Online ISSN 1347-4456 Print ISSN 1347-4464

ABAS: Annals ofBusiness AdministrativeScienceVol. 1, No. 3, October 2002

SHIMIZU, Takashi

39

FUJITA, Hideki

47

IGARI, Eijiro

57

The longevity of the Japanese big businesses

The reproduction of Hofstede Model

Learning process of core technology in sporting gun industry of Japan

http://www.gbrc.jp© 2002 Global Business Research CenterAnnals of Business Administrative ScienceVol. 1, No. 3, October 2002

CHIEF EDITOR

Junjiro Shintaku

University of TokyoEDITORIAL BOARD

Makoto Abe
University of Tokyo
Takahiro Fujimoto University of Tokyo
Makoto Kasuya
University of Tokyo
Hotaka Katahira
University of Tokyo
Nobuo Takahashi University of Tokyo
Technical Editor: Maki Nishida, Global Business Research Center

Annals of Business Administrative Science is published quarterly in January, April,
July, and October, by Global Business Research Center, Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo,
JAPAN. http://www.gbrc.jp

Annals of Business Administrative Science Vol.1, No.3 (October 2002)

Learning Process of Core Technology inSporting Gun Industry of Japan
Eijiro IGARI
Graduate School of Economics, University of Tokyo
E-mail: eigari@grad.e.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract: Japanese sporting gun manufacturers have competitive advantage in theworld market. The unfavorable conditions after World War II resulted in improving thesporting gun processing technology drastically, during which the core technologies
and their learning process have shifted in four phases.
Keyword: learning process, improvement in quality, competition and selection

1. Introduction

In Japan, the law prohibits any kind of export toSporting gun is for sport and hobby of private use,

military forces, Communist bloc, and countries in

not for military. In present Japan, the sporting gun

civil war. The export procedure to safe countries isindustry is not known as an industry having thealso very severe.

competitive advantage in the world market. However,Japanese

sporting

gunmanufactures

produce

These unfavorable conditions of domestic andforeign

marketsuggestthat

thecompetitive

200,000 or more sporting guns annually, and 99% ofadvantage of Japanese sporting gun manufacturers isthese are exported.

in their technology.

Nevertheless, sporting gun industry of Japan
grewupunderaseriously

adversemarketconditions:
1) Market in Japan is extremely small.
2) There exist law regulations of the arms export
from Japan.

In the prewar time, most of sporting guns soldin Japan were imported from United States andEuropean countries. Japanese commercial sporting
gun manufacturers were very small even though
there existed large military arms manufacturers. The
large military factory adopted division of labor and57

Igarimass production by using compatible parts andbeen developing the process technology to export

modern machines. However, the small-scale private

their guns.

sporting gun manufacturers employed few craftsmen

In United States and European countries,

and adopted the custom production system in which

hunting and shooting have a very long history as aeach craftsman took charge of allover process.

hobby. The numbers of consumers are large, and theThe differences between such workmen’s typelaw regulations are very loose. Many manufacturers

and production methods made it difficult to transfer

produce both military gun and sporting gun. The

technology and human resources from militarytechnology accumulated for military use have often

manufacturers to private sporting gun manufacturers.

been transferred to the private sectors.
The purpose of this study is to clarify theMoreover, the process technology of sporting
guns has once died out after World War II. In 1946,

survivingprocessofJapanesesporting

GHQ prohibited the possession of firearms andmanufacturers

againstU.S.

gunpowder. Manufacturing firearms in Japan had

manufacturers

which

had

virtually stopped, that is, the sporting gun industry

advantages. In this paper, the period 1950 to 1970

and its technology had been discontinued at thatare divided into four phases. Between phases, thetime.

core technologies in the point of competitive edge

and
such

technology have changed.

gun was lifted. Afterwards, in a short term of about
ten years, Japanese sporting gun manufacturers hadFigure 1. Number of Sales of Sporting Gun Manufacturers

350000300000
Export sales

200000

Domestic sales

Europeancompetitive

had shifted, and also the learning process of the core

In 1951, ban on manufacturing of the sporting

250000gun

150000100000
50000
23

4

56

7

8

90

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

90

1

19
6

19
6

19
619
6

19
6

19
6

19
6

19
6

19
7

19
7

19
7

19
719
719
719
7

19
7

19
7

19
7

19
8

19
80

Source: Tsusansho Kikaitokei (1962-1981).

58

Learning Process of Core Technology

2. Development Process of Sportingpossess a sporting gun which used gunpowder. There

Gun Industry in Japan

were a lot of air gun holders because they were easy

In 1951, the government and GHQ lifted the ban on

to possess. However, the law was changed in 1955,

small arms production. In the 1950’s there were overand license was made necessary for possession and

10 manufacturers in Japan, and manufacturers who

manufacturing of air guns. The number of air gun

won in Japanese market began to export and grow.

holders decreased sharply.

