weekly basic homework

Weekly free writing topics are given in English andrequirement. Students set their cell phone timers andJapanese. However, students were reminded andwrite for 10 minutes without stopping and continuing,

encouraged to write about anything they choose andwithout erasing, even if they make mistakes. Students

anything that they can write about. Mental lists areare encouraged to use colored pens and to change

encouraged before beginning. The result is thatcolors if they get stuck. They are advised to continue

students gradually become familiar with the activity,

writing with a focus on grammatically simple sentences,

but also feel a pressure to perform within the 10changing only the pronouns such as, “I’m hot. She’s

minutes, and they are able to see their growing totals

hot. They’re hot.” Or, “This is a pen. This is a chair.” Inat a glance on the graphs. While a variety of timed

addition, when students feel at a loss about what toactivities are done weekly for homework, students
15Michele Ruhl

report that free writing in English has had the mostfor one third of the students, free writing became an

impact on them. It is reported to be both the most“autotelic” activity. That is, the outside goal to write as

challenging activity to become familiar with and themuch as possible in 10 minutes was transformed into

activity with the most satisfying results.

an activity that is done for its own sake.

Many students struggle with free writing initially.
Some advice on how to support students in the

Using flow as a way of evaluating the effectivenessbeginning is based on the 4R rules of beingof activities in and out of classenvironmentally friendly:

Students can read the flow graph of psychological

1. Recycle – Recycle all the English that you

states and see how the balance between challenges

remember, and that you know and that you see

and skills is related to the psychological states ofaround you.

relaxation, boredom, apathy, worry, anxiety, arousal,
andflow, and control. This graph will help students toexpressions that you want to remember or that you

assess activities, inside and outside of class, in orderremember from TV, high school etc.

to understand what the balance between their skills

2. Re-use-

Reuse

new

Englishwords

3. Reduce – Reduce your fear of making mistakes.

and the challenge is. This will enable them to make

Focus on using what you know and what yourinformed decisions about how to make improvements.

message is.

For example, if a student reports feeling bored with an

4. Refuse – Refuse negative thinking and self

activity, they would be asked to look at the graph anddestructive behaviour. Remember the purpose is tofind the balance between their skills and the challenge

develop communication with yourself, so be yourand then write feedback about the balance in relation

own best friend!

to the activity, giving details about ways they could

Getting to “flow” by way of anxiety and arousal

make improvements. Since it guides students inAnxiety and arousal are the states in which themaking judgments about their learning activities, thechallenge is greater than the skills. When low skills aregraph may help students to be autonomous learners.

met with easy challenges, the psychological states of

The graph also facilitates discussion of learning. In

relaxation and boredom increase. Introducing a certain

order to talk about the effectiveness of activities fromlevel of stress can shift the psychological state toan educational stand point with their peers or with theirarousal, worry and anxiety. Free writing was made into

instructor, learners need to know the appropriate

a 10 minute activity using a timer to enforce a sense oflanguage. Self-assessment and peer assessment arepressure, a need to hurry to write enough on time.

essential in debriefing and bringing closure to activities.

After a few weeks, the students can see some

The assessments students make about their work andimprovement; students also notice that improvement istheir peers’ work are the most important thing that

often not a straight line, rather a line that is up andstudents will take away from the learning experience.

down. One student commented, “At first I cannot

Students will often do their self assessments and peer

understand my free writing. But now I can so fast write

assessments for activities much more astutely then the

my free writing. 10 minutes is just time for me.” Despite

activity itself. Therefore, assessments need to be easy

the ups and downs, data shows that there is clearly anenough for students to do, interesting enough that

increase in free writing totals.

students will do them earnestly and meaningful so that

Feedback showed that

16

Michele Ruhl

students will find evaluations and reflection on their

Faculty of Education the data was well correlated,class language learning experiences beneficial.

0.585 (<0.01) and the Nonparametric Correlation was
activity

0.605 (<0.01); in the Faculty of Fisheries the data wasassessment is a way of gauging the challenge of thebetter correlated, 0.670 (<0.01) and the Nonparametricactivity in relation to the students’ skill. For example, in

Correlation was 0.623 (<0.01). The Faculty of

the lower skilled classes, more scaffolding and support

Technology had the most significant correlation ofduring class time in order to motivate students to keep

0.623 and the Nonparametric Correlation was 0.673

up their free writing is necessary. The 10 minute free

(0.01). The faculty of Environmental Science showedwriting activity offers teachers an additional way ofnomeasuring the class’s fluency and the fluency ofNonparametric Correlation was 0.298.

Forteachers,

using

the

graph

for

significant

correlation

with

0.317,

andindividual students. For example, the resulting learnerThis data showed that where the mid-term freeprofiles in each class were useful to consider whenwriting improved the final check free writing alsochoosing other activities for each class. Also, theimproved. Therefore, motivation to increase freelearner profiles made grouping or pairing students

writing totals by the mid-term is important. This wasaccording to challenge-skill balances an option. Thisparticularly the case in the faculties of Fisheries andwas particularly successful for speaking activities,

Technology. These two faculties were considered tobecause students with similar challenge-skill balances

have lower English skills than Economics, Education

could be paired off and then the higher and lower

and Environmental Science but made the greatest

challenge-skill balances could be paired together.

gains by the final check, if mid-term totals reflect a highStudents were told ahead of time that they might bemotivation to write. Introducing free writing to students

paired with the opposite sex or with a partner that theyand maintaining free writing until the mid-term is

had never worked with before. The system was fast

therefore, very important.

and students responded positively to the seemingly

In the faculties of Economics, Education andEnvironmental Science, totals at the mid-term wererandom pairing.

higher than those of Fisheries and Technology.
Results

Therefore,

increasing

motivation

to

write

and

Midterm free writing and the final free writing data

maintaining free writing between the mid-term checkcollected in the pilot study was correlated using

and the final check is important.

Pearson’s Correlation and Spearman’s Nonparametric
Correlation. Correlations were significant in all faculties

Qualitative results

except for Environmental Science. In the case of

Qualitative results revealed that while students were

Environmental Science, the free writing totals werefamiliar with other psychological states such as

higher than other faculties at the mid-term check andboredom, anxiety and control, they were not familiar

final check; therefore there was no significant

with flow as a term. However, when students werecorrelation.

asked to report on their experience of flow in their daily
Facultyoflife, they could identify and describe those flow

and

the

experiences and they were similar to those reported in

Nonparametric Correlation was 0.538 (<0.01). In the

Czikszentmihalyi’s study. Finally, students were asked

Thesignificant

Economics

wascorrelation
0.579

in

the

(<0.05)17

Michele Ruhl

to report on their psychological states in relation toindividual repertoire of English, but many are not sure

English class activities. Results showed that theexactly what they can do with it. Whether theirpredominant psychological state described by students

repertoire is relatively small or large, fluency can be

who did free writing in English was arousal(30% ),

drastically improved when students begin to reuse andand the second most reported psychological state wasrecycle what they know every time they do free writing.

26% who reported a flow state. Worry was reported by

A student describes it in this way, “It is very interesting.

13% of the students.

I know about myself, my family, and my friends.” (158

Qualitative data collected from students in the form

Total; Japanese Free Writing 20 times, same andof comments in English or Japanese were read andhelpful.) Increasing their English writing capacity andinterpreted by two bilingual (Japanese/English) adults.

flexibility as much they can within a time limit, isThere were two sets of data collected from the same

creating the kind of aroused state that one would

students.

theexperience when faced with various real life speaking

psychological states of free writing. The other set ofcommunication situations. Therefore, stressing that

qualitative

andfree writing is a kind of training to improve speaking

comments about free writing collected from students

communication is recommended. One student writes

as self- and class activity assessment. Commentson the Final Class Data comment, “I can’t believe 283!!

were sorted in order of clarity, and the content of the

Surprise!! I’m happy. I try it well.”

One
data

set

of

data

focussedonfocussed
final

onresults

answers was translated into English. Results show thatin every faculty, there were a greater number of vague

Motivation to write

answers in Japanese than in English. Similarly, there

Students who reported about their “flow” experienceswere a greater number of clear and very clear answers

in this study also reported about their motivation to

written in English by students in all faculties in the

speak in English, listen in English, read in English andstudy.

write in English. Their responses reflect the fact thatstudents are highly motivated to speak in English but

Students’ comments: Pushing OUTput

lacked motivation to write in English. Regarding theMost students can relate to the feeling of having afree writing activity, however, students report that theyhead full of English but when the need to speak arises,

feel a high degree of “flow” when doing free writing intheir mind goes blank. According to data collected

English. As mentioned before, during the 15 week

congruently with this study’s data, students are highly

semester, an autotelic experience begins to emerge for

motivated to speak in English and least motivated tomany students who do free writing in English. One

write in English. A first step to acquiring speaking

student described the autotelic experience in freefluency is to continually be challenged to write about

writing in this way, “Though it was difficult, I enjoyed it.”what is known and familiar and to notice what is(205 total on final class check.) Another reported, “My

needed in order to get the intended message across. A

free writing skill increased. I want to try it successively.

student described it in this way, “Free writing is difficult.

It is good method.” (324 total on final class check) The

I can’t write what I think. However, I can find out my

autotelic experience was related to students’ intrinsic

English ability.” (100 total; Japanese 12 times,

motivation to continue with the activity, despite it being

increased and helpful.) Each student has their own

rather challenging or difficult. In other words, students
18Michele Ruhl

wanted to try to increase their output for their own

based on the psychological states in daily activities

satisfaction, not only because it is a set goal in class. A

and learning experiences inside and outside of English

different student commented, “It is difficult to write theclasses might help students manage their learning,

word I think. I want to practice more.” (148 Total;

with the benefit of increasing autonomy. Finally,

Japanese Free Writing 10 times, increase and helpful.)introducing the psychological state of flow to students

At this stage, usually students were already paying

will give them a language to communicate with about

more attention to accuracy while maintaining theirfluency to other students and to the instructor and to

maximum output. Another student enthused, “Final testother learners outside the classroom.

goal don’t go. But I wrote many things. I glad to write
about many things. Free writing is very very funny.”

References(175 Total; Japanese Free Writing 23 times, increase.)

Brande, D. (1934). Becoming a Writer. New York:
Jeremy P. Tarcher.

Conclusion
This pilot study revealed three reasons for helping

Cameron, J. (1998). The Right to Write. New York:
Jeremy P. Tarcher.

students go with the flow via free writing in English.

Czikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). FLOW The Psychology ofFirst, flow experiences are the most challenging andOptimal Experience. New York: Harper Perennial.

the most satisfying. English Communication class

Czikszentmihaly, M. (1993). The Evolving Self. New

activities, such as free writing, that are characterized

York: Harper Perennial.

by flow experiences not only have greater potential toCzikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding Flow: The

be intrinsically motivating but also promote fluency.

Psychological Engagement with Everyday Life.

Secondly, increasing awareness through assessment

New York: Perseus Books Group.

19

Richard Silver

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
Feature Article: Richard Silver

Fostering Student Autonomy Inside andOutside the Classroom
教室内・教室外でのオートノミーを育成

uses of the terms autonomy and independence inresearch and come to the conclusion that “it is unlikelythat applied linguists will arrive at single agreed
definitions of these terms” (pp. 1-2). In many ways theflexibility of the term, though confusing, means it isadaptable to the different education contexts thatteachers encounter and it is through the part I play inthe formal education in my students’ lives that I hope tofoster autonomy. I try to look beyond the curriculum
goals and create conditions in which students will

Richard Silver,
Ritsumeikan University
リチャード・シルバー、立命館大学

maintain an interest in learning, so as to be able todecide their own future paths in language learning,
even after they leave my class.
In my opinion, university should be a turning point for
students in their formal education. From observing my

オートノミーという概念は20年にわたって言語教育の世界で受けいれられてきた。しかしその概念はどこでも同じ意味ではなく、教師の考え方によっても様々な使い方がある。その上オートノミーをどのぐらい上げられるかはクラスの状況によっても違う。この論文でリチャード・シルバーは大学の言語教育の中のオート
ノミーという視点から自らの考えと現在行っている二つの研究プロジェクトについて説明する。

own students in the language classroom, it is clear thatstudents quickly realise that they are no longer in theregimented world of high school with its clearly
demarcated boundaries of what they should andshould not do, can and cannot do. What is also
apparent is that the sense of liberation can also be
hard to cope with, in particular for those who are living
away from home for the first time. Because of the rushof freedom many students encounter a month after

Teaching is a learning process that never reaches
completion. That much I have learned since I came to
Japan to teach in 2003. By way of the different
institutions and learning environments that I haveexperienced as a teacher, I have come to realize thatthe content of the class is by no means more important
than the process. But the process goes deeper than
the way in which a 50- or 90-minute class unfolds, for
any class is part of a larger process of language
learning that is itself part of a process of education.
Fostering autonomy in students best describes amajor part of my teaching philosophy, in spite of thefact that autonomy as a concept is not easily defined.
In fact, Benson and Voller (1997) identify five different

finishing high school, university classes need toprovide well-signposted pathways that lead students tolearner independence and self-sustaining motivation.
These seem to me to be desirable aims in any required
university English language programme.
I strongly believe then that the strongest role of theteacher is as a facilitator, who must continually
evaluate the extent to which he or she can or shouldplay a part in the educational experience of his or her
students. By the same token, this also means judging
the extent to which students are willing to grasp thefreedom that they are being offered. As Ian Tudor(1996) writes, “the teacher has to learn to ‘read’ both
her students and the context within which they are
20

Richard Silver
working in order to identify those variables which needstudents and their English communication class

to be incorporated in decision-making” (p. xiii). In otherteacher met for the first time, I interviewed the teachers

words, when deciding how a class will proceed, there

about their beliefs and asked them to explain the ideas

must be a continual process of evaluation that takes

underpinning their actions.

into account circumstances, contexts and goals of bothThough at a preliminary stage of analysis, there
seem to be two educational timeframes running

students and institutions.
In discussions with other teachers, notions ofsimultaneously under which teachers make decisions

autonomy are often ruled out because of what weregarding their classes. The first timeframe is theperceive as unmotivated student groups. Thoughlength of the semester: teachers have a curriculum

motivation almost certainly makes students more openthat dictates what they must do and what their students

to the idea of becoming responsible for their own

must achieve. As a result there are restrictions on thelearning, it remains my belief that unmotivatedways in which teachers can think of autonomy for they

students are capable of becoming autonomousmust make decisions within a framework that theylearners. In fact, given that university language classes

receive from the institution. Thus, in what might appear

may be the last formal language education for students,

to be contradictory to notions of student autonomy

perhaps a greater effort to foster autonomy needs towhere student choice is normally cited as being crucial,

be made with these unmotivated students. For, if weteachers set up their classes with structures, rules andcan assume that motivated students are in a strong

guidelines that will help their students in the classroom

position from which to set their own learning regime

from week to week to achieve the institutions’ aims. At

after their required classes finish, it is the weaker ones

the same time, as they imagine their contact with the

we should be concerned about. The challenge forgroup of students as being limited to 15 weeks,teachers is how to create those conditions.

teachers also make decisions with reference to longer

Though new to the research side of language

unstated timeframes by recognizing that the program

mythey teach in has the potential to play a part in aexperiences in the classroom, student autonomy has

greater system of learning. It is through actions withinestablished itself as a prime area of interest. As a

the greater cycle that teachers, through what they say

result of realizing the limits of my role as a teacher, theand do, seem to aim to foster a longer lasting

desire to help students more effectively has grownautonomy.

teaching,

byobservingandreflectingonstronger. For as much as I can help my students, they

The recognition of these two, possibly antagonistic,

must also learn to help themselves and two research

cycles seems important in higher education that, as I

projects that I am currently undertaking are concerned

mentioned, marks a turning point in students’ lives. It

with how to create conditions where students can

may be that teachers accept or understand that before

develop their autonomy.

