2002

State of
Science andTechnological
Capacity in
Sub-SaharanAfricaM. H. Khalil-Timamy

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES No. 12

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network, P.O. Box 10081, 00100 General Post
Office, Nairobi, Kenya© 2002 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

PUBLISHED BY IDEAS & PLACES
P.O. BOX 00100-30706, NAIROBITEL/FAX 445777

ISBN: 9966-916-65-2

Table of Contents
Chapter One:

Introduction

Chapter Two:

General overview

Chapter Three: Profile of science and technologi calcapacities in SSA
Chapter Four:

Education, research and development

Chapter Five:

Scientific and technological research priorities, diversity, and distribution

Chapter Six:Strengths and weaknesses of S&T capacities (non-industrial) in SSA

Chapter Seven: Profile of industrial technological capabilities in SSA
Chapter Eight:

Vital lessons for bilateral and multilateral institutions

Chapter Nine:

The brain drain and erosion of S&T capacities in SSA

Chapter Ten:

Isolation and obsolescence of SSA researchers

Chapter Eleven: Strengths and weaknesses of technological capacities in SSA
Chapter Twelve: Gaps that need to be given priority
Chapter Thirteen:Recommendations
ReferencesAbbreviations & Acronyms

AAU
ACTS
AMREF
ATPS
CIRAD
ESTC
EU
FAO
IAEA
ICIPE
ICRAF
ICRISAT
IDRC
ILCA
ILRI
INRAN
JKUAT
KARI
KEFRI
KEMRI
KETRI
KPLC
MNCs
MSIRI
NAPRI
NASCOPORSTOM
SSA
STDs
S&T
R&D
UON
UNESCO

Addis Ababa University
African Centre for Technology Studies
African Medical Research Foundation
African Technology Policy Studies
International Cooperation Centre for Agricultural Research and Development
Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission
European Union
Food and Agriculture Organization
Iernational Atomic Energy Agency
International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
International Centre for Research in Agroforestry
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
International Development Research Centre
International Livestock Centre in Africa
International Livestock Research Institute
Natural Research Institute of Niger
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
Kenya Agricultural Research InstituteKenya Forestry Research InstituteKenya Medical Research InstituteKenya Trypanasomiasis Research InstituteKenya Power and Lighting Company
Multinational Corporations
Mauritius Sugar Industry Research InstituteNational Animal Production and Research InstituteNational Aids Control Programme
French Institute of Scientific Research for Development Cooperation
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Science and Technology
Research and Development
University of Nairobi
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

USAID
WARDA
WHO

United States Agency for International Development
West Africa Research Development Association
World Health Organization

List of Tables, Figures, Boxes and Annexes
List of Tables
Table 1 Levels and status of science and technology measurement activities in Sub-Saharan Africa
Table 2 Student population in selected African countries
Table 3 Science enrolment, R&D personnel, and industry in SSA
Table 4 Established domains of R&D capacities in SSA
Table 5 Selected established areas in the field of agriculture and biotechnology
Table 6 Production capabilities in selected SSA countries
Table 7 Status of capacities for the assimilation of technology in SSA
Table 8 Selected cases of small firm industrial clusters in SSA
Table 9 A standard classification format for assessing national technological capabilities
Table 10 Some push and pull factors affecting brain drain in SSA
Table 11 Profile of Ethiopian staff from case study institutions not returned home
Table 12 Summary statistics of staff who left for studies abroad from AAU and ESTC
Table 13 Gaps in science and technology research in SSA
List of Figures
Figure 1 Fields of specialization for R&D centres in SSA
Figure 2 Extent of migration from SSA to USA
List of Boxes
Box 1 A success story with a twist in the tail: the case of the pigeon pea improvement
Box 2 Success story: the case of banana
Box 3 Weak property protection and porous regulatory mechanisms in SSA: losses of potential
benefits to Nigeria
Box 4 The costs of missed opportunities: the case of the Ethiopian endod
Box 5 Nnewi as a success story: an emergent industrial cluster in Nigeria

List of Boxes
Box 6 Innovation capabilities, expropriation, and marginalization of domestic capacities: the caseof geothermal development in Kenya
Box 7 Non-existing or incompetent technology screening agencies: the case of technologicalmodularization in Kenya
List of Annexes
Annex 1 Comparative distribution of R&D personnel in SSA
Annex 2 Specialization of R&D centres in SSA
Annex 3 Personnel engaged in R&D by category of personnel
Annex 4 Selected R&D indicators in African countries
Annex 5 National research centres in Africa
Annex 6 R&D personnel in national research centres in SSA
Annex 7 Total number of African professionals admitted into U.S.A
Annex 8 Selected case studies on technological capacities in SSA

Chapter One
Introduction
Governments in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) have emphasized the overwhelming significance of scientificand technological change in the development process. In numerous policy documents, nation-states
have expressed their desire to promote scientific and technological development in a bid to accelerate
economic change and enhance the well being of their citizens. Such emphasis has also been reiterated
in regional and continental meetings attended variously by heads of state, academics, researchers andprofessionals. The most significant meetings were the CASTAFRICA I (Dakar, 1974) and CASTAFRICA
II (Arusha, 1987). The United Nations Conference on Science and Technology held in Vienna in 1979
was also instrumental in raising awareness among Africans on the significance of science and technology(S&T). Inspiration on this score has also emanated from the Lagos Plan of Action (1980). The plan
exhorted African countries to integrate scientific and technological imperatives in their development
endeavors. The potential value of this critical ingredient has in the main assumed a profound degree of
immediacy, and has, in consequence, reverberated across SSA with palpable resonance ever since.
This can be attested by national efforts to create science and technology institutions in Africa.
Stemming from this recognition and fundamental developmental aspiration, SSA countries embarked
on a series of new S&T initiatives, while correspondingly buttressing the research and development
programmes that had been in the continent. These efforts are varied both in extent, scope and emphasis
across SSA countries. However, while the S&T landscape has been marked by notable differences, it isalso characterized by shared commonalties. Out of this dichotomy in Africa’s S&T research capacities
have emanated numerous success stories as well as cases of failure, both of which in their own respective
ways, offer vital lessons of experience and policy concern. These will become evident as the study sifts
through the maze of strengths, weaknesses and constraints, that have impacted on the evolution ofthese S&T capacities.

Chapter Two
General Overview
The development of science and technological capacities in SSA has occurred in both private andpublic agencies whose activities have often remained uncoordinated1. This tendency has often led toresource misuse and duplication. More fundamentally, it has compromised efforts at spearheading thetechnological drive in a bid to evolve S&T capacities within states. The truth is that this has evidently
limited the usefulness of existing mechanisms for S&T development in SSA countries.
Between the mid-1980s and 1990s, Africa’s share of world’s scientific output fell from 0.5 to 0.3 %.
African scientists number about 20,000 (researchers and technicians).
This is roughly less than 0.36 % of the world’s total. Moreover, research and development (R&D)
activities have registered a notable decline over the years with highly skilled and trained nationals
migrating to the developed countries2. Figures indicate that R&D approximate on average only 0.2 %of gross national product of African countries. R&D institutions have generally fallen under five broad
categories:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

government research institutes,
corporate research institutes in parastatals and other public utilities,
higher education research in universities and colleges of S&T,
private sector research in companies, andinternational research centres.

1 See Table 6 in this text for examples of duplication across SSA countries. Also, because of the huge financial
and infrastructural requirements involved, no NGOs are involved in research and development work. However,
several NGOs are presently engaged in S&T
issues at the level of policy research. Examples include African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), Nairobi
and African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS), Nairobi.
2 See Seithi, M. (2000) “Return and Reintegration of Qualified African Nationals”. Paper presented at the Regional
Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p.2.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

However, the collection, compilation and classification of vital science and technology statistics lags far
behind in SSA. In this respect, the determination of the status of S&T capacities has depended on
information and reports that have generally offered an incomplete picture of the true state of affairs.
This report provides the status of some of the most crucial measurement activities, which SSA has yet
to introduce and systematize for comprehensive use in the years ahead.

Chapter Three
Profile of Science and Technological Capacities in SSA
Africa’s budgetary contribution to research and development (R&D) activities as a percentage of growth
domestic product (GDP) has been extremely low. Funds allocated for research have comparatively
been higher than flows earmarked for development and commercialization. Moreover, financial resources
have shown a marked bias in support of agricultural research with livestock and health domains receiving
relatively smaller amounts, respectively. Finally, institutions undertaking industrial research e.g. in energy
and environmental fields, are relatively fewer in number compared to those involved in agriculturalresearch. Funding proportions have generally reflected this skewed dichotomy3.
Political commitment to S&T in SSA
Governments in SSA have expressed political commitments in support of S&T for development. However,
the relative strengths have differed between countries. Most SSA countries have long established national
councils of S&T and ministries to address the issue. The United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO) assisted several countries in establishing national S&T institutions.
Their mandates, however, have been long on generalities and short on specifics. Evidence has revealed
that, on the whole, the S&T policy institutions have not been instrumentally effective in actively informing
and guiding scientific and technological change. Levels of commitment to S&T for development in SSA
are varied and expressed in different forms. Frequently, public statements have been made indicatingawareness of the importance of S&T in national development.

3 See the budget allocations for coffee, tea and pyrethrum research institutions in Kenya. These are largely
export-oriented. However, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute is heavily biased towards food crops. It isalso important to bear in mind that international research institutions such as International Centre of Insect Physiology
and Ecology (ICIPE) and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) have two types of funding, restricted
and unrestricted. However, it would be vital to carry out a study on the distribution and skewness of funding, sinceno research has been undertaken to put the whole issue in context.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

In fact, it is common to find official statements of national S&T policy reflected in the first development
plans or early sessional papers on policy.
It is also often the case to see legislation on S&T policy matters enacted, for instance, in areas ofintellectual property. However, most SSA countries have not integrated S&T provisions in their respective
constitutions.
Status of S&T indicators in SSA
Determining the configuration of science and technological capacities (in terms of type, level, quality
and quantity) in SSA would have been a straightforward task, if comprehensive national frameworks of
S&T indicators and measures were in place and operational. A cursory appraisal of the SSA landscapehas revealed that most countries have relied on a sparse set of measures, which offer an incomplete
picture of existing S&T capacities. Government departments in charge of collecting, compiling, andclassifying national statistical information, have not identified the most basic indicators, let alone preparedformats for their institutionalization. In fact, data for most S&T indicators are neither gathered nor compiled.
As such, they have not been reflected in the most consulted statistical documents produced by national
data agencies.
The lack of aggregation could be attributed to the general absence of policy requiring public and private
institutions, to submit data annually to national data agencies and to do so within a given format.
However, some data is still collected and made available to international institutions such as the World
Bank, UNESCO, and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Data for this report rely heavily
on published material from these sources.
At the outset, it is worth mentioning that the assessment of scientific and technological capacities in
SSA is awfully difficult, because no indigenous national capabilities exist to monitor trends in performanceat different levels as shown in Table 1.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

13

Table 1: Levels and status of science and technology measurement activities in Sub-SaharanAfricaLevel

Scope and Purposes

StatusFirm Level ofanalysis

Collection and Publication of Key
indicators for internal monitoring,budgeting and planning

Most public corporate, private andlocally based international research
agencies have carried out themeasurement activities, though public
national research have not regulazied
the process on a year to year basis

Inter-firm
comparisonsInter-firm comparisons to reflect specificmeasurements on the basis of projects
undertaken

Has never been carried out for firms in
SSA

Industry &national level
analysis- Industry and national level statisticalsurveys for use by government, private
agencies and other potential end-users(UN agencies, NGOs, etc.)- Requires use of standardized
definitions.
- Can point to important conclusions fornational S&T policy making

Regional andInternational
comparisons- To be carried out by regional andinternational agencies.
- Requires harmonization of various
national definitions and procedures- Useful if activities are innovative andcatalytic, leading to dissemination ofbest practice across national frontiers.

- Has never been carried out forindustries in SSA- Not yet carried out in SSA- Not yet derived for SSA.

- Process not yet initiated.
- Process not yet initiated.
- Process not yet initiated.

Source: Khalil, M.H., 1999.

Moreover, measuring the progress and status of S&T has been constrained by the lack of suitableindicators. SSA countries are therefore relatively indisposed, given the poor identification and delineationof S&T measurement activities.
It is also worth noting that SSA countries have had no tradition of grouping the S&T measures in termsof input and output indicators, even when this information appears in general classification formats.
The absence of a systematic framework of data collection and formatting has made it difficult for multilevel comparisons to be made. This broad failure to devise systematic measurement and classification

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

of S&T activities has revealed several deficiencies in SSA S&T information system. Clearly, the absenceof such indicators has compromised the development of S&T capacities in Africa in a number of ways.
The weaknesses include:
•
•
•
•
•
•

The non-incorporation of S&T indicators in the socio-economic planning process.
Inability to develop an integrated planning framework.
Difficulties of influencing practice and policy.
Poor understanding of the factors influencing S&T development.
Inability to undertake suitable comparison and therefore, the inability to focus on critical issues
worthy of attention by national planners.
Failure to comprehend the consequences of planned S&T activities.

In addition, the gaps and/or lacunae of a systematic classification system has militated against
comprehensive evaluation of:•••level and quality of scientific and technical information;national capabilities with respect to the management of R&D commercialization of research results,
and reverse engineering services; andscience and technology gaps and the levels of production in national economies4.

It is essential to point out that data for the construction of the earlier mentioned indicators, is potentiallyavailable in most R&D institutions, though the information is either scattered in various reports or has
yet to be compiled, standardized and systematized. Most universities in SSA for example, can ask
various departments and faculties to compile information on S&T papers published, or can tabulatequalification profiles of faculty members by field of specialization. Similarly, R&D institutions can provide
systematized and standardized information on sources of R&D funds, current and capital expenditures
on R&D by field of specialization, and stock of S&T personnel by field of specialization. A standardized
questionnaire seeking information on a comprehensive set of S&T indicators, circulated to national
R&D institutions, and prepared by and returned to a central statistical office, would be a major step ininstitutionalizing S&T indicators at national and regional levels.

4 Technology gaps would include technical, information, institutional, and human resource evaluations.

Chapter Four
Education, Research and Development
At present, profiles of education in SSA are inadequately captured and represented by a limited set ofindicators discussed later. What becomes evident is that the tertiary level figures tell us little about thecomparative distribution of students according to, say, the field of specialization in some detail. It would
have been a lot more useful if the breakdown reflected the following categories: engineering sciences,
earth sciences, physical sciences, biological sciences,mathematics and computers, agricultural sciences,medical sciences, and social sciences. These vital statistics are available at the institutional level, but
no attempt has been made to systematize them at the national
level.
Clearly, the generic aggregation of such data has tended to limit their usefulness for policy purposeswith respect to S&T development. A closer look at Table 2 shows that the data for primary, secondary
and tertiary education for different countries are available for different years, thus making the art ofcomparison almost impossible.
With respect to S&T indicators (both output and input), it is crucial to note that data for basic research,
applied research, development of innovations, and production activities (such as stock of S&T personnel),
are available, but not collected and systematized. National level information for input indicators (suchas primary, secondary and tertiary level education) is collected and systematized, but rarely reflected indetailed and comprehensive categories. However, for output indicators, information is not registeredand has yet to be collected and reflected in national statistical documents.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table 2: Student population in selected African countries
CountryYear

Primary
Education: pupils
enrolled

Secondary
Education: pupils
enrolled

Tertiary Education:
pupils enrolled

Angola1991/2989443218987

6331

Benin

1996/777932914613514055 (1996)

Botswana

1996

3186291098438850 (1996/7)

Burkina Faso

1995/6700995116033 (1994/5)

8911 (1996/7)

Burundi1995/651814447639 (1994/5)

1123 (1992/3)

Cameroon

1996/7

1921186459068 (1994/5)

33117(1990/1)

Chad

1996/768090999789

3446 (1996/7)

DRC

1994/55417506

1514323

93266

Ethiopia

1996/74007694889650

42226

Gabon

1995/625069380552

4655 (1994/5)

Ghana

1994/521546468417229609 (1990-2)

Kenya

1995

554499863238835421 (1990/1)

Nigeria

1994

16190947

4451329 (1993/4)

207982

Uganda1995

291247325625834773 (1996/7)

South Africa

19958159303749449617897 (1994)

Sudan

1996/7300004840558359824 (1990/1)

Zimbabwe

1998

2507098

84729746673 (1996)

Senegal

1997/81026570215988 (1997/8)

24081 (1994/5)

Tanzania

19974057965234743 (1997)

17812 (1997/7)

Source: UNESCO (1999) Statistical Yearbook, 1999.

