オウム病を知る−鳥と安心して暮らすために−
What is ‘Psittacosis’? – Worry-free Living with Companion Birds 岐阜大学 応用生物科学部 教授・福士 秀人

Hideto FUKUSHI, DVM, PhD, Professor,
Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University

Hello, I am Hideto Fukushi of Gifu University.

talk about this subject now.

So far today we have been hearing about mammals.

First of all, the only zoonotic disease that people canHowever I would now like to talk to you about a diseasecatch from birds is psittacosis, and so I am going tocalled ‘psittacosis’, or ‘parrot disease’, which infects

talk about birds and this one particular zoonosis. Later,

many kinds of birds.

I would like to sum up the current situation regarding
psittacosis, which is the main subject of today’s talk,

Earlier on, we heard that, as a matter of historicalincluding introducing a simple method of curing thisfact, people have been keeping dogs for somewhere

disease.

between 10,000 and 20,000 years, and cats for about
12,000 years. Both of these animals have been human

But before that, let’s look at the broader subject of birds

companions for a very long time. We don’t know withand people. This is an international conference, but I

any degree of accuracy how long people have been

hope you’ll forgive me if I talk about Japanese history

keeping birds, and I will be talking a bit more about thisin the Heian, Kamakura and Muromachi periods.

later on. Moving on to parrots and true parrots, when

Speaking of the Heian Period, the historical drama

we see them in a zoo some of them are kept roostingseries “Taira no Kiyomori” is currently running on TV.

alone while others are kept several to a cage. However,Within this drama we see both dogs and cats appearing,in the wild these birds live in groups.

but what about birds? During that time period, many
people probably enjoyed the beauty of birdsong. Indeed

Actually, parrots are extremely intelligent birds.

we have ancient ‘waka’ poems that speak of birdsong.

Capable of speech and extremely active psychologically,

So from this evidence we do know that Japanese people

they tend to live very well in groups. When people

have associated with birds since ancient times.

come along and abduct them from the wild and thenkeep them alone, I would like you all to understandDuring the Edo Period we know that people admired

what this means to the birds themselves. In situations

the brilliance of the plumage of birds such as white-

where they are kept alone, the most important things

eyes and enjoyed hand-training java sparrows.

for these birds are their owners. The birds seek theirown psychological security through interaction withIn the Meiji and Taisho Eras, birds from many countries

their owners, so it is very important for owners to takearound the world were brought into Japan. Some

care of their birds in a responsible manner until the end

were capable of talking or singing, such as the variousof their lives.

species of parrot including the cockatiel, the rosy-faced
lovebird, the African gray parrot, etc.

In order to realize this, it is essential to maintain the56

birds’ health, and for this reason it is important to be

The Meiji Era was also the active period of the novelist

aware of what kinds of diseases affect these birds. I will

Natsume Soseki, who wrote an essay about his pet Javaりぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

sparrow. He complained in that essay that he wanted

junior high school student.

to keep a Java sparrow, so he sent his houseboy out tobuy a birdcage, but the boy took a long time to makeThe students at the school were sketching a bantam

the purchase. It seems that finch species such as thein art class, and the call was to request me to certify

Java sparrow were well appreciated in old times, butthat this bantam was not infected with avian influenza.

these days a lot of people prefer to keep parrots or true

So I performed an antibody test and a fecal PCR test

parrots.

and certified that the tests were negative. I’m sure thechildren all did their very best in drawing the bantam.

People often start by keeping something like abudgerigar. Budgerigars are extremely cute, but they

Apart from these viral infections, there are bacterial

are rather small and childish. When people want

infections such as tuberculosis and salmonellosis.

something they can interact with a bit more deeply,

I have made a table showing these infections. For

they may go in for a cockatiel. Cockatiels live forexample, salmonellosis, which I mentioned earlier, isseveral decades and they can speak well. But if people

quite commonly found in reptiles I believe. Actually

still become less and less satisfied as time goes by, they

birds can also become sick from salmonella infections.

may opt for a large parrot or true parrot species.

The bacteria can also be present in bird feces, which
can be a problem. And of course, there is psittacosis,

Looking at the data from the ministry of thewhich I will talk about in more detail later. Also, as was

Environment on pet bird sales, Japanese domestic

mentioned before, in many cases infected animals don’production is about 84,500 individual birds, whilet exhibit symptoms, but when people are infected it cananother 115,000 individuals are imported, making a

be a serious problem.

total of about 199,000 birds.
Earlier I mentioned bird tuberculosis. In humans, thisAs I remember, back when I was a child attending

disease is usually caused by a mycobacterium called

elementary school, there was a shop selling small birds

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, there are alsoin our neighborhood. My father happened to be a

atypical tuberculosis bacteria so it is necessary to taketeacher at this elementary school, and at the school wecare. There are also many types of ectoparasites, which

kept Bengalese finches as well as canaries. But people’s

can cause problems if people come into contact withfamiliarity with birds has changed so much that today’them.

s children probably have no idea whether canaries singor what they sound like.