students can realise their own autonomy there must

The first project is looking at autonomy from theexist controlling order as decided by the teacher and,point of view of teachers and the way in which thosein consequence, before the teacher can be a facilitator

who profess a belief in fostering autonomy in students

he or she must be something else. Furthermore, it

actually go about it through words and actions.

might be the case that teachers find curriculum aims a

Following observations of first classes in April, when

useful platform from which they can build their own
21Richard Silver
goals for their students with respect to autonomy.

were invited to take part in an experiment in which theyThough far from being fully realised at the moment, in

met in small groups every week for an hour to do

the future, I hope to assimilate this work for public

speaking activities that they themselves had agreed

presentation, which I hope will bridge the gap between

the format of, but without a teacher being there. In the

a theory of education and practice. It may be the case

final 10 minutes of each session, a teacher would jointhat practicing teachers are adapting ideas ofthem to help them with any problems that they had

autonomy in ways that the theories proposed in theencountered.

field of language education over 20 years ago could

The very first meeting was designated a curriculum

not envisage, especially when considering the pace atnegotiation meeting in which, with me, they created awhich technology continues to advance. Thus thisschedule for subsequent meetings. After agreeing on

project could develop into a showcase for whatpracticalities such as the length of time for theteachers do in the name of autonomy at the present

meetings and how they would contact each other, we

time.

discussed what they wanted from the group and the

The second project that I have been researching thisway in which each session would work. Among thesemester has been autonomous student learning

ideas we discussed were what topics to use, whogroups. The idea was inspired by one of my former

would decide the topic, how much Japanese might be

students who took the decision at the end of her

allowed (10%-0%) and what they would do if silence

second year to take a year-long break from university

descended.

to study abroad in Canada, in spite of knowing she

This pilot program ran for four weeks after thewould have to drop down a year on her return. I

syllabus negotiation meeting and the final week was afollowed her experiences on Facebook and met her

feedback session, so there were three sessions in

not long after she had returned expecting her to be full

which the students were on their own. The aim ofof enthusiasm for English and learning, for she hadthese sessions was not simply speaking practice, but it

clearly had an excellent time away. Instead though, I

was also hoped that it would encourage students tofound her disappointed at the speed at which, she felt,

realise the benefits of speaking English regardless ofher English ability was disappearing. There were, she

the presence of a native speaker, and to lead to

explained, no opportunities to use her English. She

self-reflection on language learning because during

rarely came into contact with foreigners and she

their university years when students have time,

couldn’t speak English with her Japanese friends, she

facilities and easy contact with other learners is when

said. However, my own thought was that given thethey need to be establishing routines of language

number of enthusiastic and able Japanese speakers ofpractice or study that they can continue into their adultEnglish that I encountered daily, speaking English withlives. The sessions were recorded for future analysis,other Japanese people did represent the best

but self-reporting by the three groups that took part

opportunity for her to use her English. From this grewsuggested 90% plus use of English over the fifty

an idea that, given the right circumstances and teacher

minutes, though not without difficulty.

guidance and support, there are opportunities for

Feedback from people in the groups seemed split

English practice within university even among groups

between those who wanted the presence of a native

whose shared L1 is Japanese. As a result, students

teacher to correct mistakes and those who felt that the22Richard Silver
groups worked fine as they were. However, most ofvital role at a pivotal point in students’ lives. As a result

those who took part expressed an interest in trying theof my research, I hope to clarify the relationshipsame kind of thing again. If university language

between teachers and students in the language

programmes continue to become goal driven withclassroom and better understand the ways in which I

standardised test scores as marks of achievement,

can act to create conditions in which students canstudents and teachers alike may have to find ways inreflect on and hopefully grasp independence as

which different kinds of learning can take place outside

language learners.

of the classroom. Setting up these opportunities wherelearners can explore what happens when they take

References

control of their learning could be an answer.

Benson, P. & Voller, P. (eds) (1997). Autonomy andIn summary, my classroom experiences to date have

IndependenceinLanguage

Learning.

Harlow:shown me that creating appropriate conditions forLongman.

autonomous learning is a valid aim for university

Tudor, I. (1996). Learner-centredness as Language

language programs and that university teachers play a

Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

23

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
Voices: Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

On Q: An Appropriate Methodology
for Researching Autonomy?

する談話（discourse）を集めたものであるが、当Part 1 of a two-part e-dialogue in which Mike
Nix quizzes Lucy Cooker about Q
methodology and her current research on
learner autonomy and self-assessment

学的成果に関する言語学習者または教師の意見に研究の場合では、自律的学習環境における、非言語
ついて収集される。次に、研究者はこれらの様々な意見の中から 40 から 60 を選抜し、それらを 1 枚のカードに 1 つ 1 つ印刷する。さらに参加者を選び出し、1 人 1 人に Q 分類（Q sort）という作業をしてQ 調査法について：自律性研究に適したアプローチ？

もらう。参加者はカードを、カードに書かれた意見

E-メールを介したマイク・ニックスとルーシー・ク

パターンに並べていく。例えば、「自身の意見と同ッカーの対談（ル―シークッカーQ 調査法および最じである。」により当てはまるカードから順になら

新の自律性と自己評価に関する研究について語

べてゆき、次第に「自身の意見と相違する。」による）：パート１

り当てはまるカードを順に並べていく。研究者はそに対する自身の立場によってカードをある一定のの後、参加者にそのカードの並べ方に関してインタ

Lucy Cooker, The University of Nottingham

ビューを行う。また、参加者のカードの並べ方を要

ルーシー・クッカー、ノッティンガム大学

因分析という形式で統計学的に分析し、参加者たち

Mike Nix, The University of Nottingham,
Chuo Universityの意見に関しての様々な要因や全体像を見つけ出

マイク・ニックス、ノッティンガム大学、中央大学られた。それぞれは 6 つの非言語学的成果に関するしていく。クッカーの研究では、6 つの要因が認め意見グループを表しており、各意見グループは 1 人

ここで紹介するのは e-メール上で 2 部に分けて行われたマイク・ニックスとルーシー・クッカーの対談の 1 部である。対談では、マイク・ニックスがルーシー・クッカーに彼女の最近の研究や Q 調査法（Qmethodology）について質問をしていく。ルーシー・クッカーは自己（または教師、アドバイザー）による自律性評価のための手段を開発すべく取り組ん
でおり、Q 調査法はまさにその目的に適ったものであるといえる。なぜなら、この手法を使用すること
により、学習者の主観的な意見を体系的に調査できるからである。マイクの質問に答えながら、ルーシ
ーは Q 調査がどのように機能するのかの概要を説明

以上の参加者により賛成されたものである。最後に、それぞれの要因は研究で使用された多くの意見やインタビューの分析結果を基に解析される。
この研究は一般化の可能性や文化ごとでの一貫性に関する議論で話を結ぶ。クッカーは言語学習者
が自律的に学習する環境は文化ごとにある一貫性を含んでいると提唱する。彼女は、自身の研究が完成した暁には、学習者自律性（ラーナーオトノミ
ー：learner autonomy）の分野の研究者が彼女の研究を通して、それぞれがいる環境において身近に感じ、興味を持ち、使ってゆけるような何かを見つけてくれればと願っている。

していく。Q 調査法では、まず、ある掲げられたト
ピックに関する多数の意見が、アンケート、インタ

Mike: I know that your research is about the

ビュー、文献などを通して収集される。これはコン

assessment of language learner autonomy andコース（concourse）と呼ばれるある対象分野に関

you've surveyed teachers online about their24

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

approach to this. I believe you're now using

pedagogical goal, but it doesn’t really surprise me

something called Q methodology to analysethatlearners’ views of this issue. Like many otherautonomy is quite rare. I know from my own

readers of Learning Learning I imagine, I'm not very

experience that giving up control over assessment

familiar with Q, or why it might be useful for

as a teacher can be quite an emotional and ethicalresearching autonomy. But before we get into that,wrench. And, during assessment, teachers often

could you tell us a bit more about the purpose offeel their own autonomy limited by the normalising

your research?

gaze of their institutions and by expectations that

Lucy: I hope to develop a learner generated tool forthey exercise their authority as “subject experts”. So

assessment of autonomy which can be used bydeveloping

learners themselves and others. I started bythoughtful and informed learner self-assessment -creating an online survey to investigate educators’

and being able to demonstrate to our institutions

practices regarding the assessment of languagethat these have as much “reliability” as other forms

learner autonomy. I wanted to know if languageof assessment - seems very useful work indeed.

learner autonomy is assessed and, if so, how it islearners’

self-assessment

frameworks

and

of

their

own

processes

for

But why did you decide to use Q methodology forassessed and by whom. The results of this survey

this?

indicated that it is indeed assessed, but there is no

Lucy: Q is a research methodology which allows

systematic approach.

for the systematic investigation of subjectivity. In

One finding which surprised me was that

other words it is designed to research viewpoints,

self-assessment was used relatively infrequently.

perceptions and understandings, using techniquesThis seemed paradoxical: learner autonomy iswhich are both quantitative and qualitative. By

assessed but where is the autonomy in thattakingprocess? For me self-assessment is an integral

investigation of this area of subjectivity, I hope we

aspect of learner autonomy. When I was teaching

can go beyond the “reflection and reasoning”

full time, I frequently encouraged my learners to(Benson, 2001, p. 182) which has characterised

engage in self-assessment practices and, in fact,

research into learner autonomy to date. My

for one course I used to ask my students to write

research can be seen as a response to the calls

their own test. Certainly now, having exploredfrom Benson (2001, 2007) and Ushioda (2008) for aself-assessment so thoroughly, I would always

more systematic approach to the analysis of data in

attempt to incorporate self-assessment into mylearner autonomy research.

classes as I believe that good self-assessment

Mike: That’s an interesting point. As you say, a lot

empowers both the students and the teacher.

of the research on learner autonomy - certainly

Mike: I agree there’s something very contradictorymuch of the research associated with Learnerabout the use of teacher assessment when theDevelopment SIG projects (including my own) - hasdevelopmentused qualitative research techniques and caseoflearners’autonomy

is

a

a

more

systematic

approach

to

the

25

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

studies. Indeed, writing in the LD SIG Anthology,

have decided to use Q to go for a more “systematic

Autonomy You Ask, in 2003, Benson himself

investigation of subjectivity”, as you put it. Could

acknowledged “a tension between two apparently

you explain a little more how the Q researchcontradictory feelings: the feeling that we needprocess combines qualitative and quantitative

more data-based research and the feeling that, atapproaches?

the end of the day, data-based research is not

Lucy:going to be enough to tell us quite what we want toare shown in Table 1.

In total, there are eight stages in Q. Theseknow about autonomy”. So it’s significant that you
1. ESTABLISH DOMAIN OF SUBJECTIVITY
Research questions
2. IDENTIFY AND BUILD THE CONCOURSE
Literature, statements from learners & teachers,
email discussion list
3. SELECT STATEMENTS FOR THE Q-SET: SAMPLE
THE CONCOURSE:
Use of theoretical models for categorising andsampling
4. SELECT SORTERS: P-SET
Tertiary level language learners with exposure toautonomous language learning opportunities(Hong Kong, Japan, UK)
5. CARRY OUT Q-SORT
Rank-ordering of the statements in the Q-set by
the participants
6. POST-Q SORT INTERVIEW
Each participant interviewed to understandrationale of card placement`
7. FACTOR ANALYSIS
Resulting patterns of statements are analysed in
PQ Method using factor analysis techniques
8. FACTOR INTERPRETATION
Detailed and iterative interpretation of the factors

Table 1: Eight stages of Q methodology
First, the researcher decides on the topic forcollected the viewpoints of language learners andinvestigation and then collects as many viewpoints

teachers about the non-linguistic outcomes ofas possible relevant to that area. This is thelearning a language in an autonomous learning

concourse, the collection of discourse around theenvironment. Next, the researcher needs to create

particular area under investigation. In my study, I

a Q set by selecting between 40 and 60 of these26

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

viewpoints

which

are

phrasedasasinglekinds of research. Could you explain a bit more

propositional statement and printed on cards. When

about what these stages involve and what they

the researcher has selected the participants for thecontributestudy, each participant does a Q sort: they sort the

subjectivity”?

cards into a particular pattern expressing their

Lucy: To develop my concourse I scoured thepersonal response to the viewpoints on the cards.

literature to findFor example they might be asked to sort cards

non-linguistic outcomes of autonomous learning. In

along a cline from “most like me” to “least like me”.

addition to trawling through the literature, I used

The researcher then interviews the participant

written statements from second language learners

about their card placement. Then the researcher

about what autonomy means to them, written

statistically analyses the card patterns using a form

statements from English teachers about what theyof factor analysis to generate different factors orperceived to be the non-linguistic outcomes of“pictures” about the viewpoints on this issue. In mylearner autonomy, oral statements from students inresearch, six factors were generated. These six

pilot interviews, and comments that were generated

factors represent six sets of beliefs, each set heldfrom a posting I made on the AUTO-L email

by one or more participant, about the non-linguistic

discussion list. These statements were not always

outcomes of autonomous language learning.

used in their ‘raw’ form, but were edited to be

Lastly, each factor is interpreted using thetoaunderstandable“systematicstatements

totypicalinvestigation

relating

non-nativeofto theEnglishcollection of statements used in the study and the

speakers at university in Hong Kong and Japan. I

interview data analysis. To give an example fromused my own judgement to assess the linguistic

my research, one factor I have tentatively named

difficulty of the statements. In keeping with Q theory,‘Oozing confidence’. Learners who share this vieweach statement contained only one proposition

hold an optimistic outlook in general and feel they

(Watts & Stenner, 2005). As in questionnaire writing,will have a successful life; they hold positive beliefs

double-barrelled statements and long statements

regarding future language learning and use andcontaining two or more ideas should not be used inbelieve they are more likely to use their language

Q statements as this may create confusion during

well in the future; and they believe they will be able

the analysis of the Q-sorts. The final number ofto continue their language learning when they leavestatements in my concourse was 124. I sent theseeducation. One of the more negative characteristics

to three experts in the field of learner autonomy forheld by learners who share this view is that they are

their face validity to be assessed. This stage is not

not able to organise their learning time very

essential to a successful Q-study, but provided me

effectively.

with some reassurance that my concourse was as

Mike: The development of the concourse and the Q

well-defined as possible and that the statements did

set are clearly important stages in the Q research

indeedprocess, and ones that distinguish it from othersurroundingreflect
the

the

full

range

non-linguisticofdiscourse

outcomesof27

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

language learner autonomy. Those statements

Council (MLA) to assess learning outcomes injudged by the experts to be not relevant to thethose environments. The theoretical model of

non-linguistic outcomes of learner autonomy, or

learner autonomy I developed operationalises

those statements in which the meaning waslearner autonomy into 7 main categories which are

duplicated or ambiguous were discarded, leaving a

sub-divided into a total of 34 constitutive elements.

total of 76 statements.

The MLA model of generic learning outcomes

Mike: Okay, so what happens next?

comprises 5 categories and was the only example

Lucy: The third stage in Q is to develop the ‘Q-set’.

of a non-content specific learning outcomes model I

This is the collection of statements selected fromcould find in the literature. Once I had categorised

the concourse to be used by research participants.

the statements according to these two models, I

In Q, the theoretically optimal number of statements

then chose statements in proportion to the numberin the Q-set is between 40 and 80. I categorised myin each category. My final Q-set comprised 52

76 statements according to both my theoreticalstatements. Two examples of the statements in mymodel of learner autonomy that I used for this study

Q-set and the way in which they were categorised

and to a model of ‘generic learning outcomes’

are shown in Table 2:developed by the Museums, Libraries and Archives

Statement

SourceLearner autonomy
theoretical model
categorisation

Museums, Libraries andArchives Generic Learning
Outcomes categorisation

Learning without theencouragement of a teacher
makes me a bit more lazy.

