Journal of Disaster Management Vol.1 No.1 (March 2012) pp. 35-61

Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs
in Times of Disaster in Japan: Achievements and Challenges
before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami
Disaster
Shigeo Tatsuki 1,* and Nicolle Comafay 2
1

Department of Sociology, Doshisha University
2

Center for Health and Rights of Migrants

Abstract
This paper reports, first, the achievements to counter disaster measures for People with Functional
Needs in Times of Disaster (PFND) in Japan since 2004, second, the newfound challenges following
the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and, finally possible solutions to address these issues. First, acase study conducted at Hyogo ward, Kobe city was presented as an attempt to propose a standardized
method of identifying and locating individual PFND based on person-in-environment model ofvulnerability. After the 2011 earthquake and tsunami disasters, newfound challenges were observed:
Those were (1) identifying people at risk; (2) assigning specially designated shelters for PFND; (3)utilizing the information on PFND. Identifying people at risk relied on the current hazard estimation
process which is based on the maximum probable event (MP rE) framework. It was found, however,that there is a need to re-think this and shift to the maximum possible event (MP oE) framework. The
need for shelters and temporary housing units that can respond to individualized needs of PFND arose
following the earthquake. However, due to lack of pre-planning in some municipalities, their provisions
were neither systematic nor universal. Meanwhile, lack of understanding of the legal framework
influenced the reluctance of many local government administrators not to share their PFND registry
to Non-governmental Organization (NGO) or self-help organizations. Since a majority of people withdisabilities, one large category of PFND, chose not to seek assistance from the evacuation shelters,*Corresponding Author: Shigeo Tatsuki
Address: 601 Genbudho, karasumahigashiiru, Imadegawadori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-8580, Japan
E-mail: statsuki@mail.doshisha.ac.jp

災害防救科技與管理學刊

第1卷第1期（2012年3月）

35-61頁

they became invisible and the local administrators were unaware of their specific needs. To addressthese issues, the following were proposed; (1) a shift from MPrE to MPoE framework which calls forthe involvement of all stakeholders; (2) developing a more detailed guidelines for specially designatedshelter and temporary housing operations; and (3) public education on the use of personal informationof PFND during a disaster period.
Keywords: People with functional needs in times of disaster, Counter-disaster measures, Maximum probable
event, Maximum possible event, Mapping vulnerability

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

37

INTRODUCTION
Japan’s Counter-Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs inTimes of Disasters
The issue of people with functional needs for communication, medical care, maintaining functional
independence, supervision, and transportation (Kailes & Enders, 2007) during disasters received highattention since 2004, when strong typhoons, heavy rain fall and the Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake hit
the Japanese archipelago causing severe damage and losses, especially among elderly and people withdisabilities. 60% of the natural disaster victims in 2004 were over the age of 65.
The Japanese Cabinet Office immediately took action by creating a committee of experts by autumn
of 2004. The committee examined the necessary counter-disaster measures to facilitate evacuation andsheltering assistance for people with the aforementioned functional needs for communication, medical care,maintaining functional independence, supervision, and transportation in times of disaster. On March 2005,
the following year, the committee came up with the first edition of the “Evacuation/Sheltering Assistance
Guideline for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disasters” (Committee on Disaster Information
Communication and Evacuation/Sheltering Assistance for the Elderly/Disadvantaged Population during
Heavy Meteorological and Other Disasters, 2005). Here the PFND or saigaiji-youengosha is defined as “Aperson who is able to function daily, whereby living independently given the proper resources and services
when necessary.” However, in times of disaster these services that provide social safety nets may cease tofunction or may not reach them for a prolonged period causing them harm or difficulty.
The publication of this guideline introduced and popularized the use of saigaiji-youengosha in lieu
of elderly and vulnerable person or saigai-jakusha. The new terminology also shifts the focus of disastercounter measures from the inherent vulnerability of the person to understanding how society can meet theirfunctional needs even in time of disaster (Comafay, Kitahama, Tobioka, & Tatsuki, 2008; Hayashi & Tamura,
2005; Ochi & Tatsuki, 2007; Tamura, Hayashi, & Tatsuki, 2005).
When the first edition of the guideline was published, another series of meteorological disaster hit Japan
in 2005. This prompted another Cabinet Office committee to conduct a field research of the heavy rainfall,
flood and land slide disaster sites (Committee on Evacuation/Sheltering Assistance for People with Special
Needs in Times of Disaster, 2006). The result of this was published on March 2006 containing revisions
to the evacuation and sheltering assistance guideline for PFND. The revised guideline put emphasis on thethree necessary measures. First, each municipal government should establish a special team that will be incharge of coordinating assistance to the target population. Second, the information on the functional needs
population is encouraged to be shared within different offices of the local government and, if possible, with

