Online ISSN 1347-4456 Print ISSN 1347-4464

ABAS: Annals ofBusiness Administrative
ScienceVol. 3, No. 1, January 2004

KU, Seung-Hwan

Exploring the Causal Model of 3D-CAD Technology:
Interfirm Communication and Product Development
Performance in Japanese Automobile Parts Industry

1

http://www.gbrc.jp© 2004 Global Business Research CenterAnnals of Business Administrative ScienceVol. 3, No. 1, January 2004

CHIEF EDITOR

Junjiro Shintaku

University of TokyoEDITORIAL BOARD

Makoto Abe
University of Tokyo
Takahiro Fujimoto University of Tokyo
Makoto Kasuya
University of Tokyo
Hotaka Katahira
University of Tokyo
Nobuo Takahashi University of Tokyo
Technical Editor: Maki Nishida, Global Business Research Center

Annals of Business Administrative Science is published quarterly in January, April,
July, and October, by Global Business Research Center, Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo,
JAPAN. http://www.gbrc.jp

Annals of Business Administrative Science Vol. 3, No. 1 (January, 2004)

Exploring the Causal Model of 3D-CAD Technology:
Interfirm Communication and Product Development
Performance in Japanese Automobile Parts Industry
Seung-Hwan KU
Faculty of Business Administration, Kyoto Sangyo University
E-mail: kush0405@cc.kyoto-su.ac.jp

Abstract: 3D-CAD technology impacts the performance of product development in two
ways. One is a positive effect that the use of the 3D-CAD decreases the number ofproblem solving cycles directly, so that development performance improves. The other isthe negative effect that 3D-CAD increases interfirm communication, which increases thequantity of coordination. In conclusion, the overall phenomenon of a correlation between
the use of 3D-CAD technology and improved performance cannot be seen, because thetwo effects of the 3D-CAD offset each other.
Keyword: 3D-CAD, product development, interfirm communication

1. Introduction

has the effect of ‘improvement of product quality.’Over the past few years, many existing studies on

However, they have reported that the use of

3D-CAD information technology have examined

3D-CAD is irrelevant to ‘the development efficiency

what kinds of influence 3D-CAD has had on product(cost and development lead time).’ In other words,

development and its process (e.g., Aoshima, 1998;

there were inconsistencies between the theoretical

Aoshima & Nobeoka, 2001; Aoshima, Nobeoka &expectation effect and the empirical study results of

Takeda, 2001; Takeda 2000a, 2000b; Nobeoka,

3D-CAD technology.
In the present study, we were not able to find

1997; Robertson & Allen, 1993; ). Many empiricalstudies including Aoshima and Nobeoka (2001) havetherelations(correlation)

between

3D-CAD

reported that the introduction and use of 3D-CAD

technical use and development efficiency when we1

Ku
chose the Japanese auto parts industry as our object

communication tool. That is to say, it may imply thatof analysis. In Japanese auto parts industry, why wasengineers of a division and/or suppliers can

the relations (correlation) between the increasing

participate in design communication process more

introduction and use of 3D-CAD technology and theactively and frequently by a computer screen, anddevelopment efficiency in product development notthis can largely improve product quality.
Actually, 3D-CAD can provide high visibility

found?
To address this question, this paper built aand enable engineers to check easily many partsmodel considering interfirm communication andinterference problems on a screen and do simulations

analyzed the effects between the increase ofsuch as a check or a function test of part interference

introduction and use of 3D-CAD technology andwith lower cost and enable digital virtual assembling

development

interfirm(e.g., Aoshima, 1998; Baba & Nobeoka, 1998;

communication, 3D-CAD technology indirectly

Nobeoka, 1997; Robertson & Allen, 1993; Takeda,

brings ‘promotion of effective communication’ and2000b; Takeda, Aoshima, & Nobeoka, 2000). In this‘front load of a communication timing.’ However,point, the result of this paper indicates that 3D-CAD

few studies to date have dealt with the effects ofimproves quality of development performance rather

3D-CAD

than improving development speed directly.

efficiency.

considering

Consideringboth

3D-CADascommunication tool and the quantity of interfirm

2. 3D-CAD, Development Efficiency,

coordination.

