Study of Technological and Farming
Systems Adaptation to Climate Change
in Farming Communities of Enugu
State, Nigeria
African Technology Policy Studies Network

RESEARCH PAPER | No. 5
Emeka Celestine Nzeh
Ogugua Rita Eboh

Study of Technological and Farming Systems
Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming
Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Emeka Celestine Nzeh
African Institute for Applied Economics,
Enugu State, Nigeria

Ogugua Rita Eboh
Centre for Entrepreneurship andDevelopment Research,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-8-3

Table of Contents
Acknowlegement

4

Abstract5

List of Acronyms & Abbreviations

7

1.

Introduction

8

2.

Literature Review

123.

Methodology

23

4.

Results & Findings

27

5.

Summary of Findings

42

6.

Conclusion & Recommendations

43

Bibliography

45

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 3

Acknowledgement
This research paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy
Studies Network (ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the
Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst
others. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during theimplementation of the program. The Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program
Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and the Program Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua(ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Essegbey (ATPS Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas
Ozor (ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS) for their technical support during the research
process.

4 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Abstract
Climate change has become our new reality. It brings with it changes in weather patterns that canhave serious repercussions for all of us, upsetting seasonal cycles, harming ecosystems and watersupply, affecting agricultural farming systems and food production, causing sea-levels to rise.
Climate change causes floods, landslides, drought and famine. Climate change has a cumulative
effect on natural resources including agricultural resources and the balance of nature. Its effects are
already visible in Enugu state and Nigeria in general.
In Nigeria and Enugu state in particular, varieties of food crops are produced and all are dependent
on rainfall, so that where rain is abundant rain-fed crops are planted, and in drier parts of the country,
crops that do not require much rain are cultivated. Based on this, the objectives of this research
paper are to critically elicit the level of awareness and understanding of farmers and local
communities concerning the manifestation and impacts of climate change. Furthermore, the study
is to identify relationships between climate and adjustments in farming systems and management
technologies in the study area. And finally, the research is to ascertain the patterns and manner of
livelihood adjustments that have been implemented by the local communities and farmers in
response to the climate change phenomenon.
From the research, it was found out that, individuals and communities have adapted behaviours or
policies geared at restoring and conserving the environment due to climate change conditions.
Increased self-reliance, avoiding unregulated forest exploitation, planting appropriate tree species,
protecting watersheds, practicing agro-forestry and organic farming techniques and maintaining
adequate food supplies to lessen the vulnerability of the food supply sector are some of the recent
adaptive measures by different farming communities in the state. In some local communities,
erecting contour bunds around farmlands as a safeguard against soil erosion and flooding; usingorganic manure instead of the more preferred chemical fertilizers; establishing wood lots with fastmaturing plant species that yield domestic fuel wood for community members; reducing bushburning; using disease-resistant, quick-maturing crop and plant species; properly preserving
seeds and plant seedlings to ensure healthy germination in the succeeding farming season; also
helps to mitigate the effects of climate change. Furthermore, limiting access to eroded and erosionprone areas, and initiating and stringently enforcing anti-erosion laws which act as humandeterrents has been put in place in some communities.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 5

Based on the findings from the research work, it is recommended that the most effective method ofstaving off the negative effects of climate change is educating the public on the menace of landerosion and the public's role in tackling the problem. Also there is need for educating
Nigerians/Enugu State communities overall on how climate change will affect all human activity –especially their farming systems. Furthermore, the scientific community must be involved instudying climate change and forecasting weather, and then transmitting this information to all
sectors of the society, industry and economy so that these sectors can adapt and be ready to meet avery different future than the present. The Enugu State government, especially, must adopt
strategies and policies that will encourage improved farming practices and agricultural methods,
and that will protect our cherished agricultural activities which is the mainstay of our economy.

6 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

List of Acronyms & Abbreviations
AfDB
AIAE
AMS
ARTES
ATPS
BNRCC
CEEPA
CFC
EPIC
ENSO
FAO
FGDs
GCMS
GDP
IPCC
LGAs
MDGs
NACB
NEST
NGOs
NOAA
NPC
UKCIP
UNDP

African Development Bank
African Institute for Applied Economics
American Meteorological Society
Africa Rainfall and Temperature Evaluation System
African Technology Policy Studies Network
Building Nigerian Responses to Climate Change
Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa
Chlorofluorocarbon
Erosion Productivity Impact Calculation
El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Food and Agricultural Organization
Focus Group Discussions
General Circulation Models
Gross Domestic ProductsIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Local Government Areas
Millennium Development Goals
Nigerian Agricultural and Cooperative Bank
Nigerian Environmental Study Action Team
Non-governmental Organization
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Population Commission
United Kingdom Climate Impacts Programme
United Nation Development Programme

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 7

1. Introduction
1.1
Background information
Climate change is considered the most pressing environmental problem facing the globe today. It isaffecting patterns of life and general living conditions of people around the world; the availability ofwater, food production, weather conditions, health, cultures, economic well-being and recreation
among others. Millions of people, especially in the desert prone frontline states of the Northern
Nigeria, will be confined to perpetual poverty and perilous living conditions due to food and water
shortages, and extreme change in weather pattern as a result of global warning.
As reported by Ikeme (2009) Nigeria is currently experiencing increasing incidence of disease,declining agricultural productivity, increasing number of heat waves, unreliable or erratic weather
patterns, flooding, declining rainfall in already desert-prone areas in the north causing increasing
desertification, decreasing food production in central regions, and destruction of livelihoods byrising waters in coastal areas where people depend on fishing and farming. Climate change ismaking some land uninhabitable and affecting water supplies, threatening people's basic needs
and triggering displacement.
In 1999 and 2000, more than 200,000 people were displaced by floods in Niger State. In1988,
flooding in Kano State displaced more than 300,000 people. Meanwhile, as reported by Halliri(2010), scores of people have been killed by floods in several states of northern Nigeria where
unusually heavy rains have swollen rivers and streams across the region. According to Halliri(2010), the flood overran villages in about seven states, with increasing number of deaths and lossof cattle across the region, and thousands of people displaced. Although flooding has become
more or less an annual environmental disaster for the region in recent years, especially during thepeak of the rainy season, year 2010 recorded some of the worst flood cases.
In some parts of northern Nigeria, especially in Sokoto, Katsina, Kano, Jigawa, Zamfara and Kebbi
states, whole villages and farmlands were submerged. In the Goronyo local government of Sokoto
State, thousands fled their homes, while more than 2,000 houses were destroyed in the four villagesof Kagara, Boye Kai, Balla and Giyawa. Property worth millions of naira was lost and farm produce
and farmlands were washed away, Halliri (2010). Over thirty houses have been destroyed by flood
waters and windstorm in Shanono Local Government Area of Kano State, causing hundreds ofpeople to take refuge in a local primary school. Furthermore, about a million people living in the low8 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