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Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disasterthe local community organizations (e.g., neighborhood associations and community emergency and response
teams). Third, planning of evacuation and sheltering procedures for PFND.
In 2006, the same committee continued working out more detailed procedures and workflow
on how to collect or share information on PFND and suggestions on how to create individualized
evacuation/sheltering assistance plans. In the subsequent year, March 2007, the committee publishedthe report on preparedness procedures for People with Functional Needs in Time of Disaster(Committee on Public Welfare and Disaster Prevention Coordination in Evacuation/Sheltering
Assistance for PFND, 2007). The 2007 report emphasized the establishment of a system to assist PFND
by facilitating cooperation between the local government disaster preparedness/response and health/welfare departments. The disaster preparedness division will provide local hazard information while thehealth and welfare division will provide information on the potential vulnerabilities within the target
population. The 2007 report also encouraged the use of maps to locate and identify PFND who areexposed to potential hazards. The geographical location (or residence) and attributes of frail elderly andpeople with disabilities (PWD) when projected onto multiple hazard layers (e.g., flood, landslide, andseismicity) will provide visual identification of who are at more risk due to their functional needs andtheir geographic locations.
To encourage the implementation of the 2006 revised guideline and 2007 report, the Fire andDisaster Management Agency (FDMA) sent a request to every municipality in Japan to come up with
its own master plan which would facilitate policy formation on assisting PFND during a disaster. Thismaster plan should identify the potential target groups and clarify the proper procedure of collecting
and sharing their personal information. Individualized evacuation plan for PFND based on this masterplan was also encouraged. The municipalities were further advised to actualize the plan by recruiting
and assigning local resident helpers to PFND individuals.
As of April 1, 2011, as a result of a survey conducted by FDMA, 76.8% or 1,262 out of 1,644
municipalities have successfully completed a PFND assistance master plan. Meanwhile, 21.2% or 349
municipalities were on the process of completing their master plan within one year from the survey.
Furthermore, 52.6% or 864 municipalities reported that they have finalized and have been updating their
database PFND containing directory, while 41.5% or 683 municipalities were currently in the processof creating a directory. Most municipalities have also started the time consuming process of assigning
local residents/helpers to each PFND to assist in their evacuation; 22% or 361 reported that they havecompleted the assignments, 60.7% or 998 are still in the process, and 17.3% or 285 have not yet started(FDMA, 2011).

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

39

The Hyogo Ward, Kobe City PFND Mapping Project
The Kobe city administration collected social service recipient database from different departments
and came up with an integrated registry. Out of 1.5 million residents, the integrated registry involved
approximately 120,000 individuals living in Kobe city who were considered as potentially vulnerable during
a disaster. Tatsuki and Comafay (2010) and Comafay (2011) reported on the 2008 Kobe PFND Mapping
Project, which assessed the overall vulnerability of PFNDs to the potential multiple hazards in the areaby combining geographical information system and social survey results. The report focused on the 107thousand-resided Hyogo ward wherein 4,411 people with physical disabilities1 (PWDs) were identified basedon the Kobe city integrated registry. The Hyogo ward encompasses both mountainous areas in the north andcoastal areas in the south and thus exposed to landslide, flooding and tsunami hazards. The 4,411 PWDs
were geocoded and then mapped on the multi-hazards layers and 914 individuals with physical disabilities
were found to be residing in hazardous areas (see Figure 1).
Interviewers visited these 914 individuals to conduct a social survey to further understand other factorsthat could contribute to their vulnerability which were not reflected in the registry. 67% or 612 responded toa structured questionnaire administered by the interviewers.
The information gathered from the structured questionnaire included: (1) demographics; (2) levelof disability; (3) social isolation; (4) housing fragility; and (5) physical immobility. Demographics
variable was concerned about the age category (65 years old and below, 65-75 years old, 75-85 years
old and 85 years old and above); sex (male, female); and occupational status (employed, student, andFigure 1. Persons with disabilities living in Kobe’s Hyogo ward (N = 4,411).
1This includes those with (1) limb/trunk impairment; (2) hearing impairment; (3) visual impairment and (4) with internal disorders, including thosewith pacemakers (heart conditions), respiratory apparatus (including, lung complications), digestive apparatus (stomach and intestinal problems)
and those in need of dialysis (kidney problems).

40Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disasterunemployed) of the respondent. Physical disability variable measured the level of disability (ranging
from class 1 to 6, where 1 is the highest); certification of the Long Term Care (LTC)2 status (ranging
from support required 1 and 2 and care levels 1 to 5, where care level 5 is the highest) and type of
disability (motor dysfunction, visual disability, hearing disability and internal disorder) among others.
The third set of variables inquired the degree of social isolation that was measured by types of social
welfare and LTC services being used, family structure, if he or she being alone during day time, type of
key person (person to rely on in case of emergency), and key person’s address. The fourth variable ishousing fragility (building age) and hazard exposure risk (bedroom on the first, second floor or above).
Finally, physical immobility variable measured the ability of the respondent to evacuate alone (ability
to walk alone, with assistance and cannot walk), number of local helpers needed to evacuate, special
medical equipment and medicine needed for everyday living, ability to walk up and down stairs, andability to use Japanese style toilet
The person-in-environment (PIE) model of vulnerability, which defined hazard vulnerability (V)as a function of hazards (H), person (P), and environment (E) factors or V = f([ H, f (P, E) ], was used
to analyze the 2008 Kobe mapping project. Based on this model, the following steps were performed
to analyze the data and produce the maps used for analysis in this paper. (1) Using optimal scaling
method (also known as dual-scaling), an index of scores containing the 5 variables was derived. The
5 variables were then classified into three factors according to the PIE model. These are: (i) Person
factor which includes demographic variable, physical disability variable and physical immobility
variable; (ii) Environment factor which includes housing fragility; and (iii) interaction between Person
and Environment factors or P × E factor which includes social isolation variable. (2) the overall social
vulnerability score was then calculated using the mean of these 5 variables for each respondent; (3)each respondent was plotted over the hazard layer using the individual’s addres ; (4) to visualize thegeographical distribution of the respondents, maps were created using GIS according to each variable
score (demographics, physical disability, social isolation, housing fragility, and physical immobility)
and using the overall vulnerability scor ; (5) the overall vulnerability score map was then divided into
4 categories according to degree of vulnerabilit ; (6) weighted kernel density mapping was performed
using the overall vulnerability as weight. This was then combined using raster calculator to derive theoverall density.

2

The Long Term Care (LTC) Insurance program in Japan was introduced in 2000. Individuals 65 years old and above are generally eligible for LTC
services. However, individuals 40-64 years old may apply for “long term care certification” from the municipality to be eligible for LTC services.
Services range from home care visits from home helpers and use of special nursing homes for the elderly (Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare,2002).

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

41

The Person-in-Environment model proposes 3 factors to assess individual vulnerability and theseare; person or (P) factor, Environment or (E) factor and the interaction of person with its environmentor (P) by (E) factor. This section presents the results of the dual/optimal scaling and mapping result of
the 5 variables: (1) demographics; (2) levels of disability and/or long-term care; (3) social isolation; (4)vulnerability of housing; and (5) physical immobility. The 3 variables that were categorized as person(P) factor were demographics, physical disability and physical immobility variables. Environment(E) factor was represented by the housing condition variable, while degree of social isolation variablefeatures the (P) by (E) factor. The category weights were taken as the vulnerability score of eachvariable and shown from Tables 1 through 5. The result of the dual/optimal scaling indicates that thelower the negative value gets, the higher the degree of vulnerability of the respondents become. Thesevariable score were then mapped as shown from Figures 2 to 6.

Person Factor
Demographic Variable
Table 1 shows the result of the dual scaling analysis for demographics variables. The results showthat female, 85 years old and above and non-employed derived negative scores within their category.
According to the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (2002), Japanese females are expected tolive until 86.44 years, while men only up to 79.29 years. Therefore, it can be inferred that the gendercategory result is related to the fact that there were women respondent who were 85 years old andabove. Meanwhile, PWD have more difficulty getting employment due to their handicaps, while theelderly may have already retired and in fact 86% of the respondents were non-employed. Older adults
have higher vulnerability in times of disaster because they are less likely to evacuate their homesalone, more likely to experience emotional trauma due to losses or damage incurred from disaster, most
Table 1. Category weight result of demographic variable
Sex

Age Category

Occupational Status

Frequency

Category Weight

Male

276

0.599

Female336-0.49465 years old and below

160

1.299

65 to 75 years old

184-0.30475 to 85 yeard old

119-0.30485 years old and above

149-0.752

Employed

56

2.231

Student

8

1.326

527

-0.255Non-employed42

Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disasterlikely to reside in structurally fragile housing and compared to children they are less likely to receive
assistance (Bolin & Klenow, 1983; Cohen & Poulshock, 1977; Friedsam, 1961; Penner & Wachsmuth,2008). Meanwhile, the non-employed may experience socio-economic marginalization that makes themmore vulnerable, such as having to live in cheaper, less structurally sound housing.
Figure 2 shows the mapping of the respondents based on the result of their demographic category weightscores. The big, red circle represents individuals who are female, over the age of 85 and non-employed. There isa concentration of respondents who are more vulnerable due to their demographic characteristics in the northernarea of the map.

Physical Disability
As for level of disability and care, only physical disability and having certification of LTC showedsignificant variance within its category (see Table 2). In terms of physical disability class category,
all levels and all types of physical disability scored negative. Individuals who did not utilize services
such as day care facilities, work place for PWD, and nursing home scored negative. Negative category
weights were also produced in LTC levels, except for level 4. Finally, due to the small number of

Figure 2. Result of mapping vulnerability scores: Demographics.

