Femtosecond Frequency Combs for Optical Clocks
and Timing Transfer
bySeth M. Foreman
B.S., Harvey Mudd College, 2001

A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Colorado in partial fulfillmentof the requirements for the degree ofDoctor of Philosophy
Department of Physics
2007Foreman, Seth M. (Ph.D., Physics)
Femtosecond Frequency Combs for Optical Clocks and Timing Transfer
Thesis directed by Assoc. Prof. Adjoint Jun Ye

The rapid development of femtosecond optical frequency combs over the last
decade has brought together ultrastable phase control of both cw and mode-locked
lasers and ultrafast time-domain applications. Frequency-domain laser stabilization
techniques applied to the ultrashort-pulse trains emitted by a mode-locked laser resultin a level of optical phase control previously achievable only for radio frequencies andmicrowaves. I present our work extending such control to mode-locked lasers for bothtiming and frequency stabilization applications of optical frequency combs.
I first present a microwave technique for synchronizing two independent modelocked lasers at a level of timing precision less than the duration of an optical cycle,
below 1 fs of residual rms timing jitter. Using these synchronized pulses, simultaneoussum- and difference-frequency generation of 400-nm and tunable mid-infrared fs pulses isdemonstrated, opening the door for broadband coherent control of atomic and molecularsystems.
For frequency metrology, I report on an offset-free clockwork for an optical clock
based on the 3.39-µm transition in methane. The clockwork’s simplicity leads to a robust
and reliable table-sized optical frequency reference with instability approaching a few
parts in 1014 . Then I describe a directly-octave-spanning, self-referenced Ti:sapphirelaser employed as the robustly-running phase-coherent clockwork for an 87 Sr opticallattice clock. The optical comb distributes the 2-s coherence time of the 698-nm ultrastable clock laser to its modes spanning the visible and near-IR spectrum, and istherefore simultaneously used as a hub for measuring absolute frequencies or frequency
ratios between the Sr clock and other remotely-located microwave and optical atomic

iv
standards.
Finally, I report on the transfer of ultrastable frequency references, both microwave and optical, through 10-km-scale optical fiber links. Actively stabilizing theoptical phase delay of such a fiber link, we are able to transfer a cw optical frequency
standard with a transfer instability of 6 × 10−18 at 1 s, more than two orders of magnitude lower than reported for any fiber link of similar length. Phase coherence between
ends of the fiber link is preserved at the mHz linewidth level, and the transfer phasenoise corresponds to less than 80 attoseconds of rms timing jitter integrated from 10mHz to 30 MHz.

Dedication

to Dad: we could have a long “Important Talk” about thisandto Mom: the most loving and giving person I know

Acknowledgements

I was fortunate enough to arrive on the scene in Jun’s lab just as stabilized
femtosecond frequency combs were being developed. He gave me a choice: would I liketo work on an exciting new experiment with lasers that emit ultrashort bursts of light,
or would I like to work on a system of cold Strontium atoms that could potentially beturned into a clock like the cold atomic fountain? As I have travelled from working withthe frequency comb to learning about precision atomic spectroscopy and optical clocks,
I’ve learned from and been encouraged by a great many people at JILA and in Jun’sgroup. I’m extremely grateful to all these people for their significant contributions tomy achievements and to furthering my development as both a skilled experimentalist
and a simple, curious person.
First, thank you Jun, for maintaining the kind of environment where we can all
stay interested in each others’ work and keep discussing new, interesting, sometimes
crazy, and once in a while great ideas with each other. I also very much appreciate
being allowed to go at a project on my own terms, with just enough guidance andoversight to help me through the rough spots. The open discussions and keen interestin science you have fostered in your students keeps the excitement level high, and ofcourse your technical expertise makes sure that our lofty plans can come to fruition –for that, I am certainly grateful!
In writing about the open and interesting discussions, nearly all the students andpost-docs I’ve had the good fortune to work with come to mind. In the early days, Rob-vii
bie Shelton patiently taught me the secrets of the black art of Ti:sapphire lasers. Pat
Kohl and I worked together on homework and various other (sometimes mischievous,
always great fun) projects. Mark Notcutt is responsible for teaching me how to maketechnical measurements of noise. David Jones gave me the example of building experiments efficiently and expertly. Eric Hudson and especially Kevin Holman were always
willing to think through the details of a problem with me, without losing focus on the
bigger, more exciting picture. Then when Jason Jones arrived, I learned that Ti:sapphirelasers weren’t always a black art. I owe a great debt to Tara Fortier, who showed me
how to tweak a laser into perfection using patience and the right phraseology. Chikako
Ishibashi is to thank for keeping up my interests and understanding of Japanese. Darren
Hudson has the right perspective on how to perform good science and enjoy life, bothat the same time. He also has excellent taste in movie characters. More recently, I’ve
also been delighted to have thoughtful discussions with Matt Stowe and Mike Thorpe,
who make sure I’m thinking about things correctly. Their ability to see to the fundamentals of an issue is a valuable skill and one I hope to emulate throughout my career.
Dylan Yost is also keen to understand and discuss physics from a thoughtful perspective. Thomas Schibli’s expertise in nearly anything I want to know about has certainly
helped me to think about technical issues and make good technical choices. The entire
Strontium “team,” including Sebastian Blatt, Marty Boyd, Gretchen Campbell, Tetsuya Ido, Andrew Ludlow, Thomas Zanon, and Tanya Zelevinsky, have my thanks forteaching me basic atomic physics and bringing my frequency comb and I into their fun.
In particular I’m thankful to Andrew for keeping me honest and showing me how to bethorough when thinking through an issue. Gretchen Campbell is responsible for showing
me how to get a post-doc position and finish up a thesis, and I’m grateful for her advice
and motivation. And most recently of all, Marcio Miranda (“B” is for “Brazilian”) and
Mike Martin (Junior, Steve, Steve Martin, Mudd-Mike, etc.) have been a pleasure toteach and work with, especially when they ask me great questions I should have known

viii
the answers to. Of course there have been many others I didn’t interact as closely with;all help to keep up the interactive atmosphere we enjoy.
The general atmosphere of the frequency metrology community has also nearly
always been quite friendly and open, and I hope that atmosphere continues to thrive inthe face of some recent challenges. I’m thankful to Scott Diddams, Leo Hollberg, Jim
Bergquist, Tom Parker, and Jason Stalnaker, all at NIST, for their friendly expertiseand cooperation in all the fiber transfer experiments and remote clock comparisons
we’ve performed. Another collaboration from the metrology community will always be
ingrained in my memory: Oliver Mücke from MIT, and Mikhail Gubin and Evgeny
Petrukhin from the Lebedev Institute in Moscow were a great pleasure to work with on
the offset-free comb and methane clock experiments.
Fortunately, the laboratory environment isn’t always just about science, and many
people in the lab understand how a rowdy game of ping-pong can keep up good spirits.
In order of decreasing ping-pong talent (no letters, please), in my estimation, they are:Xueren Huang (ping-pong Huang), Jun, Tetsuya Ido, Mike Thorpe, Jason Jones, Chris
Ticknor, Marty and Darren or Darren and Marty, Brian Sawyer (Jazz), Kevin Holman,
Sebastian, and the theorists. If you are reading this, my Chinese Pen-Style Grip candefeat your Western Handshake Style. (Thank you, Huang.)
Another huge support I’ve had while at JILA is the technical excellence of anelectronics and machine-shop staff that I’m sure I will sorely miss the very next time I
need to build anything. Terry Brown deserves special thanks for all his amazing workover the years, especially including the low-noise amplifiers and Z-matched photodiodes
that still have unmeasurably-low phase noise. Also thanks go to James Fung-A-Fat,
Mike Whitmore, Dave Tegart, Carl Sauer, and Paul Beckingham. In the instrument
shop, I was always able to ask Todd Asnicar and Hans Green for anything and get themost helpful and immediate solutions. Blaine Horner, Kim Hagen, Leslie Czaia, andDave Alchenberger also made important contributions to my experiments. The supply

ix
office has also made my work more effortless through the diligence of Brian Lynch, Jeff
Sauter, Dave Errickson, and in the early days, Ed Holliness and Maryly Dole.
I also would like to thank my thesis committee for their contributions to mywork. Jan Hall has given me excellent technical advice during many of my projects
and perspective on life as a physicist. Steve Cundiff has collaborated with many of myprojects, Leo Hollberg is a model of a careful and open scientist, Konrad Lehnert spenthours-long discussions with me about amplifier phase noise and microwave circuitry,
and Kelvin Wagner taught me nonlinear optics.
I’ve reserved the final paragraph for my family. My Dad (John Foreman) broughtme up to be curious about things and think them through, usually with brainstorming
ideas about how things probably work during “Important Talks” on the deck – wesometimes even got it right! From him I learned the Pythagorean Theorem, simple
machines using “Work equals Force times Distance,” how to build a deck, fix a toilet,
and destroy the neighbors’ gas line – all the things a man should know. My Mom(Marcia Foreman) made absolutely sure I always knew I was loved, no matter what,with her carefully-constructed heart-shaped bologna sandwiches on Valentine’s Day,never-ending Jack-In-The-Box paraphernalia, and helping me take what had to seem toher to be the most boring of data whenever she visited me. These few short phrases
can’t capture all the ways my parents helped shape me into who I am today. The only
way I can say thank you for the amazing environment they created for their children
is to try to emulate it for my own one day. Of course, my brother and sister (Joel and
Rachel) have also shaped me – Joel made sure I always enjoyed life while beating him
at wiffle-ball or throwing football patterns until his 3-year age deficit stopped being
significant. And Rachel was the person I could always count on to understand how
good it can be to go enjoy and learn from a good book on our own without having toalways be around people. Finally, most recently and more directly during my time at
JILA, my wife Laura has allowed me to pursue this degree for six long years. It’s a bit

xridiculous to ask a spouse to put up with low income and long hours for so long, but
despite that stress and difficulty she has nearly always been ready to jump to my side in
the most difficult times at work. She also made her own significant contributions to ourwork in the lab: drilling and tapping hundreds of holes in a breadboard, sewing zippers
on plastic curtains for keeping optical tables clean, making delicious treats and hearty
11-PM meals for the Strontium team, and playing gutsy softball for the JilaMonsters, toname a few. Thank you, Laura. The Foreman Clan (now with added Kimura!) has been
an amazingly closeknit and supportive family that I’m proud to be a part of.

Contents

Chapter
1 Introduction to Clocks: Optical Frequency Standards and Timing Transfer
1.1

1

A brief history of frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

1.1.1

Sundials: the first frequency multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

1.1.2

Flow, frequency, and synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

1.1.3

Natural frequencies and isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

1.1.4

Navigation and synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6

1.1.5

Frequency measurement and scientific discovery . . . . . . . . . .

7Modern motivations for precision timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

1.2.1

Atomic clocks and the current primary frequency standard . . .

9

1.2.2

Applications of modern microwave atomic frequency standards .

10

1.2.3

Applications of improved frequency and timing control . . . . . .

12

1.2.4

The need for frequency and timing transfer techniques . . . . . .

15

1.3

Next generation clocks: optical frequency standards . . . . . . . . . . .

17

1.4

The case for the comb: precision clockwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

1.2

2 Characterization and measurement of frequency stability and phase noise
2.1

24

Characterization methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

2.1.1

Phase noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

2.1.2

Timing jitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

xii
2.1.3
2.2

2.3

Allan deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

Limitations to optoelectronic phase measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

2.2.1

Thermal and shot noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

2.2.2

Electronic flicker noise and amplitude-to-phase conversion . . . .

34

Techniques for optical timing measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

2.3.1

Optical-phase-insensitive techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

2.3.2

Optical-phase-sensitive techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

3 Fundamentals of Stabilizing an Optical Frequency Comb

41

3.1

Mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

3.2

Frequency and time domain pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

3.3

Servo control of frequency comb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

3.3.1

Detection and stabilization of the offset frequency . . . . . . . .

50

3.3.2

Stabilization of the repetition frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

4 Optical to Microwave Conversion
4.1

54

Measuring phase noise electronically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

4.1.1

Homodyne phase detection with a mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

4.1.2

Independent oscillators vs. single component measurement . . .

57

4.1.3

Measuring the phase noise of repetition frequency harmonics . .

60

Noise floor of the microwave system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

4.2.1

Low-Noise Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

4.2.2

Mixer Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

4.2.3

Practical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

4.3

Noise floor of the optical system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

4.4

Comparison of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

4.2

xiii
5 Synchronization of Femtosecond Lasers
5.1

5.2

84

Synchronization experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

5.1.1

The laser system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

5.1.2

Differential timing resolution for the servo . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

5.1.3

Synchronization performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

Application: infrared fs pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

5.2.1

Experimental method for simultaneous DFG and SFG . . . . . .

98

5.2.2

Simultaneous difference- and sum-frequency generation . . . . . . 100

5.2.3

Broad mid-IR tunability with 500-fs pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.2.4

Rapid wavelength switching using chirp and timing offset . . . . 104

6 Precision Infrared Spectroscopy: the Offset-Free Comb

107

6.1

Principle of offset-free spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

6.2

Experimental implementation of offset-free clockwork . . . . . . . . . . . 110

6.3

6.2.1

Ti:sapphire laser with two separated spectral peaks . . . . . . . . 111

6.2.2

SFG-based offset-free IR frequency measurement . . . . . . . . . 111

6.2.3

Evaluation of the OPO frequency measurement . . . . . . . . . . 115

Optical molecular clock based on CH4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.3.1

Experimental setup for the clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.3.2

Evaluation of the optical molecular clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

7 The Octave-Spanning Comb: Clockwork and Distribution For an Optical Atomic
Frequency Standard
7.1

7.2

128

Optical lattice clock using 87 Sr atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.1.1

The atomic clock’s pendulum: cooling and trapping Strontium . 130

7.1.2

Long interaction times: confinement in the optical lattice . . . . 132

7.1.3

The local oscillator: ultrastable cavity-stabilized probe laser . . . 135

Octave-spanning Ti:Sapphire laser: optical design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

xiv
7.3

7.4

Servo control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.3.1

Control of the offset frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

7.3.2

Control of another comb mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

7.3.3

In-loop performance of the stabilized comb . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Out-of-loop experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.4.1

Characterizing the clock local oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

7.4.2

Absolute frequency measurement of the 87 Sr optical lattice clock

7.4.3

Optical clock intercomparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

7.4.4

The comb’s intrinsic coherence, stability, and accuracy . . . . . . 165

8 Frequency and Timing Transfer in Optical Fiber Networks

152

176

8.1

Motivation for ultrastable frequency reference transfer via fiber networks 177

8.2

Principles of cancellation of fiber-induced phase noise . . . . . . . . . . . 183

8.3

8.4

8.2.1

Round-trip phase detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

8.2.2

Noise processes, bandwidth and dynamic range . . . . . . . . . . 187

8.2.3

Experimental schemes for frequency transfer. . . . . . . . . . . 189

Microwave frequency transfer with modulated cw laser . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.3.1

Passive transfer technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

8.3.2

Passive microwave transfer for the 87 Sr clock . . . . . . . . . . . 194

8.3.3

Actively-stabilized fiber transfer for 2006 87 Sr measurement . . . 199

Optical carrier transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.4.1

Experimental techniques for cw optical carrier transfer . . . . . . 205

8.4.2

Coherence of optical carrier transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

8.4.3

Stability of the transmitted optical carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

8.4.4

Phase noise of the 7-km link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

8.5

Remote synchronization of ultrafast lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

8.6

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

xv
Bibliography

230

Appendix
A A humorous note on units

246

Figures

Figure2.1

Phase noise spectrum showing typical fundamental and technical limits

32

3.1

Basic Ti:sapphire laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

3.2

Time- and frequency-domain pictures of the comb . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

3.3

Self-referencing scheme (f -to-2f ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

4.1

Microwave phase measurement: saturated mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

4.2

Optical-to-microwave conversion: phase noise measurement . . . . . . .

61

4.3

Setup for measuring the microwave system’s noise floor. . . . . . . . .

63

4.4

Setup for measuring the mixer’s noise floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

4.5

Amplitude-to-phase conversion and mixer flicker floor . . . . . . . . . .

67

4.6

Mixer output noise and dc voltage level vs. phase . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

4.7

Amplitude modulation leading to phase modulation . . . . . . . . . . .

70

4.8

Amplitude-to-phase noise cancellation for various powers . . . . . . . . .

74

4.9

Experimental setup for reducing excess noise in pulse train photodetection 78

4.10 Lowest-phase-noise optical-to-microwave conversion results . . . . . . . .

81

5.1

Experimental scheme for synchronization of independent fs lasers . . . .

89

5.2

Cross correlation for measuring timing jitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

5.3

Performance of the synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

5.4

Synchronization limited by mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

xvii
5.5

Fast switching of the pulse trains’ relative time delay . . . . . . . . . . .

95

5.6

Experimental setup for sum- and difference-frequency generation . . . .

99

5.7

Simultaneous sum- and difference-frequency cross correlations . . . . . . 102

5.8

Average power of infrared pulse train from 7.5 to 12.5 µm . . . . . . . . 103

5.9

500-fs infrared pulse duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5.10 Rapid switching of the SFG and DFG wavelengths . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.1

Scheme for offset-free precision IR spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6.2

Two-peaked output spectrum of the Ti:sapphire laser . . . . . . . . . . . 112

6.3

Setup for the offset-free SFG/DFG clockwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

6.4

Beat frequency for stabilizing the SFG-based clockwork . . . . . . . . . 116

6.5

Instability of the OPO optical frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

6.6

Spectral coverage of the offset-free IR comb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

6.7

Heterodyne beats for locking the frequency comb to the HeNe/CH4 clock 122

6.8Counting record and instability of the CH4 clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6.9

Relative phase spectral density of the CH4 clock and I2 clock . . . . . . 126

7.1

Simplified Sr energy-level diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

7.2

Lattice confinement and principle of the magic wavelength . . . . . . . . 134

7.3

Ultrastable, high-finesse, passive optical cavity for the Sr clock laser . . 136

7.4

Octave-spanning laser used as an optical clockwork . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

7.5

Octave spectrum, output coupler reflectivity and dispersion . . . . . . . 141

7.6

In-loop measurement of the octave-spanning laser’s linewidth . . . . . . 147

7.7

Octave-spanning comb allows cavity intercomparisons . . . . . . . . . . 150

7.8

87 Sr clockwork with frequency drift compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.9

Compensation of the clock laser’s frequency drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

153

7.10 Highest quality factor for coherent spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.11 Sr optical clock counted against maser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

xviii7.12 Experimental setup for Sr-Ca remote clock intercomparison . . . . . . . 162
7.13 Sr optical clock counted against Ca optical clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.14 Instability of Sr and Ca clock comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.15 Experiment for measuring the comb’s intrinsic coherence . . . . . . . . . 168
7.16 Intrinsic instability of the frequency comb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.17 Intrinsic linewidth of the frequency comb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.1

Instabilities of various stable references to be transferred . . . . . . . . . 178

8.2

Some applications of fiber network frequency- and timing-transfer . . . . 182

8.3

Principle of fiber network transfer phase stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . 184

8.4

Microwave, cw optical, and frequency comb transfer . . . . . . . . . . . 190

8.5

Passive instability of microwave transfer through the BRAN fiber . . . . 195

8.6

Phase fluctuations of a passively-transferred microwave signal . . . . . . 196

8.7First accurate measurement of the 87 Sr optical lattice clock transition . 198

8.8

Phase of the passive microwave transfer over several days . . . . . . . . 202

8.9

Stabilized microwave transfer for the 87 Sr clock measurement . . . . . . 204

8.10 Three configurations for cw optical carrier transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.11 Linewidths for cw optical transfer and 1-Hz remote cavity comparison . 214
8.12 Instability of the 7- and 32-km cw optical carrier fiber transfer . . . . . 217
8.13 Phase noise and integrated timing jitter for optical carrier transfer . . . 220
8.14 Experimental scheme for remote synchronization of ultrafast lasers . . . 224
8.15 Timing jitter of remotely synchronized fs fiber lasers . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Chapter 1

Introduction to Clocks: Optical Frequency Standards and Timing
Transfer

How many clocks we have! Pause for a moment to consider the quiet space you
occupy as you read this: chances are, you can hear some form of “tick” from one of
the many clocks surrounding you. Whether it’s the actual 1-Hz ticks of an analog
clock’s second hand, the characteristic 60-Hz harmonics of fluorescent lighting, or the
440-Hz used to tune the music you may be listening to, frequency “standards” are all
around you. This is not to mention the wireless frequencies responsible for the efficientconveniences of modern life: remote controls, wireless internet, and cell-phones to namea few. These latter examples rely on the ability to tightly synchronize their signals
for their utility. As we progress through the Chapters of this Thesis, we will see theclose relationship between highly accurate frequency standards and precision timing(synchronization) of signals.
In this Chapter, I will first provide a brief history of the art of counting frequency, always with an eye toward measuring the phase of a periodic signal. While
discussing this history, I will enjoy describing historical developments with some of themodern scientific “lingo” of the frequency metrology community, especially since it will
help the less-experienced reader (early graduate students) to draw connections between
our intuitive, time-obsessed world and the less-familiar concepts of phase coherence,synchronization, jitter, instability, etc. Then I will describe some motivations for our2
obsession with ever-increasing frequency accuracy (17 digits!) and synchronization. Optical frequency standards afford the exciting potential to realize these levels, and I will
describe them next. Finally, the need for the femtosecond frequency comb will become
clear, and I will summarize the progress of the comb, which has grown from a new tool
to a mature method of optical frequency measurement in the years I have been at JILA.

1.1

A brief history of frequency
The heart of every clock is its characteristic frequency – the thing that makes it“tick” so repetitively. But only in modern times are we aware of these ticks on a secondby-second basis. Of course in ancient times, the most obvious frequency was that of thesunrise. This most fundamental of frequencies now corresponds to only 1/84, 600th ofa Hz, or 1/777, 696, 647, 742, 000th of a Cesium atomic clock’s oscillation period, whichshows what a long way we have come in subdividing our day (or frequency multiplyingit!). In what follows I would like to acknowledge Ref. [1] for many illustrative anecdotes
about the measurement of frequency through the ages.

1.1.1

Sundials: the first frequency multipliers

As civilizations formed and societies came together, farming was increasingly
substituted for hunting, and the much lower frequency of Earth’s annual trip aroundthe sun, responsible for the seasons, became more important. At the same time, the needto coordinate efforts between people meant the need for an accurate division of the day.
The ratio between the frequency of the moon’s phases and that of Earth’s orbit (roughly12) was a natural choice for the number of hours to divide daylight amongst. This was
accomplished by means of the sundial, which, by placing unevenly spaced marks along
the ground, allowed the shadow of the “gnomon” to tick off twelve equally spaced hours
per day. In modern language, this was initially a method of phase-incoherent frequency
multiplication, since it was an educated guess as to how to space the ticks so as to get3equal subdivisions in time. As is the usual case with such frequency multiplication, it
was of course inaccurate. Refinements and an understanding of the concept of latitude
eventually led to sundials which, on a clear day, could determine the hours to within 5
minutes, corresponding to an inaccuracy of 3.5 × 10−3 per day. Interestingly, a sundial
made for one latitude gives incorrect time at another: in 264 B.C. a sundial from Sicily
was brought back to Rome as wartime loot, and kept incorrect time for a century due
to the change of latitude! This would be similar to, in modern times, failing to correct
frequencies for altitude differences due to general relativity. Note that in this definitionof time, summer hours are longer than winter hours, which represents a very different
paradigm from its modern counterpart with exactly-equal hours, no matter the time ofyear or location on Earth.

1.1.2

Flow, frequency, and synchronization

The need to keep time at night was eventually stimulated by the practices ofvarious religions. In Judaism and Islam, prayers were said 3 and 5 times per day,respectively. For these religions, prayer was a personal act and could be performed atroughly the prescribed time of day, without need for accuracy. However, in Christianity
the group activity of worship required the synchronization of individuals’ efforts; forexample, the standard of the Benedictine monks required worship at eight “canonicalhours,” one of which (matins) was at night. This is where the concept of synchronizationenters our story: monks would come together for worship at these hours, and the ringing
of bells was their synchronization reference. How did the bell-ringer know which hourof the night to perform his duty? The answer lies in the first forms of man-madeclocks, which operated on the principle of “flow” rather than “frequency.” Water clocks,
originally developed in China for commercial rather than religious reasons, relied on theregulated flow of water from one container to another, as did sandglasses. Alternatively,
burning a candle or incense could be calibrated to measure time. (Different incense for4different hours meant a clock that could be smelled!) Of these, the water clock satisfied
two requirements of the medieval monk: it lasted long enough into the night that hecould sleep, and it could be made into an alarm clock to wake him up by tipping overa container when the water reached a certain height. The effect was to ring little bells
to wake the monk so he could ring the large bells! In this way, the strict and orderly
tasks of the monks could be well-synchronized.
The principle of flow for measuring time worked well enough, but inevitably gave
way to the principle of counting periods of oscillation – in other words, the more modern
concept of measuring frequency. Now we speak of “counting frequency” even though“counting periods” is perhaps a more accurate phrase. As waterwheels and windmills
were developed to perform laborious, repetitive tasks, the concepts of the machine andin particular differential gearing were refined. The circular motion of such machines,
where a complete revolution brings the system exactly back to its starting point foranother identical trip, makes the shift in thought from “flow” to “frequency” seem
immediate. As an important aside, although differential gearing is not fundamental tothe idea of a clock, it has been necessary in the practical operation of every clock since
the earliest mechanical versions. In Chapter 3 I will show how our modern frequency
comb represents most of an optical clock’s “gearing” or clockwork.
The first man-made clocks to directly employ the idea of frequency were of theverge-and-folio type, developed some time in the 13th century. A heavy mass was allowed
to fall down the height of a clock tower in small increments (the ticks of the clock)due to clever gearing. The period between successive increments was regulated by ahorizontal bar (the folio), suspended by a silk rope, that rotated back and forth througha large angle. This period was dependent on the moment of inertia of the folio, but also
dependent on the complicated degree to which the falling mass transmitted torque tothe folio. Therefore the frequency was sensitive to temperature, lubricant (which was
not well-developed at the time), and mechanical wear over time. These inaccuracies all

5
combined so that even a good verge-and-folio clock was off by 15 minutes per day, threetimes worse than a sundial on a clear day. Of even more significance, the new mechanicalclocks didn’t know the difference between a summer and a winter hour. This is stillreflected when we say “o’clock,” or “of the clock,” since people had to specify which
standard (sun or mechanical clock) they used. In fact, so many different standards
existed, and were loudly proclaimed each night by the ringing of bells, that in 1370 theKing of France, angry from the noise, decreed all bells had to ring at the same time as
his own. Since his bells were “of the clock,” the new synchronized frequency standard
enjoyed 24 equal hours, no matter the time of year.

1.1.3

Natural frequencies and isolation

Although the early mechanical clocks succeeded in automating timekeeping, eventhrough the night hours, the accuracy provided by the Earth’s rotation was still superior – mechanical clocks were reset each day to noon, when the shadow of a sundial
was shortest. Finally Galileo made his famous observation that a pendulum’s perioddepended only on its length. The resulting new pendulum clocks, first built by Huygens
in 1657, reflect a basic principle in the advancement of frequency standards that hasendured ever since: “natural” frequencies of isolated phenomena make good standards;
increase the isolation and the potential for accuracy increases as well. The old foliot
design was a mechanical resonator that wasn’t isolated from the rest of the clock atall. The new pendulums depended mostly on their length (and therefore temperature),
and to a lesser degree on the escapements used to count their oscillations and counter
friction. As a result of the isolation of the pendulum and the simple natural frequency
built into it by nature, inaccuracies quickly approached 10 seconds per day, or 1.2×10−4
in one day.
The newfound ability to precisely define frequency led to one of the first examplesof frequency measurement allowing a new discovery of nature: it was quickly found6
that sundial time could be as much as 16 minutes ahead or behind pendulum-clock
time, depending on the time of year and time of day. This results from the combined
effect of the tilt of Earth’s axis and the ellipticity of its orbit around the sun. In fact,
conversion tables between clock and sun time existed already by 1660, just 3 years after
the first pendulum clock was built! The pattern of improvements in frequency metrology
resulting in rapid discoveries in many areas of science continues even now.

1.1.4

Navigation and synchronization

As exploration and discovery by sea became important, so did the need for accurate navigation. The famous story of the longitude problem is ultimately a story ofbuilding a clock that keeps accurate time on board a ship at sea. All the marvellous
advances in clock design that led to John Harrison’s successful marine chronometer in1761 are much too detailed to be described here; eventually his clock was capable oflosing only 5 seconds during a transatlantic voyage of many weeks. This precision tool
represented a large portion of a ship’s cost, but finally provided for accurate navigation
at sea.
Although the precision frequencies of these clocks were now accurate enough tomeasure the predictable nonlinear drift of sundial time, no real need for tight synchronization of distant clocks existed. In fact, each city or town in the 18th century stilltended to set its own local phase by the local definition of Earth’s rotation time, measured by astronomical observations. As railroads were developed in the 19th century,
however, the rapid proliferation of long-distance fast travel had important consequences
for time-keeping: a much greater need for synchronization. Eventually complicated tables came into existence, comparing “railway” time to the local time of every city alongeach route. This was not synchronization – it was calibration! In New York it would
be high noon, while in Columbus it would be 11:25, in Buffalo 11:40, and in Portland,
Maine it might be 12:15. Eventually, the telegraph allowed time signals to be sent from7
the Harvard College Observatory across the country. When the golden spike was driven
for completion of the transcontinental railroad, a telegraph signal was supposed to havebeen sent through the country, representing the first synchronized moment from coast
to coast. However, it was chaos for every town to tell its people at which local time toshow up to listen for the signal!
The end result of the confusion was for the railroads to introduce time zones, withthe zero of longitude at Greenwich, England. At noon, Eastern Time, on November 18,
1883, trains throughout the United States stood still for various amounts of time inorder to synchronize with the new definition of time in each time zone. Most towns
agreed to synchronize their times with the standard telegraphed from Harvard, and forthe first time the nation was truly synchronized. Eventually other countries agreed tomake Greenwich the standard Prime Meridian, thus synchronizing world time. Interestingly, France originally abstained unless Britain agreed to adopt the metric system!
(Eventually in 1911, France finally defined its time as Paris Mean Time delayed by 9
minutes and 21 seconds.)

1.1.5

Frequency measurement and scientific discovery

With the world’s time now synchronized and standardized, frequency measurement was poised for the rapid developments of the 20th century. Our main theme, then,is the give-and-take between technological development and advances in the measurement of frequency. The discovery of the piezoelectric effect led to the use of quartz
crystals in radio broadcasting in the 1920’s. The effect was eventually exploited formaking a quartz clock in 1928, accurate to within a millisecond per day (10−8 in oneday). This dramatic improvement over pendulum clocks illustrates two important principles in frequency metrology. First, a higher carrier frequency allows time to be divided
into smaller units, and therefore measured with greater precision. This is fundamentally
because a counting instrument will always have at least an inaccuracy of one cycle, so as8many periods that can be counted in a given amount of time should be used. Second, aclock oscillator should be well-isolated and insensitive to external perturbations. Quartz
met both of these conditions much better than pendulums could. With the new accuracy, more discoveries were made: notably, variations in Earth’s rotational frequency
could now be measured. Seasonal melting of the ice caps change our planet’s rotationalfrequency in a somewhat predictable way. More irregular fluctuations also occur, due
to the fluctuating internal structure of the earth or storms above its surface.
Even the vibrational frequencies of quartz crystals changed as they aged. Clearly
there was a need for a frequency standard – some natural frequency that could be
reproduced in various measurements, always giving the same result. With the invention of the atomic clock in the 1950’s, such a frequency standard was finally realized.
Continued improvements to the measurement of the hyperfine splitting of the groundstate of Cesium now result in clocks accurate to a fraction of a nanosecond per day(4 × 10−16 per day). Since the adoption of the Cs frequency as a standard in 1967, theseincredible devices have defined the second, and are now responsible for improvements
in technologies as varied as: keeping the power grid stable, GPS navigation, wirelesscommunication, length metrology, radio astronomy, and tests of relativity.
Several insights come out of this tour of frequency measurements through history:
the most obvious is that higher and higher carrier frequencies have always resulted inbetter accuracy. This principle is a large part of the motivation for optical atomic
clocks, as I will soon describe. Another significant principle for the construction of aquality frequency standard is that of isolation: a truly free oscillator relies only on thelaws of physics for its natural frequency. Exact duplication is also necessary: whereas
pendulums and quartz crystals differ in size and shape from clock to clock, nature’s mostprecise assembly line gives us atoms, with every atom of a given isotope built exactly
the same. This eliminates the need for an “artifact” standard such as the cylinder of9platinum-iridium still used to define mass. A particular insight important to this Thesisis that of the clock gearing: as better clocks move to higher frequencies to improve theirtiming resolution, a greater requirement was placed on the ability to coherently divide
these frequencies down to measurable, useful bits of time. A last insight is made clear
from the close relationship between frequency metrology and navigation: the ability tosynchronize frequency standards is necessary. Consider the ultimate in navigation – theVoyager mission would never have been possible without the precise measurement of its
position. This measurement was enabled by accurately synchronized radio telescopes
stationed around the world, sending signals back and forth through the 8-hour timedelay due to Voyager’s great distance.

1.2

Modern motivations for precision timing
Since the discovery of the atomic cesium clock, rapid advances in many applica-

tions of such precise time-keeping have been made. Here I describe some of the mostimportant advances to come out of such precision frequency metrology, as well as how
further advances in clock technology will continue to further our understanding of natureand deepen our bag of tricks for how we can manipulate nature for our own purposes.

1.2.1

Atomic clocks and the current primary frequency standard

After quartz oscillators and the first atomic clocks were built and comparedagainst astronomical observations as well as against each other, it became clear thatthe rotation of the earth, or its revolution around the sun, was not as accurate as thefrequency standards which exploited the Cesium atom. Therefore, in 1967 the definitionof the SI second was changed to be the amount of time in which 9,192,631,770 cycles ofthe frequency corresponding to the ground-state hyperfine splitting of an unperturbed
Cs atom. Since then, refinements have been continually made on the method used toprobe this transition. With the rapid development of laser cooling techniques [2] in10
the late 1980’s, the first successful Cs fountain clock was born. The Cs atoms are now
laser-cooled in order to reduce the Doppler shifts that used to pester the hot Cs beamsof older atomic clocks. As is the usual case for spectroscopy, the longer the coherent
interrogation time between light and matter, the more precisely the frequency can be
known. Therefore the cold ball of atoms is launched upwards, and separated-field Ramsey spectroscopy is performed by microwave interrogation of the atoms once on their
way up, and again on their way down. The laser cooling before launching the atoms
upward also helps keep them from dispersing during their flight. For the best modern fountain clock, the fractional uncertainty in the clock transition is now reduced to
6 × 10−16 [3], and clocks under development are planning to push this down by a factorof three.

1.2.2

Applications of modern microwave atomic frequency standards

The levels of accuracy and precision offered by such clocks have stimulated manytechnologies and much fundamental scientific investigation. One of the first direct measurements of the predictions of special and general relativity was to measure the effectof high speeds and high altitudes on the timekeeping of atomic clocks [4, 5]. Launching the clocks in rockets up to altitudes of 10,000 km enabled measurements of theclock’s period that agreed with the predictions of special relativity (time dilation due
to high speed) and general relativity (time getting faster at higher elevation). In otherexperiments, radio waves were delayed by the relativistic prediction as they passed by
the sun [6]. An extremely precise experiment measured the orbital periods of pulsars
in a binary pair, and found them to change ever so slightly due to loss of energy into
radiating gravity waves [7, 8].
Of great technological importance is the Global Positioning System (GPS) which
utilizes 24 satellites, each transmitting precisely synchronized and coded signals. Eachsatellite contains its own atomic clock, so that a receiver anywhere on earth can compare

11
the arrival times of the synchronized codes in order to determine the relative delay
times, and therefore determine its location. By averaging long enough, the receiver candetermine its position to within 1 mm of accuracy, allowing geological measurements ofcontinental drifts and plate tectonics, or allowing navigation programs in cars or ships
at sea to effectively operate. It is certainly fascinating that the vibrations of tiny atoms
in space can be used to measure the drift of tectonic plates or to navigate a car throughthe streets of Pittsburgh!
In metrology, frequency is the most accurately measured unit, and as a result,many other units are being measured by way of frequency. An excellent example is the1983 redefinition of the meter by way of an accurate measure of the speed of light invacuum [9, 10]. As a result, the meter is now defined as the distance travelled by lightin 1/299,792,458th of a second. Amperes and volts are also currently defined in termsof time [11], and the kilogram may be on its way as well [12].
Another entire field that benefits from highly accurate frequency standards isradio astronomy. By placing radio telescopes around the globe and phase-coherently
collecting data from them, a synthesized aperture the size of their separation can beused. This very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) demands the data from each telescope be referenced precisely to an atomic clock in order to ensure the individual telescopes’ data can be phase-coherently reconstructed. This scheme now works so well thatwidely-separated radio telescope arrays can achieve angular resolution 250 times better
than the best optical telescopes [6]! And of course, as mentioned in the last Section,such arrays are also used for deep-space navigation such as in the Voyager mission.
As a final example of applications of highly stable frequency references, consider
the relatively mundane issue of keeping the power grid across the country in phase withitself. The ability to synchronize the 60-Hz waveforms across the country is achieved byuse of flexible delays built into the power grid. Atomic clocks are used to ensure thesedelays are controlled precisely such that whenever power is switched from one part of

12
the grid to another, its phase is correct. The Northeastern Blackout of 1965 was so
widespread in part because of failure of these delays [1]! This kind of synchronizationis also becoming increasingly important as high-speed communications networks try
to pack more and more data into shorter amounts of time in order to achieve thebandwidths they require.

1.2.3

Applications of improved frequency and timing control

Having explored various technologies that the microwave atomic clocks have enabled, a more clear perspective on the desire for still-better frequency and timing control
can be had. Whereas some of the technologies, such as stabilizing the phase across thepower grid, might never require improved standards, many of the technologies stand tobenefit from tighter synchronization and the improved accuracy of frequency standards.
The first, most obvious example (to a frequency metrologist) of an application
directly benefitting from improved frequency standards is that of measuring certain
fundamental constants. For instance, the Rydberg constant, Lamb shift, fine-structure
constant, Planck’s constant relative to the electron mass, and the proton-to-electronmass ratio could all be measured more precisely with improvements to the accuracy of
frequency measurement. In addition to the constants themselves, there is the matterof how “constant” they actually are. Certain new theories going beyond the standard
model suggest that the constants might actually change over time [13]. If the accuracies
of clocks based on various different atoms are improved, a tighter constraint on these
possible variations could be achieved. Equivalently, the amount of time it would take tomeasure at a given level of precision for the time-dependence of the physical constants
would decrease. In particular, variations of the fine-structure constant have been suggested by astronomical observations at the 10−5 level over the course of the last 10 billion
years [14]. With modern spectroscopic techniques in the laboratory, frequency comparisons are constraining the current (as opposed to historical or cosmological) variations

13of the fine-structure constant at the highest level of any experiments [15, 16]. Other
fundamental tests of physics benefitting from improved frequency metrology include
tests of Lorentz invariance [17]. and special and general relativity.
Another example that comes to mind is that of GPS receivers. If fixed receivers
were set up on the sides of roads, equipped with superior clocks, then a nearby travellingreceiver could communicate with the fixed receiver in order to determine the relative
time delay between the signals being received by each from the satellite constellation.
With tight enough synchronization, it is conceivable that their relative positions could
be determined in real-time to within a cm, perhaps enabling cars to navigate themselves
on “auto-pilot” [6].
Somewhat related to the ideas of GPS is the mapping of the geoid. Currently theequipotential surfaces of Earth are mapped out by precision telemetry of satellites inorbit. The geoid is expected to fluctuate at any one location with respect to the Earth’s
surface at a level that corresponds to a time dilation (or contraction) of a few partsin 1017 . At first glance this might seem to render clocks with even higher accuracies
pointless, at least near the surface of Earth. However, one can envision establishing a
network of highly accurate (better than 10−17 ) clocks across the Earth. Comparisonsamong the clocks would be able to accurately measure the time-changing potential attheir various locations. In this way the “choppy ocean” of the equipotential surface could
be measured accurately. Of course, this is also an argument for precise and accurate
frequency transfer over long distances, since comparisons of clocks separated by tens or
hundreds of kilometers would be necessary.
The radio interferometry (VLBI) discussed in the previous Section would also
benefit from tighter synchronization technologies [11]. Radio telescopes based on Earthcan only be separated by at most the distance of Earth’s diameter. If instead they werelocated in space, they could be separated by millions of kilometers, greatly enhancing
their resolution. Of course, this is only viable if the relative positions of the telescopes

14
were kept extremely constant, and if phase-coherent data collection were enabled between them. In principle, a frequency reference with fs stability over the course of
several seconds would enable accurate ranging between the satellites at the level of a
micron. A clever scheme employing the fs frequency comb has already been proposed
for how this might work in practice [18].
The establishment of improved frequency standards is only one part of the story,
however. There is a whole host of time-domain experiments for which tight timing
synchronization of system components is perhaps more important than the long-term
stability of the actual frequency reference being employed.
For instance, the precise synchronization of ps and fs lasers has led to the ability
to conduct nonlinear surface probing at the single-molecule level with coherent antiStokes Raman scattering (CARS) spectroscopy [19]. As the synchronization improves,
the SNR available for such systems also increases, leading to the ability to performchemically-selective imaging of real-time biological dynamics.
The tight synchronization of fs lasers [20, 21] also leads to techniques for nearlyarbitrary waveform generation: phase-coherently combining the output of multiple
pulsed sources [22, 23] allows each source to be spectrally shaped, with phase information encoded across its spectrum. The resulting phase-coherent total waveform canhave frequency components from across the spectrum if sum and difference frequency
generation are employed [24]. These technologies will be discussed in much greater detail in Chapter 5. Coherent control experiments stand to benefit from pulses of lightshaped in amplitude and phase to selectively [25] drive chemical reactions [26], molecular vibrations [27], or the nonlinear up-conversion of light into the extreme ultraviolet
region [28], to name a few examples.
Rather than considering the synchronization aspects of pulsed experiments, one
can also consider the phase coherence of the underlying oscillating optical carrier field.
Few-cycle pulses with stabilized carrier-envelope phase have lead to new discoveries in15nonlinear light-matter interactions. For instance, controlled attoseconds-long burstsof soft x rays have been generated by amplified phase-stabilized pulses [29]. Anotherexperiment demonstrating sensitivity to the electric field’s phase with respect to theintensity envelope involves the control of injected photocurrent in a semiconductor [30].
The combination of fs pulse trains and external optical cavities is another exciting
new application of ultrashort pulses that is made possible by precise frequency control
methods. For instance, while amplifier systems operating at low repetition rates havebeen used for high-field experiments, the buildup of a fs pulse train inside an opticalcavity now allows exciting high-field experiments to be performed at high repetition
rates [31]. By constructing an external cavity geometry such that the pulses undergo atight intracavity focus, high-harmonic generation of ultraviolet pulse trains has now been
observed [31]. Or, instead of performing such high-field physics experiments, absorption
spectroscopy can be performed on gas samples inside the cavity. This can be the familiar
cavity-ringdown spectroscopy, except that the broad spectrum of the pulse train allows
massively paralleled broadband spectroscopy to be performed [32].
All of these applications will benefit from the establishment of more accurate
frequency standards, as well as from a higher degree of phase control across the spectraof broadband lasers. However, physicists perhaps expect the most exciting benefits ofimproved frequency metrology to be the unforeseen discoveries waiting just up ahead!

1.2.4

The need for frequency and timing transfer techniques

As frequency standards of greater accuracy and lower instability continue to be
developed, the demand for distribution of their signals is increasing. An important
example for this Thesis is illustrated in Chapter 7, where even the development of nextgeneration standards as discussed in Section 1.3 requires highly stable and accuratetransmission of clock signals between various laboratories, since intercomparisons among
remotely-located clocks is often necessary.

16
A traditional method for transferring frequency and time standards over long distances has been common-view GPS, which is the method used to compare the frequency
and time standards of national laboratories around the world [33]. In this scheme, thetransmitter and the receiver both compare their times simultaneously with that of acommon GPS satellite that is in view for both. With knowledge about their relative
distances to the satellite, their relative time difference can be determined, as can theirrelative frequency difference with subsequent measurements. Common-mode fluctuations in the path lengths to the satellite and the actual time of the satellite cancel out
and do not play a role in the relative time or frequency measurement. By averaging forabout a day it is possible to reach accuracies of one part in 1014 [34]. GPS carrier phaseand Two-Way Satellite Time and Frequency Transfer (TWSTFT) techniques can push
the frequency transfer instability to the low parts in 1015 in one day [35]. However, thesetechniques are limited by fluctuations in the paths that are not common-mode. They do
not provide the short-term stability necessary for synchronization applications, nor are
they practical in situations such as the distribution of a frequency reference throughout
a linear accelerator facility.
An extremely promising alternative for stable distribution of a frequency referenceis transmission over optical fibers. The frequency reference (either optical or microwave)
is encoded onto an optical carrier for transmission over a fiber network. Remote users
are then able to recover the frequency reference by decoding the received optical signal.
One attractive feature of optical fibers is that an environmentally isolated fiber can beconsiderably more stable than free-space paths, especially over short time scales. In
addition, the advantages that optical fibers offer for communications (for example, lowloss and scalability) are also beneficial for a frequency distribution system. A great
deal of the technology, components, and infrastructure also already exist for disseminating frequency references over telecommunication optical fibers, especially in urban
environments.

17
In the microwave domain, signals in the form of amplitude modulation of an
optical carrier have been transmitted over various fiber networks [36, 37]. However, adirect transfer of the optical carrier itself [38, 37, 39] should achieve even better stability,
relying on the same advantage of high spectral resolution as optical clocks do. Fully
coherent transfer of an ultrastable optical carrier signal over a large distance, alongwith the frequency-comb-based capability of optical coherence transfer across the entire
visible spectrum, opens doors to a wide variety of exciting applications, including phasecoherent large arrays of radio telescopes [40], precisely synchronized advanced lightsources based on large-scale accelerators [41, 42, 43], and precision optical interferometry
over a long distance or encircling a large area.