Communication

If a conclusion is taken in advance, it was foundthat 3D-CAD technology has effects on the

The typical good example that revolutionized adevelopment efficiency through two paths. That is,

product

one path is that 3D-CAD technology reduced thetechnology is the development of Boeing 777. The

number of problem solving cycles and it contributed

development lead time of Boeing 777 was greatly

to shortening of development lead time. The othershortened by the use of 3D-CAD technology. It

path is that interfirm communication increased andbecame easy to ascertain the problem of many parts

inversely gave the influence that seemed to let theinterference on a computer screen by introducing

number of problem solving cycles increase. In other

3D-CAD technology into the design process of thewords, because a negative effect offsets a positive

aircraft which is an extremely complicated product.

effect, correlation between 3D-CAD use and the

As a result, a check and a function test of component

development efficiency was not found.

interactions were enabled at an early stage and atdevelopment

processwith

3D-CAD

This result indicated that company should not

low cost, which brought rapid improvement of

merely require the efficiency of 3D-CAD as adevelopment performance (e.g., Aoshima, 1998;
2

Causal Model of 3D-CAD Technology
Baba & Nobeoka, 1998). In other words, with

Robertson and Allen (1993), Baba and Nobeoka

3D-CAD, digital virtual assembling can be done on a(1998), and Takeda (2000a) pointed that thescreen in the middle of a design process where

communication between engineer or designer ofdetailed product information is converted into digital

different divisions and/or fields are promoted bydata.

using 3D-CAD system so that they can recognize

By fully utilizing its simulation function, the frontand share more correct product information andloading of problem solving became conventionallyknowledge. Furthermore, because designers gain

easy, and it directly improved design quality.

deeper understanding of product design information,

Simultaneously,of

it can be expected that effective communication is

prototypes, 3D-CAD had effects on shortening

obtained by sharing product information on the samedevelopment lead time and reducing development

screen at the same time. This will allow effective

cost (Aoshima, 1998; Nobeoka, 1997; Thomke &communication with other divisions in an early

Fujimoto, 2000). Aoshima and Nobeoka (2001) andperiod, which realizes shorter development lead time

Nobeoka, Takeda and Aoshima (2002) who studied

and improvement of product quality.

byreducingthenumbermachinery-related manufacturing companies report

The automobile, which is the object of thisthat increase of use rate of 3D-CAD brings

study is an integral architecture product, that is,

improvement of product quality much as many

interdependences between parts are high andstudies have reported until now. In addition, theircomplex. The pattern of product development tends

studies point out that the deficiency of organizational

to be an overlapping type linking design stage andactives for a task-redefining occurrs by introducing

engineering stage, because functional and structural

3D-CAD technology, which has a negative effect on

adjustments between parts are frequently required

development efficiency in the short term.

design changes by the auto maker, for the sake ofcooperation

On the other hand, 3D-CAD, being able toandcoordination,communication

product

between auto maker and suppliers is extremely

information, can translate tacit knowledge of productimportant in the design stage (Clark & Fujimoto,information

1991; Dyer, 1996; Fujimoto, 1997, 1998).

providethree

todimensional

image

of

explicit knowledge. Therefore,

The introduction of 3D-CAD technology to thedesigners can have nearly the same image of a
product and the formation of information. In thisauto

industrygreatly

contributed

toshortensense, 3D-CAD technology has a large effect on

development lead time of Japanese auto makers.

communication, which is regarded as an important

Japanese auto makers use 3D-CAD and CAE

determinant factor in the efficiency of concurrent(Computer-Aided Engineering) technology, which

engineering.

allowed them cost reduction and shortening of3

Ku
development lead time by making a prototype ofSociety in March 1999. We obtained responses fromhigh completeness at an early stage (Nobeoka, 1997;

173 companies (response rate is 41.3%) and was

Fujimoto, Nobeoka, Aoshima, Takeda, & Oh, 2002).

possible to use 153 (36.6%) responses after material
companies

To shorten vehicle development lead time, it iswereremoved.

Consequently,

wenecessary for a supplier to shorten component

analyzed 125 companies in a model. This is because

development

we removed 28 companies from data set: 25

lead

time,

prototypebuilding,

suppliers had not introduced 3D-CAD at the time of

production, and delivery.

survey and 3 suppliers had deficit values.