lying plains of the River Niger are considered to be at risk. Flooding is recorded every year in all thestates along the Niger River and its tributaries, frequently causing disasters as stated by NEST
(2004). In Enugu state, it is on record that flooding is of great concern to the present state
government according to BNRCC (2009). Due to this flood problem in the study area which is
attributable to climate change within the state, the state ministry of environment has of recent
carried out listing exercise to obtain and up-date the data bank on the environmental degradation
prone areas of the state. Moreover, it is reported that two-thirds of Bayelsa State and half of Delta
State are inundated by devastating floods for at least a quarter of each year (Uyigue and Agho,2007). In districts under water, schools and markets are suspended for weeks at a time.
Meanwhile environmental degradation and attendant desertification are major threats to thelivelihoods of the inhabitants of the frontline states in the country. The factors responsible for thisenvironmental and ensuing desertification include; increasing population pressure, intensive
agricultural land use, overgrazing, bush burning, extraction of fuel wood and other biotic resources.
In Nigeria especially in Enugu state, women and children are particularly vulnerable to impacts ofclimate change. Most states in the country have inadequate policy and regulatory laws forsustainable natural resources management. Forest resources and water are in particular not
regulated and there are inadequate baseline data and information on ecological issues in moststates of the federation.
1.2.
Problem Statement
Global warning and climate change refer to an increase in average global temperature. Natural
events and human activities are believed to contribute to an increase in average global
temperature. This is caused primarily by increase in greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide
which is problem to human existence. Nigeria is experiencing adverse climate conditions withnegative impacts on welfare of millions of people. Persistent droughts and flooding off-season rains
and dry spells have sent growing season out of orbit, on a country dependent on rain-fed
agriculture. Alarm bells are ringing with lakes drying up and a reduction in river flow in the different
parts of the country and even Enugu state. The result is low water supplies for use in agriculture,hydro power generation and other users. The main suspect for all this havoc is climate change.
According to Odey (2009), Nigeria loses about $750 million annually to the depletion of its 350,000
hectares of forest land by direct human activities and climate change. Also Odey (2009) equallyreported that the Sahara Desert in Nigeria is moving southward at a rate of 600 meters annually.
Odey (2009) further added that about 100,000 farming families move southwards as a result of thedesertification which is the resultant effect of climate change in the country.
Following these development in different parts of the country, there is no doubt that climate change
is the greatest and biggest challenge facing mankind today. Its impact has spread beyond theenvironment, causing serious dislocation in world economic and social development. In Africa,
Nigeria and Enugu state in particular, climate change impact poses great danger on desertification,
damage to infrastructure, sea-level rise, flooding and water salinity with serious implication.
In Nigeria according to Ikeme (2009), climate change and its problems and solution strategies do
not generate greater publicity effects as they are too complex for rather superficial political talks.
Climate change often appears very esoteric but in Nigeria and Enugu state it is real and this call for
Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 9

scientific study of this kind. We already have an increasing incidence of diseases, declining
agricultural productivity, and rising number of heat waves in Enugu state. There is glaring evidence
that climate change is not only happening but it's changing our lives. BNRCC (2009) reported that in
Enugu state no fewer than 300 families have been rendered homeless in “Ameke Ngwo” and “Ngwo
Uno” communities in Udi local council of Enugu state following the destruction of their houses andeconomic trees worth millions of naira by a wind storm which wrecked havoc in the area. This
represents one of the resultant effects of climate change in the state.
Based on the work of IPCC (2001a), the implications of climate change for agriculture in the country
and the study area can be deduced as flooding and erosion arising from higher rainfalls, rise in sea
levels, coastal problems. Furthermore, there are decreases in crop yields, arising from interplay of
biological and ecosystem alterations and this is consequence of climate change across thedifferent states of the country and this call for scientific study. Despite the huge implication ofclimate change response measures for Nigeria's economy, it is appalling that there is no visible
demonstration of the preparedness of the government to tackle this issue. The greatest call forconcern is that the blueprint for Nigeria's development vision 2010 as reported by Ikeme (2009) fails
to give a mere acknowledgement of the importance of climate change to Nigeria's economy, letalone stipulate the development strategy with which to tackle it. The observation above shows thatthe danger signals are clear which explain the need for this study. Given the above enumerated
problems and others, it is clear that Nigeria and Enugu state long term development priority ofpoverty reduction, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and both the Seven (7) points andFour (4) points agenda of the country and state respectively will be severely constrained if
insufficient attention is paid to current and future climate change of the state through studies of this
kind.
1.3.
Research Objectives
The objectives of the research are to identify and document indigenous and emerging technologies
and innovations for climate change adaptation among the farming communities. Other specificobjectives include:> To elicit the level of awareness and understanding of farmers and local communities about the
manifestation and impacts of climate change;> To identify the relationships between climate change and adjustments in farming systems andmanagement technologies;> To ascertain the patterns and manner of livelihood adjustments that have been implemented by
local communities and farmers in response to the climate change phenomenon;> To draw policy lessons for the state government's efforts in promoting sustainable environmentand climate change mitigation and adaptation
1.4.
Research Justification
Environmentally, Nigeria's climatic regime stands to be severely disrupted leaving its forests andwater resources at risk. Studies show that biological productivity in Nigeria will decrease in theevent of global warming (Adesina and Adejuwom, 1994) with an additional consequence of severe
fuelwood shortages. Already Nigeria has experienced definite shift in the long-term rainfall mean
towards more arid conditions. These climatic changes have had adverse implications for water
resources availability for power generation and agriculture. Likewise, Nigeria's low-lying lagoonal
10 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

coasts stand threatened by sea-level rise, particularly because most of its major and rapidly
expanding cities are on the coast. If sea level rises, inundation could occur along more than 70% of
the Nigerian coastline, placing land at risk many kilometers inland (Awosika et al., 1992). In Nigeria,
inundation is the primary threat for at least 96% of the land at risk (Awosika et al., 1992; French et al.,1995). Though climate change is global, its manifestations/effects are experienced by local
communities in Enugu state and Nigeria in general. These communities within Enugu state havevery low adaptive capacities for managing climate change. Moreover, their vulnerability is worsenedby heavy reliance on renewable natural resources for livelihoods, employment and incomes.
Among the most affected groups are farmers, pastoralists, foresters, fisher folks, and hunters who
are faced with the increasing effects of flooding, sea level rise, desertification, drought, heat stress,
pests and diseases and erratic rainfall patterns resulting from changes in the climate. The situation
calls for development interventions to enhance climate risks management by local communities
and individuals within the state.
Nigeria is made up of six (6) geopolitical zones. Each zone has distinct features and peculiar climatechange risks. For instance, the South-south zone is affected mainly by sea level rise anddeforestation; Southwest by deforestation; Southeast where Enugu State is located by erosion,flooding and land degradation; North central by de-vegetation/overgrazing; Northeast by drought,
desertification and heat stress; and Northwest by drought, desertification and heat stress. The
impacts of climate change especially in Enugu state on agriculture are projected to manifest
through changes in land and water regimes, specifically, changes in the frequency and intensity ofdroughts, flooding, water shortages, worsening soil conditions, disease and pest outbreaks oncrops and livestock. The balance of risks differs across other states in the country and othergeographic regions of the world. Higher altitudes will benefit from higher temperatures in the form oflengthened growing seasons. But lower altitudes will suffer shorter growing seasons and adversely
affect growing conditions, since rising temperatures are likely to adversely affect soil nutrients andorganic matter through microbial decomposition (Rounsevell et al, 1999).
As it is established that climate change is considered the most pressing environmental problem
facing the globe today and general living conditions of people around the world and even in Enugu
state, therefore there is need for this study. The rationale for this study is therefore to identify,
examine and analyze the different technological and farming systems adaptation mechanisms
employed by farming communities in Enugu state for coping with the impacts of climate change.
The study will further be justified by finding out the coping abilities of different farming communities
in Enugu state. The study will too elaborates the concept and meaning of climate change, thecauses and form of climate change and the effects and implications of climate change in the
livelihood of the communities in the study area.
1.5
Structure of the Report
The report is divided into six chapters. Chapter one provides the background information including
problem statement, research objectives, justification and structure of the report. Literature review of
the report is presented in chapter two of the report. Chapter three of the report contains themethodology. The result of the report was analyzed in chapter four of the work while as chapter fivepresented the summary of the findings of the work. The report ends in chapter six with conclusion
and recommendations.
Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 11