A better presentation is reflected in Table 3 where there are some science literacy indicators; South
Africa and Zimbabwe are leading the continent in adult literacy and primary school enrolment. Other
countries with high primary enrolment ratios include Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Togo andMalawi, to mention a few. South Africa also leads in secondary enrolment with countries like

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

17

Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Congo and Malawi, also registering high proportions. In general, therates of enrolment decline at tertiary levels of education.
Taking the total number of personnel involved in research and development work in Africa, it isrevealing that the vast majority belong to the category of auxiliary staff. The actual researchers makeup only 15 % of the general R&D workforce. This is summarized in Annexes 1-3.
As observed in an earlier section, research centres in SSA are generally public outfits that were
established to fulfil a set of objectives arising from well-defined needs (Annex 4). Unfortunately, funding
limitations have constrained the capacity of these public research centres from moving to the development
and commercialization stages. The main area of research has been agriculture. The relative strengthsof the various specializations appear in Figure 1.
Research in industrial-related activities is limited. In fact, the absence of strong linkages with the wider
sphere of economic production, partly explains why resources are not heavily invested in industry,compared to agriculture.
Yet, it should be pointed out that the tradition of agricultural research in most SSA countries traces its
roots to the colonial period. Ever since, the orientation of research activities has largely been commodityspecific.
South Africa has the largest number of research institutions (172) in SSA (see Annex 5). Countries like
Ethiopia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and Kenya have several, most of which are agricultural inorientation. Annex 5 summarizes the distribution of research centres across fields of specialization.
Annex 6 shows the distribution of R&D personnel in selected SSA countries. Again, South Africa leads(Annexes 5 and 6) in the number of researchers.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table 3: Science enrolment, R&D personnel and industry in Sub-Saharan Africa
Net Enrolment Ratio
Country

Adult Literacy
Rate(%)

Primary (as %of relevant age
group)South Africa

84.0

99.9

94.9

57

1.2

Tunisia

67.0

99.9

74.3

24

0.4

Algeria

60.3

96.0

68.5

52

-

Namibia

79.8

91.4

80.7

5

-

E g y p t

52.7

95.2

75.1

15

0.7

Botswana

74.4

80.1

88.8

24

-

Gabon

66.2

-

-

-

0.2

Moroco

45.9

76.6

37.7

29

-

Lesotho

82.3

68.6

72.9

25

-

Zimbabwe

90.9

93.1

59.1

23

-

Eq. Guinea

79.9

79.3

68.5

-

-

Ghana

66.4

43.4

-

-

-

C a m e r o o n

71.7

61.7

39.8

-

-

C o n g o

76.9

78.3

84.1

11

-

Kenya

79.3

65.0

61.1

-

-

Sudan

53.3

-

-

-

-

Togo

53.2

82.3

58.3

16

-

Nigeria

59.5

-

-

41

0.1

Zambia

75.1

72.4

42.2

-

-

Senegal

34.6

59.5

19.9

-

-

Cote d'Ivoire

42.6

58.3

34.1

26

-

Benin

33.9

67.6

28.2

19

0.2

Tanzania

71.6

47.4

-

39

-

Djibouti

48.3

31.9

19.6

-

-

U g a n d a

64.0

-

-

13

-

Malawi

57.7

98.5

72.6

18

-

Angola

-

34.7

31.2

-

-

Guinea

37.9

45.6

14.6

-

-

Chad

50.3

47.9

17.9

14

-

Gambia

33.1

65.9

33.3

-

-

Rwanda

63.0

78.3

-

-

-

CA Republic

42.4

46.2

19.0

-

0.1

Mali

35.5

38.1

17.9

-

-

Eritrea

-

29.3

37.9

-

-

Guinea Bisau

33.6

52.3

24.1

-

-

M o z a m b i q u e

40.5

39.6

22.4

50

-

Burundi

44.6

35.6

17.1

-

0.1

Burkina Faso

20.7

32.3

12.8

18

-

Ethiopia

35.4

35.2

24.8

36

-

Niger

14.3

24.4

9.4

-

-

Sierra Leone

34.3

44.0

-

30

-

1997

Secondary (as% of relevant
age group)

1997

Source: Human Development Report (UNDP) 1999.

Tertiary
Science(as %of total tertiary)

1997

1995

R&D Scientists
andTechnicians per1000 people
1990/96

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Figure 1: Fields of specialization for R&D centres in SSA.

19

Chapter Five
Scientific and Technological Research Priorities, Diversity
and Distribution
In general, scientific and technological research in SSA has demonstrated a pronounced bias towards
agriculture. This sectoral tendency is, however, not monolithic. The bias is also characterized by anarrow diversity of specializations, that are inclining more towards food crops. Food crops have dominatedthe research agendas, but sizeable budgets have also been devoted to cash crops. This is particularly
true in the case of coffee, tea, pyrethrum and cocoa. Funding has thus showed a skewed distribution infavour of cash crops. In addition, SSA capacities have not only reflected this propensity, but have also
entrenched the long-established lines of research. It is to these issues that I now turn. It is not clear
what criteria has been used to pursue research, but preliminary evidence suggests that food security
and foreign exchange concerns have been key factors in the selection of research lines.
Established domains in S&T research
There is significant R&D capacity in SSA, though one must hasten to add that the concentrations are
inadequate. This capacity exists mainly in public institutions such as universities and government owned
research institutes (Table 4). In Kenya, for example, significant R& D capacity exists in the University of
Nairobi (UON) as well as Moi, Egerton, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT),and Kenyatta universities. There is also substantial R&D capacity in Kenya Agricultural Research Institute(KARI) facilities, which deal mainly with research on crops and livestock in addition to crop-specificresearch on coffee, tea and sugar. Apart from this capacity held in public institutions, SSA countries
have also significant installed R&D capacity in institutions and facilities owned and funded by internationalNGOs and other international development agencies. Considerable capacity happens to exist ininternational agricultural research centres. Examples in Kenya include research facilities by ICIPE,
ILRI, International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) and African Medical Research Foundation(AMREF). There is also smaller scale localized research capacity in many countries. Most of theseobtain their funding from external sources. The donors include: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Germany,
European Union, Japan, Netherlands, Switzerland, United Kingdom and Norway. Internationalorganizations such as United States Agency for International Development (USAID), World HealthOrganization (WHO), the World Bank, and International Development Research Centre (IDRC).
Not much R& D capacity in SSA is under private commercial institutions with the notable exception ofmultinational corporations (MNCs) operating in Africa. These commercial concerns are mostly in the
production of such export commodities as coffee, tea, cocoa, pineapples and minerals, such as copper

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

21

and iron ore. The MNCs have been involved in these domains over a long time and have developed
R&D activities centred mainly on improving the production processes, product quality and the marketingof improved output. Such R&D is therefore commercially oriented and profit driven.
Their main objective is to enhance the profitability of these enterprises and not necessarily to address
the R& D and development agenda of the countries in which they operate. In East Africa, for example,
companies like Brooke Bond have played an important role on the R & D effort directed at coffee andtea, and Del Monte in Kenya carries out research on pineapple production.
Areas in the fields of Agriculture and biotechnology have been selected and established in different
countries in SSA (Table 5). With respect to biotechnology, the commercialization of products derived
from research has been one of the weak points in SSA. Many research institutions have yet to deepen
their knowledge in this area.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table 4a: Agriculture Sector: Established domains of R&D capacities in Africa
Country

Field of ResearchInstitution

Ethiopia- Production of higher yield varieties and developmentof sustainable farming systems.
- Development of gene bank involving farmers atseveral stages for use in crop.
- Use of culture technology to propagate forest species
including cofee

Ethiopian S&T Commission
Institute of Agriculture
Research, International
Livestock Centre in Africa(ILCA), Plant GenericResources

Kenya- Maize, tea, pyrethrum, coffee fruits, horticultural crops- D e v e l o p m e n t o f in vitro t i s s u e c u l t u r e t e c h n i q u e s- Development of diagnostic tests for viruses bacteria,
pathogeric fungi, insect pests- Idenfication of disease and pest resistant plants- Identification of ITK useful to farmers- Biological Control of diseases and parasite insects

KARI, Kenya Forestry
Research Institute (KEFRI),International Crop ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT), UON,JKUATUganda- Research on Production of higher yeild varieties forbeans, other legume species, soya beans, groundnuts

KARS, (Nyunda), Makerere
University

Senegal- F o r e s t r y (I n v i t r o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s y m b o l i c a s s o c i a t i o n sof vaneur tree species). This could be used inreforestration schemes.
- Biofertilizer studies on higher nitrogen fixing Azolla
strains for use in paddy fields- Forestry

Senegalese Institute for
Agricultural Research,
ORSTOMMali- Paddy development through fertilizer studies on eight
Azolla strains

West Africa Rice
Development Association(WARDA)

Niger- Biological nitrogen fixation through cowpea inoculation
tools under FAO regional project

National Research Instituteof Niger (INRAN)

Cote d'Ivoire- Channel propagation of oil palm to replace the Cocoa
miracle that had considerably stumped- Improve on techniques of old palm improvement andpropagation- Development of better techniques in both cultivationand processing of rubber- Other areas were soya beans and cowpea, ornamental
horticulture

French Insitute of Scientific
Development Cooperation(ORSTOM), International
Research for Cooperation,
Centre for Agricultural
Research andDevelopment (CIRAD)
ORSTOMGhana- Cocoa improvement through elimination of viral andbacterial diseases

Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Ghana

Nigeria- Agricultural improvement of maize, millet, sorghum

ICRISATGabon- Focuses on propagations of food and fruit crops- In vitro m i c r o - p r o p a g a t i o n

Centre for the introduction
adaptation and propagationof plant material

Zimbabwe- Manufacture of Polythene trays

Brookfield seedlings,
Wattle company, Glenburnseedling company

Mauritius- Sugar-cane cultivars

Mauritius Sugar Industry
Research Institute (MSIRI)

Tanzania- Dodoma wine company- Endangered forest species project, uses tissue culture
techniques for mass production of these forest species

University of Dar -esSalaam, Tanzania
Commission of S&T

Burundi- In vitro m i c r o p r o p a g a t i o n f o r r i c e , m a i z e a n d s o r g h u m- Potato and banana improvement

Agricultural and Zoo
Technical Institute (IRAZ)

Rwanda- Increasing productivity of food legumes

Rwanda Institute ofAgriculture and Science

Zambia- Soya beans project - led to inclusion of other legume
inocurants

M t. Mukuler Research
StationSource: Own Survey, 2000.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Table 4b: Livestock Sector: Established domains of R&D capacities in Africa
Country

Field of ResearchInstituttion

Nigeria- Breeding trypanasomiasis resistant cattle-Development of new breeds of cattle forbeef and milk production

National Livestock Research Institute,
National Animal Productiona dn
Research Unit (NAPRI)

Ethiopia- Development of diagnostic kits and nuclear
and probes to identify leprosy, leshmamasis
and trypanosomiasis antigerms

ILCA

Kenya

- Improvement of disease diagnostic
techniques and vaccine development

National Veterinary Research Centre,
UON, KARI, KETRI

Uganda- Livestock improvement programmes

ILRI, Makerere University, Kawanda
Agricultural Research Station

Table 4c: Health Sector: Established domains of R&D capacities in Africa
Country

Field of ResearchInstitution

Nigeria- Screen natural resources that can be used forpharmaceuticals and drugs development as wellas production of vacancies

Institute for Medical Research
University of Ibadan

Gabon- Improve on all aspects of human fetility - carryout biological as well as behavioral studies at the
primate centre. Also focussed on STDs - four was
more of public health than research. however,effect of parasitic diseases on humanreproduction remunerated subject of origan
research

International Centre for ResearchFranceville (CIRMF), Regional
Centre for Research and Training in
Human Reproduction.

Kenya- Development of diagnostic techniques focussing
on malaria, schistosomiasis, leshmaniasis,
hepatitis B, diabetes, hypertension, Aids,
sleeping sickness

KEMRI, UON, NASCOP, KETRI

Uganda- Research into control of sleeping sickness

ILRI

23

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table 4d: Energy Sector: Established domains of R&D capacities in Africa
Country

Field of Research

Ethiopia

Research cooperation areas:- Assessment of energy supply demand andcurrent pattern of consumption- Training and development of manpower- Building of research and demonstration centres
Post harvest technology
high costs of imported diesel

Kenya- Woodfuel energy- Hydropower energy- Power alcohol production- Solar energy
Wind power utilization- Biogas utilization

University of Nairobi,
Kenyatta University, Ministry ofAgriculture, Ministry of Energy,
Electricity Regulartory Board- Ecowas Energy Survival Project- Ajaokula steel plant

Individual energy exports,
Nigerian University, Energy
Commission of Nigeria

Tanzania- Arusha appropriate technology project absorbed into the Centre for Agricultural Machinery
and Rural Technology

Tanzania National ResearchCouncil (UTAFITI)

Zambia- African energy programmes- Charcoal utilization project- Solar and wind energy programme

Department of MechanicalEngineering, University ofZambiaNigeria- Coal industry

Nigeria Coal Company

Sierra Leone- Technological capability acquisition for oil
refining

Sierra Leone Petroleum
Mining Company

Nigeria

Institution
Ethiopia Energy Committees
The S&Y Commission, Rural
Technology Department of
MOA

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

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Table 5: Selected established areas in the field of agriculture and biotechnology
Field of Specialization

Countries

BananaBurundi, Cameroon, Egypt, Gabon, Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal,
Tunisia

Plantain

Cameroon, Gabon, Ghana, Nigeria

Tuber plants

Algeria, Burundi, Egypt, Kenya, Mauritius, Morocco, Tunisa, Zimbabwe

Cassava

Burundi, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Nigeria, Zimbabwe

Taro

Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana

Yams

Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Nigeria

Sweet potato

Burundi, Kenya, Zimbabwe

Rice

SenegalSoybeans

Zimbabwe

Maize

Zimbabwe

Groundnut

Zimbabwe

Tea

Kenya, Uganda

Cocoa

Ghana, Ivory Coast

CoffeeKenya, Uganda

Palm oil

Ghana, Nigeria

This could be one reason why commercialization has been weak. The other relates to the tendency for
research institutions to focus more on research and very little on development. But more importantly,
institutions have experienced the following drawbacks:••••

Unrealistic expectations from biotechnologies — this has stemmed from the perception thatbiotechnology would offer magic solutions to the research problems.
Low support for research and development.
Diminished income from expectations.
Unfavourable tax structures — farmers’ incomes derived fromcommercialized products have notbeen exempted from taxation, or at least the machinery they use in order to encourage them to use
the biotech innovations.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12• Low probability of raising capital.
• Weak prospects for successful commercialization of biotechnology-derived products.
There is considerable installed R&D capacity in SSA5, but this capacity is grossly inadequate considering
the development needs of the region, and yet even the capacity that exists is seriously under-utilized.
The SSA region contains the majority of the poorest people on earth. These populations face acuteproblems and challenges arising from the very conditions of their poverty. The region is currently being
ravaged by HIV/Aids in which over one third of the population in most countries are affected, millions
are dying every year, while others are rendered unproductive and destitute by the pandemic. The
region also, is ravaged by hunger and starvation caused by inability to deal with adverse weather
conditions such as the floods that devastated Mozambique early in 2000 and the severe drought
threatening the lives of millions in the Horn of Africa (affecting Kenya, Ethiopia and Eritrea). SSA has
huge proportions of the people wallowing in abject poverty and destitution yet the paradox is that theregion is tremendously rich in natural resources such as gold, diamonds, iron ore, copper, crude oil andother minerals, such as precious stones as well as large swathes of equatorial forests, mountain forests,
wildlife, mighty rivers and lakes and plenty of sunshine all the year round.
Apart from the inadequacy of the available R& D capacity in SSA, it is paradoxical that even thatcapacity which is available, is grossly under-utilized. There are two main reasons for this state ofaffairs:(a)

Low incomes

Since most people in SSA are poor, the governments raise low pay to researchers, so that most of them
do not stay long under government employment, but live in search of greener pastures elsewhere.
Several institutions contacted in Kenya cite this factor to be the main reason for migration6. The
governments also cannot afford the requisite equipment and materials that are required for research.
As a result of all this, many research facilities have significant excess capacity.