This implies that suppliers must build theInsystem which is regularly connected with auto

thequestionnaire

survey,weasked

maker’s system. Also, as a supplier, security of

respondents to assess the degree of change within

system compatibility of 3D-CAD becomes moretheir product (component) design activities andimportant. Therefore, it becomes difficult forbusiness patterns. Using 5-point Likert scales, they

suppliers to make effective the new technical

rated the degree of change within their design andintroduction if the supplier introducing 3D-CAD

business actives compared with four years before.

technology does not have regular connection andHowever, the variable of development efficiency―

compatibility with auto maker’s systems to exchange

production cost (P1) and development lead time (P2)drawing data. In other words, it is important thatis assessed based on 8-point Likert scales. These aresuppliers secure the compatibility of systems withshown

auto maker’s system when suppliers introduce andquestionnaire items.

these

‘the

systemicuseofAppendix

1,

which

present

allFirst of all, we analyzed 128 companies whichuse 3D-CAD in product development process. We
call

in

introduced 3D-CAD for the correlation between

3D-CAD‘systemic use of 3D-CAD’ and ‘development(SYS-CAD)’ in this paper.

efficiency’ that seemed to be insisted by many

3. Empirical Analysis

existing studies. The results are shown in Table 1.

3.1. Research Method and Sample

Excepting the correlation between P1 and P2, all

The data were collected in a questionnaire survey

other correlation coefficients are not statisticallycalled ‘Questionnaire survey 1999 for auto partbusiness in the auto industry’ (Fujimoto, Matsuo &Table 1. Correlation Matrix

Takeishi, 1999) and interviews.

X1

X2

X3

P1

This questionnaire survey was carried out in

P1−0.032−0.162−0.0851.000

418 companies that are primary auto part suppliers

P2−0.062−0.152−0.0940.358**.

and members of the Japanese Jidosha Buhin Kogyo**p<0.01
4

Causal Model of 3D-CAD Technology
Table 2. Average and Variances
X1

X2

X3

C1

C2

R1

R2

P1

P2

Ave.

3.992

3.764

3.742

3.703

3.601

2.781

2.711

4.698

4.272

Var.

(0.606)(0.547)(0.571)(0.511)(0.415)(0.834)(0.664)(2.196)(2.538)introduction process pointed out by many studies

significant at the 5% level.

(Aoshima & Nobeoka, 2001; Fujimoto, Nobeoka,

Therefore we will build a causal model to

Aoshima, Takeda, & Oh, 2002; Nobeoka, Aoshima

explain such a phenomenon.

& Takeda, 2002).

3.2. Building Causal Model
The points that have become clear by existing(b) 3D-CAD ― Interfirm Communication: To

studies are summarized as follows.

visualize and simulate design, 3D-CAD technology
decreases the gap and error of recognition among(a) 3D-CAD ― Problem Solving ― Development

engineers, and brings exchange and sharing of more

Performance (Development Efficiency): 3D-CAD

precise product information. Accordingly, it cantechnology digitizes product information and, on thepossibly promote effective communication between

basis of sharing product knowledge and information,

divisions or firms. Then, the quantity of theenable visual design and simulation. Also, 3D-CAD

coordination between firms or divisions should

lets firms reduce the number of prototypes by using

decrease.
In addition, with introduction of 3D-CAD, thethem effectively. In this respect, we can predict that
3D-CAD causes positive effects on development

problemofcomponentinteractions

occurring

efficiency.

frequently in a post-process can be solved in the

However, a direct positive effect on theearly stages. By promoting communication between

development efficiency is not observed by many

divisions in the early stages, 3D-CAD can beexisting empirical studies yet. In other words, theeffective in shortening product lead time.

theoretical effects of 3D-CAD are not supported bymany empirical studies. It is assumed that delay of(c) Interfirm Coordination and Communication

organizational compatibility for new technology is― Development

the cause. The phenomenon is caused by the

Efficiency): In the case of the automobile industry,transition

suppliers tend to take part in the early development

periodin

3D-CADtechnology
5

Performance(Development

Ku
Figure 1. Building Causal Model

Systemic Use of 3D-CAD(SYS-CAD)Interfirm Communication （CORD）

Problem Solving

・Front-loading problem
・Reduction of prototyping cost・ Efficiency,
・ Quantity of coordination

Product Development
Performance・Shorten Development Lead Time
・Reduction cost・Quality improvement

stage. Simultaneously, components are developed inout that 3D-CAD technology brings positive effectcooperation between an auto maker and its suppliers.

on product quality in a development performance,

To develop components effectively and shorten

however,development

development efficiency. On this point, there is

lead

time,

frequent

and

close

it

is

not

directlyconnected

withinconsistency between the theoretical conclusion andcommunication is needed by both.

empirical studies on the effect of 3D-CAD

Figure 1 shows the result of existing studies.

technology.