2. Literature Review
2.1
Concept of Climate Change Adaptation
In the views of IPCC (2007), climate change is a change in the state of the climate that can be
identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and /or the variability of its
properties, and that persists for an extended period typically decades longer. As reported byAmerican Meteorological Society (AMS), climate change is any systematic change in the long-term
statistics of climate elements (such as temperature, pressure or winds) sustained over several
decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural external forces, such as changes in solar
emission or slow changes in the earth's orbital elements; natural internal processes of the climate
system; or anthropogenic forces.
Meanwhile, Nasiru Idris Medugu (2009) refers to climate change as a change in climate that is
attributable directly or indirectly to human activities, that alters the atmospheric composition of theearth which leads to global warming. Furthermore, NOAA National Weather Service (2007) seesclimate change as a normal part of the earth natural variability, which is related to interactions
among the atmosphere, ocean, and land, as well as changes in the amount of solar radiation
reaching the earth. For example, it could show up as a change in climate normal's (expected
average values for temperature and precipitation) for a given place and time of year, from one
decade to the next. “Climate change" involves more than just a change in the weather; it refers toseasonal changes over a long period of time.
It is important to note that climate change is different from the generally known term like climate
fluctuations or climate variability. These terms denote inherent dynamic nature of climate on various
temporal scales. Such temporal scale variations could be monthly, seasonal, annual, decadal,
periodic, quasi-periodic or non-periodic. With the prevalent impact of climate change, efforts havebeen made to discover methods of adaptation. There exist various views on the concept ofadaptation to climate change.
The major scientific body associated with climatic change, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), defines climate change adaptation as adjustment in natural or human systems in
response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits
beneficial opportunities. Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory
and reactive adaptation, public and private adaptation, and autonomous and planned
12 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeriaadaptation.'Climate change adaptation offered in the inter-agency report, Poverty and Climate
Change (AfDB et al 2003) reported climate change adaptation as the ability to respond and adjust to
actual or potential impacts of changing climate conditions in ways that moderate harm or takeadvantage of any positive opportunities that the climate may afford. UNDP (2005) refers to climatechange adaptation as a process by which strategies to moderate, cope with and take advantage ofthe consequences of climatic events are enhanced, developed, and implemented. But UKCIP(2003) views the concept of climate change adaptation as the process or outcome of a process that
leads to a reduction in harm or risk of harm, or realization of benefits associated with climate
variability and climate change.
According to (IPCC, 2001), there are several types of climate change adaptation, which are
distinguished into anticipatory or proactive climate change adaptation (which is the adaptation thattake place before impacts of climate change is observed); autonomous or spontaneous climatechange adaptation (which is that adaptation that does not constitute a conscious response to
climatic stimuli but triggered by ecological changes in natural systems and by market or welfarechanges in human systems; planned climate change adaptation is that as a result of a deliberate
policy decision, based on an awareness that conditions have changed or are about to change andthat action is required to return to, maintain, or achieve a desired state). Other types of climatechange adaption include; private climate change adaption which is initiated and implemented byindividuals, households or private companies; public climate change adaption which is initiated andimplemented by governments at all levels which in Nigeria include federal, state and local
government; finally is reactive climate change adaptation that takes place after impacts of climatechange have been observed. Of all these named climate change types, the most associated type(s)in the study area are – private and public climate change adaptation.
2.2
Causes of Climate Change
According to Botkin and Keller (2000), the phenomenon of climate change is linked to both naturaland human causes - water vapor in the atmosphere contributes the most to natural greenhousewarming. Water vapor and other “greenhouse gases” such as carbon dioxide, methane, and CFCs
cause the greenhouse effect by trapping radiant heat emitted at the infrared (long) wavelengths (asopposed to shorter, solar wavelengths which can pass through the atmospheric gases) from theearth's surface and reradiating it back to the earth's surface. This trapped energy effectively creates
an enclosure around the earth's atmosphere similar to a greenhouse which not only traps heat, butalso restricts air circulation that would otherwise cause cooling.
The natural processes of the causes of climate change are known also as the astronomical and theextraterrestrial factors. The astronomical factors include the changes in the eccentricity of the earth's
orbit, changes in the obliquity of the plane of ecliptic and changes in orbital procession while theextra-terrestrial factors are solar radiation quantity and quality among others. On the other hand, theanthropogenic factor in climate change involves human activities that either emit large amount ofgreenhouse gases into the atmosphere that depletes the ozone layer or activities that reduce theamount of carbons absorbed from the atmosphere. The human factors that emit large amounts ofgreenhouse gases include industrialization, burning of fossil fuel, gas flaring, urbanization andagriculture. Furthermore, human activities that reduce the amount of carbon sinks as reported by(IPCC, 2007 and Nzeh, 2008) are deforestation, alterations in land use, water pollution and
Tstudy of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 13

agricultural practices. All theses human factors have been proven to be responsible for the ongoing
unequivocal climate change or global warming in Nigeria and Enugu state in particular.
2.3
Nigeria Climate and Climate Change Perspective
In the past, the descriptions of the climate of Nigeria, and indeed South East Nigeria where Enugu
state is located have been rather simplistic due to paucity of data, but with the availability of data
manipulation techniques, it is possible to discuss more fundamental features of the climate. Such isnecessary at this point in time as recent droughts, water shortages, fauna and flora depletion havehighlighted how important it is to understand weather phenomena (Oguntoyinbo, 1982) and how
they affect human security. Nigeria is one of the countries in West African sub-region; it has an
estimated population of over 140 million people according to (NPC, 2006) spread over a land areaof 932,768sqkm. Nigeria is bound by Cameroon to the east, Chad to the northeast, Niger to thenorth, Benin to the west, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south.
The climate of Nigeria is tropical in nature, which is occasionally subjected to variations, dependingon the rainfall. During summers, major portion of the country comes under the influence ofmoisture-laden tropical maritime air. Temperatures are high throughout the year, averaging from 25°
to 28°C. In the higher elevations of the Jos Plateau, temperature is at an average of 22°C. Northern
Nigeria experiences greater temperature extremes than the south. Rainfall varies widely over shortdistances from year to year.
Nigeria can be divided into the sub-equatorial south, the tropical hinterland, the tropical continental
north and the high plateaux. In comparison, there is pronounced long period of wet season in thesouth and longer period of dry season in the North. In Nigeria there is general increase in thesunshine hours from the Atlantic coast to the interior. The amount of sunshine ranges from aminimum of 1300 hours in the Niger Delta at the coastline to over 3200 hours in the extreme North
East angle. Similarly, in terms of annual totals of global radiation, the radiation level in the north of
Nigeria (190kg-cal,) is almost double the level in the South (110 kg-cal,). The increase northwards isapproximately parallel with the lines of latitude as reported by Oguntoyinbo, 1982.
Due to its location along the tropics of equator, Nigeria experiences high temperatures all the year
round. Seasonal and latitudinal variations affect the seasonal ranges. Within Nigeria, the mean
temperatures are determined by the location of a particular place in question. Observation
indicates that mean maximum temperatures increase from the coast northward. The highestmonthly mean of 32.2°C for the coastal region to a mean of 40.6°C in the extreme north, including
the northeast axis is common. The rainfall pattern in Nigeria is a good reflection of the seasonalvariations of the surface location of the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity. The basic characteristics depict
a decrease both in duration and amount from the coastline to the interior except where altitudinal
effects create some breaks and alterations. The coastal areas receive more than 4000mm spreadover 8-10 months, while the extreme north fringes of the country receives less than 250mm, which isspread over a shorter period of time between 3-4months. The implication of variation in the overall
climatic condition is differentiation in the vegetative zones in Nigeria, which are tied to a
combination of amount of rainfall and temperature. According to Eboh, et al (2005), the ecology of
the country varies from tropical forest in the south to dry savanna in the far north, yielding a diversemix of plant and animal life.
14 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