In addition, although it is not shown here, some people
also have allergies to birds, which are not the same as

As you can see, the number of individual birds sold has

infections. I am sure some of you have allergies to dog

declined, but in the case of many species, the seillingor cat hair. In the same way, some people are allergic

price for an individual bird has become very expensive.

to the hair or shed skin of birds so if they come into
contact with these things they may develop a sudden

Moving on to the subject of zoonotic diseases that

anaphylaxis, which can be life threatening.

can be transmitted between birds and people, today I
would like to talk about psittacosis, a zoonosis that is

Now, I think it is time to talk a little about my main

hosted and spread by various species of birds. Theresubject today, psittacosis, or parrot fever. Psittacosis is

is a disease spread by wild birds called ‘West Nileactually an old disease. By the end of the 19th century afever’ which has now become infamous. And then we

Swiss surgeon had already described a disease thought

absolutely cannot ignore avian influenza now thatto be psittacosis. After that, in the early years of theconcern about ‘bird flu’ is extremely high. Last year,

20th century, there was a major boom in parrots andI received a sudden phone call on the subject from atrue parrots within Europe. A succession of extremely

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201257

beautiful species was imported from Australia andIf an infection becomes established, the early symptoms

owning such a bird became a fashionable pastime.

are similar to those of influenza, but even if theTrends of one kind or another appear at any age insufferer is treated for influenza, they will probably behistory. But as a result of the popularization of parrots

treated with a macrolide antibiotic, which is effective

and true parrots, there were many cases of psittacosis

against C. psittaci, and so they will recover properly.

infection, and this created the momentum for a sudden

Unfortunately, however, if β -Lactam antibiotics such

advance in research into the disease.

as penicillin derivatives are used, the treatment will
have no effect and the infection will worsen which can

In the case of Japan, during the 1930s and 40s, there

lead to serious problems.

were cases of people becoming infected from true
parrots they had purchased while traveling abroad. But

Up until the 1970s, there were many instances in

the first case of a psittacosis infection in Japan was notwhich people were unable to obtain proper treatment

reported until 1957.

and went on to develop systemic infection, which was
fatal in some cases. The reports from that time include

As I have drawn in the picture below, psittacosis isa number of case examples. Earlier in the workshop, thean infectious disease caused by a bacterial species

subject of skinship came up and in these reports there

called Chlamydophila psittaci, which is present in

is one example concerning skinship. Two particularbird droppings. Usually the infection is not apparent

bird lovers were fond of talking about birds with eachin birds or, in other words, they host and excrete

other. I don’t think there were any bird cafés in thethe bacteria without exhibiting any symptoms of the

1970s, but one of the bird lovers agreed to take care ofdisease themselves. Also, as Imaoka-sensei reported,

the other’s bird while that person was away traveling.

infected birds excrete the bacteria intermittently andThen, when that bird became sick, the first bird lover

not continuously. But because birds excrete the bacteria

slept close to the bird. As a result the bird lover became

from time to time, it can be transferred from parent

sick with psittacosis and eventually died of the disease.

birds to their offspring, and also to people who breathein the dust of dried bird feces. People tend to risk thisBearing that example in mind, I would urge bird

mostly when cleaning birdcages, etc.

owners to maintain an appropriate distance from theirbirds. Now let us look at what kind of microorganism

The ratio of psittacosis infections is comparatively highC. psittaci is, which is the cause of this disease. This

among women in their 30s and 40s, but this seems tophotograph was taken through an electron microscope.

be a reflection of the fact that women in this age group

I borrowed it from Professor Matsumoto who taught

are more likely to be taking care of pet birds. Whileme about Chlamydophila. Here you can see some smallchildren and fathers often want to purchase and keep

particles inside a large cell. These are Chlamydophila

these birds, at the end of the day, looking after thempsittaci.

tends to become part of the housework performed bymothers, so they have an increased chance of becoming

If you only see this photograph it is difficult to realize

infected.

the size, so I will show you some other things alongside
to allow you to compare the size. Some things we have

The problem here is that bird droppings start off wet

been talking about, for example, gram-negative bacteria,but, as time passes, they dry out and eventually crumble

are here on the left side. Actually, the objects listed on

into dust. During this time, any C. psittaci bacteria

the left are all seen through an optical microscope.