Export including OEM exceeded 50% of the wholequantity of production in 1965, and exceeded 90% inPhase 2: After the legal restriction had been placed

1977. Many manufacturers withdrew after the 1970’s

on air gun possession and manufacturing, someand only three companies, Miroku Firearm Mfg.,

manufacturers shifted from air gun manufacturing toSKB, and Kodensha, survived. By the revision ofsporting gun manufacturing. Upon this shift, thegun regulation law, firearms possession wasmost important technical key was the machining

restricted and eventually domestic market shrunk.

technology:

Consequently, this strengthened export pressure andprocessing which is a peculiar machining technology

improved the learning process of core technology.

in firearms manufacturing. Manufacturers who could

especiallythesuperdeep

holeHere, the development of sporting gun industry

not acquire this technology were weeded out. The

is divided into four phases and the reason why theengineers in sporting gun manufacturers acquired thecore technology became the key to the survival in

manufacturing know-how through repeating trial andeach phase is explained.

error. Nevertheless, much of Japanese sporting gun
product remained as mere imitation in shape andPhase 1: After the war, in 1950, Gun and Sword

their product had not yet reached international

Control Law (the government ordinance No. 334)

standard. The quality of the product had not been

was instituted against the increase of demand forstabilized and troubles were frequent. Yet, in thehunting and hobby. First, the government permitted

disadvantageous environment where machine tool,

only possession and manufacturing license of the airmaterial, and information from foreign countries

gun. The sporting gun manufacturers often entered

were scarce right after the end of the war, they havethe market by air gun manufacturing which barriers

improved their products continuously to supplement

to entry were low. Legal permission and advanced

shortage. The effort produced innovative processing

techniquetechnologies which would exceed U.S. and European

was

not

necessaryforairgunmanufacturers in the following period.

manufacturing, therefore, new entry in the air gun
market was easy. Besides, license was not necessary
to possess an air gun though license was necessary toPhase 3: In the 1960’s, Gun and Sword Control Law59

IgariFigure 2. Four Phases and Core Technologies of Technology Learning Process
PhaseCore technology

Learning method

Phase 1:

Overabundant air-gun
manufacturers

NoneNone

Phase 2:

Selection to sporting gun
manufacturers

Machining

The engineers’ trial and error

Phase 3:

Sporting gun manufacturingknow-how accumulation

Heat-treatment

Feed back from network ofconsumer and retail store

Phase 4:

Export expansion

Hand finishing

The craftsmen’s skill.

was revised several times in Japan. Domestic market

from the network of customers, repair agents, andhas rapidly declined by 1969; the peak year ofretail stores. They accumulated the know-how of therestriction,

gunproduct. The problem of heat-treatment wasmanufacturers shift to markets in foreign countries.

gradually solved. However, manufacturers who

There is a severe safety standard on the firearms

could not solve these problems were weeded out.

thus

makingthesporting(C.I.P., SAMMII, etc.) in foreign countries. Thissafety standard must be cleared in order to export

Phase 4: Certain manufacturers, Miroku Firearm

sporting guns. Supplying products of high quality

Mfg., SKB, and Kodensha, who have overcome theand stability was especially important. Main problem

accuracy of the machining and the problem ofwith the quality at that time was the degradation

heat-treatment grew by transferring the market from(hardness lowering, etc.) of the material in heatdomestic to foreign countries. At this time, theytreatment processing (quenching, annealing, welding,needed not only physical and chemical highand soldering). This is not a physical trouble asperformance but also sensuous one. This is anprocessing accuracy of parts but a chemical trouble

additional value that satisfies customers more thansuch as changes in the material during heat-treating.

the performance in numerical value. Virtually, this is

Such chemical problems arise in the slightest

the finer tuning, the design, the fitting, and thedifference of condition (temperature, etc.) in

feeling when shooting it: In a word, this is the taste.

manufacturing. Though physical defect is easily

Excellent performance in numerical value does notunderstood, chemical defect is hard to confirm:

disappoint consumers, yet they will not be satisfied

Discovering and understanding are difficult.

either. Machining cannot create the taste of theproduct.

The manufacturers collected trouble reports
60

Learning Process of Core Technology
Figure 3. Timeline of Technology Learning1950 The beginning of air-gun manufacturing
Phase 1

1955 Air-gun restriction

Phase 2

1960’s Export expansion

Phase 3Phase 4
1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

3. Evolution of Quality Control andtreatment defect until the consumers use the productsCore Technology Acquisition in Eachunder various conditions; in other words, until thePhases

product had been out to the market. A system which

The know-how in three core technologies, namely,

could pick up voices from consumers is necessary.

machining, heat-treatment, and hand finishing, hadInformation on the defects of the product was fed

been brought together. The machining was acquired

back to manufacturers via repair agents and retailin the shortest period, however, the hand finishingstores, though still, it was not easy to discover a

took the longest time to reach satisfactory level. The

defect of this kind.

length of time required for the acquisition of these

The hand finishing and fitting by the craftsmen

technologies depended on their Difficulty Level ofgives the product sensuous value. Refinement in theacquisition. As a result, technologies that became

technology of such hand finishing was important tocores in each phase shifted from one technology towithstand severe market competition. Nevertheless,another.

discovering and understanding technical problems in

The manufacturer can easily discover a defectthe hand finishing was even harder. A product with ain machining by pre-shipment inspection because abad finishing is insufficient, though it is not a defect.