According to Figure 1, the introduction andutilization of 3D-CAD technology is connected with

The purpose of this paper is to explore why thisshorter lead time, development cost reduction,

inconsistency occurs. When we analyze this question,

quality improvement and development performance.

we consider an important factor, which is interfirm

The solid line in Figure 1 shows these relations.

communication,

However, as mentioned above, the theoreticalindirectly

conclusion that 3D-CAD technology has a positive

communication’ and ‘the front loading of aeffectcommunication timing.’ondevelopment

performance

is

not

becausebrings3D-CAD‘promotionoftechnology
effective

To examine the effects of introducing 3D-CAD

empirically supported yet. Existing studies pointed
6

Causal Model of 3D-CAD Technology
Table 3. Correlation Matrix
X1

X2

X3

C1

C2

R1

R2

P1

X1

1.000

X2

0.535**

1.000

X3

0.547**

0.649**

1.000

C1

0.226*

0.233**

0.196*

1.000

C2

0.261*

0.099

0.245**

0.505**

1.000

R1−0.143

0.165

0.172

−0.193*−0.1511.000

R2−0.084*0.292**

0.270** −0.038−0.1090.622** 1.000

P1−0.032−0.162−0.085

0.029

0.044

0.081

0.224**

1.000

P2−0.062−0.152−0.094−0.026−0.0270.205*

0.173

0.358**

frequencyofcommunications promoted → reduced number ofcommunication between an auto maker and suppliers

problem solving cycles and front loading problem(dotted line), we claim the possibility that twosolving→shorter development lead time and costeffects of 3D-CAD in the development efficiency

reduction.

*p＜0.05,

technology**p＜0.01

considering

theoffset each other.
(ii) Secondary Effect: By sharing knowledge and(i) First Effect: 3D-CAD technology provides

activating communication, the number of problem

superior

effective

solving cycles does not actually decrease as much,communication and brings about a positive effect in

but inversely increases. In a current design review

the development efficiency. As product information

and a production review, it is necessary tois generally shared among divisions and companies,

accumulate a considerable level of know-how andin depth communication between divisions andexperiences which allows understanding of material

engineers can be done at a time. After all, thecharacteristic, component shape, the production

quantity of interfirm and interdivision coordination

situation and so forth. Therefore, because thedecreases and brings about a positive effect. In

number of designers or engineers who can havesummary:andspecific and constructive argument on the degree ofknowledge using 3D-CAD → closer and deeper

product design has conventionally been limited, andvisibility

sharingwhich

product

promotes

information

7

Ku
even if there were some, few engineers can discuss

important means for coordination and cooperation

the issue to an extent of examination range. However,between companies.’ In particular, as our analysis

as 3D-CAD provides high visibility on PC, muchconsiders the effect of communication, both effects

more designers and engineers can easily come to―a positive effect by effective communication andshare and understand product information. Fora negative effect by activation of communication―

example, in design review stage, if many engineers

coexist and both effects can possibly offset eachshould come to give their opinion and positively

other, after all. Therefore, we examine how 3D-CAD

proposeimprovement

communications

becomeplan(Kaizen),

impacts development performance, in particular

activated

betweendevelopment

efficiency,

while

we

take

communication frequency (the dotted line in Figurecompanies and divisions.

1) as the quantity of coordination between

By the way, as engineers examine design

companies.

reviews or production reviews beyond the scope of
consideration of examination, it results in theincreaseofdesignreviews.

Because4.

such

Covariance

Structure

Analysis

indiscriminate examinations beyond the necessary(Structural Equation Modeling)examination range result in waste of time andThis paper conducts covariance structure analysis.

increased cost, it leads to large increase in

Table 2 and Table 3 show observed variables to

man-hours of the product development process. The

constitute each latent variable and an average andeffect of 3D-CAD introduction and usage cannot

variance of these observed variables.

reduce the number of problem solving cycles as have

The following result was obtained (Figure 2).

been expected. Consequently, it brings negative

At first, the Chi-square value of the model iseffects on development efficiency.