5 This refers to the existing infrastructural, technical and human facilities.
6 But to appropriate the significance of this factor Africa-wide, a separate study needs to be conducted. So far, nosuch attempt has been on the cards.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

(b)

27

Inadequate appreciation of R&D

Many societies in SSA and their governments do not have a good appreciation of the value of R&D. As
a result, instead of increasing the R&D efforts to solve their pressing problems, they reduce such
efforts,particularlywhen economicconditionsarenotg7o.oThus,
d it is noted that as the economic
performance of most SSA countries deteriorated in the 1980s and 1990s, public research institutions
including public universities have increasingly been starved of funds so that they could not play theirrightful role in helping solve the problems these societies face. The little R&D activities that have continued
in these public institutions, have been mainly a result of funding from external sources8, such as
Rockefeller Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Friedrick Ebert Foundation, Japanese International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), USAID, Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and CanadianInternational Development Agency (CIDA).
Nature of the R& D Capacities
The R & D capacities in SSA exist in the following forms:
Capacity in university and other institutions of higher education
Most public universities and institutions of higher education in SSA have established S&T capacities.
However, this capacity tends to be more on the pursuit of research and pure science, mainly for academic
reasons. The research is often intended to provide material for publication in academic journals by
faculty members and to satisfy degree requirements by the students. Often, such research has little orno bearing to the technology and development needs of the country. This partly explains why these
institutions have contributed little to the generation of new ideas, processes and technology in SSA
regions9.

7 The need for a new model is invaluable here. The new paradigm should at least entail extra resources thatwould focus on commercialization and development.
8 No work has been done to comprehensively capture the allocation and distribution of funding in SSA research
institutions. It is possible to pursue this effort on national and regional scales.
9 It is important to carry out a needs assessment and to steer the efforts of researchers towards addressing
societal problems.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Capacities established by private corporations
As already noted, much of the production and marketing of export commodities in SSA is done either
directly or indirectly by private corporations. Since the beginning of colonialism, many of these
corporations have engaged in research and development activities geared mainly to maximize theirprofit. Such R&D capacities have tended to improve the way they are processed and stored, the mannerof transportation and handling, and the way they are marketed world-wide. Research of this kind istherefore not meant to meet the R&D needs of the society. As a result, commodities that these companies
are not interested in tend to be neglected even when they hold much domestic potential. Private
corporations, for example, undertake and fund considerable research in East Africa on crops such astea and coffee, but hardly any research on important food crops such as millet, sorghum, cassava andcowpeas. Only public research institutions exert efforts in these areas though the Kenya Coffee Research
Foundation (KCRF) and others on tea do tackle research in these respective fields10.
R & D capacities supported by foreign agencies and institutions
Agencies such as International NGOs (e.g. ICRAF, ICIPE and ILRI), international philanthropic agencies(e.g. Ford Foundation, The Carnegie and Rockefeller Foundation), foreign aid agencies (e.g. USAID,JICA and FINNIDA) and UN bodies, support considerable amount of research and development activities
in SSA. Dutch research tends to be driven by social needs and therefore tends to fill in the gap in R&D,
which is left by public institutions and agencies. The research funded can be academic or even oriented
towards profit, but in most cases, its principle objective is to help these societies acquire the scientificknowledge and technology, to mobilize their resources for faster development.
Corporate initiatives
It has already been noted that private corporations tend to fund commodity - specific research anddevelopment. Such research has resulted in considerable improvement in the way these commodities
are produced, processed, transported and marketed. This has given rise to thriving industries andsectors such as pineapple production and processing by Delmonte in Thika, Kenya, flower reproduction
by Sumac, and improvements in coffee and tea in east and central Africa.

10 Presently. no research effort is being directed towards compiling information on funding levels between crops.
An Africa-wide study could reveal important policy issues in this regard.

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29

Most corporations operating in SSA use technologies that are already patented in their mother countries.
This is particularly the case in industrial processing, packaging and transportation. Since such technology
was developed to suit the conditions in the developed countries, they tend to be inappropriate within thecontext of the conditions obtaining in SSA societies. When technology is inappropriate in a particular
context, it tends to involve higher opportunity costs for the society, leading to resource misallocation.
Many multinational corporations involved in such industrial activities as processing and assembling ofproducts, tend to use capital intensive techniques of production. This distorts resource use patterns,
considering the configuration of natural resource endowments in African countries.
Public Initiatives
Despite the lack of proper funding and enthusiasm on the part of African governments, public institutions
continue to play an important role in maintaining R & D activities in SSA. There have been a number ofspectacular achievements coming form these institutions, although the disseminating of the products
and processes arising thereof, has been very weak. In Kenya, the UON has made significant contributions
to the production of new varieties of pigeon peas (see Box 1).
Success has also been realized in legume research on food crops. Recently, JKUAT made a spectacular
breakthrough in the breeding of new banana varieties through tissue culture. These varieties are
revolutionizing banana production in Kenya (see Box 2).

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Box 1 A Success story with a twist in the tail: the case of pigeon pea improvement
Pigeon peas constitute an important source of plant protein for humans, especially in the dry areasof SSA. They are legumes and fix atmospheric oxygen through nodules in their roots. The problem
in Kenya was that the varieties grown took one year (two seasons) to reach maturity in the dry
Ukambani plains. These varieties are sown during the short rains from November to December.
They grow slowly through the short, but intensely hot season from January to March, reaching
maturity during the long rains from March to June. They flower during the long rains and are harvested
in July or August. Due to the uncertainty of rainfall in arid and semi-arid Africa, these varieties do notreach proper maturity, and give good yields when rains in one of the seasons were inadequate.
Researchers at the Faculty of Agriculture in the University of Nairobi produced a new variety, which
had the following durable characteristics:(a) grew and matured in one season or about four months,(b) was shorter than the taller varieties and therefore easier to manage (about 1
metre height),(c) was very high yielding,(d) continued to produce as long as it was watered, and(e) was highly palatable, especially when used as a vegetable in its green stage.
When the University of Nairobi showed this to farmers in demonstration plots, especially during
agricultural shows, farmers received it with much enthusiasm and excitement. Propagation of thisvariety began and was made available through commercial seed agencies.
Currently, farmers are frustrated because they cannot get the seeds for this variety. Public institutions
which were supposed to produce them have failed, mainly because they are not profit seeking
institutions, but are more interested in academic research.

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31

Box 2 Success story: the case of banana
Banana is an important food crop in Kenya, especially in the well-watered regions of Central, Rift
Valley, Western, and Nyanza Provinces. In these regions, banana is eaten when ripe or cooked in
the form of plantains ‘Matoke’. Banana varieties in many parts of Kenya have very tall stems andtake very long to mature (often over 18 months). A JKUAT researcher noted that yields per plant
were disappointing and propagation was very slow and tideous, since people normally used suckers
as a means of propagation. She undertook research to change all these. She was successful beyond
measure. She was able to introduce in the country banana production through tissue culture, inwhich clones could be produced from chosen high yielding plants. Thousands of such clones could
be produced from a few plant tissues. The result was a short banana variety (Dwarf Cavendishtype), reaching an average height of one and a half metre. This variety matures in 12-14 months,
hence reducing the time to maturity by about 50%. It also produces a bigger bunch with more hands
and fingers, which mature quickly, giving highly palatable bananas when ripe. When this variety
was shown in agricultural shows, it caused quite a stir among farmers. Many immediately booked
the suckers intending to convert their bananas exclusively to this variety. Indeed the demand wasso brisk that it could not be satisfied.
This has been the case to date and indicates that farmers potentially respond positively to technologies
that increase their yields and profits. This research is being expanded to include other varieties ofbananas and other crops, and provides a good illustration of the fact that when it is well targeted,
R&D can have desirable effects on the livelihoods of many in SSA.
Source: Own Survey, 2000.

Chapter Six
Strengths and Weaknesses of S&T Capacities(non-Industrial) in SSA
One of the principal causes of the weaknesses of S&T capacity in SSA is the socio-economic andpolitical setting (or conditions) obtaining in most of these countries (see Box 3). The main aspects ofthese conditions are:(a) lack of good leadership;(b) abject poverty on a massive scale; and(c) a general populace, which does not fully appreciate the value of the S&T available to them.
Leadership
One of the factors that handicap the development process in SSA is the general lack of good politicalleadership so pervasive in the region.
Countries like Mauritius have demonstrated that with a clear and distinct policy on S&T and economic
development, it is possible to transform a poor agrarian society as obtains in most SSA countries into a
thriving dynamic modern and technologically developing economy, within a generation. The presenceof requisite legal and legislative arrangements has contributed considerably to success. The lesson isclear: leadership is key to the generation of S&T research capacity and initiating and sustaining oftechnological development in any SSA country today.
Also worthy of mention are handicaps in the areas of management and institutional settings (see Box
4). These tend to be frustrating and structurally dysfunctional. After all, most public research institutions
were set up during the colonial period and have not been modified to reflect post-independent realities.
Abject poverty
The poor and destitute cannot be a source of revenue to support the development of S&T research
capacity. On the contrary, they constitute a burden on the exchequer so that society can ill afford
setting aside adequate funds and other resources for the S&T effort. At the same time, the very poor
also tend to have very low levels of literacy. Such populations would have little appreciation for S & T
and the benefits it brings.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA33

Box 3 : Weak property protection and porous regulatory regimes: losses of potential benefits
to SSA
Sub-Saharan Africa’s research and development capacities have suffered severe setbacks. In themain, they have allowed major financial opportunities to slip through their fingers, because of sloppy
regulatory controls, and inadequate protective mechanisms erected for germplasm storage andexchange.
In Nigeria, local researchers at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) have beencollecting germplasm for many years. These have included: palms, yam, cassava, herbs, shrubs
and grasses. Over 20 years ago, researchers at the university of Ife had identified a sweetenercalled thaumatin found in a berry, which is widespread in nearby forests. Limited funding militatedagainst the commercial exploitation of the sweetener estimated to be 1600 times sweeter thanordinary sugar. However, the prevalence of a porous regulatory regime and weak property protection,
made it easy for the highly valuable germplasm to be pirated by unscrupulous research institutions
abroad. This is exactly what happened: A British University got hold of the germplasm and cloned
the protein now being used for the industrial production of the sweetener. A patent has also been
issued to the overseas researchers who now claim legal rights to the ownership of the gene. Yet
Nigeria, from whose forests the berry thrived through conservation efforts of indigenous communities,
is not receiving a cent from the commercialization endeavour.
Nigeria has also been the source of another commercialised gene called the cowpea trypsin inhibitor.
This protein which has a natural insect-killing ability, was cloned by a British University. The insecticide
is now generating enormous profits for the overseas researchers with Nigeria receiving nothing.
The failure to protect germplasm collections, coupled with an inability to argue strongly against
biopiracy as India has successfully done in the case of neem and other indigenous resources, isundermining Africa’s research capacities in terms of potential to benefit from successful inventive
work.
Source: Walgate, R. (1990) Miracle or Menace? Biotechnology and the Third World, The Panos Institute,London, pp. 161-162.
Apathy among the population
Apart from the grinding poverty of the masses in SSA, most of the people, both literate as well as
illiterate, seem to be ignorant of the whole issue of S&T research and what it can do to their standard ofliving. Thus, for most, science is just something their children have to learn in school, and they do notknow what technology is all about. There is therefore no culture of research and technology and hence
no clamouring for S&T research in these communities. Therefore, for S&T research to flourish in SSA,
there is need to develop a culture that appreciates science, research and technology.
Most of the research is carried out on specific commodities, especially those made for export and cash
crops. Most of the research effort in Kenya, for example, is on coffee (through the Coffee Research

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Foundation), on tea (through the Kenya Tea Development Authority) and sugar (The Kenya Sugar
Authority). Other research efforts are focussed on the main food crops such as maize, potatoes andpulses under the auspices of Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI).
This focus on commodity-specific research is a reflection of the colonial nature of most SSA economies.
Many African economies are former colonies of the developed countries and during the colonial period
they were developed (as export enclaves), to serve the economic interests of the colonising countries.
Nigeria, for example, developed as an exporter of palm oil and tin; Ghana, cocoa and aluminium; Ivory
Coast, cocoa and coffee; and Kenya and Tanzania, coffee, tea and sisal.
These crops were largely grown under plantation agriculture, and the plantations were owned in mostcases by huge multinational conglomerates, such as Brooke Bond and Delmonte. These multinationals,
largely initiated much of this research in order to improve the yield and quality of the export crops. After
independence, the research was taken over by the emerging nations, but continues to be crop specific.
Since research in much of SSA is crop specific, only the major crops are covered and most of the minor
ones in terms of commercial agriculture are neglected11. Thus, very little research is undertaken on
such crops like millet, sorghum, cowpeas, greengrams, finger millet, pigeon peas, cassava, sweet
potatoes and yams.