1.3

Next generation clocks: optical frequency standards
As usual when it comes to building a more accurate clock, the next generation of

frequency standards will be enabled by dividing time into even smaller intervals — inother words, higher carrier frequencies will be necessary to improve our measurements.
It might seem that the sky is the limit in terms of how high our carrier frequency couldbe, but for the next generation of clocks we will be content with more than 4 orders ofmagnitude between the current ∼10-GHz standard and the several-hundred-THz regimeof optical frequencies. However, in order to take full advantage of this large ratio, thephase of the optical carrier must be measured to just as great a fractional precision as
it already is for the microwaves. It is not sufficient simply to count zero-crossings of the
optical carrier; precision phase measurement must be achieved.
In the context of an atomic clock, it is simple to see how some relevant parameters
influence the clock stability. Consider the simple case of Rabi excitation for a system
of N atoms. If each atom ends the Rabi interrogation time TR in a superposition ofground and excited clock states, then a fluorescent probe laser can be used to cycle
many photons off of any atom whose wavefunction collapses into the excited state. If,

18
on average, N atoms are collapsed into the excited state, a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)√of N could be achieved. The Rabi interrogation time could in principle take as long as
the transition’s natural lifetime τ0 , but in general TR will be shorter. Therefore the SNRpof the measurement, in a bandwidth of 1-Hz, will be N/2TR . The natural linewidthof the transition divided by the SNR gives the accuracy to which the center of thetransition can be found in one second: δν ∼ ∆ν/SN R. Then the measurement can be
repeated again and again for a total amount of interrogation time τ , so the instability
should average down like τ 1/2 , giving:σy (τ ) =

δν
1
.
= √
ν0
ω0 N T R τ(1.1)

Equation 1.1 explicitly shows a few important rules about making an accurate
atomic clock. The most obvious rule is that moving to a higher carrier frequency, fora given linewidth, will lower the clock instability. Therefore optical transitions are ofgreat importance, since the carrier frequency is some 4 orders of magnitude greater thanthe current microwave standard near 10 GHz.
Second, it is important to exploit the longest possible coherence time between
the probing field and the atomic (or ionic) oscillator. This means several things: thetransition lifetime should be as long as possible, the atomic sample should be in anenvironment such that decoherence is minimized, yet it should be confined somehow so
as to allow long probe times, and the probing field should be phase-coherent for as longas can be achieved. Transitions with long lifetimes exist in several atoms and ions thatare currently being studied, including Hg+ , Yb+ , Yb, Sr+ , Sr, In+ , Ca, Mg, and H, toname a few. For these atoms and ions, environments that minimize decoherence while
maximizing the possible interrogation time must be carefully constructed. Laser-coolingand trapping must be performed in order to minimize motional effects such as Doppler
broadening and so that TR can be long. For ions, the external and internal degrees of
freedom are well-separated, meaning that ion traps can be constructed to hold the ion

19
in an external trapping field for extremely long periods of time with minimal effect on
the clock transition. For neutral atoms, this wasn’t always the case; probing the atoms
in free fall was an option, but the interrogation time would be limited and motional
effects would still take place. Now optical lattice traps can be constructed that stillaffect the internal structure of the atoms, but in such a way as to perturb the groundand excited states by the same amount, independent of the trapping depth. These
optical lattice clocks must operate at the “magic” wavelength so as not to perturb thetransition frequency. More details of the lattice clocks will be given in Chapter 7, sincein our laboratory we are developing an 87 Sr optical lattice clock.
Once the atoms or ions are held in a way that leaves the clock transition unperturbed while allowing long interrogation times, a probe laser must be constructed thatremains coherent for as long as possible, in order to take advantage of the long-lifetime
traps and transitions. Such stable lasers have indeed been developed [44, 45, 46], andenjoy coherence times longer than 1 s, enabling the coherent interaction time between
light and matter to approach 1 s [47]. It is extremely important to stress that the development of such phase-stable local oscillators is of primary importance to the successful
construction of any clock.
Another important consideration highlighted by Eqn. 1.1 is the size N of theensemble. For ion systems, only a few ions can be trapped at a time due to the Coulombinteractions between them. However, for neutral atoms many thousands of atoms can betrapped simultaneously, potentially reducing the instability of such systems. Therefore
the density shifts in neutral clocks must be evaluated, although for fermionic isotopes
in three-dimensional lattices, the collisional shifts can be extremely small since it could
be possible to ensure only one atom occupies each trap site. A last consideration for
any atomic clock is that although in theory, the atoms or ions can be held stationary
for long probe times in such a way as to leave them unperturbed, in practice there arealways stray fields in the laboratory. These can be static or dynamic electric or magnetic

20
fields, as well as blackbody radiation. Therefore the clock transition should have low
sensitivity to external stray fields.

1.4

The case for the comb: precision clockwork
Until now, I have only described how to move to a higher carrier frequency suchthat the stability and accuracy of higher timing resolution might be exploited. However,I have completely ignored one of the important features of any good clock — namely,
the readout system. Unfortunately, the techniques for direct electronic counting ofzero crossings that can be used in the microwave regime fail to work in the opticaldomain. Specifically, copper isn’t transparent in the visible! No electronic system candirectly keep up with optical oscillation frequencies. Therefore some scheme must be
invented that phase-coherently and accurately divides down optical frequencies into themicrowave regime.
Division from optical frequencies down to microwaves requires a set of phasecoherent “gears” for the optical clock. Due to the huge gearing ratio of several 104 thatmust be spanned, construction of such gears potentially poses a serious experimental
challenge. As with any challenge, a handful of elaborate schemes have actually been
constructed in the past in order to measure optical frequencies. These harmonic frequency chains used many successive steps of frequency multiplication and offset-locking
to successively link higher-frequency oscillators to lower-frequency ones. Of course,
since the many steps in the frequency chain included microwave, terahertz, far infrared,
near infrared, and finally vislble frequencies, a wide variety of technologies had to bemastered. In addition, a typical frequency chain was extremely frequency-specific, usually targeting a single optical frequency to be measured. This is partly because mostlasers in the IR are gas lasers, tunable only within the gain linewidth of some specific
Doppler-broadened transition. It is also because operation of such a complex chain
is very difficult to maintain even for one frequency. Imagine tuning every component

21
simultaneously in a frequency chain involving upwards of 15 separate frequency offsets
and multiplications. Due to this level of complexity, frequency chains for measuring only
a few specific standards such as the 3.39-µm methane standard [48, 49] or the 657-nm
Ca clock transition [50, 51] were constructed in several national laboratories around theworld.
Other efforts were being developed as alternatives to harmonic frequency chains,
and these methods can be classified as “frequency interval division” methods. The
distinguishing feature of these techniques is that they rely on difference-frequency synthesis. One method that was often employed is frequency interval bisection. Essentially,
if the optical frequency ν and its second harmonic 2ν are available, the frequency gap
between them can be divided in two. Then one of the two smaller gaps is divided in
two again. Eventually the interval is divided into small enough frequencies that a microwave readout is possible. The interval bisection is performed by making sure thatthe bisecting frequency, ν3 , splits the original two frequencies ν1 and ν2 by enforcing
the relationship 2ν3 = ν1 + ν2 . It is clear that second harmonic generation for theleft side of this equation, and sum frequency generation for the right side, can be usedalong with heterodyne detection and a phase lock. Another method was the optical
comb method. An intracavity electro-optic modulator (EOM) could be used to produce
a wide spectrum of modulation sidebands on a laser, as long as the round-trip groupdelay in the cavity corresponded to the period of the EOM. This method has produced
30-THz-wide optical frequency combs [52].
If an optical comb could be broadened to cover the full octave from ν to 2ν, it
could be used directly to measure the optical frequency. The modern optical frequency
comb now provides this capability. Ti:sapphire lasers were discovered that can be passively mode-locked and subsequently they were demonstrated to form a phase-coherent
optical comb as their output. Eventually the microstructure fiber was developed andshown to broaden the spectra from a Ti:sapphire comb to more than an octave, mak-22
ing it possible in principle to measure an optical frequency directly. Once experiments
showed that pulse-to-pulse phase coherence was preserved during the spectral broadening of the microstructure fiber, all the requirements for a precision optical clockwork
were met, and soon the first absolute optical frequencies were being measured withthis new technique. The most important aspect of the comb is that a single opticalfrequency comb can enable a vast spectrum of optical frequencies to be measured in asmall, table-top experiment, unlike the harmonic frequency chains that used to measure only a very narrow range of frequencies and occupied several laboratories worth ofspace. The history of the femtosecond frequency comb’s development and discovery iscovered in excellent detail by several others, notably including J. Hall and T. Hänsch in
References [34, 53, 54]. I will also describe some practical details of the optical comb in
Chapter 3.
For now, it is important to communicate the remarkable effect the optical frequency comb has had on the fields of optical frequency metrology and ultrafast science. In the last 8 years, precise phase control over the comb has led to: simple andextremely accurate clockworks for optical clocks, precise synchronization of fs lasers,
phase-coherent synthesis of fs lasers, optical frequency synthesizers, XUV comb generation, attosecond-duration x-ray generation, significant improvements to various pumpprobe experiments such as CARS microscopy, remote transfer of ultrastable opticalfrequency references through long distance fiber links, remote synchronization of pulsed
oscillators through long fiber links, broadband cavity ringdown spectroscopy, and phase
control of multi-pathway quantum interference processes. These are just a handful of
examples that I am personally familiar with to some degree, due to the work of many
people in our laboratory.
It is the subject of this Thesis to concentrate on the direct application of frequency
combs to optical clocks and frequency- and timing-transfer. The phrase “frequency- andtiming-transfer” is purposely ambiguous — it could refer to long-distance transfer of pre-23
cise timing or accurate frequency references, or it could refer to the transfer of these samereferences across large spectral gaps. In order to present the less-experienced reader withthe tools necessary to begin speaking about characterizing the quality of such transfer,
I begin in Chapter 2 by discussing phase noise and timing jitter, instability, and various
fundamental and technical limitations to the measurement of optical (relative) phase.
Then in Chapter 3 I will delve into much greater detail about the frequency comb, its
generation, and its control. After these introductory Chapters, the rest of the Thesis
is divided into 5 Chapters on various applications of the frequency comb, beginningwith the important issue of detecting the frequency comb’s repetition rate harmonics
with as much accuracy and purity as possible, in Chapter 4. This ability leads to theprecise synchronization of fs lasers, or in other words, the transfer of timing information accurately from one fs oscillator to another, as discussed in Chapter 5. We also
demonstrated that with such synchronization capabilities, we could generate tunablewavelength mid-infrared pulses with fast wavelength switching. Chapters 6 through 8
switch gears to some degree, from timing applications to clock frequency applications.
In Chapter 6 I show how the frequency comb can be used in an extremely simple andelegant way to measure absolute frequencies in the infrared. This immediately led tothe construction of an optical molecular clock based on the CH4 transition at 3.39 µm,
representing a tabletop set of optical gears capable of replacing the harmonic frequency
chains previously necessary for measuring this reference. In Chapter 7 I provide a detailed description of the octave-spanning femtosecond comb I constructed in order tomake absolute frequency measurements of our 87 Sr optical lattice clock, including theusefulness of the comb for characterizing the clock laser and comparing it to other microwave and optical clocks in Boulder. Finally, in Chapter 8 I discuss the stable andlow-phase-noise distribution of frequency and timing references through long-distance(∼10-km scale) fiber networks.

Chapter 2

Characterization and measurement of frequency stability and phasenoise

Having described the intuitive principles behind making and distributing a frequency standard in Chapter 1, I will now turn to the more specific details of how tocharacterize the performance of such systems. In general, since the goal is to produce a
waveform that matches a pure sine wave as closely as possible, it might seem that characterization of the three degrees of freedom (amplitude, frequency, and phase) would bestraightforward. However, an arsenal of tools has been developed over time in order tomeasure and distinguish between the various types of noise sources that can arise, allowing the experimentalist greater insight into each system’s performance. In this Chapter
I will first formally introduce the main characterization tools, and then turn to some
practical considerations for measuring the stability and purity of optical and microwave
frequency sources. I happily confess that the clear line of reasoning developed in theearly sections is due to the excellent discussion found in the paper by Hall and Zhu [55],which every new student of this field should read.

2.1

Characterization methods
The ultimate goal of a frequency standard is to repeatably and reliably produce

an oscillation that can be represented mathematically as an ideal sine wave. Obviously
this is never completely possible, but very close approximations to pure sine waves can

25
be generated. Assuming we are dealing with an electromagnetic oscillator, I will write
the general form of such a nearly pure sinusoidal field as−→
E (t) = ˆE(t)e2πν0 t+φ(t) + c.c..

(2.1)

Here, “nearly pure” means I have assumed the polarization vector ˆ is constant, andboth the amplitude E(t) and phase φ(t) are slowly varying in time with respect to thecarrier frequency ν0 . In general, for frequency metrology we should be more concernedwith the time-varying deviation φ(t) from the nominal phase 2πν0 t than with the amplitude fluctuations, although later I will show the importance of processes leading toconversion from amplitude noise to phase noise. For now I will restrict the discussion
to characterization of the phase (and therefore frequency) stability of the source.
There are typically two classes of characterization of the performance of a frequency source. The first is to measure the phase noise spectrum, which represents theunderlying phase modulation processes over a range of relevant Fourier frequencies surrounding the signal carrier. The phase noise spectrum is an excellent way to think about
the coherence of a source; integration over a range of Fourier frequencies reveals the rms
phase deviation within that interval. It is also common to make the unit conversion fromphase [rad] to time [s] by normalizing to the carrier frequency: the resulting quantity
is known as timing jitter spectral density. Whereas the phase noise is usually specified
with respect to a particular carrier reference frequency, the timing jitter specifies thetotal magnitude of perturbations to the carrier’s timing regardless of the carrier frequency. The phase noise and timing jitter spectral densities of the signal intrinsicallycontain the same information, but have different mathematical representations that areeach more or less convenient depending on the physical situation involved. The second
method for characterization of a frequency source involves determining how the measured fractional frequency fluctuations of the source vary as a function of the time overwhich the frequency is averaged. This is commonly expressed using the Allan deviation,

26
and can be interpreted as the immediate repeatability of the frequency measurement as
a function of averaging time. Thorough discussions of the Allan deviation and phase
spectral density can be found in many excellent references [55, 56, 57, 58, 59].

2.1.1

Phase noise

The first method for characterizing the performance of a frequency source —directly measuring its phase fluctuations — is especially useful for determining thecoherence of a signal. Since only the relative phase between two sources is important,phase noise is determined by measuring the phase fluctuations of a signal with respect
to a lower-phase noise reference. The coherence time Tcoh can then be defined as theaverage amount of time before the signal acquires 1 rad of phase excursion relative tothe reference.
This simple time-domain picture gives an excellent intuitive feel for the significance of phase noise. As usual, taking the Fourier transform of the time-domain picture
makes clear more specific information about the relevant physical processes responsible
for the phase deviations. These deviations create noise sidebands in the source’s spectrum that are spaced from the carrier by the modulation frequency at which the noiseoccurs, at the same time weakening the power in the carrier by spreading it into the
sidebands. It is common to express the phase noise of a frequency source as the power
spectral density (PSD) of phase fluctuations, Sφ (f ), which represents the mean squareof phase fluctuations δ φ̃ (f ) at Fourier frequency f from the carrier in a measurement
bandwidth of 1 Hz [58]. Explicitly, it is defined as
2

Sφ (f ) ≡ [δ φ̃(f )]




rad2
.
Hz

(2.2)

Note that Sφ (f ) includes contributions from both the upper and lower sidebands of thecarrier by construction. Another quantity that is often used to specify the phase noiseof a frequency source is the single sideband phase noise, Lφ (f ), defined as 21 Sφ (f ) [58].

27
It is usually written in units of dBc/Hz (dB below the carrier in a 1-Hz measurement
bandwidth) and can be logarithmically expressed as1Lφ (f ) = 10 log Sφ (f )
2




dBc
.
Hz

(2.3)

If the phase noise spectrum is known, integration of Sφ (f ) from high Fourier frequency
fh to lower frequency fl gives the rms phase deviation (squared) in a time tl = 1/fl .
Then if this rms phase noise is 1 rad, we say that tl = Tcoh . Note that in performing thisintegration, an assumption is made that noise processes at different Fourier frequencies
are independent of each other. Also, usually δ φ̃ (f ) decreases with increasing f fastenough so that the exact choice of fh is relatively unimportant.

2.1.2

Timing jitter

In some applications, such as those involving synchronization, a pulsed signal
gives a sharp edge useful for synchronizing various system components. In these cases,
it can be more useful to express the phase noise of a transmitted signal in terms of its
timing jitter, which can be thought of as the deviation of the arrival time of the pulse
from its nominal arrival time. The timing jitter spectral density, δ T̃ (f ), which represents
the rms timing jitter at each Fourier frequency in a 1-Hz measurement bandwidth, is
proportional to δ φ̃(f ). Since φ = 2πν0 t, thenδ φ̃(f )δ T̃ (f ) =
2πν0



s
√
Hz


(2.4)

The total rms timing jitter, Trms , which must be specified over a bandwidth from fl to
fh , is then determined bysZ
Trms =

fh hi2
δ T̃ (f ) df

[s]

(2.5)

fl

The limits of integration are determined by the specific application for which the frequency reference is being transferred. A higher sampling rate of the transmitted reference corresponds to a higher bandwidth over which the jitter spectral density must28
be integrated, and thus a higher value for fh . Therefore, to achieve a small rms timing
jitter over short timescales, it is important that the high-frequency timing jitter be as
small as possible. For an oscillator that is to be phase-locked to the reference signal,
only the portion of the reference’s jitter spectral density within the locking bandwidth
matters. Outside the locking bandwidth, the free-running noise of the oscillator must
be responsible for any further jitter. Indeed, most oscillators have intrinsic phase noise
spectral densities that roll off at higher Fourier frequencies, whereas electronic detection of the reference signal’s phase is typically subject to a white phase noise floor (seeSection 2.2) of the detection process. Therefore the locking bandwidth should be limited to the crossover frequency above which the oscillator’s intrinsic noise becomes lessthan the white phase noise floor of the measurement. The total rms timing jitter of
the transmitted reference should be specified for the particular locking bandwidth ofinterest.

2.1.3

Allan deviation

Whereas the phase noise spectrum is especially useful for determining the characteristic frequencies of noise processes, the Allan deviation [60], σy (τ ), is a convenientmethod for determining the characteristic timescales of various physical processes. Unfortunately, long-term noise is typically present in many experiments which only reveals
itself upon making measurements well-separated in time. Short time-scale measurements may lead to over-optimism about an oscillator’s performance, since various systematic effects can alter the frequency over longer times. Instead, Allan’s idea is to focus on consecutive frequency measurements — by making a series of adjacent frequency
measurements, each obtained by averaging over a period of time τ and separated in timeby τ , the difference in frequency between consecutive measurements can be computed.
Then plotting the rms frequency difference between adjacent measurements as a function of τ reveals how the oscillator’s frequency is fluctuating over the various timescales.

29
As a result, long-term modulation processes at the different timescales can be cleanly
separated and studied.
The averaging time corresponds to the gate time of a frequency counter used
to make the frequency measurements. To see how σy (τ ) can be computed from thesefrequency measurements, it is necessary to introduce some definitions. Taking the realpart from Eqn. 2.1 (ignoring amplitude noise and polarization), the signal from thefrequency source can be expressed as
E(t) = E0 cos[2πν0 t + φ(t)].

(2.6)

The instantaneous fractional frequency deviation from the nominal center frequency isgiven byy(t) =1 dφ(t)2πν0 dt(2.7)

The Allan deviation for an averaging time τ is then defined asσy (τ ) ≡1[ȳ(t + τ ) − ȳ(t)]2
2

1/2
(2.8)

where hi indicates an infinite time average and ȳ represents the time average of y(t)over a period τ [58]. σy (τ ) can be estimated from a finite set of N consecutive averagevalues of the center frequency, ν̄i , each averaged over a period τ .
N−1X1σy (τ ) ≈(ν̄i − ν̄i+1 )22(N − 1)ν02 i=1

"

#1/2
(2.9)

The Allan deviation for averaging times that are integer multiples of τ , σy (mτ ), canthen be calculated by forming a new set of N/m average frequency values from theoriginal set of N values. The original set is sub-divided into adjacent, non-overlapping
subsets. Each value of the new set of frequency values is computed by averaging the mvalues in each subset of the original data.
The Allan deviation is useful for characterizing a frequency source because thetype of phase noise present is revealed by the way in which σy (τ ) depends on τ . For

30
example, if σy (τ ) ∝ τ −1 then white phase noise is the dominant noise process, whereas
if σy (τ ) ∝ τ −1/2 then white frequency noise is dominant [58]. However, for the Allan
deviation to reliably indicate the type of noise present, it is crucial that there be nodead time between the consecutive average frequency measurements used to determine
σy (τ ). The presence of dead time may bias the computed Allan deviation, dependingon the type of phase noise present. For example, since dead time will result in a loss ofcoherence between data points, white phase noise may be detected as white frequency
noise, depending on the length of the dead time. At long timescales, the averaging ofwhite noise will eventually meet a limit for most real oscillators, due to systematic shifts
in the frequency. Also, a long term drift will eventually show up as a positive linear
dependence of the Allan deviation on averaging time. Finally, sinusoidal frequency
modulations of sufficient amplitude will result in a bump in the Allan deviation at half
the modulation period. All of these well-known behaviors of the Allan deviation allow
immediate insight into the physical mechanisms responsible for the long-term behaviorof an oscillator.

2.2

Limitations to optoelectronic phase measurement
Phase stabilization of lasers relies on the ability to detect and subsequently cancel,

with a high degree of precision, the phase noise of the source relative to the reference.
In addition to the intrinsic phase fluctuations we want to measure, in the phase detection process several noise sources of optical or electronic origin can introduce additional
phase noise, which limits the degree to which frequency transfer paths can be stabilized.
These sources include thermal electronic (Johnson) noise, photon shot noise, amplifier
flicker (1/f ) noise, and amplitude-to-phase noise conversion during the photo-detection,
amplification, and phase mixing processes. In general, for low signal strengths thermal
noise and amplifier noise will dominate, and for higher signal strengths shot noise andamplitude-to-phase noise conversion become the main limitation. These four noise pro-31
cesses are evident in the data of Fig. 2.1(a), which shows a state-of-the-art residual
phase noise spectrum for the ∼ 10-GHz harmonic of a femtosecond laser’s repetition
rate when the optical beam is split onto two photodetectors; the microwave signals aresubsequently phase-compared in order to measure the phase spectral density as shown.
In this fashion, the excess noise associated with microwave detection, amplification, andmixing of the repetition rate is measured, not the intrinsic phase noise of the original optical pulse train that is common to both photodetectors. Such an experiment is
described in much greater detail as the subject of Chapter 4.

2.2.1

Thermal and shot noise

Fundamentally, detection of phase errors is limited by thermal noise and shotnoise. Excellent design considerations for laser phase noise measurements are discussed
in Ref. [61]; here I introduce the basic concepts and give an example of the limitations
imposed by a typical laser phase noise detection system. In a 1-Hz bandwidth, thesingle sideband phase noise from thermal fluctuations of current through a system’s
impedance is given by(f ) =
Lthermal
φ

kT R
1
1
∝
∝ 2
2
Prf
2V0
Popt

(2.10)

where k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the system’s temperature, R is the characteristic
system impedance, V0 is the measured rms voltage level of the rf carrier signal (theeffects of quantum efficiency are already included in V0 ), Prf is the rf carrier power, andPopt is the average optical power incident on the photodetector. For R = 50 Ω and atroom-temperature, this phase noise power spectral density limit arising from thermal
noise can be written as [62]
Lthermal(f ) = (−177 − Prf )
φ



dBc
Hz


(2.11)

where Prf is given in units of dBm. This is to be compared with the phase noise
contribution from shot noise which, for a time-independent optical power incident on a

32

1/2

Jitter Spectral Density [fs/Hz ]-100

Amp. to Phase
Conversion

-1

10

-120
-2

10

-3

10

AmplifierFlicker Noise-140

Shot/Thermal
Noise Floor

-4

10

-160

-180
0

10

1

10

2

10

3

10

4

10

Fourier Frequency [Hz]

5

10

-80

SSB Phase Noise for Any Carrier

(a)

10

SSB Phase Noise @ 10 GHz [dBc/Hz]

-80
0

(b)

-100

Shot noise
Thermal noise
-120

-140

-160

-180
0.01

0.1

1

10

100

Optical Power [mW]

Figure 2.1: (Color online) (a) Phase noise spectrum for ∼2 mW of optical power from a
femtosecond laser split equally onto identical photodetectors, and subsequently mixed
to measure the excess phase noise in detection of the 10-GHz harmonics of the laser’s
repetition rate. For f < 1 kHz, amplifier flicker noise behaves as 1/f . The sharp features between 100 Hz and 1 kHz are due to amplitude-to-phase noise conversion. Above
10 kHz the shot/thermal noise floor is reached. (b) The shot noise and thermal noise
limits are plotted as functions of the incident optical power. Note that shot noise andthermal noise introduce a white phase noise spectral density with magnitude independent of the carrier frequency; thus their relative contributions to frequency instability
and timing jitter decrease with an increasing carrier frequency.

33
photodetector, is given by
Lshot
φ (f ) =Popt
eiavg R
1
∝
∝
Prf
Prf
Popt

(2.12)

in a 1-Hz bandwidth, where e is the electronic charge and iavg is the average DC photocurrent generated by Popt . When pulses are incident on the photodetector, the assumption of time-independent power is invalid [63], but Eqn. (2.12) still yields resultsthat are empirically valid for time averages of the photocurrent and shot noise power [64].
Note that since Prf scales as the square of Popt , Lshot
decreases as the inverse of Popt ,φwhereas Lthermal
decreases as the inverse square of Popt . This results in the shotφnoise floor overtaking the thermal noise floor above a certain optical power, as shown in
Fig. 2.1(b) for a typical GaAs photodetector with a response of 0.4 mA/mW near a wavelength of 800 nm. Note that the fundamental phase noise limitations imposed by shotnoise and thermal noise do not depend on the carrier frequency of the microwave signal,and therefore the resulting instability and timing jitter limitations can be improved byuse of a higher microwave carrier frequency. For the same reason, optical-based phasedetection (as discussed in Section 2.3) provides much higher sensitivity.
As an example of the fundamental limitations imposed by shot noise and thermal
noise, consider 1 mW of total average optical power (from two beams for the purposeof forming a heterodyne beat) incident on a typical photodetector with a sensitivity of
0.4 mA/mW, and a 50-ohm system impedance. The rf power obtained from the opticalbeat frequency could have Prf = −21 dBm, which leads to single-sideband phase noise
contributions of -156 dBc/Hz for thermal noise and -154 dBc/Hz for shot noise. These
phase noise spectra both contribute to the shot/thermal phase noise floor shown in
Fig. 2.1(a), for Fourier frequencies above 10 kHz. As discussed above, it is desirable touse high rf carrier frequencies whenever a system is limited by shot or thermal noise.
For a 10-GHz carrier, -155 dBc/Hz represents a single sideband jitter spectral density√of 2 × 10−4 fs/ Hz, which leads to an integrated timing jitter of 0.04 fs in a 10-kHz

34
bandwidth (the total contribution is twice that from a single sideband). For a carrier
subject only to white phase noise, written as the constant power spectral density Sφ ,the measured instability can be expressed [57, 65] as Allan deviationpσy (τ ) =3Sφ ∆f2πν0 τ

(2.13)

where ∆f is the bandwidth of the measurement and ν0 is the carrier frequency. For a
bandwidth of 10 kHz, our example system would be limited by thermal noise and shotnoise at approximately the 7 × 10−17 τ −1 level. It is important to remember that thisfractional frequency instability is relative to the 10-GHz rf signal: in the case that thesignal is derived from an optical heterodyne beat between, for example, two 100-THz
optical signals, then the optical frequencies enjoy a white-phase-noise-limited relative
fractional instability of 104 lower than that of the 10-GHz rf beat. Finally, note that in
the case of laser stabilization, mechanical perturbations to the optical path will influence
the fractional instability and jitter spectral density at a level independent of the carrier
frequency, whereas thermal noise and shot noise limits, as well as any other limits frompoor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), can always be improved by use of a higher opticalcarrier frequency and a higher microwave heterodyne frequency.

2.2.2

Electronic flicker noise and amplitude-to-phase conversion

In addition to the fundamental limitations discussed so far, two important technical limitations remain: excess noise in the amplifiers or mixer [66], and amplitude-tophase conversion [67]. Ultimately these problems stem from the photodetection process:typical photodiodes yield weak rf powers and are susceptible to saturation and pulse
distortion when driven with higher (> few mW) optical powers [68, 69].
The weak rf power available means that electronic amplification must be appliedin order to drive subsequent rf circuitry for phase detection without accumulating asignificant amount of additional noise. Unfortunately, rf amplifiers are susceptible to35
1/f flicker noise due to up-conversion of DC bias noise via nonlinear processes within
the amplifiers [66]. Typical flicker noise is seen in the data shown in Fig. 2.1(a), as thesmooth 1/f -shaped portion of the data for Fourier frequencies below 1 kHz. Attempts
have been made to reduce this up-conversion by feedforward [70] or feedback [71] with
∼20 dB reductions in the flicker noise for 1-GHz amplifiers. Rather than using feedback
to suppress the flicker noise up-conversion, microwave interferometric techniques [72](carrier suppression) have been used to operate amplifiers in the weak signal regime byinterferometrically cancelling the carrier. Without a strong carrier driving the amplifier into nonlinearity, flicker noise from up-conversion has been reduced by as much as
24 dB at 10-GHz carrier frequencies [73]. Applying this technique to a system employing typical photodetection of an optical frequency comb, microwave frequencies weresynthesized from optical frequencies with -110 dBc/Hz of phase noise at a 1-Hz offset
from the 10-GHz carrier [64]. Excellent discussion of design considerations for thesemicrowave interferometric techniques can be found in Ref. [74].
The final technical limitation I discuss here concerns applying higher optical power
to the photodetector. Increased incident power is desirable since shot noise and thermal noise can be reduced, and the need for amplifiers can be eliminated, when higher
microwave signal power becomes available. However, typical photodetectors exhibit a
power-dependent phase shift between the incident optical light and the generated microwave power, leading to significant amplitude-to-phase conversion for higher incident
optical powers. As seen between 100 Hz and 1 kHz in Fig. 2.1, the sharp featuresof the optical beam’s power spectrum have been converted to sharp features in thephase spectrum of the homodyned microwave signals. This nonlinearity may be in partfrom saturation of the photodetector, which causes a high space-charge buildup in thedepleted region to affect the velocity of photo-generated charge carriers by screeningof the applied bias field [75]. Also, the temporal response of the photodetector canbe highly spatially dependent, which allows beam-pointing fluctuations to affect the

36
microwave output phase at levels that limit system performance [76]. For femtosecond pulse applications, typical power-to-phase conversion coefficients are on the orderof several picoseconds of time delay per mW change of average incident power. Stabilization of the amplitude fluctuations of the incident optical beam has reduced theexcess phase noise by more than 20 dB for Fourier frequencies below 10 Hz [77]. By
carefully eliminating environmental perturbations that cause amplitude fluctuations at
the photodetector, optical-to-microwave conversion exhibiting an excess instability of< 7 × 10−16 at 1-s and phase noise below -98 dBc/Hz at 1-Hz offset from the 10-GHz
carrier has been achieved [78]. It should be noted that a disadvantage of photodetecting
a pulse train for phase stabilization (as opposed to heterodyning two cw optical carriers)
is that, due to the higher peak powers present, such an approach is more susceptible toamplitude-to-phase conversion in the photodetection process than cw techniques would
be. Finally, I have worked with a photodetector configured in a receiving circuit resonant with the target microwave carrier frequency, and it offers enhanced signal-to-noiseby improving impedance matching and reducing noise bandwidth [79]. Details of thistechnique are discussed in Section 4.3.

2.3

Techniques for optical timing measurement
In Chapter 3 I will show how the time-domain picture of a mode-locked laser’s

output is of a cw optical carrier frequency modulated by a pulsed intensity envelope.
As a result, an experimentalist can choose to access either information about the timing of the intensity envelope’s steep rising edge (optical-phase-insensitive information),or information regarding the optical carrier’s underlying phase (optical-phase-sensitive
information).

37
2.3.1

Optical-phase-insensitive techniques

For a pulse train, optical-phase-insensitive techniques can be thought of as methods for detecting the timing separation between pulses, or in other words, the repetition
rate of the pulses (see Chapter 3 for details about pulse trains). A simple microwave
technique (homodyne mixing scheme) for accessing the repetition frequency and its
associated microwave phase is to detect the pulse train on a photodetector, which will
respond at the repetition rate and any harmonics within its detection bandwidth. A specific harmonic of the repetition rate can be electronically filtered and its phase can thenbe measured against some other reference microwave frequency by homodyne mixing of
the two signals. Therefore the timing of the intensity envelope (repetition frequency),
can be measured or controlled in the microwave domain. The reference frequency canbe a stable microwave signal from some microwave oscillator such as quartz, a Cesium
clock, Hydrogen maser, or sapphire-loaded cavity oscillator, or it could be another pulse
train’s repetition frequency harmonic. In fact, I have already been discussing this lastcase in Section 2.2 with the data shown in Fig. 2.1, where the pulse train was split
onto two such photodetectors for the purposes of measuring the technical noise associated with photodetection and subsequent electronic filtering, amplification, and mixing.
More details of this type of measurement are given in Chapter 4, where I show thatthe fundamental limitations described in Section 2.2 become extremely important. As
a result of these noise limitations, higher harmonics (several GHz or higher) of therepetition frequency should be used.
Another method (fringe-unresolved cross correlation) for accessing the pulse train’s
intensity envelope timing is useful when more than one pulse train is involved. Thenthe two pulse trains can be focused into a nonlinear crystal for the purposes of sumfrequency generation (SFG) in a non-collinear geometry where the two beams crossthrough each other as they pass through the focus. Light at the sum frequency will be38generated as a third beam exiting the crystal between the two second-harmonic beams
from each original pulse train. The intensity of the SFG signal at a given time is proportional to the product of the intensities of the two pulse trains at that time. Therefore,
in addition to pulsing at the repetition frequency of the lasers, the amplitude of the
SFG signal depends on the temporal overlap of the two pulse trains. By setting the
temporal offset of the two trains such that the pulses overlap roughly where they attainhalf their maximum intensity, the amplitude of the SFG signal is maximally sensitive totiming jitter between the pulse trains. Introducing a known amount of delay between
the two trains while monitoring the SFG intensity allows its calibration, and variationsin its amplitude provide a very sensitive method for measuring timing jitter between
the pulse trains. This technique is illustrated in Section 5.1.3 where we used it forthe purposes of characterizing the timing jitter between two independent mode-locked
lasers when their repetition frequencies were phase-locked using the microwave homodyne mixing scheme. The steep slope of pulses that have a duration on the order of
10–100 fs makes the autocorrelation technique for detecting timing jitter much moresensitive than homodyne rf mixing schemes limited by the noise processes discussed
in Section 2.2, although the dynamic range of the timing jitter that can be measured
is limited to the order of the pulse duration. In fact, the steep slope arises from thecontributions of > 105 modes of the frequency comb constructively interfering with eachother to create the pulse. Therefore the cross-correlation technique can be viewed assimilar to the homodyne mixing technique, but taking place at the 100, 000th harmonicof the repetition frequency. However, intensity fluctuations of either input laser canlead to significant amplitude-to-phase conversion of such an autocorrelator; this problem has been successfully mitigated by implementation of a balanced cross-correlator in
Ref. [80].

39
2.3.2

Optical-phase-sensitive techniquesMore-powerful techniques are capable of measuring and controlling the opticalphase of either cw lasers or the underlying carrier phase of a pulse train. The mostdirect way (heterodyne technique) to measure the relative optical phase between two
cw lasers is to form a heterodyne beat between them by interfering them on a beamsplitter. The combined beam’s electric field will have an intensity envelope that oscillates
at the difference frequency between the two input optical carriers. If the heterodyne
difference frequency lies within the bandwidth of a photodetector, then the photocurrent will respond at that rf or microwave difference frequency. In addition, the phase of
the beat frequency depends directly on the phase difference between the input lasers.
Therefore, phase-stabilization of the beat frequency to a quiet rf or microwave reference(by a homodyne phase-detection between the two) results in the same degree of relative
phase stabilization of the two optical carriers. In addition, the heterodyne beat can bechosen at some high rf or microwave frequency to avoid typical noise present at lower
frequencies. This heterodyne optical technique followed up with homodyne electronic
phase detection is also a very powerful tool for phase-stabilizing a mode-locked laser to acw optical reference if the frequency comb’s offset frequency is independently stabilized(see Chapter 3 for details about such clockwork).
Finally, when two pulse trains are involved, a fringe-resolved cross-correlation
can be formed. The two pulse trains are now focused into the nonlinear crystal in acollinear geometry, and the resulting SFG signal oscillates as a function of delay between
the two pulses at a frequency equal to the pulses’ optical carrier frequency [81]. Thus
adopting the notation in Eqn. (2.4), ν0 is on the order of ∼ 200 THz leading to a
substantially increased sensitivity for the jitter measurement [82]. A further advantageof this measurement method over the non-collinear cross-correlation is that the twopulses need not have perfect chirp compensation as the overall slope of the correlation

40
envelope is unimportant. The only disadvantage of the method is its dynamic range,
since more than a few fs of integrated jitter will wash out the fringes.
In summary of the available techniques for phase detection, greater optical power
is necessary for lowering thermal and shot noise, as well as for eliminating the need forelectronic amplification and its associated flicker noise. However, photodetectors thatare able to handle power levels > 10 mW must also perform with high linearity [83]in order to avoid amplitude-to-phase conversion; considerations for the design of suchhigh-power photodetectors are complex [84]. The need for highly linear, high-current
photodetectors is clear, since current performance levels for optical-to-microwave conversion (see Chapter 4) are rapidly approaching the fundamental shot noise limit associated with milliwatt-level optical powers. When future optical clocks deliver thepromised instability of < 1 × 10−16 at 1 s, we will urgently need such advances to enable accurate low-phase-noise conversion into the microwave domain. Finally, wheneverpossible, higher order harmonics of a frequency comb’s microwave repetition frequency,
or even optical-phase-sensitive detection should be employed, since the long lever arm
provided by using extremely high (optical) carrier frequencies drastically reduces therelative contributions of the technical and fundamental electronic noises to the total
jitter spectral density of a signal.
Armed with the ideas of phase noise measurement and instability as characterized
by the phase noise spectral density Sφ (f ) and the Allan deviation σy (τ ), we have theproper tools to discuss the performance and limitations of the optical frequency comb,
as realized for several applications in Chapters 4 through 8. First, in Chapter 3 I will
discuss the basic principles of the optical frequency comb generated by a mode-locked
laser.

Chapter 3

Fundamentals of Stabilizing an Optical Frequency Comb

An ideal optical frequency comb would consist of a series of cw frequency modes,
spaced by an exact constant frequency interval, with each mode taking the form of aspectral delta function. In addition, a fixed phase would exist between any two modes of
the comb in order to provide temporal coherence across the spectrum. The most usefulcomb’s spectrum would extend from microwave frequencies all the way into the UV
regime and beyond, and the frequency spacing between comb modes would be required
to lie within a reasonable photodetector’s bandwidth so that heterodyne techniques
would be possible against other optical frequency sources. Appropriate control of thephase and amplitude of each mode, as well as the comb spacing would in principle allow
nearly arbitrary electromagnetic waveform generation. Of course, what I have described
would be infinite coherence time for each mode, and is not possible in the presence oftypical acoustic noise resulting in decoherence: a mere 300-nm physical displacement ofsome system component results in a π phase shift for an optical frequency. Nevertheless,the mode-locked laser’s utility as an optical frequency comb was discovered at the recent
turn of the century, immediately followed by rapid advances in its control and synthesis,
leading us closer to the ultimate in control of the electromagnetic spectrum.
For the specific application of optical clocks and timing transfer, the mode-locked
laser allows a phase-coherent connection to be made between the visible and microwave
portions of the spectrum. In other words, it provides in a single step the long-sought-

42
after frequency division between optical and microwave frequencies, making possible
the relatively direct measurement of optical frequencies. An important aspect of themode-locked laser is that it allows these optical frequency measurements to be made not
only at any single narrow frequency region, but across the spectrum. This great utility
is responsible for much of the recent rapid advance in optical frequency metrology.
In this Chapter I will first describe the concept of mode-locking, specifically as
it occurs in the modern workhorse of frequency combs, the mode-locked Ti:sapphirelaser. Both the frequency- and time-domain pictures of the comb give insight as to how
it can be controlled, and indeed the active stabilization of the comb relative to somereference is necessary in order to maximize its coherence. Therefore I will describe thevarious controls available to an experimentalist who wishes to influence the comb’s twodegrees of freedom. I would also like to point out that Refs. [85, 86, 87, 88] are excellent
introductions to the stabilization of frequency combs.

3.1

Mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser
Mode-locking is, in general, the effect of any physical process which causes themany longitudinal modes of a laser cavity to enjoy a fixed phase relationship. As aresult, the modes all constructively interfere to a significant degree at only one locationin the cavity. This location is the pulse which propagates around the cavity with acharacteristic group velocity. The resulting output of a mode-locked laser is a trainof pulses, equally spaced in time by the round-trip time of propagation through thecavity. It is easiest to see in the time domain, that if some process in the cavity results in favorable gain for higher intensities, and if the process responds at sufficiently
short timescales, then the dynamics of the laser cavity will lead to short, intense pulse
propagation in the cavity. Many types of mode-locked lasers exist, with various mechanisms responsible for this mode-locking. These include low phase- and amplitude-noisemode-locked diode lasers at various wavelengths [89, 90], mode-locked Er+3 fiber lasers

43
at 1550 nm [91, 92, 93, 94, 95], and Cr:forsterite lasers near 1300 nm. For the measurements I describe in this Thesis, various forms of the Ti:sapphire mode-locked laser
will be employed. Therefore I will restrict my discussion to the Kerr-lens-mode-locked
Ti:sapphire laser and its control.
Figure 3.1 shows a typical such Ti:sapphire laser. Pumped by a solid-state laser at
532-nm, the titanium-doped sapphire crystal has an extremely broad (700- to 1000-nm)
gain bandwidth, which in principle supports lasing in any of the cavity modes within thisbandwidth. For this reason, cw Ti:sapphire lasers have been constructed allowing broad
tunability and high power across the near-infrared portion of the spectrum. However,
it is also possible to generate very short pulses at the output of a Ti:sapphire laser
through careful design of the cavity’s dispersion and the process of passive Kerr-lensmode-locking (KLM), which works as follows.

Ti:sapphirefor Gain
Pump

OC

Prism pair for dispersion compensation
HR
Figure 3.1: A Kerr-lens–mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser. Several watts of 532-nm pumplight excite the Ti:sapphire gain medium. By misaligning the curved mirrors slightly
from their positions for optimal cw lasing, the soft aperture of the pumping region
combined with the Kerr-lensing induce self-mode-locking. Another requirement is for the
net cavity dispersion to be close to zero (slightly negative). The prism pair accomplishes
this, and at the same time allows tuning of the output spectral bandwidth, shape, andcenter. Typically the laser can produce transform-limited pulses of < 15-nm duration,
but before exiting the cavity they are broadened by dispersion of the crystal, a curved
mirror, and the material of the output coupler.

The nonlinear Kerr-lens results in an intensity-dependent beam waist and waist
location for a Gaussian pulse propagating through the cavity. This comes about because
the transverse mode is Gaussian, and so the nonlinear index as seen by the pulse also
exhibits a Gaussian profile in the transverse direction. By alignment of the cavity such

44
that a higher intensity pulse more favorably overlaps with the pumping laser than alower intensity pulse, the more intense pulse will enjoy a favorable gain. A kind of“soft” aperturing of the beam is typically achieved by misaligning the curved mirrors
from optimal cw laser alignment and into better alignment for high-intensity pulses.
The process of pulsed operation is then initiated by introducing a brief intensity spike
into the cw-laser (by hitting it!), such that the intensity spike enjoys more gain than the
cw lasing mode. This initial process runs away until the pulse becomes so short that
dispersion in the cavity can no longer keep the pulse together, or the gain bandwidth ofthe laser has been exploited, or more generally, the interplay of both effects [96]. Careful
design of the intracavity dispersion has resulted in lasers with pulse durations below 5
fs. Note that the extremely fast timescale of the Kerr nonlinearity (femtoseconds)
ultimately allows the cavity to discriminate between short, intense pulses and longer,
less intense pulses.
For the laser shown in Fig. 3.1, a key concept is the intracavity dispersion control
offered by the prism pair. The second- and third-order group-velocity dispersion can becontrolled by choice of prism material, the separation between the prisms, and the degreeof insertion of each prism into the propagating beam. This control over dispersion not
only acts to keep the pulse together during a round trip through the cavity; it also canbe used to influence the output spectrum of the laser. This fact will become importantin the experiment described in Chapter 5.2, where the tunability of the output spectraof two lasers is used to control the spectrum of the infrared pulses they generate in anonlinear crystal. It should also be mentioned that use of negative-dispersion mirrors
is possible for designing lasers without the need for a prism pair; this allows the cavity
to be made shorter and higher repetition frequencies to be achieved.
Another minor, yet important detail of the laser is its curved mirrors, whichallow tight focusing into the crystal to maximize the nonlinear Kerr-lens effect. Since
the crystal must be oriented at Brewster’s angle to minimize loss in the cavity, the45curved mirrors allow for compensation of the resulting astigmatism by reflecting fromthem at the proper angle of incidence.
The robust performance of current KLM Ti:sapphire lasers has ultimately led totheir widespread use as the workhorse of optical frequency measurements. Indeed, thesesystems now can have spectra spanning over more than an octave of bandwidth, which
we will see is an important property for phase stabilization of the pulses. The average
powers available from such lasers are on the order of 1 W, with repetition frequencies
ranging from 10 MHz to several GHz. They can be actively stabilized for periods ofseveral days if need be, and are simple and quick to build as well as to operate.