Therefore,

Neither consumers nor manufacturers could

manufacturers can improve this the earliest and alsoeasily notice an improving point. Besides, both theacquire technical knowledge most easily.

consumers and manufactures need to possess andefectisaphysicalproblem.

understanding of the taste of the gun. As delicate

However, a defect in heat treatment is aharder.

adjustment is required for the quality control on theManufacturers might not be able to discover defects

customers’ favor, the task required highly skilledbyworkmen.

chemicalproblempre-shipment

anddiscovery

inspection.

isPractically,

The difference of these processes resulted in themanufacturers are not able to discover a heat61

Igaridifference of time it took each core technology to be

manufacturers applied reverse engineering and filledacquired.

intheBlack

Boxintechnology,

whose

manufacturing method, surprisingly, has exceeded

4. Adversity of Japanese Market andoriginal overseas production method.

Feature of Technological Acquisition

Japanese manufacturers made improvement inProcessorder to supplement lacking resources. This,The sporting gun industry in Japan was in a very

however, made it possible for them to adopt

painful adversity in respect of legal restrictions andinnovative and reformative technology without

the market. However, Japanese sporting gun industry

sticking to the old manufacturing method, because

overcame the obstacles by obtaining high technicalthe knowledge of production technique was scarce.

strength and developed itself as an export industry.

The

technology

ofJapanesemanufacturers

developed owing to adversity of shortage in

At first, manufacturers in Japan acquired theresources.

processing technology by reverse engineering ofoverseas products, that is, they started by imitating
overseas products. However, Japanese manufacturers

5. Conclusion

acquiredThis paper divided the development of the sporting

competingtechnology withoverseasmanufacturers within ten years time.

gun manufacturers in Japan into four phases andThe Japanese manufacturers in postwar period

analyzed the core technologies which were the keys

lacked material with good quality and excellent

to competitive edge in each phase. In addition, thismachine tool. In order to raise the quality of theirpaper showed that technology acquisition andproducts, they were forced to make an effort in fields

improvement in quality resulted in selection in theother than the performance of the material andJapanese sporting gun industry. The degree ofmachine. They improved the processing technology

difficulty in discovering the products’ defect isand invented efficient and innovative technologies.

greatly

Japanese manufactures’ inventions were a fruit ofimprovement.

unfavorable circumstances.

relatedtotheDifficulty

LevelofIn the sporting gun industry, there were three

Reverse engineering is an effort to read thecore technologies. Discovery and improvement weremanufacturing process from end products, then to

harder to achieve in the following order: handdraw blueprints, and to reproduce the products.

finishing (sensuous), heat-treatment (chemical), andNevertheless, a complete imitation would bemachining (physical) technologies. As a result, itimpossible. Some processes are reproduced only by

took the manufacturers more time to acquire moreguess. The Black Box of technology exists. Japanesedifficult technologies according to Difficulty Level.
62

Learning Process of Core Technology
Acquisition of the core technology and improvement

Tokyo: Zennihon Shuryo Kurabu. (In Japanese)in quality control brought about competition andJuho tokenrui shojikyoka tou torishimari kaisetsu.
[The description of gun and sword control law]selection in each phase.
Sporting gun industry in Japan developed under(1982). Tokyo: Keisatucho Hoanbu Hoanka [Thea seriously unfavorable condition. The adversity

safety division, National Police Agency]. (Incaused manufacturers to weed out, however, it alsoJapanese)gave birth to innovative technologies in return. This

Juho tokenrui shojikyoka tou torishimari kankei

became a powerful source of competitive edge

horeishu. [The statute documents of gun andagainst overseas manufacturers.

sword control law] (1992). Tokyo: Keisatucho
Hoanbu Hoanka [The safety division, NationalIn Japan, the sporting gun industry had startedPolice Agency]. (In Japanese)

as small businesses and its history is rather short.
They had to acquire sporting gun processing

Miroku Seisakusho (1992). Kigyoka 50-nen notechnology from zero. This paper draws the learning

ayumi to gurupu kigyo. [The history of Miroku

process of technology the hand finishing, theFirearms Mfg]. Kochi, Japan: Miroku Fumoto-kai.

heat-treatment, and the machining technology, which(In Japanese)firearms

Nakajima, Y. (1979). Jutohokenruito no torishimari.

manufacturing. Yet, when we paraphrase these terms[The control of gun and sword control law].

as sensuous, chemical and physical technologies, theTokyo: Keisatu Jihosha. (In Japanese)

arethepeculiartechnologies

inNihon Ryoyo Shizai Kogyokai kaiho [Annual report]

differences of each technology is similar in other(No. 154-256). (1985-1998). Tokyo: Nihon Ryoyo

industries, too.

Shizai Kogyokai. [Sporting Arms Ammunition

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