11 There is no comprehensive data on wide-ranging cases based on original research. It would be interesting toundertake an Africa-wide study to see the trends and anomalies.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA35

Box 4 The costs of missed opportunities: the case of the Ethiopian Endod
The failure of African institutions and governments to protect some of their most valuable, highly
promising, and potentially lucrative R&D results, is a tragedy of horrendous proportions. Thisweakness means that the institutions concerned lose momentous opportunities to tap into sourcesof significant financial returns. Tragically, the financial benefits flowed elsewhere.
The case of endod is particularly relevant in this regard. In more recent times, an indigenous plantin Ethiopia (that has been used for generations in a variety of ways), has suddenly become asubject of patent protection in industrialized countries. The story of endod rings in our minds withpiercing familiarity as many other cases occur of indigenous plants, suddenly becoming the property
of firms or other institutions in industrialized countries. The specific and generic uses of some plants
have been known in indigenous communities for years, but this knowledge abruptly belongs tosomebody else. Such declarations are received with impunity in industrialized countries. Usually,
the plants are subjected to ‘scientific testing’ and ‘systematic verification’ and the data which suchlaboratory activities produce tend to justify ownership. What is not really appreciated is that the data
only tends to confirm what has already been known for generations. A few studies here and someclinical tests there become the basis of what are considered as 'original discoveries'. With this data
(derived from knowledge hitherto well-established) and a little of 'scientific coating' of facts alreadyknown, property rights change places.
This is exactly what happened to endod. The berry was known to indigenous community members
for ages in Ethiopia before systematic studies began to be carried out by Ethiopia’s own ‘son of thesoil’, Dr. Aklilu Lemma. Lemma’s research sensibilities were aroused when he noticed an abundanceof dead snails at a point where the use of endod in laundry work was common. It became apparent
that the endod powder had a fatal impact on snails, the deadly carriers of schistosomiasis andbilharzia. With this discovery, Lemma made efforts to develop a low-cost molluscicide after extensive
field trials in Ethiopia. His endeavours were geared to replace the expensive chemical synthetics
imported from industrialized countries. One of the remarkable characteristics of endod is that it
could be widely grown, was easy to process, and was cheap to cultivate. It is also a natural detergent,soap and shampoo. This fact is interesting in that the berry powder is biodegradable in 24 hours.
Nature has its own answer to a lethal problem.
The institution that slowed down Lemma’s progress and even delayed its widespread application in
Africa was none other than the World Health Organization (WHO) itself. WHO insisted that the data
emerging form Ethiopia was unscientific at best and unreliable at worst. Only data coming fromwell-established medical research centres can be beyond reproach; the developing countries are
not known to possess research centres with such repute and data produced in these countries was
not considered to be reliable. This attitude to research work emanating from developing countries ismost unfortunate. It is responsible for scientific retrogression in Africa and many countries in theSouth.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Box 4 contd.

Lemma himself is irritated by this widespread mentality. He notes:'The root problems of research in Africa are not only lack of adequate facilities and funds, but also
the biases and reservations of some individuals and organizations in industrialized countries, whofind it difficult to accept that any good science can come from our part of the world.'
It also needs to be mentioned that property institutions in industrialized countries are also stacked
against property regimes existing in the South. These biases and reservations have thus had areinforcing effect on each other.
Source: Khalil, M.H. (1995) "Biodiversity and the Conservation of Medicinal Plants: Issues from the Perspective of
the Developing World" in Intellectual Property Rights and Biodiversity Conservation,Swanson, T. (ed.). Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, pp.246-248.

Also, very little or no research is undertaken on minor fruit and vegetable crops such as papaya, guava,
passion fruit, and peas. Indigenous fruits and vegetables have more less been ignored completely.
This is an unfortunate state of affairs since such crops may be of little commercial significance. However,they are important subsistence crops and play an important role as food sources for most people in the
SSA region and for their survival, especially, in times of extreme hardships.
Much of the research in SSA countries is in the hands of public institutions. The private sector plays an
insignificant role in the funding, choice of emphasis, and execution of research of the region. However,in the last two decades, many SSA countries have experienced severe economic hardships with theresult that their budgetary allocations to S & T capacities have declined sharply to mere pittance. Thismeans that S&T research in these countries has become negligible.
Since much of the research of SSA states is carried out by public institutions, most researchers are civil
servants. As such, they are subject to the low wages and other unattractive remunerations that obtainin the public service in Africa. The pay packages are so low that the researchers have no incentives towork hard and be productive. This means that there is very little to show in the way of results even formeagre resources deployed to support the research in these institutions. Thus, while adequate funding
levels would be crucial, it is essential to note that the institutional and managerial dimensions of researchorganisations need to be adequately addressed to generate optimum reults.
There is a general absence of scheme to reward researchers who are productive in the form of innovations
and inventions. Indeed, promotions and other forms of career advancement for researchers from these
institutions are based on nepotism, bribery, tribalism, and other non-objective considerations. Many
researchers in SSA countries become dispirited, disillusioned and discouraged and hence unproductive.
As a result, S&T research output in most SSA countries is negligible.
Many universities in SSA carry out considerable research especially in agriculture and animal husbandry.
However, the research in universities is motivated by academic pursuits and is not directed towards

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37

serving the R&D
needs of society. The result is that research has led to negligible impact on the technological progressof the African countries. Even in cases where potentially beneficial breakthroughs have been made,there has been little follow-up in the form of dissemination of the ideas and products involved. Thismeans that the benefits accruing have been few and far between.
Lack of adequate funds has been a major constraint to S&T research in most research institutions anduniversities in SSA countries. As a result, these societies continue to lag behind the rest of the world intechnological development.
Many countries in the SSA are seriously underdeveloped with respect to information technology (IT).
Consequently, research institutions lack adequate computer hardware and software as well as therequisite personnel to operate them. This is a serious limitation to the development and expansion of
S&T research capacity.
There is a general lack of qualified scientists especially in specialised areas in many SSA nations.
Consequently, research in areas such as genetic engineering and manipulation is seriously constrained.
This general shortage of highly skilled scientists and researchers is partly caused by the brain drainfrom Africa to the developed countries. They leave in search of better wages and working conditions
and also to escape oppressive regimes12. These considerations mean that it is nearly impossible for
SSA countries to develop meaningful capacity in S&T research. Other concerns are as follows:••••

That researchers have inadequate understanding of the strategies that farmers use (commonly
called indigenous knowledge).
Research has for a long time lacked consideration of external factors such as markets, credit,
financial, and general policy that condition farmers’ attitude towards risk.
Some researchers lack understanding of the difference between statistical use and risks to livelihoods
as perceived by farmers.
Poor coordination with and between field centres.

12 Again, no work has been undertaken on an Africa-wide basis to determine the areas vital for indigenous
capacity-building. This could form an interesting research undertaking.

Chapter Seven
Profile of Industrial Technological Capacities in SSA
It would be useful to distinguish the major types of technological capabilities in order to see what
specific and generic competences various SSA economies have built over the years (Annex 8). The
main ones are: production, investment and innovation capabilities. Production capability refers to theexistence of skills, knowledge, and experience, to operate and maintain production facilities
On the other hand, investment capability refers to the availability of skills, knowledge, and experience,
to design and reproduce production facilities for investment locally or abroad. Finally, innovation capability
refers to the existence of skills, knowledge and experience that can improve and modify existingproduction facilities, to enhance efficiency or accommodate domestic inputs. SSA countries havesucceeded in generating production capabilities in a wide
range of manufacturing activities (Table 6). Most of these were established in an effort to satisfy obvious
local demand, hitherto fulfilled by in-flowing imports. The basic trend involved the production of essential
consumer and intermediate goods, such as matches, nails, soap, iron, pipes and iron sheets, hence thepattern of import substitution industrialization. With regard to technological capacities, the status of
institutions in SSA can be summarized in Tables 7 and 8 (see also Box 5).

39

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Table 6: Production Capabilities in Selected SSA Countries
P r o d u c i n g

C o u n t r y

P r o d u c t s

A n g o l a

F u e lo i l ,

c o f f e e

C a m e r o o n

f u e lo i l ,

c o c o a ,C o n g o

f u e lo i l ,

t i m b e r

G a b o n

f u e lo i l ,

t i m b e r

N i g e r i a

f u e lo i l

S e y c h e l l e s

f u e lo i l ,

B u r u n d i

c o f f e e

C e n t r a l

R e p u b l i c

c o p r a ,c o f f e e ,d i a m o n d s ,M a d a g a s c a r

c o f f e e ,c l o v e s ,R w a n d a

c o f f e e ,t i n ,

T a n z a n i a

c o f f e e ,c o t t o n ,U g a n d a

c o f f e e ,c o t t o n

c o c o a ,c o c o a ,G h a n ac o c o a ,b a u x i t e ,S a oc o c o a

C o teA f r i c a n

f i s h ,t i m b e r

d ' I v o i r e

E q u a t o r i a l

G u i n e a

T o m eB e n i n

s p i c e s

t i m b e r ,l i v e s t o c k
h a r df i b r e s

c o f f e e ,p a l mo i l ,

t i m b e r ,c o f f e e

f u e lo i l

f u e lo i lt i m b e r

c o t t o n ,c o c o a ,c o t t o n ,v e g e t a b l e

C h a dc o t t o n ,l i v e s t o c k

M a lic o t t o n ,l i v e s t o c k

S u d a n

c o t t o n ,v e g e t a b l e

G a m b ia

g r o u n d n u t s

G u i n e a - B i s s a u

g r o u n d n u t s ,c a s h e w

S e n e g a l

g r o u n d n u t s ,f i s h ,C a p ef i s h ,b a n a n a s ,f r u i t

M a u r i t a n i a

f i s h ,p r a w n s ,s u g a r ,c o t t o n

M o z a m b i q u e

f i s h ,p r a w n s ,s u g a r ,c o t t o n

S e n e g a l

f i s h ,p r a w n s ,s u g a r ,c o t t o n

M a u r i t i u s

s u g a r

R e u n i o n

s u g a r

S w a z i l a n d

s u g a r ,M a l a w i

T o b a c c o ,B u r k i n a

F a s oV e r d e

f r u i t ,p a l mi r o no i l ,

o i l ,

l i v e s t o c k ,g r o u n d n u t s

o i l ,

l i v e s t o c k ,g r o u n d n u t s

n u t s ,s u g a ro i l

T o b a c c o
L i v e s t o c k ,f u e lS o m a lia

L i v e s t o c k ,b a n a n a s ,f r u i t

M a lil i v e s t o c k ,b a n a n a s ,f r u i t

B o t s w a n a

d i a m o n d s ,m e a tG u i n e ab a u x i t e

M a u r i t a n i ai r o nN i g e ru r a n i u m
L e o n el i v e s t o c k ,l i v e s t o c k ,d i a m o n d s ,c o c o a ,T o g op h o s p h a t e s ,Z a i r ec o p p e r ,Z a m b i a

c o p p e r

o i l
f u e lf i s hg r o u n d n u t s

c o f f e e ,c o c o a ,c o f f e e ,

,

o r e

t e a ,

Zim b a b w e

S i e r r ap a l mp h o s p h a t e s

D j i b o u t io r e ,

c o t t o n

v a n i l l a

f u e lb a u x i t e

c o t t o n ,o i l

c o f f e e

o i l

40

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table 7: Status of Capacities for the assimilation of technology in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
Steps involved

Capacities

Needs and capability assessment
Resource assessment
Technology forecasting and assessment
Demand assessment
Identification of internationally available
technologies

Except for a limited number of cases, most nationals
capacities are not robustly disposed to build
technological capabilities from imported technologies.
This conclusion applies to points 1-11.

Choice, evaluating and negotiating
mechanism
Investment for import
Adaptation and production
Commercialization
Assimilation and upgradation
R&D
Prototype for national development andtesting
Investment for local generation
Production

Except for production capabilities, most capacities are
generally weakly disposed to undertake prototype
development and also investments in the local
generation of industrial technologies

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA41

Box 5 Nnewi as a success story: an emergent industrial cluster in Nigeria
Nnewi is a semi-urban town in Eastern Nigeria. It is a fast growing industrial complex in the heartlandof the east, far removed from any major metropolis. It lacks access to the internal road network, isstarved of piped water and communications, and has totally been ignored by the government. The
community is constituted of highly motivated, daring, industrious , innovative and thrifty people,
who have created a technological centre in their hometown, and changed almost unrecognizably
the character of business for which they had hitherto been associated with in Nigeria over theyears. At first, they were simple merchandizers, known to engage in trade and transportation. The
process of advancement in Nnewi has followed the route, from an agrarian community (farmer) totrader (business) community and then to manufacturing (industrializing enclave). Three sectoral
groups of production have been identified: (a) basic metal, iron /steel and fabricated metal products;(b) the electrical and electronics sector; and (c) the motor vehicles and miscellaneous assembly.
Inspite of the different economic conditions in Nigeria and unlike many other large scale public
enterprises, engineering firms at Nnewi are operating at a profit.
The reasons behind Nnewi’s success can be classified into three. Firstly, the indepth knowledge on
how firms acquire technology and address issues of technical change. Secondly, how small andmedium enterprises can enhance prospects for competiveness and on the path of continuous
productivity growth. Thirdly, the deep knowledge of exploiting strong networks of small firms, thepromotion of division of labour and specialization through subcontracting, and the realization of thebenefits of economies of scale and scope, and collective capability development. Geographicalproximity enhances cohesion, interfirm transactions and institutional effectiveness. There is also
the issue of cooperation, which does not seem to have affected rivalry and healthy competition.
Information exchange could be formal or informal through institutions or interfirm technical exchanges.
Relative easy access to capital, has led to widespread entrepreneurial dynamism. The existence ofspecialized production units that offer quality design, flair and innovation is as a result of flexibilityof the firms. Trust and cultural affinity has been another factor to comment on the success of SME
clusters. Cooperation rather than rigid and antagonistic employer - employee relation, has assured
stability of clusters.
The clusters in East Nigeria do not have the level of skilled workforce found in European clusters,
but high level enterpreneurship is exhibited in many of them. Nnewi clusters have also beencharacterized by informal credit and information sharing among firms.

42

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Box 5 contd.
Most of the entrepreneurs have only elementary education, but before engaging in production, a
relation would fund the training effort through an apprenticeship exercise. Kinship support andaffiliation has defined the structure of trading and, subsequently, that of manufacturing. Most haveadopted the strategy of keeping the skills and experiences gained within the family, while reducing
the risk of losing a valuable worker. Trust between employers and employees has been critical for
success. Employing relatives into the trading and manufacturing network has reduced the risk ofsabotage and ensured some measure of loyalty. The widespread provision of private facilities suchas water-boreholes, electricity, and communication facilities, have contributed to their success.
Some entrepreneurs sponsored themselves to study factory operations in Taiwan, before making acommitment. On their return, most went ahead to import machinery and equipment. Services ofengineering personnel were contracted for setting up the plant, while the entrepreneur closely
watched. There was no state support for training; on-the-job training during production takes theform of ‘close marking’ of the foreign technical partners. This ‘close marking’ during the piecemeal
procurement of machinery made them successful; they observed the entire plant assembly process.
They mastered both the product and process technologies well. External training of start-up/pioneering
staff was undertaken either in Taiwan or on-the-job. Instructions were given by the foreign technicalpartner. Some of the successful SMES are IBETO Group of Companies, Adswibch, Greatland
Industries Limited, Godwinkris Industries Limited, G.O.D Brothers Company Ltd, Cento group ofCompanies, Omatha Holdings Ltd, Isaho Industries Ltd and John White Industries Ltd.
Other forms of learning included learning by doing during production and maintenance. Othersignificant determinants of technology development included competition, both local and foreign. A
thorough understanding of factor inputs, their accessibility, availability and raw material costs, costsof components and spares, the level and pattern of demand, relative changes in factor prices,evaluation of domestic and foreign markets, structure of inputs and outputs, and technologicalmarkets had been built consciously and deliberately. Other vital factors that have contributed tosuccess include, understanding the nature of technology and production prices, accessing
technological information, exploring the availability and type of suppliers and customers, generating
working capital and credit for investment, and the drive to succeed.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Table 8: Selected cases of small firm industrial clusters in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
Country

Clusters

Activities

Burkina Faso

Ouagadougou

Motor vehicle repair, Tailoring, Electrical repair,
Iron working, Grain milling

Ghana

Assi (Tamale)
Tema (Accra)

Food processing,
Metal working

Kenya

Kamukunji (Nairobi)
KisumuEmbu

Agricultural imprents making , Metal working,Wood working,

MalawiBlantyre

Food processing, Wood working, Textiles ,Metal working

Nigeria

Awka
Zaria
Lagos

Iron working
Leather works
Wood working

Uganda

Katwe
Jinja

Metal working

Source : Oyelaran - Oyeyinka, B. (1997) Nnewi: An Emergent Industrial Cluster in Nigeria, Technopol
Publishers, Ibadan, Nigeria, p. 16.