3.2

Frequency and time domain pictures
Shortly after the invention of the laser, the optics community seems to havebranched along two distinct lines of research. In one camp, researchers used theiringenuity to devise clever methods for phase and frequency control of cw lasers, leading
to a variety of precision tests of fundamental physics with narrow-line laser spectroscopy.
In the other camp, the ability to create increasingly short pulses of light led to pumpprobe experiments resolving the nature of matter at extremely short timescales, or atextremely high field strengths. With the development of the frequency comb in the late1990’s, a shift of paradigm in both camps brought them together, resulting in a beautiful
connection between the time- and frequency-domains and the resulting rapid progressin control of light fields. Before this paradigm shift, it was practically inconceivablethat such ultrafast pulses in time would be capable of serving to make high-resolution
spectroscopy. But now, working with ultrafast lasers in the frequency domain has madeit possible to apply the tools of laser stabilization to such sources. Therefore it isimportant to make explicit the connection between time- and frequency-domains forthe output of a mode-locked laser. A very insightful discussion of the mode-locked
laser’s output can be found in Ref. [97], with two alternative methods for derivation of

46
the frequency comb structure. Here, I give a slightly more simplistic treatment.
Start by considering the time-domain output of a single ultrashort pulse, shown as
the first pulse in Fig. 3.2(a). The pulse consists of an envelope, which if squared would
give the cycle-averaged intensity, and an underlying carrier oscillating at some averagefrequency νc . Clearly the Fourier transform of such a pulse with a Gaussian envelope
results in a Gaussian spectrum, centered at the carrier frequency, shown as the envelopein the frequency domain picture of Fig. 3.2(b). Then the temporal and spectral widths
must scale as inverses of each other in order to satisfy the Fourier uncertainty condition:shorter pulses can only be created through the interference of a broader spectrum of
frequencies. If we are motivated to achieve a 15-fs pulse, for example, then our spectrum
will have to be roughly 30 THz wide if centered at 300 THz. Now consider propagating
the various frequency components making up our single pulse through a dispersive
medium. In the case of normal material dispersion (the usual case for materials at
Ti:sapphire wavelengths), the higher frequency portion of the spectrum (blue) will bedelayed relative to the lower frequency (red) portion. As a result the envelope of thepulse will be broadened, as well as its peak power reduced. In fact, the broader the
spectrum, the more exaggerated will be this temporal broadening due to “chirping” thepulse. In some cases where dispersion can not be set to zero, starting with a longer
initial pulse will therefore lead to a shorter chirped pulse after the dispersion than if
one had started with a shorter initial pulse.
Now, add the complexity of additional subsequent pulses from our laser, forminga train of pulses equally spaced in time. This situation is shown in Fig. 3.2(a) for
the time-domain, where each pulse has a temporal full-width-half-maximum (FWHM)
of τF W HM , and the time between successive pulses is τrep , which is the inverse of therepetition frequency frep for the pulse train. In the ideal case that the pulse train
lasts for an infinite time, and the electric field repeats itself exactly every τrep , thefrequency domain picture would consist of a spectral envelope identical to the single

47(a) Time domain'Iceo

'Iceo

E(t)

t
WFWHM

Wrep frep(b) Frequency domain
frep~ 1/WFWHM
f0

I(Q)
Q
Figure 3.2: (a) Time-domain picture of the mode-locked laser’s output. Each pulse has
duration τF W HM . The pulses are separated in time by τrep . From pulse to pulse, theunderlying carrier shifts by the phase ∆φceo which is an amount of time ∆φceo /2πνc . (b)In the frequency domain, the spectral envelope corresponds to the Fourier transform ofeach pulse’s temporal envelope. Modulating the spectral envelope are the narrow modesof the optical frequency comb, separated by frep and offset from zero frequency by f0 .

48
pulse’s spectrum, but modulated by a comb of infinitely narrow frequencies, each given
as an integer multiple of frep . The fundamental limit to the spectral width of any
one comb line is therefore governed by the duration of the entire pulse train, while
the technical limit is set by fluctuations of τrep (and of f0 as discussed in the next
paragraph). It is less simple to discuss the limits to the pulse duration and spectral
bandwidth, though contributing effects include the gain bandwidth of the laser and thedispersion which the Kerr-lens mode-locking must overcome.
The final degree of complexity for a real mode-locked laser involves the net dispersion of the cavity. Although the dispersion of the air, mirror coatings, prism material,
and the linear material dispersion of the crystal should all be adjusted for a net dispersion close to zero, the pulses actually propagate in a medium with slightly negative net
dispersion. Here, the time-domain helps picture the effect of dispersion. In general, theaverage phase velocity vp is greater than the average group velocity vg for a dispersive
cavity. Since the envelope of the pulse propagates at vg while the carrier propagatesat vp , the carrier is constantly slipping with respect to the frame of reference of theenvelope. After an amount of time τrep , the intracavity pulse envelope will have propagated from the laser’s output coupler, through one round trip of the cavity, and back to
the output coupler, a total physical distance of Lc at average velocity vg . If the carrier
keeps up with the envelope (zero mismatch between phase and group velocity), it picks
up a phase corresponding to some integer multiple m of π. However, due to dispersion
it can pick up additional phase, resulting in the expression:2πνc τrep = 2πm + ∆φceo ,(3.1)

where an intuitive feel for ∆φceo is given by∆φceo = 2πνc Lc

1
1
−
vg
vp


.

(3.2)

Since the carrier frequency νc picks up an integer multiple of 2π plus ∆φceo in phase,
the Kerr lens forces every frequency component of the laser νn must pick up its own

49
integer multiple n of 2π plus ∆φceo . Ultimately, the degree to which the Kerr lens forces
every mode to enjoy this fixed phase relationship will be the degree to which our comb’s
accuracy is established. The resulting phase relationship can be written as
2πνn τrep = 2πn + ∆φceo

(3.3)

∆φceo
.
2π

(3.4)

or, rearranging,νn = nfrep + frep

So the dispersion which allowed the carrier-envelope phase slip (phase and group velocity
mismatch) ultimately results in the frequency components of the comb being shifted byan amount f0 , called the offset frequency, where we make the definition
f0 ≡ frep

∆φceo
.
2π

(3.5)

Then the entire frequency comb, including the effect of dispersion, can be written interms of just two degrees of freedom, both of which are microwave frequencies, as:νn = nfrep + f0 .

(3.6)

Now the time- and frequency-domain correspondence shown in Fig. 3.2 is complete. In
the time domain, the pulses are separated by the round-trip time of the pulse envelope,corresponding to the frequency separation of adjacent comb lines in the frequency domain. The carrier-envelope phase slip ∆φceo from pulse to pulse in the time domain
corresponds to an offset of the entire comb from zero by the amount f0 . The temporal
width of each pulse’s envelope in the time domain scales as the inverse of the spectralenvelope’s bandwidth. The frequency of any component of the comb (νn ) is given byjust the two microwave frequencies frep and f0 . It will be the topic of the next Section
to show how the comb’s two degrees of freedom can be stabilized. For now, I emphasizethat this amazingly simple relationship between every single optical frequency of the
femtosecond laser and just two microwave frequencies is entirely due to the fixed phase50
relationship established between modes of the comb from the passive Kerr lens selfmode-locking operation. This property of Kerr-lens–mode-locking is indeed responsible
for the success of the Ti:sapphire femtosecond comb as a phase-coherent set of gears
relating optical frequencies to each other as well as to the microwave domain.

3.3

Servo control of frequency comb
It is clear from Eqn. 3.4 that appropriate control of just the two degrees of free-

dom frep and f0 will be sufficient to control the entire comb. In principle, fixing any
two frequencies of the comb will achieve this goal; for instance, if frep is stabilized while
another optical mode of the comb is locked to a reference laser, or if f0 and an optical mode are simultaneously stabilized, or if two optical modes are fixed relative toabsolute references, the full comb will be stable. Of course, choosing to fix two widely
separated frequencies gives the system a longer lever arm on noise processes associatedwith detection and locking of the frequencies. These different methods each have theiradvantages and various applications are best-suited for different techniques.

3.3.1

Detection and stabilization of the offset frequency

For the most general applications of the comb, direct stabilization of f0 is desired.
It can be measured using the self-referencing technique [98] shown schematically in
Fig. 3.3, provided the comb spans an entire octave. The heterodyne beat between
the frequency-doubled infrared portion of the comb and the high-frequency portion
provides the microwave frequency f0 . This scheme for self-referencing is often referred
to as the f -to-2f scheme. The octave-wide spectrum needed for this scheme can beachieved either by use of highly nonlinear microstructure fiber [99] or by femtosecond
lasers which directly emit octave-spanning spectra [100, 101] (such an octave-spanningcomb will be discussed in Chapter 7). It is also possible to stabilize f0 with a 2f -to-3f
scheme [102, 103], which only requires 2/3 of an octave, or more-complicated schemes

51

I(ν )

f0
frep

ν
νn = n frep + f0

x2

2νn = 2 n frep + 2 f0

ν2n = 2 n frep + f0

f0
Figure 3.3: The carrier-envelope offset frequency is found by taking the difference ofthe frequencies of a comb mode at ν2n and the second harmonic of a mode at νn .
As usually implemented, many thousand modes in each of the two (fundamental andfrequency-doubled) beams beat against each other on a photodetector to cause thephotodetector’s photocurrent to oscillate at frequencies |mfrep ± f0 | (for integer m ≥ 0)
within the detector’s bandwidth.

fceoscheme

52
involving various frequency ratios [104]. Once f0 is detected, it can be stabilized to afrequency reference by controlling the difference of the group and phase velocities in thelaser cavity using the pump laser’s intensity [105, 106, 107] or by tilting the high-reflector
mirror in the spatially dispersed arm of a cavity with prisms, using differentially-driven
PZT’s to tilt the mirror. Also, difference-frequency schemes allow an infrared comb tobe formed that has no offset frequency; only the comb spacing need be stabilized [108].
Such an offset-free clockwork will be described in Chapter 6.

3.3.2

Stabilization of the repetition frequency

The stabilization of the comb to an optical frequency reference is completed bystabilizing the heterodyne beat between one of the comb lines and the optical reference,
while f0 is independently stabilized. Usually a PZT-actuated mirror in the mode-locked
laser cavity, which adjusts the laser repetition frequency, is used for stabilizing theoptical frequency of the comb line. Each beat frequency to be stabilized is mixed ina homodyne fashion with a stable and pure rf source in order to form the dc voltage
error signal used for feedback. With every comb line now effectively phase locked to theoptical frequency reference, the comb provides a phase coherent link from the opticalreference to any other optical frequency within the comb bandwidth. This represents
a very powerful “universal gearing” allowing any optical frequencies to be accurately
compared with just one relatively simple setup. Even the microwave frequency domain
can be accessed via the spacing of the comb lines (or equivalently, harmonics of frep ). Useof the microwave information is one scheme for making the clockwork (gear reduction)of an optical atomic clock, allowing access to a countable clock readout and therefore
time-keeping.
Alternatively, instead of locking one mode of the comb to an optical frequency
reference, frep can be stabilized directly to a microwave reference. The photodetectedcomb repetition frequency is mixed with a microwave reference to produce an error signal

53that can be applied to a PZT-actuated mirror in the laser cavity. With f0 stabilizedusing the f -to-2f scheme, the stability of the microwave reference is transferred to every
comb line, and thus to the entire optical spectrum within the comb bandwidth.
Whether locking the comb in the microwave or optical domain, some finite residual locking error will always exist (perhaps set by thermal noise or shot noise in the bestcase). When stabilizing the comb using a heterodyne beat against some optical reference, this locking error contributes much less to the fractional instability than it would
contribute in the case of stabilization of frep , as discussed in Section 2.3. Therefore it
is best to consider optically locking the comb for deriving microwave information fromstable optical references in order to take advantage of the large frequency division (andtherefore division of the noise) from the optical reference to the microwave frequency
of interest. In addition, optical references based on lasers stabilized to highly isolated
passive cavities now represent the most stable and pure oscillators from any region of
the spectrum – therefore directly locking the comb to such a source will provide thebest available performance to the comb.
The simplicity of locking a femtosecond comb relative to some reference is madepossible by the need to actively control only two degrees of freedom, allowing the modelocking process of a femtosecond laser to enforce the rigid spacing of comb lines across thelaser’s spectrum. The accuracy of Eqn. 3.4 has now been tested at the 1 × 10−19 level incomparisons of four independent combs, each locked to a common optical reference [109].
Indeed, stabilization of femtosecond frequency combs has become a routine and robust
method for transferring the phase coherence and stability offered by a reference fromanywhere in the electromagnetic spectrum (rf and microwave [105, 110, 104, 98, 111],
infrared [24, 108, 112, 113], visible [114, 115], or even UV and XUV [31, 116]) acrossvast frequency gaps.

Chapter 4

Optical to Microwave Conversion

In Chapter 3 I showed how the frequency comb output from a femtosecond laser
can be used to link optical and microwave frequencies together in a phase-coherent way.
Essentially, some harmonic of frep can be detected as the microwave output of such an
optical-to-microwave converter. Due to the inverse dependence of Eqn. 2.4 on the carrier
frequency, the timing jitter from thermal and shot noise for such microwave detection
is significantly greater than for optical heterodyne detection. Therefore great care must
be taken to use high optical powers to detect high harmonics of frep , as discussed in
Section 2.2. In this Chapter I will describe the efforts I have made toward extremely
low-jitter detection of a femtosecond laser’s stable repetition rate harmonics, out to large
Fourier frequencies. As opposed to the case for measuring extremely low instabilities atlong timescales, here I will concentrate on developing extremely pure (low phase noise
at high Fourier frequencies) optical-to-microwave conversion. The applications for such
pure microwaves include synchronization technology (as will be discussed in Chapter 5)
for a wide variety of pump-probe applications at high sampling rates, and remote fibertransfer of femtosecond frequency combs as will be discussed in Chapter 8. In addition
to creating extremely pure microwave signals at high (> 10 kHz) Fourier frequencies, theissue of dividing the optical frequency of a next-generation optical atomic clock down
to the microwave regime is of prime importance for time-keeping. Even the world’s best
optical frequency reference is not useful for time-keeping without being able to count55
its cycles (or better yet, keep track of its phase). Therefore the most stable conversion
of a femtosecond laser’s optical pulse timing into the timing of electronic pulses from a
photodetector is necessary in order to faithfully transfer the optical frequency reference’s
stability into the countable microwave regime.

4.1

Measuring phase noise electronically
In Chapter 2 I defined the phase noise spectral density (Eqn. 2.2) and gave someexamples of fundamental and technical limitations, such as shot noise and thermal noise,to the achievable phase noise purity. I concluded with the observation that optical techniques for phase detection were desirable due to the high timing resolution offered by
optical frequencies. However, sometimes stable and pure microwaves must still be derived from optical references, such as in the clockwork described in Section 3.3 andChapter 7. This is particularly true since state-of-the-art optical frequency references
are now achieving the highest stability and purity of any electromagnetic oscillators;
therefore it should be able to derive similarly-pure microwave references using the frequency comb. There is, however, one difficulty of using the comb: when measuring thephase of microwave information derived from pulsed lasers (harmonics of frep ), greatcare must be taken to reduce the fundamental limits while avoiding technical noise
sources (see Section 2.2).

4.1.1

Homodyne phase detection with a mixer

When two microwave signals are to be compared in order to measure their relative
phase fluctuations, the traditional technique is to use a saturated mixer. Ignoring
amplitude and phase noise on the input signals driving the mixer’s local oscillator (LO)and radio frequency (RF) ports, they can be written as:
VLO (t) = VLO sin (2πνLO t + φLO )

(4.1)

56
VRF (t) = VRF sin (2πνRF t + φRF ) .

(4.2)

The mixer is a nonlinear device which (ideally) multiplies the two signals together,and outputs this product at the intermediate frequency (IF) port:


cos
[2π
(ν
−
ν
)
t
+
(φ
−
φ
)]
LO
RF
LO
RF


VIF (t) = Vmax .
− cos [2π (νLO + νRF ) t + (φLO + φRF )](4.3)

When used as a phase detector, νLO = νRF , and by using a low pass filter to dump thesum-frequency term in 4.3, we have the phase detector dc output voltage
VIF (∆φ) = Vmax cos (φLO − φRF ) = Vmax cos (∆φ) .

(4.4)


2 +V2
Note that because the input power VLO
RF /R (R is the system’s characteristic
impedance, usually 50 Ohms) is split into a sum frequency band and a difference frequency band, the output power in the difference frequency band (phase detection band)is at most half of the input power, with additional losses in the mixer itself. For typicalpowers at the RF and LO ports of 0 and +7 dBm, respectively, Vmax is typically around
250 mV. The phase shifter in one arm of the measurement system is used to set thephases in quadrature at the mixer such that ∆φ = 90◦ , which is where VIF (∆φ) bothcrosses through zero and is the most sensitive to fluctuations in the relative phase.
For small deviations of the phase, the sensitivity of VIF (∆φ) near this point
is usually approximated as linear. The phase shifter can be tuned to determine thecoefficient Vmax in Eqn. 4.4. Then, by evaluating the phase-derivative of Eqn. 4.4
at the phase-quadrature (zero output voltage) point, the mixer’s sensitivity to phasefluctuations is simply



d
Kφ =
(VIF cos (∆φ))= Vmax [V/rad] .
d (∆φ)∆φ=90◦(4.5)

Therefore, by analyzing the mixer’s output with a fast-fourier-transform, which provides
the double-sideband voltage spectral density SVIF (f ), we have knowledge of the phase57
noise power spectral density of the DUT:SφDU T (f ) = SVIF (f ) /Kφ2 .

(4.6)

One practical consideration is the extremely low voltage noise levels to be expectedfrom the mixer’s output for state-of-the-art phase noise measurements. For the caseof the typical level-7 mixer I have been discussing, a 10-GHz signal with, for example,−150 dBC/Hz of single-sideband phase noise in a 50-Ohm system will lead to a measured
voltage power spectral density of SVIF (f ) = -159 dBV/Hz. Such fluctuations are so weakthat a low-noise dc amplifier should normally be used immediately at the output of themixer. This ensures that any electronic noise pickup on a subsequent cable leading to the
FFT machine or to locking electronics will be negligible compared to the measured phasenoise. In fact, I believe low-frequency (sub-Hz) drifts of the out-of-loop synchronization
measurements to be described in Chapter 5 could be attributed to such pickup, since atthe time of those measurements we did not use such a low-noise amplifier close to themixer output. Even just a little mechanical fluctuation of the BNC cable leading awayfrom the mixer could lead to a significant timing fluctuation as a result.

4.1.2

Independent oscillators vs. single component measurement

It is important to understand the distinction between measuring the excess phasenoise added to some pure signal by a microwave component, and measuring the relative
phase noise of two independent oscillators.
The traditional saturated-mixer design for the measurement of the excess phasenoise of a microwave component is shown in the left of Fig. 4.1. A strong, low-noise
oscillator is split and driven through two differential paths, one containing the deviceunder-test (DUT), before driving the LO and RF ports of a double-balanced mixer(DBM). Because the power of the common-mode oscillator can be made very large,
the excess noise of the DUT can be measured down to extremely low levels without

58

ĳ
DUT

LO

RF

ĳ
VIF

LO

VIF

RF

Figure 4.1: Traditional saturated-mixer systems for phase measurement. (Left)
Common-mode phase noise measurement system for determining the excess phase noiseof the DUT with a strong oscillator. (Right) Differential phase comparator for forming
real-time phase comparisons of the two independent oscillators. For the case of opticalto-microwave conversion of harmonics of frep , the two signals in the phase comparator
are relatively weak and must therefore be amplified, which represents an additionalsource of noise.

59
contamination of the measurement by thermal noise.
In contrast with the system used to measure the excess phase introduced by
the DUT, a traditional phase comparator is shown on the right side of Fig. 4.1, forthe purpose of measuring the relative phase noise between two independent oscillators.
This is similar to the typical system we use for the phase comparison of microwave
harmonics of frep after photodetection of pulse trains from femtosecond lasers. Two
independent signals are formed, but are typically not strong enough to drive and saturate
a mixer. As a result, amplification in each arm becomes necessary. The amplifier flicker
noise can limit the performance of the traditional phase comparator, but microwave
interferometric techniques can be used to prevent the flicker noise in some cases. See
Section 2.2.2 for references discussing such methods.
This distinction between a phase noise measurement system and a phase comparator is very important. The phase noise measurement system assumes a strong,
low-noise oscillator is available, so the DUT’s phase noise properties can be measured
with extremely low phase noise contributions from thermal noise. Another way of seeing this is that Prf in Eqns. 2.10 and 2.12 can be made extremely large so as to reducethese limitations. The phase comparator is used for a different purpose, namely that ofmeasuring the relative phase of the two oscillators. In the case of optical detection ofharmonics of frep , often the oscillators themselves have weak signal strength and plentyof relative amplitude and phase noise, as opposed to the strong, relatively quiet andcommon-mode source used to drive the phase noise measurement system. Therefore
the problem of making phase noise measurements of an optical-to-microwave conversion
system, as discussed next in Section 4.1.3, is somewhat more difficult than the usualcase of measuring noise of individual microwave components.

60
4.1.3

Measuring the phase noise of repetition frequency harmonics

I now turn to the specific case of detecting harmonics of frep from a femtosecond
laser. As discussed in Section 2.3.1, this technique is insensitive to the optical phase andso does not take advantage of the large scaling factor between optical and microwave
frequencies. Only the timing of the pulses, an intrinsically rf or microwave quantity, isdetected, so considerations regarding excess noise sources are important.
In order to fully compare the microwave signals from two independent lasers, eachmust be individually photodetected and subsequently phase-compared. Figure 4.2 shows
the simplest possible such system. Light from two independent femtosecond lasers isincident upon two high-speed photodetectors. The detectors respond at all harmonics offrep within their bandwidth (before their response becomes too small). The particularharmonic of interest is filtered with a narrow microwave bandpass filter, amplified, andused to drive a DBM as in the phase comparator scheme. A phase shifter before eitherof the mixer’s inputs is used to tune the relative phase of the two oscillators to theappropriate quadrature point (∆φ = 90◦ ) for making a phase measurement. Amplitude
noise can also be measured by tuning the phase shifter so as to maximize the DC
output of the mixer. For the extremely low level of voltage fluctuations we may hope todetect, it is important to use a low-noise preamplifier located close to the mixer, before
analyzing the signal on an FFT machine or using it to feedback to one oscillator forsynchronization. The preamplifier helps to reduce the effects of pickup from small dc
voltage fluctuations on, for example, a BNC cable leading to the FFT machine or the
feedback electronics.
Although the system shown in Fig. 4.2 is the simplest system for measuring the
microwave phase noise of photodetected harmonics of frep , it still lends itself to many
possible sources of additional, unwanted noise. These excess noise sources were describedin Section 2.2, but here I will briefly list them again. For instance, the photodetectors

61

Shot Noise

Mixer Flicker
Noise
RF

ĳ

Phase
Measurement
LO

Amplitude-tophase conversion

Amplifier Flicker
Noise
Thermal(Johnson) Noise

Figure 4.2: Measurement of the relative phase noise of two independent microwave
signals available from photodetection of the pulse trains of fs lasers. The two pulse
trains might come from separate lasers for the purposes of synchronization, or fromthe same laser for the purposes of measuring the optoelectronic measurement system’s
noise floor. Tunable bandpass filters are used to select the desired harmonic of frep ,and amplification is necessary in order to appropriately drive the mixer. A preamplifier
is used immediately after the mixer in order to avoid problems with pickup on anytransmission cable leading to the FFT machine or servo electronics used to synchronize
the two oscillators. Even though the optical pulse trains’ repetition frequencies may havean exceedingly noiseless phase relationship, excess noise enters into the measurement
system in several ways. The photodetectors allow for amplitude-to-phase conversion, or
pointing-to-phase conversion, as well as the usual shot noise. The amplifiers and mixer
all have an associated 1/f flicker noise. Thermal (Johnson) noise for the typical 50-ohm
system is also present.

62
can introduce amplitude-to-phase conversion if any optical amplitude noise exists on
the incident light. Pointing instability of the beams can create a similar effect. The
usual shot noise from photodetection is present, in addition to thermal (Johnson) noise
throughout the 50-ohm electronic system. Finally, the amplifiers and mixer can haveexcess noise, usually in the form of 1/f flicker noise. For all these reasons, extremely
careful design of the optoelectronic system is critical. The subjects of the following
two Sections will therefore be: first, how to build an appropriate electronic system, andsecond, how to construct an optical detection system minimizing unwanted excess noise.
I will then describe how we combined the two systems for the purpose of measuring thenoise floor of a complete optical-to-microwave conversion system, and show that we have
now reached the combined shot and thermal noise floor for 1.4 mW of incident average
optical power per photodetector, limited at Fourier frequencies below 10 kHz by themixer’s intrinsic flicker noise.

4.2

Noise floor of the microwave system
If the complete optical-to-microwave conversion system is to have the best-possible

performance, a useful starting point is to make sure the microwave components are asnoiseless as possible. In order to measure the noise floor of the microwave system, I
modified the basic setup shown in Fig. 4.2 to include only microwave components byreplacing the two photodiodes with a common-mode synthesizer split between the twoarms of the experiment, as shown in Fig. 4.3. The 7.6-GHz microwave carrier frequencyof the synthesizer was chosen because it is both the 10th harmonic of a 760-MHz laser
and the 80th harmonic of a 95-MHz laser, both located on the same optical table in
our laboratory. For 1 mW of incident optical power on the photodetector, we measured∼ −9 dBm of output microwave power at 7.6 GHz for the higher rep-rate laser. Therefore we simulated that same microwave power in each arm of the microwave phase noise
measurement system.

63

YJ060-03+ 24 dBĳ

LO

7.6 GHzto FFTG = 100

RF
YJ060-04+ 12 dB

Figure 4.3: Experimental setup for measuring the microwave system’s noise floor. A
common synthesizer operating at 7.6 GHz is split into the two arms of the experiment.
Attenuators are used just after the splitter in order to simulate the same power levels
we expect from the photodiodes that will be eventually used in the optical-to-microwave
conversion system. Low-phase-noise amplifiers (designed and built by Terry Brown) arethen used to appropriately drive the mixer. JILA circuit design part numbers are given
for the interested reader. We choose to drive the LO port with +8 dBm and the RF portwith -2 dBm of microwave power. A phase-shifter allows the mixer to be used at thephase quadrature point, but also allows exploration of interesting amplitude-to-phaseconversion effects by slightly detuning the relative phase. A low-noise dc amplifier witha gain of 100 is used immediately at the mixer output so that electronic pickup between
the mixer output and the FFT machine is made insignificant.

64
I will now briefly describe some low-phase-noise amplifiers we employ for the
optical-to-microwave phase noise measurement, before a more lengthy description ofa series of experiments showing that the mixer’s amplitude-to-phase conversion canbe a limiting factor. Finally, even if the amplitude-to-phase conversion is solved, themixer’s intrinsic flicker noise becomes the practical limit without resorting to microwave
interferometric techniques.

4.2.1

Low-Noise Amplifiers

Even though we should achieve as much microwave power from the photodiodes
as possible, the +7 dBm it would take to drive a level-7 double-balanced mixer would
require far too much incident optical power for the photodetectors. Therefore amplification of the microwave signals is necessary. However, typical amplifiers exhibit a 1/f(for Fourier frequency f ) flicker noise near the microwave carrier. This noise comes
about due to nonlinearities in the amplifier which lead to upconversion of noise in thedc bias [66], as discussed in Section 2.2.2. A useful starting point for avoiding thisproblem is therefore to choose a highly linear amplifier chip. Terry Brown, in the JILA
electronics shop, hunted down such a linear amplifier chip made by Sirenza, part number SBW-5089. With an appropriate micro-strip board layout, Terry was able to makeone-, two-, and even three-stage amplifiers, each stage having roughly 10- to 12-dB ofgain at 7.6 GHz. Although his initial design also included feedback to the bias voltage
for the purpose of stabilizing its flicker noise, I have not yet been able to measure acontribution of excess phase noise from the amplifiers relative to the phase noise fromthe mixer. This assertion will be proven next.

4.2.2

Mixer Noise

In order to determine whether the noise floor of the system shown in Fig. 4.3 islimited by the amplifiers or the mixer, I constructed the system shown in Fig. 4.4. With-

65

7.6 GHzPower amp withexcess broadband
amplitude noise-10 dB
coupler

RFĳ

LO
to FFTG = 100

Figure 4.4: Experimental setup for measuring the mixer’s noise floor. With no amplifiers, the measured noise must come from either the directional coupler, microwave
cables, the phase shifter, or the mixer. Of these, the coupler and the mixer are themost suspect. Since the synthesizer could not drive the system with enough power, apower amp was used before the coupler. This led to very interesting results, since thepower amp had significant broadband amplitude noise. Through amplitude-to-phaseconversion in either the coupler (differential amplitude-to-phase noise between its two
outputs) or the mixer, an excess of broadband phase noise was measured at the mixer
output when the phase shifter tuned the system to phase quadrature. However, tuning slightly away from quadrature led to cancellation between amplitude noise and thephase noise it generated.

66
out amplifiers, the noise floor of the mixer could be directly measured. Unfortunately,
the common-mode synthesizer could not output enough power to directly drive bothmixer inputs, so I used a power amplifier before splitting the signal, and then ensured
that the power driving the two mixer inputs was identical to the system with amplifiers.
This eventually led to a very interesting set of measurements regarding the mixer’s
amplitude-to-phase conversion, since the power amp had considerable amplitude noise.
At first I tuned the system’s phase shifter in one arm so that VIF (∆φ) was set to zero
DCV, and measured the residual voltage fluctuations with an FFT machine in the usual
way. Surprisingly, the voltage fluctuations were greater than for the more-complicatedsystem with amplifiers. This is shown in Fig. 4.5 in the upper plot as the upper curve.
However, I noticed that by tuning the phase shifter slightly away from this point, I
could decrease the voltage noise by a significant amount, as shown in the second highest
curve in the upper plot of Fig. 4.5. This “sweet spot” did not occur at the level of afew mV that might be expected for a mixer with a small dc offset – rather, it occurred
when the dc output voltage was 70 mV (Vmax ∼ 260mV ). As a result, I postulated
that either the mixer or the splitter was undergoing amplitude-to-phase conversion. If
the amplitude noise and the resulting converted phase noise were therefore coherent
with respect to each other, it would in principle be possible to find a particular valueof ∆φ for which the mixer output would have equal and opposite voltage fluctuations
due to the amplitude and phase noise. This should lead to cancellation of the coherent
noise processes, leaving only voltage fluctuations from the residual incoherent amplitude
and/or phase fluctuations. Note that the level of cancellation is about 25 dB from 1 kHz
to 10 kHz, but at lower frequencies the cancellation is less. The residual flicker floor
is due to the intrinsic mixer flicker noise as shown in the lower plot of Fig. 4.5, which
compares the mixer-only measurement at the sweet spot to the full microwave systemmeasurement including microwave amplifiers. The two curves differ only by a few dB
across the Fourier spectrum. This difference can be explained by the different values ofVoltage Power Spectral Density [dBV / rtHz]67

FFT Noise Floor
Sweet Spot w/ and w/o preamp
Zero DC out w/ and w/o preamp

-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
0

10

1

10

2

3

10
10
Fourier Frequency [Hz]

-80

4

10

5

10

Full System w/ amps, data taken at 0 VDC
System w/o amps, data taken at "sweet spot"[dBV / rtHz]

-90
-100
-110
-120
Noise measurement not normalized
for G = 100 dc preamp after mixer

-130

0

10

1

10

2

3

10
10
Fourier Frequency [Hz]

10

4

5

10

Figure 4.5: Amplitude-to-phase conversion and the mixer flicker noise floor. The upper
plot shows several measurements of noise at the output of the system shown in Fig. 4.4.
The upper two curves are data taken at the output of the dc preamplifier (Gain of 100)
used at the mixer’s IF output. The highest curve in red is data taken at the phasequadrature point (0 VDC) while the next lower curve in green is the noise when thephase shifter is tuned to the “sweet spot” where amplitude noise cancels the phase noise
it generates. The same data was also taken without the preamplifiers, again shown in
red and green as the third and fourth lowest curves. Note that above 10 kHz, thepreamplifier allows data to be taken below the noise floor of the FFT machine, shownin black. The lower plot shows voltage fluctuations out of the full system from Fig. 4.3
including microwave amplifiers (in blue) compared to the sweet spot data from theupper plot. Due to slightly different input powers to the mixer, the data differ by a few
dB, but this provides strong evidence that the full microwave system is limited by themixer’s flicker noise out to beyond 10 kHz where thermal noise begins to dominate.

68
Vmax for the mixer in the two different setups.
I tested the idea of amplitude noise cancelling the phase noise it generates (throughamplitude-to-phase conversion) in several ways. First, I made a measurement of themixer’s output voltage noise at 10-kHz Fourier frequency as a function of the phaseshifter’s value. The results are plotted in Fig. 4.6, along with the average dc value of
VIF as a function of the relative phase. The noise at 10 kHz achieves a minimum when
∆φ is slightly below the phase quadrature points, corresponding to dc output voltagesof ∼ ±70 mV. I choose to denote the phase of these “sweet spots” as φss and the dc
voltage at the sweet spots as Vss . The fact that the sweet spots occur at points along
the dc voltage curve with both opposite sign and opposite slope is consistent with theamplitude-to-phase conversion idea. Also, note that the local maxima of noise occur
slightly shifted from the amplitude quadrature point (where VIF = Vmax ) by the same
magnitude of phase shift between the noise minimum and the phase quadrature point.
This is because the amplitude and phase noise can add constructively for these valuesof the phase.
Another way to show the amplitude-to-phase conversion is really occurring is topurposely amplitude-modulate the synthesizer output at a particular frequency; here
I choose a modulation frequency of 10 kHz. Figure 4.7 shows the voltage spectral
density of VIF when the average value of VIF is both zero, and when the phase is tuned
to φss , demonstrating a 30-dB cancellation between the coherent amplitude and phasefluctuations. Note that in addition, the depth of modulation was increased to give 40 dBof extra phase noise (as measured at the phase quadrature point) so that the resulting
noise at the sweet spot could even be measured. Therefore the sweet spot cancellation
between amplitude noise and phase noise coherently stemming from amplitude-to-phaseconversion can be as high as 70 dB. Also, the broadband noise did not decrease by 70 dB
at all Fourier frequencies, implying that some residual source of noise becomes the newlimitation once the phase noise from amplitude-to-phase conversion is cancelled by the

69

Mixer Output Voltage [mV]

200

-150
100

Iss

0

Vss = -68.8 mV

-155

-100
-160
-200

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Noise Spectral Density [dBVrms/rtHz]-145

Phase [In units of Pi]
Figure 4.6: Plot demonstrating the cancellation of amplitude noise and the phase noise
it generates through amplitude-to-phase conversion. The blue sinusoidal curve plottedon the left axis shows the mixer’s dc output voltage as a function of the relative phasebetween its two input signals. The red data plotted on the right axis is the levelof voltage noise at 10 kHz Fourier frequency. At the “sweet spots” near 0.4π and 1.4π
radians of relative phase, coherent cancellation of the amplitude and phase noise occurs,
indicating that a form of amplitude-to-phase conversion is occurring in the system, most
likely in the mixer itself.

Mixer Output fluctuations [dBV]

70

10-kHz AM applied, measured at 0 VDC
AM increased so 0 VDC fluctuations
increase by 40 dB, but then measured at
sweet spot

-40

-60

-80

-100
3

4

5 6 7 8

3

10

2

3

4

5 6 7 84

10Fourier Frequency [Hz]

2

3

4

5 6 7 85

10Figure 4.7: Amplitude modulation leading to phase modulation through amplitude-tophase conversion. The two curves shown are measured using the setup from Fig. 4.4,
but with amplitude modulation at 10 kHz applied to the common-mode synthesizer’s
output. The upper curve was measured at the phase quadrature point where the mixer’s
dc output voltage is zero. The lower curve was measured at the sweet spot where
amplitude and phase fluctuations cancel. For the lower curve, the amplitude modulation
was purposely increased by an amount that raised the phase-quadrature signal by 40 dB,
so the cancellation at the sweet spot was as good as 70 dB.

71
amplitude noise it came from, at the sweet spot.
Mathematically, the cancellation between coherent amplitude and phase noise canbe described as follows: let the output of the mixer be corrupted by both amplitude
and phase fluctuations. We can write it as
VIF = (Vmax + δVmax ) cos (∆φ + δφ)(4.7)

where δVmax and δφ represent the amplitude and phase fluctuations from the average
amplitude Vmax and average relative phase ∆φ. Then for small fluctuations of the phaseand amplitude, we can expand VIF around the point ∆φ0 as follows:
VIF≈ (Vmax + δVmax ) cos (∆φ0 ) − (Vmax + δVmax ) sin (∆φ0 ) δφ
= Vmax cos (∆φ0 )+ δVmax cos (∆φ0 ) − δφ sin (∆φ0 ) Vmax
− δφδVmax sin (∆φ0 )(4.8)

The first term is the constant dc term and is zero at exactly the phase quadraturepoint, ignoring any small dc offset of the mixer’s response. The second term can be used
to measure pure amplitude fluctuations if ∆φ0 is tuned to π, the amplitude quadraturepoint, since the third and fourth terms will go to zero.
The third term is what we normally think of when we want to measure phase noise,since setting ∆φ0 to the phase quadrature point of π/2 gives maximum sensitivity toδφ with zero contribution from the second term. Then only the third and fourth terms
contribute, and they can be combined as δφ (Vmax + δVm ax). As long as Vmax  δVmax
this is an accurate measure of phase noise. Also, the phase quadrature point must be
found accurately enough so that the second term is negligible. This condition is satisfied
when δφ  (δVmax /Vmax ) cos (∆φ0 ).
The sweet spot cancellation comes about when the second and third terms add
to zero. This can happen if the amplitude and phase noises are correlated. Suppose

72
the phase fluctuations δφ can be written as the sum of δφa , processes coherent with theamplitude noise, and δφp , processes incoherent with the amplitude noise representing
the true phase fluctuations we want to measure. Then at the sweet spot, ∆φ0 = φss
and Eqn. 4.8 can be rewritten as
VIF= Vmax cos (φss )+ δVmax cos (φss ) − δφa [sin (φss ) (Vmax + δVmax )]− δφp [sin (φss ) (Vmax + δVmax )](4.9)

Now if δVmax  Vmax , the terms on the second line will cancel coherently at the sweet
spot since δφa and δVmax are related by the amplitude-to-phase conversion coefficientCap ≡ δφa /δVmax . Aside from the dc offset (first term), only the phase noise unrelated
to amplitude noise will be measured as the fourth term. Then for small amplitude noise(δVmax  Vmax ) the remaining phase noise measurement term is just−δφp (Vmax sin (φss )) .

(4.10)

Note that after measuring this voltage spectral density, the phase noise information δφp
is calculated by dividing the measured linear voltage noise spectrum by Vmax sin (φss ),not just by the usual Vmax .
It is simple to show from Eqn. 4.9 and from the definition of Cap that in the limit ofsmall amplitude noise, knowing φss and Vmax immediately gives the amplitude-to-phaseconversion coefficient as
Cap =1
Vmax tan (φss )(4.11)For example, with the data from Fig. 4.6, φss was 0.416π rad and Vmax was 261.9
mV, so Cap is 1.03 rad/V. Another way to arrive at this value is to note that the√pure amplitude noise measured at the amplitude quadrature was -145 dBV/ Hz while
the phase noise from amplitude-to-phase conversion, measured at the phase quadrature√point, was -156 dBV/ Hz. Then using Vmax = 261.9 mV to convert from phase to73
amplitude noise, Cap is calculated to be 1.08 rad/V, in excellent agreement with thefirst calculation.
Another important observation is that as I applied more power to the mixer bysimply turning up the synthesizer’s power, φss moved further from the quadrature point.
Fig. 4.8 demonstrates this point in two ways. The upper left plot shows the mixer’s
dc voltage output as a function of the relative phase ∆φ, for various microwave power
levels at the mixer’s RF port. Here, 0 dB of attenuation corresponds to +5 dBm ofpower at the RF port, and for all curves the LO was driven by +8 dBm of microwave
power. Note the saturation occurring as the RF power is increased. The upper rightplot shows the voltage fluctuations at the mixer’s IF output, in a 256-Hz bandwidth
centered at 10 kHz Fourier frequency, for the same four powers driving the RF port.
The middle plot shows this same data on a linear vertical axis. A calculation of just theterms in Eqn. 4.8 reveals that the functional form of the data in the middle plot shouldbe the absolute value of a sinusoid. At the lowest level of power at the mixer’s RF port,
this becomes true, but for higher powers higher-order terms begin to matter and thefunctional form becomes much more complicated. Finally, the bottom graph directly
plots the voltage fluctuations against the dc voltage output. The sweet spot cancellation
clearly moves further from the phase quadrature point as the driving power is increased,consistent with amplitude-to-phase conversion that depends on the magnitude of theamplitude fluctuation, not on the fractional amplitude noise. The mixer’s small dc offset
of ∼ 5 mV can also be seen, so even when VIF = 0, the mixer is not at the true phasequadrature point.
Finally, the measurements do not pinpoint whether the source of the amplitudeto-phase conversion is in the mixer or in some other component such as the directional
coupler used to split the signal to the two mixer inputs. It is unlikely the phase shifteror microwave cables are responsible. By trying a few different mixers, it became clearthat since the value of φss changed for each mixer, the amplitude-to-phase conversion

Mixer Output [DCV]

0.4

Mixer Fluctuation [dBVrms]

74

0 dB atten.
3 dB atten.
6 dB atten.
12 dB atten.

0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4

Mixer Fluctuation [mVrms]

-1.0

0.0
1.0
Phase [Pi rad]

2.0

-60
-80
-100

256-Hz RBW
10-kHz AM.0666 x 30% Mod. Depth

-120
-1.0

0.0
1.0
Phase [Pi rad]

2.0

4
3
2
1
0

Mixer Fluctuation [mVrms]

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5
Phase [Pi rad]

1.0

1.5

2.0

4
3
2
1
0
-0.4

-0.2

0.0
Mixer Output [DCV]

0.2

0.4

Figure 4.8: Amplitude-to-phase noise cancellation for various powers at the mixer’s RF
port, using the setup of Fig. 4.4. The LO port was always driven with +8 dBm ofpower at 7.6 GHz, but the RF port was driven into saturation as high as +5 dBm forthe red curves. As labelled, 0 dB of attenuation corresponds to this +5 dBm of power
into the RF port. The top left graph shows the mixer’s dc output voltage as a functionof the relative phase ∆φ for the four power levels between -7 and +5 dBm. The upper
right curve shows the voltage fluctuations of VIF (∆φ) at 10 kHz Fourier frequency ina 256-Hz bandwidth vs ∆φ, on a log vertical axis. The middle plot shows the samedata on a linear vertical axis. The bottom plot directly plots the voltage noise against
the dc voltage output. As the mixer is driven higher into saturation, the sweet spot
cancellation occurs further and further from the phase quadrature point.

75
was mixer-dependent. It would be useful to verify that φss does not depend on the
coupler used to split the common-mode synthesizer input.
With these problems of amplitude-to-phase conversion now well understood, recall
that the green data shown in the bottom plot of Fig. 4.5 is a measurement of only thephase noise uncorrelated with the amplitude noise, for the system in Fig. 4.4 using
no amplifiers. When compared with the phase noise of the full system from Fig. 4.3
including microwave amplifiers (shown in blue), it seems believable that the limiting
flicker noise floor is associated with the mixer, not the amplifiers, since both systems
exhibit nearly the same magnitude of flicker noise.
This conclusion, that the mixer flicker floor (rather than the amplifiers) limits the system’s performance below 10 kHz, means that any further improvements tothe system can only be made by interferometric techniques to get around the intrinsic
mixer noise. At higher Fourier frequencies, we of course experience the usual thermal
noise limit from the amount of power we use to drive the mixer. Clearly some sufficient amount of amplitude noise on the microwave signals from the photodetectors in
Fig. 4.2 will degrade the phase noise measurement of the system through these electronic
amplitude-to-phase conversion processes. Therefore it can become important to stabilize the amplitude noise of the input microwave signals, as I will discuss in Section 4.3.
Note that the amplitude-to-phase conversion I discussed in this Section is most likely
only the differential conversion between the two mixer input ports, as opposed to theabsolute conversion of either port. If amplitude noise is uncorrelated at the two ports,
the effect of amplitude-to-phase conversion may be even worse than suggested by mymeasurement of the coefficient Cap , and so stabilization of the microwave amplitude
noise may become even more important.

76
4.2.3

Practical considerations

It is important to briefly mention a few practical considerations for making theelectronic phase noise measurements. First, for repeatability of the input levels to themixer, it was fairly important to use a microwave power meter (essentially a highfrequency rectifier) to measure the power levels. Also, a torque wrench for sma connectors was important to ensure repeatability of the various connections. Second, reducing
ground loops became important for the microwave system. All the microwave components were electrically isolated from the breadboard so that ground currents had only
one path to use. Unfortunately, the dc preamplifier used at the mixer’s IF port contaminated the signal with 60-Hz pickup noise, which is the disadvantage of using sucha preamp. This contamination can easily be seen by comparing the upper and lower
green curves of the upper plot in Fig. 4.5. However, as has already been explained,
the preamp is necessary to avoid the FFT machine’s noise floor and will be absolutely
important in any system using the signal for active feedback, to reduce the effect of
pickup (especially at low frequencies) on any BNC cable leading away from the mixer
toward feedback electronics. Third, the microwave components should always be fixed
to some common mount such as a small breadboard to give them mechanical stability. The level of timing fluctuations for these measurements correspond to extremely
small path length fluctuations in the electrical system. It may even become importantto thermally stabilize the microwave electronics. Finally, looking toward the future, it
may become necessary to use ac encoding of the phase noise measurement by microwave
interferometric techniques, combined with lock-in detection at the mixer output, in order to shift the measured noise to higher Fourier frequencies and therefore lower on themixer’s intrinsic flicker noise floor. This is an idea put forward by Eugene Ivanov, whoalways has wonderful ideas when it comes to phase noise measurement in the microwave
regime.

