03
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ATTRIBUTES OF AGRICULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF HIMACHALPRADESH
Shivjeet Kaur1, Jaswinder Kaur2 and K. S. Sohal3
1
Assistant Professor, 2Research Scholar and 3Former Professor and Head,
Department of Geography, Punjabi University Patiala (Punjab), India
Email: jaswinderkk09@gmail.com

How to cite this paper:
Shivjeet Kaur, Jaswinder Kaurand Sohal K. S. (2023) SocioEconomic
AttributesofAgriculture: A Case Study of
Himachal Pradesh, Journal of
Global Resources, Vol. 09
(01)
DOI:
10.46587/JGR.2023.v09i01.003

Received: 11 Sep. 2022
Reviewed: 30 Oct. 2022
Final Accepted: 09 Dec. 2022

Abstract: In the present study, socio-economic attributes
which affect agricultural patterns are analyzed, because thesefactors impact the land-use and crop land use patterns
effectively in each physical environment. For achieving thisobjective, various attributes are considered which effectedmaize cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. The main selected
attributes are density of rural population, agricultural workers,
sources of irrigation, extent of irrigation, size of land holdings,
consumption of chemical fertilizers, share of High Yielding
Varieties of seeds, road density, market accessibility, etc. It isobserved that share of agricultural workers is moderate to highin maize predominant areas, because maize requires morehuman hands as compared to other crops. While size of landholdings also affected agricultural operations and in respect ofextent of irrigation it determines area under different crops.
Whereas road accessibility has influenced area under different
crops, which enhances the movements of inputs from market
to field and agricultural produce from farm to market. Sameobservations are found in marketing facilities, because themagnitude of marketing facilities enthused the cultivation of acrop, which farmers can carry to the market and earn
respectable economic returns. Thus, study has concluded thatsocio-economic attributes played very decisive role inagriculture. The present study is for the 2014-15 year, which isbased on secondary sources of data and personalobservations. Three years averages of 2013-14, 2014-15 and2015-16 are taken for determining the 2014-15 period. Simple
statistical techniques are used and choropleth method isapplied for preparing the maps.
Key words: Rural Population Density, Road Density, Extentof Irrigation, Chemical Fertilizers.

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Introduction
In addition to the physical factors, agricultural land-use, cropping pattern and agriculturalprocesses are also largely influenced by the socio-economic factors such as fragmentation ofoperational land holdings, labour, land tenure system, irrigation, farm mechanization, high yielding
varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, transportation facilities, marketing facilities, etc.
.(Shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.).Farmers make decision about what to grow, what animals to keep,
the level and type of inputs and the methods they will use.Their decisions are based upon a rangeof social, economic and environmental factors.The farmers attitudes and level of knowledge about
agriculture are of vital importance (https//:revisionworld.com). Growth and development ofagriculture is always directed and determined by physical, social, economic, and political factors.
Social factors affect farming in several ways. The type of farming practiced, be it shifting
cultivation, subsistence farming, extensive cereal cultivation or mixed farming, etc. is always
related to regional and social structure. Social factors can also affect the type of crops that aregrown. Social factors can affect agriculture through ownership and laws about inheritance of land.
The most important economic factors affecting agriculture are market, transport facilities, labour,
capital, government policies, size of land holdings, irrigation, chemical fertilizers, etc. The level ofscientific and technological development has a great bearing on agriculture.Farmers, using
primitive methods obtain poor yields.Where farmers are using modern farm technology in the
shape of fertilizers, pesticides, machinery and high yielding varieties of seeds, etc. the farm yields
are high.An Indian farmer is poorer in comparison to an American farmer, because the later uses
more modern farm technology.The per hectare yield of rice in India is only 2000 kg.as compared
to about 5600 kg.in Japan.This difference in yield is due to scientific and technologicaldifferences.The system of land tenure also plays a significant role in the patterns and productivityof crops (www.Preservearticles.com). Hussain (2007), has also observed that there are numerous
socio-cultural, economic, technological, and infrastructural factors, which also determine theagricultural land-use, cropping pattern and agricultural processeso f these factors, land tenancy,
size of land holdings, population, labour, farm machinery, market, and mode of accessibility, etc.
are vital.
Study Area
Himachal Pradesh has 1.69 percent of India’s total reporting area and is situated in north-west of
the country. Its longitudinal and latitudinal extent lies between 750 40' 55 "E longitudes to
79004'20 "E longitudes and 30022'44 "N latitude to 330 12' 40 "N latitude. Its mean minimum
annual temperature and mean maximum annual temperature are of -40 C to 300 C. While its
average annual precipitation varies from 70cm. to 300 cm.
Objectives
The major objective of the study is to identify socio-economic factors influencing agriculture.
Methodology and Sources of Data
Present study is empirical in nature and based on secondary sources of data. The time period of
the study is 2014-15. Three years averages of 2013-14, 2014-15 and 2015-16 for 2014-15 aretaken. The secondary sources of data are used which is collected from various state offices.
Simple statistical methods are used for determining the results and these results are mapped withchoropleth technique. Tehsil is selected as unit of study. This paper deals with the assessment of24socio-economic background of the study area, namely density of population, main workers,
agricultural workers, cultivators, labourers, land tenure, land holdings, irrigation, farm machinery,high yielding variety of seeds, chemical fertilizers, regulated markets, transportation, government
policies, etc.
Fig. 1
76