present in the droppings remain viable, which means

58

that they have the potential to cause an infection. So if‘Gambian trypanosomiasis’ is a form of chronic sleeping

a person breathes in this dust, it is possible that they

sickness, which is transmitted to humans in Africa bywill develop an infection.

the tsetse fly. This is the amoeba that causes amebic

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

dysentery, this is Borrelia, and this is Treponema. And

by binary fission. Antibiotics take effect for the first

here is the anthrax bacillus. This is E. coli, and this heretime at this point.

is Staphylococcus, which was introduced earlier.
Accordingly, since antibiotics do not take effect
When the images of the smallest objects on the rightunless they enter cells, you can understand that theside are expanded, we can see the smallest details canmost effective antibiotics are those that feature highbe made out through an optical microscope. C. psittacitransitivity inside cells. For this reason the number ofis here. Here is Vaccinia, which is a little smaller than C.

usable antibiotics is limited.

psittaci. Vaccinia is the virus that was used to eradicate
smallpox. Last year was a fantastic year in which theActually, the zoonit ic infect ions caused bycattle disease known as ‘rinderpest’ became the second

Chlamydophila bacteria are not limited to psittacosis.

disease ever to be eradicated. Like smallpox, it was

Around the world, between 20 and 30 cases of

eliminated by means of a vaccine and an eradication

conjunctive inflammation caused by Chlamydophila

plan. These influenza viruses measure about 100 tofrom cats have been reported. Also, Chlamydophila

200 nanometers in length, roughly two-thirds of thecan cause miscarriages. In a case that occurred inlength of a C. psittaci bacterium. So it is a very small

France, Chlamydophila abortus was isolated from avirus.

pregnant woman who miscarried while on a sheep
farm where sheep had also miscarried, so the case was

Next, this is the human papillomavirus and thesuspected of being a zoonitic infection. Pigs also carrypoliomyelitis virus. The group on the right side consists

Chlamydophila bacteria and this is considered to have aof extremely small microorganisms that are best viewed

possible relation to zoonotic infections.

through an electron microscope that uses a beam ofelectrons rather than ordinary light. A little different to

Incidentally, koalas also carry Chlamydophila. This

the other pathogens introduced so far, C. psittaci can’is a major problem for koalas because when they aret be propagated in an artificial medium such as agar.

infected they become blind. They are also unable to

It requires something called a cultivated cell. So, frombreed because Chlamydophila affects the urinary andthe standpoint of living matter, it is very close to being

genital organs. Once after I attended a conference ona virus. This very small particle goes into cells where

Chlamydophila in Europe, sitting in the airplane on

it replicates, and when it does so it takes two forms.

the way back to Japan, an elderly lady sitting next to

One is an elementary body, rather like a spore, whichme asked me “what is your work?” I answered, “I amis indicated in red. This is very tiny, but it is extremely

researching about Chlamydophila.” So she said to me,

resistant to external environmental conditions. For“that is an important disease for koalas too, so pleaseexample, it can survive for about one month at low

work hard on your research.” In fact, since koalas live

temperatures.

in trees if they lose their sight they find it impossible tomove from tree to tree. They then become unable to eat

When in the elementary body form, C. psittaci does notwhich is a very serious problem.

replicate, so unless people breathe in these elementary
bodies, there is no problem. But on the other hand, if

These bacteria are called Chlamydophila pecorum

elementary bodies infect a person, even if an antibiotic

and they usually live in cattle and sheep. It is not clear

is administered, it will not be effective. Most antibiotics

how or whether these bacteria are involved in disease

take effect at the time of cell division so they only

so investigating their role has become a task for

affect the C. psittaci in reticulate body form, which isresearchers.

indicated in green. This is the form in which C. psittaci
undergoes cell division. At this time the bacteria’s

I will talk now about Chlamydophila infections in birds.

metabolism becomes extremely active and it multiplies

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201259

These birds are ‘galahs’ and, in their natural state, they

Somebody asked me, “For a diagnosis of melancholy,

live pleasantly in groups such as this. I think it is wrong

the patient must tell the doctor that they don’t feelto catch such birds and abduct them from the wild. But

well. How can you know a bird is feeling melancholy?”

I suppose it is only natural that so many people want

So I simply answered, “I’m a vet, so I know” At whichto keep them once they see how cute they look. In aeverybody laughed. I’m sure that if you keep a bird,

book I translated there is a sentence that reads, “Please

you will know if it has respiratory symptoms, etc.

think about how many birds have disappeared from the

However, symptoms do differ depending on the kind ofnatural world so that you can keep one bird.”

bird. In Amazon parrots, scarlet macaws, etc., nervous
symptoms tend to appear.