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

43

Table 2. Category weight result of physical disability variable
Disability

Physical Disability Hanbook Class

Physical Disability Type

Grade of Mental Disability

Frequency

Category Weight

Physical Disability Handbook

592-0.211

Mental Disability Handbook

34

5.669

1st Class254-0.037

2nd Class168-0.260

3rd Class55-0.3434th Class79-0.398

5th Class15-0.2466th Class21-0.851

Motor Dysfunction

347-0.121Visual Impairment

93-0.271Hearing Impairment

9-0.577

Medical Dependence

153-0.212

A1

30

5.975

B1

3

2.839

B2
Living Condition
Day Care Facilities
Work Place for PWD
Home Visit Helper
Nursing HomeLong Term Care Level

1

5.007

276

-0.214

Others

58

1.454

Using

127

0.711

Not Using471-0.163

Using

10

2.785

Not Using590-0.026

Using

194

0.021

Not Using

406

0.020

Certification of Long-Term Care

Using

56

1.260

Not Using544-0.107

Support Required 1

24-0.515

Support Required 252-0.530Care Level 1

44-0.307

Care Level 2

41-0.048Care Level 354-0.139Care Level 4

29

0.175

Care Level 532-0.040sample with Mental Disability Handbook the category weight produced significantly high scores.
Figure 3 is the mapping result of the vulnerability of respondents due to their disability, LTC status and use ofsocial welfare services. In the map, the bigger circle represents individuals who extremely vulnerable due to there
disability and reliance to LTC service. The map shows that they are located much more dispersedly44

Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami DisasterFigure 3. Result of mapping vulnerability scores: Physical disability.

Physical Immobility
Finally, physical immobility variable revealed that those who have difficulty with mobility are the mostvulnerable. Table 3 shows that individuals who have cannot walk, needing 2 or more people to assist them in
evacuation, need a wheelchair to walk around, cannot go up and down the stairs, those who need oxygen tankfor daily living, and persons who cannot use Japanese toilet have negative scores. These results convey thatthese individuals have a higher degree of functional needs. Functional needs are tools or human assistance that isrequired by a person due to his or her disability. It can be as simple as a cane to allow them better mobility; or it
can be medically related such as an oxygen tank to assist their breathing during evacuation. It can be as complex
as providing shelters which is specially equipped, following the universal design, to respond to their access needs.
Figure 4 shows the mapping result of the respondents based on their functional needs category weights. This
map locates the individuals with mobility restrictions, where individuals with higher degree of functional needs
are shown in bigger circle.

Environment Factor: Housing Condition
The housing condition scale (see Table 4) was derived using Dual Scaling method. This scale showedthat wooden houses, low-rise apartment buildings and age of building 30 years and older derived negativescores, thus houses with these scores are more fragile. On the other hand, bedrooms the first floor were
weighted negatively, supporting the assumption that people who live on the first floor are more exposed totsunami and flooding hazard.

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

Table 3. Category weight result of physical immobility variable
Frequency
Mobility

Number of Assistance Needed

Special Requirement for Moving

Going Up and Down Stairs

Medical Instruments and Tools
Necessary for Everyday Living

Toilet Conditions

Category Weight

Can walk alone

388

1.272

Need Assistance101-1.142

Cannot walk109

-2.851

1 person87-1.1382 person9-2.1983 person1-5.542

Wheelchair148-2.171

Cane

186

0.361

Others31-0.484

Can

183

1.810

Can if there is handrail

220

0.692

Cannot184-2.182

Artificial Dialysis

50

0.945

Pacemaker

49

1.182

Artificial Respirator

4-0.130

Oxygen Tank

12

-1.290

Artificial Colostomy

8

1.279

Others41

0.441Japanese and Western Style

143

1.891

Western Style Only

429

-0.230

Others13-3.735Figure 4. Result of mapping vulnerability scores: Physical immobility.

45

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Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster

Table 4. Category weight result of housing condition variable

Building Structure

Frequency

Category Weight

Wood

339

-1.124

Reinforced Concrete

258

1.115

OthersBuilding Age

Building Category

Number of Floors (Single House)
Floor No. of Bedroom (Single House)
Number of Floors (Mansion)
23 Floor No. of Bedroom (Mansion)
Number of Floors (Apartment)
Floor No. of Bedroom (Apartment)
Number of Floors (Others)
Floor No. of Bedroom (Others)

6-0.637

15 Years and below

142

0.287

15-30 Years

164

0.474

30-44 Years

105-0.10044 Years and above

130-1.334Single House

327-0.636

Medium to High Rise Apartments

203

1.628

Low-rise Apartment50-2.464

Others29-2.998-1.290

1st Floor

26

2nd Floor and Above

479

0.346

1st Floor

158-0.775

2nd Floor and Above96-0.468

1st Floor

1-0.152

2nd Floor and Above

199

1.642

1st Floor

44

1.652

2nd Floor and Above

156

1.633

1st Floor

1-3.495

2nd Floor and Above47-2.416

1st Floor

23-2.551

2nd Floor and Above24-2.311-3.483

1st Floor

5

2nd Floor and above

19-3.068

1st Floor

15-3.349

2nd Floor and Above

9-2.452

Figure 5 shows the mapping result of the respondents who live in fragile housing and are more
exposed to tsunami and flood hazards based on the housing condition scale. Those residents in wooden
housing and older structures are concentrated in the northern part of Hyogo ward where the older
neighborhood is located. This area is also characterized by its aging population and low birth rate (Kobe
City, 2009).