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E

77

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79 E

Him a ch a l Pra des h
Ad m in st r at ive D i visio n s

N
W

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33 N

Pang i33 N

S

Chu rahSalo on i

Lah au lDal ho usi e
Cha mbaBhar mau r

Bhattiya t

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Dha rmsh al a

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Mana li
Spiti

In do raKang raPala mp ur

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32

Baro hJog ind ern ag ar
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Sou rc e : Ce ns us o f Indi a, 2 0 1 1

Density of Rural Population
Rural population density is an important measure to calculate the extent of population pressure
upon agricultural resources. Very high rural population densities indicate the relative scarcity ofland resources and presence of intensive subsistence agricultural system and low to moderate
rural densities. Apart from this, rural population density determines the availability of labour force
for agricultural sector as well as the market for agricultural produce (Mydral,1968). Total
population of Himachal Pradesh is 68,56,509 persons and total rural population is 6,167,805
persons according to 2011 census. The highest density of rural population is 378 persons per
square kilometers in Hamirpur and lowest of 2 persons per square kilometers in Lahaul & Spiti as
per 2011 census.
Spatial Distribution of Density of Rural Population
For showing the spatial variations in the density of rural population in Himachal Pradesh fig.2 isgrouped into following three categories1. Areas with High Density of Rural Population (>200 persons per sq.km.)
The high density of rural population includes 6 districts namely Bilaspur, Hamirpur, Kangra,
Mandi, Solan and Una. The density of rural population in this category varies between 237
persons per sq.km.in Mandi district to 378 persons per sq. km.in Hamirpur district.The main
reasons for high rural density of population are favorable climatic conditions as compare toeastern, northern and southern parts of the state, availability of agricultural land, lack of industrial

25

activities expect in Solan district, suitability of land for crops throughout the years etc. owing to allthese reasons, rural density of population is recorded high.
Fig. 2

Himachal Pradesh

Density of Rural Population: 2011
N.

Persons Per Km.
>200
100 - 200
<100
Region's Average = 110.78 Persons/Km

0

Kms

50

Source: Census of India, 2011, Himachal Pradesh.