77

4.3

Noise floor of the optical system
With the microwave system performing at the limit of the mixer’s intrinsic noise

floor, I now turn to the optical system we use. Figure 4.9 shows the experimental setup
we use to both reduce the contributions of technical noise and measure the excess phasenoise associated with the optical-to-microwave conversion processes of photodetection
and amplification, as well as the phase noise measurement using a mixer. In the experiment, we attempt to convert the optical timing of a pulse train from a 760-MHz
Ti:sapphire laser into a microwave frequency at the 10th harmonic, or at 7.6 GHz, withas little excess phase noise as possible. The Ti:sapphire laser is left free-running for thesemeasurements, since in the case of negligible microwave dispersion in the electronics,
its frequency fluctuations are common-mode and therefore should not lead to measured
phase noise.
One potential problem associated with photodetection of the pulse train is thepointing fluctuations of the beam incident on the photodetector. Therefore we use
a short (0.5-m) piece of single-mode fiber just in front of the optical beamsplitter inorder to both clean up the mode and reduce the distance the beam travels between
the physically stable output of the fiber and the photodetectors. The fs pulse train issplit on a polarizing beamsplitter so that two photodetectors can independently detect
the 7.6-GHz harmonic of the repetition frequency. As seen in Section 4.2.2, amplitude
noise of the microwave signals can lead to measured phase noise through amplitude-tophase conversion. In a similar way, amplitude-to-phase conversion at the photodiodecan occur as discussed in Section 2.2.2. For both reasons, we attempt to stabilize theoptical intensity of each beam. In Ref. [76], where a similar system is used to measure
the excess noise of optical-to-microwave conversion, the intensity at one photodiode wasstabilized by feedback to an AOM before the beamsplitter. However, because of thedependence of the beamsplitter’s splitting ratio on pointing, stabilizing the intensity

78

Ti:sapphirelaser 760 MHz
Single-mode fiber for
pointing stability
A
O
M

ĳ

RF

Low-noise
DC preamp

Phase
Measurement
Feedback PD DC out to AOM for intensity
stabilization. Dump 1st order beam; use
zero-order beam for phase detection.

LO

A
O
M

Figure 4.9: Experimental setup for reducing and measuring the excess noise in detectionof microwave harmonics of a 760-MHz Ti:sapphire laser. The pulse train is first coupled
into a short (0.5-m) single-mode fiber in order to minimize fluctuations of pointing
on the photodetectors. After splitting a few mW toward each detector, independent
AOM’s in each path are used to stabilize the intensity of the beams. The AOM’s dumpa small fraction of the power into their first-order diffracted beams, leaving an intensitystabilized zero-order beam for photodetection. Feedback to the AOM’s is by comparing
each photodetector’s DC voltage output to a low-noise voltage reference. The 7.6-GHz
10th harmonic of the repetition frequency from each photodetector is then input to thephase noise comparison system from Fig. 4.3 in order to measure the excess phase noise
associated with the independent photodetection, amplification, and mixing scheme.

79
on one photodetector had the effect of doubling the intensity fluctuations on the other.
Therefore we choose to independently stabilize the intensities of the two optical beams
after the photodiode. Although it is still an open question as to whether the rf powerin the particular microwave harmonic should be stabilized, or whether it is sufficient to
use the dc photocurrent, we chose to use the latter. Therefore the dc photocurrent fromeach detector is compared to a stable voltage regulator, and the resulting error signal isused to feed back to each AOM’s rf driving power in order to dump more or less opticalpower into the diffracted orders. The zero-order beam is then photodetected.
Since the amount of microwave power available from each photodetector will determine the amount of phase noise from thermal and shot noise, as much microwave
power as can be generated is desirable. Typical commercially available photodetectors have a 50-Ohm resistor wire-bonded to the diode, in order to provide wideband
impedance matching to 50-Ohm electronics. However, this represents a voltage divider
and so only one-fourth of the available power from photocurrent gets to the subsequent
electronics. We therefore chose to use a photodetector without such a 50-Ohm resistor,
in favor of using a microstrip layout in a resonant LC tank configuration to impedance
match the photocurrent to subsequent amplifiers at our desired frequency of 7.6 GHz.
Again, Terry Brown’s design of the LC impedance-matching network worked as advertised – the available microwave power for the same optical incident power increasedby 8 to 9 dB relative to the 50-Ohm resistor system. With just a few mW of average
power available from a 760-MHz Ti:sapphire laser, we have achieved microwave powerof -5 dBm at 7.6 GHz directly from the photodiode and impedance matching network.
The photodetector is made by Electro-Optics Technology, model ET-4000, and they are
more than happy to sell it without the wire-bonded 50-Ohm resistor. These impedancematching methods are a simple way to push the fundamental phase noise floor limitation
down by many dB for a given optical power incident on the photodiodes.

80

4.4

Comparison of results
Figure 4.10 shows a comparison of our various measurements to some of the best

measurements made by others of the phase noise of microwave signals from femtosecond
lasers. The light blue data labelled “Low optical power” and the light green data labelled“High optical power” were measured using the setup shown in Fig. 4.2, without any
intensity stabilization of the optical beams. Average powers of 0.2 and 2 mW wereused on each photodetector for the respective measurements. With the higher average
power, the shot noise floor was reduced, but extremely structured noise from 100 Hz
to 1 kHz was present due to amplitude-to-phase conversion. This was confirmed bymeasuring the power fluctuations at the output of the Ti:sapphire laser with a lowspeed photodetector, which revealed intensity fluctuations with the same spectrum as
the phase noise measurement.
By applying the intensity stabilization described in Section 4.3 and shown in
Fig. 4.9, at a similar average power of 1.4 mW, the black data labelled “With amplitude stable” was achieved. With the intensity fluctuations greatly reduced, less noise
between 100 Hz and 1 kHz was present, even for such a high optical power. We alsomeasured the noise floor of the electronics without photodetectors as shown in Fig. 4.3
and discussed in Section 4.2, being careful to simulate the microwave powers available
from the photodetectors. The result is shown in red, labelled “Full RF noise floor.”
The comparison between the red “Full RF noise floor” data and the black “With amplitude stable” data demonstrates that the full optoelectronic system is essentially limitedby the electronics, not the photodetectors, at these power levels. As discussed in Section 4.2.2, the mixer’s flicker noise is responsible for the flicker floor limit below 10 kHz,
while the high frequency limit is due to shot noise from the optical power we can apply to the photodetector. When taking the “With amplitude stable” data, -12 dBm of
microwave power was available from both photodetectors at 7.6 GHz. The noise floor

81

-90

1/2

McFerran RF
Bartels optical
McFerran noise floor
1-Hz laser
Ye shot noise limit
Low optical power
High optical power
With amplitude stable
Full RF noise floor

0.1

-100
-110
-120

0.01
-130
-140

0.001
-150
-160

SSB Phase Noise @ 10 GHz [dBc/Hz]

Jitter Spectral Density [fsrms/Hz ]10.00010Integrated Jitter [fs]

10

1

10

2

10

3

f [Hz]

10

4

10

5

10

2.0

2.0
Low optical power
High optical power
With amplitude stable
Full RF noise floor

1.5

1.5

1.0

1.0

0.5

0.5

0.0

0.0
0

10

1

10

2

10

3

f [Hz]

10

4

10

5

10

Figure 4.10: Several results of various experiments to detect the phase noise of microwave signals generated by detecting harmonics of frep from femtosecond combs. The
traces labelled “Low optical power” and “High optical power” are from the detection
scheme shown in Fig. 4.2, with 0.2 and 2 mW of average power per detector, respectively. The black data labelled “With amplitude stable” is from a similar system, where
amplitude stabilization of the optical beams has been employed prior to photodetection.
This leads to a reduced level of amplitude-to-phase conversion in the 100-Hz to 1-kHz
regime. The “Full RF noise floor” is measured with an identical system, but replacing
the two photodetectors with a common synthesizer, simulating the powers that would
be available from the photodetectors. This demonstrates that the photodiodes, withamplitude stabilization, are at least as quiet as the microwave system. For comparison,“McFerran RF” and “Bartels optical” show the microwave and optical phase noise of
10-GHz harmonics of frep for some of the best systems yet measured. For references,
see the text. Also for comparison, the optical phase noise from a sub-Hz ultrastablelaser is shown, scaled to a 10-GHz carrier.

82
we reach near 100 kHz is only 4 dB higher than one can calculate for this amount ofphotocurrent in the system. Note from Fig. 2.1(b) that with the 1.4 mA we used, thephase noise contribution from thermal noise is only slightly less than the phase noise
contribution from shot noise. Therefore it is reasonable to believe that the noise floor
we achieve is limited by a combination of both thermal and shot noise. Higher incident
optical powers will be necessary to further push these limitations down, and with theintensity stabilization we should be able to apply significantly more power (approaching
10 mW) to the photodetectors while keeping amplitude-to-phase noise to a minimum.
For comparison, I also show two dashed lines representing the performance levels
achieved by other systems. The green dashed line labelled “McFerran RF” is taken from
Ref. [64]. In their system, microwave interferometric techniques were employed in orderto reduce the effective noise from flicker of the microwave amplifiers. As a result, thenoise floor of their measurement (shown as a solid green line labelled “McFerran noise
floor”) was exceedingly low, but other noise sources still led to the performance shownby the dashed green line. It is important to note that we achieve similar performance
without the need for the complexity of microwave interferometry, due to the excellent
design of our low-phase-noise amplifiers. The blue dashed line was measured in Ref. [78]using optical methods as opposed to microwave methods, in order to measure the excess
phase noise of a femtosecond laser’s optical pulse train when it locks to a stable cw laser.
By locking two femtosecond lasers to the same cw laser, and then optically (as opposed
to with the optical-to-microwave phase detection methods described in this Chapter)
detecting the heterodyne beat (at the difference between their offset frequencies, ∆f0 )between the two frequency combs in a narrow spectral region, the phase noise of the
optical pulse train was measured. Our best optical-to-microwave conversion’s phasenoise results are approaching this intrinsic optical performance of the Ti:sapphire lasers
at low frequencies (below 1 kHz) and exceeding the performance in the 1-to-100-kHz
range.

83
Integrating our intensity-stabilized system’s timing jitter spectral density from
1 Hz to 100 kHz gives an rms jitter of 0.4 fs, significantly less than the duration of an
optical cycle. Also, this contribution presumably represents the incoherent (quadrature)sum of independent noise from each optical-to-microwave conversion arm of the experiment. Therefore, a reasonably claim is that the performance of either photodetector√
plus-amp system has 2 less noise than shown in Fig. 4.10. Such low levels of timing
jitter pave the way for synchronization experiments that preserve the coherence between
two fs lasers as described in Chapter 5.
Finally, I have included a grey solid line labelled “1-Hz laser” to indicate the phasenoise performance of the ultrastable clock lasers that will be described in Section 7.1.3.
At the lowest Fourier frequencies (below 10 Hz) our optical-to-microwave conversion
can take advantage of the ultrastable performance of such a laser, but clearly at higher
Fourier frequencies there is much work to be done! The measurements described inthis Chapter have focused mostly on pushing down the thermal and shot noise floors byturning up the photodetected optical power. It will be equally important to measure thestability of optical-to-microwave conversion at long timescales when considering whether
it performs at a level suitable to preserve the stability of next-generation optical clocks.
Such a microwave readout is indeed a necessary component of the clock for time-keeping;since the optical cycles can not be directly counted, optical-to-microwave conversion that
preserves the coherence and stability of the optical frequency reference will allow thegeneration of a countable microwave clock output!

Chapter 5

Synchronization of Femtosecond Lasers

At the time I began working at JILA with Jun, the merger of ultrafast laser
techniques and precision frequency metrology had already resulted in recent dramatic
progress in a number of fields, including optical frequency measurement [104, 110],
optical clocks [117, 118], and carrier-envelope phase control [98, 119]. An exciting areaof research is “coherent control”, which employs pulses of light shaped in amplitude
and phase to selectively [25] drive chemical reactions [26], molecular vibrations [27], orthe nonlinear up-conversion of light into the extreme ultraviolet region [28] to name afew examples. Ideally, coherent control would need phase-coherent, temporally shapedpulses over a wide spectral range (therefore of femtosecond-scale duration), so thatall possible intermediate states in a multistep quantum pathway could be accessed inorder to selectively drive a particular outcome. Some nonlinear techniques are available
for generation of coherent light over a broad spectrum, such as white-light continuum
generation [120, 99] and parametric amplification [121]. However, it would be more
flexible and more efficient to bring two or more independently tailorable pulsed laser
systems together, and precisely synchronize as well as phase-stabilize them so as toform a coherent field. Synchronization, therefore, is the first step toward this goal.
Many other technologies also benefit from precise synchronization, including rapidly
tunable near-UV and mid-IR generation by nonlinear mixing [24, 122] as discussed in
5.2, synchronization of laser light and x rays or electron beams from synchrotrons [41],85
pump-probe experiments such as coherent anti-stokes raman spectroscopy (CARS) [19],and synthesis of light pulses shorter than can be achieved with a single laser [123].
Jun’s group had already demonstrated that combined time and frequency active
stabilization can allow one to tightly synchronize two separate, passively mode-locked
femtosecond lasers [20]. The remaining rms timing jitter during an observation time oftens of seconds was shown to be less than 30 fs within a 50-kHz bandwidth and lessthan 5 fs within a 160-Hz bandwidth. This capability has allowed phase locking between
the carrier waves of the two synchronized Ti:sapphire lasers [22]. However, since thecharacteristic timing jitter was larger than the optical cycle period, phase locking could
occur for only a few tens of microseconds at a time. Coherent optical pulse synthesis
from these lasers was subsequently demonstrated [22].
The ultimate goal of this research would be to demonstrate an arbitrary light
waveform generator capable of synchronizing and phase locking arbitrary, separate
mode-locked lasers with distinct optical properties. It is thus desirable to enhance theprecision level of synchronization such that the remaining timing jitter between different
lasers would be less than the oscillation period of the optical carrier wave, namely, 2.7 fs
for Ti:sapphire lasers centered around 800 nm. One possible approach uses cross-phasemodulation to passively synchronize two mode-locked lasers that share the same intracavity gain medium [124]. However, the requirement of sharing an intracavity element
limits the flexibility and general applicability of this technique. Other techniques are toconstruct a balanced optical cross-correlator [80] or lock on the fringes of an interferometric cross-correlation [82] as discussed in Section 2.3. Both of these optical methods
have greatly relaxed requirements on the electronic noise as compared to the microwave
method I will describe in Section 5.1.2, but they also suffer from a limited dynamic
range of the relative timing delay between the two pulse trains. A final method is tostabilize both femtosecond lasers to a common cw optical reference, and at the sametime stabilize their relative offset frequencies [125]. This method has the added com-86
plexity of an additional laser and the relative offset frequency lock as compared to themethod of Section 5.1.2, but automatically results in relative optical phase stabilizationof the pulse trains in addition to just synchronization of the repetition frequencies.
In this Chapter I will describe a system using two independent femtosecond
Ti:sapphire lasers to demonstrate synchronization of their pulse trains [21]. We achieved
fs-level rms timing jitter between the two lasers, with the ability to rapidly and repeatably switch (60-µs settling time, 1-fs accuracy) between arbitrary time delays between
the pulse trains, up to 10-ps. In a further experiment, we used the synchronized lasers tosimultaneously generate rapidly tunable mid-IR (7.5 to 12.5 µm) and near-UV (400-nm)
fs pulses with more than 10 µW of average power in the infrared [24]. For the first time,synchronization between two independently adjustable femtosecond lasers was achieved,
satisfying the requirement that the residual timing jitter be below an optical cycle’s duration, opening the door for phase-coherently stitching lasers together across the visible
and infrared spectrum.

5.1

Synchronization experiment

5.1.1

The laser system

We employ two low-threshold Kerr-lens mode-locked Ti:sapphire lasers that eachproduce a mode-locked average power of more than 300 mW with 2.5-W pump power
at 532 nm [126]. The beam height inside the laser cavities is only 6 cm above thebaseplate, which should enhance stability. We find that to achieve the lowest possible
timing jitter it is critical to enclose both lasers and their pump beams to shield themfrom blowing dust and convection currents. The two lasers are both located on atemperature- controlled, 5-cm-thick, solid aluminum baseplate, which is decoupled fromthe vibration noise of the table by a set of supporting feet made from rubber. In
addition, asymmetrically positioned lead plates are tightly bonded to the bottom side87of the baseplate to damp the vibration modes. The vibration noise measured on top of
the baseplate is generally reduced by 10 dB or more within the frequency range of 100
Hz to 6 kHz compared with the noise on the optical table.
The two Ti:sapphire lasers are pumped with a Coherent Verdi V-5 solid statepump laser, with a 5.5-W output power split equally between them. Each fs laser
produces ∼200 mW of average mode-locked output power, at a repetition frequency of
100 MHz. The design of each laser is essentially the same as in Fig. 3.1, employing prism
pairs for intracavity dispersion compensation. By adjusting the prism pairs, the output
spectra can be tuned 20 to 40 nm to either side of 800 nm. Although the bandwidthof either laser corresponds to a transform limit of < 20 fs pulse durations, the pulses
are chirped after exiting each output coupler to roughly 100 fs, depending on the prism
pair alignment.
For these experiments, the master fs laser is left free-running, while the slave fs
laser is actively synchronized to the master. The servo action on the slave laser is carriedout by a combination of transducers, including a fast piezo-actuated small mirror (4 mmin diameter and 2.5 mm thick), a regular mirror mounted on a slow piezo with a large
dynamic range (2.7 mm), and an acousto-optic modulator placed in the slave laser’s
pump beam to help with the fast noise. The unity-gain frequency of the servo loop is∼200 kHz, and the loop employs three integrator stages in the low-frequency region.

5.1.2

Differential timing resolution for the servo

To synchronize the two lasers, we use two phase-locked loops (PLLs) working atdifferent timing resolutions. Figure 5.1(a) shows a diagram of the feedback system. As
seen directly in Eqn. 2.4, for a given level of phase noise due to the electronic phasedetection system, the timing jitter spectral density noise floor scales as the inverse of
the microwave carrier frequency. Therefore, in order to relax the requirements on theelectronics, detection of a high harmonic of frep must be employed; for this experiment

88
we used the 140th harmonic at 14 GHz. However, locking the two 14-GHz harmonics ofthe lasers’ repetition rates together leads to a random timing offset between the two pulse
trains. We overcome this by use of a coarse PLL to compare and lock the fundamental
repetition frequencies (100 MHz) of the two lasers. A phase shifter operating on oneof the two 100-MHz signals can be used to control the coarse timing offset between thetwo pulse trains with a full dynamic range of 5 ns. The second, high-resolution, PLL
compares the phase of the 140th harmonic of the two repetition frequencies, i.e., at 14
GHz. This second loop provides enhanced phase stability of the repetition frequency
when it supplements and then replaces the first PLL. A transition of control from thefirst to the second PLL can cause a jump in the timing offset by at most 35.71 ps (onehalf of one 14-GHz cycle), whereas the adjustable range of the 14-GHz phase shifter is
167 ps.
Figure 5.1(b) shows this transfer of control between the two PLL’s explicitly.
In the first panel, only the 100-MHz coarse PLL is activated. The slave laser can be
adjusted temporally with respect to the master by tuning the 100-MHz phase shifter, as
shown in the second and third panels. As in the third panel, once the pulses are within
150 ps of each other, the gain of the coarse PLL is slowly decreased while the gain of
the fine 14-GHz loop is increased. After this smooth transition from coarse to fine PLL,
a 14-GHz phase shifter is used to finish aligning the pulse trains in time, to the desired
time delay. The whole system can be thought of as a “differential micrometer” in time,
for the two pulse trains — the coarse servo allows for the full dynamic range in timing
offset between the pulse trains, and the fine servo provides greater timing resolution
and therefore greater phase stability for the synchronization.

5.1.3

Synchronization performance

To characterize the timing jitter, we focus the two pulse trains so that they cross ina thin β-Barium-Borate (BBO) crystal cut for sum frequency generation (type I SFG).

89
SHG

Master fs laser
SFG
Slave fs laser

BBO
SHG

100
MHz
Sampling
scope

Slave
repetition
rate control

14 GHz14 GHzPhase
shifterPhaseshifter

50 ps

(a)

14-GHz or
100-MHz
Loop gain

(a)
1)

(b) 4

Linear Unit

20Linear Unit

-2

0

2

2
0
-2

Phase control
by 100 MHz PLL -4

-4

4

2)
(b)

4

5

10
picosecond(c)3) Phase control
14-GHz PLL
Phase bycontrol

15320x10 04

by 8 GHz PLL

20Phase control
by 100 MHz PLL
500

1000
1500
2000
pico-second
(e)
4)
(d)
Phase control
Phase control
by 14-GHz PLL

by 8 GHz PLL

0

-2

-2
0

100

200

300

400

500 0

100

200

300

400

500

Time (pico-second)

Figure 5.1: (a) Experimental setup for synchronizing the pulse trains from two independent fs lasers. Two servos operating with differential timing resolutions allow tightsynchronization and an arbitrary time delay between the pulse trains. The servos feedback to a slow piezo-actuated mirror with large dynamic range, a fast piezo-actuatedmirror, and an AOM in the slave laser’s pump beam, resulting in a servo bandwidth of∼200 kHz. Characterization of the synchronization performance is made with an autocorrelation by sum frequency generation in a nonlinear BBO crystal. (b) A sampling
scope is used to monitor the coarse time delay between the pulse trains. At first, the100-MHz PLL is locked, allowing the two pulse trains to be tuned a full dynamic rangeof 5 ns. In the second panel shown, the pulse trains are coarsely overlapped using a
100-MHz phase shifter in the coarse PLL. The third step is to shift control from the
100-MHz coarse PLL to the 14-GHz fine PLL. Finally, the 14-GHz phase shifter is used
to fine-tune the timing offset until SFG is observed, meaning the pulses are overlapped
temporally in the BBO crystal.

90
The crossed-beam geometry produces a non-fringe-resolved SFG cross-correlation signal
in between SHG signals from the two input beams, as shown in Fig. 5.2(b). Note that
the SFG signal is proportional to the square of the product of the two incident fields;
therefore it will only be observable when the pulses are overlapped in space and timein the BBO crystal. Figure 5.2(a) shows the two SHG signals that are always present,
when the two pulse trains are not temporally overlapped. Figure 5.2(b) shows the casewhen the pulse trains do overlap in time, revealing the central SFG beam. By spatiallyfiltering to detect only the SFG beam, the Gaussian cross-correlation peak (obtained
when the two lasers are free running) is ∼160 fs FWHM. (No extracavity dispersion
compensation is used, so the would-be 20-fs laser pulses are broadened.) As shown in
Fig. 5.2(c), the SFG signal strength depends on the temporal overlap of the two incident
pulses, and can therefore be used to precisely measure the timing jitter between thepulse trains. The time axis of the cross correlation is calibrated by measurement of thedifference between the two laser repetition rates when the cross correlation is recorded.
The calibrated slope of the cross-correlation signal near the half-maximum can be used
to determine the relative timing jitter between the two lasers from the corresponding
intensity fluctuations. We record the intensity fluctuations of the SFG signal over a
period of several seconds, using two different low-pass bandwidths, 160 Hz and 2 MHz,
which suppress the pulsed nature (100 MHz) of the SFG signal amplitude and permit
the study of intensity noise on a cw basis.
The top trace in Fig. 5.3(a) shows that the SFG signal, recorded with a 2-MHz
bandwidth, shows only digitalization noise when the two laser pulses overlap maximally(at the top of the cross-correlation peak). In this case, the SFG signal is least sensitive
to the timing jitter and its intensity noise is limited by each individual laser’s amplitude
fluctuation. The two lower traces are recorded with 2-MHz and 160-Hz bandwidths
when the timing offset between the two pulse trains is adjusted to yield the half-intensity
level of the SFG signal. Timing jitter is calculated from the intensity noise by use of

91

(a)

(b)

'I
(c)

't

SFG
SignalIncident
PulsesFigure 5.2: (a)When the two pulse trains cross through the BBO crystal, each pulse
train undergoes second harmonic generation. (b) If the two pulses are also temporally
overlapped in the crystal, they mix with each other, forming sum-frequency light between the SHG beams. (c) The central SFG signal can therefore be used to measure
the timing jitter, by adjusting the time delay between the two pulses such that the SFG
signal is at its half-maximum. Then any timing fluctuations between the pulse trains
will be measured as variations in the SFG intensity.

1

Top of cross-correlation curve(a)Timing jitter 1.75 fs (2 MHz BW)

30 fs(two pulses maximally overlapped)

Timing jitter 0.58 fs (160 Hz BW)(two pulses offset by ~ 1/2 pulse width)

Total time (1 s)

0
10
10

2

Noise spectrum (fs /Hz)

Cross-Correlation Amplitude

92

10
10
10
10

1

(b)

0

10

-1

10

-2

10
-3

10

-4

0

20

40

60

80

Fourier Frequency (Hz)

100

(c)

-2
-4
-6
-8

0

20

40
60
80 1003x10Fourier Frequency (kHz)

Figure 5.3: (a) One-second-long trace showing the cross-correlation signal when thepulse trains are synchronized. The top trace shows the signal when the pulses are
maximally overlapped in time. The middle trace and bottom trace show rms timing
jitters of 1.75 fs and 0.58 fs in bandwidths of 2 MHz and 160 Hz, respectively. For
clarification, the cross-correlation curve is shown at left. (b) SFG intensity-noise power
spectral density from dc to 100 Hz. (c) SFG intensity-noise power spectral density fromdc to 100 kHz.

93
the slope of the correlation peak, with the scale of the jitter indicated on the verticalaxis of Fig. 5.3(a). The rms timing noises are thus determined to be 1.75 fs at a 2-MHz
bandwidth and 0.58 fs at a 160-Hz bandwidth. For detection bandwidths above 2 MHz,the observed jitter does not increase. We have recorded such stable performance over
several seconds. The synchronization lock can be maintained for durations of several
hours. However, the intensity stability of the SFG signal is found to correlate strongly
with the temperature variations in the microwave cables.
To understand noise contributions at various time scales, we study the SFG signal
with a fast Fourier-transform frequency spectrum analyzer. Figures 5.3(b) and 5.3(c)display the power spectral density (resolution bandwidth normalized) of the timing noise
up to Fourier frequencies of 100 Hz and 100 kHz, respectively. The spikes near dc are
artifacts from the analyzer itself. When the spectral noise from Fig. 5.3(b) is integrated
from 1 Hz to 100 Hz (avoiding the near-dc artifacts), we calculate a timing jitter of ∼0.6
fs. When the data set in Fig. 5.3(c) is integrated from 1 Hz to 100 kHz, the resultant
rms timing jitter is 1.4 fs. These results are consistent with the direct time-domain data

10

0

10
10
10

10

(a)
(a)

2

Noise spectrum (fs /Hz)shown in Fig. 5.3(a).

Locking error signal-2

Mixer noise floor

-4

10
10
10

-6

0

20

40 60 80 100
3x10Fourier Frequency (kHz)

2

(b)
0

Mixer noise floor-2-4

Locking error signal
0

20

40

60

80

100

Fourier Frequency (Hz)Figure 5.4: (a) Power spectral density of the servo error signal and the intrinsic noiseof the mixer from dc to 100 kHz and (b) from dc to 100 Hz. These results show thatthe performance was limited by the intrinsic noise floor of the microwave electronics. It
was later determined the amplifiers were responsible.

94
Since the SFG signal represents a measure from outside the servo loop, the intensity analysis of this signal reflects the true evaluation of the relative timing jitter
between the two synchronized lasers. A careful study of the servo error signal inside
the feedback loop reveals that a major part of the limitation to the current attainablelevel of performance is actually due to the intrinsic noise of the 14-GHz phase detector,
a double- balanced mixer. Figure 5.4 displays the power spectral density of the error
signal under tight lock, along with that of the mixer noise. The microwave electronicsystem’s phase-noise power spectral density was measured to be 2 × 10−3 rad2 /Hz at
14 GHz. This phase-noise floor corresponds to a timing noise of 2.5 × 10−5 fs2 /Hz.
Figure 5.4(a) shows that the synchronization loop error signal and the microwave system’s noise floor basically overlap across the entire 100-kHz Fourier frequency range.
At low frequencies, the servo loop gain is actually slightly too high, such that the noiselevel of the servo error becomes less than the microwave electronics’ noise (Fig. 5.4(b)).
Integration of this (resolution-bandwidth-normalized) intrinsic noise level produces therms timing jitter noise floor limit for the synchronization loop. For example, from Fig.
5.4(b) we determine the rms timing jitter limit for the 1-Hz to 160-Hz frequency range
to be (2.5 × 10−3 fs2 /Hz × 160 Hz)1/2 ≈ 0.63 fs.
For practical ultrafast applications, it is important to show that this low levelof timing noise can be obtained at any predetermined timing offset between two laser
pulse trains. It is also desirable to realize a reliable setting of the timing offset at highspeed and with excellent repeatability. Figure 5.5 demonstrates such capabilities of oursynchronization system. Figure 5.5(a) shows fast switching of the pulse delay time by∼78 fs, indicated by a jump in the SFG signal. The switching signal applied to thesynchronization PLL is also shown. Associated with servo bandwidth limitations, there
is a 6.3-ms delay between the command signal applied to the servo loop and the actual
jump in the pulse timing offset. The servo attack time is ∼10 ms and the pulse timing
is settled in ∼60 ms. The precision level of the switched pulse timing is ∼1 fs. For

1

(a)

(b)
Switching signal
78 fs

SFG Amplitude (arb. unit)

95

SFG intensity

50 Ps
0
78 fs

SFG Amplitude (arb. unit)

Record time (total 1 ms)
1

(c)

Delay

SFG intensity

Switching signal
0Record time (total 1 s)
Figure 5.5: Controlled switching of time delays between the two pulse trains. (a)Switching dynamics showing a 6.3-ms delay, a 10-ms servo attack time, and ∼60-ms
settling time in the real signal after the control signal in the feedback loop is applied.
(b) Cross-correlation signal between the two pulse trains. (c) 10-Hz switching sequences
recorded in a 1-s period.

96
clarity, we also show the magnitude of the cross-correlation signal in Fig. 5.5(b). Figure
5.5(c) displays a 1-s record of continuous switching at a frequency of 10 Hz between
two predetermined pulse delay times. Again, repeatability in timing offset ∼1 fs isdemonstrated. Compared with a mechanical scanning system, this electronic tuning
method thus offers vastly superior performance in terms of repeatability, reliability, andspeed, with no noticeable hysteresis.
The all-electronic control of the timing offset between separate lasers is flexible
and generally applicable. Combined with the ultralow level of the timing noise, thetechniques that we present here should have a wide range of applications. Further
reduction of the timing noise can come from detection of even higher harmonics of therepetition frequency. Improvements to the optical-to-microwave detection of harmonics
of the repetition rate, as discussed in Chapter 4, have the potential to decrease therms timing jitter to below 0.4 fs integrated in a 100-kHz bandwidth. However, we willquickly run out of the practical range of microwave technology. An attractive alternative
would be to use optical means. One can use either a single highly stable cw laser or
a common stable optical resonator to control a high-order harmonic of the repetition
frequency, well into the terahertz or tens or hundreds of terahertz frequency range, as
discussed in the introductory Section of this Chapter.

5.2

Application: infrared fs pulses
After having demonstrated such tight synchronization between independent fem-

tosecond lasers, a natural application for the technology was to generate infrared fs
pulses by difference frequency generation (DFG) from the two pulse trains in a nonlinear crystal. Mid-infrared (MIR) ultrashort light pulses are of primary importancefor the study of ultrafast dynamics in chemical reactions, molecular vibrations, andthe application of femtosecond IR spectroscopy to problems in solid-state physics. In
particular, experiments in coherent control require a flexible, tunable source of MIR

97
femtosecond pulses. New techniques for controlled pulse shaping in the MIR [127, 128]in combination with such adaptable sources promise to make possible abundant progressin the science of coherent control.
High-repetition-rate sources are desirable for high-speed acquisition of data andsignal averaging. Two methods have been employed for the generation of MIR pulses athigh repetition rates, usually by frequency mixing in nonlinear crystals such as AgGaS2 ,AgGaSe2 , or GaSe. In one type of experiment, 800-nm pulses directly from a Ti:sapphirelaser are used. An 82-MHz two-color Ti:sapphire laser mixed in AgGaS2 yielded 5-mW
pulses tunable from 7.5 to 12.5 µm [129]. Mixing two ends of the spectrum from an
88-MHz broadband Ti:s laser produced 9- to 18-µm femtosecond pulses with an average
power of 1 mW [130]. A 1-MHz cavity-dumped Ti:s laser employed the same technique to
produce 5 mW of average power that was tunable from 7 to 20 µm [131]. These methods
are limited by the fixed amount of power available in the spectral region accepted by
the crystal for the mixing process and are tunable only via nonlinear crystals’ phasematching angles. A second type of experiment involves the use of an optical parametricoscillator system, in which the signal and idler waves, centered near 1.6 µm, are used
for the difference-frequency generation (DFG) process. An 82-MHz (76-MHz) opticalparametric oscillator system generated 500 mW (2 mW) of average power that was
tunable from 2.5 to 5.5 µm (5.2 to 18 µm) [132, 133]. These systems have the advantage
of producing a larger MIR power at the cost of increased complexity and greater initialpump power.
In the work I performed [24], we took advantage of the synchronized, independently tunable lasers discussed in the previous Section. The individual tunability of the
two Ti:sapphire lasers would in principle make possible DFG generation with spectral
coverage from 3 µm down to the terahertz region. The pulse trains, operating independently at separate wavelengths, were used for DFG in a GaSe crystal. Tuning the
crystal’s phase matching angle as well as the wavelength separation of the two input

98
pulses generated MIR pulses from 7.5 to 12.5 µm, with the measured upper (lower)
tuning range limited by the MIR monochromator (the nonlinear crystal). A direct measurement of the MIR pulse duration shows 670-fs pulses at a wavelength of 11.5 µm.
The average power of the pulses exceeds 15 µW, which at the time represented thehighest power in the 7.5-µm spectral range obtained from direct DFG of Ti:sapphirepulses. More importantly, precision setting of the time delay between the two original
chirped-pulse trains allowed rapid switching of the MIR wavelength as well as programmable amplitude modulation, both extremely useful features for experiments incoherent control.

5.2.1

Experimental method for simultaneous DFG and SFG

A schematic of the setup is depicted in Fig. 5.6. The same two fs lasers from
Section 5.1.1 were operated at center wavelengths 20-40 nm on either side of 800 nm,
with (uncompressed) pulse durations of ∼140 fs. The shorter-wavelength laser (carrier
frequency ωSW )served as the free-running master, whereas the longer-wavelength laser(carrier frequency ωLW ) was operated as the slave. The synchronization technique was
identical to the methods described in Section 5.1.2.
The two Ti:sapphire beams were combined collinearly with orthogonal polarization into two arms. In one arm of the experiment, the pulse trains were focused into athin BBO crystal cut for type I SFG, rotated 45◦ so that polarization components ofboth pulse trains propagate as ordinary beams in the crystal. The resultant SFG signal
was used to characterize the timing jitter of the pulse trains when the timing offset
corresponded to half a pulse width, as described in Section 5.1.3. In the other arm of
the experiment, the pulses were given a slight negative chirp by use of two negatively
chirped mirrors and focused (f = 12 cm) onto a GaSe crystal for DFG.
The 1-mm-thick uncoated GaSe crystal is cleaved normal to its z axis, since it is
not yet possible to polish under arbitrary angles. This results in external incident angles

99

Short Wavelength
Ti:Sapph (master)

PBSLong Wavelength
Ti:Sapph (slave)
O/2

Servo
transducer

Monochromator

O/2

Repetition rate
Synchronization(optional carrier
phase lock)

DFG
DM

CM
GaSe
BBO

SFG
(725 nm)
SFG(400 nm)GaSe

Figure 5.6: Experiental system used to generate and characterize femtosecond mid-IR
pulses: Two fs Ti:sapphire lasers with separate center wavelengths are tightly synchronized. The pulse trains are combined into two paths, one for sum-frequency generationin BBO (β–barium borate) and one for difference-frequency generation in 1-mm thick
GaSe. An IR monochromator is used to characterize the spectra of the resulting mid-IR
pulses, which are tunable from 7.5 to 12.5 µm. For measurement of the IR pulse-width,
the short-wavelength Ti:sapphire is combined with the IR pulses into a cross-correlator
based on sum-frequency generation. CM, chirped mirror pair; DM, dichroic beam splitter; PBS, polarizing beam splitter

100
of 51-74◦ for type I phase matching (e − o → o for ωSW − ωLW → ωIR ) of the 800-nm
light. Even though such steep external angles entail large (> 40%) reflection losses atthe surfaces of the crystal, GaSe exhibits a higher nonlinear susceptibility and a wider
transparency range than crystals such as AgGaS2 or AgGaSe2 . Recent research withindium-doped GaSe also indicates a developing capability of producing arbitrary-cut
GaSe crystals as well as antireflection coating [134].
After the GaSe crystal, the MIR light was separated from the two collinear nearIR beams with a long-pass filter. The MIR beam’s intensity was then measured by useof a liquid-nitrogen-cooled HgCdTe detector. An IR monochromator was sometimes
used before the HgCdTe detector for spectral measurements of the MIR pulses. For
temporal measurements of the MIR pulses, the shorter-wavelength Ti:sapphire and theMIR DFG pulses were mixed in a second GaSe crystal by use of type I phase matching(o + o → e for ωIR + ωSW → ωXC ) for another SFG-based cross-correlation measurement. A photomultiplier tube combined with lock-in detection and suitable interference
filters was used to measure the resultant SFG power as a function of the delay between
the Ti:sapphire and MIR pulses, and hence the duration of the MIR pulses.

5.2.2

Simultaneous difference- and sum-frequency generation

Figure 5.7 shows the cross-correlation data between the two Ti:sapphire pulse
trains, measured simultaneously in the SFG and DFG arms of the experiment. The
cross correlation is measured to be slightly shorter when the DFG signal is used becauseof the compression offered by the chirped-mirror pair; the differing optics in either armof the experiment also cause slight differences in the temporal profiles of the pulses.
The insets show timing jitter measurements made while the locking system is activated,demonstrating similar timing jitter of 1.3 and 1.5 fs in a 160-Hz low-pass bandwidth
when measured with SFG and DFG, respectively. Flexible DFG repetition rates areachievable by setting of the Ti:sapphire lasers at different commensurable repetition

101
frequencies [21]. Phase locking the carrier frequencies of the two Ti:s lasers would
permit generation of optical spectra in three different regions with the desired phasecoherence [22].

5.2.3

Broad mid-IR tunability with 500-fs pulses

The broad tunability in wavelength of our DFG scheme is depicted in Fig. 5.8(a).
The Ti:sapphire lasers are tuned to various spectral separations, and the maximum MIR
power obtainable at each separation is recorded as a function of the MIR wavelength.
Figure 5.8(b) shows how this process is executed: At a given wavelength separation of
the Ti:sapphire beams, the spectra of the MIR pulses are recorded for various externalangles (ranging from 59◦ to 71◦ ) of the GaSe. Then the external angle that generates
the greatest power is used to record a point in Fig. 5.8(a). In Fig. 5.8(a), the squares
represent the raw data, corrected only for the long-pass filter’s response and the IR
detector’s response. The circles are normalized to the average power of each Ti:sapphire
beam just before the GaSe crystal, and the triangles are normalized to the average
powers just after the GaSe crystal.
The data normalized to the input powers of the Ti:sapphire beams (circles) represent the true capability of our system. When the system was optimally aligned, morethan 15 mW of MIR power could be generated above 9 µm, although less power isavailable at shorter wavelengths because of higher reflection losses at the GaSe surfaces
at the steeper external angles necessary for phase matching. This effect is shown in
Fig. 5.8(c), where the triangles (right-hand axis) represent the product of transmissionsof both Ti:sapphire beams through the GaSe crystal. The development of AR coatingfor GaSe [134] would allow for at least three times enhancement of the conversion efficiency of this system. The squares (left-hand axis) of Fig. 5.8(c) show the external
phase-matching angle as a function of the desired MIR wavelength.
To illustrate the duration of the DFG pulse, in Fig. 5.9 we show the SFG-based

102Power (arb. units)

1.0

SFG (405 nm)

0.8
0.6

1 MHz LP
7 fs rms

0.4

160 Hz LP
1.3 fs rms

0.2
0.0
-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

Power (arb. units)

1.0

DFG (7900 nm)

0.8
0.6
0.4

1 MHz LP
8 fs rms

0.2

160 Hz LP
1.5 fs rms

0.0
-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

Delay time (ps)Figure 5.7: Simultaneous cross-correlation measurements of SFG (top) and DFG (bottom). The insets show records of timing jitter (of a few seconds duration) determinedfrom intensity fluctuations of the respective signals, observed through 1–MHz (left) and
160–Hz (right) low-pass filters when the two pulse trains are offset by half a pulse width
while synchronized.

103

(a)
Power (µW)

12
8
4
0
7

8

9

10

11

12

300
200
100
8

9

10

11

Wavelength (µm)

12Ext. Angle (deg)

(b)

400

80

0.4

(c)

70

0.3

60

0.2

TL1*TL2

Power (arb. units)

DFG Wavelength (µm)

50
0.1
6

8

10

12

Wavelength (µm)

Figure 5.8: (a) MIR average power, as a function of wavelength: squares, raw data corrected only for detector response; circles, normalized to the incident power of each Ti:slaser; triangles, normalized to exiting power of each Ti:s laser. (b) Spectra for various
external phase-matching angles, all taken for the same separation of the Ti:sapphire
center wavelengths. Here, the global maximum corresponds to one data point in (a).
(c) Squares, external phase-matching angles versus MIR wavelength; triangles, productof the two laser transmissions through GaSe as a function of MIR wavelength, showing
the need for AR coatings and arbitrary cuts of GaSe.

104cross-correlation signal (typically near 720 nm) between the DFG (11.5 µm) and theshorter-wavelength Ti:sapphire (770-nm) pulses, with a measured FWHM of 670 fs.
Taking into account the Ti:sapphire pulse width before the second GaSe crystal, thegroup-velocity dispersion at 11.5 µm, and the group-velocity mismatch between theTi:sapphire and DFG pulses inside the GaSe, we note that the true DFG pulse widthis estimated to be less than 500 fs.

Power (arb. units)

1.2
1.0
0.8

Cross-correlation
data
Gaussian fit

0.6
0.4

FWHM: 670 fs

0.2
0.0
-1000

-500

0

500

1000

Delay time (fs)Figure 5.9: Cross-correlation measurement between the 11.5-µm MIR pulse and theshort-wavelength Ti:sapphire laser. Taking into account the Ti:sapphire pulse duration,group-velocity dispersion, and group-velocity mismatch between the pulses inside theGaSe, the true MIR pulse duration has an upper limit of 500 fs. MIR pulse versus theshorter-wavelength Ti:s laser, showing a FWHM of 670 fs.

5.2.4

Rapid wavelength switching using chirp and timing offset

Using rapid switching of the delay time between the two original pulse trains,the dual-laser approach makes possible significant and unique flexibilities in the control of the DFG and SFG signals. When the Ti:sapphire pulses are well-compensatedfor with minimal chirps, changing the delay offset between these pulses will lead tocontrolled variations in the nonlinear signal amplitudes, while leaving the associatedwavelength intact. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 5.10(a), showing the possibility

105
of fast and precise switching of the nonlinear signal amplitudes. However, when the twolasers are chirped, we can use this to our advantage by precisely setting and (or) switching the DFG and SFG wavelengths, again with control of the timing offset. Whenthe two lasers have similar chirp sizes and signs, a maximum amount of wavelengthswitching can be produced in the DFG signal. For SFG, chirps of opposite signs are
preferred. Figures 5.10(b) and 5.10(c) show the wavelength-switching results in SFG
and DFG, respectively. In this case, both lasers are positively chirped. We note thatthe wavelength-switching capability is limited chiefly by the phase-matching restrictionsin the GaSe crystal.
These synchronization experiments have only brushed the surface of the wide
variety of applications that can benefit from tight synchronization of fs-pulsed lasers. For
instance, the tight synchronization of pump- and probe-pulses for coherent anti-Stokes
Raman scattering microscopy has allowed greatly enhanced signal-to-noise leading toreal-time, chemically sensitive microscopy [19]. Also, stabilization of the group delayof a 7-km fiber link allowed for the remote synchronization of two fs fiber lasers (1550nm wavelength) at a level of 19 fs, an important step for remote optical frequency
comb distribution [135]. See Chapter 8 for more details on this. Ultimately, phasestabilization of the relative offset frequencies between the two combs in addition to thislevel of synchronization will allow phase coherence across the electromagnetic spectrum,from 350-nm all the way into the THz regime. One can imagine coherently addressing
the electronic, vibrational, and rotational states of a molecule simultaneously with acompletely phase-coherent pulse sequence using this kind of system. I’m excited to see
this type of system used for wide-ranging coherent control schemes beyond these initialdemonstration experiments!

Amplitude (arb. units)

106

0.40

Timing offset control

0.35
0.30

SFG

0.25

XC

0.20

(a)

-20

0

20

40

60x10

-3

(b)

1.0

SFG for

0.8

offset of -Wp/2

SFG foroffset of Wp/2

0.6
0.4
0.2

3.7 nm

0.0
380

390

400

0.0

Intensity (arb. unit)

Power spectrum (arb. units)Time (s)
-0.2

(c)

-0.4
-0.6

Frequency
unresolved
Crosscorrelation

-0.8
-1.0

410

Wavelength (nm)420

10.14 Pm
9.99 Pm

0

400

76 fs

800

1200

Time Delay (fs)Figure 5.10: (a) Arbitrary and programmable amplitude modulation of the SFG (inthis case) or DFG light. (b) Spectra of the SFG light for two different timing offsets
by the differently chirped Ti:sapphire pulse trains, illustrating a fast and programmablewavelength jump. (c) Frequency–resolved cross–correlations by use of the DFG signal
for two different monochromator settings, while triggering on the frequency-unresolved
signal. Different spectral information is contained at different timing offsets during thecross-correlation sweep, demonstrating that timing offset control will influence the IR
spectrum.

Chapter 6

Precision Infrared Spectroscopy: the Offset-Free Comb

One of the most striking and immediate applications of femtosecond combs has
been the ability to easily and accurately make absolute optical frequency measurementswith respect to the current microwave atomic frequency standard. In this Chapter, I
will be discussing the specific case of using the comb to derive a microwave output froman optical clock. As discussed in Chapter 3, the optical frequencies νm of a femtosecond
comb are related to two radio frequencies: frep , the repetition frequency of the pulse
train, and f0 , the carrier-envelope offset frequency. The relationship νm = mfrep + f0 ,where integer m is ∼ 106 , allows optical-microwave phase coherence to be achievedin a single step when controlling the comb’s two degrees of freedom. To establish an
optical clock with a countable microwave readout, the best method would be to derive
frep phase coherently from an optical frequency standard νs . A heterodyne beat signal
fb between νs and νm is used to establish a connection between this phase coherent
connection, provided that f0 is either (1) independently stabilized or (2) eliminated as avariable. In this Chapter I will focus on the second option, and describe a simple method
for the measurement of infrared frequencies without the need for any measurement orcontrol of the offset frequency. The technique we employed was then used to construct
an optical molecular clock based on a HeNe laser stabilized to CH4 , demonstrating theapplication of the scheme to metrology in the infrared region.
First it is useful to describe the various schemes that have been employed for

108
using the comb to measure absolute optical frequencies. The most common of these
involves the use of self-referencing to directly detect and stabilize f0 [98]. This technique is most easily implemented with an octave-spanning spectral bandwidth, which isusually achieved through spectral broadening in a microstructure or tapered fiber. Morerecently, lasers that directly emit octave-spanning spectra [101, 136] have made possible
the elimination of such highly nonlinear fibers from the clockwork while maintaining
a stable f0 lock. A second scheme involves orthogonalizing error signals derived fromtwo optical heterodyne beats of the comb against a reference laser νs and its second
harmonic 2νs [118]. If the two optical beats are expressed as fb1 = νs − (mfrep + f0 )and fb2 = 2νs − (2mfrep + f0 ), then the difference between the two beats is fb2 − fb1 =νs − mfrep , permitting control of frep from nus without stabilizing f0 . To avoid the useof highly nonlinear fiber or the need for special octave–spanning lasers, Amy–Klein etal. [137] locked two modes of the same femtosecond comb to two cw diode lasers. The
difference frequency between the two cw lasers was locked to a stable infrared reference.
This technique is insensitive to f0 but involves numerous locks and lasers.