P × E Interaction Factor: Social Isolation
The P × E factor is derived from the social isolation variable. Those who were living alone, not living with
their contact person (in case of emergency), address of family member outside of Hyogo ward, and those whohave no one to depend on in case of emergency have a high degree of social isolation. Table 5 also shows that

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

Figure 5. Result of mapping vulnerability scores: Housing condition.
Table 5. Category weight result of social isolation variable
Household Size

Household Structure

Contact Person in Emergency

Who to Contact in Case of Emergency

Location of Contact Person

Family Member to Contact in Emergency

Frequency

Category WeightSingle household219-1.9752 persons and above

388

1.165

Couple Only

170

0.271

Living with Child/Children

143

1.703

Living with Parent(s)

39

2.807

Others35

1.454

Living alone

216-1.983

Exists547

0.221

Not existing59-1.580Child or Spouse of Child

329

0.144

Parent53

2.459

Sibling89

0.369

Neighbor

89-0.466

Welfare Service Provider

42-0.223-0.009Others45

Spouse32

1.603

Neighbor

161-0.255In Hyogo Ward

147

0.326

In Kobe City

127

-0.696

Other Area52

-0.796

Living together

98

2.459

Parent54

2.365

Sibling

116-0.028Child

347-0.010Spouse of child

18

1.204

Others

85

0.189

47

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Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster

Table 5. Category weight result of social isolation variable (Continued)
Frequency
Living Condition of Family Member

Address of Family Member

Living Condition of Respondent

Category Weight

Living Together

137

2.466

Living Separately

370-0.656

Both

19

1.461

In Hyogo Ward

221

0.053

In Kobe City370

-0.670

Others96-0.937

Physically Disabled Only

257

-1.679Bedridden

33

0.627

Alone during daytime

116-0.692households with only PWD residents and respondents who are alone during daytime were among those who aresocially isolated.
The mapping result of vulnerability scores according to social isolation variable is shown in Figure
6. A big cluster of individuals who are measured as having high vulnerability due to their social isolation
is located in the south east part, which is the industrial area of Hyogo ward where big factories are located(Kobe City, 2009). As shown in the map, these respondents are especially vulnerable to situations requiring
evacuation to higher grounds, such as tsunami hazards which this area is exposed to. Therefore, individuals
who have difficulty with mobility and are socially isolated become extremely vulnerable during emergency
evacuation. Increased efforts are necessary to assign local helpers to assist individuals who are socially
isolated, especially in the areas where they are highly concentrated.

Composite Vulnerability Index
Figure 7 represents the overall combined average of the vulnerability scores from the 5 variables
discussed above. This map shows the geographical distribution of the respondents as well as their composite
vulnerability score. Respondents calculated as having high level of vulnerability are shown in red circle.
According to the result of the data, they were female respondents, 65 year old and above and unemployed,
while their level of physical disability and long term care, degree of physical immobility, housing fragility
and degree of social isolation are high.
There were 101 persons, about 17% of the 612 persons who responded to the survey, who were
found to be living within the areas exposed to the multiple hazards in Hyogo ward having the highest
overall vulnerability score. If this value is extrapolated to the total number of 972 persons exposedto the multiple hazards in Hyogo ward, we can estimate that there are about 165 PFND in Hyogo
ward requiring individualized evacuation plan, such as local helpers to assist them during emergency

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

49

Figure 6. Result of mapping vulnerability scores: Social isolation.

Figure 7. Result of mapping vulnerability scores: Composite vulnerability index.
evacuation, staying in special shelter, ensure continuous care for their medical needs during disaster toname a few.
While identifying and locating individuals with the highest vulnerability is important as preparation
for counter-disaster measures for PFND assistance, identifying areas with high concentration of PFND isalso crucial. A social vulnerability weighted kernel density map was generated from the composite index
vulnerability map. Figure 8 is a map showing the density of population of people with functional needs andthus requiring more human resources and preparation during evacuation and sheltering in times of disaster.

50

Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami DisasterFigure 8. Weighted density map of PFND.
The 2008 PFND mapping project in Hyogo ward, Kobe city was an attempt to provide a standardized
method of locating and identifying PFND through comprehensive analysis of the person and their interaction
with their environment. Different stakeholders can utilize these social vulnerability maps of PFND as atool to have a better grasp of the risks affecting their community. Furthermore, these stakeholders, such asfunctional needs groups, community emergency response teams, community social services, and emergency
management centers, can utilize the vulnerability map to initiate evacuation and sheltering assistanceplanning in their respective areas.

Newfound Challenges to PFND Counter-Disaster Measures after March
11, 2011
Three preliminary field works were conducted from March to April after the onset of the March 11
Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster. The reconnaissance mission revealed the different
serious problems encountered by PFNDs and their families, including their communities and municipalities.
These problems presented newfound challenges to the efforts of national and local administrations to create
better counter-disaster measures for PFND.
Major challenges were identified in different aspects of the disaster process including preparedness,
response and relief measures for PFND. These challenges can be summarized as follows: (1) challenges in
identifying people at risk by re-thinking “correct” hazard estimates; (2) challenges in assigning speciallydesignated shelters for PFND before a disaster; and (3) challenges in the use of information on PFND.