Chlamydophila bacteria have been identified as being
carried by 145 species of birds comprising 18 orders.

Next, of the birds that display symptoms of

The causative agent of psittacosis is C. psittaci, but

conjunctivitis, cockatiels and budgerigars are perhaps

birds also carry C. abortus. And although this has yet

the ones we are most familiar with. However, someto be publically announced, a survey of birds in Ghana

other types of birds have comparatively low resistance,found that they were carrying C. abortus and not C.

such as pigeons. I will talk a bit about pigeons towards

psittaci, and there may be some other varieties out

the end, but at present, Chlamydophila infections havethere in the natural world.

been largely cleaned up among captive birds. Butamong wild birds, which nobody can take care of, they

These bacteria can be found in all kinds of birds

have become a major problem.

around the world. As I mentioned earlier, the year
before last I had a chance to visit Ghana where I foundIn humans, the incubation period for psittacosis is

Chlamydophila present in their wild birds. This means

between one to two weeks. Okabe-sensei talked aboutthat it has spread worldwide. In almost all cases, such

this earlier. Large-scale outbreaks of psittacosis haveinfections are subclinical. However, if symptoms do

occurred in bird rearing facilities in some prefecturesappear the infected animals lose their vitality andaround Japan. When we checked the amount of time

become unable to eat food. In the case of birds thefrom the day that people were exposed to the pathogenfeathers tend to stand erect. The animals become

until pathogenesis, amazingly it matched the theoreticalprogressively thinner and eventually sustain liver

incubation period closely. This has been announced indamage.

a paper, which I recommend you to read.

However, in the case of birds, even when they do

In one zoo there was a case in which psittacosis was

become thin they do not look so different because of allsuspected but it was later established that this was not

the feathers they have.

the case because the incubation time did not match. In
preparing to attend this conference I discovered several

The pathogenic factors include stress. For example, if

things. There was a Q&A concerning psittacosis, which

the owner of a bird suddenly brings home a different

included the question, “I bought a bird yesterday andbird and the owner focuses their attention too much

today I have a fever. Could this be psittacosis?” And theon the new bird, the first bird may worry about “whatanswer was, “From the psittacosis incubation period,

will happen to me?” which may lead it to develop

this is impossible.” I was glad to see this Q&A. And I

symptoms.

think it is very good that people connect birds withpsittacosis.

This bird has a downcast attitude and also has diarrhea.

60

Take a good look and you will see it appears scruffy.

When a person develops psittacosis, the first symptoms

When I made a presentation overseas and used theto appear are fever and cough. Then the respiratory

case of this bird, I described it as being melancholy.

tract is affected and, without prompt treatment,

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

the patient will eventually develop meningitis. The

widely reported disease. Mass outbreaks of the diseasefrequency with which community-acquired pneumonia

were reported in both 2001 and 2002. At that timedevelops is not as high. But in the case that atypicalthere were a huge number of cases. But ever since thepneumonia, or where the origin is unknown, psittacosis

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare began to issue

should be included as a possible factor in the

instructions on how to prevent the disease, the number

differentiation.

of cases has slowed to a trickle. At the moment there
are less than 20 cases, and if this trend continues theActually, in the case of the large-scale outbreak I spoke

number of reported cases will be even fewer.

about earlier, one of the patients infected at a zoo wasdiagnosed in Osaka. The zoo itself was in Shimane,

Looking at the sources of infection, we find that thewhich is quite a long way from Osaka. When people

most common sources are - as one might expect -become infected in places where animals are exhibited,parrots, true parrots and pigeons, as well as, in somethe problem is that they take their infection home withcases, birds other than parrots and true parrots where

them. So patients can be scattered across the nation.

the species are rather hard to identify. At one zoo

And once that happens, unless there is horizontal

where an elk was having a miscarriage and required

cooperation, it is very hard to establish that a large-

emergency surgery the vet involved failed to wear the

scale outbreak has occurred.

usual gloves or mask. In that unavoidable situation thevet became infected. Such cases are unusual but they

I have a long-time acquaintance named Dr. Kishimoto.

occasionally occur.

After he gave a lecture about psittacosis, a medical
doctor visited him and consulted him on a case. “I have

There is no legal requirement to undertake surveys ofa patient with a fever that remains persistently high andpet birds for Chlamydophila infection. Our laboratory

doesn’t return to normal. I questioned the patient incarries out a variety of health examinations in response

detail and learned that he had visited a certain animal

to requests from animal hospitals. In performing

place. What do you think?” I heard that following

these examinations our primary purpose is student

the consultation the doctor changed the drug he was

education. We give training on how to accept samples

administering and that the patient’s fever subsided atfrom outside, examine them, and return the results ofonce.

the examination. I explain this to outside people, obtain
their understanding, and then take sample specimens.