2. Areas with Moderate Density of Rural Population (100 to 200 persons per sq.km.):
Only two districts form this category namely Shimla and Sirmaur. The reasons for moderatedensity of rural population in Shimla district, except Shimla Urban area, are lack of town as wellas industries and a result most of the people are living in rural areas and engaged in agriculturalactivities .While in Sirmaur district, the southern parts are semi-hilly areas and are suitable for
agriculture and supporting more people per unit area. Secondly, the existence of Paonta Sahib
town, where more people are living in urban areas, but the northern part of the Sirmaur district
where population is sparsely distributed and from agricultural point of view, land is less suitable.
All these reasons led to moderate rural density of population.
3. Areas with low density of rural population (< 100 persons per sq.km.)
Districts of Chamba, Kullu, Lahaul & Spiti and Kinnaur fall in this category. Here, the densityof rural population varies between 2 persons per sq. km.in Lahaul & Spiti to 73.9 persons per
sq.km.in Chamba district. All these areas are having difficult terrain and severe climatic conditions
particularly during winters except valleys. These are land not suitable for crop farming and as aresult cannot support dense population. The primary activity is dominant in valley areas which aresupporting people, but about 85 percent of the areas is mountainous. Thus, geo-climaticconditions as well as socio-economic conditions are not favorable for crop farming, except, theapple orchards, thus low density of rural population is recorded.
The above discussion shows that western parts of Himachal Pradesh have high ruraldensity of population, while northern as well as eastern parts are with low rural density of26

population. But southern parts have experienced moderate rural density of population. Secondly,
the pattern of rural density of population largely coincides with the geo-climatic conditions anddegree of urbanization.
Agricultural Workers
Agricultural worker is defined under the act as any person who is doing work in agricultural activity(Wikipedia). Any person who is working whether as cultivator or as agricultural labourer on farmis called agricultural worker (Ranjana, 2012). An agricultural worker is someone who works on a
farm, maintaining crops such as fruits, grains, vegetables, and nuts.
Spatial Distribution
The distribution of agricultural workers is not uniform in the state. Average of agricultural workers
is 62.85 percent in the study area. But it varies from 48.48 percent in Una district to 77.86 percent
in Kullu district. For showing the spatial distribution of agricultural workers, fig.3 is mapped whichshows three categories and these are as follow:
1. Category of High Concentration of Agricultural Workers (> 65 percent):
High concentration of agricultural workers is found in Chamba, Kullu and Mandi districts ofHimachal Pradesh. In these areas, the share of agricultural workers is above 65 percent. These
areas are lagging in industrial development and few urban centers. Here, small size of landholdings, severe geo-climatic conditions, etc. compel most of the people to engage themselvesin agriculture, because other economic activities are less developed. Except agriculture, people
are also engaged in tourism industry. All this has resulted into high number of agricultural workers
in these districts.
2. Category of Moderate Concentration of Agricultural Workers (55 to 65 percent):
Moderate concentration of agricultural workers is found in Bilaspur, Hamirpur, Kinnaur,
Lahaul & Spiti, Shimla, Solan and Sirmaur districts. In these areas, the share of agricultural
workers ranges between 55 and 65 percent. Owing to tough terrain and severe geo-climaticconditions in Lahaul & Spiti and Kinnaur districts, few people are involved in agriculture ascompare to high category. But in case of Bilaspur and Hamirpur districts, though the major
economic activity is agriculture, yet several people are serving in defense services also. Owing tothese reasons, share of agricultural workers is moderate.
3. Category of Low Share of Agricultural Workers (< 55 percent):
Low share of agricultural workers is found in Kangra and Una districts of Himachal Pradesh.These
districts have less than 55 percent share of agricultural workers. Here, a large number of people
are doing jobs in army, industries and other economic activities. The number of urban centers is
also more as compare to other parts of the state.Thus, all these reasons are responsible for low
share of agricultural workers in this category. In respect of agricultural workers in Himachal
Pradesh, their average share is 62.85 percent of the total workers. It is recorded lowest of 48.48
percent in Una district and highest of 77.86 percent in Kullu district. Their concentration is high inthe districts of Chamba, Mandi, Kullu, Shimla and Sirmaur. Whereas their share is low in Kangra,
Solan and Una districts, which are having large size of land holdings, development of othersecondary and tertiary activities, etc.