Shigeo Tatsuki and Nicolle Comafay

51

Re-thinking Hazard Estimation Method to Identify People at Risk
The assumption that physical hazard maps give a “correct” representation and estimates of the areas
exposed to future hazardous events is crucial in the recent developments in pre-disaster preparedness
planning for PFND. For example, the suggested method of vulnerability mapping in the previous section
relies on the PIE model of hazard vulnerability. According to this model, vulnerability (V) is a function of
hazard (H), person (P) and environment (E) factors or V = f [ H, f (P, E) ]. Incorporating the exposure ofindividuals to physical hazards can provide a more comprehensive method of identifying people at risk.
However, as illustrated in Figure 9, there is a need to review existing hazard maps. These hazard maps
are created using the framework that assumes the maximum probable event (MPrE). However, the maximum
possible event (MPoE) has in fact occurred in the Tohoku region which has far exceeded the maximum
probable event. The uncritical reliance on the abovementioned assumptions may result in devastating effects.
Using the currently implemented hazard factor estimation using the maximum probable event
framework, the PIE model could be represented as V = f [ MPrE, f (P, E) ]. The aftermath of the March 11
disaster however implies the fundamental challenge of re-thinking how hazards are estimated from assuming
the maximum probable event hazard to finding a way to incorporate the maximum possible event. The
modified person-in-environment model will therefore be represented as V = f [ MPoE, f (P, E) ] to incorporate
the maximum possible event framework in estimating vulnerability.

Figure 9. Comparing the tsunami hazard map and actual inundation east of Rokugo Junior highschool, Wakabayashi ward, Sendai City.

52

Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster

The process of hazard estimation suggested by utilizing the MP oE framework breaks out fromthe world ruled by probabilistic and statistical theorem (i.e., MP rE framework) and enters into a
different realm of “hyper-complexity” wherein “hypothetical knowledge can no longer be masteredby mechanical testing rules” (Beck, 1992: 157). This alternative state, according to Beck (1992: 156)
is a “demonopolization of scientific knowledge claims.” In effect, the new maximum possible event
framework will demand for a “reflexive scientization” that necessitates the active coproduction by
every stakeholder in society (Beck, 1992: 157). In other words, politicians, people who engage inbusiness and the general public as well as the scientific community will be required to engage into theknowledge definition process.
The process of reflexive scientization call for public engagement, on the other hand demanding respect
for both the locally exchanged tacit knowledge and the collective sensibilities of “lay actors” (Mythen, 2004;
Wynne, 1996) and for the formal knowledge and technologies of experts. Thus producing an amalgam oftacit and formal knowledge to understand the correct way to estimate hazard using the maximum possible
event framework is found. This challenge of re-thinking how we perceive risk and identify people at risk will
be explored in further studies.

Pre-Planning Specially Designated Shelters for PFND
Following the March 11 earthquake, the general population evacuation shelters, such as that shown in
Figures 10 and 11, were not equipped to meet the access and functional needs of PWD and the frail elderly.
This has highlighted the need for shelters and temporary housing units that were specially designated for
PFND. Unfortunately, due to lack of pre-planning, provision of specially designated shelters and temporary
housing units were neither systematic nor universal in the affected areas.
The lack of pre-planning can be partly attributed to the fact that the 2006 guideline or the 2007
report has failed to include detailed procedures on sheltering assistance planning for PFND. While theconcept of specially designated shelters for PFND or fukushi-hinansho emerged from the discussions by
the 2004 committee on “Communicating Disaster Information and Evacuation and Sheltering Assistancefor the Elderly and Other Population during Heavy meteorological and Other Disasters.” The committee
failed to clarify the requirements relating to specially designated shelters for PFND.
Furthermore, as can be gathered from title of the committee, since 2004, they have mainly conducted
field studies in areas affected by meteorological hazards. From this they found that sheltering needs wereshort-term and considered as being less life-threatening than evacuation needs. Thus, as discussed in theearlier section, the counter-disaster measures for PFND in Japan have mainly focused on warning andneighborhood-based evacuation assistance activities.

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Figure 10. Shelter at Rokugo junior high school gym in Sendai City (photo taken on April 6, 2011).

Figure 11. Residents of Arahama sheltered on a 1st ﬂoor classroom in Hakken junior high school (phototaken on April 6, 2011).

Due to the massive scale of the March 11 earthquake and tsunami disaster, the aftermath saw a very large
number of people affected by the disaster rushing to the general population shelters and staying their much
longer. This resulted in general population shelters, usually gymnasiums and classrooms of public schools, whichwere crowded and ill-equipped to provide accessibility (e.g., toilets, stairs, etc.). This situation has created highfunctional needs from PFND and made apparent the necessity of alternative shelters.