As for transmission of the disease in and through birds,

The veterinarian in charge of the case should makebecause psittacosis is a subclinical infection in birds they

the final diagnosis. Our examination results are merely

excrete the pathogen without exhibiting any symptoms.

reference materials. On the understanding that these

When people breathe in particles of excrement

examination results can also play a useful role infrom infected birds they can develop influenza-likethe eradication of psittacosis, I report them at study

symptoms. In severe cases, psittacosis can be fatal

conferences such as this one.

in humans. However, since the 1980s the numberof deaths in Japan due to this disease has probably

This is from 2006, when 668 specimens were obtained,

been zero. This is because doctors of respiratory tract

most of which were taken during medical examinations.

medicine have made a very conscious effort to educate

Since then, we have examined facilities where birds are

their profession. So in most cases doctors can make a

exhibited and also birds in the wild.

proper diagnosis, which has eliminated deaths due tothis infection.

Now, I will try to explain how these examinations arecarried out. For obtaining samples, we have the stools

Of the diseases classified under the Infectious Diseases

and liquid obtained by wiping the rectum. In mostLaw, at present psittacosis ranks as the fourth mostsituations, to capture a bird and insert a cotton swab

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201261

into the anus would be stressful for the bird, so it isowners and breeders. But unfortunately it is a very

better to obtain a fresh stool. I ask people who wish thedifficult carry out disease control for outdoor-living

laboratory to perform an examination to send as freshbirds. In one example from our own university, a groupa stool as possible because it is not possible to obtainunder Professor Ishiguro carried out research into

DNA from a hard stool.

domestic pigeons in Gifu Prefecture. This side shows
the situation in Gifu, and this side shows the nationwide

From the sample, we extract DNA using a kit, andsituation. The results of this research indicated thatthen we use PCR technology. There are several ways

the positivity ratio for C. psittaci in wild pigeons isof employing PCR, and at present, as long there

about 80% in Hokkaido, about 60% in Tokyo, andare at least several hundred bases, the DNA can beapproximately 23% nationwide. As you can see, thesedetected. The base sequence can be read to determine

rates are much higher than those found in captive bredwhich species of Chlamydophila is present. As forbirds.

the positivity ratio, until 2005 this was averaging
approximately 5%. Then it fell steeply, reaching 1.3% in

However, the problem is that the monthly-classified

2006, 2.1% in 2007 and 0.6% in 2008, before rising topositivity ratios are totally different. For example, in

4% in 2009. The average for the four years from 2006

September and October, C. psittaci is found in very highto 2009 was approx. 1.6%, representing a significant

ratios among examined pigeons. But in December, April

decline from the previous period. I believe this was theand June, when the same pigeon groups are examined,

result of the effects of various daily activities and of

the bacterium cannot be detected. So the timing ofheightened awareness among bird sellers.

the surveys is the key issue. Also, depending on thebird group, almost all the pigeons test positive, as

On a bird type classification, the positivity ratio isshown here. There are numerous problems concerninghigh for cockatiels, but this is because the incidence

pigeons. They not only carry the pathogen that causesof examinations is extremely high in the case of thesepsittacosis but they are also infected by fungal diseases

birds. For the other types, the results are widelyand various other pathogens and harmed by fecal

scattered. These days, cockatiels, budgerigars and rosy-material.

faced lovebirds are mostly domestically bred in Japan.
On the other hand, the birds listed on this slide areNow, let us look at treatment. These are rainbow

mostly imported. At present, the direct import of wild

lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus), which are very

birds is prohibited so presumably the birds imported

beautiful birds. When a large-scale disease outbreak

are only those species allowed into the country andoccurs among such birds, how should we treat them?

are captive bred in breeding facilities in the country of

They only drink juice, basically sucking on the juice ofexport. Even from these birds, Chlamydophila psittaci ismature fruit.

detected.
So we have to get them into a situation where they will
It is possible to identify what strain of C. psittaci thesedrink the juice we provide, and we mix the drug into

bacteria are. Although there is a standard strain, eventhat juice. However, when they are in a group, the more

in Japan they exhibit considerable genetic variation.

dominant members drink a lot and the bullied lower

There are not only one or two strains in circulation

ranking birds can’t drink at all. As a result, some of the

but a variety of genetically distinct types that are often

birds will receive an excessive dose while others will

present in the same host.

not receive any drug dose at all. And if those bullied
birds are removed from the group the disease occurs

62

Up to this point we have only been dealing with captive

again in this leftover group. So it is very difficult tobred birds so disease control is comparatively easy.