43

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Box 6 Innovation capabilities, expropriation and marginalization of domestic capacities: thecase of geothermal development in Kenya
Some firms in SSA have generated minor innovations; the case of the Olkaria Geothermal Plant in
Kenya is worth reviewing. Geothermal water is hot and therefore needs to be cooled to prevent
thermal pollution. One way of cooling the waste water is to use mechanical drought towers. Mechanicaldraught towers brought additional problems which were not envisaged by the consultants, i.e. thefailure of cooling tower grids to remain in place, because wooden hooks weakened and resulted in
the grids falling off to the base of the concrete structure. After four years, Unit 1 of the cooling tower
experienced grid collapse. The grids which were imported were made of treated wood. Orders wereplaced for replacement, but while the imports were being awaited, local wood was used instead.
The highly corrosive acidic water dissolved away the replacements within a week, and compounded
the problem of blockage of water distribution nozzles.
Olkaria sought assistance from a local timber firm, Timsales, to solve the cooling tower grid system.
Timsales argued that the grids were made from wood treated with Chromated Copper Arsenate.
This timber preservative is a poisonous chemical, inflammable and its use is prohibited locally.
Domestic production of the grids was therefore impossible.
Olkaria used fibre-glass as a solution to the grid problem. This followed a suggestion by a technician
who had observed that fibre-glass resisted corrosion. The trial fibre-glass grids were successful
and Kenya Power and Lighting Company Ltd (KPLC) commissioned a local firm to design a jig andfabricate the product. This innovational development took place before the cooling tower erection
for phase two. The consultants took this knowledge on board, and the tender specifications forphase two made explicit reference to a fibre-glass grid system. Olkaria phase two uses a homebred innovation. The use of fibre-glass grids has not affected power output, but has increased
performance because:
1. no more cases of blockage are reported,
2. forced outages due to collapsing grids have been eliminated altogether, and3. the material was adopted and acceptable under KBS regulations.
Source: Khalil, M.H., 1992.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA45

Box 7 Non-existing or incompetent technology screening agencies: the case of technologicalmodularization
Energy technologies are getting more and more sophisticated. The choice of modular technology
for the prospective phases in Olkaria geothermal development will have adverse technologicalimplications. Many KPLC engineers pointed out that the decision by Ewbank Preece and Partners
to invest in a modular technology, should have been received for technological and capacity building
reasons. They stated the following objections: First, because the sub-modules consist of parts
locked into each other and fitted together at source, the knowledge about the nature of these parts,
their systemic interdependence, and their interlocking arrangements has not gained first hand.
Secondly, there is limited flexibility and access to repair and maintenance of modular assemblies.
There is limited room for manoeuvre, because of their structural compactness. Constraints of spaceadds to the gravity of the technological learning process. In fact, the compactness is meant to cut
down on repair and maintenance. The sub-assemblies and sectional wholes have to be removed
and a new equivalent fitted as replacement. Thirdly, stock-holding for modular products is difficult toachieve, because of lack of standardization with the more conventional technologies. Some KPLC
engineers observed that if the phase three technology was conventional (like phases one and two),then interchanging and stock holding would be a lot easier. Fourthly, manpower sourcing for nonconventional, modular technologies is limited. This aspect not only marginalizes the repair andmaintenance capabilities built in earlier phases, but also risks being exposed to monopolistic suppliers.
Fifthly, training is too specialized and will be of scant value to knowledge required for the existing
conventional system. As such, the cumulative technological experience obtained during operationsof earlier phases cannot be brought to bear on subsequent phases.
Source: Khalil, M.H., 1992.

Chapter Eight
Vital Lessons for Bilateral and Multilateral Institutions
The foregoing review of a few selected cases of technological capacities in SSA countries does not tell
us much about the range and diversity of capabilities existing in the region as a whole. They offer someinteresting and penetrating insights on some riveting examples of technological success (see Box 6)and some sad cases of technological failure. At the same time, many cases offer us only a glimpse of
the numerous obstacles (see Box 7) that have stood in the way of potentially promising technologicaldevelopments. At any rate, what the cases of success and failure reveal are the opportunities and risks
inherent in the evolution of domestic and technological capabilities. They also point to the possibilities
posed by the technology acquisition process.
More importantly, however, has been the revelation that SSA countries lack the baseline information on
existing technological capacities within their own borders. That is, most states have not designed arobust system aimed at building comprehensive profiles of available technological capabilities. The
information that is available is scattered in studies and reports, most of which only indirectly inform us
about existing competences.
In short, SSA countries have had no tradition of building profiles of existing technological capabilities.
Moreover, they have not directed any effort in assessing national technological gaps and levels; theseby derivation, being drawn from an assessment of important human needs. Since these tasks have notbeen undertaken, and, therefore, not yet institutionalized, SSA countries have not been able to establish
running programmes for assessing national technological needs. In summary then, Africa’s prospects
for technological change will begin to rest on sound foundations, if they embark on the following:•••

Assessment of national resource profiles.
Assessment of national technological capabilities, gaps and levels, areas of relevance and needs.
Building of capacity quality control and standards.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

47

In all fairness, most SSA countries have data on the national resource profiles; the information has
typically covered the quantities of natural resources. However, the information is not comprehensive
enough as to be of great value. Determining stocks and flows and their quality would be indispensable,
but this would only form a part of the profiling process. With respect to national technologicalcapabilities13, it would be crucial to build information on the quantity and quality of human resources(Annexes 1-3) such as:••••

managers and engineers,technicians and skilled workers,
craftsmen, semi-skilled, and other workers, andinventors and innovators.

In addition, the assessment exercise should include profiles of technical resources (Annex 4), such as
equipment, tools and machines (general and specific). It should also cover institutional resources
comprising of departments, industrial units, public agencies, enterprises, and their linkages, and national
linkages Annexes 5 and 6). Lastly, the assessment task should address informational resources, suchas manuals, brochures, blue prints, operating and maintenance booklets, design and technical data.
Now, as SSA countries embark on this stage, they should carry out a further assessment of national
technological capabilities in a standard, systematized format to classify the technological capacities(Table 9).
Once these tasks are accomplished (assessment of national resources and capabilities), the othertypes of assessments mentioned earlier should then follow. But at present, SSA countries could very
well be advised to proceed with these foundational profiles.

13 Technological profiling comprises of assessments in human, technical, institutional and informational spheres.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table 9: A standard classification format for assessing national technological capabilities
Type of capacity

ExampleCultivating

Agriculture, livestock, forestry

Gathering

Natural gass, oil, fishing

Pre-processing

Grain milling, manufacture of paints andganishes

Processing

Sugar factories, refineries

Manufacturing

Spinning, weaving, finishing textiles,
production of metal products

Assembling

Manufacture of apparel, containers, andoxes and paper board

Packaging

Canning and preserving fruits, vegetables,s o ft drinks and bottling of carbonated water

Constructing

Construction

Distributing

Electrical power

Supporting

Ship reparing, transport and banking

Source: adapted.
It is evident why a comprehensive review and status of S&T capacities in SSA is very difficult to buildfrom scattered studies and reports. The reason for this is that Africa has yet to proceed with the mostbasic tasks of technological endevour14.

14 Most of the issues on science were covered in the early sections of this report. That is why I noted the need todevelop a robust regime of science indicators in all the areas I had mentioned.

Chapter Nine
The Brain Drain and Erosion of S&T Capacity in Africa15
The African Capacity Building Foundation has estimated that Africa is losing an average of 20,000
skilled personnel a year to developed countries. About 128,000 Africans have emigrated to the USA
alone over the last two decades (Annex 7). The largest migratory flow from Africa to the USA has beenfrom Egypt (25 %), Ghana (26%), and South Africa (8%).
African professionals moving to settle abroad are depriving the continent of much-needed skills. WorldBank estimates indicate that Africa is presently employing about 100,000 expatriates from industrializedcountries. Their cost is equal to US $4 billion equivalent, about 35 per cent of the total official development
assistance flowing into the SSA countries.
Several factors have been attributed to the migration of highly educated individuals. There appears to
be two forces at work, the push-out and pull-in factors in Table 10.
In 1998 alone, at least 120 doctors left Ghana for the USA. It is estimated that about 600 Ghanaian
physicians are working in the USA presently, constituting 50 per cent of Ghana’s skilled medical
practitioners16. Nigeria has at least 10,000 academics working abroad. Estimates show that about
40,000 African nationals with doctorates are operating in industrialized countries17.

15 Data for this section was derived from Aredo, D. (2002) "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of
Brain Drain in Ethiopia". Paper Presented at the Regional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in
Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Moreover, this report concentrated on brain drain to countries outside Africa. No
report exists to show movement to other African countries.
16 ibid, Sethi, (2002), p. 3.
17 ibid, Sethi, (2002), p. 3

50

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table10: Some push and pull factors affecting brain drain
Push Factors

Pull Factors

Low wages adn salaries

Higher wages and income

Political instability

Higher standard of living and better way oflife

Over-productionand under-utilisation ofqualified manpower

Allocation of substantial funds for researchTechnological gap

Lack of research and other facilities

Modern educational system and better
career opportunities

Discrimination in appointment and promotion

Prestige of foreign training

Lack of Freedom

Better working condition and employment
opportunities

Lack of satisfactory working conditions

Intellectual freedom

Lack of scientific tradition

Relative political stability

Desire for higher qualifications andrecognition

Presence of a rich, scientific and cultural
tradition

Better career expectations

Availability of experienced supporting staff

Public apathy

Motivational factors and recognition

Source: Adapted by Aredo, D. (2000) "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain in
Ethiopia". Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, p.7.

It is estimated that the Ethiopian Diaspora in the USA alone numbers about 250,000 with at least
50,000 residing in Washington alone18. Looking at Table 10, it is evident the number of Ethiopian nonreturnees sent abroad to study has increased over time. As the table reveals, the average rate of staff
non-returnees has been around 35 per cent.

18 Aredo D. (2002) "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An assessment of Brain Drain from Ethiopia". Paper presented
at the regional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 10.

51

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Table 11: Profile of Ethiopian staff from case study institutions not returned home
Study Period

AAU 1981/2 - 1994/5

ESTC 1986/7 - 1995/6

Percentage of non-returnees

35

41

Fields with higher % of nonreturnees

Medicine (43%)

Technology (56%)

Programme of study with highest% of non-returnees

Ph.D. and Specialization(42%)

Certificate Ph.D. (100)Major host countries

West Europe (42%)

West Europe (94%)

Major donors

Institutions (68%)

NA

Source: Adapted by Aredo, D. (2000) "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain in
Ethiopia". Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, p.19.

These trends have certainly had a negative impact on local capacities. The ambition to build S&T
capacities in Africa would require putting in place conducive pull-in conditions of the typeenumerated in Table11. Political reforms, good governance, democratization, conflict prevention andresolution, the strengthening of civil society, and the re-appraisal of technical assistance regime,
should be given priority.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Figure 2: Extent of migration from SSA to USA

Chapter Ten
Solation and Obsolescence of Researchers
A number of agricultural research institutions in Africa have established extremely strong connections
with research institutions elsewhere in the developed world. In fact, the connections have largely involved
germplasm collections and attempts by international research centres to secure access to stored
collections. However, over the last decade, linkages with counterpart researchers abroad has declined
considerably, apart from a minute number of selected cases (Table 12), overall, linkages and collaboration
between researchers has been poor and so has international networking. International exchange
programmes, sabbatical engagements, and short term career enhancement awards have nearly all
been cut back or abolished completely. Participation in fellowships and international symposia andconferences has almost ground to a halt. Lack of funds has been the oft-cited reason for this notabledecline. Government budgets do not cater for travel to international conferences.
Moreover, many national research organizations, except of course the international agencies such as
ILRI and ICIPE, have not been able to keep abreast with professional scientific and technologicaldevelopments elsewhere, because membership to international organizations and subscription to journals
of great worth, have fallen drastically. At the same time, African researchers have not been able toconsistently link up with their peers abroad using electronic mail, because of the expense involved. The
facilities are declining in cost, but still the sums involved strain the personal budgets of the researchers.
In most cases, most universities have found themselves hard-pressed in maintaining these facilities.
On average, less than 1 per cent of researchers are capable of sustaining regular professional contacts
with peers elsewhere19. Yet, it needs to be pointed out that linkages between African institutions
themselves are few and far between. This is generally true whether the focus is national or regional.

19 See ibid, Aredo, 2000, p. 32.

54

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Table 12: Summary statistics of staff who left for studies abroad from AAU and ESTC, 1981/82- 1996/97
A A U

Y E A RL

E S T C
N R

L

N R

1 9 8 1 / 8 2

3 3

1

N A

N A

1 9 8 2 / 8 3

6 1

2

N A

N A

1 9 8 3 / 8 4

7 4

6

N A

N A

1 9 8 4 / 8 5

9 1

2 2

N A

N A

1 9 8 5 / 8 6

8 5

1 5

N A

N A

1 9 8 6 / 8 7

9 0

2 4

4

-

1 9 8 7 / 8 8

1 1 0

2 0

1 6

5

1 9 8 8 / 8 9

7 9

2 2

8

3

1 9 8 9 / 9 0

7 6

3 2

2 3

8

1 9 9 0 / 9 1

8 3

3 7

11

4

1 9 9 1 / 9 2

6 0

5 3

1 3

1 0

1 9 9 2 / 9 3

8 0

4 5

N A

N A

1 9 9 3 / 9 4

7 6

5 6

N A

N A

1 9 9 4 / 9 5

9

2 0

N A

N A

1 9 9 5 / 9 6

N A

N A

1

1

1 9 9 6 / 9 7

N A

N A

N A

N A

Total

1 , 0 0 7

3 5 5

7 6

3 1

%

3 5

4 1

Source: Adapted by Aredo, D (2000) "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain in
Ethiopia". Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 32.

Chapter Eleven
Strenghths and Weaknesses of Technological Capacity
Building
Africa’s general strengths lie in the existence of institutional arrangements already disposed to scientificresearch (Annex 8). Indeed, if collaboration with the private sector and the international research agencies
could be enhanced, many public agencies would brighten their prospects for research.
Also to be mentioned is the orientation of many research agencies. These have largely focussed on
research that has been demand-driven. Human resources have been developed with this particularfeature in mind.
The major weaknesses that inhibit the development of S&T include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

lack of a comprehensive set of science and technological indicators to guide action and monitor
progress.
ineffective planning, programming, disseminating and coordinating functions of research institutions.
poor utilization of R&D results.
limited resources to train adequate manpower followed by non-customized training.
poor renumeration of scientists, engineers, and other auxiliary staff.
general obsolescence of infrastructure, research facilities, and other support facilities.
limited inter-institutional collaboration at the national and regional level.
limited participation by the private sector in S&T activities.
lack of inspiring leadership.
favouritism in allocation of rewards, scholarships and fellowships.
poorly disposed assessing of technological opportunities and screening of appropriate technologies.