About two-thirds of Nigeria lies in the watershed of the Niger River, which empties in to the Atlantic at
the Niger Delta, and its major tributaries: the Benue in the northeast, the Kaduna in the west, theSokoto in the northwest, and the Anambra in the southeast. The amount of vegetation cover on thesoil decrease northwards, with the extreme north relatively bare compared to other zones. There
are forests, savannah, and mountane vegetation zones. In the low-lying coastal regions,mangroves are found while swamp forest are found where the water is fresh. Farther inland, thisvegetation gives way to tropical forest, with its many species of tropical hardwoods, including
mahogany, iroko, and obeche. The fauna of Nigeria includes elephants, buffaloes, lions, leopards,
smaller animals such as antelope, monkeys, jackals, and hyenas, which are found in abundance.
Hippopotamuses and crocodiles are still common in the largest rivers. Birds, including species that
migrate seasonally between Africa and Europe, are also abundant in Nigeria.
Meanwhile, climate change has been described as the greatest environmental threat in the 21st
century manifesting in extremes of events such as flooding, drought, changes in rainfall intensityand pattern, sea level rise, drying up of rivers/streams among others. Nigeria has begun to feel theeffects of climate change as the frequency and intensity of extreme events like droughts and floods
have increased.
According to Bala-Gbogbo (2009), the humid tropical zone of southern Nigeria - including Enugu
State is already too hot and too wet, and it is expected to be characterized by increase in bothtemperature and precipitation, especially at the peak of the rainy season. Already, temperature
increases of 0.2 degree to 0.3 degree per decade have been observed in the various ecologicalzones of the country, particularly since 1960s.”
Data from the environment watchdog according to Bala-Gbogbo (2009) reveal that for the tropicallyhumid zones of Nigeria, precipitation increases from about 2 to 3% for each degree of global
warming may be expected. By implication, it is expected that precipitation will probably increase byapproximately 5 to 20% in the very humid areas of the forest regions and the southern savannah
areas. Therefore, climate change will have direct impacts on biodiversity, agriculture (farming
practices), water resources, forests, and coastal areas...also some areas will start receiving heavier
and steadier rainfall and such areas will inevitably begin to experience increased rainfall induced
erosion."
2.4
The Impacts of Climate Change in Africa
Several climate regimes characterize the African continent; the wet tropical, dry tropical, andalternating wet and dry climates are the most common. Many countries on the continent are prone
to recurrent droughts, some drought episodes, particularly in southeast Africa. Deterioration interms of trade, inappropriate policies, high population growth rates, and lack of significant
investment-coupled with` a highly variable climate-have made it difficult for several countries todevelop patterns of livelihood that would reduce pressure on the natural resource base. Under theassumption that access to adequate financing is not provided, Africa is the continent mostvulnerable to the impacts of projected changes because widespread poverty limits adaptation
capabilities.
In Africa today, tropical forests and rangelands are under threat from population pressures andStudy of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 15

systems of land use. Generally apparent effects of these threats include loss of biodiversity, rapid
deterioration in land cover, and depletion of water availability through destruction of catchments
and aquifers. Changes in climate will interact with these underlying changes in the environment,
adding further stresses to a deteriorating situation. A sustained increase in mean ambient
temperatures beyond certain level would cause significant changes in forest and rangeland cover;
species distribution, composition, and migration patterns; and biome distribution. Manyorganisms in the deserts already are near their tolerance limits, and some may not be able to adapt
further under hotter conditions. Arid to semi-arid sub-regions and the grassland areas of easternand southern Africa, as well as areas currently under threat from land degradation anddesertification, are particularly vulnerable. Were rainfall to increase as projected by some generalcirculation models (GCMs) in the highlands of east Africa and equatorial central Africa, marginallands would become more productive than they are now. These effects are likely to be negated,
however, by population pressure on marginal forests and rangelands. Adaptive options include
control of deforestation, improved rangeland management, expansion of protected areas, andsustainable management of forests.
Meanwhile many of the nineteen (19) water-stressed countries in the world are found in Africa, andthis number is likely to increase, independent of climate change, because of increases in demand
due to population growth, degradation of watersheds, and siltation of river basins. A reduction inprecipitation projected by some Global Circulation Models (GCMs) for the Sahel and southern
Africa, if accompanied by high inter-annual variability, could be detrimental to the hydrologicalbalance of the continent and disrupt various water-dependent socioeconomic activities. Variableclimatic conditions may render the management of water resources more difficult both within andbetween countries (FAO 2007). A drop in water level in dams and rivers could adversely affect thequality of water by increasing the concentrations of sewage waste and industrial effluents, thereby
increasing the potential for the outbreak of diseases and reducing the quality and quantity of fresh
water available for domestic use. Adaptation options include water harvesting, management ofwater outflow from dams, and more efficient water usage.
Available statistics as reported by Odiugo (2008) shows that apart from the oil-exporting countries,
agriculture is the economic mainstay in most sub-Saharan African countries, contributing 20-30%
of gross domestic product (GDP) and 55% of the total value of African exports. In most Africancountries, farming depends entirely on the quality of the rainy season; a situation that makes Africa
particularly vulnerable to climate change. Increased droughts could seriously impact theavailability of food, as in the horn of Africa and southern Africa during the 1980s and 1990s. A rise inmean winter temperatures also would be detrimental to the production of winter wheat and fruits
that need the winter chill. However, in subtropical Africa, warmer winters would reduce theincidence of damaging frosts, making it possible to grow horticultural produce susceptible to frosts
at higher elevations than is possible at present. Productivity of freshwater fisheries may increase,although the mix of fish species could be altered. Changes in ocean dynamics could lead tochanges in the migratory patterns of fish and possibly to reduced fish landings, especially incoastal artisanal fisheries.
Furthermore, several African coastal zones, many of which already are under stress from
population pressure and conflicting uses, would be adversely affected by sea-level rise associated
16 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