treat birds in groups. Also, birds such as lorikeets

All that is needed is to improve the awareness of bird

are highly intelligent. We can’t say exactly how high,

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

although they are not as intelligent as humans, ofobserved at the facility where the large-scale breakout

course. Treatment is particularly difficult in the case ofoccurred. This followed the proper administration ofhighly intelligent birds so we need to pay attention to

drugs and follow-up monitoring over the course of three

this point.

years. But despite this, according to veterinarians whopractice this treatment, sometimes there is a recurrence

On this occasion, we used a drug called Doxycycline.

of disease because of the failure of drugs to work. So it

As I mentioned just now, the feeding habits, meaningis necessary to carry out follow-up examinations fromwhat and how the birds eat, differs drastically from one

time to time even when drugs have been administered,individual to another. In the case of many bird species,

and if the disease recurs, drugs must be administered

we give the drug mixed into water for a period of 45

again.

days. However it tastes very bitter - as you will know if
you have ever tasted it. So the birds don’t want to drink

Finally, as a rather unorthodox summary, in order for

it which can be a big problem. Also, tetracycline grouppeople to live amicably with birds, I want to emphasize

drugs break down easily when exposed to light. So if

that it is important to provide the birds with everyday

they are mixed with water and exposed to sunlight they

health management. I expect that bird owners probably

probably won’t remain effective half a day later. So thistell their birds, “I’m going out now,” or “I’m home.”

is another problem.

Depending on the birds’ behavior or reaction, such as
how they eat, etc., the owners should be able to monitor

In the case of water birds drugs are administered intheir general health condition.

capsule form. When an examination turns up a positive
result we put a capsule inside a fish and feed the fish to

As has been pointed out many times it is important forthe bird. But birds can detect the presence of capsules

owners to have a moderate degree of contact with theirwith a high degree of accuracy so it can be very difficult

birds. Also, when you feel there is something wrong

to administer the drugs. For instance we sometimes

with your bird, contact a veterinarian immediately. The

notice that, after a bird has taken a capsule, theyawareness of veterinarians has been improving thanks

manage to bring it up and drop it from their beak.

to a variety of activities. In the case of psittacosis,
veterinarians also have to cooperate with doctors. I

Apart from this, a variety of drugs are used. In addition

would ask veterinarians who suspect a bird they haveto Doxycycline, we use Oxytetracycline, Azithromycin

examined of carrying psittacosis to tell the owner toand Clarithromycin type antibiotics. But one problem

consult a doctor because there is a possibility that thewith these drugs is the side effects. In the caseowner may have become infected from their bird. I

of humans, we can check the liver function while

would also like to ask patients that contract psittacosis

administering the drug to judge whether the result is

to have their birds examined by a veterinarian. In

good or bad. But with birds it is very difficult to draw

dealing with this disease, we should cooperate tactfully

a blood sample. Budgerigars, for example, only weighwith people in various fields.

between 10 and 20 grams. If several drops of bloodare drawn from such a bird it may faint from anemia.

Sometimes birds look as if they are having this kind

Even taking two drops is difficult, which means trouble.

of discussion too. I hope to realize a situation inConcerning this treatment, I consulted with Drs. Sanada

which birds and people can live together without any

and Nakano, who are involved in this clinical, and we

problems, and I’d like to end by asking bird owners for

prepared the slides.

their cooperation toward this objective.

Although the question remains as to whether birds are

Thank you very much for your kind attention.

really cured or not by antibiotic therapy, we can at least
say that no fresh discharges of the bacteria have been

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201263

鳥の販売数オウム病を知る(平成14年)

ー鳥と安心して暮らすためにー

国内生産84,500羽

輸入数115,000羽

合計

199,000羽

福士秀人
岐阜大学応用生物科学部獣医微生物学研究室
環境省 ペット動物流販売実態調査報告書（平成15年3月）【Slide1】【Slide5】

今日の内容¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ【Slide2】【Slide6】

鳥類が伝播に関与する人獣共通感染症¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ

オウム病
ウエストナイル熱鳥インフルエンザ
結核，サルモネラ症など【Slide7】【Slide3】

平安ー鎌倉ー室町

日本人と鳥オウムインコ類に関係するズーノーシス

姿や鳴き声の美しさ
江戸
羽色の鮮やかさや手乗り

後
徳
大
寺
左
大
臣
︵
八
十
一
番
︶
﹃
千
載
集
﹄
夏

明治ー大正ー昭和

ほ
と
と
た ぎ
だ す
有
明 鳴
の き
つ
月 る
ぞ 方
残 を
れ
る 眺
む
れ
ば

おしゃべりや歌声
平成【Slide4】64

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

疾病

病原体

伝播様式

サルモネラ症

Salmonella

時として他の経路

オウム病

Chlamydophila
psittaci

エルシニア症

Yersinia
pseudotubaculosis
Y. enterocolitica

結核

Mycobacterium
spp.