6.1

Principle of offset-free spectroscopy
I will now discuss our demonstration of the operation of an optical molecular clock

based on either sum- or difference-frequency generation (SFG or DFG) that does notrely on microstructure fiber, additional cw lasers, or any stabilization of f0 [113, 112]. A
schematic diagram of the concept is shown in Fig. 6.1. If a normal Ti:sapphire frequency
comb has strong power in two widely-separated regions of its spectrum, say near νblueand νred , then the comb modes in these two regions can be written as νm1 = m1 frep + f0
near νblue and νm2 = m2 frep + f0 near νred . Narrow spectral regions near νblue and νred
are then focused into a nonlinear crystal for DFG, which results in the formation of an

109
infrared comb centered at νIR . The IR frequency comb has componentsνn = νm1 − νm2 = (m1 − m2 ) frep = nfrep .

(6.1)

Notice that the resulting IR comb has no offset frequency, which ultimately will make itpossible to measure absolute infrared frequencies without any measurement or controlof f0 .

IR comb with nooffsetI(f)Ti:Sapphire
spectrum

IR opticalfrequency to bemeasured: Qs

f
Qred: m2frep + f0

QIR: nfrep

DFG

Qblue: m1frep + f0

fb = Qs – Nfrep or frep = (Qs – fb)/N
Figure 6.1: Scheme for offset-free precision IR spectroscopy. Difference-frequencygeneration between red and blue portions of a single Ti:sapphire comb results in an
offset-free IR comb. Stabilization of the heterodyne beat between a cw infrared laser(νs ) and the IR comb is performed by feedback to the Ti:sapphire cavity length. Thenabsolute frequency measurement of the microwave readout frequency frep from theTi:sapphire laser exactly determines the absolute infrared frequency νs .

By careful choice of the spectral regions νblue and νred , the IR comb centered at
νIR can be made to overlap with the reference cw optical frequency νs . A heterodyne
beat between some N th component of the IR comb and νs has the frequency
fb = νs − N frep

(6.2)

which can be stabilized relative to some microwave reference by feedback to a piezoactuated mirror to control frep by adjusting the Ti:sapphire laser’s cavity length. Oncefb is stabilized in this manner, frep can be detected as the microwave readout of the110absolute frequency measurement. Since
frep = (νs − fb ) /N,(6.3)

νs = fb + N frep .

(6.4)

the optical frequency must be

Measurement of the absolute microwave frequencies fb and frep , combined with knowledge of the integer N (which can be found from knowing νs to within frep /2, using awavemeter if need be) therefore exactly measures the absolute frequency νs .
A very similar method employing SFG instead of DFG can also be used, where thecw IR beam at νs is summed with the comb near νred , producing a narrow frequency
comb centered at νSF G near the original comb at νblue . Subsequently, a heterodyne
beat between all the components of the two combs νSF G and νblue is detected and stabilized, again by feedback to the Ti:sapphire laser’s cavity length. This is really thesame frequency math, but a different order of operations for the optical beams. In bothschemes, the offset frequency f0 of the Ti:sapphire laser is left unmeasured and uncontrolled. Therefore this scheme can not be used to relate the infrared νs to frequencies inthe visible portion of the spectrum. However, the simplicity of the scheme should enjoy
great utility in making absolute frequency measurements throughout the infrared, as
well as making atomic clocks using natural resonances located in the infrared.

6.2

Experimental implementation of offset-free clockwork
We began these experiment with an eye toward constructing an optical molecular

clock based on a methane-stabilized HeNe laser at 3.39 µm [138, 139], constructed by M.
Gubin from the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow. Due to his limited availability,
we first built a system [112] using an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) operating at
3.39 µm as a proof-of-principle concept. In this Section I describe the results of our firstexperimental demonstration. Then in Section 6.3 I will describe the clock as operated

111
with the true optical molecular reference [108]. A testament to the simplicity of theoffset-free scheme is that the first experiment with the OPO was built in just under 2months.

6.2.1

Ti:sapphire laser with two separated spectral peaks

The X-folded Ti:sapphire laser operates at a repetition frequency fr ep of 78 MHz
and emits an average output power of typically 150 mW. It employs a 2.3-mm-thickTi:sapphire gain crystal and seven bounces on double-chirped mirrors for dispersion
compensation. The two concave double-chirped mirrors, each with a focal length of 50mm, produce a beam waist inside the gain crystal, which is oriented at Brewster’s angleof ∼60◦ . Approximately 6.7 W of 532-nm pump light emitted by a frequency-doubled
Nd:YVO4 laser is focused into the gain crystal by an achromatic doublet lens (76.2-mm
effective focal length). The output spectrum, shown in Fig. 6.2 is spectrally shapedby a custom–designed narrow–band output coupler consisting of five pairs of SiO2 —TiO2 layers. The resultant transmission is ∼0.5% in the center of the output coupler
at ∼800 nm; it increases strongly to 5% at the designated wavelengths of 685 and 866
nm. This enhances the peak at 670 nm and gives rise to a shoulder in the spectrum at
880 nm (Fig. 6.2). The frequency difference between the 670-nm peak and a portionof the spectrum near 830 nm corresponds to a wavelength of 3.39 µm, an important
frequency for metrology due to the nearby methane standard. Approximately 12.3 mWof average power is contained within the 7-nm FWHM bandwidth of the 670-nm peak,
and a 10-nm-wide spectral region centered at 831 nm has 7.8 mW of average power.

6.2.2

SFG-based offset-free IR frequency measurement

The experimental setup for both the OPO SFG-based frequency measurement [112]described in this Section, and the CH4 –stabilized HeNe optical molecular clock [108]described in Section 6.3, is portrayed in Fig. 6.3. The cw OPO used for the first proof-112Power Spectral Density [dB]

1.0
-10
0.8

0.6

-20

3.39 Pm
DFG

-30

0.4

0.2

-40

Power Spectral Density [Arb. Units]

1.2

0

0.0
600

700

800

900

1000

Wavelength [nm]Transmission

0.8< 0.5% from
730 to 780 nm

0.6

0.4

< 1.0% from
700 to 840 nm

0.2

0.0
600

700

800

900

1000

Wavelength [nm]Figure 6.2: (Top) Output spectrum of the Ti:sapphire laser, with two peaks near 670
and 831 nm used to generate 3.39-µm light. A third parasitic peak at 902 nm is not
used for the experiment. (Bottom) Transmission of the output coupler used to force thelaser to emit the two-peaked spectrum.

113
of-principle experiment is a commercially available system (OS 4000, Linos Photonics)
pumped by a Nd:YAG ring laser at λp = 1064 nm. This singly resonant OPO with aresonated pump is based on a periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) crystal, andit features a narrow linewidth (< 150 kHz) and an idler output power of more than 20
mW [140]. The idler wavelength can be tuned from 2.3 to 3.8 µm. The OPO’s cavity
length is locked to the pump laser by the Pound–Drever-Hall stabilization technique.
One can conveniently tune the signal wavelength, which is monitored with a wavemeter,
to λs = 1550 nm by varying the PPLN crystal’s temperature and using the intracavity
etalon of the OPO. The resultant idler wavelength is λI = 3390 nm (frequency νI ).
After the Ti:sapphire output and the OPO idler were combined on a beam splitter,
28-mW of Ti:sapphire output near 834 nm and 16 mW of the cw OPO idler were focused
into a PPLN crystal by a 40–mm focal–length calcium fluoride lens. This 5–mm–long
PPLN crystal has a quasi-phase-matching period of 16.2 mm and was heated to 130◦ C.
The resultant phase-matching bandwidth is ∼0.75 THz. The output light was collimatedwith a 38-mm calcium fluoride lens. The resultant SFG comb and the (adequately
attenuated) Ti:sapphire comb at 670 nm were temporally and spatially overlapped by aprism-based delay line (two SF10 prisms with an apex-to-apex separation of 33 cm; see
Fig. 6.3), prefiltered by a narrow-band interference filter at 670 nm, and detected by aphotomultiplier (Hamamatsu R7400U-20). In the experiment we observed SFG powers
on the order of 870 pW. The signal-to-noise ratio of the heterodyne beat fb,SF G between
the two combs was 23 dB in a 100-kHz resolution bandwidth, as shown in Fig. 6.4. Notethat fb,SF G results from the coherent superposition of many corresponding comb lines
in each of the two combs:
fb,SF G = (νI + m2 frep + f0 ) − (m1 frep + f0 ) = νI − (m1 − m2 ) frep ,(6.5)

since the mode indices m1 and m2 can take on any values corresponding to comb modes
within the relevant spectral bandwidths contributing to the beat. In fact, an rf comb

114

PMT
InSb
PD
Locking
Electronics

OPO @3.39 µm

670 nm IF

3.39 µm IF
BS

PPLN
BS

HeNe/CH4HR
2.3 mm Ti:Sa
PZT

OC

Pump

Figure 6.3: Experimental setup for the offset-free SFG- or DFG-based clockwork. The
initial proof of principle experiment used an OPO and the SFG scheme (3.39µm)−1 +(834nm)−1 = (670nm)−1 . Then the beat near 670 nm was detected on the PMT. For
the optical molecular clock, a CH4 –stabilized HeNe was used for the optical referencein the DFG-based scheme (670nm)−1 − (834nm)−1 = (3.39µm)−1 . In this scheme, thebeat was detected on the liquid-nitrogen-cooled InSb photodetector. In either case, thebeat was used to feedback to the Ti:sapphire cavity length in order to phase-coherently
connect the IR reference of interest to frep , which was subsequently detected as the
microwave readout for the measurements. OC, output coupler; HR, high-reflector; PZT,
piezoelectric transducer; BS, beam splitter; IF, interference filter; PMT, photomultipliertube; PD, photodiode. All intracavity mirrors for the Ti:sapphire laser are doublechirped mirrors.

115
of beat frequencies fb,SF G and conjugate beat frequencies frep − fb,SF G is detected as
is usual with heterodyne beats involving optical frequency combs. Importantly, fb,SF G
does not depend on carrier-envelope frequency f0 . Because of its marginal signal-tonoise ratio, we regenerated the beat signal with an rf tracking oscillator, which consistsof a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) and analog phase-locked loop to keep the VCO
phase-locked to the input beat signal. By then phase locking the tracking filter’s output
to an rf reference (any synthesizer with absolute fluctuations below the optical frequency
fluctuations being measured), we established a direct phase-coherent link between frep
and the optical OPO idler frequency νI . The feedback was applied to a small PZT onwhich the fold mirror of the laser cavity was mounted. Ideally, measurement of frep
is therefore an accurate and phase-coherent measurement of νI , via Eqn. 6.5. In an
attempt to stabilize fluctuations of νI in order to better-characterize the system, we
also phase locked the OPO pump laser to an iodine–stabilized Nd:YAG laser at 1064
nm [118], which was delivered to our setup via a polarization-maintaining optical fiber.

6.2.3

Evaluation of the OPO frequency measurement

To evaluate the stability of our optical clockwork we made a comparison of thetenth harmonic of frep and an rf reference signal. The reference was derived from a
low-phase-noise rf synthesizer referenced to the National Institute of Standards andTechnology (NIST) ST-22 hydrogen maser (instability of ∼ 2.4 × 10−13 at a 1-s countergate time) and transferred from the NIST to JILA via the Boulder Research and Administrative Network single-mode fiber [37, 141], as will be discussed in 8.3.1. Measured
frequency-counting data are depicted in Fig. 6.5. Under unlocked conditions, we typically observe standard deviations of 240 Hz (relative to the 10th harmonic frequency of
760 MHz) at a 1-s gate time. In time interval A in Fig. 6.5, fb,SF G is phase locked toan rf reference, while the OPO pump laser is phase locked to the cw laser used in the

116Power [dBm]-20

fb,SFG-30-40

frep - fb,SFG

frep

-50
-60
-70

RBW = 100 kHz

-80
0

20

40

60

80

Frequency [Mhz]
Figure 6.4: Heterodyne beat between the SFG comb and the Ti:sapphire comb at 670
nm. The signal-to-noise ratio of the beat signal is 23 dB measured in a 100-kHz resolution bandwidth.

117
iodine optical frequency standard. The data reveal a standard deviation of 0.837 Hz at
a 1-s gate time. At 108 s, we deliberately unlock the OPO pump laser; however, theheterodyne beat signal remains phase locked. In subsequent time interval B, the standard deviation is correspondingly increased to 5.09 Hz. These data present convincing
evidence that the instability of frep under the locked condition arises directly from thefrequency fluctuations of the OPO idler. Although the OPO cavity length, measured
at 1064 nm, is stabilized to that of the pump laser, which is in turn stabilized to theiodine transition, the intracavity etalon used to tune the OPO idler wavelength causes
cavity length instabilities at 3.39 µm, which limit the stability of the idler frequency andsubsequently that of frep . With the in-loop error signal indicating a tight phase lockbetween the optical beat signal and the rf reference, the full potential of this carrierenvelope-frequency independent clockwork could only be revealed if the OPO would befurther stabilized by methods such as use of a 2:1 frequency divider [142].
Without an independent way to accurately measure the optical frequency νI ,our measurement of the clockwork instability was therefore limited by the intrinsic
instability of νI , even when the OPO pump was frequency-stabilized. The instability
was ∼ 1 × 10−9 at 1-s averaging time. Therefore it will be the subject of the next
Section to show that use of a much more stable IR frequency reference allows the offsetfree clockwork to be characterized to four orders of magnitude better precision. The(2)

new reference will be a HeNe laser stabilized on the methane F2

at 3.39 µm, which

has demonstrated a frequency instability of 10−14 to 10−15 for 1—1000–s measurement
times and a frequency reproducibility approaching 10−14 [139].

6.3

Optical molecular clock based on CH4
After having demonstrated a working offset-free clockwork, we turned toward thegoal of employing it for an optical clock based on a CH4 –stabilized HeNe. In principle
this would provide a compact, robust, and relatively inexpensive optical clock featuring

118

2808

OPTICS LETTERS / Vol. 29, No. 23 / December 1, 2004

this
cloc
*P
tron
Brit
†P
et M
and
vers

Ref
Fig.
4. 6.5:Comparisonof harmonic
the tenthharmonicof theFigureComparison of the tenthof the Ti:sapphire
repetition frequency:sapphire
the hydrogenrepetition
maser-based rf reference
at 780 MHzandfmaser (atgate time).
Tiwithfrequency
thea 1-s hydrogenIn
time
intervalA,fisstabilized
and
the
OPO
pump
laser
is
phase
to
G
maser-based rf b,SF
referenceat 780 MHz (at a 1-s gatelockedtime).
the iodine frequency standard, resulting in a standard deviation of 0.837 Hz at a 1-s
Ingatetime
A,optical
the beat
opticalheterodyne
beatsignal istime. interval
At 108 s, thesignal remains
stabilized, but
we deliberately
stabilized
and
the
OPO
pump timelaser
is phase
lockedto theunlock the OPO
pumplaser.
In subsequentinterval
B, the standard
deviationiscorrespondingly
increased
to 5.09 Hz.
iodinefrequency
standard,
resulting in a standard deviation of 0.837 Hz at a 1-s gate time. At 108 s, the opticalbeat signal remains stabilized, but we deliberately unlock
the OPO pump laser. In subsequent time interval B,
the standard deviation is correspondingly increased to
5.09 Hz.

1.

the OPO idler. Although the OPO cavity length,measured at 1.064 mm, is stabilized to that of thepump laser, which is in turn stabilized to the iodinetransition, the intracavity etalon used to tune the OPO
idler wavelength causes cavity length instabilities
at 3.39 mm, hence limiting the stability of the idler

5.

2.
3.
4.

6.

119
both high accuracy and high stability. It also allows for better characterization of theoffset-free clockwork than the OPO does.

6.3.1

Experimental setup for the clock

For this experiment, the OPO shown in Fig. 6.3 was now blocked, as well as the
SFG beams incident on the PMT. Instead of the sum-frequency method described in
Section 6.2.2, we chose to use the original difference-frequency idea discussed in Section 6.1. Therefore, for DFG between the 670- and 831-nm portions of the Ti:sapphirelaser’s spectrum, its output was focused into the temperature-controlled PPLN crystal.
For efficient DFG inside the PPLN the Ti:sapphire beam traversed a prism-based delayline placed before the PPLN for an optimal temporal overlap of the 670- and 834-nm
spectral components. The resultant offset-free IR frequency comb passed through a
50-nm FWHM bandwidth interference filter centered at 3.39 µm that transmitted ∼10
mW of average power, corresponding to nearly 600 pW per mode of the IR comb, withmodes given by Eqn. 6.1. With an IR monochromator and lock-in detection we observethat the IR comb has a bandwidth of 270 nm (7 THz) centered near 3.4 µm (88.5 THz)
as shown in Fig. 6.6. Again, the IR comb modes have no dependence on the offset
frequency.
The optical frequency standard was a compact, portable, double-mode HeNe laser(2)stabilized to the F2transition in methane (HWHM ∼200 kHz, hyperfine structureis unresolved) at 3.39 µm. Saturated absorption and saturated dispersion resonances
are both used to lock the reference laser frequency, providing optical radiation with alinewidth of <100 Hz. This type of reference HeNe laser is being routinely incorporated
in transportable HeNe/CH4 systems with telescopic beam expanders for providing resolution of methane’s hyperfine structure and frequency repeatability of 2 × 10−13 over
several years [138]. Measurements with a frequency chain indicate an instability at 1 sof 4 × 10−13 , limited by a hydrogen maser. A direct optical comparison of two versions

120Power [a.u.]

1.5

70 nm
RBW

1.0

0.5

270 nm
FWHM

0.0
3200

3300

3400

3500

3600

Wavelength [nm]Figure 6.6: Spectral coverage of the offset-free IR comb generated by differencefrequency mixing of the Ti:sapphire laser comb in a PPLN crystal. The 270-nm FWHM
is centered near 3.4 µm in order to overlap with the CH4 -stabilized HeNe optical molecular frequency reference.

121of the system (one was a non-transportable, resolved-hyperfine-structure version) has
a demonstrated Allan deviation of 2 × 10−14 at 1 s. A second HeNe laser (heterodyne
laser) was phase locked to the reference laser with a fixed 600-kHz frequency offset andprovides the optical field used to stabilize the IR comb. An amplifier HeNe tube wasalso used to increase the beam’s power from 300 µW to 1 mW.
After the cw HeNe beam and IR comb were combined on a 60/40 beam splitter,they passed through a 50-nm FWHM interference filter centered at 3.39 µm. A 1.8-cm
focal-length CaF2 lens focused the beams onto a nitrogen-cooled InSb photodiode witha 250-µm-diameter active area. A heterodyne beat between the cw HeNe beam at νHeN e
and the N th line of the IR comb was detected and amplified. As shown in Fig. 6.7, thebeat frequency fb,DF G = N frep − νHeN e had a signal- to-noise ratio of 25 dB in a 100kHz bandwidth. It was subsequently phase locked by means of a rf tracking oscillator to
a 70-MHz synthesized signal (with a negligible noise contribution) derived from a stable
cesium reference. Control of fb,DF G was achieved by feedback of the phase-locked loop
error signal to a piston-mode piezoelectric transducer on which the Ti:sapphire laser’s
fold mirror was mounted. Now rf frequency frep was directly expressed in terms of
optical frequency νHeN e as frep = (νHeN e + fb,DF G ) /N . The optical clock microwave
readout can be any harmonic of frep , and was detected independently at the beam
splitter’s second port, where the PMT used to be located for the OPO measurement in
6.2.2.

6.3.2

Evaluation of the optical molecular clock

The rf clock signal’s stability was compared with both a hydrogen maser and an
independent optical clock based on a molecular iodine transition [118]. For comparison
with the maser, the tenth harmonic of frep was compared with a 780-MHz signal derived
from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) ST-22 hydrogen maser
and transferred to JILA through a single-mode fiber [37, 141], as will be discussed in Sec-122

100-kHz RBWPower [dBm]

-20

frep

fb,DFG = N frep- QHeNe

-30
-40

frep - fb,DFG
-50
-60
-70
0

20

40

60

80

100

Frequency [MHz]Figure 6.7: Heterodyne beats between the CH4 -stabilized HeNe laser and neighboring
IR comb components, with a signal-to-noise ratio > 25 dB in a 100-kHz RBW.

123
tion 8.3.1. The I2 clock used a second Ti:sapphire laser with a 100-MHz repetition rate
as clockwork in order to generate a microwave readout (harmonic of its repetition rate)in the usual way. Its frequency comb was fixed by locking f0 by use of self-referencing
and by phase locking one comb line near 1064 nm to a Nd:YAG laser that was stabilized to molecular iodine [118]. The seventh harmonic of this I2 -referenced Ti:sapphirelaser’s repetition frequency is compared with the ninth harmonic of the CH4 -referenced
Ti:sapphire laser’s repetition frequency at ∼702 MHz. We deliberately introduced anoffset frequency of 10 kHz between the two clock signals. A double-balanced mixer
detected this 10-kHz difference frequency, which was subsequently filtered and countedwith a 1-s gate time to determine the Allan deviation of the CH4 clock compared witheither the I2 clock or the maser. Figure 6.8(a) shows representative frequency counting
for both comparisons. Denoting the comparison frequency (780 MHz for comparison
against the maser, 702 MHz for comparison against the I2 clock) as fc , frequency fluctuations ∆fc were normalized to fc for fair evaluation of the two fractional instability
measurements.
Parasitic back-reflections from surfaces inside the HeNe resonator could shift thecenters of the saturated absorption and saturated dispersion resonances of the reference
system [143]. As the position of the reflecting surface moved because of temperaturechanges, both a slow drift and a slow oscillation of νHeN e were observed. A quadratic
drift of ∆fc tightly correlated with recorded temperature changes of the HeNe system
was subtracted from the raw data. An oscillation with a period of >20 s was still present,
however. Figure 6.8(b) shows the Allan deviations determined from various frequencycounting records. Measurements against the maser (filled diamonds) were limited by
the maser’s intrinsic short-term instability of ∼ 3 × 10−13 at 1 s. Data run I (bow ties)
against the I2 clock used free-space photodiodes for detection of both clocks’ repetition
rates, whereas data run II (circles) used fiber-coupled detectors that exhibit greaterphase noise and amplitude-phase conversion. The noisy plateau in the Allan deviation

124

(a)

-12

'fc / fc (10CH4 vs I2

CH4 vs Maser

)

2
1
0

-1
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Time [s](b)Allan Deviation

4

10

10

CH4 vs Maser
CH4 vs I2 (I)CH4 vs I2 (II)

2
-13
8
6
4
2
-14

1

10

100

1000

Averaging Time [s]Figure 6.8: Comparison of the rf signal from the CH4 clock with NIST’s hydrogen maser
and with the I2 clock’s rf signal. (a) Fractional fluctuations of the comparison frequency
in each case. (b) Allan deviations for comparison with the maser (diamonds), the I2
clock with fiber-coupled detection of each clock’s frep (circles, and the I2 clock with
free-space-coupled detection of each clock’s frep (bow ties).

125
for data run II for t > 20 s strongly suggests that amplitude-to-phase conversion in thedetection process limited our instability for short time scales [76]. However, for timescales of 20 s < t < 100 s, data run II exhibits stability comparable with data run I, eventhough they were taken under very different conditions of temperature fluctuations in thelaboratory. Therefore the instability of our CH4 clock as compared with the I2 clock was∼ 1.2 × 10−13 at 1 s, averaging down as τ −1/2 for averaging times τ < 100 s, limited byexcess noise in the photodetection process as discussed in Section 2.2.2. Both before andafter the HeNe laser was brought to JILA, it demonstrated an instability in the opticaldomain of 2 × 10−14 at 1-s averaging time. The I2 optical frequency has demonstrated
5 × 10−14 instability at 1-s averaging time. Therefore, with the improved techniques
described in Chapter 4, it should be possible to recover these levels of performance forboth clocks in their respective microwave outputs by appropriate optical-to-microwave
conversion of microwave harmonics of the combs’ repetition frequencies.
To characterize the phase noise of our CH4 clock signal, we examined the 10-kHz
signal derived from comparison with the I2 clock (using free-space detection of the clock
signals) with a fast Fourier transform spectrum analyzer. The measurements represent
an upper limit to the single-sideband (SSB) phase noise, because they were sensitive
to amplitude noise as well (we used a heterodyne scheme rather than a homodyne
phase-detection). We therefore take the power spectral density (relative to the carrier
power, in units of [dBc/Hz]) to be an upper limit to the SSB phase noise as shown in
Fig. 6.9. In addition, we scaled the phase noise up to a 1-GHz carrier frequency for easeof comparison against other oscillators. We include curves representing the typical SSB
phase noise of other extremely stable microwave sources [144]. Less than 10 Hz fromthe carrier, our SSB phase noise is superior to some of the lowest-phase-noise microwave
sources available, achieving -93 dBc/Hz at a 1-Hz offset.
Unfortunately, in our haste to complete the experiment due to the Moscow team’s
limited (only 2 weeks!) stay, we failed to realize that the amplifiers used in the detection126

SSB Phase Noise LI(f) [dBc/Hz]-20

Typical Quartz Oscillator
Low-Noise Quartz Oscillator
Sapphire Loaded Cavity Oscillator
CH4 vs I2 Comparison

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

-140
0.1

1

10

100

Offset From Comparison Frequency [Hz]Figure 6.9: Upper limit to the SSB relative phase noises of the CH4 and I2 clock signals.
Additional curves show the approximate SSB phase noises of other extremely low-phasenoise microwave sources for comparison. All data were scaled for a 1-GHz carrier.

127
of frep harmonics for both clocks were being undersupplied and therefore overdriven far
into saturation. With the latest techniques for optical-to-microwave conversion of fs
pulse trains described in Chapter 4, using detection of a much higher harmonic offrep , low-phase-noise amplifiers, and impedance-matched photodetectors in an LC-tank
configuration, the phase noise and instability of the CH4 offset-free clock could be much
improved. Even so, without the need for stabilization of f0 and coupled with the use of
a portable highly stable HeNe/CH4 optical standard, our setup represents a compact,
reliable clock with high stability and exceedingly low phase noise, which can in principle
be operated for long >24-hour periods.

Chapter 7

The Octave-Spanning Comb: Clockwork and Distribution For an
Optical Atomic Frequency Standard

In addition to cell-based optical frequency references such as I2 and CH4 , in ourlaboratory we have, in operation, a cold-atom based optical clock that has the potential
to become a primary frequency standard in the future. The clock is based on the
doubly-forbidden 1 S0 – 3 P0 transition in 87 Sr atoms, which has a lifetime longer than
100 seconds. More about the clock is described in Section 7.1. The development andcharacterization of the clock depends on the ability to compare its optical frequency
to other frequency standards; these standards can be the microwave Cs standard, orthey can be other optical clocks. In order to cover the large spectral gaps between the∼ 430-THz clock transition and these other standards, a reliable and robust clockworkthat can operate for many hours, or even days, at a time is desired.
In this Chapter I will describe just such a clockwork, realized by the highbandwidth control of a directly-octave-spanning Ti:sapphire laser. The extremely broad
spectrum available from the laser means that the self-referencing technique described in
Section 3.3.1 can be achieved without the need for external broadening of the spectrum
in a microstructure fiber. The use of microstructure fiber normally entails difficultywith maintaining the lock of f0 due to stringent alignment requirements and frequentdamage of the fiber. In contrast, our octave-spanning laser has demonstrated the ability
to maintain a continuous phase lock to the Sr clock laser for longer than 12 hours with

129
no operator intervention. This is achieved even in a laboratory environment where thetemperature fluctuates by several degrees Celsius, with no thermal control of the laser’s
breadboard.
Such a robust clockwork has enabled the development and characterization of
the Sr optical lattice clock in several ways that will be discussed in Section 7.4: theoctave-spanning laser can be phase-locked to the Sr local oscillator (clock) laser witha demonstrated absolute coherence time (for the comb, and therefore the clock laser
as well) exceeding one second. This has allowed the initial characterization of the Srclock laser relative to another ultrastable laser operating with a known performance at1064 nm [145, 146]. With the clock laser performance suitably characterized, absolute
frequency measurements of the Sr optical lattice clock were also performed, by measuring
the repetition frequency of the octave-spanning comb against a Cs-calibrated microwave
reference made available to us from NIST [146]. As a result, the clock transition’s
absolute frequency is now known to a fractional uncertainty of 2.5 × 10−15 , or 1.1 Hz at
the clock frequency, a record for neutral-atom-based optical standards [147]. In addition,
the octave-spanning comb is capable of transferring the stability and coherence of the698-nm Sr clock laser to a 1064-nm cw laser for the purpose of long-distance fibertransfer for comparisons with other clocks operating at NIST [148]. The methods forthe actual transfer will be described more thoroughly in Chapter 8.

7.1

Optical lattice clock using 87 Sr atoms
Large ensembles of ultracold alkaline earth atoms have provided impressive short-term clock stability [149]. Previously, interrogation of neutral atom based optical standards has been carried out primarily in free space, unavoidably including atomic motional effects that typically limit the overall system accuracy [150, 149, 151]. A promising
approach is to explore the ultranarrow optical transitions of atoms held in an opticallattice [152, 153, 154]. The atoms are tightly localized so that Doppler and photon-recoil

130related effects on the transition frequency are eliminated [155]. Meanwhile, the trapping
potential is created at a carefully chosen laser wavelength (λmagic ) such that it has essentially no effect on the internal clock transition frequency [156, 157, 158]. Additionally,
the increased atom-probe laser interaction time enabled by the lattice confinement will
permit full utilization of the narrow natural linewidth. This optical lattice approach
using neutral atoms may provide the best possible combination of clock stability andaccuracy. Such a proposal has been under intensive investigation in the case of the doubly forbidden 1 S0 – 3 P0 transition in the fermionic Sr isotope, 87 Sr [159, 152, 146, 160].
Similar work in Yb is also in progress [161, 162]. In this Section I will describe thevarious components of our 87 Sr optical lattice clock.

7.1.1

The atomic clock’s pendulum: cooling and trapping Strontium

The development of optical atomic clocks requires the ability to reach ultracold
temperatures, and the stability of such clocks benefits from large atom numbers (N ),as described in Section 1.1. By achieving sufficiently low temperatures, atoms can betightly confined in the Lamb-Dicke regime in a lattice potential, virtually eliminating
adverse Doppler effects on the clock’s performance. In addition, the stability of the√clock can be improved by N as larger numbers of atoms are employed. In the caseof neutral Sr, we use two cooling transitions (the 32-MHz-wide 1 S0 – 1 P1 transition at
461 nm followed by the 7.4-kHz-wide 1 S0 – 3 P1 transition at 689 nm) in order to cool
the atoms to µK temperatures before loading them into the optical lattice. The relevantenergy levels are shown in Fig. 7.1. Complete details of the laser cooling apparatus are
given in References [163] and [164].
The 1 S0 – 3 P0 transition in 87 Sr is an excellent clock transition for several reasons.
The most obvious is its extremely narrow natural linewidth, corresponding to a lifetime
exceeding 100 seconds. Such a narrow line offers an extremely high quality factor,
allowing the transition to be probed for long times in order to achieve high spectral

131

1P
1

461nm
Ǎǵ =32 MHz
689 nmǍǵ=7.4 kHz

3P
1
3P
0

698 nmClock transition
Ǎǵ ~ 1 mHz
1S
0
Figure 7.1: Important energy levels for 87 Sr. The 461- and 689-nm energy levels areused for Doppler-cooling before the Sr atoms are loaded into an optical lattice, where the698-nm clock transition frequency is probed by a cavity-stabilized sub-Hertz-linewidth
diode laser.

132
resolution. Another feature of the Sr system is that the cooling and trapping transitions
are accessible by diode lasers, and the 7.4-kHz-linewidth 1 S0 – 3 P1 cooling transition
allows regular Doppler cooling to achieve 1 µK temperatures directly. In addition, theclock transition frequency is insensitive to several potential systematic shifts from strayfields; this is because both the ground and excited states of the clock transition haveno net angular momentum (quantum number J = 0). As a result, coupling to external
magnetic fields is minimal. In fact, ignoring the hyperfine structure, no linear Zeeman
shift exists for the transition frequency. Even including the hyperfine magnetic sublevelstructure, the Zeeman shift has been measured to be on the order of 100 Hz / Gauss,
per magnetic projection quantum number mF . This is a dramatic level of insensitivity
compared to typical Zeeman shifts for other transitions on the order of multiple MHz /Gauss. In fact, with resolution of the magnetic hyperfine sublevels, the linear Zeeman
shift can be experimentally cancelled by locking the clock to two symmetric sublevels
and taking the average frequency. The frequency’s dependence on collisions (density ofthe trapped atoms) is also small, although it must be experimentally determined for areal clock. To date, the collisional shift is consistent with zero at the 3 × 10−16 level for
typical operating trap densities.
For all these reasons, the clock transition in fermionic Sr makes an excellent
candidate for a frequency standard. Combination of the extremely narrow naturallinewidth with insensitivity to stray fields and collisions allows for a clock “pendulum”
with a natural oscillation frequency that is currently being accurately reproduced bythree independent laboratories around the world, with agreement on the order of 2 ×
10−15 [147, 165, 166].

7.1.2

Long interaction times: confinement in the optical lattice

Another important feature of the Sr clock transition is that it allows a trap to beconstructed that is capable of holding the atoms still for long times without perturbing

133
the clock transition. The narrow sub-Hz transition can therefore be probed for times
on the order of seconds, allowing high spectroscopic resolution to be achieved.
Free-space spectroscopy of Sr [151] yields troublesome Doppler effects which limit
the achievable accuracy. An attractive solution is the tight confinement offered by
an optical lattice, which allows long interaction times while essentially eliminating any
Doppler or recoil effects. We use a one-dimensional lattice as shown on the left of Fig. 7.2
in a vertical orientation, so that the atoms can be supported from gravity and confinedtightly in the same direction as the probe laser’s pointing. Figure 7.2 also shows theac stark shift of the lower and upper states of the clock transition, as a function of thelattice wavelength, for a typical lattice intensity. When the optical lattice is operated
at the “magic” wavelength, λmagic , the relatively large AC stark shifts induced by thelattice field become equal for the 1 S0 and 3 P0 energy levels. In this manner, the clocktransition frequency is unperturbed by the presence of the lattice field. For typicaloperating intensities of our trap, we measured the clock shift to be on the order of 1
Hz per 1-GHz change of lattice frequency. Using the frequency comb to stabilize thelattice frequency should therefore keep the repeatability of the clock’s frequency shift
due to the lattice below the level of 10−18 . In fact, the intensity-related AC Stark shiftof the system has already been characterized to < 6 × 10−16 fractional uncertainty [147].
Our one-dimensional lattice is constructed from a ∼300 mW standing wave of opticalpower at λmagic ∼ 813.4 nm, and is oriented nearly parallel to the direction of gravity.
After transfer from the second laser-cooling stage to the lattice, > 104 atoms at ∼1.5
µK temperatures are confined with a Lamb-Dicke parameter of ∼0.3, allowing Dopplerand recoil-free spectroscopy of the clock transition along the axis of the lattice beam.
We have experimentally demonstrated the coherent interaction time between the probe
laser and the atoms to be nearly 1 second with this scheme [47], while keeping thesystematic shift due to the AC stark shift of the lattice beam below 6 × 10−16 [147].

134

200

Stark Shift [kHz]

250
300
350

1S
0

400
3P
0

450
700

750

800

850

900

Laser wavelength [nm]Figure 7.2: AC stark shifts for the ground and excited states of the 87 Sr clock transition. The relative stark shift between the two states is tunable by adjusting the lattice
wavelength. At one particular wavelength, λmagic , the relative stark shift can be zeroedsuch that the lattice confinement does not induce a frequency shift for the transition,
relative to an unperturbed atom. The typical lattice operating intensity corresponds toa trap depth of ∼ 100 lattice recoils.

135
7.1.3

The local oscillator: ultrastable cavity-stabilized probe laser

For the purpose of operating a clock with the best possible stability, it is necessary
for the probe laser to have both a narrow intrinsic linewidth as well as small frequency
drift and low instability for at least several tens of seconds. We probe the extremely
narrow natural linewidth of the clock transition in fermionic Sr with a cavity-stabilized
diode laser operating at 698 nm, constructed by Andrew Ludlow [46]. By locking thediode laser to the highly-isolated ultrastable passive cavity, laser light with a narrow
0.5-Hz linewidth is generated, suitable for probing the clock transition.
The diode laser is operated in an external cavity (Littman configuration) tuned tooperate at 698 nm. Using feedback to the diode current and a PZT on the laser cavity,
the laser is prestabilized to an optical cavity with a finesse of about 104 . Then the lightpasses through an AOM and is incident on the ultrastable cavity. The Pound-DreverHall stabilization technique is used to stabilize the laser relative to the ultrastable cavity
by feedback to the AOM and a PZT on one of the prestabilization cavity mirrors, witha servo bandwidth of 100 kHz.
The ultrastable cavity is mounted inside a temperature-stabilized vacuum chamber, which is in turn fixed to a passive vibration-isolation platform. The entire vibration isolation platform is enclosed in a foam-lined (for acoustic damping), temperaturecontrolled outer box. The high-finesse (finesse ∼ 250,000), 7-cm-long cavity is mounted
in a vertical orientation, supported near its geometrical midpoint in order to reduce
sensitivity to vibrations in the vertical direction [45, 46]. Such vertical acceleration insensitivity is achieved because the upper half of the cavity stretches by the amount thelower half compresses, or vice-versa, for vertical accelerations, allowing the sensitivity to
be tuned and therefore minimized. The cavity is constructed from ultralow expansion
glass (ULE) in order to minimize the cavity length’s coefficient of thermal expansion.
Figure 7.3 shows the cavity in its final resting position, with the vacuum can removed

136

Figure 7.3: The ultrastable, high-finesse, passive optical cavity for the Sr clock laser ismade of ultralow-expansion glass. It is supported at its midplane in a vertical orientationin order to minimize the cavity length’s sensitivity to accelerations in the vertical direction. The cavity will be enclosed in a temperature-controlled vacuum chamber mounted
on a passive vibration-isolation stage in its final configuration. The orange tape covering
the vacuum ports leading to the central bore of the cavity is first removed.

137
so the picture could be taken.
A second, independent cavity-stabilized laser system was also constructed for the
purpose of comparison against the first system in order to characterize their performances [46] The heterodyne beat between the two systems was first frequency counted,√
and after removing the linear drift (<1 Hz/s) from the data and dividing by 2 in orderto characterize the instability of either system, the Allan deviation was measured to be
1×10−15 for timescales from 0.2 to 300 seconds, with the exception of a small (2×10−15 )bump at 100-s averaging times. The phase coherence between the two lasers was preserved at the level of 1 rad for longer than 2 s, at the optical frequency of ∼430 THz.
The limit to the cavity’s performance was consistent with a theoretical model of thethermal-mechanical noise [167, 145] contributions from the mirror substrates and theirdielectric coatings.
Put together, the lattice-trapped 87 Sr atoms and probe laser form a very stable
and accurate frequency standard. With the “pendulum” of this clock now described,
I will turn to its gears. The optical clockwork formed by the octave-spanning comb
provides great flexibility to the kinds of measurements that can be performed with thelattice clock, allowing the absolute frequency to be measured, or allowing comparisons
against many other optical clocks operating at various wavelengths, located in Boulder.

7.2

Octave-spanning Ti:Sapphire laser: optical design
As discussed at the beginning of this Chapter, it is desirable for the femtosecond

comb employed as the optical clockwork to span an octave of bandwidth directly at
its output, without the need for external broadening in microstructure fiber. In thiscontext, “octave-spanning” should be taken to mean that there will be enough powerat the octave points ν and 2ν in order to use the self-referencing technique to measuref0 with a sufficient SNR for its electronic stabilization. Unfortunately, even Ti:sapphire

138
doesn’t have an octave of gain bandwidth. Therefore some source of nonlinear spectral
broadening inside the cavity must be exploited. In our octave-spanning laser, self-phasemodulation inside the Ti:sapphire crystal itself is believed to be responsible for the
spectral broadening the laser achieves. This has the added advantage that the action of
the passive KLM mode-locking mechanism forces the pulses to remain transform-limitedin the crystal, whereas microstructure fiber has higher-order dispersion that can limit
the system’s performance.
Figure 7.4 shows the optical design of the octave-spanning laser, similar to thedesign from Ref. [101]. A Verdi V-6 solid state laser outputs 6.84 W of 532-nm wavelength pump light, which is coupled into the laser cavity through a curved mirror (CM1)and focused into the Ti:sapphire crystal by a 10-cm focal length lens. The Ti:sapphire
crystal is 2.6-mm thick, and higher-doped than a more-standard 5-mm thick crystal
in order to achieve reasonable absorption of the pump laser. A second curved mirror(CM2) collimates the light from the crystal, and reflects it to the near prism (NP) ofa CaF2 prism pair for dispersion compensation. A fold mirror then reflects the light tothe far prism (FP) which collects the spatially dispersed spectrum into a non-diverging,spatially-chirped beam. This beam is retroreflected from the cavity’s end-mirror highreflector (HR) in order to make a linear cavity geometry. After returning through the
crystal, CM1 reflects the beam toward the retro-reflecting output coupler (OC). Model
numbers of all the intracavity optics are given in Fig. 7.4. In order to generate an octaveof spectral bandwidth, the laser is initially aligned so as to maximize the amount of cw
power possible, typically as high as 800 mW. Then CM2 is translated in toward the
crystal while maintaining the pointing alignment of the end-mirrors until the cavity ison the verge of stability for cw operation. Finally, both CM1 and CM2 are translatedaway from the incoming pump beam until mode-locking is achieved, while the insertionof prism FP is adjusted to maximize the spectral bandwidth. In its final configuration that gives the strongest f0 beat from the self-referencing interferometer, the laser

PS

cm

NP: CaF2
OFR model
100ABSV-15

Iris

λ/2 @ 698

m
.0 c
= 34

λ/2 @ 698

23.5” = 59.7 cm

C: repolished~2.6 mmλ/2 @ 1064

Iris

BBO: 1.3 cm,
cut for1550 Æ 775

DMI3: CVI swp
1160/1064

DMI2: CVI lwp0-r570-t690-pw1037-c

IF: 1064 nm

IF: 573 nm

P
M
T

FP: CaF2
OFR model
100ABSV-15

cm

HR: LayerTec
101515

12

DMI1: CVI lwpDM: CVI swprs580-tp106445-rp1100-tp560pw-1012-uv
700-pw-1012-uv
CM2: Franz’s
OC: Spectra
10 cm ROC
Physics G0324-007
Rev.1 w.o. 82129
15 3/8” = 39.1 cm

IF: 710 nm

Beams pass over small
mirror, to grating, thenback over BS cube,
then off small mirror,
then to BS cube

PBS @698 nm698 nm from
Andrew (υs + fne1)

CM1: LayerTec
101568BS-011(non-polarizing)

L: f = 10 cm
AR@532

/8”
13 3

Iris

PBS @
698 nm2 disk PZT’s
for tip-tilt

ND Filter
RG 850 Filter

Power
Meter

Diagnostics forrep rate andspectrum

Rep rate
detector
ET-2030A

Figure 7.4: The octave-spanning laser and the optical system used to form the 87 Sr optical lattice clockwork. Abbreviations and details
are given in the text. Dashed lines indicate beams from pick-off mirrors only used for diagnostics. The pick-off mirrors are removed during
operation of the clockwork.

5

FM: LayerTec
101515λ/2 @ 1064

GR13-1210

GR13-0605

QQ062-A2
fb1064 detector

AOM: 5%Mod. Depth
maximum

YJ009-A3
fb698 detector

German ring
PZT forpiston-mode

1064 nmfrom Mark

Verdi: 6.84 W

IF: 580 nm

139

140
outputs ∼80 mW of cw power and 350 mW of mode-locked power. Initiation of modelocking is performed by tapping on the NP mount so as to decrease its insertion in the
beam briefly, or by moving the translation stage for the OC briefly so as to increase thecavity length. Sometimes mode-locking can be initiated by pushing FP briefly into thebeam.
The output from the laser is rapidly diverging, so after a steering mirror justoutside the OC, a long-focal-length curved mirror is used to collimate the light. After
another steering mirror, the spectrum and pulse timing can be measured by using the 4%
reflections from the front and back surfaces of a thick glass plate. A flipper mirror after
the plate also allows the power to be measured. By coupling one of the 4% pickoffs intoa multimode fiber, the spectrum can be measured on a fiber-coupled optical spectrum
analyzer (OSA). Figure 7.5(a) shows the output spectrum from the laser. Figures 7.5(b)and (c) show the transmission and dispersion of the OC, both of which are important foroctave-spanning operation. Note that the OC is only highly reflective from roughly 760
to 980 nm, whereas it transmits the majority of any incident power of wavelength shorter
than 720 nm or longer than 1050 nm. Within the OC’s high reflectivity bandwidth, lightis therefore resonant with the cavity, whereas outside that bandwidth light does not haveto conform to the resonant spatial modes of the cavity. As a result, the observed profileof the beam is Gaussian for the central part of the spectrum, but is distorted outside thisbandwidth. More details are given in Ref. [101]. Since the majority of the intracavity
power in the wings of the spectrum leaks out of the OC on every round trip of the cavity,
it must be generated in a single pass of the Ti:sapphire crystal. Self-phase modulation(SPM) is responsible for this spectral broadening. Finally, we investigated the dispersive
properties of the OC by measuring its group velocity dispersion (GVD) using a whitelight interferometer. As shown in Fig. 7.5(c), the dispersion is kept between −10 and +20
fs2 from 800 to 930 nm. This means that the central portion of the spectrum returningfrom the OC to the Ti:sapphire crystal is minimally chirped, allowing the formation of

141

Log[Power Spectral Density] (dB)

1.0

Q

Q

-10

0.8

-20

0.6

-30

0.4

-40

0.2

(a)
-50

Power Spectral Density [Arb. Units]

0

0.0
600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

Wavelength (nm)0.7Single-pass SPM
leaks out

Transmission

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

~ 3%

0.2

(b)

0.1
600

700

800

900

1000

1100

Wavelength [nm]
400
40

2

GVD [fs ]

300

20

200

0
-20

100

750

800

850

900

950

0
-100

(c)

-200
650

700

750

800

850

900

950

Wavelength [nm]Figure 7.5: (a) Output spectrum of the octave-spanning laser, plotted on a logarithmic
scale (left axis) and a linear scale (right axis) for the power spectral density. The spectral
points used for self-referencing are at 575- and 1150 nm. (b) Transmission of the output
coupler. The steep edges at 740 and 1040 nm allow the majority of power in the spectral
wings, generated by self-phase modulation in the crystal, to leak out of the cavity in
one round trip. (c) Group velocity dispersion of the output coupler, measured using
white-light interferometry. The low dispersion in the output coupler’s high-reflectivity
bandwidth allows the intracavity pulse to remain short on its reverse path through the
crystal, keeping the nonlinearity of the Kerr lens high in each direction.