Written statementfrom a second
language learner

1. Motivation
2. Affect

Activity, behaviour andprogression

I have a better
Written statement
understanding of myself as a from English
learner.
language teacher

Metacognitiveawareness

Knowledge andunderstanding

Table 2: Two examples of how statements in the Q-set were categorised
Mike: Can I ask about the process of creating thelearners)? Others might be interested to do researchconcourse a bit more? You said you scoured theusing a concourse but perhaps on a smaller scale orliterature for statements about the non-linguistic

adapted to local circumstances – is this possible?

outcomes of language learning, as well as taking

Lucy: The diversity of the concourse is important. As I

statements from teachers and learners themselves. So

mentioned above, the analysis of the final data is a

is it important to try to gather as much as possible ofform of factor analysis, and so the researcher isthe discourse on your issue out there, to find divergent

required to meet certain requirements of quantitative

views, and also to draw from different kinds of sources

research.

andgeneralisability is a concern, and therefore much timedifferent

communities(e.g.

teachers

andTypically,inquantitative

research,28

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

is devoted to generating a representative sample fromsmelly elements! You mentioned that generalisabiltiy isa larger population. In Q-methodology, the ‘population’a concern in Q and time needs to be devoted tois the concourse, and the Q-set, also sometimes called

ensuring this. Generalisability has not been an issue, I

the Q-sample, is the representative sample of thatthink, for much of the qualitative research done on

population. The Q researcher, therefore, is required tolearner autonomy, including that done in Japan and infind statements about as many aspects of the issue as

LD SIG projects. We’ve been more concerned about

possible and different perspectives on those. Thus,

investigating the dynamics of autonomy in the specificdepending on the research question, the concourse

institutional and local conditions we work in. And we

may be very large or very small. Clearly, if one ishave hoped that insights from this research will

investigating Class 3C’s views on the best strategies to“resonate” in some way with people in other situations.

use for learning vocabulary, the concourse will be

But we haven’t really considered the key conditions

smaller than if one is investigating Japanese students’that affect the development of autonomy in our own

beliefs about the usefulness of the TOEIC test incontexts or specified those in our writing so that

preparing them for the workplace, or the views of black

readers in other places can relate our research to theAmerican voters on the success of President Obama’s

conditions that they face. So perhaps issues offirst year in office. In some studies, a concourse can begeneralisability are useful to consider after all. Whatover 1000 items but, more typically, other studies

then do you see, Lucy, as some of the benefits fordefine concourses of between 400 and 700 items (e.g.

research

Stenner & Stainton-Rogers, 1998; Bryant, Green &generalisability in Q methodology?

Hewison, 2006). Developing the concourse is one of

Lucy: Perhaps I should have used the word

the most time-consuming aspects of doing a Q study‘generalisability’ above with caution. I was using it in

and the work involved in collecting the complete

the sense of statistical generalisability to describe thediscourse surrounding the focus of the study should

purpose behind sampling in quantitative research

not be underestimated. One of the interesting aspects

within a positivist paradigm and to explain the theory

about Q is that it is not just textual statements that canbehindbe sorted - studies have been done with pictures,

methodology. Arguably, this is one of the ways inobjects, audio-visual data and even smells.

which Q methodology has a quantitative element but

Mike: For someone like myself, whose research has

perhaps this particular quantitative element is moreusually been focused on small groups of my own

concerned with process than epistemology. I see mystudents, it is encouraging that a Q concourse can bework rooted very much in the qualitative tradition anddeveloped with different sizes and types of “discourse

make no statistical generalisability claims - although I

communities”, including a single class of students, andcan see a case for claiming generalisability to theory

can also be multi-modal, with visual, material, or evenrather than populations (Bryman, 2004), or as Bryman

on

the

autonomy

sampling

of

of

the

the

emphasisconcourse

in

on

Q

29

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

puts it, “it is the quality of the theoretical inferences thatare made out of qualitative data that is crucial to theReferences

assessment of generalization” (p. 285). There is also

Benson,possibly a case to be made for‘moderatum

generalisability’ (Williams, 2000). Williams defines
moderatum generalisability as when “aspects of [theP.

(2001).

Teaching

andresearching

autonomy in language learning. Harlow: Pearson
Education.
Benson, P. (2003).

‘A Bacardi by the Pool.’ In A.

Barfield & M. Nix (Eds), Autonomy You Ask!

research focus] can be seen to be instances of aTokyo: Japan Association for Language Teaching.

broader recognisable set of features” (p. 215).

Benson, P. (2007). ‘Autonomy in language teaching

Williams

arguesthatininterpretivist

research

generalisability is “inevitable, desireable and possible”
(p.

209)

and

that

“everydaymoderatumand learning.’ Language Teaching, 40(1),21-40.
Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods (2nd ed.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

generalisations are what it is that the researcher wants

Ushioda,E. (2008). ‘Researching autonomy:A

to understand, and of course if she can understandbandwagon in need of more instruments?’ Paper

them then she will know something of the culturalpresented at the IATEFL LA SIG/SWAN One day

consistency within which they reside and is then able

event: Autonomy in language learning: Beyond theto make her own generalisations about that cultural

bandwagon? University of Nottingham.

consistency” (p. 220). To bring this back to my work, I
suggest that there is a certain “cultural consistency” inenvironments where language learners are learning
autonomously. I hope that through examining my Q-set

Watts, S., & Stenner, P. (2005). ‘Doing Q methodology:
Theory, method and interpretation.’ Qualitative
Research in Psychology, 2, 67-91.
Williams, M. (2000). Interpretivism and generalisation.
Sociology, 34(2), 209-224.

and the description of my research, colleagues in thelearner autonomy field will find something familiar, andLook forward to more about Q methodology in Part

therefore of interest and use to them in their local

2 of this discussion which will appear in the Voices

contexts.

section of the next issue of Learning Learning.

30

Alison Stewart

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
Review: Alison Stewart

Language Learner Autonomy: Policy,
Curriculum, Classroom. A Festschrift in
Honour of David Little (2010). Edited by
Breffni O’Rourke and Lorna Carson.
Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang

College, Dublin. These include the Trinity Immigration

言語習得者オートノミー：政策、カリキュラム、教室。デイビット・リトル氏記念論文集（2010 年）。
ブレフニ・オローク、ローナ・カルソン編。ベル
ン、スイス：ピーター・ラング出版。

linguistic integration of migrants; the implementation of

Initiative project on language support in post-primaryschools; the ongoing development of the European
Language Portfolio as a system of learner-directedgoal-setting and assessment; the educational andtheCurriculum

Frameworkfor

Romani,thespecification of competences in the languages ofschooling and education; the renewal of language
education in Kosovo; the development of language
education policy profiles for Austria and the city of
Sheffield. As Carson and Breffni observe, “An agenda
like that makes retirement seem like a daunting
prospect (p.xxiv)”. The range and breadth of Little’sinterests and engagements testify not only to anincredible energy and drive; most importantly, they
bear witness to an enduring and passionate concern

Reviewed by
Alison Stewart, Gakushuin University
アリソン・スチュワート、学習院大学

for democracy in language education, and all that this
implies.
Little is most widely cited for his definition of learnerautonomy as a “capacity for detachment, critical

過去二十年間において、デイビット・リトル氏はオーreflection, decision-making and independent action”

トノミー研究の第一任者である。そのリトル氏がアイ(1991, p.4).

ルランドにあるトリニティ大学のCenter for Language

have questioned whether learners are “ready” forand Communication Studies(CLCS)の所長を退官するのautonomy (Cotterall, 1994), or whether certain learners

を機に記念論文集が出版された。この論文集はリトル

prefer to exercise “reactive” rather than “proactive”

氏の同僚や元教え子によってまとめられ、取り扱ってautonomy (Littlewood, 1999), Little regards learnerいるテーマはオートノミーに関する研究から小数言語

autonomy as an absolute principle of good education.

にまつわる権利論争やCommon European Framework of

Learners have the “capacity” to act and to develop

Reference (CEFR) とEuropean Language Portfolioのautonomously, whoever and wherever they may be.

取り組みに関する研究などと幅広い。

But it is up to teachers, curriculum planners, andWhereas some autonomy researchers

ultimately, policy-makers to ensure that they are
In their introduction to Language Learner Autonomy:

enabled to exercise and develop it in the advancement

Policy, Curriculum, Classroom, Lorna Carson andof their learning. The principle of learner autonomy

Breffni O’Rourke list the various projects in whichradiates outwards and impacts on every level of theDavid Little continues to be engaged following his

social context, just as every level of the social context,

retirement as Director of the pioneering Centre foras many of the chapters in this volume amply illustrate,

Language and Communication Studies at Trinity

impacts, for good or for ill, on the autonomy of the31

Alison Stewart
guided by a concern to enhance the “quality of life” ofindividual learner.
This Festschrift is a collection of articles by Little’s

all participants (Allwright & Hanks, 2009).

associates and former students. The volume is divided

The OK Project embodies an important principle that

into three parts: Language Learner Autonomy; Second

runs through all the chapters of the book: any

and Minority Language Education; and Implementing

development has to start with a clear understanding of

the Common European Framework of Reference forwhere you are now; not where you are supposed to be,

Languages (CEFR) and the European Language

or where you would like to be, or where others say you

Portfolio (ELP). A Foreword by Leo van Lier andare. Lienhard Legenhausen shows this with a study ofAfterword by Philip Riley frame the collection with two

weak

different perspectives on autonomy and identity.

communicate about themselves and be aware of theirPart 1 begins with a question by Viljo Kohonen: Whylearners,

who

are

nevertheless

able

to

language use. Naoko Aoki and her student teachers at

education?

Osaka University reflect on the difficulties that

Interdependence - among learners and between

understanding and realizing autonomous-fosteringlearners and teachers - is a key element that Little

classrooms presents to new teachers unfamiliar withintroduced

developing

both the practices of teaching as well as the contexts

conceptualization of learner autonomy (1995; 2001).

in which they start to work, as well as to the teacher

Kononenwas

educators who support them. Leni Dam, too, highlights

advocating emerged from sociocultural theories ofthis with her study of immigrant learners hoping tolearning. Learning occurs through dialogue (Bakhtin,

enter the workplace. This is the principle that underlies

1984), experience in which beliefs and assumptions

the “Can-do” statements that constitute the CEFR;

are transformed (Kolb, 1984), and from mutual

these are statements that are intended as a reference

engagement in the learning process (Lave & Wenger,to1991). From these actions, learners can reflect backcompetencies, not as prescriptions or standards to be

and learn. Reflective self-assessment is a crucial

attained or fall short of. These chapters illustrate theelement of the learning process not only of learners but

efficacy of self-awareness through self-description asof all those involved in the educational process. Thisa starting point for learning (Little, 2006).

collaborative

learning

early
shows

in

on
that

language

to
the

the

practices

Littleguide

learners

indescribing

theirpresent

constructive

Building on this foundation of self-assessment, thecommunication is reflected in Kohonen’s account of anfollowing chapters offer various views on how this canin-service teacher education project, known as the OK

be realized in curriculum-planning. Dieter Wolff offers

project. Teachers and university researchers worked

the example of developing curricula for Content andtogether, setting goals, reading and sharing knowledge,

Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), an approachand reflecting on the experience and their changing

which assumes that foreign languages are best

perceptions of teaching through using language

learned by focusing on the subject, which is

portfolios. Although the researchers may have beentransmitted through the language. Adopting an

the instigators of the initiative, it was the teachers who

autonomy-oriented approach means shifting from a

were

and

view of curriculum that emphasizes process overandproduct.

spiritofcriticalresponsible

development,

self-reflection

for

based

its
on

and

implementation
theirknowledge

experience of their classrooms and learners, andAlthoughproduct-oriented

and

the

basic

featuresprocess-orientedofacurriculum
32

Alison Stewart
would contain similar features - learning goals are

speakers are opting to send their children not to

specified, content of the program is determined, ways

schools teaching in their own or the national Moldovan

and means of organizing learning are defined, andlanguages, but to Russian-speaking schools instead,ways of assessing progress are indicated - the latter isconfounding a humanistic policy that aims to protect

open-ended, with learner choosing for themselves how

and foster their heritage languages.

best to meet the goals that are stated for the program.

The final section focuses on the CEFR and ELP, theA more specific example of a curriculum is thetwo innovations which have been widely adopted in

Language Modules (French, Spanish, German, Italian,

Europe, and for which Little deserves most acclaim. In

Irish and Turkish) offered at Trinity College, Dublin,

his chapter on the Council of Europe’s policy fordesigned comprehensively on the basis of the CEFR

plurilingual education, Joseph Sheils reports that

can-do lists and comprising a series of tasks andsurveys show the CEFR has been received warmly byassessment instruments addressing the needs of allpractically all European countries and is felt to havelevels of learners within the institution. Described fromhad an impact on language education everywhere.

the point of view of one of the developers (Lorna

Despite this, an intergovernmental Forum held in 2007

Carson) and of one of the outside examiners (Bernd

reaffirmed the purpose of the CEFR as descriptiveVoss), the program attests to the success of its blend

rather than standard-setting, and warned of theof instructor-assigned, task-based project work anddangers of overemphasizing the proficiency scales,

self-study in enabling learners to become effective

resulting in an under-exploitation of its aims forcommunicators in the target language.

promotingplurilingualism.

The

challengeistoPart 2 of the volume is dedicated to Second andreconceptualize language education in societies to

Minority Language Education, areas which have beentake into account linguistic diversity and treat all

and remain key concerns of David Little. Chapters bylanguage

Ewelina Debaene and David Singleton on thelanguage and foreign languages - under a single

language educational experience of Polish migrants inumbrella, rather than, as previously, as separate

France and Ireland, Lorraine Leeson on promoting

domains.

use-

national

language(s),minority

academic success in the Irish deaf community, andReading this wide-ranging and thought-provoking

John Harris on attitude motivation of primary school

book as a language educator in Japan, what

learners toward foreign languages and Irish, theimpresses me most is the commitment Europe-wide,

minority second language in Ireland, bring to the fore

not only to change, but also to engage in open andissues of multilingual and multicultural diversity in

critical communication at all levels of the educationsociety. These are issues that go to the heart ofsystem, from learners and teachers, to curriculum

personal and national identity. One case in point is theplanners and national and international policy makers.

challenge of maintaining compulsory Irish education in

The key to this dialogue is the ELP, a simple document,a predominantly English-speaking society (Muiris o

yet one that allows learners to assert their identity - toLaoire);implement

state who they are, what they know and what they areinternational standards of minority language policy incapable of. David Little has been instrumental in a

Moldova (Padraig o Riagain), where the minority

sea-change not only in language education in Europe,

language communities ofbut in thinking about what it means to be European. In

anotheristhefailureto

Ukrainian or Gagauz

33

Alison Stewart
Japan, the CEFR and language portfolio have beentranslated into Japanese (in at least two versions) anda can-do framework of references has been adopted
by at least one university (Kinki) and is being piloted incontexts from primary through junior high to university

Leeson, L. ‘Supporting academic success for the Irish
Deaf community.’ pp. 189-213
O Laoire, M. ‘Change and challenge in the teaching of
Irish.’ pp.231-251
O Riagain, P. ‘Implementing international standards forand teacher training (Schmidt, Naganuma, O’Dwyer,

minority

Imig & Sakai, forthcoming). Such initiatives are a start,

Convention

but there is a long way to go for thinking about learning

Minorities and Moldova between 2000 and 2005.’

and learners to undergo such a radical change. David

pp.251-273

Little’s achievements and the research and practices
that he has engendered and that are described in thisbook offer a guiding light of experience and inspiration.

languageforpolicy:the

TheProtection

Frameworkof

National

Sheils, J. ‘Council of Europe policy for plurilingual
education.’ pp.315-327
Voss, B. ‘Language teaching in higher education andthe TCD language modules.’ pp.135-151
Wolff, D. ‘Developing curricula for CLIL: Issues andChapters cited
Aoki, N. & Osaka ‘University students. A community ofpractice

as

a

space

for

collaborative
References

student-teacher autonomy.’ pp.63-79
Carson,

L.