外部寄生虫侵襲

接触

通常は経口

通常は吸入

時として他の経路

通常経口

通常経口

時として他の経路

不顕性，掻痒
および貧血【Slide8】

トリの症状

不顕性（見掛け上健康）から急性の全身感
染

不顕性から急性全身感
染

ヒトの症状

多様、しばしば胃腸症状時として発熱不顕性から重篤な呼吸器疾
患

死に至ることもある。

不顕性から急性

消化器症状

局所から全身局所から呼吸器や消化器系

掻痒と皮膚病変

掻痒と皮膚病変クラミジアの生活環
EBが細胞に感染¥ 鳥と私たち¥ 鳥と人獣共通感染症¥ オウム病¥ まとめ

食作用により細胞内に取り込まれる

小胞内でRBに変換後分裂増殖し、封入体形成(感染性消失)EBは環境中で感染性を保つRBからEBに再び変換し、感染性が出現基本小体細胞が溶解し、EBおよび残りのRBが
放出される

EB
RB

中間体

増殖環

基本小体：外部環境で長期間生残
網様体：細胞質内のみ・抗生物質感受性【Slide9】【Slide13】

オウム病とは？

クラミジアによる人獣共通感染症

20世紀初頭にヨーロッパで流行
日本では1957年に初発例（輸入例はそれ以前）

鳥が排泄したクラミジアに人が感染し発症

感染環

脳炎
髄膜炎
上部気道炎

水平伝播

乾燥した糞・排泄物による埃塵の吸引

不顕性感染
ストレス等により発症

オウム病

気管支炎
肺炎
心筋炎
肝臓の腫大
脾臓の腫大
多臓器障害
DIC

【Slide14】【Slide10】

オウム病の病原体
クラミジア

クラミジア感染症

クラミジア感染細胞電子顕微鏡写真
原図 松本明博士【Slide11】【Slide15】

病原体の大きさ【Slide12】

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201265

オウム病（鳥クラミジア感染症）
宿主：18目145種の鳥類, ヒト
原因菌： Chlamydophila psittaci

オウム病の現況(Chlamydophila abortus)
分布：世界中のあらゆる鳥種
症状：不顕性感染
元気・食欲不振，羽毛逆立，削痩，緑白色下痢便
発症要因：ストレス，混合感染など【Slide20】【Slide16】

各種鳥類の症状
比較的良く見られる症状
呼吸器症状，鼻漏，下痢，多尿，沈鬱
神経症状があるとされている鳥種
アマゾンオウム，コンゴウインコ

1999年から2010年における届け出数
60
54

45

44
40
35

30

結膜炎

オカメインコ，セキセイインコ

29
23

15

比較的抵抗性
ハト

34

22

21

18
9

0

13

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

【Slide21】【Slide17】

オウム病（人）11

IDWR, 感染症研究所

1999年から2007年における届け出に記載された感染源
オウム・インコ類

潜伏期間は1〜2週間
急激な高熱と咳嗽で発症
軽症の気道感染から、肺炎や髄膜炎までの多様な病態
市中肺炎における頻度はさほど高くはないが、中等症までの非定型肺炎と原因菌不明の重症肺炎では、必ず鑑別