29.724 and p value is 0.157. Here, Chi-square

Furthermore, from this point, Aoshima andstatistic indicates whether the model has covarianceNobeoka (2001) and Nobeoka, Takeda and Aoshima

structure.

(2002) pointed out that the designers’ lack of skill

Let us see the goodness of fit of this model.

and experience could bring increase in unnecessary

As p value is 0.157 and so exceed 0.05, nullman-hours of post-process and it suffers from the

hypothesis that the model has covariance structure isdevelopment efficiency of ex-process.

not rejected. Thus, the causal model has a good fit

Asdescribed

above,

theinfluenceon(GFI = 0.952, AGFI = 0.906). Therefore, we candevelopment performance by 3D-CAD can be

accept this causal model. Interpretation follows

divided into ‘a direct path’ and ‘an indirect path

below.

going through the communication which is an

As all of the causal coefficients between latent8

Causal Model of 3D-CAD Technology
variables and observed variables used in the modelwords, the influence on ‘Efficiency’ of ‘SYS-CAD’

are significant at the 5% level, we can confirm thatis divided into two paths, as in Figure 2. To be

all constructs were adequately measured by these

concrete, ‘SYS-CAD’ does not directly provide

observed variables. Moreover, the paths among all‘Efficiency’, and ‘SYS-CAD’ has effects onlatent variables were also statistically significant at‘Efficiency’ through two indirect paths: (a) CORD

the 5% level.

Path (the path of the quantity of coordination

Firstly, the relation between ‘SYS-CAD’ andbetween companies: SYS-CAD→CORD→PSC→‘PSC’ is negative. In other words, an increase of

Efficiency), (b) PSC Path (the path of the number ofsystemic use of 3D-CAD decreases the number ofproblem solution cycles: SYS-CAD → PSC →problem solving cycles. Also, the relation between

Efficiency).

‘PSC’ and ‘Efficiency’ is positive, and it was
confirmed that the development efficiency improved

5. Conclusion and Discussions

when the number of problem solving cycles

This paper focused on why the correlation between

decreased.

the introduction and use of 3D-CAD technology andOn the other hand, let us pay attention to ‘thequantityofcoordination

betweenthe development efficiency has not been observed.

companies

Consideringthequantityofcommunication(CORD).’ The relation between ‘SYS-CAD’ and(frequency of communication between companies),‘CORD’ is positive. That is to say, the increase ofthis paper examined the relation both by covariancesystemic use rate of 3D-CAD cause communication

structure analysis.

frequency to increase, as a result of coordination andAs a result, it was found that 3D-CAD

adjustment between companies.

influenced development efficiency through two

However, the relation between ‘CORD’ andpaths. That is, one path is that 3D-CAD technology‘PSC’ is positive. This implies that an increase of the

reduced the number of problem solving cycles andsystemic use rate of 3D-CAD brings increase in thethus contributed to the shortening of development

quantity of coordination between companies. As alead time. The other path is that interfirm

result, the number of problem solving cycles

communication inversely had the influence which

increases. That is to say, the number of problem

seemed to let the number of problem solving cycles

solving cycles decrease when the frequency of

increase.

communication ― the quantity of coordination

development efficiency and 3D-CAD could not be

between companies―decreases.

observed because positive effect and negative effectFurthermore, the path reaching ‘Efficiency’ via

In

conclusion,correlation

betweenoffset each other.

‘CORD’ from ‘SYS-CAD’ is not found. In other

This result may indicate that firms should not
9Ku
Figure 2. Causal Model
e1

e2

e3

Ｘ１

X2

X3

0.79**

0.67**

0.82*

SYS-CAD
e4

R1

0.83*
e5

−0.48**

0.75*

R2

C1

0.37**

e6

0.71**
CORD

PSC

0.71*

0.37*

C2

0.38*

e7

ζ2

ζ1

Efficiency
ζ3

χ2=29.724
GFI=0.952

df=23

ｐ=0.157

0.62*

P1

P2

e8

e９

AGFI=0.906

RMSEA=0.049 NFI＝0.901
AIC=73.724

0.58*

CAIC＝157.947*ｐ＜0.05，**p＜0.01．n=125

merely pursue the effect of 3D-CAD as an efficient

check, virtual assembling, functional test, etc.). Even

communication tool. That is to say, our result implies

if how to use mainly such a function needs not to bethat engineers and/or divisions should more actively

tied to development speed shortening and costand frequently participate in design communication

reduction directly, it will be thought that itprocess, and these actions greatly improve productcontributes to the improvement of quality andquality.

function of a product.