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Cultivators
Agricultural worker who cultivates the land is called cultivator. Cultivators are those who plough
the land which they have either own or taken on rent(Sharma,2014). There are three types ofcultivators: Owner cultivators, Lessee cultivators and Tenants-at-will. Cultivators make decision
consciously or rationally about the kind of farming to be undertaken, the combination ofenterprises in the farming system, the kind and quality of different inputs and the trading or surplus
produce. Itis observed that the decision, aims and motivation of the cultivators are largely
determined by the size of land holdings, land tenure system, consolidation of land holdings, etc.
Cultivator means tilling of land whether own by him / her or on lease or as tenants-at-will.

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Spatial Distribution
There are 92.17 percent of the total agricultural workers as cultivators. Their share varies between
81.22 percent in Una district and 96.84 percent in Bilaspur district. For showing spatial distributionof cultivators, fig. 4 is mapped which depicts the following categories:
1. Category of High Concentration of Cultivators (> 95 percent):
High concentration of cultivators is found in Bilaspur, Chamba, Kullu, Hamirpur, Lahaul & Spiteand Mandi districts. Owing to small size of land holdings, severe geo-climatic conditions,agriculture as main occupation of the people, poor economic conditions of the farmers, etc. havecompelled the farmers to work on their fields, which consequently lead to high share of cultivatorsin this category.
2.Category of Moderate Share of Cultivators (90 to 95 percent):
Moderate share of cultivators includes the districts of Kullu, Kinnaur, Shimla, Sirmaur and Solan.In
this category, the percent share of cultivators is ranging between 90 to 95 percent. In these areas,
due to moderate size of land holdings and moderate rural density of population some of the landowners do hire agricultural labourers on their farms, which is responsible for moderate share ofcultivators.
3.Category of Low Share of Cultivators (> 90 percent):
The districts of Kangra and Una fall in the category of low share of cultivators. Kangra and Una
districts are semi-hilly and most of the parts are lying in piedmont and Shivalik hills. The size ofland holdings is comparatively large. Some people engaged in secondary and tertiary activities
also.Owing to large size of land holdings, farmers do hire agricultural labourers on their field,
which consequently lead to low share of cultivators in this category.It is also observed that theshare of cultivators is high in areas with small size of land holdings, less opportunities in othereconomic activities, severe geo-climatic conditions, etc.Their average share is recorded 92.17
percent of the total agricultural workers, which is lowest of 81.22 percent in Una district andhighest of 96.84 percent in Bilaspur district.
Agricultural Labourers in Himachal Pradesh: 2011
Agricultural labourer may be defined as labourer who works in agriculture or allied activities forthe whole or part of the year in return for cash or kind or both for full time work. The agriculturallabourer has no risk in cultivation and no right of lease or contract on land, but merely works onanother person’s land for wage. Agriculture Labour Enquiry Committee (ALEC) defined
agricultural labourer as the worker whose main source of income is derived as wages for working
on farms of others.
Spatial Distribution
Average share of agricultural labourers in the study region is 7.82 percent of the total agricultural
workers according to 2011 census. Their percent share is lowest in Bilaspur district with 3.15
percent and highest in Una district with 18.77 percent. Fig. 5 portrays the distributional pattern ofagricultural workers and shows three categories.