The potential to build technological capacities has largely been constrained or undermined by thefollowing factors:
•
•
•
•
•

tied aid and purchases that undermine the ability of domestic economies to increase domestic
content.
failure to exploit public domain technologies.
lack of tradition of analyzing patents and patent histories of basic innovations.
commitment to science and technology more rhetorical than real.
poorly disposed and rationalized institutional structures to promote technological development.

56

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12••

misleading conceptualization of the science and technology relationship.
no sustained national short-term course on technology acquisition where success stories areanalyzed and cases of failure evaluated.
political interference and corruption by local leaders.
the conduct of export credit agencies in oversees countries.
lack of knowledge on the part of domestic negotiators on what technological capacities to build andhow to build them.
trivialization of pre-investment, and project execution and implementation services.
poor preparation and ill information on the part of domestic negotiators.
cred control to overseas consultants, contractors and suppliers of technology.
marginalization of professionals, experts and specialists in negotiations.
restrictive and conditioning policies of multilateral and donor funding institutions.
ineffective and poorly designed policy framework to actively guide and influence the evolution ofrobust competence.
non-existing or patchy databases on national technology profiles and domestically available
technological competencies and technology profiles.
absence of robust strategies and programmes to increase domestic content.
a non-existing tradition for active search of diverse national, regional and international options,
opportunities and sources of techno-industrial capabilities.
existence of national lame-duck institutions to screen technology agreements.
absence of ethos and traditions to actively acquire technologies.
weak engagement or non-involvement in pre-investment activities.
absence of visionary leadership in technological matters.
institutional dispersion and dysfunction.
lack of organized training in technology management and technology policy disciplines.
absence of integrated techno-industrial strategies.

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Chapter Twelve
Gaps that Need to be Given Priority
This study has noted two major gaps that have militated against the development of strategies crucial
towards spearheading technological advance in SSA countries:
1. the absence of a comprehensive system of S&T indicators. The immense benefits of the latter
were identified earlier
2. the absence of comprehensive technological profiles stemming for lack of assessments of thefollowing:
•
•
•
•
•

national resource profiles, andnational technological capabilities,
gaps and levels,
areas of relevance andneeds.

Bilding capacities in these areas is pivotal if SSA countries are to forge a technology policy framework,
caable of guiding the private sector and stimulating wider technological change. These tasks would
transform industrial policies from being technologically benign to being technologically catalytic.
The areas that SSA needs to pay particular attention to, include: renewable energy research; technologicalreearch into equipment design, machinery fabrication, and engineering hardware; and tlecommunications,electronics, computer hardware, and all aspects of information technology. Table 13 covers the key
domains that the continent should begin addressing in earnest.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

In the acquisition of development of S&T capacities, Africa should concentrate her efforts in the following
broad areas20:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

food production and security,
energy (renewable),
housing,transport,
health (HIV/AIDS),
telecommunications and information technology, andenvironment (water).

20 These areas could have public as well as private components. At any rate, a needs assessment would haveto be carried out to determine the specific foci at national and regional levels.

Chapter Thirteen
Recommendations
1. The first thing that bilateral and multilateral institutions could do is to assist SSA countries establish
a comprehensive, uniform and standardized framework of science and technology indicators. This
would entail building capacity in S&T data base management. The unit responsible for S&T datacollection, storage and retrieval should be set up and located in the relevant government departments
involved in statistical compilation and dissemination. A consultant could be identified to coordinate
the programme and assist in the preparation of questionnaires that would contain details of thevarious S&T measures and the tabular formats they would take. These would then be made toappear in the regularly consulted national statistical documents. National and regional workshops
could be held to harmonize efforts and facilitate the process. A five-to-ten year project, divided into
several stages, can be formulated to build and maintain a comprehensive S&T system of indicatorsand database management. Indeed, IDRC is well placed to spearhead such a programme on an
SSA-wide scale.
2. Bilateral and multilateral institutions can establish viable national and regional screening agencies
to monitor, identify and evaluate promising research results emanating from R&D institutions.
Funding could then be targeted to facilitate the stages of development and commercialization.
Particular interest should be on those R&D inventions with promising prospects for industrial
application. The lost opportunities stem from the expropriation of thaumatin, endod and the cowpea
trypsin inhibitor, because local funds for industrial development and commercialization were notforthcoming.
3. National capacities for guidance or actual involvement in technology acquisition are either very
weak or non-existent in SSA countries. This has been very costly for several countries if thenumerous publicized scandals and investment frauds are anything to go by. Bilateral and multilateral
institutions should embark on a robust capacity building programme that would entail customized
and tailor-made training in technology acquisition in all its diversity. Most people see this in termsof foreign direct investment, licensing, or outright sales (turn-key), but they are sadly mistaken.
The human, technical, informational and organizational requirements are phenomenal, and theseneed to be tackled step by step. Donor agencies could also support short-term national courses
in this area.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

4. SSA countries should concentrate on building robust national science and technology (S&T)
systems. They should include the following elements:•
Policy framework for training of people at all levels. These may include managers,
researchers, engineers, technologists and technicians.
•
Stimulation policies for technical change within enterprises. These should be bothradical and incremental.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

61

Table 13: Gaps in science and technological research in Sub-Saharan Africa
Prospective Field

Sub-fields

New Materials

Advanced composite materials; Alloys/metallic compunds; Fine ceramics; Carbon
materials; Amorphous materials; Highly pure polymer materials; Silicon chemicalmaterials

Electronics

Microelectronic materials; Superconducting devices; Power electronic elements;
Large area circuit elements

Biotechnology

Animal and plant cell engineering; High performance enzymes and biomaterials;
Genetic engineering; Bio-databanks; Screening and isolation of genes from all
sources; Bioreactor technology

New Materials/electronicrelated technologies

Metallic and inorganic material process technology; Precision molecular alignment
technology; Evaluation, analysis and measuring of technology; Processing
technology for extreme environments; Protein alignment technology; Biomembrane
technology; Analysis of bio-related materials

Bioelectronics

Bio-mimicking materials; Biocompatibility materials; Biochemicals technology;
Bioprocessing

Biomaterials

Self-organized data procesing systems; Self-organized neural works; Ultraparallel
processing architechture; Integrated mechanical control softwre; Softwaredevelopment technology; Disaster prevention technology; Environmental control
technology; Human-related technology; resource and energy technology; Robotic
technology; Flexible computer integrated manufacturing; Intelligent processing
equipment; Systems management technologies; Energy technologies; Pollution
minimization, remediation, and wastage management; Microelectronics: logic
chips, microprecessors, Submicron technology

Computer Software andSystems engineering

Electronic controls: a) Sensors
Informatin storage: a) Magnetic information storage software, b) Applications
software, c) Artifial intelligence
Computer modelling and dimulation; Expert systems; High-level software
languages; Software engineering;Computers: a) Hardware integration b) Operating systems c) Processor archtecture
Human interface and visualization technologies: a) Animation and fullmotion videob) Graphics hardware adnsoftware c) Handwriting and speech recognition d) Natural
lanugage e) Optical character recognition
Database systmes:a). Data representation, b). Retrieval updata, c). Semantic
modeling and interpretation.
Design and Engineering tools: a) Computer-aided engineering, c) Human factors
engineering, c) Measurement techniques, d) Systems engineering.
Commercialization and production systems: a) Computer-integrated manufacturing

Manufacturing

Process Equipment: a) Advanced welding, b) Joining and fastening technologies
Networks and Communications: a) Broadcast switching b) Digital infrastructure, c)
Fibre optic systems
Portable Telecommucations equipment and systems: a) Digital signal processingb) Transmitters and receivers

Electronic components
Energy and environment
Information technologies
Engineering andproduction technologies

62

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12•

There should be effective integration of governments’ S & T policies with its economic and social
policies.
There should be policies regarding the organization and funding of research, development
systems and institutions, besides networks.
There should be policy frameworks accounting for good governance and accountability of institutions
within the S & T systems.
There should be policies that protect public interests and at the same time link research systemand the productive sector.
Transparent and accountable structures should be established for overall policy management of S
& T over the long term.
Promotion of unimpeded flows of scientific, economic, social and technical information, nationally,
internationally and regionally.
Establishment of a basis, whereby the entire community is given opportunity in the formulation of
options for public policies.

•
•
•
•
•
•

The one area that SSA countries need to build technological capacity is renewable energy. Wind, solar,
geothermal, and biomass energy subsectors are growing rapidly around the world with estimatesindicating that their contribution to energy supply could reach 50% by the year 2050. Through cooperative
arrangements, several countries can band together to exploit the economies of scale.
Opportunities for intra-regional specialization can also be explored. Wind, solar and biomass technologies
or vital components and related parts, can be spread out in cost-effective ways. Given prospects for
growth and significance for sustainable development, African countries can join forces to build production,
investment and innovation capabilities.
South Africa and Zimbabwe have built significant capabilities in solar and photovoltaic technologies,
but to meet the growing energy needs within their own borders, national investment capacities will haveto be expanded considerably. Both South Africa and Zimbabwe can assist several blocs of Africancountries to establish significant capabilities in specific renewable technologies, where domestic
competence is clearly evident. Leading companies around the world could be engaged in the generationof technological capacities.
In the field of wind energy, for example, SSA can be selective in the choice of capacities they wish tobuild. These range from the design, development and manufacture of wind turbines, components,
blades, generators, gear boxes, towers and wind sensors. Technological capacities will also have to bebuilt in the service sector — installation, maintenance and engineering.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

63

Bilateral and multilateral institutions can promote interest in renewables, prepare baseline studies andfeasibility reports on the prospects for renewable energy investments in all their diversity. In particular,
they can focus on supporting those technologies that would have the greater impact on regional andrural development. These include: small scale wind generators, solar systems and other promising
stand-alone applications. Achieving sustainability is an indispensable goal if livelihoods and the qualityof life of citizens in Africa are to be improved. In this transition, the building of energy capacities would
be pivotal.

References

ADB (1994): African Development Report, World Bank, Washington D.C.
Aredo, D (2000): "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain in Ethiopia". Paper
presented at the Regional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa. Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Bagachwa, M.S.D. and A.V.Y. Mbelle (1995): "Tanzania" In Exporting Africa: Technology, Trade andIndustrialization in Sub-Saharan Africa by Wangwe, S. (ed.). Routledge, London.
Barratt-Brown, M. and P. Tiffen (1992): Short Changed: Africa and World Trade. Pluto Press, Boulder,
Colorado.
Bell, M. (1988): "The Development of Scientific and Technological Institutions in Africa: Some Past
Patterns and Future Needs". Paper presented for the Symposium on African Scientific and TechnicalInstitution-Building (March 14-18), Sponsored by the African Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Academyof Sciences, Bellagio, Italy.
Benell, P. (1984): "Utilization of professional and engineering skills in Kenya". In Technological Capability
in the Third World, Fransman, M. and K. King (ed.). Macmillan Publishers, London.
Khalil, M. H. (1999): A Preliminary Compendium of Scientific and Technological Indicators: Some General
Guidelines. African Centre for Environmental Studies (ACES), Nairobi, Kenya,
Khalil, M. H. (1995): "Will Kenya Become an Industrialized Country in 15 years? An Extrapolation for
Africa". ACES Working Paper, African Centre for Environmental Studies, Nairobi, Kenya.
Khalil, M. H (1992): The acquisition of technological capabilities in the power sector: the case of the
Olkaria geothermal plant in Kenya. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Sussex, Brighton, Sussex,
U.K.
Khalil, M.H. (1995): "Biodiversity and the Conservation of Medicinal Plants: Issues from the Perspectiveof the Developing World". In Intellectual Property Rights and Biodiversity Conservation, T. Swanson(ed.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.

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65

Kouassay, O. and B. Bohoum (1995): "The Ivory Coast". In Exporting Africa: Technology, Trade andIndustrialization in Sub-Saharan Africa. op.cit.
Ndlela, D. and P. Robinson (1995): "Zimbabwe". In Exporting Africa: Technology, Trade andIndustrialization in Sub-Saharan Africa. ibid.
Ogun, O. (1995): "Nigeria". In Exporting Africa: Technology, Trade and Industrialization in Sub-SaharanAfrica. ibid.
Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, B (1997): NNEWI: An Emergent Industrial Cluster in Nigeria. Technopol Publishers,
Ibadan, Nigeria.
Sethi, M. (2000): "Return and Reintegration of Qualified African Nationals" . Paper presented at theRegional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Soubra, Y. (1989): "The Construction and Engineering Design Services Sector: Some Trade andDevelopment Aspects". In Journal of World Trade. Vol. 23, No.1.
Langdon, S. (1984): "Indigenous technological capability in Africa: the case of textiles and wood products
in Kenya". In Technological Capability in the Third World, M. Fransman and K. King (eds.). Macmillan
Publishers, London.
UNDP (1999) Human Development Report.
UNESCO (1998) World Science Report.
UNESCO (1999) World Science Report.
UNESCO (1999) Statistical YearBook.
Walgate, R. (1990): Miracle or Menace? Biotechnology and the Third World, The Panos Institute, London,
pp. 161-162.
World Bank (1996): African Development Indicators, 1994-1995.

Annexes

Annex 1: Comparative Distribution of R&D Personnel in SSA in 1988 (excluding South Africa)
Category%

Researchers

15.50

Support Professionals

10.10

Technicians

18.60

Auxilliary staff

52.00

Unallocated staff

3.80

Annex 2: Specialization of R&D Centres in SSA in 1998 (excluding South Africa)
Field

%

Agriculture, forestry and fisheries

47.00

Health and nutrition

10.50

Energy, geology andmining

5.60

Manufacturing

6.70

Environment

7.40

Basic Sciences

1.60

Social and human sciences

12.30

Milti-disciplinary

8.90

67

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Annex 3: Personnel Engaged in R&D by Category of Personnel

CountryYear

All R&D
personnel

Technicians andequivalent staff

Other Supporting
Staff

Researchers

MF

MF

MF

F

F

F

Benin

1989

2687

242

64

1652

339

794

100

B. Faso

1997

780

165

16

439

-

176

34

Egypt

1991

102296

19607

-

56274

-

26415

-

Mauritius

1992

1162

170

-

603

-

389

-

Nigeria

1987
1986

12880
12845

6042
6005

-

5500
5341

-

1338
1499

-

Senegal

1993
1994
1995
1996

84
83
76
78

32
32
28
29

9
8
7
7

32
32
29
30

-

20
19
19
19

5
6
5
5

S. Africa

1987
1989
1991
1993

20557
18175
22223
60464

5600
4584
5006
11343

-

3488
3672
5115
11929

-

11469
9919
12102
37192

-

Uganda

1993
1994
1995
1996
1996

708
800
860
890
950

215
244
298
285
272

25
18
23
27
34

195
212
200
219
256

-

298
344
362
386
422

94
122
136
149
162

Source: UNESCO (1999) Statistical Yearbook.