As we have said at the beginning, 3D-CAD has

As we mentioned before, with 3D-CAD it isfunctions as simulation tool (a part interference

possible to transfer the shape, structure and attributes
10Causal Model of 3D-CAD Technology
of a product via digital data. The skills andinterviews, because there are many cases that evenexperience among engineers are comparatively

participation

simplified and identified by using 3D-CAD. In thiscompetition unless a supplier is equipped with 3D-

respect, companies or divisions participating in

CAD systems with compatibility. In other words,

co-development can more easily exchange and sharesuppliers must introduce a system which is

product information on a PC. More conventionally,

compatibile to the auto maker’s system to maintain

designers or engineers than ever before canbusiness relations. In this point, it seems that theparticipate in development activity positively, andintroduction of 3D-CAD in suppliers is often a

discussion on design can be increased.

passive act from business needs rather than from

is

not

allowedindevelopment

In other words, we can say that the Japanese

strategic needs. It is assumed that such a passive

automobile suppliers’ strong inclination to use

introduction of 3D-CAD causes imbalance in the

3D-CAD as ‘a communication tool’ (Takeda, 2000a,

skill and degree of understanding between auto

2000b) is found in our causal model. In this point,maker

our study leads support to many existing studies.

unnecessary communication.

andsupplier,

andtherebyincreases

Secondly, as have been pointed out, it can be

However, 3D-CAD technology introduced for
improvement of development efficiency makes

supposed

that

the

findingiscausedbyinterfirm communication increase adversely and it

over-coordination and over-examination. As a result,increases the number of problem solving cycles once

wasting much time and costs causes negative

again. Eventually, 3D-CAD technology brings

influence on development efficiency. Because design

negative influence on development efficiency.

changes at low cost are possible, engineers can

We can think of three reasons for this result.

repeat examination and make alterations on aFirstly, the suppliers’ passive introduction ofcomputer screen more than is needed. A general

3D-CAD technology is supposed to be one factor.

manager of development at an electronic part

When an auto maker chooses a supplier in a

manufacturer says, “The efficiency characteristics oftransaction, the important selective factors are

3D-CAD did not appear as we have thought. It takes

quality, cost, and delivery. An auto maker needs avery much. In particular, if we are not in control of

supplier who are capabile to contribute to shorten

the imagination of engineers in some extent,

development lead time.

3D-CAD does not operate as an effective designtool”.

Particularly, in recent years, the exchange ofdrawing information and design changes are done by

The problem in the auto parts industry is quite

3D data. As a supplier, the introduction of 3D-CAD

similar to ‘the paradox of 3D-CAD introduction’is a basic condition in transaction. According topointed out by Aoshima and Nobeoka (2001), and11

Ku
Nobeoka, Takeda, and Aoshima (2002). In otherorganization process]. In K. Otaka & T. Tsuru

words, it is thought that the finding is caused by the(Eds.). Dejitaruka jidai no soshiki kakushin

fact that short use period of 3D-CAD technology, the[Organizational restructuring in the age of digitalincrease of unnecessary man-hours caused by theinnovation] (pp. 93-119). Tokyo: Yuhikaku.

imbalance between organizations for a newly

Baba, Y., & Nobeoka, K. (1998). Towards

technical knowledge system, and an organization’s

knowledge-based product development: The 3-D

internal resistance.

CAD model of knowledge creation. Research
Policy, 26, 643-659.

In this sense, it may be said that the survey

Clark, K. B., & Fujimoto, T. (1991). Productperiod examined by this paper is a transition period,in which the 3D-CAD technology is undergoingdevelopment

performance.

introduction processes.

Business School Press.

Boston:HarvardClark, K. B., & Wheelwright, S. C. (1993).

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13

Ku
Appendix 1. Variables List
Latentvariables

Observedvariables

Questionnaire item

SYS-CADX1

Use ratio of 3D-CAD in development processes

X2

Connection of system

X3

Compatibility of 3D-CAD systems

C1

Frequency of Communication between an auto maker and a supplier

C2

Quantity of communication among suppliers

R1

The number of design reviews

R2

The number of manufacturing reviews

P1

Manufacturing cost

P2

Development lead time

CORD

PSC

Efficiency

14