29

1. High Concentration of Agricultural Labourers (> 10 percent):
Two districts namely Kangra and Una fall in this category. The share of agricultural labourers iscomparatively high owing to large size of land holdings, piedmont plains, valley of Palampur, etc.
2. Moderate Share of Agricultural Labourers (5 to 10 percent):
The districts of Kinnaur, Kullu, Shimla, Sirmaur and Solan form this category. Here, the share of
agricultural labourers is varying between 5.53 percent in Sirmaur district and 9.46 percent to
Shimla district. In all these areas, the share of agricultural labourers is moderate, because of thesmall size of land holdings, mountainous terrain, existing of Manali, Shimla, Solan and Paontasahib urban centers, industrial activity particularly in Solan and Sirmaur districts, etc. All thesefactors are responsible for moderate share of agricultural labourers.
F ig . 5

H im a c h a l P r a d e s h

A g r ic u lt u r a l L a b o u r e r s : 2 0 1 1N

P e r C e n t o f A g r i c u l tu r a l W o r k e r s
0

>10

50
Km s

5-1 0
<5
R e g i o n 's A v e r a g e = 7 . 8 2 P e r C e n t

S o u r c e : C e n s u s o f I n d ia , 2 0 1 1 , H im a c h a l P r a d e s h .

3.Low Share of Agricultural Labourers (> 5 percent):
Four districts namely Chamba, Hamirpur, Lahaul & Spiti, Mandi and Bilaspur fall in thiscategory. Here, the share of agricultural labouers varies from 3.15 percent in Bilaspur to 4.84
percent in Lahaul & Spite districts. In all these areas, the share of agricultural labourers is lessthan 5 percent. The study has concluded that, average share of agricultural labourers is only
7.82 percent, but it varies from 3 .15 percent in Bilaspur district to 18 .77 percent in Una district.
But, the share of agricultural labourers is more in areas with large size of land holdings,
comparatively developed agriculture like areas of Una and Kangra districts.Overall, it isobserved that the number of cultivators is high in the state, while the number of agriculturallabouers is low, because of the poor socio-economic conditions of the farmers supplemented
by their small size of land holdings, because small farmers are not in a position to hire morelabourers owing to their poor paying capacity.

30

Size of Operational Land Holdings in Himachal Pradesh
There are 9,60,765 operational land holdings in Himachal Pradesh in 2014 -15 .Out of its 69.78
percent are recorded marginal operational land holdings which have less than 1 hectare ofland. While 18.17 percent are small land holdings with 1 -2 hectares, but in case of semimedium (2-4 hectares) land holdings the percent is 8 .83 percent of the total land holdings. The
size of medium size of land holdings (4-10 hectares)is 2.87 percent, while the share of large
land holdings above (10 hectares) is recorded 0 .34 percent.
Among the marginal land holdings, Kullu has lowest share of 8 .32 percent and highest
share of marginal land holdings in Lahaul & Spiti district with 43 .00 percent. Whereas the sizeof small land holdings varies from 10 .88 percent to 29 .83 percent in Kullu and Lahaul & Spiti
districts respectively. Semi-medium size of operational land holdings is recorded lowest of 3 .25
percent in Kullu district and highest of 21 .73 percent in Lahaul & Spiti districts . But, medium
size of operational land holdings is recorded lowest of 0 .55 percent in Chamba and highest of
10.68 percent in Sirmaur district. Himachal Pradesh has 87 .95 percent land holdings less than
2 hectares. Whereas only 0.34 percent land holdings are of large size. It shows that marginaland small farmers are predominant which are unable to adopt modern technology for
agricultural development.
Extent of Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to agricultural land. It is practiced by more than half ofthe farmers in the world because they need more water for their crops than is available fromrainfall. The development of irrigation facilities plays a crucial role in transforming the
agriculture of an area.The use of other important inputs like high yielding varieties of seeds
and chemical fertilizers become possible, when assured water supply is available .The supplyof water to land or crops to help growth, typically by means of channel.Irrigation is theapplication of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed interval.Irrigation helps to growagricultural crops, maintain landscapes and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during
periods of inadequate rainfall.Irrigation also has other uses in crop production, including frost
protection and preventing soil consolidation.In contrast, agriculture that relies on direct rainfall
is referred to as rainfed or dry land farming (www.researchgate.net).
Spatial Patterns
Out of total net sown area of 5,43,345 hectares, the area under net irrigation is 1,09,940
hectares in 2014-15. In respect of average figure of extent of irrigation in Himachal Pradesh is
20.23 percent, but owing to variations in physiography, soils, climate, nature of crops, etc. It is
not uniformly distributed throughout the state. It is recorded lowest of 3 .14 percent in Shimla
district and 99 .79 percent highest in Lahaul & Spiti district. For making a detailed study of
distribution of extent of irrigation in Himachal Pradesh, fig.6 is mapped, which exhibits three
categories and these are discussed below:
1. Areas of High Extent of Irrigation (> 40 Percent):
Two districts namely Lahaul & Spiti and Kinnaur form this category. It is lying in eastern partsof the state. Here, the extent of irrigation varies between 65 .39 percent in Kinnaur district and99.79 percent in Lahaul & Spiti . The extent of irrigation is high owing to less net sown area31