‘Innovation

institution-wide

and

an

Allwright, D. & Hanks, J. (2009). The Developing

programme.’

Language Learner: An Introduction to Exploratory

autonomylanguageinPractice. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

pp.151-171
Carson, L. & O’Rourke, B. ‘Introduction: Language andlearners, interdependence andautonomy.’

pp.xix-xxv
migrants: A case study.’ pp.79-103
E.

Bakhtin, M. (1984). Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics.
Minneapolis. MN: University of

Minneapolis

Press.

Dam, L. ‘Developing learner autonomy with adult
Debaene,problems.’ pp.103-121&

Singleton,

D.

‘The

languageinFrance and Ireland.’ pp.171-189(1995).

‘Readinessforautonomy:

195-205
Kolb,

D. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Harris, J. ‘Attitude motivation in the early learning of
secondlanguages.’ pp. 213-231

Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Communities of Practice.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Little, D. (1991). Learner Autonomy: Definitions, Issues

Kohonen, V. ‘Autonomy, agency and community in FL
education: Developing site-S.

investigating learner beliefs.’ System 23(2),educational experience of Polish migrants

foreign languages and minority

Cotterall,

based

and Problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Little,D.

(1995).

‘Learningas

dialogue:understanding through a university and school

dependence of learner autonomy onpartnership.’ pp.3-29

autonomy.’ System 23 (2), 175–81

Legenhausen, L. ‘Group work, weak learners and theautonomous classroom: Indirect
the Interaction Hypothesis?’ pp.29-43

support fortheteacher

Little, D. (2001). ‘We’re all in it together: Exploring theinterdependence of teacher

andlearnerautonomy.’ In L. Karlsson, F. Kjisik and J. Nordlund
34

Alison Stewart(eds), All
Nordictogether now. Papers from the 7th
Conference

Autonomous

andLanguage

September 2000),

Workshop

Learning

Helsinki:on(Helsinki,

UniversityofHelsinki Language Centre. pp.45–56
Little, D. (2006). ‘Learner autonomy: Drawing together
thethreadsofLittlewood, W. (1999). ‘Defining and developing
autonomy in East Asian contexts.’

Applied

Linguistics 20 (1), 71-94
Schmidt, M. G., Naganuma, N. , O’Dwyer, F. Imig
A. & Sakai, K. (eds) (forthcoming) Can dostatements in language education in Japan andself-assessment,

beyond - Applications of the CEFR. Tokyo:

goal-setting and reflection.’ Retrieved 6 June,

Framework & Language Portfolio Special Interest

2010, from:Group (FLP-SIG), JALT.

http://www.ecml.at/mtp2/Elp_tt/Results/DM_layout/00_10/06/06%20Supplementary%20text.pdf

35

Patrick Kiernan
Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010

Review: Patrick Kiernan
Language and Culture: Reflective
Narratives and the Emergence of
Identity (2010). Edited by David
Nunan and Julie Choi. New York:
Routledge

but found myself hooked on one in particular:

言語と文化: 内省的体験談アイデンティティの出現。
デヴィド・ヌナン、ジュリ・チョイ編

contents pages. Besides contributions by theLanguage and Culture: Reflective Narratives andthe Emergence of Identity edited by David Nunan
and Julie Choi. My interest in this volume beganwith a degree of bemusement as I perused theeditors, there were papers by ESL scholars who willprobably be familiar to LL readers such as Kathleen
Bailey, David Block, Suresh Canagarajah, Rod Ellis,
Michael McCarthy, and Alistair Pennycook, not tomention a foreword by Bonny Norton and afterword
by Claire Kramsch. But what an odd mix of authors!
While Canagarajah and Pennycook have doubtless
appeared side by side in collected volumes before, I
had to wonder what kind of collection would
juxtapose authors from such different areas ofscholarship as Block (sociolinguistics) and Ellis(SLA) not to mention a host of (to me) unknowns

Reviewed byPatrick Kiernan、Meiji University

which apparently include writers from disciplines

パトリック・キアナン、明治大学

was also surprised that the contributions were sooutside language teaching or applied linguistics. I
short with 29 papers crammed into a 230 page

言語と文化: 物語論の反映とアイデンティテ
ィ の 出 現 （ Reflective Narratives and theEmergence of Identity ）は、言語を学んだと

book. At only 5 or 6 pages each what could theyきの経験に関する要約を書くこと、文化、アイ
デンティティ、または言語に関する物語風の出来事を１つから２つ書くこと、そして、物語論に関する解釈などの特定の課題の回答が編集された文書である。それは文書のテーマ、及び、
著者の見識が展開されたすばらしいものとなった。すばらしいものとなった本書は物語論を学術研究と執筆へ導く興味深いものである。

chapter titles promised to address language andhave to say?
Even more mysterious was that few of theculture or narrative and identity as the volume title
seemed to promise. Instead, most chapters had
idiosyncratic

titlessuchas‘Berlin

Babylon’(Stephen Mueck); ‘Changing Stripes – Chameleon
or Tiger’ (Denise Murray); ‘Vanishing Acts’ (Cynthia
Nelson); ‘Dog Rice and Cultural Dissonance’ (David
Nunan) and ‘Sweating Cheese and Thinking
Otherwise’ (Alastair Pennycook). However, theWhen I planned to write a review for LL, I had a pile

proof of a good book comes in the reading and Iof eight books related to English language teaching

was pleasantly surprised to discover that thison my desk all published within the last 12 months.

collection of papers not only addresses the issues

Which one to choose? I dipped into a few of themof language and culture, narrative and identity as
36

Patrick Kiernan
promised but does so in a remarkably engaging

natural.

way and, moreover, hints at a conception of

empathy in which he is able to see the perspective

academic writing which draws on rather thanof another; a point he develops as philosophicalobscures narrative and personal identity.

revelation. McCarthy’s ‘festival incident’ is on one

Perhaps belying an approach to language

Pennycook

describes

amomentoflevel a funny story he admits to having told manyteaching that Nunan has long been associated with,times;

onanotherservestoexemplifythethe papers in the volume are the response to aimportance of multiword units, a niche area of“task”. All contributors were asked to include thevocabulary research on which he has staked afollowing elements in their chapters:

claim (to explain how this works would spoil thestory). He also uses the story to reflect on his own

a brief language learning history; one or two

prejudices.

narrative events or critical incidents that

Part of the difficulty for the authors must haveoccurred while learning or using language andcome from providing a degree of self-exposurethat highlighted either some aspect of culture,normally unnecessary. Canagarajah, for example,

identity or language, or the connections

who takes a position of moral high ground in his

between some or all of these constructs; and abook Resisting Linguistic Imperialism (1999) bycommentary on the narratives. (p. 1)

illustrating how linguistic imperialism might beresisted in the classroom (as a representative of an

As the editors explain, the task, while intended toarea colonised by the linguistic imperialists), shares

be relatively easy and fun for the authors,an anecdote that shows him in a much lessapparently

challenging.

favourable light. A story about an awkward

Nevertheless, it was a challenge to which theencounter with a fellow countryman while filling up

authors rose. The papers are easy and fun forhis car provides an opportunity to reflect on thereaders on one level because they include stories:

relation between language and power in ana broad brush stroke tale of the author’s life and an

apparently mundane context. What he at first

anecdote

into

represents as an unfairly snubbed greeting in theirphilosophical positions on language and culture

shared mother tongue, on closer inspection ofwhich in the case of authors I was familiar offeredcontextual language and power relationships turns

fresh insight into their work published elsewhere. As

out to be a patronising assertion of a preferred

I discovered, the choice of seemingly idiosyncratic

identity.

proved

from

it,

to

but

be

quite

they

also

feed

titles actually becomes part of the joy of the book as

Research projects exploring identity typicallyeach unfolds to reveal a highly relevant contribution

explore subjects framed by the researcher in ways

to the overall theme. Pennycook’s ‘Sweatingthat may be more or less alien to the subjects but

cheese and thinking otherwise’, for example,

allow for theoretical exploration. The contributions

evokes a scene in rural China where he lived at one

in this volume consist of subjects framing their own

time and describes the disgusted reaction of a local

experiences. For this reason, I found papers likechef to a taste of blue cheese given to Pennycook

Alice Chik’s account of her complex relationshipby a well meaning foreign visitor. In this context,

withwhere frogs, dog-meat and chilli are everyday foodupbringing in Hong Kong particularly insightful.

herancestral

home

in

Shanghaiandthis otherwise familiar (to Western palates) foodEven so, some readers may not easily take on

appears alien and the chef’s reaction perfectly

board the editors’ assertion that “the resulting37

Patrick Kiernanpieces can be characterised as ‘research’” (ibid).

own ideas”; and (3) “the autobiographical narrative

This impression perhaps stems from the fact thatapproach … is the validation of past history andthe main focus in each paper is reflections on

experience” which encourages readers to validate

personal experiences. Although discussions in all

their own past histories and experiences. As, Susan

the papers are thought-provoking and referenced in

Hood points out in her recent book Appraising

the conventional way most of the markings of what

Research: Evaluation in Academic Writing a majorcounts as ‘research’ as opposed to ‘reflection’ areproblem that novice academic writers have is

missing. There is no reporting of an empiricalshowing a critical awareness of scholarship they

project; no measuring or analysis, or even evidence

draw on, failing to evaluate it appropriately. As sheof a historical search. Individual papers, having

points out: “there is a sense in which the subjective

made their point, do not suggest how the issue

is missing” (2010, p.2). The papers in this volume

might further be investigated. If the TEFL MAs I

take the restoration of the subject quite a lot further

supervise set out on their dissertations like this I

than Hood proposes in her book but in doing sowould be impressed, but also concerned about the

Nunanlack of such evidence of a project.

co-contributors/participants

In

this

sense,

given

that

the

and

Choi

and

their

offer

a

individual

thought-provoking answer to what a subjective

contributions respond to a specific task, one might

narrative paradigm in academic writing might lookconsider the whole collection as a research project.

like. In so doing, this collection also manages toViewed in this way, Language and Culture serves

provide a fresh perspective on the well-worn theme

as an example of how narrative accounts of identityof language and culture. A question that remains forcan contribute to a description of language andme is where one might go from here. The book

culture that acknowledges the importance ofseems to be conceived as a one-off project but how

multiple perspectives and really does give voice tomight the approach be developed and extended?

the participants. Just as individual contributions

In conclusion, this book is not one that will make

explore their own positioning, the collection as a

you a better language teacher or offer any tips onwhole serves to provide a rich and heteroglossic

how to do your research. However, it does offer

account of language and culture.

remarkableinsights

into

the

way

personal

All in all, I came to agree with Norton who

experience shapes research and also potentially aproposes in her Foreword that it serves as asolution for bringing the two together. In this sense,

wonderful example of a narrative approach to

I feel it would be valuable reading both foracademic writing. Norton proposes that this bookexperienced

would particularly benefit student teachers andresearchers and academic writers and evenresearchers (but also, I felt, the young at heart liketeachers who feel that ‘research’ is divorced frommyself looking for new directions) because (1) “theeveryday experience in the classroom.

autobiographical commentary helps to demystify

Referenceswell-known authors in the field, and gives students

Canagarajah,

greater freedom to debate and critique the ideas

Imperialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University

presented”; (2) “By writing in the first person and

Press.

using the active voice, the authors in this volume

Hood, S. (2010). Appraising Research: Evaluation

establish a more equitable relationship with theinreader, thus encouraging students to voice their

Macmillan.

Academic

researchersS.

as(1999)

Writing.

wellresistingBasingstoke:asnovice

Linguistic

Palgrave38

Looking backLearning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
Looking backReflections on Nakasendo and the
Learner Development SIG
Multi-session Workshop on
Self-assessment

to present some of my research on learner
self-assessment

andstrategy use. I felt very
fortunate

参加者らによる中仙道カンファレンスにおける LD SIG 主催自己評価についてのワークショ
ップを振り返る

to

have

an

audience who took aninterest in what I waspresenting which allowed
for a dynamic session

Andy Barfield, Lucy Cooker, Leander
Hughes, Peter Mizuki, Hugh Nicoll, Debjani
Ray, Alison Stewart, Brendan Van Deusen &Stacey Vyethat raised many morequestions than were answered.

While it’s nevereasy to know exactly what participants take awayfrom a given presentation, the participants were
eager to discuss how information on students’

The Nakasendo conference took place in June

reported strategy use could be used to increaseat Tokyo Kasei University. In this collectively

their awareness and use of strategies on an

written report on the Learner Development SIG

activity-by-activity basis.

multi-session workshop at Nakasendo 2010

learning strategies has received considerable

different presenters and participants reflect on

attention over the years, many of the participants

what they learned from taking part.

identified it as something that still does not receive

中仙道カンファレンスは東京家政大学において２enough attention in the classroom, especially at the

０１０年６月に開催された。この学会では数々のワ

JHS and SHS level.

ークショップが同時に開催されたが、その中でも主なものを取り上げ、発表者や参加者が学んだことにSome other quick thoughts from the otherpresentations:•

ついてまとめてもらった。

While research into

Robert Murphy’s presentation gave a verypractical and intriguing way to tap into

A few opening words from Debjani Ray

students’(participant)self-directed project work.