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Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster

Despite of this apparent need to provide special designated shelters for PFND, the responses fromdifferent municipalities affected by the disaster were inconsistent. Below are examples of three municipalities
and how they responded to the sheltering needs of the PFND in their area.
In the case of Sendai city, the city administration was able to make compacts, prior the March event,with 52 local social services providers to pre-plan alternative sheltering services for PFND. Moreover, theyear before the disaster, some of those compacted shelters conducted study seminars and practice drills toincrease their preparedness. Due to these pre-disaster measures undertaken by the city administration andlocal social services providers, some of these shelters were able to respond quickly to upon request by thecity administration, while others were even able to voluntarily initiate operations of their shelters. As a result,a total of 26 shelters operated and served about 260 individuals in Sendai city (see Figure 12).
Since the downtown center of Ishinomaki city was severely damaged by the March 11 tsunami
many people were forced to evacuate to the general population shelters. At its peak, about one fifth of its
population or more than 30,000 people occupied these shelters.
It should be noted that Ishinomaki city was recognized as one of the ten model municipalities forcreating a counter-disaster measures master plan for PFND as early as year 2004. By the end of the previous
year before the disaster, about 401 out of 421 administrative districts in the city were able to complete theirindividualized evacuation planning for each PFND residing in the neighborhood. While it was renowned for
its city wide community-based evacuation planning initiatives for PFNDs the city’s master plan for PFND
did not include provisions on specially designated shelters.

Figure 12. Specially designated shelter at Miyagino day service center for PWD, Sendai City (April 5, 2011).

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In one of the large general population shelters, a medical doctor who was helping the sheltered population
saw the need for an alternative shelter for the PFND population. He strongly demanded the city administration toprovide special designated shelters for the frail elderly, PWDs and those out-patients who did not require intensive
medical care from the tsunami unaffected Ishinomaki Red Cross hospital. In response to this request, the city
temporally set up a special shelter at the Inai junior high school gym. The 20 to 30 special shelter occupants werelater moved on March 29 to Yugakukan Sports Center gym, as shown in Figure 13. Eventually, the number ofpeople who stayed at this shelter reached about 130 people, including PFNDs and their family members. Initially,
the staff who took care of the daily operations of the Yugakukan shelter were mostly Ishinomaki Municipal
hospital doctors, nurses and social workers who lost their work place due to the tsunami disaster. Starting fromearly April, doctors, nurses, social workers, nursing care workers and public administrators from other prefectures
arrived as volunteers to assist the local service providers in the shelter operations.
While the city hospital doctors and nurses, with support from the city administration, were able toimprovise operations of Inai junior high school and later Yugakukan shelter, it was not until almost the endof April that the city formally designated Yugakukan as a specially designated shelter for PFND. It was later
learned that the Ishinomaki city administration was not aware of a special service provision clause under theDisaster Relief Act that qualifies municipalities with additional financial compensations from the national
government in addition to the general service provisions. In the case of Ishinomaki city, specially designatedshelters were in operation but for a prolonged period of time its operation lacked a formal logistic support
foundation relying on the improvisation of the local service providers.

Figure 13. A specially designated shelter at Yugakukan Sport Center Gym in Ishinomaki City (phototaken from The Nippon Foundation, 2011).

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Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster

Kesennuma city was also devastated by earthquake and tsunami attack in March and like Ishinomaki
city, and about one sixth of the city population (more than 12,000 people) rushed to the general population
shelters. Similarly, there were no specially designated shelters immediately available for the frail elderly,
PWDs and small children. The PFNDs were all mixed with other evacuees who also looked after those inneed at the general population shelters. To provide them some privacy, some shelters used cardboards as
partition cardboards to separate the PFND from the general evacuees.
The first specially designated shelter was finally opened on April 7 by the city administration. As shownin Figure 14, they transformed an unused nursery school site as an alternative shelter for PFND (Aoki,2011). An additional four specially designated shelters were also opened two weeks following the first one.
One of this is the Shunpo-en special nursing home for the elderly which is shown in Figure 14. There were
60 elderly residents being housed in the Shunpo-en nursing home, including about one hundred generalevacuees and some PFND from the surrounding neighborhood which were cared for by the nursing home
staff. However, the director of the nursing home expressed concern about running a specially designatedshelter for a prolonged period due to the financial burden it would entail.
This would have been not the case had the Kesennuma city conducted pre-planning for the speciallydesignated shelters for PFND. In the case of Kesennuma city, it was only learned later in April that officiallydesignating the shelters for PFND would allow additional financial support on top of the regular service
hours as prescribed by long-term care insurance scheme. Similar to Ishinomaki city, the Kesennuma city

Figure 14. Specially designated shelters at Shunpo-en Special Nursing Home (Top) and Ochiai Nursery
School (Bottom).