with climate change. The coastal nations of west and central Africa (e.g., Senegal, The Gambia,
Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, and Angola) have low-lying lagoonal coasts that aresusceptible to erosion and hence are threatened by sea-level rise, particularly because most ofthese countries have major and rapidly expanding coastal cities. The west coast often is buffeted bystorm surges and currently is at risk from erosion, inundation, and extreme storm events. The
coastal zone of east Africa also will be affected, although this area experiences calm conditions
through much of the year. However, sea-level rise and climatic variation may reduce the buffer effectof coral and patch reefs along the east coast, increasing the potential for erosion. A number ofstudies indicate that a sizable proportion of the northern part of the Nile delta will be lost through a
combination of inundation and erosion, with consequent loss of agricultural land and urban areas.
Adaptation measures in African coastal zones are available but would be very costly, as apercentage of GDP, for many countries. These measures could include erection of sea walls andrelocation of vulnerable human settlements and other socioeconomic facilities.
The main challenges likely to face African populations will emanate from extreme climate events
such as floods (and resulting landslides in some areas), strong winds, droughts, and tidal waves.
Individuals living in marginal areas may be forced to migrate to urban areas (where infrastructure
already is approaching its limits as a result of population pressure) if the marginal lands becomeless productive under new climate conditions. Climate change could worsen current trends in
depletion of biomass energy resources. Reduced stream flows would cause reductions inhydropower production, leading to negative effects on industrial productivity and costly relocationof some industrial plants. Management of pollution, sanitation, waste disposal, water supply, andpublic health, as well as provision of adequate infrastructure in urban areas, could become moredifficult and costly under changed climate conditions. Africa is expected to be at risk primarily fromincreased incidences of vector-borne diseases and reduced nutritional status. A warmer
environment could open up new areas for malaria; altered temperature and rainfall patterns also
could increase the incidence of yellow fever, dengue fever, onchocerciasis, and trypanosomiasis.
All these will result to reduction in their primary occupation which is agriculture – especially in theirfarming practices.
2.5
Climate Change Impact and Agricultural Development in Africa
Climate change exerts multiple stresses on the biophysical as well as the social and institutional
environments that underpin agricultural production. Some of the induced changes are expected to
be abrupt, while others involve gradual shifts in temperature, vegetation cover and species
distributions. Climate change is expected to, and in parts of Africa has already begun to, alter the
dynamics of drought, rainfall and heat waves, and trigger secondary stresses such as the spread ofpests, increased competition for resources, the collapse of financial institutions, and attendantbiodiversity losses.
Predicting the impact of climate change on complex biophysical and socio-economic systems that
constitute agricultural sectors is difficult. In many parts of Africa it seems that warmer climates andchanges in precipitation will destabilize agricultural production. This is expected to undermine thesystems that provide food security (Gregory et al., 2005).Whilst farmers in some regions may
benefit from longer growing seasons and higher yields, the general consequences for Africa, areexpected to be adverse, and particularly adverse for the poor and the marginalized that do not have
Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 17the means to withstand shocks and changes. Evidence from the IPCC suggests that areas of the
Sahara are likely to emerge as the most vulnerable to climate change by 2100 with likely agriculturallosses of between 2 and 7% of GDP. Western and Central Africa are expected to have losses ranging
from 2 to 4% and Northern and Southern Africa are expected to have losses of 0.4 to 1.3%
(Mendelsohn et al., 2000). Maize production is expected to decrease under possible increased
ENSO conditions which are expected in southern Africa (Stige et al., 2006).
A South African study undertaken by the University of Pretoria and focusing at the provincial level,
found a significant correlation between higher historical temperatures and reduced dry land staple
production, and forecast a fall in net crop revenues by as much as 90% by 2100. The study foundsmall-scale farmers to be worst affected by the decrease. A Nigerian study applied the EPIC cropmodel to give projections of crop yield during the 21st century. The study modeled worst caseclimate change scenarios for maize, sorghum, rice, millet and cassava (Adejuwon, 2006). The
indications from the projections are that, in general, there will be increases in crop yield across all
low land ecological zones as the climate changes during the early parts of the 21st century.
However, towards the end of the century, the rate of increase will tend to slow down. This could
result in lower yields in the last quarter than in the third quarter of the century. The decreases in yield
could be explained in terms of the very high temperatures which lie beyond the range of tolerance
for the current crop varieties and cultivars.
An Egyptian study compared crop production under current climate conditions with thoseprojected for 2050, and forecast a decrease in national production of many crops, ranging from
–11% for rice to –28% for soybeans (Eid et al., 2006). Other potential impacts linked to agriculture
include erosion that could be exacerbated by expected increased intensity of rainfall and the crop
growth period that is expected to be reduced in some areas (Agoumi, 2003). Changes are also
expected in the onset of the rainy season and the variability of dry spells (Reason et al.,2005).Thornton et al., (2006) mapped climate vulnerability with a focus on the livestock sector. The
areas they identified as being particularly prone to climate change impacts included arid-semiarid
rangeland and the drier mixed agro-ecological zones across the continent, particularly in Southern
Africa and the Sahel, and coastal systems in East Africa. An important point they raise is that macrolevel analyses can hide local variability around often complex responses to climate change.
In northwest Kenya, recurring droughts have led to increased competition for grazing resources,
livestock losses and conflict. Based on temperature and precipitation readings, Michigan State
University have found no discernable trend in the frequency or intensity of droughts in the region, in
spite of local farmers articulating a worsening situation. There is a suggestion that higher averagetemperatures have stressed the regions vegetation to the extent that it takes less extreme hot anddry spells to inflict drought like conditions.
2.6
Climate change adaptation and agricultural development in Nigeria
Climate change adaptation aims to mitigate and develop appropriate coping measures to address
the negative impacts of climate change on agriculture. Most agricultural systems have a measure of
in-built adaptation capacity (“autonomous adaptation”) but the current rapid rate of climate change
will impose new and potentially overwhelming pressures on existing adaptation capacity. This is

18 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

particularly true given that the secondary changes induced by climate change are expected toundermine the ability of people and ecosystems to cope with, and recover from, extreme climate
events and other natural hazards. It is for this reason that the IPCC encourages “planned
adaptation”, that is deliberate steps aimed at creating the capacity to cope with climate change
impacts (IPCC, 2007).
Effective adaptation strategies and actions should aim to secure well-being in the face of climate
variability, climate change and a wide variety of difficult to predict biophysical and social
contingencies. In pursuing this aim, climate adaptation should focus on support for the decisionmaking and capacity building processes that shape social learning, technology transfer, innovationand development pathways. Adaptation is most relevant when it influences decisions that exist
irrespective of climate change, but which have longer-term consequences (Stainforth et al., 2007).
A key component of climate adaptation involves building resilience, where resilience is the capacityof a system to tolerate disturbance without collapsing into a qualitatively different state that iscontrolled by a different set of processes: a resilient system can withstand shocks and rebuild itself
when necessary. Over 60% of Africans remain directly dependent on agriculture and natural
resources for their well-being (FAO, 2003). Agriculture is highly dependent on climate variability(Salinger et al., 2005) which is why the threat of climate change is particularly urgent in Africa (Bokoet al, 2007).Despite the reliance of large proportions of the population on agriculture, agriculturaldevelopment has historically not been a priority of governments, with 1% or less of the averagenational budgets going to agriculture (FAO, 2007). However many donors and NGOs havesupported agriculture across the continent because of this reliance on agriculture and the potential
to improve yields.
In spite of the documented exposure of agricultural activities to projected changes in climate, not all
agricultural institutions have made use of climate science data. The current tendency is for
institutions to reference climate change as a backdrop to their work as opposed integrating
probabilistic future climate data into their current planning and research approaches. Accordingly it
is difficult to distinguish the documented cases of climate change adaptation in Africa especially in
Nigeria from general development and agricultural practice. The impacts of the East African
droughts, for example, have been countered in some instances by digging and maintaining sanddams in river bottoms. The dams allow for continued cattle watering during dry periods, and have
reduced cattle deaths and conflict. It is not possible, however, to establish climate change as thetrigger for the construction of sand dams (or other adaptation measures), and the people
constructing sand dams do not draw on climate change data.
This apparent disconnect between adaptation efforts and climate data is in spite of efforts on behalfof climate scientists to make their work more relevant to agriculture, and the equally concerted
attempts by the impact community to clarify their climate information needs. It should be stated thatmost farming groups in Nigeria are naïve as to how difficult it is to understand, interpret and use
climate information. It is equally true; however, that much of the climate modeling work remains
focused on gaining greater understanding of atmospheric dynamics, and does not appreciate thetype of issues confronted by farmers or the manner in which data needs to be packaged so as tomake it accessible to agricultural decision makers.
Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 19