As I liked it so much last year, I attended theand presentation work is nothing new to

Nakasendo Conference this year too, and I am

many teachers, for me the most interesting

happy that I did. Regrettably I missed the beginningpart was how to get students to takeof

responsibility for their projects through atheLearnerworkshop,but

Development

multi-sessioninterests

as

a

basis

for

While projectfromseries of brainstorming activities in which

understanding the rest of it as it was a multi-layered

they formulate and re-formulate connections

two-part presentation that ran the whole morning of

between a series of self-generated ideas tothe conference.

achieve a picture of the world that reflects

that

did

not

bar

me

them.
Brendan Van Deusen (presenter)
The Nakasendo conference was a great opportunity•

In Steve Cornwell’s presentation, I took
away ideas on how to get students to test
39

Looking backThis

how some parts of my activity could be adapted tosummarizing,

fit the needs of their learners. The A3-sizedquestioning, reasoning, or reflecting on bothself-assessment sheet folded also served as a

the parts they do and do not understand.

name badge, student profile, communication tool,

Alan Milne displayed great faith in his

syllabus; one participant taught me that it could also

students’ abilities by challenging them tobe used as a folder to hold things in such as

develop their conversation skills in a more

feedback and homework, so by gosh, since my firsthumanistic way that is based on listening toclass on the Tuesday after the conference, I’ve also

the other person instead of approachingused it as a folder to exchange papers withconversation in class as a set of mechanicalstudents. Not surprisingly, one of my students

procedures that must be done to achieve

noticed the change and commented that I keep on

the goal of conversation.

thinking of so many more new ways to use the ‘print’

their own understanding of a topic.
could

•

be

done

through

I found myself

applying some of his techniques at 9am thethat one day it will become the whole class!
At any rate, it was really refreshing to focus on

next morning – thanks Alan!
Overall I was very impressed with the presentations

specific needs that students have in different

I attended for one main reason – they all focussed

learning environments, and together to try to figure

on ways to empower students within the teachingout self-assessment possibilities that might work inand learning process.

other participants’ contexts. In turn, focusing on
adapting

self-assessment

invariouscontexts

reminded me that I would also like to adapt and play

Stacey Vye (presenter)I look forward toabeing involved with

self-assessment in my own situation. I wanted tothehear what other LD workshop presenters wereNakasendo

conference

eachlittle

bit

more

with

variouskindsofexperimenting with in their contexts, so first I wasyear because it is aabletime where manythought-provoking poster when there weren’t any

diverseandparticipants at mine! Her carefully thought-out anddedicated organizations associated with language

research-driven poster also gave a tactile element

learning in the greater Kanto area get together.

for the learners to spend a good deal of time on

There is also diversity in the participants’ ethnicities,

self-assessment, regarding their processes ofas well as teaching contexts, whether it is the age

learning. The only other chance I got to viewor level of students’ English ability we teach, or both.

another presenter’s poster was Hugh Nicoll’sMyapresentation. Wow, the students get a rare chance

try in my TOEIC

to really figure out on their own about what theirPreparation course and other classes at Saitama

learning needs are through the seamless guidance

University. Students reflect and write about whatfrom their teacher. Finally, I got the opportunity tothey might have learned and what their learninglearn a bit more about Anni Marlow, Peter Mizuki,

goals are, and as people dropped by my session atandNakasendo, we focused on their unique contexts topractices in their classrooms when the workshop

see what kind of self-assessment might work andreconvened as a group.

posterself-assessment

presentation
activity I

focused

on

to

sneak

Brendan

Van

over

to

Deusen’s

Lucy

Cooker’s

self-assessment

40

Looking backAfter the workshop, I sat at the LD desk with

the Learning Learning archives that are always

Atsushi Iida, who is a PhD candidate at theavailable at the LD Desk at conferences. I

University of Indiana in Pennsylvania, and werecommend people to check out the archived

caught up on the LD SIG history by peering throughissues as they give food for thought (and it took aphenomenon itself. Or are discourse about learnerteam of archivists some doing to retrieve all theautonomy

issues)! Lastly, I was able to catch Alan Milne’s

autonomy actually two separate things? Maybe not.

presentation on how to keep students speaking by

Anni Marlow’s presentation showed her students

and

the

phenomenonoflearner

attention to theirworking through a process of conducting anddiscourse in response to their group members’

writing up a small scientific experiment. The

discussion. Alan’s presentation reminded me to pay

self-assessment here comes in the students’ peer

more attention to learner discourse.

review sessions, and Anni showed video footage ofencouraging them to pay

the students working animatedly in pairs to improve
Alison Stewart (participant)their research reports and bring them up to a

The LD workshop on self-assessment was a double

standard where they felt comfortable submitting

session throughout the morning of the conference. I

them to the teacher for a grade. The students werethink there might have been a break halfway

also shown in a final stage of the writing process

through, but the posters and ensuing discussions

orally presenting their paper to the class.

were so engaging and stimulating that I was

was particularly interesting to me was the way Anni

scarcely aware of the time passing.

had keyed into the students’ passion for science

I was particularly interested in the work presented(these

were

Tokyo

University

Whatsciencesby Lucy Cooker, Anni Marlow and Hugh Nichol.

undergraduates who are perhaps untypical in their

Lucy’s stunning poster showed a method oflevel of knowledge and motivation to learn), and I

research that she has been using and developing

was interested to hear that science writing is anforparticularlyarea in which Anni is also a specialist. At the

impressed with the rigor and systematicity that she

university where I teach, our discussions about

applied to her method, which included checking her

curriculum development have revolved aroundcategories with some of the leading scholars in theways to develop connections between the English

field of Learner Autonomy. This made me wonder tolanguagewhat extent she was constructing a model of thelinguistics side of the curriculum, and so I was

discourse of learner autonomy, rather than of the

intrigued to see the role played by the teacher notmeasuring

autonomy.

I

was

and

Japanese-taught

literatureor

41

Looking backonly in scaffolding but also engaging with students

PhD thesis is investigating the development of aabout meaningful and specialized content.

self-assessment tool for learner autonomy and thisHugh Nicoll also used video clips of his students

forum provided me with repeated opportunities totalking about his content-based seminar course on

explain my research and to engage in in-depth

literature. Unlike Annie’s Todai students, thediscussions

students who go to the provincial state university

interested in learning about my methodology (Qwhere Hugh teaches do not tend to be so motivatedmethodology) and my early findings. This session

or self-aware in their learning. It was interesting toagain made me reflect on the sense that all too

see the dissonances between their stated desire tooften at conferences the poster

with

an

audiencewho

seemedlearn and their reluctance to engage in the practices,such as making efforts to speak only in English
during the classes that would help them to develop
more effectively. Seeing the students interact in theclass and socializing outside also highlighted theimportance and power of what Holliday (1999) calls“small cultures”, in which the group develops waysof behaving and interacting that become habits andsessions are under-valued and considered simply

difficult to change.
I have to admit that these conversations took up

an adjunct to the main paper presentations. My

so much time that I only had time for a quick look at

feeling is that making a poster can be very

the posters displayed by Brendan Van Deusen,

challenging:

Stacey Vye and Peter Mizuki. The round-up

not-too-little information in a visually appealing way

discussion facilitated by Andy Barfield at the end

is not easy. Furthermore, at conference, one rarely

gave me the chance to talk to Brendan andreceives such provoking questions or is able tohighlighted some aspects that all the participants

participate in such meaningful conversations after aand presenters found to be particularly insightful. All

paper presentation as is possible throughout thein all, I felt that the double session was time

duration of a poster presentation. I would like towell-spent, and the fact that there was too much topass on my thanks to those who stopped by andsee and talk about is a tribute to, rather than atook the time to engage me in discussion andcriticism,

challenge me with questions.

of

a

very

high-quality,

stimulating

including

not-too-muchandIn the brief break in the middle of the session I

workshop overall.

was able to learn from Brendan Van Deusen’sposter. I enjoyed seeing how he had combined

Lucy Cooker (presenter)
This was my first year at the

self-assessment and strategy use in order to break

Nakasendo Conference and I

down Rubin’s concept of a “good language learner”.

was very impressed by the

It was also interesting to see how his learners had

enthusiasm and passion ofassessed themselves on the different aspects ofpresenters and delegates. I

strategy use.

was fortunate to be able to

The plenary session at the end of the sessionon

was a great way to consolidate what we had

self-assessment, organised by Andy Barfield. My

learned and discussed previously. My interlocutor

participate

in

the

LD

SIG

session42

Looking backand I discussed whether what we do in ELT, and(Janssen-van Dieten, 1989: 44). Luckily, I did haveparticularly with learner autonomy, is more abouttime to discuss with Anni Marlow her work on

self-esteem building than language building …

self-assessment in the writing classroom; sheperhaps so … but are the two mutually exclusive or

showed how her students were very involved in

is high self-esteem simply a building block towards

their writing and said she found similar results inlanguage proficiency? At the end of the session, I

other universities where she has taught. It was not

was able to quickly grab some of Stacey Vye’s

really the students being from Tokyo University, but

handouts. I love the way that her self-assessment

the self-assessment activity that was important.

sheets have developed into a multi-purpose

Participating in the conference led me to use

document and are used for a variety of uses

student self-assessment in a Business English

including a name badge and communication aid;

course where students evaluated themselves for

and I was particularly impressed that Stacey has

their final grade. I found that, although they werebeen

initially unfamiliar with the task, the grades they

able

to

incorporate

aspects

ofawarded themselves and the justifications that they

self-assessment into TOEIC preparation.
As an ELT researcher and practitioner, I believe

gave for their grades were very close to how I

learnerjudged they had each done. I intend to use thisdevelopment and yet my research has shown that it

approach in other teaching situations to encourage

is still a very under-utilised approach. Workshops

students to be more responsible for their own

such as these are important to help de-mystify

learning (Natri, 2007: 109)

that

self-assessment

isintrinsic

toself-assessment and encourage teachers to adopt it
Leander Hughes (participant)in the classroom and self-access centre.

Once again, the Nakasendo English conference
proved to be a rewarding experience, with manyPeter Mizuki (presenter)
The Nakasendo conference wasquality presentations both within the LD Workshop

a fine example of how smaller

andlanguagecanprogram. With so many usefulfocus on more specific issues ofand informative presentations,language learning, thus allowing

the only problem was deciding

for

and

which to attend, and in the caseissuesof the LD Workshop, whether tomorereflection

conferences

absorption
of

the

to

attending

from

the

rest

of

the

or

spend a long time with a few

participating again in the future. I only wish I had

presenters or a short time with many. I did my best

more time to discuss in further detail with some of

to strike a balance, attending four LD poster

the other presenters! Specifically, I felt Lucypresentations and spending a good deal of time at

Cooker’s poster presentation on self-assessment

each.

presented.

I

look

forwardmethodology was particularly interesting, mainly

Lucy Cooker’s study to develop self-assessment

because, when researching self-assessment withtools for learner autonomy impressed me with its

my own students, I have also found there is adeft application of quantitative methods to uncoverreliability issue (Gardner, 2000: 57).

Despite this,patterns in autonomous behaviour and attitudes. I

researchers have found that self-assessment has a

was particularly intrigued by Lucy’s finding that,“positive

while individual learners exhibit various types andinfluenceonthelearning

process”

43

Looking backlevels of autonomous behaviour, certain behaviours

So much useful information was exchanged inand attitudes tend to occur or be present insuch a short time at Nakasendo, that it was difficult

conjunction with certain others. Lucy’s study is still

to take it all in. There were many other greatin progress, but I look forward to reading her resultspresentations in addition to the LD poster sessions,when she is finished.

including Alan Milne’s presentation on how to help

Brendan Van Deusen also made good practicallearners become aware of and improve theiruse of quantitative methods in his study of learning

conversation discourse skills and Robert Murphy’s

strategy use. Brendan’s presentation not only

presentation on a new method of language

revealedateaching which attempts to maximize learners’

andopportunities to integrate L2 learning with theirstrategy-use, but also engendered an insightful

personal interests and viewpoints. Nakasendo in

discussion of the challenges we face in attempting

general and the LD Workshop in particular provided

to untangle and trace the ties between motivation,a truly memorable opportunity for learning andproficiency, strategy use, and the myriad otherreflection and have left me with high expectations

factors

for next year’s conference.

somerelationshippromising

betweenthat

indicators

L2

combinetoofproficiency

form

the

learning

experience.
Taking a more holistic and qualitative perspective,

Hugh Nicoll (presenter)

Hugh Nicoll described the journey in his AmericanIn

Literatureuse

presentation, “Video

pre-constructed categories of assessment via

Self-assessment inquestionnaires and checklists to allowing students

an American studies

to discover for themselves what was important forseminar”

class

from

havingstudents

myposteratthethem by having them individually videotape theirNakasendo

reflections and peer feedback on their writing.

conference this year I shared two sets of videos

Hugh’s idea of stepping back and seeing whatof my third-year American studies seminarlearners come up with struck me as a liberating

students. Originally designed to focus primarily

approach to developing a more meaningful system

on ways in which I could help my students

of assessment for one’s classes.

become more self-aware and more effectivelyonself-regulating in the development of academic

multi-purpose self-assessments provided me with aliteracy skills, the project has evolved to include

special opportunity for new insights. Stacey and I

my own reflections on how I frame seminarare good friends and colleagues at Saitama

goals, and on ways in which I can encourage my

University, and I had the pleasure of working withstudents to set teaching and learning goals forher to develop the prototype of the self-assessment

themselves.

Finally,

StaceyVye’spresentation

she presented on. Thus, it was very interesting to

The context in brief: My third-year group ofcompare the ways in which the assessments weseminar students is a warm, friendly, mutuallycurrently use in our classes have evolved differently

supportive group of learners with hopes of(and similarly) over the past couple of years.

developing their English competencies, mostly

Thanks to Stacey, I came away with new ideas on

for practical application in the work world. It

how

the

sometimes seems, however, that they lackself-assessments I am now using with my students.

self-awareness, and hope to somehow learn

tofurther

improve

and

adapt

44

Looking backco-presenters, for a wonderfully inspiring day.

English by osmosis. By the end of the lastacademic year, I felt that they are not as focused

Debjani Ray (participant)as they should be on developing the disciplineand practices that will help them achieve their

The video clips by Anni

language learning goals. I also felt that their

Marlow and Hugh Nicoll

reading and writing skills did not seem up to theshowedtwo

very

challenge

differentgroupsofofreadingandresponding

tostudents in two different

authentic American literary texts.

classrooms

I also felt that I needed to know more about

with

two

their goals, and should explore new ways to help

distinctly different sets of attitudes towards learningthem become better language learners. I

language and self-awareness. Both were verynegotiated a spring break extensive readinginteresting and revealed how they might or might

project with the students, and talked about their

not work depending on the situation. The handouts

overall academic and career goals. After aof Stacey Vye were intricately designed activity

slightly

andsheets for the students to do their own assessment

video

by comparing their learning goals to actual

recordings of peer review and self-assessment

learning. They were made in such a way that thepresentations.

students would not feel it tiring to do after eachbumpy

questionnaires,

start,
wewithstartedchecklists
touse

lesson.

As we began to negotiate how to moveThe

posteronmeasuringlearner

forward together, I was reading The Developing

autonomy by Lucy Cooker had many complex

Language Learner (2009) by Dick Allwright andelements arranged in a systematic way. It was a

Judith Hanks. They offer five propositions:very meticulously done poster. Finally, at the end ofthesessionAndy

Barfield

facilitatedan

1. Learners are unique individuals who learn andend-of-workshop discussion that gave opportunities

develop best in their own idiosyncratic ways.

to both the presenters and the participants to

2. Learners are social beings who learn and develop

discuss different issues in a friendly atmosphere. I

best in a mutually supportive environment.

had the chance to talk to some other participants

3. Learners are capable of taking learning seriously.

and had the feeling that everyone was satisfied.