because of perceptual snow in major parts of the year. Very small proportion of area is undercropping. Secondly, the irrigation is available from the kuhls during the summer season whensnow melts.
2. Areas of Moderate Extent of Irrigation (20-40 percent):
This category mainly lays along the western parts of the study region. It includes the districts ofChamba, Kangra, Una, Solan and Sirmaur.These areas have mixed type of relief, some parts arepiedmont areas, some others are of Shiwalik hills and some are of mountainous. There are valleys
also like Palampur. Here, sources of irrigation are tube wells and kuhls. Among these kuhls are
predominant mainly in Kangra district, but in lower parts of all these districts tube wells irrigation
is developed. These are the reasons for moderate share of irrigation in this category. It comprises
33.33 percent of total occurrences.
3. Areas of Low Extent of Irrigation (> 20 percent):
This category covers the central parts of the state and lies between the categories of high andmoderate proportion. The districts of Kullu, Mandi, Bilaspur, Hamirpur and Shimla form thiscategory, which contains 50 percent of total occurrences. Here, the proportion of extent ofirrigation varying between 3.14 percent in Shimla district to 14.25 percent in Mandi districts. In allthese areas, sources of irrigation are less developed, because of occurrences of high hills andmountains, high rainfall, etc. which led to low extent of irrigation.
From the ongoing discussion, it is found that lower parts of the state are having moderateshare of irrigation, because of low proportion of net sown area, eastern parts have high extent ofirrigation and central parts owing to high rainfall have low share of extent of irrigation.

Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers
The essential nutrients contained in chemical fertilizers are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium(NPK), as well as other nutritional substances in smaller amounts-all presented in a form than can