142
a strong Kerr-lens effect as it passes through the crystal in this direction. Since the armof the cavity containing the prisms can have its dispersion independently fine-tuned, thepulses inside the crystal can be very short as they travel in either direction through the
crystal. This keeps the nonlinearity extremely high, making for a very robust modelocking mechanism as well as the large amount of SPM responsible for the spectral
broadening.

7.3

Servo control
The broadband spectrum provided by the octave-spanning laser is able to het-

erodyne with several important lasers for the characterization and development of the
optical lattice clock. In this Section I will first describe the self-referencing optics andelectronics which use the 575- and 1150-nm parts of the spectrum. Then I will describe
the servo loop and optics needed to stabilize the comb to the 698-nm sub-Hz-linewidth
clock laser. Finally, I will describe the in-loop measurements showing that these various servos have enough gain and bandwidth to, in principle, stabilize the entire comb
relative to the clock laser within one mHz of relative linewidth at 698 nm.

7.3.1

Control of the offset frequency

In order to control the octave-spanning comb’s offset frequency, f0 , the selfreferencing scheme described in Section 3.3.1 is used. Referring to Fig. 7.4, after the
output of the fs laser is collimated with a curved mirror and reflected with a steering
mirror, it passes just over the top of a mirror and is incident on a dichroic Michelsoninterferometer. The dichroic beamsplitter of the interferometer (DMI1) separates light
below 600 nm from the rest of the spectrum. The majority of the spectrum (at wavelengths longer than 600 nm) is transmitted by DMI1, while the wavelength range near
575 nm is reflected to an end mirror of the interferometer (DMI2). DMI2 retroreflects
the 575-nm portion of the spectrum with a slight downward tilt so that it can reflect from143
the short mirror located just in front of the interferometer. A small amount of longerwavelength power that reflected from DMI1 transmits through DMI2 and is detected ona fast photodiode in order to measure frep and its harmonics. In the meantime, a third
dichroic mirror (DMI3) in the long-wavelength port of the interferometer reflects the1150-nm portion of the spectrum, again with a slight downward tilt, while transmitting
the central portion of the comb’s spectrum between 600 and 1100 nm. The two retroreflected beams from DMI2 and DMI3 are combined again on DMI1 before being picked
off by the short mirror and sent to a focusing lens. The lens focuses both the 575-nm and1150-nm beams into a BBO crystal, which is angle-tuned to phase-match the 1150-nm
second harmonic generation process. After collimating the original 575-nm comb (withoffset frequency f0 ) and the new SHG comb (with offset frequency 2f0 ), also centered at575-nm, a pair of interference filters are used to select only light at 575-nm for detection
on a photomultiplier tube. Although the spectral bandwidth of the detected 575-nm
light is quite narrow (∼3 nm), it still represents pulsed light. Therefore DMI2 can betranslated in order to account for the system’s group delay between the original 575-nm
pulses and the SHG pulses generated from the original 1150-nm pulses. This small
group-delay correction is the reason for building the dichroic Michelson interferometerin the first place.
The PMT detects frep from the two pulse trains, but more importantly it detects
the f0 and frep − f0 heterodyne beats between adjacent comb lines of the fundamental
and SHG combs. The SNR of these heterodyne beats is typically 25 dB in 100-kHz,and has been observed as high as 35 dB in the same bandwidth whenever the opticalalignment of both the laser and the self-referencing system have recently been perfected.
After electronically filtering the f0 beat at 70 MHz and amplifying it to a suitable level,
we phase-lock an rf tracking filter to it. The rf tracking filter has a sufficiently high bandwidth to stabilize its voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) to the f0 beat in an extremely
robust fashion. Then the VCO output at 70 MHz, which tracks f0 robustly, is digitized144
and prescaled to 1.75 MHz by a digital frequency divider. This frequency-divided squarewave is effectively mixed against the output of a stable external synthesizer that has
also been digitized, using a digital phase detector, in order to measure the relative phasebetween the f0 beat and the reference synthesizer. The voltage signal corresponding
to the relative phase is then integrated by a loop filter in order to have proportionalintegral control of the error signal. The shaped error signal is split into two copies, andone is inverted. Both copies are summed with independently-controllable dc offsets andamplified to as much as 150 V in order to differentially drive two PZT’s that control
the tilt of the fs laser’s HR. Whenever one PZT’s voltage swings high, the other drops
low in order to tilt the HR, thus changing the group delay dispersion of the laser, andtherefore shifting f0 . When the servo loop is closed, the feedback therefore phase-locks
f0 to the 70-MHz external synthesizer reference. The servo loop has a bandwidth of 30
kHz, limited by mechanical resonances of the differential-dual-PZT system.
Note that to obtain 1 mHz of stability or accuracy of f0 , corresponding to 1
mHz stability or accuracy of every optical frequency mode of the comb, the 70-MHz
reference synthesizer must have 1 mHz of stability or accuracy. This is only a fractional
stability or accuracy requirement of 1 mHz / 70 MHz = 1.4 × 10−11 , easily within reachof a good microwave frequency reference’s specifications. We stabilize all our reference
synthesizers to a commercial Cs-beam microwave frequency reference with a stability ofbetter than 10−12 at 1 s, and an accuracy that is maintained by steering it to a GPS
receiver and therefore coordinated universal time (UCT). The steering is performed as astep function frequency shift, often enough (on the order of weeks between corrections)to keep the integrated time within certain bounds. The Cs oven-based reference is also
continuously monitored against GPS so the data is available for post-processing if it isneeded.

145
7.3.2

Control of another comb mode

The comb’s remaining degree of freedom, frep , is controlled by phase-locking
a neighboring comb mode to the 698-nm ultrastable clock laser. The 600-to-1000nm spectral components transmitted by DMI3 are split on another dichroic mirror(DM) that transmits 698-nm light while reflecting 1064-nm light. The 698-nm lightpasses through a narrow interference filter and a half-wave plate, before it is sent toa grating. The grating is used to spatially disperse the beam so that less than a nmof spectral bandwidth will be heterodyned with the 698-nm clock laser, in order toprevent saturation of the photodetector’s ac electronics due to the signals at harmonics
of frep . After the grating, the comb’s light is combined with the cw 698 clock laser
on a polarizing beamsplitter cube (PBS). The clock laser’s light is delivered to theoptical table by a ∼15-m optical fiber with a fiber transfer phase noise cancellation
scheme like the one to be shown in Fig. 8.4. After combining it with the comb’s light,
the orthogonal polarizations are collapsed and the collinear beams are detected on asilicon photodetector. The output of the photodetector responds to the heterodyne
beats between the clock laser and all nearby modes of the frequency comb, as well as
frep and its harmonics that roll off after the 180-MHz bandwidth of the photodiode.
The two lowest-frequency beats are defined as fb698 and frep − fb698 , respectively.
After filtering fb698 near 25 MHz, it is phase-stabilized to another rf frequency
reference at 25 MHz using the same digital phase detection technique as described forthe f0 lock, with a prescaling factor of 20. Several actuators are available for controlling
frep , including an AOM in the pump laser for its intensity control, a fast PZT for
driving the laser’s intracavity fold mirror (FM), and a slow, long range PZT for driving
the translation stage that the OC is mounted on. The error signal from the digital phasedetector is first split; one part is integrated once and used to drive the AOM with abandwidth of ∼150 kHz. The other part is integrated once before driving the high-speed

146
PZT, and twice before driving the long range PZT in order to keep the average voltageof the high-speed PZT within its dynamic range. The resulting phase-locked-loop has aunity gain bandwidth of 150 kHz, limited by the delay time of the acoustic wave throughthe AOM to the location of the pump beam. Other mechanical resonances occur for
the fast PZT at 50 kHz and for the long-range PZT below 100 Hz.
A special feature of the octave-spanning Ti:sapphire laser that sets it apart from
more typical systems is that control of the pump’s intensity affects N frep about a factorof 20 more than it affects f0 for the comb mode near 698 nm, for modulation frequencies
of several-hundred Hz. It has been shown that operating Ti:sapphire lasers with broader
spectra leads to less intensity-dependence of f0 [106], and the octave-spanning laser takes
this to the extreme. Since f0 is therefore more intrinsically stable for the broad octavespanning laser, the relatively low 30-kHz bandwidth used to stabilize f0 is more thansufficient, despite the pump intensity being driven with the high servo bandwidth of 150
kHz in order to control frep .

7.3.3

In-loop performance of the stabilized comb

In order to verify that our servo loops have enough gain to transfer the full phasecoherence of the 698-nm clock laser’s sub-Hz linewidth to each mode of the frequency
comb, we measured the in-loop linewidths of both f0 and fb698 . They are plotted onlinear and logarithmic scales in Fig. 7.6. For these measurements, both the f0 and
fb698 servos were engaged in order to measure the full experimental situation of the
comb locking to the 698-nm clock laser while simultaneously being self-referenced. Thismeasurement reveals in-loop linewidths of 1 mHz, limited by the resolution bandwidthof the measurement. Therefore, the servo gains and bandwidths are sufficient to stabilize
the comb extremely tightly to the clock laser.

976 uHz RBW
BW limited

600

10
2

Vrms [V ]

2

400
200

-6

976 uHz RBW
4 mHz LW

-8

-10

5

-0.2
0.0
0.2
fb698 - 25 MHz [Hz]Vrms [V ]-10-50fb698 - 25 MHz [mHz]

-4

10

2

2

4

Vrms [V x 10 ]

-3
2

-15

6

10
10

0

2

10

-4

2

2

-6

Vrms [V x 10 ]

147

2

-6

10

-8

0

10
-30
-20
-10
f0 - 70 MHz [mHz]

-0.2
0.0
0.2
f0 - 70 MHz [Hz]Figure 7.6: In-loop linewidths of f0 (bottom graphs) and fb698 (top graphs) on linear (leftgraphs) and logarithmic (right graphs) scales for power spectral density. All measurements were taken while both degrees of freedom were phase-locked. This demonstrates
the feedback loops have enough gain and bandwidth to transfer the coherence of the698-nm clock laser to the rest of the comb’s modes across the spectrum.

148

7.4

Out-of-loop experiments
After constructing and testing the octave-spanning laser as described in the pre-vious Section, we put it to use for several applications involving the 87 Sr optical latticeclock. First, the comb proved to be an invaluable tool for the development of the first698-nm clock laser, since the only other stable optical reference we could compare it towas an independently-characterized cavity-stabilized laser operating at 1064-nm. The
large spectral gap between the two sub-Hz lasers had to be covered with the octavespanning comb.
Then the comb was used for both the initial 5 × 10−14 [146] and subsequent
2.5 × 10−15 [147] accurate measurements of the clock transition’s absolute frequency bycomparing the tenth harmonic of its repetition frequency to a ∼ 1-GHz signal referenced
to a Hydrogen maser calibrated to the Cs fountain primary standard at NIST.
Next, we used the comb to stabilize a 1064-nm cw laser to the 698-nm clock laser,so that the 1064-nm transfer laser could be transmitted over a 3.5-km optical fiber to
NIST for comparisons against other optical clocks. Details of the fiber transfer itself
will be discussed in Section 8.4, but here I will briefly present some preliminary data
highlighting the utility of making frequency intercomparisons directly in the opticaldomain between optical clocks. Essentially, the significantly-lower instability offered by
the optical clocks (as compared to the maser-referenced signal) allows extremely rapid
averaging when making measurements of systematic clock shifts. Another result fromthese experiments is a 1-Hz-linewidth intracavity comparison between a NIST cavitystabilized laser and the Sr lattice clock laser, demonstrating the ability to preserve
phase coherence over large-spectral- and long-distance- gaps at the level that current
technology can produce optical phase coherence!
Finally, I will present preliminary results from a new measurement of the octavespanning comb’s ability to phase-lock to a cw reference laser. The comb is locked to a

149
cw laser operating at 1064 nm, and heterodyned against the cw laser’s second harmonicat 532 nm (while independently locking f0 ). Then the beat frequency from the 532nm beams allows an out-of-loop measurement of the comb’s ability to both lock to
the 1064-nm reference and phase-coherently transfer the reference’s exact timing acrossthe spectrum to the 532-nm mode of the comb. Preliminary results indicate that a 1mHz relative linewidth is preserved across the comb’s spectrum, with inaccuracy of the
comb lines constrained to below a level approaching 10−19 . Such results imply that theoctave-spanning comb is fully capable of accurately and phase-coherently distributing
the quality of our best optical frequency standards across the visible and near-infrared
spectrum.
All four of these results, taken together, prove that the octave-spanning frequency
comb can accurately and phase-coherently distribute an optical frequency reference tothe microwave, infrared, and visible parts of the spectrum, even over distances as longas 32 km. Such a versatile and accurate tool represents the fully-characterized hub ofan active and robustly-working optical frequency metrology laboratory.

7.4.1

Characterizing the clock local oscillator

The first direct application for the octave-spanning frequency comb in our laboratory was to characterize the clock laser being developed for the 87 Sr optical latticeclock. At the time, only one cavity was completed for the 698-nm wavelength, and tocharacterize the laser’s performance we needed to bridge the spectral gap between it
and another cavity-stabilized laser operating at 1064 nm [45] The 1064-nm laser was
already well-characterized against two other systems operating close enough to its frequency that direct heterodyne beats could be used for intercomparison.
In order to make the measurement, light from both the 698-nm laser and the1064-nm laser was brought to the octave-spanning comb via fiber links with active
cancellation of the phase noise introduced by each ∼ 15-m-long fiber (using the technique

150

1.0
698: Zerodur cavity
1064: ULE cavity
3.13-Hz RBW

0.8

Power [arb. units]

Power [arb. units]

1.0
5-Hz FWHM

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

698: ULE
1064: ULE
300-mHz RBW

0.8
0.6

0.7-Hz FWHM

0.4
0.2
0.0

-100

-50
0
50
Fourier Frequency [Hz]

100

-10

-5
0
5
Fourier Frequency [Hz]10Power [arb. units]

Allan Deviation

1.0
-13

10

-14

10

0.8
0.6

698: ULE
698: ULE
300-mHz RBW

300-mHz FWHM

0.4
0.2

-15

10

0.0
0.001

0.01

0.1
1
10
Averaging Time [s]

100

-10

-5
0
5
Fourier Frequency [Hz]10

Figure 7.7: Characterizing the 698-nm clock laser against a known 1064-nm narrowlinewidth reference laser. Top-left (red): 5-Hz linewidth of the first 698-nm laser stabilized to a Zerodur cavity, as compared to the ULE 1064-nm cavity via the octavespanning comb. The 698-nm laser’s frequency noise limited this measurement Top-right(blue): 0.7-Hz linewidth of the second 698-nm laser stabilized to the ULE cavity shownin Fig. 7.3, when effectively heterodyned against the ULE 1064-nm cavity via the octavespanning comb. The 1064-nm laser’s frequency noise limited this measurement. Notethe factor of 10 reduction in the frequency axis scale between the top-left plot andthe other linewidth plots. The narrow features represent the “linewidth” quoted here,
since sometimes the energy is seen to compress into these features. Shown here, typicallaser frequency noise spreads energy into other noisy features. Bottom-right (green):
Two independent 698-nm lasers beat together to record this 300-mHz linewidth, as inRef. [46]. No octave-spanning comb is involved, but the measurement indicates theoctave-spanning laser, when locked to the 300-mHz line, likely can transfer the fullphase coherence to every mode of the comb. Bottom-left: Allan deviations for the same
three cases, color-coded respectively. The octave-spanning comb enjoys the 1 × 10−15
stability provided by the 698-nm ULE cavity, distributed to each mode of the opticalfrequency comb.

151
to be described in Section 8.4). The frequency comb was self-referenced and locked to
the 698-nm laser as described in Section 7.3. Then another mode of the comb washeterodyned against the 1064-nm laser as the out-of-loop effective beat between the two
ultra-stable lasers. A typical measurement of the linewidth of the effective beat is shownin the top-left plot of Fig. 7.7. The central feature is only 5 Hz wide, although significant
energy is spread into a 50-Hz span. We also frequency-counted the effective beat note inorder to measure the relative instability of the two cavities. After subtracting a linear
drift term from the data, the Allan Deviation was calculated as shown in the red curvein the bottom-left plot of Fig. 7.7. The ∼ 4 × 10−14 fractional frequency instability andthe linewidth were both limited by the 698-nm cavity, which used a different geometry
from the cavity shown in Fig. 7.3, and the material Zerodur for the spacer and mirror
substrates. Nevertheless, our first absolute frequency measurement of the 87 Sr clocktransition [146] was performed using the Zerodur cavity.
After the first absolute frequency measurement was finished, Andrew Ludlow
constructed the cavity shown in Fig. 7.3 and described in Section 7.1.3. Again, theoctave-spanning comb was used to compare the new 698-nm laser to the same 1064nm laser as before. A typical linewidth measurement is shown in the top-right plot ofFig. 7.7 in blue. The 0.7-Hz central feature again shows the measurement’s potential,
but more often than not significant energy is spread into a ∼5-Hz span. The fractional
instability of the measurement at 1064-nm is shown as the middle curve (blue) in thebottom-left plot of Fig. 7.7. The significant improvement over the Zerodur cavity is dueto the smaller thermal noise contribution from ULE, as well as some engineering issues(for details, please see Andrew Ludlow’s thesis). This time, the measurement was likely
limited by the 1064-nm laser. In order to prove it, Andrew built a second 698-nm laser
stabilized to a similar ULE cavity and directly compared the two 698-nm lasers [46]without need for the octave-spanning comb. A 300-mHz linewidth of the heterodyne
beat between the two independent 698-nm clock lasers is shown in the bottom-right152
plot of Fig. 7.7. Also, the instability of the lasers (after dividing the frequency-counting√
data by 2) is shown as the green curve in the bottom-left plot. The 1 × 10−15 flicker
floor for averaging times longer than 0.2 s agrees well with theoretical predictions of thethermal noise floor for such a cavity [167, 46].
The first two cavity comparisons made with the octave-spanning laser were anencouraging start for demonstrating the laser could phase-coherently transfer the ultrastable performance of the clock laser across its spectrum. In addition, the octavespanning comb was a valuable tool for characterization of the clock lasers, so that rapid
development could be made while knowing what the performance levels were. Presumably, the comb was also able to lock tightly enough to enjoy the 1 × 10−15 performanceof the ULE cavity, although only in-loop data existed to support this conclusion until
recently. See the new measurements described in Section 7.4.4 for further out-of-loop
proof.

7.4.2

Absolute frequency measurement of the 87 Sr optical lattice clock

With the clock’s local oscillator suitably characterized, we began to make absolute
frequency measurements of the clock transition. The clock laser always has some degreeof linear and nonlinear frequency drift that must be controlled to a suitable level. In
the case of our first absolute frequency measurement [146], we were scanning lines thatwere several-hundred-Hz wide, and fitting the measured lineshapes to find the center
frequencies. For our next measurement [147], the clock laser had been improved and wescanned 10-Hz-wide lines. Therefore, the drift rates had to be kept significantly below
500 Hz and 10 Hz over the course of the 60 and 30 seconds it took to scan the line forthe two measurements, respectively.
In order to keep this drift to a minimum, we stabilized the long-term drift to a
Cs-calibrated H-maser located at NIST, using the drift compensation scheme shown in
Fig. 7.8. (The scheme shown was used for the measurements in Ref. [147]. The earlier

153N
f m  f c  f 0  f ne1  f ne 2  f SRS  f Ag
10

Q Sr
PZT

I
PZT

698 Diode
EOM
fm
CounterAOMȞDC~ 10 kHzpre-stabilization
cavityȞSr = ȞDC – fDDS – fAg + fne2

ȞA2

Sr
~ 430 THz

super cavity 2
(ULE)

+fne2

~950
MHz

-1st order AOM~ -98 MHz-fne1

~ 23 MHz

fAg

fDDS~ 75 MHzPZT100 MHz

fSRS(Nfrep + f0) – (ȞDC – fne1)
25 MHz

ME
SA

!
GN
I
S

(Nfrep + f0) + fne1 + fDDS - ȞDC
fc = 10frep - fm = (10/N) * [(ȞDC - fDDS) + fSRS – f0 – fne1] - fm

Figure 7.8: Schematic showing the 87 Sr clockwork, including the various frequency
offsets used to steer the laser onto the clock transition. The frequency fm is referenced
to the maser, at ∼950.5 MHz. Mixing the tenth harmonic of frep against fm whilestabilizing the comb to the clock laser yields a 50-kHz signal for counting, fc . Measuring
the drift of fc determines the drift of the cavity frequency νA2 with respect to the H
maser. Then fDDS is used to compensate that drift so that the laser’s frequency νA2 isstable with respect to the Sr transition frequency, νSr . Measurement of fc also allows
the ratio νSr /fm to be determined accurately, and since fm is calibrated by the Cs
fountain clock, the absolute frequency of the Sr transition frequency is determined.

154
measurement in Ref. [146] used a similar scheme with different gain signs and offset
frequencies.) The microwave reference signal from NIST was transmitted over opticalfiber by amplitude modulation of a fiber-coupled laser diode, as will be described in
Section 8.3.3. A synthesizer at NIST provided the modulation frequency of fm ∼950 MHz, close to the tenth harmonic of frep for the octave-spanning comb when locked
to the clock laser.
Measurement of the clock transition frequency was perfomed as shown in Fig. 7.8,
and worked as follows. First, the clock laser was stabilized to its pre-stabilization cavity
and the ultrastable cavity, and its light was brought through a fiber noise canceller’sAOM down to a breadboard from which the light could be split to the atoms and the
comb. I denote this frequency at the “Distribution Center” as νDC . The light thatwas sent to the comb passed through the −1 order of another AOM for fiber noise
cancellation (“noise eater”) of a 15-m fiber, which frequency-shifted the light by −fne1 .
Light at the output of the fiber was heterodyned against the next-highest-frequency
mode of the comb (beat frequency N frep + f0 − (νDC − fne1 )). Then a programmable
DDS synthesizer (frequency fDDS ) was summed into the beat frequency, for the purposeof cancelling the long-term drift of the clock laser relative to fm from the maser. The
sum of fDDS and the beat frequency was stabilized to a synthesizer (frequency fSRS by
feedback to the octave-spanning laser as described in Section 7.3.
With the comb locked to the clock laser, including the possibility for summing ina frequency drift through control of fDDS , the clock laser frequency was counted against
the maser: first, a portion of the comb’s light was detected in order to derive a signal at
10frep . Then fm was controlled to be ∼ 10 kHz less than 10frep so that the two signals
could be mixed. The mixer output was low-pass filtered to include only the difference
frequency term at the frequency we then counted:
fc = 10frep − fm =10[(νDC − fDDS ) + fSRS − f0 − fne1 ] − fm .
N

(7.1)

155
Note that feedback to the value of fDDS could then be used to stabilize the long-term
drift of νDC − fDDS relative to the maser. Such feedback was applied by counting fc for
30 s at a time and then fitting the data to a line to determine the linear drift rate. The
linear drift was calculated by averaging (typically four) of these 30-s measurements, andthen the drift rate of fDDS was updated in order to keep the drift of fc well-zeroed.
Figure 7.9 shows the performance of the drift compensation when used to compensate the drift of the original Zerodur cavity-stabilized laser used for the measurements
in Ref. [146]. At first, drift compensation was not applied, and the average drift was∼ 7 Hz/s. Then as the drift compensation was turned on and feedback to fDDS wasapplied every 100 s, the drift rate rolled over to an average value close to zero. Since
the net frequency displacement at any time is given by the integrated drift rate, and thelock has a finite error with respect to the drift rate, the frequency displacement could
still execute a somewhat random walk. However, the “instantaneous” frequency drift
at any time (say averaged for the neighboring 30 s, which was our scan time) was kept
below 1 Hz/s. The bottom plot of Fig. 7.9 shows how the linear frequency drift, if left
uncompensated, would have drifted very far from resonance after just a few hundred
seconds. With the new ULE cavity-stabilized laser described in Section 7.1.3, the average uncompensated drift rate is below 1 Hz/s, and the nonlinear fluctuations that leadto the ∼ 100-s ripple in Fig. 7.9 no longer appear.
In order to make sure the atoms saw the same drift-free probe laser, fDDS was also
summed in to an AOM used to tune the probe laser frequency to the atomic resonance.
From the Distribution Center again, a portion of the light was sent through the −1 orderof this AOM being driven at the frequency fAg +fDDS . The signal at frequency fAg camefrom an Agilent synthesizer that was used to scan through the atomic resonance. In
addition, another AOM operating in the +1 order at frequency fne2 was used to cancel
the fiber noise of the 15-m fiber between the Distribution Center and the lattice-trapped

156

Optical Frequency [Hz]

1000
500
0
-500

Optical Frequency [kHz]

0

500

1000
Time [s]

1500

2000

1500

2000

14
12

7 Hz/s linear drift

10
8
6
4
2
0
0

500

1000
Time [s]Figure 7.9: Compensation of the clock laser’s frequency drift. The upper plot shows
the optical frequency of the clock laser as a function of time in red. For the first 200 s,
no drift compensation is applied. Then feedback is applied by fitting the slope every
100 s and applying the opposite drift to fDDS . The lower plot illustrates (in blue) how
quickly the 7 Hz/s drift of the probe laser would have walked off resonance with theatoms if left uncompensated. Note that in addition to compensating drift, the system
also allows real-time measurement of the absolute frequency of the probe laser relative
to the Hydrogen maser located at NIST.

157
atoms. Therefore the probe frequency at the atoms wasνSr = νDC − fDDS + fne2 − fAg .

(7.2)

Since the terms νDC − fDDS were kept drift-free relative to fm by feedback from fc ,the light at the atoms was also free of drift during a scan of the atomic resonance’s line
shape. By recording the changing frequencies fc and fAg , as well as knowing the stablefrequencies fm , f0 , fne1 , fne2 , and fSRS , the frequency of light seen by the atoms at
any point in time was determined: solving Eqn. 7.1 for νDC − fDDS and inserting theexpression into Eqn. 7.2, we have
νSr =N
(fm + fc ) + f0 + fne1 + fne2 − fSRS − fAg .
10

(7.3)

Note this expression conveniently does not depend on fDDS , which was only used tocompensate the drift of the clock laser relative to the maser.
Then after scanning through the line and fitting to determine its center frequency,∼ 30 s of fc data (from times symmetrically around the time at which the center
frequency was measured) was used to determine νSr for each line center. The accuracyof this determination was limited by the 30-s instability of the maser to ∼ 6 × 10−14 .
Averaging of many scans of the line over the course of a 24-hour period (see Section 8.3.3
and Fig. 8.9) allowed us to determine the absolute frequency to an uncertainty of 1.1 Hz,
or 2.5 × 10−15 [147], limited mainly by the calibration of the maser to the Cs-fountainfrequency standard.
In addition to using the octave-spanning comb to make the absolute frequency
measurements by accurately dividing the optical clock frequency down to microwave
frequencies, the drift cancellation has also allowed the highest-quality-factor coherent
spectroscopy ever to be performed [47]. With the low residual drift rate, typically≤ 0.1 Hz/s, scans of individual resolved hyperfine magnetic sublevels (with a bias
magnetic field applied) were able to measure Fourier-limited linewidths of 1.8 Hz. An

0.10

(a)

FWHM
2.1 Hz

0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

8

Occurences

0.08

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

Laser Detuning (Hz)6

Fourier
Limit:
1.8 Hz

(b)

6
4
2
0

3

P0(mF=5/2) Population

158

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Transition Linewidth (Hz)Figure 7.10: The highest quality factor yet demonstrated for coherent spectroscopy. (a)Lineshape of a single hyperfine magnetic sublevel for the clock transition in 87 Sr undera bias magnetic field, demonstrating a 2.1-Hz linewidth. Note each point corresponds
to a single cooling and trapping cycle, so no signal averaging is used. (b) Histogramof measured linewidths, demonstrating that probe laser frequency noise can lead tonarrower and broader linewidths than the 1.8-Hz Fourier limit set by the interrogation
time. Long-timescale compensation of the probe laser’s frequency drift was necessary
in order to separate the linear frequency drift from the nonlinear fluctuations (fromthermal noise of the ultrastable cavity) that limit the linewidth.

159
example of a 2.1-Hz linewidth is shown in Fig. 7.10(a). Figure 7.10(b) shows a histogramof many measurements demonstrating that the probe laser frequency noise can decreaseor increase the measured linewidth, but that on average the Fourier limit is achieved.
Such a narrow resonance at 430 THz represents a record-high quality factor for coherent
spectroscopy of 2.4 × 1014 . Attempts at longer probe times were limited by the probe
laser’s frequency noise (due to the ultrastable cavity’s thermal noise limit). Again, theselinewidths were recovered when the octave-spanning comb was used to compensate theprobe laser’s linear drift relative to the maser; only the nonlinear frequency fluctuations
from thermal noise remain to limit the linewidth.
Recently we also operated the system as a true clock rather than by taking spectroscopic data of the line center. By applying a bias magnetic field and alternately
probing the two stretched hyperfine sublevels, the linear Zeeman frequency shift for theclock was cancelled when the probe laser was locked to the average frequency of the two
stretched transitions. Locking the probe laser to the average frequency was achieved bycontrolling fAg , but in order to also lock the comb’s output to the atoms, fSRS was also
controlled by the same amount with the appropriate sign. Then, as described above, thefrequency comb derived a true countable microwave clock output at 10frep , which was
mixed against fm to form the ∼ 50-kHz signal at fc containing the relative frequency
fluctuations between the maser and the Sr clock’s microwave output.
The upper plot of Fig. 7.11 shows frequency-counting data when fc was countedwith a 1-s gate time and using a 100-kHz low-pass filter. The Sr optical lattice clock
operated continuously for nearly 8 hours with only a brief interruption at about the
3-hour mark. The interruption allowed the clock laser to drift before an updated valueof fAg was used upon re-acquisition of the lock to the atoms. Due to the particular
programming of our system, fSRS was left unchanged during the un-locked time and so
did not pick up the accumulated frequency offset that fAg did. Therefore the comb’s
microwave output experienced a net frequency offset due to the event. The lower plot ofFractional Fluctuation x 10

-12

160

0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
0

2

4

6

8

Time [hours]

Allan Deviation2

Sr vs Maser

-13

10

8
6
4
2

-14

10

8
6
4

1

10

100

1000

Averaging Time [s]Figure 7.11: The Sr optical lattice clock’s performance, as directly compared against
the Hydrogen maser signal. Top: Frequency-counting the signal at frequency fc , frommixing the clock’s microwave output near 950-MHz with the Hydrogen maser signal.
Fractional frequency fluctuations between the two ∼ 950-MHz signals are displayed on
the vertical axis. The counting gate time was 1 s, and fc was near 50 kHz, filtered witha low-pass filter at 100 kHz. The Sr clock laser was locked to the atoms continuously
for nearly 7.5 hours with the exception of a brief unlock at the 3-hour mark, whichallowed the probe laser to drift before it was re-locked to the atoms with a new offset(from fSRS ) as seen by the comb. Bottom: the Allan Deviation, calculated from thelast 4.5 hours of the data shown in the top plot. The stability is limited at all timescales
by the maser.

161
Fig. 7.11 shows the Allan Deviation calculated from the last 4.5 hours of the frequencycounting data; the instability of the comparison is limited by the maser at all timescales
shown.
Operation of the optical atomic clock for such a continuous span of time is anencouraging indication that the system can eventually be made robust enough to operate for long spans of time without cycle slips or loss of information. The ability tocontinuously count the microwave output of such a fully-functioning clock for so longis of fundamental importance to the application of time-keeping for such an accurate
frequency standard. In the future, measurements of the frequency comb’s microwave
output stability should be made in order to determine whether the low instability of
the clock in the optical domain (to be described in Section 7.4.3) is fully preserved in
the microwave output. Measurements of the frequency comb’s ability to transfer an
optical reference’s stability into the microwave domain have already been performed inRef. [78], indicating that the excess instability introduced by the optical-to-microwave
conversion of the frequency comb was 6.5 × 10−16 for a 1-s averaging time. The lownoise optical-to-microwave conversion techniques described in Chapter 4 should be able
to further reduce this level of instability.

7.4.3

Optical clock intercomparison

With the clock laser locked to the atoms, direct comparisons between the 87 Sr
optical clock and other optical clocks could be performed. Figure 7.12 shows a highlevel diagram of how we compared the Sr optical lattice clock to the Ca optical clock
located at NIST [150]. As described in Section 7.4.2, the 698-nm clock laser was locked
to the Sr atoms using the stretched magnetic hyperfine sublevel transitions under asmall magnetic bias field. Then a mode of the octave-spanning comb was locked to theclock laser, while f0 was locked, as described in Section 7.3. With every mode of the
optical frequency comb now referenced to the Sr atoms, a cw laser (“transfer laser”)

162

JILA
87

Sr Atoms

Sr Clock Laser

Octave comb

698 nmTransfer Laser

1064 nmNIST
Ca Atoms

Ca Clock Laser

657 nmOctave comb

3.5 km urban
fiber link

Figure 7.12: High-level diagram of the experimental setup for remote comparison of
the 87 Sr optical lattice clock with the neutral-atom Ca clock. At JILA, the 698-nm
clock laser is locked to the 87 Sr atoms, and the octave-spanning comb is self-referenced
and locked to the 698-nm clock laser, as discussed in Section 7.4.2. A cw transfer laser
operating at 1064 nm is stabilized to the comb and transmitted to NIST through 3.5 km
of fiber installed in an urban environment. Details of the fiber transfer will be given in
Section 8.4. At NIST, another ultrastable clock laser operating at 657 nm is locked to
the Ca atoms, and another octave-spanning comb is again self-referenced and stabilized
to the Ca clock laser. Then the cw transfer laser at 1064 nm coming from JILA isheterodyned against a nearby mode of the frequency comb at NIST. This heterodyne
beat is the effective beat between the two optical frequency standards separated by
3.5 km of distance and by a spectral gap of 27 THz and therefore contains all theinformation about their relative frequency fluctuations.

163
operating at 1064 nm was locked to the comb. Then the transfer laser was transmitted
to NIST via a 3.5-km urban fiber link, as will be described in detail in Section 8.4.
The noise introduced by the fiber link was actively cancelled to an insignificant level
for these measurements. Meanwhile, at NIST another ultrastable laser (Ca clock laser)
was locked to the Ca clock transition [150] and another independent octave-spanningfrequency comb [168] was self-referenced and stabilized to the Ca clock laser. Therefore
every mode of the octave-spanning comb at NIST was accurately referenced to the Caatoms, while the incoming cw transfer laser from JILA was accurately referenced to theSr atoms. The cw transfer laser was heterodyned against a nearby mode of the NIST
octave-spanning comb in order to generate a beat note containing the relative frequency
fluctuations between the two optical frequency standards.
The effective beat between the Sr and Ca optical clocks was frequency-counted inorder to measure the relative frequency fluctuations between the optical clocks. At thesame time, the usual frequency fc comparing the Sr optical clock’s microwave frequency
output to the maser was also counted. Figure 7.13 shows frequency counting measurements for a particular night where the Ca clock was being used as a stable reference
against which to measure systematic frequency shifts of the Sr system. We used a 1-s
gate time for all the frequency-counting measurements shown. The upper plot shows thefractional frequency fluctuations of the microwave clock output (relative to the maser)in red, on the order of a part in 1012 , consistent with the usual ∼ 3 × 10−13 instabilityof the maser at 1-s averaging time. On the same scale, the fractional frequency fluctuations between the Sr and Ca optical clocks are shown in blue. The microwave data
does not usually suffer from excess noise such as at times beyond 7 hours, but for thisdata it was having problems; its performance is usually similar to the data between
4 and 6 hours, or the data shown in Fig. 7.11. However, the real point of Fig. 7.13 is
to illustrate how the optical frequency standards have nearly 2 orders of magnitude lessfluctuations than the microwave comparison limited by the maser. The bottom plot of

x10

-12

4

Sr vs Maser
Sr vs Ca

2
0
-2
-4
0

2

4

6

8

0

2

4

6

8

-14

4

x10

Fractional Frequency Fluctuation

164

2
0
-2
-4

Time [Hours]
Figure 7.13: Frequency counting the Sr clock against both the Hydrogen maser and the
Ca optical clock at NIST. The upper plot shows fractional fluctuations of the Sr opticalclock’s microwave output (in red) at 10frep (near 950 MHz) relative to the Hydrogenmaser, which limits the measurement. Also, on the same scale (in blue) the fractionalfrequency fluctuations between the Sr and Ca optical clocks (as measured at 282 THz)are shown. Plotting the two measurements on the same vertical axis scale dramaticallyshows the advantage of the optical clocks: the short-term instability is ∼2 orders ofmagnitude smaller than for the maser. The bottom plot shows a magnified axis for the
direct optical clock intercomparison. The frequency ripple in the optical comparison is
because large systematic shifts were being checked for the Sr clock by comparing it to
the Ca clock; every 100 s the systematic parameter was varied. The ability to compare
two remotely-located optical clocks continuously for hours at a time is a powerful initialdemonstration of the robust operation of these new frequency standards.

165
Fig. 7.13 shows the optical comparison on a scale magnified by this factor of 100, forcomparison to the microwave data. The frequency ripple of the optical comparison isdue to intentional changes of the Sr clock’s operating parameters, for the purposes ofmeasuring systematic frequency shifts against the stable Ca optical reference. Every
100 seconds a systematic effect in the Sr clock was varied.
By calculating the Allan Deviation from the optical frequency comparison measurements, the relative instability of the two optical clocks was also determined as afunction of averaging time. The two clocks were operated continuously without intentionally changing any systematic effects, while the beat frequency between the NIST
octave-spanning comb and the cw transfer laser was counted. The calculated Allan
Deviation is displayed in Fig. 7.14, along with a typical measured Allan Deviation of
the microwave Sr clock output relative to the maser. The optical clocks demonstratea factor of nearly 50 less instability than the microwave comparison (limited by themaser) at all averaging times shown.
The ability to compare two remotely-located optical frequency standards continuously for hours at a time is a powerful initial demonstration of the robust operationof these optical frequency standards. It also illustrates the importance of the opticalfrequency comb as the information hub of a robustly-working optical atomic clock. Indeed, through two frequency combs and a 3.5-km phase-stabilized fiber link, the twoclocks (Sr and Ca) separated by 27 THz are now being routinely compared at the 10−16level of stability. This capability is already being exploited at the time of this writing
to check systematic shifts of the 87 Sr optical lattice clock at the 10−16 level of accuracy.

7.4.4

The comb’s intrinsic coherence, stability, and accuracy

Through all of the frequency comparisons described in the last two Sections,
we assumed that the octave-spanning comb did not introduce any inaccuracy in the
optical-to-microwave conversion or in distributing the 698-nm clock laser’s frequency

166

Allan Deviation

10

10

10

Sr vs Maser
Sr vs Ca

-13

-14

-15

1

10

100

1000

Averaging Time [s]Figure 7.14: Instabilities of the microwave and optical comparisons. The Sr vs Maser
comparison, performed in the microwave domain at 950 MHz, is limited by the performance of the Hydrogen maser out to 800 s before the passive microwave fiber transfer
introduces significant excess instability at longer averaging times. The Sr vs Ca comparison has nearly a factor of 50 less instability for all averaging times. The opticalcomparison is recently-achieved preliminary data.

167
to other optical modes of the frequency comb. This assumption was reasonable tomake, since comparisons of many other frequency combs have already shown that the
optical accuracy across the comb is as low as 10−19 [109, 169]. Another importantquestion is regarding the coherence of the frequency comb. When locked to an opticalfrequency reference and self-referenced, the frequency comb should coherently distributethe phase coherence of the optical reference to each of its modes. Previously, thisphase coherence has been measured in two ways. By comparing the frequency comb
passively to both a cw laser and its second harmonic, the intrinsic coherence of the
comb was demonstrated to lead to a relative linewidth between comb modes (separated
by an octave of spectral bandwidth) of 9 mHz [169]. By locking two frequency combs
to the same optical reference and directly heterodyning the combs in various narrowspectral bandwidths, the ability of the frequency comb to lock to an optical reference
was additionally tested in Ref. [170]. The result was a relative linewidth between thetwo combs of as little as 23 mHz, but a phase-noise measurement indicated an rms phasereached 1 rad at a 0.2-Hz Fourier frequency, corresponding to a 5-s coherence time.
Recently we constructed an experiment similar to the one described in Ref. [169],
but with sensitivity to the comb’s ability to lock to an optical reference in addition
to measuring the intrinsic coherence of the comb. The experimental setup is shown in
Fig. 7.15. The octave-spanning comb is phase-locked to a cw laser at 1064 nm using
the exact same servo electronics (but a different photodetector) as are used to lock the
comb to the 698-nm Sr clock laser as described in Section 7.3. Also, the comb’s offset
frequency is locked in exactly the same way as it is for the Sr clock experiments. In
order to test the ability of the comb both to lock to the 1064-nm reference, and totransfer the reference’s phase coherently across its spectrum, the cw reference is alsofrequency-doubled and compared against an appropriate mode of the comb near 532 nm.
The out-of-loop beat at 532 nm therefore contains any wavelength-dependent intrinsic
fluctuations of the frequency comb structure as well as both the residual locking errors

168

NPRO
1064 nmOut-of-loop
measurement@ 532

Lock comb
to NPRO@ 1064Octave-Spanning
Comb

S’
P’

Temp.
Controlled
PPLN

S S’

Ȝ/2 @ 1064
Ȝ @ 532

Glan Polarizer

P
P’

Band reject

532

1064

S
P

Selfreferencing
to lock f0
Microstructure
fiber

532

1064

Figure 7.15: Experimental scheme for measuring the octave-spanning frequency comb’s
intrinsic coherence and accuracy. The frequency comb is first locked to a 1064-nm cw
laser (NPRO) and simultaneously self-referenced to lock f0 to a stable rf synthesizer.
Then the second harmonic of the cw laser is generated in a PPLN crystal, and heterodyned against the appropriate mode of the comb near 532 nm in order to measure the
comb’s ability to phase-coherently lock to the 1064-nm optical reference and transfer
the phase coherence across its spectrum. The accuracy of the out-of-loop heterodyne
frequency from the 532-nm beat is also tested. Note that since the octave-spanningcomb does not directly generate power at 532 nm, a microstructure fiber must be used
to broaden its spectrum. Some band-reject filters are used to dump the power in thecenter of the spectrum before the frequency comb enters the PPLN, as a precaution
against high peak intensities (and therefore undesired nonlinear consequences) in the
PPLN. Also, details are given in the text of a few polarization tricks employing Glanpolarizers in order to maximize the amount of power available for the two heterodyne
signals while ensuring common-mode paths are maximized for the two wavelengths.

169of the 1064-nm beat and the f0 lock.
Unfortunately, the octave-spanning comb does not directly output power at 532 nm,
so we had to broaden the spectrum in a short ∼10-cm piece of microstructure fiber. In
order to ensure the optical paths in the measurement were kept as common-mode as
possible, the output from the microstructure fiber was combined with the cw 1064nm reference before the combined beam was sent through a PPLN (periodically-poled
Lithium-Niobate) crystal for frequency-doubling of the 1064-nm cw light. With 250 mW
of cw power from the NPRO (non-planar ring oscillator) at 1064 nm, nearly a mW of
532-nm cw light was generated. The NPRO has a fairly narrow linewidth of 1 kHz in
1 ms, which makes for a clean source to lock the comb to, ensuring any residual locking
error we measured would not be due to attempting to lock to a noisy reference.
A clever polarization scheme was employed in order not to waste half the powerin any of the beams. After combining the cw 1064-nm beam with the comb on a Glanpolarizer, a dual-wavelength waveplate was used to rotate the cw and fs 1064-nm beams’
polarizations relative to the 532-nm fs beam’s polarization. This ensured that the SFGgenerated 532-nm cw light would be polarized parallel to the comb’s 532-nm light, eventhough the 1064-nm cw and fs beams were orthogonally polarized. However, since nearly
250 mW of cw 1064-nm light was present, we could afford to dump most of it in a second
Glan polarizer used to separate the 532-nm and 1064-nm wavelengths. The second Glanpolarizer was aligned at a slightly different angle relative to the first, such that most of
the 1064-nm cw power exited the same port (S’ in Fig. 7.15) as the 532-nm light, but
was dumped using an interference filter. About 1 mW of 1064-nm cw power exited theP’ port of the second Glan polarizer along with nearly all the 1064-nm power available
from the fs comb. An interference filter centered at 1064-nm was used to dump the verysmall amount of 532-nm light from both the comb and the doubled-cw laser that also
exited the P’ port. This polarization scheme satisfied the dual requirement of keeping
the paths of all the beams as common-mode as possible while using the available power170
from the two comb modes as efficiently as possible.
In order to gain insight into what the 532-nm out-of-loop beat is really measuring,
I will now write out the comb math behind the measurement. The modes of a frequency
comb can be described in the most general possible form as:
νn (t) = nfrep + f0 + δf0 (t) + n (t) .