Meanwhile, agricultural adaptation that has always taken, and continues to take place in Nigeria
and Africa generally, is responding more to perceived climate variability than climate change. Thisis true of the examples unearthed in this study, as well as the season forecasting and drought early
warning systems that enjoy increasing use (especially among livestock farmers) on the country.
Very little has been accomplished in relating crop yield and animal productivity to climate change inthe country (Nigeria) and even the study area, even though the appropriate methodology isavailable in contemporary literature. Whilst these systems have proven their worth for farmers, there
is a danger that farmers, agricultural policy makers, crop breeders and government officials thatstructure their activities around short term climate variability, will be exposed by the trend of climatechange and its longer-term implications.
Three problems appear to impede the wider use of climate data by farmers and agriculturaldecision makers in Nigeria and Enugu state. First, climate change data are not available at the
spatial resolution required by farmers and as such farmers struggle to reconcile their observationsof the weather with climate projections and lose confidence in the projections. Second, thetimeframes (or temporal resolution) over which climate data are reported is often of little relevanceto farmers. Whilst one might expect policy makers to consider the implications of a 2050 projection,
farmers base their decision on more immediate issues. Third, there are very few African, Nigeria
and even Enugu state scientists with the requisite training and experience to interpret and apply
climate change data in the agricultural context especially in the study area.
2.7
Possible Impacts of Climate Change in Nigeria.
In Nigeria, according to Boko et al. (2007) and Ikpi (2010), some of the key expected impacts ofclimate change can be summarized as follows:
Food security (crop and livestock): productivity, availability and affordability:> reduced food security; reduced availability of irrigation; increased social tension/conflicts
between farmers and pastoralists;
Environmental risks:> desertification of 50% of Guinea Savannah;> Sahelization caused by increased unpredictable summer rains resulting in decreased
agricultural productivity in northern Nigeria;> Increased flooding, and reduced freshwater availability leading to increase in malaria and otherdiseases that can potentially decrease GDP;
Resource management:> Reduced food security and fuelwood supply due to changes in forest cover (following severe
dry spells) which results in poor supply of food to rural population and hamper energy supply
for most rural people who depend on wood fuel for energy;
Employment and livelihoods (coastal economies, social risks, etc):> Loss of coastal zone infrastructure, settlements and agricultural lands due to higher
temperatures and higher humidity,> Reduced hydrocarbon extraction activities in the Niger Delta and increased risks of oil spill
arising from changes in the forest cover (following severe dry spells) which can lead to land
20 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

loss, food insecurity, increased social and political tensions, and deteriorating fishing industry;
Human Health:> Negative effects on human health caused by higher temperatures, higher humidity, increased
flooding, and reduced freshwater availability resulting in increased pests and breeding sites,
increased exposure to vector-borne (malaria) and water-borne (cholera) diseases, increased
heat stress, reduction in annual GDP growth rate by about 1.3% as a result of labour morbidity,
and increased risk of malnutrition due to food insecurity, shortages and famine;
Infrastructure:> Damaged transport routes (buckling of rail tracks and melting of road surfaces) caused byextreme weather events (floods, heat waves, etc) with impacts on trade and communications;and> Negative effects on electricity supply and distribution caused by reduced rainfall and otherextreme weather events which impacts on production of hydroelectricity, damaged energy
distribution network, increased frequency of blackouts, and reduced economic activities
across the nation.
Adaptation to these impacts will require some policy as well as institutional imperatives. These
include capacity building, policy innovations, financing incentives, risk mitigation systems, andsafety nets for designing and implementing effective adaptation options.
2.8
Adaptation Options at Farm/Community/Local Level
Climate change impacts can also be organized at successive levels of the economy, including farmlevel, community level, sector level (e.g. agriculture, health, industry, environment, water, etc), andmacro level (loss to GDP, loss of employment, increased incidence of poverty, increase in social andeconomic vulnerabilities). At the local household/farm/community level, Ozor et al. (2010) showsthat in Nigeria (Southern Nigeria precisely) climate change impacts are observed in terms ofincreased weed growth, increase in pest and disease infestation, drought/reduction in moisture,
uncertainty in weather conditions, reduction in soil nutrient, decrease in agricultural yield, loss ofagricultural land to flood and erosion, and land degradation.
The identified adaptation/mitigation options for these impacts include cover cropping, earlyplanting, prompt weeding, regulated/controlled herbicide use, use of weed-tolerant crop varieties,
mixed cropping, use of pest- and disease-resistant crops/species, rouging, crop replacement,
mulching, irrigation schemes, efficient water harvesting and storage techniques, prevention offorest losses along water bodies, use of weather forecast technologies, application of the daily
weather reports from the media, prayers, flexibility in timing of farming operations, green manuring,composting, crop rotation, fallowing, use of organic fertilizers and manures, and diversification incrop and animal production. Others include value-chain addition, biotechnology andnanotechnology application, improved extension services, government support and interventions,climate change education, enterprise diversification, tree planting, improved land management
techniques, biodiversity conservation, controlled grazing, construction and maintenance ofdrainage channels, construction of rock molls and barriers against ocean surge, planting acrossslope, emergency relief strategies, agro-forestry practices, forestry regulations, afforestation
Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 21

programmes, and reduced tillage.
2.9
Adaptation Options at Sector Level – Agriculture
Adaptation is critical in developing countries, particularly in Africa and even in Nigeria where thevulnerability to climate change is high because the ability to adapt is low (Nzeh and Eboh, 2009). In
Africa, the expected conditions resulting from climate change include elevated CO2 level, hightemperature, increased droughts and increase in variability. These conditions are associated withsome eco-physiological consequences in crops. For example, elevated CO2 levels can lead topotential increase in biomass C3 plants, but more neutral on C4 plants. The eco-physiologicalconsequences of high temperature include acceleration of maturity, heat stress during floweringand reproduction, and increased pest damage. On the other hand, increased droughts can leadyield losses and potential crops failure, while increased variability can lead to instability of crop
yield.
These consequences can be enhanced or mitigated by plant breeding, agronomy, and socioeconomy. Conventional and molecular breeding can be undertaken to maximize yield,
phonological adjustment, biotic stress, drought tolerance, and for adaptation. Some agronomic
practices may include early plantings, pesticide use, and crop rotation, while crop insurance canserve as socio-economy response.
Moreover, Nigeria's MDGs Office has articulated the threats posed (in relation to the MDGs) by
climate change if we continue under the business as usual. For instance, livelihoods will bethreatened due to desert encroachment, agricultural productivity will fall due to soil erosion,
reduced groundwater and lower rainfall, sea-level rise will threaten coastal communities andstrategic industries putting at least $17.5 billion capital at risk per 1m sea-level rise, and there is
likelihood of risk resource conflicts especially over water and forest/marine resources as reported
by Ujah et al 2010. These threats will affect of 70% of employment which is in the climate-sensitive
activities of the economy. The fiscal burden of adaption costs may exceed $85 billion in the shortestterm and can undermine the MDGs.
On the other hand, planned adaptation to climate change has benefits. Some of these as identified
by the MDGs Office in Nigeria include the impetus to shift to more sustainable and productive
agricultural systems, better urban planning, more employment opportunities and growth boost,increased opportunities and stability for women to invest in their families long-term wellbeing, andbetter livelihood opportunities in coastal/marine and forest communities.
In summary, climate change is expected to have high direct negative effects on the MDGs especiallybecause of its negative effects on agriculture (caused by weather extremes of flood and drought),
and its direct effect on water scarcity and loss of agricultural land due to sea-level rise. On the other
hand, however, planned adaption strategies have the benefits of not only reducing the impacts ofclimate change but also provide opportunity for mitigation and sustainable development.