35
16
7
25

ハト

インコ類

5 16

鳥種不明

オウム・インコ類以外の鳥

143

ヘラジカ
不明

に入れる必要がある。

【Slide18】

http://idsc.nih.go.jp/disease/psittacosis/idwr200719/【Slide22】

鳥類のクラミジア保有状況【Slide19】66

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012

【Slide23】

鳥種別クラミジア陽性数

我が国の愛玩鳥における鳥クラミジア症

鳥種

主に

2006年4月から2010年3月までにクラミジア検査依頼のあった検体

検査数
209

3

コザクラインコ25

1

セキセイインコ

国内繁殖・生産
小型鳥

61

ヨウム

• 愛玩鳥販売業者（2業者，668検体）

1

5

2

テンジクバタン

3

1

ハツハナインコ2

1

ギニアエボシドリ

3

ソデシロインコ• 上記以外，野鳥など（699検体）

1

12

ショウジョウインコ• 鳥類展示施設（7施設，219検体）

2

18

キガシラアオハシインコ• 動物病院（18病院，285検体）

陽性数

オカメインコ2

コガネメキシコインコ

1

2

パナマボウシインコ

1

2

アヒル

1

35

上記以外の鳥種

1

1421

鳥種不明

【Slide24】

1

10

71

3

【Slide28】

鳥種別クラミジア陽性数

クラミジアの検出方法

鳥種

1．採材

主に
国内繁殖・生産小型鳥・鳥の糞便またはクロアカスワブを採取

検査数
209

3

コザクラインコ25

1

セキセイインコ

61

ヨウム

2．DNA抽出18

キガシラアオハシインコ

12

ショウジョウインコ

・DNA抽出キットを用いてDNAを抽出

52

ハツハナインコ2

1

2
2

パナマボウシインコ

2

アヒル

35

上記以外の鳥種・一部サンプルに関しては塩基配列確認した

1
1

3

コガネメキシコインコ

4．塩基配列解析

1

3

ソデシロインコ・Nested PCR法またはReal-time PCR法

2

テンジクバタンギニアエボシドリ

3．PCR法による検査

陽性数

オカメインコ

1421

鳥種不明

71

主に海外から1輸入される大型鳥

1
1
1
1

10

3

【Slide29】【Slide25】

系統樹

年別クラミジア陽性率＊NJ法で作成

H9P1̲鳥種不明
遺伝子型A; X56980, 6BC̲標準株

検査数（羽）

陽性数（羽）

陽性率（％）

2006年

988

13

1.3

2007年

328

7

2.1

2008年

353

2

0.6

2009年

202

8

4.0

合計

1871

30

1.6

H06907cockatiel̲オカメインコ
H06418Long-billed Corella̲テンジクバタン
AB284058, Mat116̲日本分離株
H05cockatiel̲オカメインコ
遺伝子型E/B; AY762613, WS/RT/E30
遺伝子型B; AF269265, CP3
遺伝子型C; L25436, Avian type C
遺伝子型D; AF269266, NJ1
0.1295遺伝子型F; AF269259, VS225

0.1【Slide26】【Slide30】

鳥種別クラミジア陽性数
鳥種
オカメインコ

セキセイインコ

コザクラインコヨウム

キガシラアオハシインコ
ショウジョウインコ

検査数
209

61
25
18
12

5

3
2
1
1
1
2

テンジクバタン

3

1

ハツハナインコ2

1

ギニアエボシドリ
ソデシロインコ

コガネメキシコインコ
パナマボウシインコ
アヒル

上記以外の鳥種
鳥種不明【Slide27】

3
2
2
2

35

1421

71

野外の鳥：ドバトの調査例

陽性数

1
1
1
1
1

10

3

県

岐阜県における月別検出率

検出率

北海道

28/35

80%

東京

14/23

61%

神奈川

1/4

25%

岐阜

41/290

14%

愛知

10/81

12%

大阪

11/29

38%

広島

1/1

100%

合計

106/463

23%

2003年

2004年
合計

9月

11月

12月

4月

6月

11/16

11/11

19/1870/50

0/26

41/290

69%

100%

10%

0

0

14.1%

23%から検出（Tanaka et al. 2005)【Slide31】

JVMS 67: 951-953, 2005

2nd Live Love Animals International Conference on Animal Care in Kobe 201267

鳥と仲良く暮らすために鳥の日頃の健康管理

オウム病クラミジア感染症の治療

鳥との適度な接触

おかしいと思ったら獣医師にすぐに相談

獣医師と医師の相互協力【Slide32】【Slide36】

オウム病の ドキシサイクリンによる 治療方法
適応鳥種

投与期間

投与経路

全鳥種

45-60日

飲水

オウム類

45-60日食餌

ヒインコ

45-60日

食餌45-60日食餌

ゴシキセイガイインコ

45-60日

ネクター

水鳥類

45日

食餌

水鳥類

45日

経口

小型コンコ・
カナリア【Slide33】
オウムインコ類におけるオウム病の治療方法例
薬剤

投与期間

投与経路

ドキシサイクリン45日

オキシテトラサイクリン

5〜14日

餌，飲水

アジスロマイシン

30日

経口

クラリスロマイシン

30日

経口

ミノマイシン30日

経口，飲水

クロルテトラサイクリン

45日

飲水，餌

備考

飲水，経口， ヨウム，ボウシインコ，コンゴウインコ，バタン類
餌で嘔吐
ヨウム，ボウシインコ，コンゴウインコ，バタン類
で嘔吐
肝機能、腎機能に問題がある場合は使わない

ヨウム，ボウシインコ，コンゴウインコ，バタン類
で嘔吐【Slide34】

まとめ【Slide35】68

りぶ・らぶ・あにまるず 神戸アニマルケア国際会議 2012