4. Learners are capable of independent decisionon self-assessment gave me ample opportunities tomaking.
5.

Learners

All in all, the workshop presentations and posters

arecapableofdevelopingaspractitioners of learning.

see what other teachers are doing in theirclassrooms and to know the processes and/or theoutcomes of their research. It was a great learning

These propositions proved invaluable in helping me

opportunity for me. It suited well with this year's

to step back, to become more of a participant

theme Teachers as Learners. The only thing I canobserver, which allowed the students to step up andsay is that I/we did not have enough time to see andbegin developing their leadership skills.

listen to all the fabulous things and to talk to all the

Like several other participants, I was very moved

unique people. For the limited capacity of my brain,

by Alan Milne’s presentation, and hope he gives it aeven if all of it was very interesting and informative,

full, formal write up some time soon. I would like to

it was just overwhelming!

close with a big thank you to Andy, and to all my

As for the Nakasendo Conference itself, with all45

Looking backits great aspects, I felt in one area it has somebe part of. Thank you to all the presenters andscope to develop—advertising. Except for theparticipants who took part and created the whole

peoplemorning together.

directly

involved

andpeopledirectlyconnected to them, the conference did not attract

Part of that responsive participation seemed tomuch attention from the vast ESL/EFL community

come from the fact that the presenters, as much asin Japan. With all its enthusiastic presenters andparticipants, had many repeated opportunities toenergetic organizers, however, the Nakasendo

reconstruct and question their own practices. It

conference has a lot to offer. If it does just a bit

seemedmore advertising, it should hopefully become one ofunderstanding

the better-known language education conferences

self-assessment is a core principle of autonomous

in Japan.

learning. Little (2006: 21-23), for example, sees

also

to

stem

(and

from

the

sharedcommitment)

that

three core principles for the development of learnerautonomy in formal educational contexts, namely:

Andy Barfield (facilitator)
It does matter what kind of(i)teacher education we engage in,(engaging/requiring

what kind of teacher education

responsibility for the learning process), (ii) learnerwe create together, and whatreflection

kind of spaces we try to open up

think—critically—when they plan, monitor andfordeeperevaluate their learning) and (iii) appropriate target

exploration. Most meetings at

language use (using the target language for

dialogueandlearner

empowerment/involvement
learners(helping

toassume/sharelearners

towork seem designed to kill creative, spontaneous

genuinedialogue and exploration about education, and to

self-assessment, the principle of learner reflection

suppress alternative views of learners and learning;has, as Nakasendo showed, the potential to leadindeed, the longer I sit in bureaucratic meetings, theintomore I need to unlearn the deadly habitus ofexperience, practice and inquiry for teachers in

non-education. I want to thank the presenters at the(re-)interpreting autonomous learning. According toLD

Little (2006: 22), “…the principle of learnermulti-session

workshopforcreatingacommunication).

rich,interlocking

Frameddialogic

as

networks

ofthoroughly energizing and fascinating morning ofreflection

peer education. Everybody was willing to go withindividual learner’s capacity to evaluate his or her

the flow, and, just as importantly, most people kept

learning

going with the flow the whole morning! As this

discussion of the learning process.” For me, that

happened, the whole-group focus got pushedobservation

further back; when it did take place, it was mostly

Nakasendo workshop and the strong sense of

taken up with pair discussions with each person

dialogic teacher-learner (Smith, 2003) reflection

talking with somebody they hadn’t already metthat participants and presenters created together.

isimplemented

grows
also

out

of

the

capturesinteractively:
group’smuchtheongoing

about

the

during the workshop. We then finished with aJust what forms of teacher education arelistening circle where people shared their insights

appropriate for a SIG committed to autonomouswith the whole group. This was all rather different

learning nevertheless remain open to question. We

from what we had planned before the workshop, butseem

we created a kind of participatory dialogic teacher

Development SIG, and we tend to meander as a

education event that was intriguingly motivating toresult. Perhaps no bad thing, but it seems to me

to struggle withthisin the Learner46

Looking backthat a common, sustained (and by implication)

Papers from Three IALS Symposia (CD-ROM).

negotiated focus for the SIG’s activities has

Edinburgh: IALS, University of Edinburgh.

potentially many benefits in drawing us together<http://www.warwick.ac.uk/~elsdr/Teacher_aut

andonomy.pdf>

takingusfurther

forwardasapractitioner-researcher—aka
teacher-learner—autonomous learning group.
References
Allwright, D. & Hanks, J. (2009). The Developing
Language

Learner:An

Introduction

toExploratory Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Gardner,D.

(2000).

Self-assessmentforautonomous language learners. Links & Letters,
7: 49-60.

JACET 49th Convention: Tomorrow's
Learners, Tomorrow's Teachers:
Autonomous Development in College
English Language Learning andTeaching, Miyagi University, 7th-9th
September, 2010
第 49 回 JACET 全国大会：明日の学習者、明日の教師 − 大学英語教育における学習者と教師の自律的成長 2010 年 9 月 7～9 日 於：
宮城大学

<http://www.raco.cat/index.php/LinksLetters/article/
viewFile/22713/22548>
Janssen-van Dieten, A. (1989). The development of

Alison Stewart and Kay Irie
アリソン・スチュワート、入江恵
９月初旬に宮城大学（仙台）で開催された大学英語

a test of Dutch as a foreign
language: the validity of self-assessment by

教育学会（ JACET）全国大会初日と２日目の様子をアリソン・スチュワートと入江恵が報告。今年度

inexperienced subjects. Language
Testing, 6(1): 30-46.

のテーマは教員と学習者の自律であり、基調講演

Little, D. (2004). Constructing a theory of learner

を含め、我々にとって興味深い発表・シンポジウ

autonomy: some steps along the way. In K.

ムが多数行われた。大会委員長は LD SIG メンバー

Mäkinen, P. Kaikkonen, P. & V. Kohonen (eds),の小嶋英夫氏であり、筆者二人は、今後日本の言

Futurelanguage

語教育における自律性の発展のため、 JACET 自律

education. Oulu: Publications of the Faculty of

学習研究部会との連携を考えるべきであると締め

Education in Oulu University 101, 15–25.

くくっている。

perspectives

inforeign<http://www.ecml.at/mtp2/Elp_tt/Results/DM_la
yout/Reference%20Materials/English/David%2

Just as the rain showers that greeted visitors to

0Little%20Constructing%20a%20Theory%20of

Sendai provided a welcome and refreshing change%20Learner%20Autonomy.pdf>

after weeks of searing temperatures throughout

Natri, T. (2007).

Active learnership in continuous

Japan,

so

too

JACET’s

49th

Convention:

self- and peer-evaluation. In A. Barfield & S.H.

Tomorrow’s

Brown (eds), Reconstructing Autonomy inAutonomous Development in College English

Language Education: Inquiry and Innovation

Language Learning and Teaching was a refreshing(108-119). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

and invigorating opportunity to share classroom

Smith,

R.C.

(2003).

Teacher

educationforpractices

Learners,

andresearch

Tomorrow’son

Teachers:

learner-centeredteacher-learner autonomy. In J. Gollin, G.

education in Japanese higher education. Learner

Ferguson

Development SIG’s Alison Stewart and Kay Irie

and

H.

Trappes-Lomax(eds),

Symposium for Language Teacher Educators:

report on their experience of the event.
47

Looking backAlison Stewart

Convention Statement). Taiwan is an example of a

Learner autonomy is sometimes a buzz word incountry, like Japan, in which education reform isJapanese language education policy, but realizing it

challenged by the fact that English is a foreignin the context of Japanese higher education poses

rather than a second language. Hui Olivia Changa significant challenge to teachers and curriculumfrom National Ilan University talked about theplanners, and to students themselves. How betterreforms that have affected all levels of English

then to start the first afternoon with a plenary

education there since 1993. Interestingly, the major

session by Barbara Sinclair, one of the pioneers inchanges appear to represent two opposing goals:

the field of Learner Autonomy? Eminently sensibleon the one hand, a national test, the Generaland practical, Sinclair made a point of steering clear

English Proficiency Test (GEPT), developed inof the political or philosophical nuances of learnerTaiwan, sets standards for raising proficiency levels

autonomy, and focused instead on what teachers

generally, and universities that institute the GEPT

need to understand in order to help their students toas an exit test for graduating students, such as

become more autonomous learners, and what they

National Cheng Kung University, are rewarded bycan realistically hope to achieve in the classroom.

the Education Ministry with lucrative grants. On the

Like any other pedagogical trend, learner autonomy

other hand, English language program coordinators

has grand claims staked on it, and Sinclair

have been moving toward more student-centeredaddressed a number of these, making the point that

language education, in particular English formany of these claims are fantasy, while the reality is

specific academic purposes aiming to support

more complicated, since it is contingent on

English-medium instruction in content areas. This iscontextual factors as well as on the capacity anda trend that Chang sees continuing in the future.

willingness of the learners themselves. One theUniversities and students will continue to face“pink fairies” that Sinclair mentioned is thepressure for language certification, but at the sameerroneous belief that learner autonomy renders thetime, as English becomes more important in theirteacher’s role unnecessary. In fact, however, theacademic and professional lives and as Taiwan’s

teacher plays a crucial role in learner training, which

declining student population puts more pressure on

she defined as aiming “to help learners consider theuniversities to be more supportive of the students

factors that affect their learning and discover thethey have, English education will have to be geared

learning strategies that best suit them, and which

toward students’ specific needs, such as theare appropriate to their learning context, so thatadjunct language program that Chang has been

they may become more effective learners and takedeveloping for science major students at her

on more responsibility for their own learning” (Ellis

university. One of the questions that she raised at& Sinclair, 1989, p.2). On top of this, Sinclair offered

the end of her talk was how to bridge the gap

a series of “learner training tips”: making sure thatbetween the general and specific English education.

the learners know what they are doing and why,

But since the two approaches face opposite

keeping a light touch, making it relevant, giving

directions - one test-oriented, the other student

learners time to reflect, and last but not least, beingneed-centered - perhaps this is an impossible task.
From the social and political pressures onpatient and not expecting instant results.
Japan is not the only country to undergo “aparadigm

shiftlearning-centeredfrom

teaching-centerededucation”(JACET

autonomy, a symposium at the end of the afternoon

tobrought us back to the challenges facing teachersthin individual classrooms and some creative ways

49

48

Looking backthat are being tried to promote autonomy in

work.

The

symposium

closed

with

a

brief

Japanese universities. Masuko Miyahara describedcommentary by Barbara Sinclair. She noted thea course she has developed for second-year

common thread of learner collaboration in the three

students which aims to introduce learners topresentations, and highlighted the advancement ofteaching philosophies and pedagogical rationale

learning and critical thinking skills that are the main

behind various teaching materials in order to help

benefits of this kind of learning context.

them develop a critical awareness of their own
learning goals and to make better judgments about

Kay Irie

strategies and materials that best suit them.

On the second day, the focus of the plenary andThrough interviews and Moodle reflections bysymposium

students, she was able to show us how textbooks

autonomy. Simon Borg explored the relationshipand published materials could provide a starting

between teacher cognition, his primary research

point for learners to develop a new and different

area, and teacher autonomy in language education.

perspective of their past and present language

After a brief overview of the concept of teacher

learning and open up new possibilities for their

cognition, he referred to McGrath’s distinction

future.

betweenshiftedfromself-directed

learneraction(=toteacher

professional

Sanae Kurauchi presented a study of cooperativeautonomy) and freedom from control by others (=learning through a practice that she has been

professional freedom); the former is considered todeveloping of group activity. Aimed at promoting

be internal and the latter external. Borg elaborated

positive

personal

the role of cognition played in the process of

responsibility, she assigns different roles: groupdeveloping professional autonomy of language

leader,homework,teachers by pointing out five issues: pedagogicaltime-keeper, note-taker and devil’s advocate. Theseknowledge, theoretical knowledge, educationalroles are rotated among the students each week.

biographies (past learning experiences), prior

She found that cooperation among the learners

beliefs, practices and rationales. The first two help

increased over time, as they saw the importance ofus to make more informed decisions in our teaching.

individual work in order to contribute to the group,

Recognizing our own learning experiences andindicating that the group-work had both pedagogicalbeliefs about teaching and learning that we haveand motivational benefits to learners.

been carrying around are necessary in examining

interdependence
whochecks

and

and
marks

Yuka Kusanagi faces the challenge of students in

our teaching practices and rationale for them. As

an agricultural university who have low English

Borg said, if we don’t know why we do what we do

proficiency, low confidence and low motivation.

in classroom, we can’t say that we are fully in

Building

key

control of our own teaching. He concluded thatinteraction,teacher autonomy is fostered by awareness,

on

the

competencies,OECD’swhichframeworkemphasizesofdiversity and autonomy, she has developed aknowledge, and understanding.

course based on art-based activities, such as

Later in the day, the second symposium titledposter-making, drama and role-play. As withTomorrow’s Teachers: Autonomous Development inKurauchi’s group-based classes, Kusanagi foundEnglishthatcomprisedstudents

responded

positively

to

the

Languagethree

Teaching

waspresentations

held.
on

This

teachercooperative nature of the classes and became

education: two were case studies of in-service

more focused and more responsible for their own

teacher training for secondary school teachers in49

Looking backJapan and one was on a theoretical model ofotherteacher autonomy development. Yuka Kurihara

themselves;presented her study on how teachers appropriate

prerequisites for teacher autonomy. While Borg

what they gained in teacher training by comparing

stated that teacher autonomy does not guarantee

twosimilarlearneroverseas

reciprocal

teachers

whogovernment-sponsoredexperienced
six-monthteachersbutandautonomy,

also

(c)

with

sense

Nakatarelationship.

The

students

andagency,areofemphasized

their

symposiumwas

programs in the States. She argued that the degree

intriguing in that regardless of the types ofto which the teachers can appropriate newpresentations, three presenters all focused on

conceptual and practical tools (e.g. constructivist

support and interdependence for the development

views, learner-centered pedagogy and so on)of teacher autonomy. Just as many learners need todepends on the social and cultural contexts in

be interdependent, it is difficult for teachers towhich they teach, and that the follow-up sessions

engage in self-directed actions alone.

are necessary to support these teachers to

It was a pleasure to be able to meet many LD SIG

maximize the benefits of the training. The second

members at this well-organized and stimulatingpresentation by Takako Nishino, who was not able

event. At the start of the convention, we were

to come due to health reasons, so was read by

fortunate to catch a moment to chat with LD SIG

Junko Fushino. This focused on how community ofmember, Hideo Kojima, who was head of thepractice plays an important role in changing

organizing committee. Referring back to the joint

teachers’ practices after the training, drawing on the

JALT-JACET conference in Nagoya in 2008, wecases of Japanese secondary school teachers who

agreed that more collaboration between LD SIG

participated in an intensive CLT training programand other groups interested in learner autonomy

which used to be compulsory for teachers’ license

would be a good thing. With the LD SIG Annual

renewal. Nishino argued that the existence of aGeneralboundary broker in connecting the teacher to new

Conference in Nagoya in just over two months, now

communities of practices was a key factor, and itis the time to start planning.

Meetingcoming

up

at

the

JALT

was important to belong to multiple communities ofpractice. For example, in one of the cases
presented, the teacher used to belong only to thecommunity of high school English teachers, andhad no contact with the global TESOL community
where CLT was highly valued. The teacher’s wife,
who had an MA in TESOL, as well as an ALT at
school, functioned as boundary brokers. With their

BAAL Annual Conference 2010 –Applied Linguistics: Global and Local
University of Aberdeen
September 9-11, 2010
英国応用言語学学会２０１０大会
応用言語学：グローバルとローカル
2010 年 9 月９～１１日於：アバディーン大学

support and influence, he was more motivated toapply CLT to his teaching context and did so more
effectively than the other case presented in which
there was no viable boundary broker. Finally,
Yoshiyuki Nakata presented a theoretical model ofteacher autonomy development. In his view, threefactors,(a)behavioral,

psychological,

andsituational readiness; (b) collegiality not only withPatrick Kiernan
パトリック・キアナン
2010 年 BAAL のテーマは「ローカルからグローバルへ」であり、そのテーマについて Alastair
Pennycook; Stove Skuttnabb-Kangus; Wilson
McLeod と Bonny Norton の４人のプレナリース
ピ ー カ ーが そ れぞ れの 角 度 から 発 表し た 。
50

Looking backPennycook はローカルとグローバルについての理 論 的 概 念 、 Skuttnabb-Kangus は language
genocide、McLeod はスコットランドでのゲール語の促進、そして Norton はウガンダの学校へのデジタル資源の紹介だった。各スピーカーが学会のテーマについて各々の解釈を提案した。学会は日本からの出席者も多く、応用言語学の主要分野の広範囲にわたる発表があった。

(attributed to Fuchs, 2001) and on the other “there
is nothing local anymore” which he attributed to
Canagarajah and warned against “demonizing the
global’ and ‘romanticising the local”. Highlighting therelevance of the conference theme to language, hesuggested that the most important feature oflanguage difference is “the way local practicedivides up the world” a point elaborated in his mostrecent book Language as Local Practice (2010) and

Reportillustrated amusingly during his talk with reference

The British Association for Applied Linguistics

to the classification system at Australian car shows(BAAL) Annual Meeting is a relatively small scale

but which also has implications relevant to theconference that not only features a number of big

teaching of English in Japan. The teaching ofnames in the ELT field but is attended by a number

English as an international language in Japan, forof them too. This not only makes it a venue suitable

example, may very well be seen as part offor compiling a who’s who of British applied linguists

globalization but also constitutes a local practice

but gives presenters a chance to receive critique(hence the importance of a JALT LD SIG!).

and advice from the experts as well as engage in

The second plenary by Tove Skutnabb-Kangus

discussions with like-minded individuals. BAAL is

took on the issue of linguistic genocide documented

popular among applied linguists in Japan to theinextent that the conference not only offers a chance(Skutnabb-Kangus, 2000) but also her 35 page

to keep in touch with issues in Britain but also,

paper written for the conference and available

oddly enough, to meet teachers and academics

onlinebased in Japan. This year’s conference was held at

Pennycook had shared something of his family

the Old Aberdeen Campus of University ofroots, Skutnabb-Kangus shared something of her

Aberdeen in Scotland. The university dates back tohome today in Denmark in the form of glorious

the 15th Century and accordingly boasts somepictures of her garden which served as a backdrop

beautiful grey stone architecture set off withto her slides, and the inclusion of her husband

colourful crests alongside more modern facilities.