22 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

3. Methodology
3.1.
The Study Area
The study area is Enugu State of Nigeria which was created out of the former Anambra State in1991. According to Ukwu et al (1998) Enugu State is located in the south-eastern region of Nigeria,
an irregular trapezoid territory between Latitudes 50551 and 70101 North and Longitudes 60501 and70551 East. It is bounded in the north by Kogi and Benue States, in the east by Ebonyi and Abia
States, in the south by Ebonyi, Abia and Anambra, and in the west by Anambra State. In the views of
Ukwu et al (1998), the present Enugu State is a lineal descendant of the Eastern Region, one of thethree original regions which since Independence has been progressively split into nine states,
including Abia, Akwa-ibom, Anambra, Bayelsa, Cross River, Ebonyi, Enugu, Imo and Rivers states.
Administratively the state has its Headquarters at Enugu.
Ecologically, Enugu State lies mostly in the forest-savanna mosaic of the drier northern reaches of
the humid tropical zone of Southern Nigeria, with mean annual rainfall decreasing from about 200
cm at its southern extremities to about 150 cm in the north. The soils vary locally but may begrouped into three main types: the red clayey ferralitic soils of the cross River Basin, the red-yellow
ferralitic soils of the plateau, and the sandy flood-plains of the Anambra Basin at the western limits.
The escarpment zone is a zone of great variety and inter-digitation of soil types, as reported by
Ukwu et al (1998). The State occupies an area of about 8,022.95km2 (Ezike, 1998) and has apopulation of 3,257,298 and with average annual growth rate of 3.0% according to (NPC, 2006).
Enugu State with seventeen local government areas is divided into three agricultural zones which
include: Awgu zone, as Awgu, Aninri, Enugu South, Nkanu East, Nkanu West and Oji-River; Enugu
zone, which are made up of Enugu East, Enugu North, Ezeagu, Igboetiti and Udi; but Nsukka zone
are Igboeze North, Igboeze South, Isiuzo, Nsukka, Udenu and Uzo-Uwani.
In Enugu state farming is predominately their occupation which is done in a small-scale. Prevalent
crops are cassava, yam, maize, rice, melon, groundnut, pepper and economic trees like oil palm,
cashew, cocoa, oranges, kola nuts, and pears among other trees found in the state. There areforests of different density in Enugu state as reported by Nzeh (2004). Crops farm(s) are usually insmall holding of about 1 to 3 hectares, but poultry production is carried out in some parts of the state
but strictly on subsistence level, together with goat and sheep production (Orebiyi and Nzeh,2002).

Tstudy of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 23

These small scale farmers practice bush fallowing, land rotation and mixed cropping on scattered
farm land mainly inheritance land tenure arrangement and more recently on hired basis. Family
labour plays very important role in labour employed. Exchange of commercial labour occasionallyis carried out in small areas and hired labour constitutes another source of labour in this area.

Figure 1: Map Of Enugu State, Nigeria Showing 17 Local Government Areas
3.2
Data Gathering Techniques
In the survey of the households in the study area, all the three agricultural zones of the state werevisited at their community levels. The survey involved collection of detailed information on thesocio-economic characteristics of the farmers, the farmer's level of awareness and manifestation ofclimate change in their area, farming systems and its management technologies on climatechange in the study area and impacts of climate change adaptation toward faming activities etc.
There were also data gathering activities which involved both pilot survey of the two Local
Government Areas to validate the data collection instrument and main survey of the entire six Local
Government Areas selected from the three agricultural zones of the state.
During the survey of the households the structure of the survey instrument used includes thefollowing:i. Preliminary information: This sought to collect basic data on the households including sex, age,marital status, educational attainment, occupational involvement, farming activities carried out
etc.
ii. Farmers' levels of awareness and manifestation of climate change: To elicit information on levelof climate change awareness, cause(s) of climate change, manifestation of climate change,
and recent implication of climate change towards agriculture.
24 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

iii. Farming systems and its management technologies in climate change: This section sought
information on recent farming systems stopped due to climate change, farming systems
adopted toward climate change effects, changes adopted in farming systems toward climatechange, kind(s) of management technologies to combat climate change effects in farms
among others.
iv. Farmers' patterns and manner of adjustment to climate change: This section finds out
adaptation patterns available in adjusting with climate change and impacts of climate change
effects in farming activities.
v. Impacts of climate change adaptation to farming: This elicit to seek indigenous technologies in
use in for climate change adaptation, modern technological climate change adaptation
techniques, types of adaptation to climate change in your farming etc.
3.3.
Sampling Procedure
Purposive sampling techniques were employed to select farming household respondents in eachof the selected autonomous communities within the local government area of each of the three
agricultural zones of the state.
In the first stage of the sampling procedure, within the three (3) agricultural zones; Awgu, Enugu
and Nsukka, two (2) local government areas each were selected making total of six (6) local
government areas for the study.
The second stage involved selection of communities; Two (2) communities were selected fromeach of the six (6) government local areas within the three (3) agricultural zones. This gave total of
twelve (12) communities.
Third stage was the selection of respondents (i.e. farming household heads). Thirty-three (33)
farming household heads were selected from each of the eight (8) communities in Awgu and Enugu
agricultural zones, whereas thirty-four (34) farming household heads were selected from each of
the four (4) communities in Nsukka agricultural zone, making a total number of four hundred (400)farming households. The number of household heads covered from Nsukka agricultural zone ishigher than other zones (Awgu and Enugu agricultural) because according to NPC 2006, Nsukka
agricultural zone is greater in population than Awgu and Enugu agricultural zones. See table 2
below.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 25

Table 1: Template showing areas of coverage and number of household heads
covered by each enumerator
S/No.

ZONE

LGAs

Communities
Involved

Number of Households
to be Covered

1.

Awgu Agricultural Zone

Awgu

Mmaku

33

Obeagu

33

Inyi

33

Akpugo -eze

33

Amaorji Nike

33

Emene

33

Ngwo-uno

33

Nsude

33

Obukpa34

Alor-uno

34

Adani

34

Nkpologu

34

Oji-River2.

Enugu Agricultural Zone

Enugu East

Udi

3.

Nsukka Agricultural
Zone

NsukkaUzo-uwani

Grand Total

400

Note: The number of household heads covered from Nsukka agricultural zone is higher than other zones (Awgu andEnugu agricultural) because according to NPC 2006, Nsukka zone is greater in population than Awgu and Enugu
zones.

3.4
Quality Control
The ATPS research team in order to maintain standard quality control instructed the enumerators
and Field Assistants in all the communities on the need for field review of completed questionnaires.
This was important and helped in on-the-field errors identification. Some of the errors detectedduring the process include; omissions, unreasonable entries, impossible entries and double
entries etc. The research team applied field monitoring and evaluation protocols to ensure that
quality data were collected from the respondents. This entails occasional physical presence of theresearch team to the different communities to check for errors at the point of data collection. These
visits were very intensive on the first week of data collection. Such early detection of errors helped
eliminate further occurrence of such errors. To further ensure that there was adequate quality
control, the research team also constantly made telephone calls on the enumerators during thefield data collection.