68

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Annex 4: Selected R&D Indicators in African Countries
Personnel engaged in R&D

CountryYear

Expenditure for R&D

Researchers per
millioninhabitants

Technicians per
millioninhabitants

Number oftechniciansperresearcher

Per capita
As % of(in national
GNP
currency)

Annualaverageperresearcher(in national
currency)

Benin

1989

176

54

0.3

-

-

-

B. Faso

1995
1996
1997

16
17

15
16

1.0
0.9

81
196
240

0.08
0.17
0.19

12932444
14695807

Burundi

1984
1989

25
33

20
32

0.8
1.0

38
101

0.15
0.31

15192723154042

CAR

1984
1990

78
56

66
32

0.8
0.6

268
-

0.25
-

3473424
-

Congo

1983
1984

435
462

789

1.7

19
14

0.01
0.01

42718
29618

Egypt

1995
1996

-

-

-

7
7

0.22
0.22

-

Gabon

1986
1987

255
234

25
22

0.1
0.1

1
-

0.01
0.01

2256
1801

Libya

1980

362

493

1.4

8

0.22

20796

Madagascar

1995

-

-

-

1636

0.18

-

Mauritius

1992

361

158

0.4

-

-

-

Nigeria

1987

15

76

5.3

2

0.09

75809

S. Africa

1993

1031

315

0.3

72

0.70

69750

Uganda

1997

21

14

0.6

-

-

-

Senegal

1996

3

4

1.5

48

0.02

21587369

Source: UNESCO (1999) Statistical Yearbook.

69

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Annex 5: National Research Centres in Africa, 1998*
Total

A,F,F

A n g o l aCountry

3

1

-

H,N

1

E,G,M
-

M
1

E
-

B S

Benin

5

4

-

-

-

-

Botswana

7

2

-

-

2

-

Burkina Faso

6

1

1

1

-

B u r u n d i

5

3

-

-

C a m e r o o n

2 7

1 2

2

C a p e1

1

C. Afr. Republic

4

C o n g o

S ,

H S

M

-

-

-

-

1

-

1

2

-

-

1

2

2

-

-

-

-

5

-

2

-

4

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

5

1

-

-

-

2

-

-

2

D R C

9

2

-

1

-

2

-

2

2

Cote d'Ivoire

1 7

5

1

2

2

2

1

2

2

Ethiopia

4 2

2 5

1 0

1

-

1

3

2

-

G a b o n

1 4

4

1

-

2

3

-

2

2

Gambia

2

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

G h a n a

2 3

9

2

-

3

3

-

5

1

G u i n e a

3

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

1

K e n y a

2 9

1 4

4

-

4

2

1

3

1

Lesotho

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

2

-

Liberia

4

1

1

-

-

1

-

1

-

M a d a g a s c a r

4

-

1

1

-

2

-

-

1

M a l a w i

2 0

1 8

-

-

-

-

-

1

-

Mali

6

2

2

-

-

-

-

-

2

M o z a m b i q u e

4

1

1

-

1

-

-

-

1

Namibia

3

-

-

1

-

1

-

-

1

N i g e r

4

1

-

-

-

1

-

1

1

Nigeria

3 5

2 1

2

2

4

-

-

6

-

R w a n d a

5

2

1

1

-

-

-

-

1

S e n e g a l

2 0

1 0

2

-

-

1

1

4

2

S e y c h e l l e s

2

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

Sierra Leone

3

1

-

1

-

-

-

1

-

South Africa

1 7 2

3 0

3 1

11

21

6

17

3 7

1 9

S u d a n

9

1

3

-

1

1

-

2

1

Swaziland

6

3

-

1

1

-

-

1

-

Tanzania

3 6

1 9

5

1

3

1

-

4

3

T o g o

3

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

2

U g a n d a

5

2

1

-

-

1

-

1

-

Z a m b i a

2 1

7

2

2

2

2

-

5

1

Z i m b a b w e

3 6

2 5

-

2

2

3

1

1

2

Total (including S.
Africa)

6 0 2

2 2

7 6

35

50

3 8

24

9 0

5 7

Total excluding(S. Africa)

4 3 0

2 0 2

4 5

24

29

3 2

7

5 3

3 8

V e r d e

(T = Total; AFF = Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries; HN = Health & Nutrition; EGM = Energy, Geology & Mining; M =Manufacturing; E = Environment; BS = Basic Sciences; SHS = Social Human Sciences; M = Multidisciplinary)

Source: Updated from World Science Report (1998), International Research Centres.
Directory 1996-1998, and UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, 1998.

70

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Annex 6: R&D Personnel in the National Research Centres in SSA, 1998*
C o u n t r y

T o t a lR

S P

A n g o l a

211

1 7

114

B e n i n

1 3 5

4 1

4 0

B o t s w a n a

3 6 7

6 2

3 1

B u r k i n a

1 2 0 5

2 6 5

2 3 6

B u r u n d i

2 3 7 9

1 3 5

C a m e r o o n

5 1 1 0C a p eC .

F a s oV e r d e

A f r .

R e p u b l i c

T
20

A

U S

60

0

28

26

0

1 2 2

1 2 2

0

2 4 8

2 4 8

0

6

2 1 0

2 1 0

0

6 5 5

5 7 8

1 9 2 81 9 2 8

0

8 9

1 7

1 3

9

9

0

2 0 8

6

1 6

60

60

1 0 9
0

C o n g o

1 4 6

4 7

1 3

53

53

D R C

1 1 8 3

1 4 1

112

2 5 6

2 5 6

5 3 5

1 5 4 6

2 1 9

7 5

1 1 2

1 1 2

1 2 7

Ethiopia

5 5 5 32 4 7 3

1 4 2

5 7 0

5 7 0

52

G a b o n

4 3

4

0

11

11

5

G a m b i a

117

4

6

7

7

0

G h a n a

5 8 7 1

4 3 6

5 1 4

2 8 0

2 8 0

21

G u i n e a

114

5 0

1 0

5

5

49

K e n y a

5 8 3 2

7 9 7

6 9 2

6 5 6

6 5 6

4 6 4

L e s o t h o

2 4

1 0

5

0

0

0

Liberia

2 4 5

3 4

118

54

54

0

M a d a g a s c a r

1 0 1 2

1 7 8

8 4

6 0 7

6 0 7

0

M a l a w i

2 2 9 3

1 8 5

2 1 0

3 4 4

3 4 4

5 6 8

M a l i

3 5 8

7 4

4 6

57

57

0

M o z a m b i q u e

5 9 9

2 1

5 3

29

29

3 0 9

N a m i b i a

6 7

2 4

3

7

7

0

N i g e r

7 4 1

9 0

5

2 3 4

2 3 4

0

Nigeria

7 9 1 39 3 7

1 1 0 5

1 9 9 13 9 8 00

R w a n d a

8 8 4

8 3

1 4 5

93

5 6 3

0

S e n e g a l

1 6 0 7

2 8 6

1 5 7

2 6 8

8 9 0

6

S e y c h e l l e s

2 5

8

2

10

5

0

S i e r r a

L e o n e

1 0

4

1

0

5

0

S o u t h

A f r i c a

1 6 9 4 6

3 7 9 91 1 9 92 6 7 84 1 9 65 0 7 4S u d a n

1 5 6 5

8 3

1 0 0

8 8 2

5 0 0

0

S w a z i l a n d

2 1 9

3 2

1 5

73

84

15

Tanzania

6 0 6 99 1 6

1 2 1 27 0 3

3 2 3 80

T o g o

1 0 8

3 2

5

29

42

0

U g a n d a

5 6 6

1 3 6

1 0 7

64

2 5 9

0

Z a m b i a

1 8 6 1

3 1 5

1 8 6

4 7 0

8 5 3

37

Z i m b a b w e

4 3 6 9

5 2 8

7 4

7 6 1

3 0 0 60

Cote

d'IvoireT o t a l

( i n c l u d i n g

S .

A f r i c a )7 7 5 9 0

1 3 1 7 4

7 3 3 01 3 9 2 9

3 5 7 8 6

7 3 7 1

T o t a le x c l u d i n g( S .

A f r i c a )6 0 6 6 4

9 3 7 56 1 3 11 1 2 5 1

3 1 5 9 0

2 2 9 7

(R = Researchers; SP = Support Professionals; T = Technicians; A = Auxilliary Staff; US = Unallocated Staff)

Source: Updated from World Science Report (1998), International Research Centres Directory, 1996-1998, and
UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, 1999.

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S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

Annex 7: Total Number of African Professionals Admitted into the USA, 1982-1989
Country

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

Ethiopia

202

188

190

171

157

144

198

372

Cape Verde

27

25

23

24

25

23

26

2

Ghana

138

165

152

182

175

159

164

309

Kenya

162

192

212

196

201

203

207

261

Liberia

85

46

52

63

95

75

78

136

Siera Leone

47

44

47

55

45

59

55

96

Tanzania

110

94

128

102

102

121

103

156

Uganda

92

101

107

63

81

63

41

124

Nigeria

340

278

277

339

435

492

547

1015

Total Africa

2855

2569

2737

2864

3161

3331

353

4783

Total World

64740

58695 58842

62281

63373

54099

65202

90739

Africa as % of World

4.4

4.4

4.7

4.6

5

5.2

5.1

5.3

Ethiopia as % of Africa

7.1

7.3

6.9

6.0

5.0

4.3

5.9

7.8

Source: Adapted by Aredo, D (2000) "Human Capital Flight from Africa: An Assessment of Brain Drain in
Ethiopia". Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa. Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, p.29.

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Annex 8: Selected Case Studies on Technological Capacities in SSA
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has made tremendous progress in the evolution of specific capabilities in textiles, clothing
and footwear industries. In garment and textiles production, manufacturers have developed design
capabilities. Most mills have established technical development departments which keep a tab onmarket requirements, the need for new varieties and styles of fabric. Fashion enterprises acquired
CAD/CAM capabilities. The productivity of many firms has improved steadily.
In the case of footwear, the Bata and Superior shoe companies acquired their own CAD facilities. Muchof the equipment in shoe factories is old, but it is appropriate in that it is operational and is readily
maintained with local skills. Compared to international standards, its productivity in units such as pairs
per person per day is low. However, total costs of production (reflecting the written down costs of theantiquated, but operational equipment and relatively low labour costs), is competitive. However, footwear
companies are also importing modern sophisticated equipment, to enable them compete on export
markets and against imported footwear. Superior footwear produces for export, following installation ofultra-modern "link" system. A computer-based diagnostic and training system has been commissioned.
Another company, Cathula, uses far less sophisticated machinery, producing high quality sandals. It
has reacted to problems associated with a shortage of foreign currency by innovating.
The availability of skills is emerging as the limiting factor since importation of inputs is easy. To getsuitable supervisory staff and skilled personnel for product design is very hard. Thus, local designers
need to travel abroad and overseas designers to visit Zimbabwe. There is lack of formal training, but inhouse training is evident. Bata has developed infrastructure so as to enable it offer various kinds oftraining programmes to its entire staff. In 1991, the British Council advanced scholarships to Zimbabweans
so as to study leather technology in the UK. Bata has access to information through its international
network.
Subcontracting is very much resisted in Zimbabwe, because the companies do not wish to be dependent
on the performance of others to meet their won quality standards. There is also fear that subcontracting
may lead to loss of market to subcontractors who would in time establish relations with the ultimate
client, whether in the export or domestic market. The reluctance to subcontract is one of the many
barriers to entry that a small producer is faced with in a market dominated by efficient enterprises. Thisaversion has had an influence on the evolution of capabilities.
Ivory CoastThis study by Kouassy and Bohoun (1995) examines three sectors: food processing and preservation(Capral-Nestle and Saco), cooking fats industry (Cosmivoire and Trituraf) and the textile industry (Uniwax
and Cotivo).

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Comivoire relies heavily on specialized companies to install equipment and train staff. This has entailed
the payment of huge fees. There is very little evidence that they have a long-term plan to embark on
training by in-house staff. This has compromized their potential for capability development.
Trituraf, on the other hand, secured technology through a route that made it easy for them to savecosts. A firm by the name Rochet facilitated their access to technology markets affording them thetechnical experience, international contacts and links with European suppliers of machinery. This
broadened their knowledge considerably. What is crucial, is that during the establishment of the production
facilities, the local staff were heavily involved. This led to the build-up of experience and skills in the useof the machinery.
In the food processing area, Capral devoted considerable resources to investment. Capacity increasesof the 1980s explain high acquisition of physical capital in the late 1980s. The company also devoted
significant resources to foreign technical assistance. Capral, producing instant coffee under a Nestle
license, pays heavy fees for that. The company needs regular technical assistance from the motherfirm to carry out these activities for the selection, installation and maintenance of machinery, and thetraining of executives. Training of the employees is usually done on the job. Capral has limited
opportunities as pertains to the marketing strategy. However, the fact that the company relies on themother firm to select, install, and maintain machinery, is a clear illustration of their weakness to build
capabilities inhouse.
Saco until 1985 had physical capital as the most important component of the total investment. Investment
in trading and marketing activities have become much more important. Its investments are generally
self-financed. It has been forced to find an appropriate technology and a method of strictly controlling
the production and quality control process. It uses the “Dutch process”, a set of free processes that are
not subject to licenses and patents and which are widely known all over the world. It has installed acomputerized device that provides the firm with day-to-day cost indicators and monthly reviews of the
production units. A technical control unit has helped increase its flexibility, hence meeting various
standards and specifications required by some markets. Management of human resources is also seen
as a major priority by Saco. Professional
training programmes were increased from 1990. The company’s exports are destined to its production
subsidiaries in Europe and the US, though some exports do reach Asia and Australia as well.
Uniways’ major investment was in the 1980s despite its having excess capacity. New investments were
centred not only on physical assets, but also rather on marketing and trading activities. Its cloth printing
uses a simple wax-resistant technology. The technology is from Vlisco, one of the European partners,
which has selected all the machines presently used by the firm. It takes very minimal technical innovation.
Its lack of technical autonomy explains the high royalties and technical assistance fees paid by the firm,
whereas training costs are low. Training is for technical competence of the staff, but not acquisition of
new technologies. Its limited export possibilities lead to the six-fold increase in the advertising expenses
between 1985 and 1990.

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Cotivo’s increased investment in 1987 was for the acquisition of physical capital. The firm’s activities toexport markets were both to counterbalance domestic market difficulties and to take advantage of anexport subsidy scheme launched by the government. The investments were for new equipment for
spinning, the largest items being the open-ended turbines and second-hand looms, and pre-cutting andtrimming technologies. Its main supplier of the machinery and equipment was the German firm Sanfir.
Kenya
1.

Utilization of professional and engineering skills in Kenya21

This is a review of Paul Bennel’s paper22. Engineering manpower is very important in the developmentof indigenous technological capabilities (ITC) of less developed countries (LDCs), although research
has hardly focused on the training and utilization of engineering skills. However, for the locally trainedengineers (including non-Africans trained locally), brain drain has been the most viable manifestationof the extent to which international market for skills exists. Sometimes the outflow of the graduate
engineers cannot be considered to be typical market-oriented brain drain. Consultancy enterprise is a
key institution involved in selecting and modifying foreign technology that leads to development oftechnological self-reliance.
The concentration of most talented and experienced engineering manpower in this sector provides thebasis for an indigenous capability to 'unpackage' foreign technology, thereby reaping considerable
short-term advantages. The ability to utilize the engineering manpower leads to considerable costsaving by making greater use of raw materials, reducing reliance on proprietal technology and dispensing
with the payment of often-substantial foreign consultancy fees. It also has several external economies
like learning by doing, increasing the level of pre-investment information and faster diffusion of technology.
There are six African consultancies and only one can be considered to be an attempt by non-citizen
engineers to create an African front to satisfy the market. The consultancy sector is mainly civil engineeroriented.