32easily be absorbed and metabolized by plants (www.thefreedictonay.com).Fertilizers can simply
be a word to mean a substance that provides nutrients used by plants.Whereas manure is animal
waste that can be used as fertilizers.Any chemical or natural substance which is added into soil
to increase fertility is called fertilizer.Low dung manure, farmyard manure, vermicompost, etc.
(www.civilsdaily.com).
Himachal Pradesh has consumed 53,055 metric tons of chemical fertilizers in 2014-15. Its
total net sown area is 5,43,365 hectares. Thus, state has experienced average consumption of
97.64 kg/hect.This average consumption of chemical fertilizers is not same in all the districts.
Some districts have consumed more fertilizers as compare to others. Therefore, it is recorded
lowest of 29.48 kg /hect.in Kinnaur district. For making an in-depth study of uneven distribution ofchemical fertilizers in the state fig.7 is mapped, which reveals the following three categories:
1. Category of High Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers (> 120 kg. per hect.):
This category comprises three districts namely Shimla and Lahaul & Spiti and 25 percent of thetotal occurrences. The consumption of chemical fertilizers is high in Lahaul &Spiti district owing
to small proportion of net sown area which saw high intensity of cultivation. Farmers grow morethan one crop in one agricultural year and crops are mostly vegetables, which required morechemical fertilizers because during summers irrigation is available from kuhls whom receive waterfrom melting glaciers. Where as in the case of Shimla district, there is also predominance ofvegetables and fruits crops owing to favorable geo-climatic conditions and existence of Shimla
city and its satellites towns, which provide large market for vegetables and fruits. These crops arealso grown but the horticultural crops are dominant. But, in case of Una district, most of its parts
are piedmont plains which are bordering with Punjab.Here, the consumption of chemical fertilizers
is highest that is 199.01 kg per hect. Here, cultivation of wheat, maize, vegetables, fruits, etc. ison large scale which ultimately lead to high consumption of chemical fertilizers.
2. Category of Moderate Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers (60 -120 kg. per hect.):
This category is largely confined to western and central parts of the state. It contains 58.33 percentof the total occurrences.The districts of Kangra, Kullu, Mandi, Bilaspur, Hamirpur, Solan, Una andSirmaur form this category.Here, farmers sow wheat, maize and rice crops, though others crops
like pulses, oilseeds etc. are also grown.In some parts of this category, irrigation is available fromkuhls and tube wells.Thus, farmers make use of chemical fertilizers for increasing the productionof crops which consequently lead to moderate proportion of consumption of chemical fertilizers.
Moreover, consumption of chemical fertilizers is noted lowest of 67.61 kg.per hect. in Mandi andhighest of 114 .69 kg. per hect. in Kullu district.
3. Category of Low Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers (> 60 kg.per hect.):
Only two districts Chamba and Kinnaur fall in this category and as a result it comprises 16.66
percent of the total occurrences. The consumption of chemical fertilizers ranges between 29.48
kg.per hect.in Kinnaur and 30.56 percent in Chamba district. Most of its parts are receiving highsnowfall except Chamba valley. Here, the geo-climatic conditions are highly favorable forsuccessful crop farming, peoples are poor, some area is under horticultural crops like pulses,
millets are also grown .There are poor irrigational facilities and all this is responsible for low

33consumption of chemical fertilizers. In respect of chemical fertilizers, it is recorded that areas withirrigation facilities as well as with horticultural crops are using more chemical fertilizers as compare
to other areas, but areas with moderate irrigation facilities have experienced moderate use ofchemical fertilizers and the rest of the areas have low consumption of chemical fertilizers.
Density of Roads
There is total 21692 km. mettled roads in Himachal Pradesh in 2014-15, which yield density ofroads of 38 km. per hundred sq.km. of area, but is not homogenously distributed throughout thestate.It is recorded lowest of 7 kms per hundred sq.km. of area in Kinnaur district and highest of
196 km. per hundred sq.km. of area in Hamirpur district. For, knowing its spatial distributional
pattern in fig.8 is mapped, which depicts following three categories:
1. Category of High Density of Roads (> 60 km. per hundred sq. km. of area):This category embraces the districts of Kangra, Una, Mandi, Bilaspur, Hamirpur and Solan andvaries between 69 km. per 100 sq. km. in Mandi district and 196 km. per hundred sq. km. in
Hamirpur district. The reasons for high density of roads are comparatively favorable relief forconstruction of roads, socio-economic development, high density of population, etc.

2. Category of Moderate Density of Roads (30-60 km. per hundred sq .kms):
Only two districts namely Sirmaur and Shimla comprises category of moderate density of roads.
Here, road length varies between 48 km. per 100 sq. km. in Sirmaur district and 51 km. per 100
sq. km in Shimla district. Though, these areas are socio-economically developed, but there arecertain areas which have rugged topography and high mountains, therefore, density of roads isnoted moderate.
3. Category of Low Density of Roads (< 30 km. per hundred sq.km):
It comprises the district of Chamba, Kullu, Lahaul & Spiti and Kinnaur. Here, high mountains
difficult terrain, snowfall, etc. are the hindrances in the way of construction of Mettled roads.
Though, these areas have attractive tourists spots also, yet the density of roads recorded low
which ranges between 4 km. per 100 sq. km. in Lahaul & Spiti district to 19 km. per100 sq. km. in34