Robert Phillipson (perhaps best known for his

The theme of the BAAL2010 conference was ‘From

coining of “linguistic imperialism” (1992, 2009) and

Local to Global’ a theme fittingly introduced byanalysis of language policy in Europe (2003)).

Alistair Pennycook in his plenary which kicked ofWhile the colourful backdrop of hydrangeas,

the conference.

vegetables and sheep which they keep as part of ahercomprehensive(Skuttnabb-Kangus,

818

page

2010).

book

Where

Beginning with an intriguing personal foray into

more or less self-sufficient organic lifestyle madehis own local roots in the Scottish village of Penicuik

reading the text on her slides difficult, her husband(nothing to do with “pennies” or “cooks” apparently),

was given the job of reading them to bring them toPennycook introduced “local” and “global” aslife on the pretext that English was her fifth (?)

theoretical concepts, outlining issues that were tolanguage. Fifth language or not, her plenary, for me,

be taken up in a variety of ways throughout theclarified a couple of misunderstandings regarding

conference. He juxtaposed the contradictory claims“language genocide”: (1) “Language genocide”

that on the one hand “everything is global”

does not simply refer to the killing off of speakers of51

Looking backsocio-economic

accent. (This was a surprise for me, because I

circumstances that inhibit the passing on of theassociate her with British Columbia in Canada, the“mother tongue” (used in a positive sense) to thesetting for her book and current affiliation.) However,next generation leading to the decline andSouth Africa was indeed her place of birth anddisappearance of indigenous languages. (2) That

Africa (Uganda) was the setting for her plenary ontalk of endangered languages and preservation of“Imagined identities, grassroots literacy, and digital

linguistic diversity is not simply a metaphor

resources”. She described the effects of introducing

borrowed

foran educational resource that mimics the Internet inbiodiversity but interrelated with it. Rather than thevillages with extremely limited resources where alinguistic diversity being a concern competing forsingle outdated laptop with no Internet connection

funding with the preservation of endangered

typically constituted a school’s only digital resource.

species,in

The system her research team distributed to thepractice, endangered indigenous languages are byschools was called eGranary (see Norton, 2010), a

their nature languages which contain knowledge

hard disc containing a variety of Internet resources

about living in harmony with local ecosystems,(such as the entire content of Wikipedia) andknowledge which dies with the language. In othersearchable in the same way as Internet. Interviews

words, the preservation of indigenous languages

with parents and teachers as well as students at theand cultures is an important way of preserving

schools underlined the fact that here, as with many

biodiversity.

of the other contexts described at the conference,alanguage

from

but

also

the

the

ecological

Skuttnab-Kangus

concerns

explained

that,

Skutnabb-Kangus

the desire was not only to reach out or aspire toprovided plenary sessions which served to frame

communities in an outside global world but also to

the abstractions denoted by the conference theme,

preserve the local language and culture. One thing

Wilson McLeod’s plenary was an informativethat was striking coming from a Japan rich inaccount of the development of Gaelic in Scotland.

educational

From knowing virtually nothing about Gaelic

resourcefulness

beforehand I learned of the remarkable efforts toeagerness to learn. While few newspapers arepromote a language which, while historicallyavailable, one person was shown reading aloud to aimportant to Scotland and hence potentially togroup eagerly listening.

Where

Pennycook

and

other
of

resources
local

was

practices

and

the
the

Scottish identity in the way Welsh language is to

Besides a number of presentations that focusedinhabitants of Wales, is spoken by just 1.2% of theon the conference theme there were colloquia andpopulation who largely reside in the north west area

debate sessions (on such topics as “British ELT inof Scotland known as the ‘Highlands’. A remarkable

existential Crisis”), SIG sessions and individual

ambition largely hindered by the lack of ‘capacity’ inpresentations and posters on a wide range ofterms of speakers available to contribute to thisapplied linguistic areas including teaching and SLA,

expansion.

corpuslinguistics,

vocabulary,discourseandAs someone whose research has been inspired

narrative analysis, language and identity and criticalby Bonny Norton’s pathbreaking work Identity anddiscourse. Presenters also came from acrossLanguage Learning (1999), giving Norton the

Britain and around the world (including the sizableclosing plenary felt like saving the best until last. It

Japanese contingent) and accordingly reporting on

was apparently her first visit to Britain and my firsta variety of languages and situations reflecting thesurprise when I met her was her South African

diverse nature of applied linguistics today. Applied
52

Looking back
Linguistics in Britain, I felt, is not in existential crisis.

ReferencestheBesnier, N. (2009). Gossip and the Everyday

announcement of the BAAL book prize andProduction of Politics. Honolulu: University ofconference dinner. The rigorously judged Book

Hawaii Press.

Two

regularfeatures

of

BAAL

are

Prize is a prestigious prize for books on applied

Fuchs, S. (2001). Against Essentialism: A Theory of

linguistics and several previous winners have

Culture and Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

earned a prized position in my modest library.

University Press.

Generally, the prize has gone to something

Kamada,L.

(2010).

HybridIdentities

andpublished by one of the main publishers of books

Adolescent Girls: Being ‘Half’ in Japan. Bristol:on applied linguistics who have stands at theMultilingual Matters.

conference. This year though the winner Niko

Norton, B. (2000) Identity and Language Learning:

Besnier’s Gossip and the Everyday Production of

Gender, Ethnicity and Educational Change.

Politics (2009) was published by University ofHarlow: Pearson Education.

Hawaii Press. The reception for the announcement

Norton, B. (2010). Bonny Norton Homepage,

was held at the Art gallery in the city centre. The

University of British Columbia. Retrieved from:

conference dinner was prefaced by a drinks section

http://www.lerc.educ.ubc.ca/fac/norton/sponsored by Multilingual Matters to officiallylaunch a series called “Critical Language andLiteracy Studies” which already includes two books
on Japan that may be of interest to LL readers:Laurel Kamada’s Hybrid Identities and Adolescent

Pennycook, A. (2010). Language as a Local
Practice. Abingdon: Routledge.
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Phillipson,

R.

Girls: Being ‘Half’ in Japan (2010) and Phillip

Challenging

Seargent’s The Idea of English in Japan (2009).

Routledge.

The dinner itself was accompanied by traditional
Scottish music rather than speeches and, as often
happens at BAAL, led to some dancing –a fineopportunity for respected academics to make foolsof themselves.
Perhaps the best way to end this review andPhillipson,R.

(2003).

language(2009).

policy.

Europe?

New

Linguistic

York:

Imperialism

Continued. New York: Routledge.
Seargent, P. (2009). The Idea of English in Japan.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Skutnabb-Kangus, (2000). Linguistic Genocide in
Education – Or Worldwide Diversity andunderline the conference theme is to conclude withHuman

a story told by Skutnabb-Kangas during her

Erlbaum Associates.

plenary: There was once a man who despite being

English-only

Rights?

Skutnabb-Kanggus

Mahwah,(2010)NJ:

Lawrence‘Crimesagainstpast retirement studied the indigenous language ofhumanity in education, and applied linguistics –his locality intently. “Why do you study this minority

corporate

globalisation

language so hard?” he was asked. “What good canknowledge

glocalisation?’

it do you?” In reply the man said “So that when I die

BAAL2010, Retrieved from:and go to heaven I can communicate with my

http://www.tove-skutnabb-kangas.org/pdf/Toveancestors”. “I see”, came the response “But what

_Skutnabb_Kangas_Crimes_against_humanity

will happen if you go to hell?” “No problem” the man_in_education_and_applied_linguistics_corporexplained, “I know English already.”

ate_globalisation_or_geopolitical_knowledge_orgeopolitical
Plenary

forglocalisation.pdf
53

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010

Looking forward

Looking forward
してもらいます。そして、優れた定着度をもつような教授と学習の組み合わせ方を知るためのアクシ
A one-day teacher development event cooked up byョンプロジェクトやいくつかのアクティビティにJALT Learner Development SIG,

参加していただきます。この問題の議論はJALT Teacher Education SIG &http://tinyurl.com/teaching-learning のハンド
アウトをご参照ください。

Osaka Chapter of JALTDATE: Sunday, October 17, 2010, 10am-5pm

Imagine a reporter standing outside the door of your

VENUE: Osaka Gakuin University, Osakaclassroom asking students the simple question,

COST: JALT members ¥1000; non-members ¥2000“What did you learn today?” Anyone who tries thiswill find that the answers students give are

Take a moment to read the abstracts of the plenary

extremely varied and often have little to do with that

presentations and poster presentations on offer at

day’s lesson-plan. Why is this and is it a problem?

the mini-conference at Osaka Gakuin Unversityon

Why is there often such a huge disconnect between

October 17th which focuses on exploring thewhat teachers think they’re teaching and whatconnection between teaching and learning and how

students are actually learning? Thinking about

to maximize learning.

these questions leads us to another one. What is

The conference isacollaboration between Learner Development SIG,

teaching and what is learning?

Teacher Education SIG and Osaka Chapter and athinking deeply about these two acts and examining

great chance for us to get together with some

not only the many models and definitions available

provocative and inspirational speakers. There will

but also our own deeply held beliefs about teaching

be

the

and learning, we begin to see that there is nothing

evening

simple about defining either teaching and learning.

afterwards so please check the Osaka homepage

This raises a further issue -- what other factors canfor the latest details.

cause this disconnect? What are some things that

http://osakajalt.squarespace.com/

teachers can do to make it more likely that what’ssocialsonthe

Saturdaymini-conference

and

the

preceding

SundayOnce we begin

taught is actually learned and learned deeply
Just Because You Are Teaching Doesn’t Meanenough to be retained? Participants in thisEveryone’s Learninginteractive session will explore the answers to these

その“教え”が“学び”をもたらすとは限らないから

questions before being introduced to an action
project and some activities designed to better

Chuck Sandy

connect teaching and learning so that what’s

チャック・サンディ

learned has real take away value. In the week prior

学習とは何か？ 教授とは？ 教師が教えることとto the conference and in the weeks afterwards,

学生が学ぶこととのあいだにズレがあるのはなぜ

participants are invited to discuss the issue andか？ 教えたことを学生に深く学んでもらい、きちview handouts online at:

んと定着させるにはどうしたらよいのでしょう。

http://tinyurl.com/teaching-learning.

参加される方にはまず、これらの疑問の答えを模索
54

Looking forward
Just Because Everyone’s Learning Doesn’t

content and avoiding correction except at the mostMean You’re Teachingadvanced level.

その“学び”が“教え”によるものとは限らない
から

It

is

importanttoremember

that,

when

non-teaching, the students will be learning, and at
an accelerated rate. However, the non-teacher has

Charles Adamson

little or no control over the specifics of what theチャールズ・アダムソン

students are learning. Thus, there can be no

教室内において教師が最も効果的にその役割を担

specific linguistic goals for a class. Grammar,

うにはどうすればよいのでしょう？ この複雑で多vocabulary, etc., will be learned in whatever order

相的な問いに答えるために、本発表は教室を管理す

results

るのではなく、伝統的な教授をせずに起こった学び

presentation will advocate an unusual position, butを評価する授業を紹介します。これらの授業実践の

one that has been successfully use in numerous

共通点から法則を導き出し、非教授による語学学習

classes with results that were far superior to thoseをより良いものにするための提案をします。また、

achieved by mainstream methods.

from

the

student’s

activities.

This

非教授に対する主な反論も議論する予定です。
Education Outside of TESOL for the Language
What is a teacher’s most effective role in the

Teacherclassroom? Although the answer is complex, we
canreduce

it

to

two

possibilities:

teaching

Frank Cheang, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University

andWith the increase in Content Based Instruction andnon-teaching (motivating and organizing so that thethe rise of the programs put forth by the Japanese

students take charge of their own learning), an

Education Ministry, there has been a shift towards

approach that resembles what Gattegno called “thequalified instructors in Japan teaching English

subordination of teaching to learning”.

through content, which are sometimes coming from(presenting

andexplaining

things)This presentation will answer the question by first

backgrounds outside of direct language teaching.

describing various classes in which the teacher didThisnot ‘teach’ in the traditional sense and thenundergraduate programs (including a detailed

evaluating the outcomes, compared to control

example at a Nebraska State University) andclassesthegraduate programs (again, including a detailed

commonalities in these classes will be analyzed

example at the University of Liverpool) that are

and used to develop principles and suggestions foroutside of TESOL or Applied Linguistics, but can

improving language learning by non-teaching.

assist language teaching through content as well as

wherepossible.

In

conclusion

posterpresentation

will

introduce

both

An analysis of a wide range of classes leads to a

educators keeping current with various educational

number of suggestions for improving the study ofapproaches such as The Theme Based Model.

foreign languages, including prioritizing meaning by

The two main themes that the presenter has

providing a lot of comprehensible input, arranging

participated in are business-related, but haveactivities so that students are expressing their own

relevance to other themes and subjects in

ideas, concentrating on letting students use whatmanagement.

they already know, avoiding scaffolding because it
introduces language which has not been acquired,

Passages To India: A Journey in Teacher

sequencing input based on the non-linguistic

Development through Literature with Slumdog
55

Looking forward
knocks” (as an entrepreneur), and varied readings

Bombay Millionaireand explorations leading to deeper understanding
Andrew Dowling, Ritsumeikan Universityof materials from a practical point of view. ThroughTheorists may claim that Literature has a valid

informal learning, I have been able to expand theplace in the language classroom, but what’s in it for

depth and content of various classes that I’ve

the teachers? This presentation will introduce -taught (such as global issues) and I’ve had thebased on the research and preparation of a new

confidence to take on more diversified classes.

Indian novel course, “Slumdog Millionaire”, at a

Formal learning has been through undergraduate

Japanesetypicaland several graduate schools (including an M.Ed,

challenges the Literature teacher faces, and offer aan MBA and doctorate level program). These

range of useful strategies for success.

In so doing,studies have led to a deeper understanding of theit will examine the possibilities that exist forbusiness, economics and management disciplines

Literature teachers to maximize their own growth inand I find I‘ve been offered teaching morecultural awareness, research, educational andspecialized classes that follow those formal studies.

professional skills development.

While those examples were of a particular area of

University

-

some

of

the

interest to me, this type of teacher education can beContrasting Identities of Returnee Students:

transferred throughout almost any discipline.