(7.4)

In this expression, n labels the particular mode of the frequency comb and δf0 (t) represents any residual error of the offset frequency when it is locked to a stable rf reference.
The term n (t) accounts for the possibility that the comb may not exactly be describedby only two degrees of freedom; perhaps the comb has optical-frequency-dependent
noise or frequency shifts associated with its structure. Indeed, the measurement we aremaking is to ensure that n (t) is as small as possible, such that the comb’s intrinsic
phase noise it describes can be shown to be negligible for frequency comb experiments
requiring stringent phase-coherence across the comb’s spectrum. If the self-referenced
comb described by Eqn. 7.4 is then heterodyned against the cw optical reference near1064 nm (and locked to it), the beat frequency fb,1064 will be given by:
fb,1064 + δfb,1064 (t) = N1064 frep + f0 + δf0 (t) + 1064 (t) − ν1064 (t) .

(7.5)

Here, ν1064 (t) is the time-dependent frequency of the 1064-nm cw optical reference,
N1064 is the comb tooth to which the comb is locked, and δfb,1064 (t) describes theresidual locking error of the 1064-nm beat when locked to a stable rf reference. While
locked to the 1064-nm reference, if some mode of the comb (say the mode n = N532 is
also heterodyned against the second harmonic of the 1064-nm reference at 532 nm, thebeat frequency at 532 nm will be given by:
fb,532 (t) = N532 frep + f0 + δf0 (t) + 532 (t) − 2ν1064 (t) .
Solving Eqn. 7.5 for frep and inserting it into Eqn. 7.6 results in the expression:
fb,532 (t) = Rfb,1064 + (1 − R) f0 + (R − 2) [ν1064 + δν1064 (t)]

(7.6)

171
+ Rδfb,1064 (t) + (1 − R) δf0 (t) + 532 (t) − R1064 (t) .

(7.7)

In this expression, R ≡ N532 /N1064 . If R 6= 2, then fb,532 (t) will have a dependence on
the frequency fluctuations δν1064 (t) of the cw optical reference. For instance, if N532
corresponded to the next mode over from the mode satisfying R = 2, then for our
100-MHz repetition frequency comb, (R − 2) ∼ 10−6 , which would result in a 1-mHz
frequency fluctuation of fb,532 for every 1-kHz fluctuation from δν1064 (t).
If the condition R = 2 is properly enforced in the measurement scheme (thecorrect beat frequency is measured) then Eqn. 7.7 reduces to:
fb,532 (t) = 2fb,1064 − f0 + 2δfb,1064 (t) − δf0 (t) + 532 (t) − 21064 (t) .

(7.8)

Then if fb,1064 and f0 are locked to the rf frequencies 25 MHz and 70 MHz, respectively,
the correct out-of-loop beat frequency to measure for fb,532 will be −20 MHz. It willfluctuate by twice the locking error of the 1064-nm in-loop lock, plus the locking error of
the f0 lock, plus the two  terms describing the intrinsic comb noise we hope to measure
an upper limit to.
In fact, we used these values to lock the frequency comb to the 1064-nm reference, and found the 532-nm beat signal at 20 MHz as calculated. By mixing the 20-MHz
out-of-loop beat frequency to a low frequency against another stable rf reference, we
generated a 10-kHz signal that could be frequency-counted. An Allan Deviation calculated from the frequency counting data, with a 1-s gate time, is shown in Fig. 7.16. Since
the instability includes terms related to the locking error and the intrinsic instability
across the comb’s spectrum, it represents an upper limit to both. Recently we have alsocounted the frequency for long enough to measure the accuracy of the frequency comb.
Fluctuations of the 20-MHz out-of-loop signal (fb,532 ) corresponding to the frequency
comb’s instability at 584 THz averaged down to a fractional optical frequency offset of(1.2 ± 1.8) × 10−19 .
A first attempt to measure the intrinsic coherence of the comb is to measure

172

4

Allan Deviation

2
-17

10

6
4
2
-18

10

6
4
2
-19

10

10

100

1000

Averaging Time (s)Figure 7.16: Upper limit to the intrinsic instability of the frequency comb. The Allan
deviation shown here is for the out-of-loop heterodyne beat at 532 nm, which carries
information about the intrinsic instability of the frequency comb structure, in addition
to information about the comb’s lock to the 1064-nm optical reference, its f0 lock, andany out-of-loop noise in the optical measurement paths. This is the first preliminary
indication that our octave-spanning comb has instability at the few parts in 10−19 level
for a few thousand seconds of averaging time.

173
-3

-3

Within 5 RBW:
2.672e-3

10Span = 12 kHz
RBW = 16 Hz

10Within 5RBW:
2.219e-3

Span = 100 Hz
RBW = 125 mHz

2

-4

-4

10

Vrms

Vrms

2

10

-5

10

-6

10

-5

10

-7

10
-6

-4
-2
0
2
4
Fourier Frequency (kHz)

6

-40

-3

Within 5 RBW:
2.195e-3-310Span = 3.2 kHz
RBW = 4 Hz

-4Within 5RBW:
4.060e-3

Span=25 Hz
RBW=31.25 mHz

10
2

10

-4

Vrms

Vrms

2

10

-20
0
20
40
Fourier Frequency (Hz)

-5

10

-5

10

-6

10

-7

10

-8

10
-1.0
0.0
1.0
Fourier Frequency (kHz)

-10
-3

-3

10

Within 5RBW:
2.180e-3

10Span = 1.6 kHz
RBW = 2 Hz

-4

10

-5

2

10

10

Vrms

2

Within 5RBW:
3.282e-3

Span=1 Hz
RBW=976.6 uHz

-5

-4

Vrms

-5
0
5
10
Fourier Frequency (Hz)

10

-6
-7

10

10

-8

10

-9

-6

10

10

-0.8

-0.4
0.0
0.4
Fourier Frequency (kHz)

0.8

-0.2
0.0
0.2
Fourier Frequency (Hz)-310Within 5RBW:
2.101e-3-4Span = 400 Hz
RBW = 500 mHz

Vrms

2

10

-5

10

-6

10

-0.2

-0.1
0.0
0.1
Fourier Frequency (kHz)

0.2

Figure 7.17: Upper limit to the intrinsic linewidth of the frequency comb. The linewidthis shown for various spans and resolution bandwidths. Note that between the 100-Hz
span and the 25-Hz span, the frequency to which the 532-nm heterodyne beat was mixed
was changed, and therefore the signal strength changed. We confirmed that the factorof 1.8 increase in the carrier’s power was due to this change. These preliminary results
demonstrate that the power in the central carrier remains unchanged as we measureusing narrower and narrower bandwidths, suggesting that an upper limit to the comb’s
intrinsic linewidth (including locking error) could be as low as 1 mHz.

174
the linewidth of fb,532 using an FFT machine after mixing it down to, for example,
10 kHz against a stable rf source. Figure 7.17 shows several measurements of thelineshape as the span and resolution bandwidth are successively reduced. The power inthe central carrier is unchanged as the resolution bandwidth decreases from 16 Hz toless than 1 mHz, indicating that the comb remains coherent at the 1-mHz level acrossits spectrum, relative to the 1064-nm optical reference to which it is tightly locked. A
more stringent test of the comb’s coherence is to mix fb,532 down to DC in a homodyne
phase measurement scheme. By directly measuring the phase fluctuations, the phasenoise spectral density can be integrated to discover the coherence time at which therms phase noise reaches 1 rad. Since significant phase noise exists in the sidebands
near 1 kHz, this measurement has so far proven difficult to make. However, recent
preliminary measurements indicate that we are able to keep the integrated phase noise
below 1 radian when integrating all the way from tens of kHz down to 1 mHz. Whenthese results are confirmed, they will have proven that the coherence time of the comb
relative to an optical reference frequency to which it is locked can be longer than 1000 s.
The experiments described in Section 7.4, taken together, demonstrate the frequency comb’s importance for the field of optical frequency metrology. In Section 7.4.1
I described how our octave-spanning comb allowed the Sr clock’s local oscillator to be
characterized against another ultrastable reference, even though they were spectrally
separated by 148 THz, at the 0.5-Hz-linewidth level. In Section 7.4.2 I showed how
our comb routinely allows robust operation of our Sr optical clock, with a microwave
readout, for hours at a time without interruption. This capability ultimately led toan absolute frequency measurement at the uncertainty level of 2.5 × 10−15 , limited by
the Hydrogen maser’s calibration to the Cs-fountain primary standard. Then in Section 7.4.3 I described how our octave-spanning comb represents the distribution hub of
the 87 Sr optical lattice frequency standard, with the ability to compare directly in the175
optical domain with other optical frequency standards located several km away and operating at optical frequencies removed from the Sr transition by hundreds of THz. The
direct optical frequency comparisons could be made with a 1-s instability even lower
than the 104 -s instability offered by comparison against the maser in the microwave
domain. Finally, in Section 7.4.4 I described a preliminary measurement we made tomeasure the phase-coherence of the comb relative to an optical frequency reference towhich it is locked. The comb offers a 1-mHz relative linewidth across an octave of
optical bandwidth, as well as an accuracy better than 2 × 10−19 . Therefore the comb
is fully capable of transferring the coherence, stability, and accuracy of today’s best
optical frequency references across its full optical spectrum.
The octave-spanning comb has truly fulfilled its purpose to provide a hub for thelaboratory against which optical frequencies across the visible spectrum can accurately
be measured, their phase noises characterized, and their linewidths revealed. The absolute performance of the comb is at the level of the ultrastable 698-nm clock laser, which
is one of the most stable, pure, and when locked to the 87 Sr atoms, accurate oscillators
available at any frequency!

Chapter 8

Frequency and Timing Transfer in Optical Fiber Networks

In the last two Chapters I showed two ways in which a frequency comb can beused to form a microwave readout for an optical clock. The offset-free clock of Chapter 6
had the advantage of simplicity, since f0 did not need to be controlled. However, theoctave-spanning comb in Chapter 7 proved to be the workhorse of a potential future
primary frequency standard by allowing phase coherence to be established not only fromthe clock transition to the microwave readout, but also across the visible portions of
the spectrum. This enables such frequency combs to become the “hubs” of metrology
laboratories, allowing multiple optical clocks operating at various frequencies to be
directly compared.
In this Chapter I will continue to show how frequency combs can be used for the
purposes of both frequency- and timing-transfer in optical fiber networks. First I will
give an extensive motivation of the need for precision transfer through fiber networks.
Then I will discuss two technologies for such transfer (microwave transfer and cw optical carrier transfer), each motivated by the needs of our Sr optical lattice clock tocompare performance with other clocks in Boulder. Finally, I give a brief discussion
about frequency transfer of the fs comb itself for the purpose of remote synchronizationof fs lasers.
Three distinct techniques exist for distributing an ultrastable frequency reference over optical fibers. For the distribution of a microwave frequency reference, an177amplitude-modulated cw laser can be used. Over km-scale lengths this approach provides an instability at 1 s of ∼ 3 × 10−14 without stabilization of the fiber-induced
noise and ∼ 1 × 10−14 with active noise cancellation. An optical frequency reference
can be transferred by directly transmitting a stabilized cw laser over fiber and thendisseminated to other optical and microwave regions using an optical frequency comb.
This provides an instability at 1 s of 2 × 10−14 without active noise cancellation and6 × 10−18 with active noise cancellation. Finally, an optical frequency comb has beentransmitted through a km-scale fiber network, allowing a remotely-located fs comb tobe synchronized relative to the master comb to within a residual rms timing jitter below 16 fs integrated over the Nyquist bandwidth of the pulse train (∼50 MHz) whenhigh-bandwidth active noise cancellation is employed, which is important for remotesynchronization applications.

8.1

Motivation for ultrastable frequency reference transfer via fiber
networks
Current research on optical atomic clocks [117, 118] offers the potential to produce

frequency references with orders of magnitude lower instability and inaccuracy than isprovided by the best existing microwave frequency references [171, 172, 173, 174, 175,
176, 149, 177, 151, 152, 146, 160, 162]. For accuracy, the best microwave frequency
reference is provided by a cesium fountain clock, which is able to measure the frequencyof the hyperfine splitting of the cesium electronic ground state with an accuracy better
than six parts in 1016 [3, 178]. However, frequency references based on optical transitions in laser cooled and trapped atoms and ions are expected to eventually provide
uncertainties approaching a part in 1018 [171], and short-term instabilities of a few partsin 1017 for a 1-s averaging time [177], nearly three orders of magnitude better than thebest microwave atomic clocks. The current performance of various high-stability oscillators is summarized in Fig. 8.1. It shows the Allan deviation of some of the most stable

178

10

Allan Deviation

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

-10
-11

Hydrogen maser(1-Hz BW)
Cryogenic sapphire oscillator

0.3-Hz-linewidth laser
Projected Sr optical clock-12

Residual comb (RF, 10 GHz)

Residual comb (optical)

-13
-14
-15
-16
-17
-18
-19

1

10

100

Averaging time τ [s]1000

Figure 8.1: Fractional frequency instabilities of various high-stability microwave andoptical frequency references. References are given in the text.

179
existing frequency references. In the microwave domain, a cryogenic sapphire oscillator [144] (closed squares) is shown, as well as a hydrogen maser [179] (closed circles)that is steered by a cesium-fountain clock. In the optical domain, a narrow 0.3-Hzlinewidth laser [45, 46] (open circles) that serves as the local oscillator for an opticalclock based on ultracold Sr atoms is compared to the projected performance for the Sr
optical clock [87] (open squares). In addition, it has been shown that the frequency
comb from a mode-locked femtosecond laser can be slaved to an optical reference at thelevel shown as open diamonds [109]. Finally, the rf signal provided by detecting the
10-GHz harmonic of a femtosecond laser’s repetition rate has an excess instability [78](relative to the stability of the comb’s optical frequencies) shown as closed diamonds.
From these results it can be seen that future needs for the stability of fiber-transferredfrequency references will approach the 10−16 level at 1 s and 10−18 at longer time scales,in order to preserve the quality of these references after transfer.
Further development of optical frequency references will require unprecedented
levels of stability for characterization. The initial research-oriented systems are complex and not necessarily portable, so the ability to remotely transfer frequency references
without introducing any additional instability is of urgent concern for optical clock development. In fact, the current state-of-the-art microwave frequency standards alreadydemand improved-stability transfer protocols for signal comparison and clock synchronization. In addition, as listed in the following paragraphs and as shown in Fig. 8.2, anumber of exciting applications taking advantage of the superior stability of optical references will benefit a great deal from the capability of high-stability frequency transfer.
They include the test of fundamental physical principles, development of next generation accelerator-based X-ray sources, long baseline coherent radio telescope arrays, andthe accurate mapping of the Earth’s geoid, to name a few important examples.
At one of the frontiers of modern physics, an exciting application requiring ultrastable transfer of frequency references is the comparison of frequency references

180
based on transitions in different atomic species. This would enable measurements ofthe time variation of fundamental constants [13], such as the fine structure constantα [180, 15, 16, 181, 14, 182]. If α were changing over time, the frequencies of thesetransitions based on different atomic systems would change with respect to each other.
Since the development of an optical clock demands a great deal of time and resources,
typically multiple clocks based on transitions in different atomic species are not built
in the same laboratory. Therefore, the ability to reliably transfer a frequency referenceis crucial for these comparisons. The most accurate measurements to date have placed
a constraint of one part in 1015 on the possible fractional variation of α in a year, andthe future generations of optical frequency standards should provide a sensitivity at thelevel of 10−18 per year.
The comparison of optical frequency standards also enables the evaluation of
their performance by measuring their relative instability and systematic shifts, since
there are no other frequency references stable enough against which these comparisons
can be made. These comparisons are accomplished by averaging the frequency measurements over an extended period of time. Thus, the spectral distribution of frequency
fluctuations may not be explicitly displayed, since phase information at short timescales
has been averaged over. However, for applications that involve very tight timing synchronization among system components, the distributed frequency reference to which all
the components will be synchronized must have very high stability and low phase noisefor short timescales. This is equivalent to saying that the transfer must exhibit ultralow
timing jitter (fs-level or better) over an extended Fourier frequency range [183, 21]. One
such application is long-baseline interferometry for radio astronomy [184]. Low-jittertransfer of a frequency reference could be used to distribute a signal from a master oscillator to each telescope in an array of ∼60 radio telescopes over a distance of ∼20 km.
This would enable all telescopes in the array to phase-coherently collect data, thereby
simulating a single telescope with a very large aperture [184]. Low-jitter transfer could

181
also be used to distribute a frequency reference throughout a linear accelerator facility
over distances of 2 – 5 km for synchronization of its various components. Recently
there has been considerable interest in producing ultrashort x-ray pulses generated inaccelerator-based facilities to study ultrafast phenomena in several fields including chemistry, physics, biology, and materials science [185, 41, 42, 43]. These studies will involve
pump-probe experiments using visible lasers to pump the samples and the x-ray pulses toprobe them, or vice-versa [41, 43]. Transfer of a low-jitter frequency reference throughout an accelerator facility will be necessary to synchronize the visible pump pulses withthe short x-ray pulses at the sample. It will also be crucial for the generation of theultrashort x-ray pulses, since the components of the accelerator must be synchronizedwith the short bunches of accelerated electrons that produce the x-ray pulses.
Here I will discuss three distinct methods for transferring frequency and timingreferences long distances over optical fibers for applications including those shown in
Fig. 8.2. These methods represent the current state-of-the-art for high-stability frequency transfer. In Section 8.2 I will present the basic principles for the design of afiber transfer network, including discussion of noise processes and relevant design considerations for active stabilization of the link. The subsequent three Sections will thendelve into specific experimental techniques for the fiber transfer: in Section 8.3 I will
discuss the transfer of a microwave frequency reference using an amplitude modulated
cw laser. In practice this provides the most straightforward method of transferring a
microwave frequency reference or timing signal, though it does not provide a straightforward means of transferring a more stable optical frequency reference. We have used
this technique in combination with the octave-spanning comb to measure the absolutetransition frequency of the 87 Sr optical lattice clock as discussed in Chapter 7. In Section 8.4 the direct transfer of an optical frequency reference with a cw laser will bepresented. This is the most appropriate approach for remote comparisons of opticalfrequency standards. As such, we have employed it in combination with the octave-

182

Frequency/timing reference & comb

Clockcomparisons
Advancedlight source

Radio telescope
array

Figure 8.2: By transmitting pulses from a femtosecond fiber laser through a km-scale
fiber network, a frequency/timing reference is distributed from a master optical atomic
clock, using an optical frequency comb, to facilities for several precision applications,
including: other atomic clocks for inter-clock frequency comparisons, also enabling mapping of the Earth’s geoid; a phase-coherent radio telescope array; and components of asynchrotron advanced light source for generating x-ray pulses.

183
spanning comb in order to compare the Sr clock against other optical clocks at NIST.
However, for other applications such as remote synchronization, the cw transfer method
has the drawback of not directly providing a timing signal, since the modulation signal is
the carrier itself, which is at hundreds of terahertz. Therefore an optical frequency comb
must be employed to recover timing information, once again demonstrating the needfor optical frequency combs when it comes to timing transfer. Finally, in Section 8.5
I will briefly discuss a remote synchronization experiment where an optical frequency
comb is directly transmitted through the fiber network [186, 187, 135]. More details of
the transfer of the frequency comb for stability purposes (at timescales > 1 s) rather
than synchronization purposes (Fourier frequencies 1 Hz to 100 MHz) are given in Kevin
Holman’s Ph. D. Thesis [188].

8.2

Principles of cancellation of fiber-induced phase noise
The goal of a fiber transfer network is to faithfully (phase-coherently) reproduce

a local frequency or timing reference signal at the remote output of the fiber network.
Unfortunately, various noise processes in the optical fiber degrade the quality of thetransmitted signal by perturbing its phase. This excess phase noise must be detected
and subsequently cancelled in order to properly distribute the frequency reference signal. Ultimately, the technology should employ a sufficiently robust servo with a large
enough dynamic range to cancel the phase noise present in a typical urban fiber network
installation, since in many cases the existing infrastucture provides the most convenient
opportunity for frequency dissemination, even though it was not necessarily designedwith high-stability transfer in mind. The need for large dynamic range is particularly
true for fiber links approaching 100 km in length, since the integrated noise increases
with length.

184

Optical or RF
Reference I

ref

( 0)



Iact (0)I f ,incDouble-passActuator

Irt (Trt )Iref (Trt )Phase
Detection

Iact (Trt )I f ,retPhase stabilization(for stationary noise)

Remote End

Iref (0)  Iact (0)  I f ,inc2(Iact + If ) = 0
Transceiver(partial reflector)

Figure 8.3: Principle of operation for a typical actively compensated fiber network for
distributing frequency and timing references. A partial retroreflector or transceiver at
the remote end returns the signal through a round trip of both the fiber network andthe actuator. Accurate comparison between the phase of the round-trip signal andthe original reference allows the double-pass actuator to compensate for the fiber link’s
phase perturbations for timescales longer than Trt . The actuator can act on the groupdelay for modulated-cw transfer or frequency comb (pulse-timing) transfer, or it can act
on the optical phase for direct optical carrier transfer.

185
8.2.1

Round-trip phase detection

Figure 8.3 shows the basic experimental scheme for fiber network phase-stabilization.
The idea essentially comes from the work in Ref. [4], where a hydrogen maser on board a
rocket was compared to a ground-based maser as a test of relativity. The doppler shift
from the high-velocity spacecraft was cancelled using the round-trip phase detection
techniques described in this Section. After the work of Vessot, Jim Bergquist employeda similar scheme in free space, but in the optical frequency domain, to eliminate thedoppler phase noise between two ultrastable cavity-stabilized lasers [189]. Then Jan
Hall applied a similar scheme to cancellation of the phase noise from a short-distance
optical fiber link [38]. The scheme works as follows: a reference signal which could be amodulated cw optical carrier, the optical carrier itself (in which case the modulation frequency is also the carrier frequency), or a frequency comb, is transmitted to the remoteuser. However, the phase perturbation from the fiber link, φf , must be precompensatedby some actuator. This can be done by reflecting a portion of the transmitted light fromthe remote end, detecting the phase φrt of the round-trip signal, and comparing it to thereference phase φref . Sometimes, instead of a simple retroreflection a transceiver is usedat the remote end in order to boost the power on the return trip. Also, the transceiver
can slightly shift the carrier frequency or return a harmonic of the modulation frequency
in order to distinguish the return signal from parasitic reflections of the incident signal
at interconnects along the fiber link [36]. The precompensation is performed by an actuator acting once on both the outgoing and incoming signals, introducing a phase φact oneach pass. Typical actuators are piezo-actuated fiber-stretchers or thermally controlledspools of fiber for acting on the group delay, or acousto-optic-modulators (AOM) for
indirect control of the optical phase delay. Since an AOM acts on the optical frequency,
it provides unlimited dynamic range for optical phase compensation.
We can detect and subsequently compare φrt , the signal’s phase after making a186round trip through both the link and the actuator, to φref . Importantly, this phasecomparison occurs after a round-trip time Trt twice that of the single-pass delay. If aparticular reference signal is launched into the fiber link (including the actuator) withphase φref at time t = 0, then at time Trt the measured phase difference between thereference and the round-trip signal will be
φrt (Trt ) − φref (Trt ) = φref (0) − φref (Trt )+ φact (0) + φact (Trt )+ φf,inc + φf,ret(8.1)

Here, φf,inc and φf,ret are the phases introduced by the incident and return trips throughthe fiber link, respectively.
Important assumptions can be made to simplify Eqn. (8.1). First, if the noise
processes responsible for fluctuations of φf,inc and φf,ret are assumed stationary between
the incident and return transmissions through the link, and the propagation throughthe fiber samples the same polarization modes on the return trip as on the incident
trip, then the last two terms of Eqn. 8.1 are equal, and can be written as 2φf . Under
1
this assumption, only noise processes with frequencies less than 2πT
are considered.
rtSecond, the actuator bandwidth must also be limited to this value, so that the third andfourth terms on the right side of Eqn. (8.1) will be equal. Finally, the first two terms
will cancel up to an overall constant if the coherence time of the frequency reference(microwave or optical) is longer than Trt . Under these three assumptions (equal noise
on incident and return trips, servo timescale longer than Trt , and reference’s coherencetime longer than Trt ), Eqn. (8.1) can be simplified as
φrt − φref = 2(φact + φf )(8.2)

and the phase at the remote end of the link is simply φref + φact + φf . Therefore, if
the local detection feeds back to the actuator to stabilize the left side of Eqn. (8.2)

187
to a constant, the remote user will have a phase-coherent copy of the reference, up to1
the round-trip-limited bandwidth of 2πT. We emphasize that Trt , and therefore thertfiber link’s length, sets the limit on the bandwidth that can be stabilized as well as theminimum quality of the reference that can be transmitted (due to the coherence time
assumption.) In order to transmit over very long distances with high noise-cancellation
bandwidths, repeater stations will become necessary.

8.2.2

Noise processes, bandwidth and dynamic range

The main source of excess phase noise in the fiber comes from mechanical andthermal perturbations to the optical path length of the transmission fiber. Other sourcesof noise may come from internal reflections at fiber interconnects along the transmission
fiber, stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS), and polarization mode dispersion (PMD)
fluctuations, all arising from mechanical perturbation of the fiber.
When designing a system for frequency transfer over fiber links, the designer has
control over any of the following: group delay of the link, optical phase, dynamic rangeof the actuator, the optical power employed, group-velocity-dispersion (GVD) of thelink, the launch polarization, and the servo bandwidth. Choosing between actuating on
the group delay or the optical phase depends on whether the frequency reference beingtransmitted is microwave or optical. Knowledge of the noise properties of the particularfiber link of interest will help to determine what actuator dynamic range is necessary.
Optical power should generally be as high as possible in order to maintain excellent
SNR, but SBS sets limits on the practical optical power level that can be transmitted
via typical single-mode fibers. GVD is an important consideration only for frequency
comb transfer, and can be adjusted with dispersion-compensation fiber or fine-tuned
with a pulse-shaper [190, 191].
Polarization purity is an important concern for fiber links, due to PMD fluctuations. Unfortunately, most preexisting fiber networks utilize non-polarization-maintaining

188(PM) fiber due to the expense and optical loss associated with PM fiber. The birefringence of typical non-PM fiber can lead to problems due to PMD fluctuations for microwave systems, or due to slow polarization rotation leading to AM fluctuations in theheterodyne beat used for direct optical transfer. This is because the polarization modes
are sampled differently by the return beam than by the incident beam, so the assumption that φf,inc = φf,ret is violated even for noise processes that are stationary during
Trt . As will be discussed in Section 8.3.3, scrambling the polarization at timescales
faster than Trt offers a method for quickly averaging out PMD effects for microwave
transfer [36, 192]. However, the phase coherence of an optical carrier would be washedout by first-order PMD if the polarization were scrambled. The effects of second-order(wavelength-dependent) PMD [193] could be especially complex when frequency comb
transfer is considered, although averaging over millions of comb lines could potentiallyreduce the effect.
Finally, bandwidth limitations due to the interplay between SNR, dynamic range,
and integrated noise of the fiber link must be considered. As discussed in Section 8.2.1,
1
the bandwidth of the phase locking servo is limited to 2πT. Any attempt to cancelrtnoise at higher bandwidths will simply write excess noise onto the link, since phasefluctuations on faster timescales than Trt violate the assumption that the round-trip
phase accumulation is twice that of the one-way phase. Another bandwidth limitation
depends on the relative magnitudes of the servo dynamic range and the integrated noiseof the fiber link. A servo with sufficient dynamic range and high enough SNR will beable to cancel noise within the bandwidth set by causality. However, a servo without
sufficient dynamic range will require a lower cancellation bandwidth. Since the overallnoise increases as a function of the fiber length, sometimes worse than linearly, servos
with low dynamic range (such as the PZT fiber stretchers described in Sections 8.3
and 8.5) can suffer for longer fiber links. An additional concern for longer links is
attenuation of the signal. The available signal will decrease with length while the noise

189
increases, and the amount of signal that can be input to the link is limited by SBS. From
Eqn. (2.13), use of an optical rather than microwave carrier frequency ν0 will greatly
relax the requirements for Sφ , and therefore for the SNR as well. These bandwidthconsiderations can also depend on the specific target application of the transferredfrequency signal. For instance, consider a clean-up oscillator at the remote end with arapid phase noise roll-off beyond the servo bandwidth: by locking the clean-up oscillator
to the transferred reference with the same bandwidth as the fiber stabilization servo,
the excess noise of the fiber link at frequencies higher than the servo bandwidth can be
avoided in the clean-up oscillator’s output.

8.2.3

Experimental schemes for frequency transfer

These complex bandwidth limitations must be considered when choosing the typeof frequency reference to transmit over the fiber link (cw microwave, cw optical, or
optical frequency comb). Indeed, the manner in which the excess phase noise is cancelleddepends on which kind of reference is being transmitted. In some cases, the excess phasenoise φf of the fiber network is tolerable by the end-user’s requirements. Such a passive
transfer scheme is often used when transmitting microwave frequencies over the fiber
network. The microwave reference is used to amplitude modulate a cw optical beam,
which is then launched into the fiber for transfer. The remote user simply demodulates
the sidebands on the optical carrier by photodetection of the optical beam in orderto recover the microwave information. However, the excess phase noise introduced in
the fiber typically limits the overall system performance to 10−15 at long time scales.
For more demanding applications involving comparison of optical frequency standards
or remote synchronization work, active cancellation of the fiber-induced phase noise isnecessary, as shown in Fig. 8.4(a). Since the phase of the microwave information must
be stabilized, a PZT fiber stretcher (small dynamic range) or temperature-controlled
fiber spool (larger dynamic range but lower bandwidth) acts directly on the group delay

190(a) RF
Reference
Diode
Laser
RemoteUser (RF)Group Delay(Fiber Stretcher)PD
AM
Circulator

Fiber Link

PD
Transceiver(b)
OpticalReference

Optical Φ
Correction(AOM)

Remote User
(optical)

PLL

Partial Retroreflector

(c)

Phase
Detection

Group Delay(Fiber Stretcher)

Reference
Comb

Circulator
Remote User
(Optical or RF)
Partial Retroreflector

Figure 8.4: Various experimental schemes for transfer of frequency references.
(a) Actively-stabilized transfer of a microwave reference by modulating a diode laser.
(b) Direct transfer of the optical carrier by stabilizing the optical phase of the fiber link.
(c) Transfer of simultaneous microwave and optical frequency references by transferring
an optical frequency comb. Either optical or microwave information from the round trip
can be used to stabilize the group delay and/or optical phase delay of the fiber link.

191
of the fiber.
Applications involving comparison of optical frequency standards can benefit fromdirectly transferring a stable optical reference, as shown in Fig. 8.4(b). In this case, aportion of the optical beam is used as a reference arm, while the rest of the beam is firstfrequency shifted by an AOM and then launched into the fiber network. A heterodyne
beat signal between the round-trip optical beam and the local reference reveals the
optical phase noise of the fiber link. The error signal is used to feed back to the AOM
in order to precompensate for the phase of the link. Since the AOM acts directly onfrequency, it has extremely large dynamic range with respect to phase. The transmitted
optical signal can provide a microwave reference with use of an optical frequency comb.
When using a frequency comb to simultaneously transfer optical and microwave
references, a similar scheme to the microwave transfer can be employed as shown in
Fig. 8.4(c). In this case usually the group delay of the fiber is actively stabilized inorder to stabilize the repetition rate of pulses exiting the fiber at the remote end, andcan provide an ultralow-jitter signal for timing to the remote user. In Section 8.5 I
will also discuss stabilization of the group delay and optical phase simultaneously bycontrolling both the transmission path length and the dispersion therein.
Another practical consideration involving Trt , especially for test-bed experiments
employing relatively noisy sources, is the coherence time of the signal being transmitted.
Recall from Section 8.2.1 that the reference’s coherence time must be longer than Trt .
For transfer of microwave frequencies, even a relatively poor microwave signal usually
has a coherence time much longer than Trt . However, if optical frequencies are beingtransferred, even a source with a relatively narrow linewidth ≈ 1 kHz will not remain
phase coherent with a round-trip copy of itself after the copy has been delayed by alink longer than 100 km. The servo will treat this phase incoherence as being due tothe fiber link itself, and add the phase incoherence of the source to the phase of theremotely transferred signal rather than reproducing a phase-coherent copy at the remote

192
end. Therefore, especially for cw optical links as discussed in Section 8.4, and for very
long links in general, it is important to ensure that the source being transmitted has acoherence time longer than Trt in order for the active cancellation to perform as desired.
The final consideration for frequency transfer involves the practical issue of achieving an out-of-loop measurement of the excess instability induced by the fiber-link on
the frequency reference at the remote end of the system. Clearly, since the end user isremotely located, the remote copy of the reference cannot be directly compared to theoriginal reference. Initial research experiments demonstrate the stability of the transfer
over a long fiber link by simply co-locating the “remote” end with the local reference inorder to perform a direct comparison, before the full system is implemented at remotelocations. Another way, which preserves the ability to measure a system’s performanceeven while operating, is to build two transfer systems and operate them in opposite
directions [36, 194]. The reference can be transmitted via a stabilized fiber link to theremote user, who then returns a copy via an independently-stabilized second fiber link.
The second fiber link uses the signal it received from the first link as its source reference.
This kind of handshake configuration allows the original reference to be compared to
the round-trip signal to determine the overall system performance, which represents anupper limit to the instability of either one-way transfer.
Keeping in mind these general principles for the practical implementation of fiber
network frequency and timing dissemination, we can now turn our attention to thespecific experimental realizations of microwave transfer (Section 8.3), optical carriertransfer (Section 8.4), and pulse timing transfer (Section 8.5).

193

8.3

Microwave frequency transfer with modulated cw laser

8.3.1

Passive transfer technique

The most straightforward method of transferring a microwave frequency reference
over optical fibers is to amplitude modulate a cw laser at the frequency of the reference
and to transmit this modulated light over the fiber. Then the microwave frequency
reference is recovered at the remote end by detection of the modulation frequency.
A general schematic for this method of transfer is given in Fig. 8.4(a), which shows
an optical source being amplitude-modulated at the reference frequency, then beingtransmitted over a long-distance fiber link, and finally being detected at the remoteend with a photodetector for recovering the reference frequency by demodulation of the
sidebands surrounding the optical carrier. At first we will discuss operation of such alink without feedback to stabilize the fiber-induced phase fluctuations.
For the case of a fiber link connecting our labs at JILA to the National Instituteof Standards and Technology (NIST) Boulder [195], we use two dark fibers of the Boulder Research and Administration Network (BRAN) that are installed in underground
conduits and steam tunnels in an urban area [196]. Transmission through the 3.45-km(one-way) link is accomplished by amplitude modulating the light from a high-power(30-mW) single-mode distributed-feedback semiconductor laser, lasing at 1.3 µm, andthe modulation is performed external to the laser using a Mach-Zehnder intensity modulator [197]. In Ref. [37], in order to measure the fiber-induced frequency noise of thetransmitted microwave signal [37] (typically operating at about 1 GHz), the local copyof the reference signal at NIST was first shifted by 10 kHz with a single-sideband generation microwave interferometer [198]. Then the round-trip signal was mixed with thisshifted local copy, and the frequency fluctuations of the resulting ∼ 10-kHz beat signal,
which is suitable for high-resolution frequency counting, were counted. The 10-kHz
source used to generate the single sideband must have absolute frequency fluctuations

194
lower than those measured on the 10-kHz beat. When this condition was satisfied,measured fluctuations of the 10-kHz beat frequency were due to the instability of thetransfer. The Allan deviation of these frequency measurements provides the fractionalfrequency instability of the transfer as a function of averaging time, and is shown in
Fig. 8.5. Also shown are results obtained when the BRAN fiber was replaced with a
2-m-long reference fiber. The additional fractional frequency noise from the passive
microwave transfer over the BRAN is approximately 2 × 10−13 at 1-s averaging timeand 1 – 2×10−14 between 100 and 1000 s.
Another method for characterizing the excess instability of the fiber link is to mix
the round-trip signal with a local copy of the reference in a homodyne scheme, in order
to directly measure the phase fluctuations on the 7-km round-trip signal. Figure 8.6(a)shows this phase record over the course of a 9-hour period with a 1-s gate time forthe measurement. The steep long-term slope between 2.5 and 4 hours corresponds to a
fractional frequency offset of ∼ 1 × 10−14 for the 950-MHz frequency being transferred.
By taking the time-derivative of the phase data and applying a rolling box average of 100s width, the fractional frequency offset of the passively-transferred signal is determined
as plotted in Fig. 8.6(b). Since both the outgoing and incoming fibers are containedin the same bundle, it is reasonable to assume that long-term noise processes in thefibers are correlated. Therefore the one-way transfer is expected to have half the phasefluctuations and associated frequency offsets. Even so, the average fractional frequency
offset during certain times of the day can be as high as several parts in 10−14 , whichis insufficient for the purposes of comparing the best frequency standards at remotelocations.

8.3.2

Passive microwave transfer for the 87 Sr clock

An important illustration of the kind of application that can benefit from passiveor active microwave transfer, or the higher-resolution optical transfer described in Sec-Allan Deviation

195

BRAN (6.9 km)
Noise floor (~2 m of fiber)
Hydrogen maser

-12

10

-13

10

-14

10

-15

10

-1

10

0

10

1

10

2

10

3

10

4

10

Averaging Time (s)Figure 8.5: Measured instability of amplitude-modulated (modulation frequency 1-GHz)
light transmitted through a short (∼2 m) fiber (squares) and through a round trip of theBRAN fiber (open triangles). The rf modulation signal carried by the fiber-transmitted
light is heterodyne detected against the original signal source, which has been frequency
shifted by 10 kHz via a single-sideband generation rf interferometer. Also shown forcomparison is the stability of NIST’s Cs-referenced hydrogen maser (solid line).

196

Phase [mrad]

RF freq.: 950 MHz
100
0
-100

Changing phase yields-14
1 x 10 frac. freq. offset

(a)
0

2

6

8

6

8

Time [hours]]-15

Fract. Freq. Offset [x 10

4

40

(b)

20
0
-20

0

2

4

Time [hours]
Figure 8.6: (a) Phase of the 7-km round-trip BRAN fiber for a transferred rf frequencyof 950 MHz, showing long-term fractional frequency offsets of ∼ 10−14 . (b) Timederivative of the phase data, with a rolling box average of 100 s applied, showing thefractional frequency offset induced by the passive fiber transfer setup.

197
tion 8.4, is the case of absolute frequency measurements of a Sr-based optical clock. In
Chapter 7 I focused the discussion on the octave-spanning comb used as the “gears” of
the JILA 87 Sr optical lattice clock. In this Section I will discuss the microwave transfer
we used to measure the absolute frequency relative to the NIST Cs fountain clock. In
some cases the stability provided by the passive transfer of a modulated cw laser overoptical fiber is sufficient, without needing to implement active noise cancellation. Thisis the case for the transfer of a Cs-referenced, hydrogen maser-based rf standard [3, 179]
from NIST to JILA for the initial work on absolute optical frequency measurements of
the Sr lattice clock.
Absolute frequency measurements were reported in 2005 for the 87 Sr 1 S0 – 3 P0
clock transition [152, 146]. Ref. [152] used a GPS-based frequency reference with instability ∼ 10−10 at 1-s averaging time, while the JILA results [146] used a fiber-transferredreference. A troublesome 4σ disagreement between these two results was eventually resolved by a third independent investigation using an on-cite Cs fountain reference [199].
A revised report by the Tokyo group [200] then appeared. This situation makes clear
the benefits of fiber links for frequency distribution. The Sr clock experiments at JILA
take advantage of the much more stable fiber link described in Section 8.3.1. This allows
absolute frequency measurements relative to the NIST F1 Cs fountain clock via a hydrogen maser-based rf signal, which has yielded the smallest statistical uncertainty to date
for this ultranarrow clock transition in a magic-wavelength optical lattice [146, 147].
For the first accurate measurement of the clock transition [146] in 2005, theoctave-spanning Ti:sapphire laser-based frequency comb discussed in Chapter 7 wasphase-locked to the optical local oscillator for the 87 Sr clock [46], as well as self-referenced
using the standard f -to-2f scheme [98] as discussed in Section 3.3.1. Then the ∼ 1GHz harmonic of the Ti:sapphire laser’s repetition rate was frequency-counted against
the rf reference received over the fiber network from NIST, in order to determine theabsolute frequency of the 87 Sr 1 S0 – 3 P0 optical clock transition. The Cs-calibrated,461 nm(32 MHz)
1P
1

1S
0

(a)

689 nm
(7.5 kHz)

3P
1
3P
0

698 nm Clocktransition(҅ 10 mHz)Qsr - 429228004229900 [Hz]

198

20
0

2.8 Hz statistical uncertainty
limited by maser transfer

(b)

-20
-40
-60
19 Hz systematic uncertainty-80
5/3 5/17 5/31 6/14 6/28 7/12 7/26
Date (2005)

Figure 8.7: (a) Simplified energy level diagram for neutral Sr atoms, showing thetwo cooling transitions at 461 nm and 689 nm, and the clock transition at 698 nm.
(b) Frequency-counting record for 87 Sr, showing the achieved 2.8-Hz statistical uncertainty (maser-transfer-limited) in the red-striped box and the 19-Hz systematic uncertainty as the outer blue lines.

maser-based rf standard we transfer from NIST has an instability as shown in Fig. 8.5of ∼ 2.4 × 10−13 at 1 s [179]. Passive transfer of this frequency from NIST to JILA
is achieved by amplitude modulation as described in 8.3.1, and reaches an instability< 1 × 10−14 for averaging times > 103 s as shown in Fig. 8.5. With the ability toaverage down to such a low fractional uncertainty in this relatively short time (as compared to GPS frequency transfer), several systematic frequency shifts were investigated,
including those originating from atomic density, wavelength and intensity of the optical lattice, residual magnetic field, and probing laser intensity. Figure 8.7 summarizes
the measurement of the transition frequency within a period of three months. The
statistical uncertainty of these measurements was 2.8 Hz, and systematic uncertainties
were below the 20-Hz level, all made possible because of the reliable and robust passive
transfer over the BRAN fiber network of the precision microwave reference, calibrated
to the Cs-fountain clock.
Nevertheless, as seen in Fig. 8.6, the overall accuracy of the transferred referenceat certain times of the day can be limited to ∼ 1 × 10−14 because of the long-term phase199
drift of the fiber transfer. Therefore, active cancellation of the microwave phase driftthat achieves instabilities below 10−16 for times > 104 s, as described in the following
Section, became necessary to improve the accuracy of our frequency measurement.

8.3.3

Actively-stabilized fiber transfer for 2006 87 Sr measurement

It is clear from measurements of the excess phase noise introduced by fiber links(see Figs. 8.5 and 8.6) that while the maser reference is not degraded for short timescales(< 100 s), the passive transfer is not suitable for attempting to transfer the Cs-referenced
maser signal with long timescale instabilities below 5 × 10−15 . In order to take fulladvantage of this reference’s accuracy, it became necessary to actively stabilize thegroup delay of the fiber link.
We were not the first group to use active cancellation of the group delay fluctuations in order to transfer a microwave reference: NASA’s Deep Space Network relies on
this technique to distribute an ultrastable reference frequency from their Signal Processing Center at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to multiple antenna sites for gravity wave
searches, occultation science, and other radio science experiments [201, 202]. Instability< 10−14 at 1 s was achieved for a 16 km-long fiber buried 1.5 m beneath the earth’s
surface, with the instability falling to below 10−17 for 104 s. A cryogenic sapphire oscillator was needed at the remote site for the short-term requirement, as an instabilityof about 5 × 10−15 at 1 s is required for the desired gravitational wave searches. Their
servo had a small bandwidth and was only able to reduce the instability over timescales
longer than 100 s. A similar technique was used for the transfer of a 100-MHz reference between Laboratoire de Physique des Lasers (LPL) and the Systèmes de Rèfèrence
Temps Espace (SYRTE) for the comparison of an optical frequency at LPL and a microwave primary frequency standard at SYRTE [194, 36]. Two parallel optical links,
each 43 km, were used for bidirectional transmission of a 100-MHz reference signal.
However, in contrast to NASA’s Deep Space Network, actuators were present in both

200
paths that allowed higher bandwidth control. This resulted in an instability over the
combined 86-km round trip of one part in 1014 at 1 s, and several parts in 1017 at 104 s.
In another experiment, time transfer over a 200-km optical fiber between Phoenix andTucson, Arizona was demonstrated with sub-picosecond rms fluctuations over a 3.5-day
period [203]. Though the actuator time-constant was only 10 s, the rms jitter was
reduced to 630 fs over a 100-Hz bandwidth.
One important issue uncovered by the results in Ref. [36] is the effect of polarization mode dispersion. The fiber employed in many experiments is typically an urbanenvironment installation, and for reasons of cost and loss it is usually non-polarizationmaintaining. As a result, the light launched into the fiber propagates differently throughthe fiber’s polarization modes than the light that is returned for deducing the phase error of the link. Therefore, the principle that φrt = 2φf,inc is violated because of PMD,
even for frequencies below the bandwidth imposed by Trt . Polarization scrambling of
the light faster than the control bandwidth eventually reduced the effects of PMD in a
new system, where the two 43-km links were connected to make one 86-km link for the
purposes of an out-of-loop experiment with the local and remote ports of the link colocated. The polarization scrambling, in addition to using a higher 1-GHz modulation
frequencies to enhance the effective SNR, decreased the transfer instabilities to a levelof 5 × 10−15 at 1 s and 2 × 10−18 after one day [192].
For our 2006 measurement of the 87 Sr clock’s frequency [147], we wanted to ensure the accuracy of the link would be better than 10−15 while keeping the instability
below that of the H-maser reference being transmitted. Even though fast oscillations of
the fiber link’s frequency fluctuations could be averaged over, we were concerned thatmaking a frequency measurement only during the warm or cold part of the day could
lead to an overall frequency shift of the whole measurement. In order to characterize
the typical magnitudes of such shifts, we retro-reflected a portion of the transmitted
light from JILA back to NIST, and compared its phase with the local frequency ref-201
erence being input to the fiber link. The phase comparison was made with a mixer
in the usual homodyne phase detection way, with the mixer’s output in Volts given
by 0.22Sin (φref − φrt ), up to a constant phase offset that could be adjusted with anelectronic delay line. Figure 8.8 shows the voltage output of the mixer over the courseof several days. Also plotted are solid blue and green lines with slopes representing(near zero mixer output voltage) a phase drift corresponding to a frequency shift of
10−14 or 10−15 , respectively. During some times of the day, a measurement of the clock
frequency could be wrong by as much as 10−14 if only the passive transfer were used,even if several hours of data were averaged over.
Because of these large frequency shifts associated with the passive transfer ofthe microwave frequency reference, we decided to implement active cancellation of thefiber’s group delay fluctuations. As shown in Fig. 8.4(a), the fiber length was stabilizedusing a fiber stretcher controlled by comparison of the local microwave phase at NIST
with that of modulated light reflected back from JILA. The fiber stretcher’s dynamic
range was only sufficient to stabilize the drift for roughly an hour at a time, and thenhad to be briefly unlocked and reset. For our purposes this was sufficient to allow a
24-hour long measurement of the transition frequency, keeping the fiber link’s phasestabilized during every spectroscopic scan of the transition. The 24-hour long recordof the experiment is displayed in Fig. 8.9. The individual data points in red represent∼30-s long scans of the transition, which was operated with a 10-Hz linewidth during
spectroscopy. In green, referenced to the righthand axis, the output voltage of the inloop mixer used to stabilize the fiber link’s group delay fluctuations is shown. Note thaton average, once per hour the fiber stretcher had to be reset due to its limited dynamic
range. Nevertheless, the phase of the fiber link could be well-stabilized during thesemeasurements, with a robust and easy-to-operate performance. Although the in-loop
phase measurement shows that the frequency transfer was stabilized to a few parts in
1017 , we assigned a conservative uncertainty of 1 × 10−16 to the fiber transfer in our202

Mixer Output [V]0.2

Blue: 10^-14 offset
Green: 10^-15 offset
Red:
BRAN fiber
Data starts 1:04 PM 5/26/2006

0.1

0.0

-0.1

-0.2

1

2

3

4

5

Time [Days, integers at noon]
Figure 8.8: Mixer output voltage showing the microwave phase drift of the passive fiber
link between NIST and JILA. At certain times of the day, the phase drift leads toaverage frequency shifts as high as 10−14 , which could lead to an incorrect measurementof the optical clock frequency.