21 No recent studies are available. However, to appreciate the pervasiveness of technological inadequacies in
Kenya, consult Khalil, M. H. (1995) “Will Kenya Become an Industrialized Country in 15 Years?: An Extrapolation
for Africa”. ACES Working Paper, African Centre for Environmental Studies, Nairobi, Kenya; and Khalil, M. H.
(1992) "The acquisition of technological capabilities in the power sector: the case of Olkaria Geothermal Plant in
Kenya". Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Sussex, Brighton, Sussex, U.K.
22 See Benell, P. (1984) “Utilization of professional and engineering skills in Kenya”. In Technological Capability in
the Third World, Fransman, M. and K. King (eds.). Macmillan Publishers, London, pp.

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75

Manufacturing enterprises constitute a major source of demand for mechanical and electrical engineers
in the private sector. However, the pattern of the import-substituting industrialization in Kenya has not
generated sizeable demand for formally locally trained engineering manpower. Most technology ispurchased outright from suppliers in the advanced industrial countries. They have attempted to suppress
knowledge concerning its operations, maintenance and repair from local manpower. The principal
constraint frustrating engineering manpower localization is the non-availability of local manpowerprocessing, the requisite technical and more important managerial competence, which can only be
acquired after several generations of appropriate socialization.
The acquisition of higher engineering qualification, enhances the trainability of an employee required toperform technical tasks. Formally trained engineering manpower recruitment having general skills,
usually increases training costs to acquire the specific skills needed for operation. Given the simple
labour hierarchy required to satisfy limited technical and managerial requirements, there is little needfor the privilege of mental over manual labour in order to provide the basis for the stratification of theworking class within an enterprise. The public sector has got higher-level manpower requirements thatare much more intensive and continue to expand rapidly than the private sector. Public sector engineeringpyramid is top-heavy with too few engineering technicians, compared with university trained engineers.
Civil engineers are mainly in central government ministries and the engineering consultancy sector
and generally utilize a high level of their formally acquired knowledge in designing and supervising
the construction of capital projects. Electrical engineers are mostly employed in the public sector.
Mechanical engineers generally utilize only a small proportion of their formally acquired engineeringknowledge and do not engage in design and/or research and development activities. They aremostly employed in private industrial sector. In conclusion, it is therefore among this group ofengineers that the mismatch between the metropolitan, anglophonic conception of the professional
engineer, which has formed the basis of training policy, and the subsequent utilization of thismanpower, is most apparent. This is as a result of lack of liaison between the engineering faculty andthe industrial sector. This has, however, led to the problems faced by young engineers in gaining full
professional status through registration and increased underutilization. It has also led to open
unemployment and may extend to the next decade.

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2.

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Indigenous technological capability: Kenyan textile and wood productsThis is a review of Steve Langdon’s paper23. Enterprises usually organize the major inputs of essential
technological knowledge for their own development, and without institutional reliance on foreigntechnology, are capable of confronting new product or process initiatives. If an enterprise is able toorganize the technological knowledge for such initiatives, then it possesses indigenous technologicalcapability (ITC) in its sector, otherwise it does not posses ITC. In Kenyan firms, there are three textiles
and four wood enterprises that clearly show the characteristics of ITC. Prior technological dependenceof about seven enterprises that grew on the basis of foreign technology inputs and continued to haveinstitutional links with foreign technology suppliers, six are prepared to initiate new processes or products.
The insignificance of formal research and development in shaping ITC is evident in the enterprises.
Technological independence is likely to encourage firms to innovate; out of ten enterprises without
present technology links abroad, nine were undertaking new product changes.
Several local firms relied on their own technological inputs and had no formal technology links abroad,but were undertaking product or process changes based on their own technological knowledge. The
ITC firms were characterized by their family-owned basis and their small beginning. The ITC wasdeveloped through learning-by-doing from small beginnings and strengthened by direct managerial
and technical experience overseas. The consequences of the gradual enterprise expansion, which is afactor contributing to growing ITC, was the unpackaged character of technological acquisition made by
the firms; some combined second-hand machinery from overseas. Additional mechanisms by which
enterprises built up their technological capacity directly, were through various direct forms of contact
and experience abroad, which was rare, but through direct experiences with manufacturers overseas.

23 Langdon, S. (1984): "Indigenous technological capability in Africa: the case of textiles and wood products in
Kenya". In Technological Capability in the Third World, Fransman M. K. King (ed.). Macmillan Publishers, London,
pp. 355-374.

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77

The acquisition of ITC by the firms led to increases in average annual sales and after-tax profitability.
Reliance on machinery and technology sold by parent company, made the enterprise to fail to achieve
viability and became bankrupt, and was rescued by the state at a cost of some Kenya shillings 70
million. Thus, technological dependence on foreign enterprise had been then extremely costly in the
textile industry. Employment effects of ITC firms have been greater than non-ITC firms. While levels ofimported inputs in textiles are virtually identical, ITC firms have shown much greater propensity toinitiate linkage effects with further indirect employment benefits. Acquisition of ITC by firms also led tohigh levels of capital accumulation, growth rates, investments and increased capacity of penetrating.
Overseas ownership by multinational corporations, precisely because it offers easy continuing accessto technology from abroad, inhibits indigenous technological development. This powerful multinational
corporation, presents impediments to ITC development. Several other factors seem to have evolved.
These include pressures emanating from western European enterprises, based in turn on restructuring
patterns affecting given industries there. Secondly, the efforts within developing countries which continues
to move painlessly to export manufacturing rather than import substitution, has been a problem. Close
relations that have developed between state personnel and foreign enterprises in Kenya and domestic
political economy relations that affect the role allowed to certain local entrepreneurs, are also impediments
to acquisition of ITC. All these suggest that movement towards ITC industrial strategy in Africa, thoughfeasible, require major political shifts to make it likely. The growing economic crises across the continentof Africa, provides pressure towards such a movement, but the international and domestic forces
threatened by this, are powerful and effective, and change will not come easily.
Tanzania
This article by Bagachwa and Mbelle (1995) shows that the textile firms in Tanzania have not been able
to build investment capabilities. Four firms are covered by the writers, namely, NEM, Themi, Afrocoolingand Matsushita. In general, firms in Tanzania usually lack skills needed to:••••

Identify and evaluate the projects.
Specify the appropriate and current location, scale, and product and input mixes.
Research, select, bargain, purchase and transfer the appropriate technology.
Participate in carrying out basic and detailed engineering functions, like equipment specification,
procurement and testing, civil construction, mechanical erection and commissioning, and to
execute the start-up and training functions.

It may be possible to acquire skills from specialized engineering or consulting companies from developed
countries, but the cost may be unbearable. Lack of active participation in the design and execution ofcertain critical investment functions, have led to inappropriate technology choices and failure to master,
adapt and improve upon imported technologies or failure to establish linkages with the suppliers.
Northern Electrical Manufacturing firm (NEM) entrepreneurs missed the chance to participate in andlearn from key initial entrepreneurial tasks. Themi’s entrepreneurs were brought into a ready-made78

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

project. They were responsible for the procurement of machinery and installation. Investment
capability was possible, because three of the entrepreneurs, though not very experienced, helda degree in engineering. Themi’s entrepreneurs made choices from various equipment suppliers,
enabling them to negotiate for the best terms.
Unlike NEM and Themi, Afrocooling had to undergo the long and difficult, but worthwhile processof initiation into feasibility studies preparation, project identification and execution. Entrepreneurs
hired consultants from India to install the plant considered as appropriate to the Tanzanian,
given the firm’s flexible, small scale, and labour-intensive operations. Matsushita ElectricIndustries of Japan was involved in this. In the 1960s, there was no sufficient engineering capacity.
Generally, the firm’s current management is not knowledgeable of what transpired at the crucial
early stages, except for the canvas which still has a foreign contract.
The major source of production capabilities has been the accumulation of entrepreneurial,
technical and managerial skills from previous experience in commerce and industry. It follows
that export competitiveness and industrial performance areusually very weak in cases where such experience is absent. Training has been another sourceof production capability. Foreign technical assistance is also very important. Firm-level training
was bound to be limited as private firms feared losing their trainees once they are sufficiently
qualified. Flexible and adaptive capabilities were also built. These were crucial since they enabledenterprises to cope with rapidly changing global market conditions and technologicaldevelopments.
Africooling has managed to establish significant linkages through its sales of radiators to the
local automobile industry, including vehicle-assembling firms. Themi does not have subcontracting
activities with other industrial firms, but has forged some forward linkages with the agricultural
sector via sales of ploughs and ox-carts. Limited backward linkages have been created by
Matshusita in conjunction with Kibo Paper Industries and Tanzania Efelets. The absence ofsignificant inter-sectoral linkages can be explained by poor infrastructural facilities for small
firms, biases in policies and credit markets,and the lack of an extension network. The pattern of import substitution has led to importdependent assembly. Furthermore, the ease of access to donor funding has discouraged
producers from actively looking for locally available parts and materials. It may also reflect on
the management’s inability to search for, or appreciate the positive role which can be played bysubcontracting.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

79

Mauritius
Human resource development has contributed significantly to production capabilities in Mauritius. Clericalstaff have generally had a broad-based education with the majority having passed their advanced levelexaminations. Managerial staff hold diploma or degree and production workers have received someform of technical training. Firms pursue in-house or on-the-job training for factory workers, formal outsidetraining for certain categories of personnel, overseas courses or tours of factories. Firms would recruiton the local market or from their existing staff. Aggressive advertising is used to attract workers.
Poaching of workers, especially skilled personnel, is also common. Remuneration is made up of basic
wages, fringe benefits, and attendance and productivity bonuses. Wages and conditions of employment
are subject to extensive government regulations.
Production processes for chemical fertilizer, refined oil and paint, are capital intensive. There has been
little change in the case of fertilizer firms in the technology used since its creation. With growing labour
scarcity and the increase in salaries, the paint manufacturer has installed more powerful equipment.
New technologies are obtained from visits to overseas suppliers or trade fairs and the firm has invested
substantially in Research and Development — to improve quality and develop new types of product.
The demand approximately matches capacity for the chemical fertilizer manufacturer.
The oil firm has targeted the Preferential Trade Area (PTA) markets. All firms occasionally use consultant
services, mostly to meet their training needs. These services are crucial for the survival of the firms.
Only the jewelry firm has a licensing agreement with its French partners. It also has a managementagreement with them. Management agreements with foreign partners are directly related to the level offoreign participation in shareholding. Joint ventures are important because they facilitate access totechnology, material inputs and markets. They also increase the competitiveness of the enterprises.
With the introduction of new technologies, new firms would be expected to rely heavily in the procurementof technical services unless they have their own technical expertise. Only edible oil and knitwear
enterprises have so far made use of contracted technical services for maintenance of computers. Most
export-oriented enterprises and import substitution enterprises maintain links with their suppliers ofequipment — to keep up with new types of technologies coming on the market and to evaluate theirusefulness. The links are also maintained to ensure that after-sales service and maintenance areprovided.
It should be noted that most technological capacities that have developed in Africa have, in general, notbeen products of policy stimulus or conscious governmental strategies. If governmental influence wasat play, it was for the most part incidental. Some African governments entered into agreements withoverseas companies to invest in telecommunications, energy, and other sectors. In nearly all investments,
overseas firms have been in control from pre-investment phases to the final stages of commissioning.
What African governments did was to emphasize on training to enable locals run and operate the newfacilities. These were the only production capacities that governments had a direct bearing on. However,most African administrators had not been active in guiding both local and overseas players in evolving
investment and innovation capabilities in areas where opportunities prevailed or when prospects for80

ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

enhancing domestic content could be explored to the economy’s advantage. If significant capacities
did evolve in particular cases, the source of that stimulus could be traced to factors more internal to afirm, e.g. the local manager or immediate external pressures such as supply constraints or innovationinducing bottlenecks. Clearly, rarely have African governments forged dynamic mechanisms (with teams
to implement) consciously designed to develop significant capacities beyond the production capabilities.
Investment negotiations, domestic content and technological capacities in SSA: the case of the Kenyatransmission project
Sub-Saharan African countries have rarely taken technology negotiations with the seriousness they
deserve. This general attitude is best captured by the case of the Kenya Transmission Project. In 1979,
a bilateral agreement was signed between the Canadian Government and the Republic of Kenya to
implement the Kenya Interconnector Project.
The agencies for the respective countries were the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
and Kenya Power and Lighting Company Limited (KPLC). According to the loan agreement, CIDA wasto provide consulting, professional, technical and other services for the project. The contract package
was dictated by CIDA and contained the following ingredients:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Canadian content was to be maximized.
The executing agency, Acres, was to ensure maximum opportunity to Canadian firms in bidding
for work.
Acres was to be responsible for evaluation, recommendation, and the placing of orders directly
on KPLC’s behalf, though the latter was to undertake some placing of orders themselves.
Specific design and project management services were the responsibilities of Acres, and werecarried out from their Toronto base. Management and supervision were coordinated through a
Nairobi office.

The Interconnector Project, as it came to be known, comprised of a 220kV Kamburu-Mombasa
transmission line and concepts for the project were ideas developed by Merz and Mclellan in the later
seventies. KPLC was to provide inputs to detailed design, and the construction management role wasto be provided by Acres.
During the project implementation phase, KPLC assigned a coordinator to liaise with Acres and various
engineering and financial departments of KPLC. Acres cashed in on the large body of services whichwere not costed, and thus KPLC offered more than their fare share in the balance of responsibilities.
Kenyan participation comprised field supervision and commissioning, with constant consultations
between KPLC and Acres. During the design specification phase, Acres relied heavily on KPLC foradvice. The Acres field staff held meetings and discussed a number of field problems with KPLC TechnicalManager and Company engineers. Clarifications usually centred on terrain aspects of the project anddetailed engineering parameters.

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

M. H. Khalil-Timamy, Economics Department and Executive Director African Centre forEnvironmental Studies (ACES)Nairobi, Kenya

81

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ATPS S PECIAL PAPER S ERIES NO. 12

Other Publications in the ATPS Special Paper SeriesSpecial Paper Series 1
Globalization and Technology: Africa’s Participation and Perspectives: Concept
Paper and Research Agenda by Melvin Ayogu &Osita Ogbu (2002)
Special Paper Series 2
Globalization, Markets for Technology and the Relevance of Innovation Policies in
Developing Economies by Sunil Mani (2002)
Special Paper Series 3
Biotechnology in sub-Saharan Africa: Towards a Policy Research Agenda byJohn Mugabe (2000)
Special Paper Series 4
The Impact of Globalization in sub-Saharan Africa Countries by Mwindaace N.
Siamwiza (2002)
Special Paper Series 5
A Blueprint for Developing National ICT Policy in Africa by Clement Dzidonu2002
Special Paper Series 6
Impact of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) on Technology Transfer in Africa by
Moses M. Ikiara (2002)
Special Paper Series 7
Pursuing Technology Policy Research in sub-Saharan Africa: Reflections on the
Dimensions, Applications and Implications of a Methodological Framework by
M.H. Khalil-Tammy (2002)
Special Paper Series 8
African Response to the Information Communication Technology Revolution by G.
Olalere Ajayi (2002)
Special Paper Series 9
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs): Poverty Alleviation andUniversal Access Policies by Andrew Dymond & Sonja Oestmann (2002)

S TATE OF S CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CAPACITY I N S UB-S AHARAN AFRICA

83

Special Paper Series 10
ICT Human Resource Development in Africa: Challenges, Strategies and Options
by T.M. Waema(2002)

For more information this series and ATPS Contact:

The Executive Director
The African Technology Policy Studies Network
3rd Floor, The Chancery, Valley Road
P.O. Box 10081 00100 General Post Office
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254-2-2714168/092/498
Fax: +254-2-2714028