Facebook vs. Interview
Increasing Student Motivation Using WebCT
Patrick Kiernan, Meiji University
With every class one encounters one learns

Zane Ritchie, Ritsumeikan University

something about them. However, when I had a

Developing intrinsic motivation is a key to learnerparticularly high level English university classsuccess (Dornyei,

including a large proportion of ‘returnee’ students2001). One way of increasing intrinsic motivation is

who had spent periods of their childhood overseas I

through computer

wanted to find out more. As part of theirassisted language learning (CALL), due to the factsecond-semester course ‘Educational Issues’ I had

that most students

them conduct peer interviews into their educational

today are digital natives and respond positively toexperiences which they video recorded and wrote

blended learning.

about in term papers. The identities revealed in thisThis poster presentation will explicitly explain the

project are compared and contrasted in this poster

procedure andwith their shared facebook persona offering food forbenefits of increasing learning motivation throughthought for me and hopefully other teachers!

CALL, withparticular focus on the use of Web-CT, a type of
virtual learning environment (VLE). The poster will

The More You Learn, The More You Earnbe a stand-alone presentation with screen shots
to supplement the prose.

Richard Miller, Kansai University
This poster presentation will look at teachers as
The

Is ‘Demotivation’ the Flip Side of ‘Motivation’?

presentation will share personal experiences as a

Investigating the Relationship between Teacher

lifelong learner from the informal “school of hard

‘Demotivational’

learners in formal and informal roles.

FactorsandStudent
56

Looking forward‘Demotivational’ Factors
What metaphors resonate for you and yourToshiko Sugino, Dept. of National Defense

students? Metaphors such as “scaffolding” andAcademy“flow” have changed the way many people think(SLA)

about teaching and learning. How can changing the

motivation

metaphors we use open up space for new insights

extensively. It is widely recognized that ‘motivation’for ourselves and our students? Seven presenters

is extremely important and a key factor for

explore metaphors such as flow, story, visual

successful second language (L2) learning. However,images, parenting, a treasure hunt, and invite youcanto discuss the uses of metaphor in learning andRecentSecondresearch

has

Language
explored‘motivation’alone

Acquisition

students’answerthecomplexdemography of language learning? What aboutteaching.

‘demotivation’? If ‘demotivation’ is the flip side of‘motivation’, does everyone agree about what

学びの比喩

‘demotivation’ actually consists of ? Do student

今 年 は 比 喩 （ 比 喩 ） を 取 り 上 げ ま す 。「 教 え る

demotivatioal（teaching）」ということを何かに喩えてみると、

factors

match

with

teacher

demotivational factors?

それは芸術といえるでしょうか？科学またはヒー

In my previous research, I investigated the

ローの冒険でしょうか？それとも、一切れのケーキ

factors that demotivated 97 college teachers inを食べるのと同じ位いとも簡単なことでしょうJapan. The results indicated among 37 items, theか？ では、「学ぶ（learning）」ということを喩え

top seven items related to the factor of students’

ると何になるでしょう？それはまるで足場にのる

attitudes including ‘sleeping’ and ‘forgetting to do

ようなことでしょうか？ボート漕ぎまたはスポー

homework’. In this presentation, I will investigate

ツ？それとも園芸と言えるでしょうか？生徒に対the students’ ‘demotivational’ factors and teachersするサポートを「足場を作る(scaffolding)」と喩

‘demotivational’ factors by using the survey and

えたり、生徒が熱心に学習に取り組む様子を「流れinterviews.

（flow）」ているようだと喩えるなど、比喩は「教授」および「学習」に関しての視点に影響を及ぼし“Metaphors we learn by” Forum
about learner development JALT 2010てきました。では逆に、比喩の視点を変えることで、「学びの比喩」JALT2010 学習者ディベロップメ
ント研究部会

可能でしょうか。今回は7名のプレゼンターが「流教師や学生に新たな視点をもたらすということはれ（flow）」「物語（story）」「視覚的イメージ（visual
image）」「育児（parenting）」「宝探し（treasure hunt）」

Venue: Room 1008, Aichi Industry and LeisureCentre, Nagoya, Aichi Prefectureなどの比喩をどのように「教授」および「学習」に導入していくかをご紹介します。

Time: 1:50pm-3:20pm
場 所 ： 愛 知 県 名 古 屋 市 Aichi Industry and
Leisure Centre, Room 1008
時間：午後 1:50～午後 3:20

Presenters and Presentation Topics:
Different Images of Building Knowledge with
OthersEllen Head and Andy Barfield

他者と知識を作り上げるイメージ

エレン・ヘッド、アンディ・バーフィールド
57

Looking forward
Andy Barfield

This presentation will explore the ideas behind the

アンディ・バーフィールド

metaphor that teaching is parenting, from class

社会・政治問題に関する学生の研究プロジェクトを

management to the kind of specific use of language

説明するための比喩

which is sometimes discussed in pragmatics. LikeIn this presentation I plan to look at how students

parenting, teaching involves leading, cajoling,

use 'grammatical metaphor' (Halliday) in the weekly

encouraging, facilitating and developing others,

learning

doing

sometimes through strict firmness, sometimes by

self-directed research projects in English on social,

way of gentle kindness. The presenter has

political, legal and international issues. I will

extensive teaching experience and a limited, but

consider what the use of grammatical metaphor

fresh knowledge of parenting, and will be welcome

reveals about students' development of knowledge

the comments of participants in the presentation.

dairiesthat they

write

about

of such issues.
Exploring Metaphors in Literature Seminars“Story” as a metaphor for learning

文学セミナーにおける比喩

学びの比喩としての 「物語」
Hugh Nicoll
Patrick Kiernan

ヒュー・ニコルパトリック・キアナン

文学セミナーで学習・教授可能な概念としての比学習を喩えると、面白い物語？ヒーローの冒険？

喩：学生と教師の視点から屈辱的体験？自身の経験と物語研究を基に語る

My goal in the forum is to explore metaphor as a

I will introduce examples of how the metaphor oflearnable/teachable concept in literature seminars'story' has helped me as a language learner andfrom learner and teacher perspectives, as anteacher to stimulate discussion beginning with:aspect of literary texts, and as a stepping stone forlearning as an amusing story; learning as a heroic

learners

adventure; learning as a humbling experience;

self-assessment

routines

withinlearning as a link between past and present

Teacherlearnerreflections

selves; learning as finding multiple perspectives

supplemented

on a situation; learning as moving across time andconversation with a Japanese colleague, exploring

place; learning as story with a happy ending. I may

similarities and differences in our sense ofalso draw on examples from my research into

ourselves as teachers, working to empower our

narrative in language learning, ideally to promotestudents' capacities for understanding and use ofparticipant discussion and development of themetaphor in their engagement with literature andmetaphor.

language learning.

Teaching is parenting

3 Archetypes that Represent the Learner

子育てとしての教授

学習概念を表すアーキタイプ(原型)Tim Knight

Dawn Michele Ruhl

ティム・ナイトドーン・ミシェル・ルール

授業運営から語用論まで：子育て、導き、おだて、

芸術家、科学者、哲学者が用いる基礎概念が学生に励まし、促し、育成

学びを自覚させる

todeepen

and

by

and

reportsenhance

on

the
an

their

seminar.
willbeextended58

Looking forward
Three archetypes that represent a learner who isparticipants on their own guiding metaphors and on

learning are: The Artist, The Scientist and thethePhilosopher. These archetypes represent the basic

experimenting with new metaphors.

possibility

andbenefits

(or

not?)

of

concepts that learners need to keep in mind inorder to make progress, express themselves and

The treasure hunt of teaching and learning

develop complexity and reasoning.

比喩を知る宝探しThe

learneras

Artistdevelops

waysofself-expression, autonomous decision making, andWill Zhanjeskills for life-long learning. The learner as Scientist

ウィル・ジャンジー

develops documentation in order to measure

英語は宝探しのツール。活発な学びと問題解決によprogress, assess learning and maintain motivation.

って、宝探しに触発された学生を紹介

The learner as Philosopher develops complexity of

In many traditional classrooms, with the pattern ofthought

philosophicalteacher-led Q and A, students don’t have muchquestions and the paradoxical nature of the worldcontrol over their learning. In this presentation I

that we live in.

suggest that the content of a class has to be

about

ethicalissues,Students are asked to divide class activities into

presented like a ‘treasure hunt’.

English is a toolthe 3 archetypes using free association andfor getting to the treasure.

compulsory association. Analysis of this data hasclass the students are presented with pieces ofstDuring the course of aprovided insight into 1 year students’ schema of

information that they use to progress toward thearchetypes This presentation will report on using

treasure. In the workshop, practical examples andthe association method for class assessment in

students’ responses to using this metaphor will beorder to understand how students grasped thepresented as beginning points of discussion.

concepts of Artist, Scientist and Philosopher.
このトピックには少なくとも1001通りのアプロー
Changing the Picture

チがあるでしょう。もし分析的なアプローチをお好イメージを変えよう

みなら、レイコフ・ジョンソン著『比喩と人生』を手に取ってみてはいかがでしょうか。下記のリンク

Alison Stewartに抜粋が記載されています。

アリソン・スチュワート

http://theliterarylink.com/metaphors.html

上級ライティングクラスにおける、「教授」と「学習」の視覚的イメージに関する学生の考察
As Lakoff & Johnson (1980) have argued, metaphor

Further information about metaphors and theunderlies and directs all our thoughts and actions.

JALT LD Forum is available at:This includes our beliefs about and practices of

http://forums.jalt.org/index.php/topic,665.new.html#

teaching and learning. I propose to show a poster of

newimages that were used to stimulate thinking about
concepts of teaching and learning among third-year
students in an Advanced Writing class. The poster
also includes students’ reflections on their attempts
to change their picture of teaching or learning. My
aim is to promote conversation among Forum59

Looking forward

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
LD SIG Financial Report April 2010 – September 2010
SIG MATTERS

LD SIG 財務報告 2010 年 4 月 - 2010 年 9 月

FINANCIAL REPORT BY HIROMI FURUSAWA
LD SIG 財務報告 古澤弘美
April 20102010 年 4 月

May 2010
2010 年 5 月

June 20102010 年 6 月

July 20102010 年 7 月

August 20102010 年 8 月

Sept 20102010 年 9 月

Balance in Bank account 銀行口座の残高

539056539060539064534068534072504076

Reserve liabilities 本部預け金
Cash on hand 現金

100000010000001000000100000010000001000000Balance carried forward 残高

639056639060639064634068634072604076

Total revenue liabilities 収入負債の総額
Total revenue 総収入

0
4

0
4

0
304

0
4

0
304

0
4

Total expenses 総支出
Total expense liabilities 総経費負債

0
0

0
0

5300
0

0
0

30300
0

0
0

End balance 残高

639060639064634068634072604076604080

Balance in Bank account 銀行口座の残高

539060539064534068534072504076504080Reserve liabilities 本部預け金
Cash on hand 現金

100000010000001000000100000010000001000000

LD SIG balance 残高

639060639064634068634072604076604080Major expenses April 2010 to September 2010
主な経費
JALT Central Office (Banner / NPO fees)
JALT 本部からの請求
Donation to the 2010 Nakasendo Conference
Nakasendo カンファレンスへの寄付
Major revenue April 2010 to September 2010 主な収入
Publication sales by SIG

5000
30000

SIG の書籍販売＊ No publication sale is recorded during the period.

この期間中、書籍販売は行われていません。
60

SIG matters
Looking
forward
Active balance September 30th, 2010 可動残高 2010 年 9 月 30 日

504,080

PLANNED EXPENSES Oct 2010 to March 2011 2010 年 10 月- 2011 年 3 月予定経費
JALT2010 でのテーブル賃借

16,500

JALT 2010 会場への LD 資料の配送料

10,000

Table Rental for JALT2010
料
Shipping LD materials to JALT2010
Co-sponsoring the October Mini conference

10 月ミニカンファレンス共催に係る費用

Grant for 2 SIG members to attend JALT national conference

40,00080,000

SIG 会員２名への JALT 年次大会参加費助成
Thank-you gifts for members contributing to JALT2009

10,000

JALT2009 に貢献した会員への謝礼品
TOTAL

合計

-156,500

TOTAL

合計

+150,000

Projected active balance March 31st 2011 2011 年 3 月 31 日予定残高

497,580

2010 年 9 月 30 日 LD 負債準備金（JALT 本部）

100,000

PROJECTED REVENUE Oct 2010 to March 20112010 年 10 月- 2011 年 3 月予定収入

Publication sales 書籍販売
Membership 100 members0
会費 100 人分

150,000

LD Reserve liabilities (held by JALT National) September 30, 2010

Hiromi Furusawa 古澤 弘美
LD SIG treasurer LDSIG 財務
12 October 2010 ２０１０年１０月１２日

61

Looking forward

Learning Learning 17 (2) Autumn 2010
SIG MATTERS

Contributing to Learning Learning
Learning Learning is your space for continuing to make the connections that interest you. You
are warmly invited and encouraged to contribute to the next issue of Learning Learning ineither English and/or Japanese. We welcome writing in different formats and different lengths
about different issues connected with learner and teacher development, such as:•articles (about 2,500 to 4,000 words)•reports (about 500 to 1,000 words)•learner histories (about 500 to 1,000 words)•stories of autonomy (about 500 to 1,000 words)•book reviews (about 500 to 1,000 words)•letters to the SIG (about 500 words)•personal profiles (100 words more or less)•critical reflections (100 words more or less)•research interests (100 words more or less)•photographs•poems… and much more…
We would like to encourage new writing and new writers and are also very happy to work withyou in developing your writing. We would be delighted to hear from you about your ideas,
reflections, experiences, and interests to do with learner development, learner autonomy andteacher autonomy.
We hope to publish the next issue of Learning Learning in April, 2011. Ideally, we would
like to hear from you well before February 28, 2011 – in reality, the door is always open, so
feel free to contact somebody in the editorial team when you are ready:Alison Stewart
Ellen Head
Patrick Kiernan
Kay Irie

stewart_al AT MARK hotmail.com
ellenkobe AT MARK yahoo.com
kiernan AT MARK meiji.ac.jp
kayirie AT MARK mac.com

Learning Learning is the newsletter of the JALT Learner Development SIG. We aim to publish
twice a year in April and October. All pieces are copyright of their respective authors.
Permission to re-print writing from Learning Learning should be sought directly from theauthor(s) concerned.

62

Looking
forward
SIG matters「学習の学習」原稿募集「学習の学習」は会員に興味あるつながりを構築する空間です。次号「学習の学習」への和文（もしくは英文、及び二言語での）投稿を募集しています。形式や長さを問わず、学習者及び教員の発達に関連した以下のようなさまざま文章を歓迎しています：• 論文(約4000字－10000字)• 報告書 (約2000字－4000字)• 学習者のヒストリー (約2000字－4000字)• 自律性に関する体験談 (約2000字－4000字)• 書評(約2000字－4000字)• SIGへの手紙 (約2000字)• 個人プロフィール(約400字)• クリティカル・リフレクション (約400字)• 研究興味(約400字)

• 写真
• 詩

その他

これまでにない形式のもの、また新しい方々からのご投稿をお待ちしております。内容についてもぜひご相談ください。みなさまのご意見やお考え、ご経験、そして学習者の発達、学習者の自律性と教師の自律性に関することなど、ぜひお聞かせください。
次号「学習の学習」は2011年4月に出版の予定です。ご興味のある方は、最終入稿日2011年
2月28日よりずっと前に余裕をもってご連絡いただければ幸いです。受け付けは常にいたしておりますので、アイディアがまとまり次第、遠慮なくいずれかの編集委員にご連絡ください。
アリソン・スチュワート
エレン・ヘッドパトリック・キアナン
入江恵

stewart_al AT MARK hotmail.com
ellenkobe AT MARK yahoo.com
kiernan AT MARK meiji.ac.jp
kayirie AT MARK mac.com「学習の学習」はJALT学習者ディベロプメントSIGの会報です。年2回4月と10月に出版予定です。全ての原稿の版権はそれぞれの執筆者にあります。「学習の学習」の文章を他の出版物に使う場合は直接その執筆者の許可をもらってください。

63