Chamba districts. The above discussion shows that road density is high in areas with piedmont
plains, low hills, high density of population, etc. but is low in areas with high mountains, rugged
topography, snow covered peaks, low density of population, etc.
Regulated Markets
Agricultural marketing can be defined as the performance of all business activities that direct theflow of goods and services from producer to the consumer, so that these may reach the consumer
at particular time and place and in the form, one wishes and at price one is willing to pay.Further,marketing is one of the most potent factor greatly stimulating agricultural production of an area andfarmers always need an efficient market wherein to sell his surplus produce (Kohls,
1958).Regulated market is the provision of services that is regulated by a government approved
body. Thompen (1951), has argued that an effective and efficient marketing system from the pointof view of a farmer is one of which, when sold to consumers, will yield maximum returns after
denudation of maximum marketing charges and farm production cost incurred by a farmer.
Regulated market is a market, where the government controls the forces of supply and demand,such as who is allowed to enter the market and/or what prices may bechanged(www.bussinessdictonary.com).
Spatial Distribution
An average area served by each market in Himachal Pradesh is recorded 960 sq.km. It varies
between 148.92 sq.km.in Solan district and highest of 6258 sq.Km.in Chamba district. For
showing the spatial distribution of area served by each market is mapped in fig.9 which depicts
following three categories:
1. Category of High Average Area Served Per Regulated Market (>1200 sq.km):
Four districts fall in this category namely Kinnaur, Kullu, Lahaul & Spiti and Chamba district. Here,area served by each market varies between 1026 sq.km. in Shimla district to 6528 sq.km.in
Chamba district. It shows that owing to rugged topography with high mountains perpetual snow
field, etc. and hostile climatic conditions are the hindrances in the way of development of markets
because in such conditions the development of agriculture, industry, trade, and commerce arelimited which consequently lead to inefficient marketing system in these districts.
2. Category of Moderate Average Area Served per Regulated Market (600 -1200 sq. km.):Moderate category comprises four districts of Shimla, Mandi, Kangra and Una and area served
by each market ranges between 600-1200 sq.km. Though, these are having difficult terrain forthe development of socio-economic factor like urbanization, industrialization and agriculture, etc.
yet, there are enough markets to sell the produced. All this is responsible for moderately efficient
marketing system in this category.
3. Category of Low Average Area Served Per Regulated Market (< 600 sq .kms):
This category has four districts and are also lying in the south-western parts of Himachal Pradesh.
These districts are Sirmaur, Solan, Bilaspur and Hamirpur.There are plains, valleys, Shivalik’s
and mountains. These are the bordering districts of Punjab and Haryana, where, agriculture andindustry are more developed as compare to rest of the state and required more market centers
for selling the product and consequently each market serve less than 600 sq.km. which showsthat in this category marketing system is more developed as compare to other districts of35

Himachal Pradesh. It is concluded that districts with less hostile geo-climatic conditions haveefficient marketing system as compare to areas with more hostile geo-climatic conditions. Overall,in the study region, the efficiency of marketing system decreases from south-west to north-east.

Conclusion
In respect of socio-economic conditions and maize cultivation, it is noted that share of agricultural
workers is moderate to high in maize predominant areas, because maize crop requires more mandays as compare to wheat, pulses, etc. follow by small size of land holdings. Irrigation affectedbadly maize cultivation in valley areas of Palampur, Kullu, Mandi and Paonta Sahib, because here
farmers preferred rice cultivation owing to its higher economic returns than maize also. The
developments in road density, marketing networks, etc. particularly in Shimla, Kinnaur, Sirmaur,
Lahaul & Spiti districts have helped the farmers to grow fruits and vegetables crops andconsequently the share of maize cultivation is low to very low. Thus, socio-economic factors haveaffected positively as well as negatively the maize crop in different areas of the study region.
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