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administrators also lacked of awareness regarding the legal framework (i.e., Disaster Relief Act special
service provision clause) that would ease tremendous financial burden which the city and/or the designatedshelters like Shunpo-en home might have had to bear otherwise.
Based on the above cases, aside from Sendai city, the other municipalities were not able to conduct
pre-planning and make arrangements to prepare specially designated shelter operations with social service
providers. Two main reasons were learned to explain why Ishinomaki and Kesennuma cities took nearly
three weeks post-disaster to formally designate said shelters. First, they thought that their facilities would
not have met the standards, as stated in the pre-disaster planning manuals, for specially designated shelters.
Second, due to lack of pre-planning, many local officials were unaware of the legal provisions under theDisaster Relief Act specifically to provide additional resources for the sheltering needs of people withfunctional needs. In spite of these reasons, with the help of local service providers, these municipalities
were still able to provide and operate alternative shelter that met the functional needs of the PFND. Still,if the operation of the functional-needs shelters were officially declared earlier by the local municipalities,
these municipalities would have been eligible for additional resources at the onset of the event both from thenational and prefectural governments. To address the issues discussed here, there is a need to develop a moredetailed guideline to assist local administrators in pre-planning specially designated shelters and temporary
housing operation for PFND.

Utilizing Personal Information of PFND
The problem of visibility for some types of PFND became apparent in the aftermath of the March
11 disaster. This was specially the case for People With Disabilities (PWD) who did not go to the general
population shelters for assistance. The PWD felt that these shelters were ill-equipped to respond to theirfunctional needs. As a result, they hardly visible in the shelters and their communities, and in effect they
were unseen by the local government administrators.
Another reason for their invisibility can be attributed to the reluctance of many local government
administrators to release to or share their PFND registry for fear of breaking the Personal Information Protection
Bylaw. However, the Bylaw explicitly states that there are exceptional conditions allowing the sharing of personal
information. Under the terms of which, the onset of disaster is clearly one of these exceptional conditions wherein
the local government may share the personal information of the PFND with other organizations, including selfhelp organizations intent to locate and check on the current situations of PWD.
While many local governments were hindered by their lack of understanding of the Bylaw, Minamisoma
city officials in fact released this information to a local NGO. Meanwhile in Higashimatsushima, they founda workaround to allow members of the Japan Disability Forum (JDF) and other groups who worked on

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Counter Disaster Measures for People with Functional Needs in Times of Disaster in Japan:
Achievements and Challenges before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disasterbehalf of disabled persons, by letting them accompany public health nurses during their home visits. JDF
reported that they were able to visit and meet 1,386 persons with disabilities as of June, 2011. However, there
are about 53,511 PWD registered in the areas devastated by the March 11 disaster which means that JDF
barely scratched the surface and were only able to check on 2.6% of the population. Similarly, researchersand other groups that advocate for the well-being of PWD were unable to determine the condition and grasp
the situation of a large number of the PWD affected by the March event.
While there may have been other municipalities that attempted or employed similar approaches to thatof Ishinomaki and Kesennuma cities, it appeared that most of the municipalities in the affected areas had
not attempted to initiate efforts to reach out to the PWD population. As a consequence, local officials were
unaware of the needs of the PWD, especially persons having mental and development disability which is lessapparent than those with physical disability. Gathering from this issue, better explanation on how personal
information of PFND in times of disaster may be utilized so as to educate local government administrators isneeded to address this issue.

CONCLUSION
This paper focused on the achievements and newfound challenges before and after the March 11
Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster. The first part dealt with the recent achievements anddevelopments on counter-disaster measures for PFNDs in Japan. One of the most important achievements,
which were realized since 2004, was the publication of the report on preparedness procedures for people
with functional needs. It provided a guideline for local governments to create a master plan for assisting
PFND, which focused on individualized evacuation/sheltering assistance for PFND. The case of the Kobe
mapping project also suggested a standardized method of identifying and locating persons with high level ofvulnerability. This was done by employing a comprehensive analysis of the person and their environment byusing the person-in-environment model of assessing vulnerability.
According to the FDMA survey, majority of the municipalities all over Japan were able to complete
their master plan for assisting PFND and efforts are underway to compiling database of PFND registry as
well as assigning local helpers to assist specific individuals during emergency evacuation. However, despite
efforts on the part of the local and national government, newfound challenges were revealed from theaftermath of the March 11 earthquake.
The second part of this paper discussed the three major challenges in preparedness, response and relief
measures for PFND, which were revealed from the initial field visits to the affected areas in March andApril. Some solutions were also proposed to address these issues. First, the challenge in identifying people atrisk by re-thinking how hazard is estimated was presented. The March 11 disaster gave an important lesson

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that the hazard estimation method framework currently utilized may be erroneous requiring a shift frommaximum probable event to maximum possible event framework. To achieve this, the reflexive scientization
proposed by Beck (1992) needs to be realized. The second challenge discussed was related to operating
specially designated shelters for PFND. And the third challenge introduced was concerned with utilizing
personal information on PFND in times of disaster. The second and third challenges were rooted in the lackof pre-planning and understanding by the local administrators of the legal framework relating to operating
specially designated shelters and utilizing personal information on PFND. To address these two challenges,
further elaboration and education on these issues was recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) titled “the Developmentof Disaster Reduction Framework for People with Functional Needs” (Principal Investigator Shigeo Tatsuki).

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