203
final evaluation of the absolute frequency [147].
Coupled with other improvements in the Sr system [47], this approach resulted in
the improved absolute frequency measurement uncertainty of 1.1 Hz (2.5 × 10−15 ) [147].
An even higher-resolution approach using direct phase stabilization of the optical carrier
will be discussed next, in Section 8.4, and it will be required to connect the JILA
Sr standard to the single ion- and neutral atom-based optical standards located at
NIST [172, 162].

8.4

Optical carrier transfer
The development of optical frequency references with short-term instabilities far

lower than those of existing microwave frequency references will rely on the ability
to transfer the frequency references with lower instability than that demonstrated by
the microwave frequency transfer techniques previously discussed. Taking advantage ofan optical frequency reference instead of microwaves gives much higher resolution formeasuring phase noise fluctuations of the fiber link. The simplest approach to opticaltransfer is to directly transmit a cw optical frequency over optical fiber. At the remoteend the cw reference can be directly compared with nearby optical frequencies, or it canbe used to stabilize an optical frequency comb that can span the gap between the transmitted reference and other optical or even microwave frequencies. (See Chapter 3 formore details on using a frequency comb to phase-coherently link optical and microwave
frequencies.) However, phase noise accumulated during transmission will dramaticallydecrease the reference’s stability and must be actively cancelled.
Our particular motivation for optical carrier transfer is to compare our 87 Sr optical lattice clock against other optical clocks located 3.5 km away, at NIST. Although
the BRAN fiber network employs typical telecommunications fiber with a single-mode
cutoff wavelength around 1250-nm, the clocks at NIST and JILA have significantly lower
wavelengths. One possible approach is to use a frequency comb to transfer the stability

140
0.05
120
0.00

100

-0.05

80
60

-0.10

40

-0.15

20

-0.20

In-loop mixer output [V]Optical Frequency (arb. offset) [Hz]

204

0
0

5
10
Time from midnight [hours]

15

20

Figure 8.9: 24 hours of continuous spectroscopy of the 87 Sr optical lattice clock transition
frequency. Data points in red are plotted against the left axis, showing the absolute
frequency measurement of the line-center of each 30-s scan of the optical transition.
The green trace plotted against the righthand axis is the output voltage of the in-loop
mixer used to stabilize the microwave phase of the fiber link. Notice the fiber stretcher
had to be reset roughly once per hour due to its limited dynamic range. Keeping only
the data when the phase was stabilized, the in-loop accuracy of the transfer system wasa few parts in 1017 .

205
of one of the optical clocks’ frequency to a cw laser operating in the telecommunications
wavelength regime (1320 or 1550 nm). Then the cw laser could be transferred throughthe fiber network, with active cancellation of the fiber’s optical phase fluctuations asshown in Fig. 8.4(b). However, the octave-spanning Ti:sapphire comb described in
Chapter 7 does not provide spectral coverage of the telecommunications wavelengths,
and so the scheme would require frequency doubling of the cw laser or difference frequency generation of the comb (see Chapter 6). A simpler approach that works for
shorter (< 50-km) fiber links is to use a frequency comb to transfer the stability of theclock laser to a cw laser operating at 1064 nm. Although it could in principle pose theproblems of greater attenuation of power during the course of transfer and potential
multi-mode transfer through the link, we decided to try this method as a first approachto direct optical clock comparisons over a fiber link. In particular, we were motivatedby the demonstrated in-loop 3 × 10−15 (1-s averaging time) performance of just such asystem [37] that had already been used to compare our I2 standard to a stable opticalreference at NIST at the 4 × 10−14 level (1-s averaging time). In what follows I will
describe the incredible 6 × 10−18 at 1-s performance of our first simple system, and its
extension to links much longer than just 3.5 km.

8.4.1

Experimental techniques for cw optical carrier transfer

We made measurements on several different schemes for cw optical carrier transfer, as summarized in Fig. 8.10. Three different lengths of fiber link were stabilized in
the various measurements, corresponding to experimental configurations A (3.5-km oneway transfer to NIST), B (7-km transfer: JILA→NIST→JILA), and C (32-km transfer
as in B but with an additional 25-km spool of fiber inserted in the link) as shown in
Fig. 8.10.
In all three configurations, the 1064-light being sent through the fiber links isprovided by a non-planar ring oscillator (NPRO 1) which is capable of providing 200

206
mW of output power, operates in a single-wavelength mode with a wide mode-hop-freetunability, and is optimistically specified to have a narrow (< 1-kHz in 1 ms) linewidth.
NPRO 1, operating at frequency νN P RO1 , can be stabilized to the octave-spanningfrequency comb using the usual heterodyne beat technique: a portion of its light iscombined with a portion of the frequency comb’s spectrum centered near 1064 nm onto
photodiode (PD) 1. The resultant heterodyne beat between νN P RO1 and a nearby comb
mode is stabilized to an rf reference with frequency fb1 by feeding back to the PZT of
NPRO 1, which has the effect of phase-locking νN P RO1 to the octave spanning frequency
comb. The frequency comb is in turn phase-locked to the clock laser of the 87 Sr latticeclock, operating at 698 nm, as discussed in Chapter 7. This provides the entire comb,
and therefore νN P RO1 , with the 10−15 instability and 0.5-Hz linewidth of the 698-nm
clock laser. The majority of the power from NPRO 1 (∼40 mW) is frequency-shifted intothe -1 order of an AOM before being collapsed onto a 45◦ polarizer and launched into
the fiber link. A small portion of the power (∼2 mW) is first picked off by a polarizing
beamsplitter (PBS), and then retroreflected through a double-pass quarter-wave platein order to be photodetected on PD3. When light is returned from the remote end of
the fiber link, it makes a second pass through the AOM in the reverse direction before
being combined with the local copy on PD3 in order to make a heterodyne beat of
frequency fb3 which is used to stabilize the fiber link’s optical phase fluctuations. The
stabilization is performed by feedback to the drive frequency of the AOM, fAOM , inorder to phase-lock fb3 to a rf reference. For active stabilization of the optical phaseat the remote end of the fiber, it is convenient to use an AOM as the actuator. Unlike
a fiber stretcher, which is typically used to stabilize the group delay of the link for
microwave transfer, an AOM offers nearly limitless dynamic range for stabilizing theoptical phase delay. This is because the AOM is able to act on the frequency directly,
thereby cancelling any frequency offsets caused by phase drifts of the transmission link.
On the other hand, a fiber stretcher acting directly on the path length can only stretch

207
the glass a finite and small amount, which can easily limit the locking range of a fibertransfer link. Once fb3 is stabilized, the light exiting the remote end of the fiber isalso stabilized, and the remote user can enjoy the full stability of the 698-nm reference,
wavelength-shifted by the frequency comb to 1064 nm.
Configuration A will be the system used to compare the 87 Sr optical clock at
JILA to other optical references at NIST, and has already been used to compare stablesub-Hertz-linewidth lasers against each other, as will be discussed in Section 8.4.2. In
this configuration, the flat remote tip of the BRAN fiber located at NIST is coated witha thin layer of gold so that it transmits 10% of the light sent from JILA, and retroreflects the majority of the rest of the power back toward PD3 for the fiber phase-noise
cancellation.
Configuration B is used in order to evaluate the performance of fiber transfer
directly. In this case, the two BRAN fibers are connected to each other at NIST so thatthe resulting fiber link can be thought of as a single 7-km fiber. The “remote” end of thelink is again coated with gold in order to retro-reflect most of the power toward PD3.
However, in this configuration the output of the remote end can be directly comparedagainst either νN P RO1 or the comb (or both) on PD1 in order to evaluate the 7-km
one-way transfer in an out-of-loop fashion.
For configuration C, a 25-km fiber spool is inserted between the two BRAN fibers
at NIST in order to form a 32-km (each direction) link. In principle, the same gold tip
experiment could be performed as in configuration B; however, the attenuation of 32
km of telecommunications fiber at 1064 nm results in too weak a signal making it backto PD3 after the retro-reflection. Each pass of the 32-km link attenuates the power bya factor of ∼500, and <50 mW must be launched in order to avoid stimulated Brillouinscattering. At best only 200 nW could make it back to PD3, where it would have tocompete against other small back-reflections from much earlier in the fiber link. In order
to avoid this problem, a second laser (NPRO 2) operates at the remote end of the 32-km

208

Ultra-stablecavity for 87Sr
clock laser

A: cavity comparison

NIST

B: continue to JILA
C: 25-km spool to JILA
NPRO 2

Ȝ/2

Self-referenced
fs comb

PD2
Ȝ/2
p POL
Ȝ/4

NPRO 1

AOM -1 order

45° POL

45° POL
PD1

PD3

3.5 km fiber(each way)

Figure 8.10: Experimental configurations for 3.5-, 7-, and 32-km fiber network transfer
of a cw optical carrier: Laser NPRO 1, operating at 1064 nm, is stabilized to the 698nm clock laser for an 87 Sr optical lattice clock. An octave-spanning, self-referenced
frequency comb is used to span the 150-THz spectral gap. NPRO 1 is frequency-shiftedby an AOM before traversing the fiber network. In configuration A, the gold-coatedremote tip of the fiber, 3.5 km away, reflects 90% of the incident power on a return
trip through the fiber for cancellation of the fiber’s one-way optical phase noise. The
remaining phase-stabilized light exiting the fiber at NIST is used to compare the JILA
and NIST clock lasers via another frequency comb. In configuration B, the fiber islinked to a second fiber for a return trip to JILA, forming a 7-km one-way fiber linkwith local and remote ends co-located at JILA. The link’s phase noise is cancelled in
the same way as for configuration A, and an out-of-loop comparison is made between
the light exiting the remote end of the 7-km fiber and either the local comb or NPRO
1. In configuration C, a 25-km fiber spool is inserted halfway into the 7-km link, at
NIST. NPRO 2, operating at the remote tip of the fiber, forms a transceiver by locking
to the signal exiting the 32-km link at the remote end. Most of the power from NPRO
2 is returned through the fiber link in order to beat with the local NPRO 1 on PD3,
and stabilize the fiber link’s optical phase. Independently heterodyning NPRO 2 (at the
remote end) with the comb (at the local, but co-located, end) on PD1 allows out-of-loop
characterization of the full 32-km fiber link. PD, photodiode; POL, linear polarizer

209
link in a transceiver configuration. Most of the power from NPRO 2 (∼40 mW) (withfrequency νN P RO2 is sent back into the fiber in order to heterodyne with νN P RO1 on
PD3 after passing through the AOM on the input side of the fiber link. A small part ofthe power (2 mW) is used to heterodyne with light exiting the fiber’s remote end from
NPRO 1. The resulting beat frequency, fb2 , is phase-locked to a rf reference by feedback
to the PZT of NPRO 2, with fb2 carefully chosen so that the return light is offset infrequency from the input light inside the fiber. This scheme not only serves to boost thepower for the return trip, but also lets light from the remote end be distinguished fromother small reflections of the input light which make it back to PD3, since electronic
filtering can distinguish the beat between NPRO 1 and NPRO 2 from the beat between
NPRO 1 and its own back-reflected light. Finally, another 2 mW of power from NPRO 2
can be used to heterodyne against νN P RO1 or the comb on PD1 in order to characterize
the performance of the 32-km (one-way) link in an out-of-loop way.
We also operated configuration B with the transceiver for some experiments,
rather than the retro-reflecting gold tip, in order to make more fair comparisons between
the two schemes. In the transceiver scheme, fb1 on PD1 is first used to lock NPRO 1
to the comb. Then the remote laser NPRO 2 is locked to the output from the fiber
link at the remote end by stabilizing fb2 from PD2. Finally, the fiber phase-noise iscancelled by stabilizing fb3 on PD3, such that νN P RO2 is remotely phase-locked (with afrequency offset) to νN P RO1 , ready to be used for any variety of experiments that cantake advantage of long-distance ultrastable optical frequency transfer.
A few experimental details are important to mention here. The most important
was that for the transceiver link, it was absolutely essential to include the 45◦ (relative
to the polarizing axes of the nearby polarizing beamsplitters) polarizers at the input
and output ends of the fiber link. Without them, the fb3 could not be locked at all, but
simply by inserting the polarizers, the system worked as described in 8.4.2. We believethat polarization-mode-dispersion is responsible for this effect. Without the polarizer

210
at the remote end, the light exiting the fiber, used for fb2 to stabilize νN P RO2 , would beorthogonally polarized with respect to the light returned through the fiber link. Since
the polarization modes have a relative time-varying phase between them, the system
would maximally violate the principle that φf,inc and φf,ret differ by only a constant as
discussed in 8.2. Collapsing the polarization at the input and output of the fiber link
helps to ensure that the same combination of polarization modes are sampled on theincident and return trips through the fiber link.
Another important detail is that the heterodyne beats are all polarization-sensitive,
but the birefringence of the non-polarization-maintaining fiber link is time-dependent.
Therefore we installed a set of fiber polarization paddles at the input end of the link inorder to help the polarization states at the two 45◦ input and output linear polarizers
to map onto each other as much as possible. For all of the experiments, it was sufficient
to monitor the power in fb3 and use the polarization paddles to maximize it by handonce or twice per day. Finally, it became important to splice a small (5-m long) sectionof 1064-nm single-mode fiber at the input and output ends of the fiber link, in order tofilter out any light that had been propagating in the few other transverse modes allowedby the telecommunications fiber at 1064 nm. One further experimental consideration
for actively-stabilized direct transfer of optical frequencies is burst fluctuations of thefiber link’s phase delay. Especially in the case of longer links (tens of km), sudden large
phase delays can occur when incoherent noise processes distributed throughout the fiber
randomly interfere constructively. If the servo doesn’t have enough dynamic range orslew rate, cycle slips can occur when such a burst results in the sudden shift of thelocking point to another stable point. This problem has been addressed in Ref. [40]by careful design of a digital phase-frequency discriminator which allows a phase error
signal to have a wide discrimination range. As a result, cycle-slip-free operation could
be achieved over a 25-km link, even with length excursions as large as 1.5 mm and rates
as fast as 9.3 mm/s. In our case, we pre-scale fb3 by dividing its frequency by 50 before

211
phase-stabilizing it to the rf reference. This gives the servo a factor of 50 more range tophase slip and recover without an actual cycle slip.
With these improvements, each of the configurations and schemes has operated
robustly for hours at a time. In fact, the main limit to the amount of time the system
could be operated was usually either the clock laser or the comb’s lock to it. Configuration B with retro-reflection from the gold tip could be operated almost indefinitely
when NPRO 1 was not stabilized to the comb, as long as the polarization paddles wereused often enough to compensate for the fiber link’s slow variations of birefringence.

8.4.2

Coherence of optical carrier transfer

Since all of the servo loops in the experiment are phase-locks, it is most appropriate to begin characterization of the transfer experiments by measuring the phasenoise of light at the remote end of the fiber relative to either NPRO 1 or the comb (at1064 nm) at the input end, in configurations B and C. For these experiments there arethree separate timescales relative to Trt that are of importance, as discussed in Section 8.2.1. The first is the timescale of noise processes in the fiber link; cancellation of
the one-way phase noise of the transfer path using φrt relies on the assumption thatthe noise processes are stationary during Trt . The second important timescale is theinverse of the servo bandwidth, which must be longer than Trt . The most importanttimescale for direct optical transfer is the source’s coherence time, and the line-shapeof the heterodyne beat depends on the source’s coherence time relative to Trt . Since a
local portion of the source laser is being used as a reference to measure the fiber-induced
phase noise, intrinsic phase fluctuations of the laser itself should be stationary during
Trt . This is equivalent to saying that the inverse of the optical reference’s linewidth,
i.e. the source’s coherence time, should be longer than Trt . Indeed, if Trt is significantly
longer than the reference’s coherence time, the recovered beat is simply a measure of
the reference’s intrinsic line-shape.

212
A useful way to measure the effect of phase noise (although not phase noise
directly) is therefore by measuring the lineshape of the out-of-loop beat on PD1 between
the remote light (either light exiting the remote gold tipped fiber in configuration B
or νN P RO2 in configuration C) and the local input optical reference. In all of thefollowing lineshape measurements, the heterodyne beat was mixed down from typicalvalues between 50 and 100 MHz to 50 kHz against a low-phase-noise rf reference. The
50-kHz signal was then characterized on a FFT machine.
Figure 8.11(a) shows the first out-of-loop line-shape measurement between νN P RO1
at the local end of the fiber and νN P RO1 + fAOM at the output of the 7-km fiber (configuration B with retro-reflection), as measured on PD1 when NPRO 1 is left free-running.
The coherence time of the free-running NPRO 1 is ∼ (π × 1 kHz)−1 = 318 µs, whereas
for the 7-km link (assuming phase velocity = c/1.5), 2πTrt ∼ 220 µs. Since these twotimescales are similar, we expect the line-shape to take the form of a spectral “delta”
function sitting on top of a modified Lorenzian pedestal. This is indeed what we observe:
the blue trace is taken with no active feedback to the AOM, showing how the fiber link
introduces enough phase noise on the optical carrier to broaden it by 800 Hz (FWHM,
relative to the input optical carrier). When active cancellation of the fiber link-induced
phase noise is applied, the red trace is recovered, clearly showing the 1.5-kHz unity-gain
bandwidth of the servo.
Figure 8.11(c) shows the narrow coherent central feature in a 400-Hz span with
0.5-Hz RBW. Notice the power spectral density for the passive transfer case (blue)
appears as white noise on this scale, and is reduced by > 20 dB when the fiber isactively cancelled. Therefore the servo is successfully taking power which had been
spread from the carrier to the fiber noise-induced sidebands and putting it back into
the carrier.
In order to measure the full ability of the fiber transfer system, we then stabilizedνN P RO1 to the sub-Hz 698-nm clock laser in order to give it a coherence time longer than

213
1 second. For this measurement, we detected the beat between light exiting the remote
tip of the fiber and a nearby frequency comb mode, as an out-of-loop measurement of
the system’s ability to transfer the purity of a comb mode through 7 km of fiber. The
resulting line-shape is shown in Fig. 8.11(b) with a 1-mHz RBW-limited linewidth. With
such a long coherence time for νN P RO1 , and due to the rapid roll-off of fiber-induced
phase noise beyond 1-kHz, the line-shape looks like an exceedingly pure δ-function at
ranges including Fourier frequencies as high as 50-kHz. The 7-km fiber network wastherefore phase-stabilized well-enough that a 1000-s coherence time could be establishedbetween the frequency comb at one end of the fiber and the cw light at the other end.
Pushing the system one step further, we explored the limits imposed on fibertransfer through longer links by making the same line-shape measurement for configuration C, the 32-km link with a transceiver at the remote end. The line-shape displayedin Fig. 8.11(d) was measured by mixing νN P RO2 at the remote end of the link against
the same comb mode used to stabilize νN P RO1 at the local end. In this case, a narrowcoherent feature is still visible with a linewidth < 30 mHz (here only measured down
to 0.5 Hz for comparison against Fig. 8.11(c)). However, the SNR for a 0.5-Hz RBW
decreased from 50 dB, for the 7-km link, to only 15 dB for the 32-km link. Although
the central carrier now only contains < 10% of the total power in a 10-kHz bandwidth, narrow-band filtering should allow the coherence of the reference to be recoveredat the remote end by a sufficiently-low-phase-noise cleanup oscillator. Therefore, thebandwidth limitation imposed by the 32-km link still allows for coherent transfer of an
ultrastable optical reference.
As a practical demonstration of the application for such coherent transfer, the 698nm ultrastable laser, serving as the local oscillator for the JILA 87 Sr lattice clock, wascompared against ultrastable 1126-nm light from the NIST Hg+ optical clock system.
Both clocks’ local oscillators have demonstrated sub-hertz linewidths in other independent measurements [46, 44]. The fiber link was set up in configuration A, and light

214

0

(a)

32 Hz
RBW

-20

Power (dB)

-40
-60

(c)

-20

0
0.5 Hz
RBW

-30
-40
-50

Power (dB)

Power (dB)

-10

1 mHz
RBW

-20
-40
-60

-10
-5
0
5
10
Fourier Frequency (kHz)

0

(b)

-5
-10
-15
-20
-25

-100

100

(d)

-0.2
0.0
0.2
Fourier Frequency (Hz)0.5 HzRBWPower (arb. linear)

Power (dB)

0

1.0
0.8

(e)
1 Hz

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

-100
100
Fourier Frequency (Hz)

-10

0

10

Figure 8.11: (a) Linewidth of heterodyne beat between NPRO 1 at the local end of
the fiber link and the optical carrier after being transmitted 7 km. (b) NPRO 1 after
7-km transmission, heterodyned with a nearby comb mode to which it was stabilized
at the input end. (c) 0.5-Hz-resolution display of the beat shown in (a). (d) NPRO
2 heterodyned against the frequency comb for the 32-km system employing NPRO 2
as a transceiver at the remote end. (e) 1-Hz linewidth for the effective beat between
independent stable cavities separated by 3.5 km and 163 THz.

215
exiting the gold-tipped fiber at NIST was heterodyned against another octave-spanningcomb that was phase-locked to the 1126-nm reference, as well as self-referenced. The
heterodyne beat at 1064-nm is displayed in Fig. 8.11(e), and reveals a 1-Hz RBWlimited linewidth between the two stable lasers separated by 3.5 km. This measurement
clearly shows the ability of the optical carrier transfer system to coherently compare
some of the most stable and pure optical sources that can currently be made.

8.4.3

Stability of the transmitted optical carrier

In addition to measuring the coherence of the actively-stabilized fiber links, we
directly counted the frequencies of the various out-of-loop heterodyne beats used to characterize the link. The upper two curves (open green circles and open brown diamonds)
in Fig. 8.12 show the passive instabilities of the 7- and 32-km links, respectively. The
magnitudes and shapes of these Allan deviations could change by as much as a factor of
3 at various timescales, depending on the time of day, weather, and other environmental
factors. Nevertheless, it seems clear that for a passive fiber link, the instability is anorder of magnitude worse than modern optical references such as the sub-Hz clock lasers
can achieve, and therefore needs to be improved by active cancellation techniques.
The blue, closed circles in Fig. 8.12 are the Allan deviation of the heterodyne
beat between νN P RO1 and light exiting the gold-tipped remote end of the 7-km fiber
link. The beat frequency was mixed down to 50-kHz against a stable rf reference,in order to generate a signal suitable for high-resolution frequency counting. Then theabsolute frequency fluctuations were normalized to 282 THz in order to report fractionalfrequency instabilities of transferred optical carrier relative to νN P RO1 , the optical input
reference. The portion of the data for averaging times τ < 1000 s was measured with a
1-s gate time for counting, while data for τ > 1000 s was measured with a 10-s gate time.
For this measurement, NPRO 1 was not stabilized to the frequency comb. Therefore theAllan Deviation represents an out-of-loop measurement of the fiber transfer instability

216
for transmission of a cw laser through a 7-km fiber link. It is also important that thesystem remained locked and robust over the course of the 70 continuous hours used
to make the 10-s gate time measurement. Of the 25,036 points, only 78 were outliers
and were removed before calculating the Allan deviation. The vast majority of theoutliers occurred during two particular times when the fiber link’s birefringence had
drifted enough that spurious reflections in the link began to compete with the light thatwas retro-reflected from the remote gold-coated tip. Both times, when the problem was
discovered it was quickly solved by using the in-fiber polarization paddles to change thebirefringence so as to maximize the power of fb3 , the in-loop signal used to stabilize theoptical phase of the link.
The red, closed diamonds in Fig. 8.12 are a direct out-of-loop measurement of
the instability of the 32-km fiber link. This time, the signal being frequency-counted
was a heterodyne beat between νN P RO2 and the same comb mode at 1064 nm used
to stabilize νN P RO1 to the 698-nm ultrastable cw optical reference. The heterodyne
beat was again mixed to 50-kHz for high-resolution counting. The data was measured
only with 1-s gate times. Due to the additional complexity of maintaining several extra
phase-locks associated with the 698-nm laser and the frequency comb, the data could
only be continuously acquired for a few hours at a time. Either the comb would lose lockfrom the 698-nm laser due to its limited dynamic range, or the 698-nm laser would lose
lock from the ultrastable cavity due to large thermal drifts in the lab causing the 698diode laser to become unstable near a mode-hop. Despite this, we were able to countthe frequency fluctuations during a period of 14 hours when the system only briefly (forless than 3 minutes each time) came unlocked a few times.
These results demonstrate that the 7-km transfer of an optical frequency reference
can have an instability of 6 × 10−18 at 1-s averaging time, averaging down like τ −1/2
until τ ∼ 4000 seconds. Also, the transceiver system sent light stabilized to an opticalfrequency comb over a 32-km link with a demonstrated out-of-loop performance of

217

10

Allan Deviation

10
10
10
10
10
10

-14

-15

-17

-18

-19

-20

-21

10

0

10

1

10

2

10

3

10

4

10

5

Averaging Time (s)Figure 8.12: Instability of fiber transfer in various configurations. Open green circles
and open brown diamonds are the passive instabilities of the 7- and 32-km fiber links,
respectively. Closed red diamonds are the instability of the 32-km system, as measured
by heterodyning the “remote” NPRO 2 against the comb-mode to which the “local”
NPRO 1 is phase locked. Closed blue circles represent the instability of the 7-km link,measured by heterodyne beat between light exiting the remote fiber tip and a local copyof NPRO 1 before transmission. Black triangles represent the in-loop instability of thebeat used to stabilize the fiber link, for all distances and configurations of the link.

218
2 × 10−17 τ −1/2 for τ < 4000 seconds. Ignoring for a moment the diurnal “bump” in the
Allan deviation at ∼40,000 s, we addressed the question of what limits this instability
performance as follows. First, in order to make sure the electronics were not the limit,
we counted the in-loop signal fb3 during the measurements. Its Allan deviation, which
was the same for both the 7- and 32-km fiber links, is shown in Fig. 8.12 as the closed
black triangles. The frequency fluctuations of fb3 represent fluctuations of light having
passed through a round trip (14 or 64 km) of the fiber link, and were therefore divided
by two before calculating the Allan deviation as plotted. Since the in-loop instability
is a factor of 6 lower than the 7-km out-of-loop instability, the electronics must not be
the main limit to the instability. We confirmed that the main limit was the out-of-loop
optical paths used to make the measurement in several ways. First, opening the box
enclosing the system increased the instability by an order of magnitude, even though
the in-loop instability did not change. Second, a 5-m piece of fiber was substituted forthe 7-km fiber in the retro-reflecting scheme, and the results were the same. Third,
the 32-km transceiver system has a factor of 5 more out-of-loop optical components
than the 7-km retro-reflecting system, which is consistent with its Allan deviation being
essentially a constant multiple of 2.5 greater than the 7-km system. In order to confirm
this last point, the 7-km fiber was operated in a transceiver configuration, and theout-of-loop instability increased to that of the 32-km system. We believe the diurnal
frequency drift as evidenced at timescales τ > 4000 s is therefore also due to the slow
daily temperature cycle of our laboratory environment.
Finally, the accuracy of the fiber links was characterized by averaging the full 60
hours of data for the 7-km link together. The result was accurate to less than 1 × 10−19 ,consistent with the trend of the Allan deviation at the longest timescales. For the 32-km
link, the accuracy was 5 × 10−19 , also consistent with the measured instability.

219
8.4.4

Phase noise of the 7-km link

In order to make a true measurement of the residual phase noise of the 7-km
actively-stabilized link, we mixed the out-of-loop beat (between νN P RO1 and light exiting the gold-tipped remote end of the fiber) down to dc against a low-phase-noise
rf reference, in a homodyne scheme. The voltage fluctuations of the mixer’s output
were measured by an FFT machine for Fourier frequencies below 100 kHz, and by an
rf spectrum analyzer for Fourier frequencies above 100 kHz. These voltage fluctuations
were normalized to the mixer output range and to the optical carrier frequency in order to characterize the optical phase fluctuations of the remotely-transferred frequency.
The phase power spectral density is displayed in Fig. 8.13(a) as a red curve for the
7-km link, and as a blue curve when a short 2-m piece of fiber was substituted into thesystem. When the 2-m fiber was used, no changes to the servo gains or corners was
made. However, the optical powers used were attenuated in order to simulate the same
powers available from the 7-km system. Note that the noise between several Hz and
20 kHz is larger for the 7-km system. This excess noise must average out at timescales
longer than 1 s, since for τ > 1 s the instabilities of the 2-m and 7-km links performed
identically. Finally, the sharp drop in phase noise spectral density beyond 3 MHz is dueto the bandpass filter used to filter the original heterodyne beat signal near 77 MHz.
Even if the noise floor had remained flat (limited by the white phase noise floor of thephotodetection and subsequent phase-measurement electronics) at the 10−12 rad2 /Hzlevel out to 50 MHz, the contribution to rms phase fluctuations would be insignificant.
We also converted the phase noise spectral density to units of timing jitter spectral density, and integrated it from 10 mHz to 30 MHz, as displayed in Fig. 8.13(b).
The total rms timing jitter integrated in this bandwidth was 0.085 fs, or less than
0.024 of an optical cycle at 1064 nm. Although the cw field exiting the remote endof the fiber link does not directly provide a sharp rising edge for synchronization pur-

10
10

-3

(a)

-6

2

SI(f) (rad / Hz)

220

10

10
10

-9

7 km
2m

-12
-15

rms Timing Jitter (fs)

10

-2

10
10

10

10

-2

10

0

10

2

10

4

FourierFrequency
[Hz]
0
2
4

10

10

10

10

6

10

6

-1

(b)
-2

-3

Figure 8.13: (a) Relative phase noise spectral density between the local cw reference
and the signal exiting the 7-km fiber link. (b) The phase noise shown in (a) is integrated
and displayed as rms timing jitter, demonstrating 7-km timing transfer with 0.85 fs ofjitter integrated from 10 mHz to 25 MHz.

221
poses, a frequency comb could be employed to recover this level of timing jitter for its
pulse train’s repetition rate. This extremely low level of timing jitter for fiber transfer
should find application for advanced light sources at synchrotrons and phase-coherent
radio telescope arrays requiring orders of magnitude improvement over previous remotesynchronization techniques.
The performance for actively-stabilized transfer of a cw optical beam represents
several orders of magnitude improvement over the best results for stabilized transfer ofa microwave frequency reference through amplitude modulation. This is made possibleby the choice of a much higher (optical as opposed to microwave) modulation frequency.
In fact, for the direct transfer of an optical beam, the optical carrier frequency is themodulation frequency to be recovered. As directly manifested in Eqn. (2.13), use of ahigher transfer frequency allows the phase noise (as measured in radians) to be significantly higher for a given level of instability, putting less stringent requirements on the
SNR needed to achieve a certain instability. For instance, for a counting bandwidth of
100 kHz and a carrier frequency of 1 GHz, 90 dB of SNR in a 100-kHz bandwidth isnecessary to achieve an instability below 1 × 10−14 at 1 s integration time. If an opticalfrequency corresponding to 1064 nm is used for transfer instead, only 10 dB of SNR
should be sufficient to push the instability an order of magnitude lower, to < 1×10−15 at
1 s integration time, if only the fundamental phase noise limit due to SNR is considered.
(However, more than 12 dB of SNR is necessary to ensure cycle-slip-free counting.) In
Ref. [37], the performance for passive microwave transfer by amplitude modulation ofa cw beam was limited by the achievable SNR of the frequency-counting measurement.
Such insufficient SNR is also responsible for the passive instability measurement of microwave transfer in Fig. 8.5 appearing a factor of ten worse for 1-s averaging than thepassive instability of optical transfer.
A final very important point needs to be made regarding the real-world fiber links

222
employed, For Ref. [37], the SNR for direct optical carrier transfer was primarily limited
by back-reflections from various connectors along the transmission fiber. Since thoseresults we have fusion-spliced the fiber at all the previously-connectorized junctions
in order to eliminate the effects of these back-reflections. Now with a much higher
effective SNR available, the simple retro-reflection system performs with two orders ofmagnitude less instability. In this work we also demonstrated the transceiver methodfor distinguishing the signal of interest (returning from the remote end) from reflectionsin the fiber link. This increased the effective SNR by at least 30 dB in the case of the
7-km link. A similar scheme was used in Ref. [38], involving an AOM at the remote endof the fiber link. Here, the transceiver additionally serves as an amplifier at the remoteend so that extra power can serve as the repeater signal, to be used for the next stageof a much longer multi-stage fiber frequency distribution link. The main point is thatback-reflections in the fiber links are of extreme importance and should be minimizedin any future installation of a fiber link to be used for ultrastable frequency transfer.

8.5

Remote synchronization of ultrafast lasers
In addition to the microwave and optical fiber transfer measurements I discussed

in the previous two Sections, I had a small role to play in a remote synchronization
experiment involving two femtosecond fiber lasers. Whereas the frequency transfer
experiments were motivated by the needs of our Sr optical clock, the remote synchronization experiment was motivated by being the first step toward fiber transfer of theentire frequency comb, which would ultimately represent the most useful form of fibertransfer since the end user would be directly provided with a set of carrier frequencies
spanning the electromagnetic spectrum. The first step toward this goal would be tostabilize fluctuations in the group delay of the transmission fiber, to produce a stabilized repetition frequency at the remote end. Even if the group delay is stabilized,
dispersion would still be present in the transmission path, significantly broadening the223
pulses. Therefore, the remote user might like to synchronize his own, transform-limited
pulse train to the incoming reference. This exactly corresponds to the case of remotesynchronization of the pulse trains of two fiber lasers.
We performed actively stabilized microwave frequency transfer using a frequency
comb in order to synchronize two remotely located femtosecond lasers [135]. The frequency transfer was performed with a setup similar to that of Fig. 8.4(c). To achieve
remote synchronization, the pulse train from the reference laser was transmitted throughseveral kilometers of fiber using the stable transfer technique of Ref. [187]. Then the
remote slave laser was synchronized to the stable incoming pulse train with a highbandwidth actuator as in Ref. [204]. The setup used for remote synchronization experiments is shown in Fig. 8.14. In our experiment, two mode-locked fiber lasers wereconstructed so that harmonics of their repetition frequencies coincided at ∼ 93 MHz.
The transmitting laser was free running, while the slave laser had an electro-optic modulator (EOM) [204] and a PZT inside its cavity. The slave laser was synchronized to
the reference laser by way of a microwave phase lock of the repetition frequencies. In
this scheme, the PZT has a large dynamic range (14 µm) that allows for long timescale
locking (> 12 hours), while the EOM provides a high bandwidth actuator to achieve
tight synchronization.
To characterize the residual timing jitter of the synchronization we used a crossed
beam, background free, optical cross-correlation of the two lasers’ pulse trains, as discussed in Section 2.1.1. The two pulse trains were focused onto a LiIO3 crystal (typeI phase matching), which generated sum frequency light (SFG) when the two pulses
overlapped in time and space. To achieve temporal overlap, we used two phase-locked
loops that operate at two different timing resolutions [20, 21]. A coarse-timing loop operated at the fundamental frequency of 93 MHz, while a higher resolution loop operated
at 7.6 GHz (80th harmonic of frep ). A phase shifter in the fundamental frequency loop
allowed coarse-timing adjustments such that temporal overlap between the two pulse

224

Local
Reference Fiber
Laser (31 MHz)

Fiber Noise
Pre-cancellation

Optical Cross Correlationor
RF Phase Measurement
Slave Fiber
Laser (93 MHz)

Fiber Link

Synchronization(error signal)
RemoteFigure 8.14: High-level diagram showing the setup for remote synchronization of two
femtosecond fiber lasers. The repetition rate of the reference laser is transmitted through4.5 km of dispersion-shifted fiber with active stabilization of the group delay. The remotelaser is synchronized to the pulse trains exiting the fiber link using rf techniques, andan out-of-loop optical cross correlation is used to characterize the net performance ofthe system. (Adapted from Ref. [135])

225
trains could be found. Once an SFG signal was observed on a photo-multiplier tube
(PMT), we measured the total cross correlation width to calibrate SFG intensity fluctuation to timing jitter conversion. We then transferred control from the fundamental
frequency loop to the 7.6-GHz loop. A phase shifter in the high-harmonic loop allowed
fine tuning of the timing overlap of the pulses such that we could position the SFG
signal at the steepest point of the cross correlation slope to obtain the most sensitive
measurement of pulse timing jitter, which is proportional to the amplitude fluctuationsof the SFG signal. We monitored the amplitude fluctuations of the SFG signal througha 50-MHz low-pass filter to determine the timing jitter within an integration bandwidth
up to the Nyquist frequency.
It is important to note that the cross-correlation was performed on the same
optical table that holds the two lasers used in the experiment. This configuration
allowed a direct comparison of the two lasers, which revealed the timing jitter due toboth the transmission path and the slave laser’s locking ability. Also, the proximityof the two lasers with the cross correlator allowed a relatively narrow cross-correlation
width of 165 fs because the pulses had not spread significantly in time due to dispersion.
Initially, synchronization was performed with the two fiber lasers collocated (i.e.
no fiber link between them). The synchronization was within a level of 10 fs overthe entire Nyquist bandwidth [Fig. 8.15(a)], which agreed with our rf-domain in-loop
measurement of the timing jitter. A 4.5-km dispersion-shifted fiber was then inserted
between the two lasers, with active cancellation of the fiber noise implemented. The
transfer process introduced 16 fs of jitter; this jitter adds in quadrature with the synchronization jitter of 10 fs. The total timing jitter is thus around 20 fs, as can be seen in
Fig. 8.15(b), which was directly observed from the out-of-loop cross-correlation measurement. This result is in agreement with the in-loop measurement discussed previously.

To date, distribution of a fully stabilized frequency comb (meaning stable, simul-

226

(a)

(b)

Local

Remote165 fs~10 fs rms
-0.4

-0.2

0.0

Time [s]0.2

0.4~20 fs rms
-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

Time [s]Figure 8.15: Optical cross-correlation measurement of the timing jitter for (a) local
synchronization, and (b) slave synchronization through a fiber link. Both traces areshown with a 50-MHz low-pass filter that allows us to observe the timing jitter up to
the Nyquist frequency. (Adapted from Ref. [135])

227
taneous delivery of both frep and f0 ) has not been achieved. As the comb’s capability
to transmit both a microwave and optical frequency is one of the motivating factors for
its use, it is worth discussing some considerations for accomplishing this goal. Afterfluctuations in the group delay of the transmission fiber (near a particular narrow spectral bandwidth) have been corrected (to produce a stabilized frep at the remote end),
f0 will experience shifts if there is a time-varying dispersion in the transmission path.
Such fluctuations in f0 are certainly possible with environmental perturbations to theoptical fiber. In order to generate an error signal sensitive to these shifts, multiple error
signals at multiple wavelengths could be formed, each similar in principle to the caseof cw optical carrier transfer. Then the relationships between the various wavelengthdependent error signals could be used to compensate for various orders of dispersion
fluctuations. For example, in the simplest case the group delay could be stabilized fora narrow spectral window, and the phase delay could be independently stabilized using
information from another spectral region. As the number of orders of dispersion to becancelled increases, the number of error signals and actuators also increases. The fibertransfer of the comb would be complete to as many orders of dispersion fluctuation as
desired, at the cost of extreme complexity in the limit of stabilizing each comb line
independently with line-by-line pulse shaping!

8.6

Summary
After studying in detail the three fiber-based techniques for distribution of afrequency reference, it is apparent that optically based approaches benefit from thehigher phase resolution offered by optical frequencies, although the microwave-based
approaches may be more straightforward and are already adequate for many applications. Ultimately the choice of which technique to use will depend on the application.
For stability purposes (≥1 s) the modulated cw transfer, direct optical transfer, andthe comb transfer all offer instabilities of a few parts in 1014 at 1-s without any active

228
stabilization. Once stabilization is utilized the direct optical transfer performs the bestat 6 × 10−18 at 1 s, while microwave transfer using the comb performs at < 7 × 10−15
and the modulated cw beam technique achieves 5 × 10−14 . It is expected that stabilization of the optical phase during transfer of the comb would enable it to perform as
well as the direct optical transfer for distributing an optical frequency reference. On
the other hand, if the remote site has a frequency comb available to connect opticaland microwave frequencies, it is expected that the direct optical transfer would work as
well as frequency comb transfer for remote synchronization applications requiring low
timing jitter at high sampling rates.
As frequency distribution networks of greater and greater lengths are developed, it
is important to keep in mind some of the fundamental limitations to the stability that canbe achieved. As we discussed earlier, thermal noise and shot noise present fundamental
limits to the achievable measurement noise floor. To reduce the impact of these limits it
is important to have at least enough light power incident on the system’s photodetectors
to reduce the thermal noise floor below the shot noise floor. However, this requires thedevelopment of highly linear, high-current photodetectors to avoid amplitude-to-phaseconversion. Also, since stabilization techniques rely on the detection of round-trip phasenoise to deduce and cancel one-way phase noise, it is important to keep in mind that
only noise that is stationary during the round-trip time can be effectively cancelled.
Therefore, as the distribution distances get longer, the bandwidth within which noise
can be cancelled becomes smaller. One way to overcome this limitation would be to have“repeater” stations that would receive a stabilized frequency reference and phase lock a
local oscillator to this reference, and then retransmit this reference to the next repeaterin the chain. In this scenario the maximum transmission length that must be stabilized
never exceeds that dictated by the bandwidth of noise present. To this extent, thetransceiver configuration C discussed in Section 8.4 already provides a suitable repeater
station, since NPRO 2 can also be used as the input to the next segment of a multiple-

229
repeater link.
An excellent question can be formed, as to how long a single fiber link can bemade, given that an extremely pure “cleanup” oscillator could in principle be placedat the remote end. For instance, such an oscillator might have a 1-s coherence time,
and therefore only need to be slaved to the transferred signal with a 1-Hz bandwidth inorder to maintain phase coherence with the original reference. Then as long as the fiber
noise cancellation has sufficient gain to cancel noise below 1-Hz, such a system should
in principle work. Unfortunately, for our 7- and 32-km links, the stability performance
was not yet limited by the fiber link and its associated round-trip bandwidth, and so
we can not yet extrapolate the performance to longer links in order to determine atwhat length the uncancelled noise within a 1-Hz bandwidth becomes too large. Suchan investigation would indeed be a worthy pursuit for future experiments!
As we look forward to the future of optical clock-based technology, we quickly
come to the realization that characterization of optical clocks and distribution of theirsignals on the surface of the Earth will become seriously limited by our knowledge ofthe local gravitational potentials, as pointed out by a recent Reference Frame article
by D. Kleppner [205]. An interesting solution might be to place a network of opticalclocks in space, where frequency combs used as clockwork can function also for precise
and absolute distance ranging [18] as well as remote transfer of optical clocks, such thata stable geoid could be defined from space. In that scenario, we are more than happy
that the fiber-based approach might retire!

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Appendix A

A humorous note on units

Many interesting and varied units have been used in various pursuits throughout
time. These include the crocodile, pony, barn, lumen, becquerel, sievert, katal, candela,dalton, tonne (not the ton), knot, SWU, fathom, palm, shaftment, CNRHK (ChuckNorris-Round-House Kick), cubit, pennyweight, dram, hogshead, bushel, peck, tarefa,
quincena, and foe, just to name a few fun examples. This Thesis wouldn’t be a quality
work of physics without at least one appendix inventing a new problem with units andthen “solving” it.
Sometimes units are mis-used by physicists simply for the sake of making things 
easier to say. A prime example of this in the field of ultrafast science is the fs2 unit formeasuring the group-delay dispersion of an optical system. In reality, the unit should
be quoted as [fs/PHz], which would make it clear that one is speaking about a certain
number of femtoseconds of group delay per PetaHertz of optical bandwidth, as measured
near a particular optical frequency. Of course, since the “per PetaHertz” part of thiswould also be equivalent to fs, and since “fs-squared” is easier to say, we adopt the latter
terminology.
Inspired by this kind of creativity, and finding myself always in the position of
measuring frequency drift rates of optical clock oscillators, I have also come up with a
new twist on a unit that is somewhat painful to say. Often, the 87 Sr clock laser describedin Section 7.1.3 would drift by an amount that could be measured and compensated247
for as described in Section 7.4.2. The drift rate for the first cavity made from Zerodur
was on the order of several Hz of frequency shift per second. Of course, the natural SI
unit would therefore be [Hz/s], but this is egregiously cumbersome to enunciate, much
like this sentence. While watching my automated clockwork for hours on end one day,I realized that the “per second” part of the unit also corresponds to “Hz,” and that
therefore the unit could be described as “Hz-squared.” However, it becomes even easier
to say “square-Hz,” which of course led me to a rare “Eureka!” moment: I introduce
to you, the reader, the new unit of “Squirtz” – appropriately denoted as [Sqz], whichis untaken by any other unit I can find. Obviously it becomes great fun to speak of“milliSquirtz” when the drift rate is as well-cancelled as it can be for the new ULE
cavities and their lower thermal noise limit.
So, the next time you consider using the official SI unit for frequency drift, pleaseconsider using the official SF unit instead – long live the Sqz!