26 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

4. Results & Findings
4.1.
Socio-Economic Characteristics of Farmers
The socio-economic status considered in this study include sex, age, marital status, level of
education, major occupation, minor occupation, types of farming activities carried out, size of farmland among others. Figure 2 shows that 68% of the respondents are male and 32% are female
respectively. The greater number of male interacted with in the study does not mean that there are
more male than female in Enugu state. According to NPC (2006) there is higher population of
female than male in the study area. Meanwhile, the higher population of male interacted with here
may be attributable to their more involvement in agricultural activities than females due to their easeaccess to land.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 2: Distribution of respondents according to sex
Figure 3 indicates that the more of the respondents is in the age brackets of 41-60 years of age andconstitutes 43.8%. The old age group ( 61 years) formed 20% of the respondents while the youths
constitute 35.95% of the respondents. The result of the analysis shows that middle-aged men andwomen dominate farming activities in the area. It also suggests that youths are massively leaving
farming for other economic activities. This none involvement of youth in agricultural farming
activities will lead to high cost of farming labour and even less production of agricultural goods.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 27

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 3: Distribution of respondents according to age.
From figure 4 above, it can be seen that 81% of the respondents are married and are involved infarming activities in the study area. The same figure 4 shows 9% of the respondents are single, as
7% of the respondents are widowed. The figure finally shows that whereas 2% of the respondents
reported that they are divorced only 1% of the respondents stated that are separated.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 4: Distribution of respondents according to martial status.
Generally, education broadens the horizon of human activities, operation and understanding of his
environment including farming activities. According to figure 5 above, 42% of the respondents
stated that they had their primary education. Also from the same figure 5, 29% of the respondents
reported that their highest level of educational qualification is secondary education. Further criticalanalysis of the above figure indicated that whereas 19% of the respondents in the study area statedthat they had no formal education, only 10% of the respondents agreed that their highest
educational level is post secondary. The scenario above indicates that reduced agricultural
productivity in the state may be as a result of lower educational levels of the respondents. Thisconsequently affects farming activities at a higher percentage in the study area.

28 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 5: Educational Level of respondents
Figure 6 shows that 89% of the respondents interviewed in the study area stated that they have theirmajor occupation as farming, whereas 6% of the respondents reported that civil/public service istheir major occupation. Also from figure 6 above, it can be seen that 2% of the respondents each has
trading and artisan as their major occupation. The massive respondents that agreed that farming istheir major occupation simply confirmed that agricultural activities is still the mainstay of thecountry's economy and even that of Enugu state.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 6: Distribution of respondents according to major occupation.
Figure 7 indicates that 56.6% of the respondents in the study area are crop farmers. Furthermore
from the same figure 7, only 35.5% of the respondents agreed that they practice mixed farming. The
greater percentage of the respondents that agreed that practicing crop farming is their major
farming activities affirmed with the findings of Orebiyi and Nzeh 2002. In their findings they reported
that crops farming is usually carried out in small holding of about 1 to 3 hectares in Enugu state andalso that both poultry production, goat and sheep production are always carried out in some partsof the state but strictly on subsistence level, which is not always noticed.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 29

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 7: Distribution of respondents according to types of farming activities.
The figure 8 shows 52% of the respondents interviwed in the study area reported that their size offarm land is three hectares or less. It also indicated that 40% of the respondents agreed that the sizeof land they own is between four to six hectares. Critical examination of the figure shows that
whereas 6% of the respondents in the study area stated that the size of their farm land is 7 to 9
hectares only 2% of the respondents said that they have up 10 hectares of land or more. The above
analysis shows that in the study area, due to method of land inhertiance farmers in the area are stillowing small sized plot(s) of land for their farming operation. The negative implication of this small
land ownship is that it makes modern farming activities very difficult especially as it relates to use of
tractors. This subsequently results to less cultivation of land by the farmers

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 8: Distribution of respondents according to size of farm land.
.4.2.
Farmers level of awareness and manifestations of climate change
From figure 9, it can be seen that 34% of the respondents reported that the major cause(s) of climatechange in the study area is stricky due to industrial process. Furthermore 20% of the respondents
stated that major cause(s) of climate change in the study area is use of fuel to generate engery. Alsofrom one can see that as 18% of the respondents said that major cause(s) of climate change in the
study area is from deforestation, 4% of the respondents indicated that cause(s) of climate change in
the area is from transportation. Finally, only 14% of the respondents gave other reasons as the
major cause(s) of climate change in the study area.
30 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 9: Distribution of respondents according to cause(s) of climate change.
Figure 10 shows that 57% of the respondents stated that the mainfestation of climate change in the
study area is highest with decrease in rainfall pattern. As can be seen from the figure 10 above, 23%of the respondents reported that the mainfestation of climate change in the study area is highestwith premature ripening of crops whereas only 11% of the respondents said that increase in pest
infestation is highest in the mainfestation of climate change. Meanwhile, the decrease in rainfall inthe study area in the recent years will directly affect the food production in the area hence mostproduction of agricultural produce in the area is dependent purely in the rainfed agriculture.
Therefore, this decrease in rainfall pattern in the recent years due to climate change may lead tofood insecurity at both short, medium and long run in the state and Nigeria in general.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 10: Distribution of respondents according to climate change
mainfestation.
Figure 11 below indicated 32% of the respondents reported that climate change phenomena were
worse over the past ten years in the area of changing/irregular rainfall pattern in their communities.
Furthermore, the same figure 11 shows that as 26% of the respondents stated that climate change
phenomena was worse over the past ten year in the area of increasing temperature, 23% of the
respondents equally said that harsh weather condition is the worse climate change phenomena in
Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 31

their communities over the past ten years. Critical analysis of the figure 11 above shows that only
13% and 6% of the respondents respectively reported that climate change phenomena were worse
over the past ten years in their community as pests' manifestation and land degradation. The
increasing temperature which recorded as the second highest problem of climate change
phenomena in the study confirm the low productivity of animals in the recent times in Enugu state;hence higher temperature is not very conducive for fertility in animal because it leads to frequent
abortion by the animals.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 11: Distribution of respondents according to climate change
phenomena over ten years ago.
Figure 12 shows that higher number of respondents 43% reported that increase frequency/intensityof drought is the recent implication of climate change toward agriculture in their community. Also
the same figure 12 indicated that 23% of the respondents stated that threat to wildlife/biodiversity is
the recent implication of climate change toward agriculture in their area. Further analysis of the
figure 12 equally shows that 20% of the respondents stated that decrease in run-off of rivers/water
availability is the recent implication of climate change toward agriculture in their community.
Furthermore, only 9% of the respondents reported that intensified land use is the recent implicationof climate change toward agriculture in their community. But 3% and 2% of the respondents said
that both other reasons and arise in flooding/erosion respectively are the recent implications ofclimate change toward agriculture in their community. The increase in the frequency/intensity ofdrought in recent time is the indication that climate has changed. This might be the reason for themassive failure of crop production especially that of cocoyam last year in the study area which was
confirmed by FGD participants.

32 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 12: Distribution of respondents according to recent implication ofclimate change toward agriculture.
4.3.
Farming systems and its management technologies on climate change
The result of the analysis in figure 13 shows that 20% of the respondents in the study area reported
that bush fallow and shifting cultivation are the farming system(s) they have reduced its usage in thepast ten years due to change climate. The same result shows that 17% of the respondents have
reduced usage of crop rotation in the past ten years due to climate change. Whereas 15% of the
respondents stated that sole cropping is the farming system(s) they have reduced its usage in thepast ten years due to climate change; but only 14% of the respondents agreed that continuous
cropping is the farming system(s) they have reduced its usage in the past ten years due to climatechangeSource: Field survey 2010

Figure 13: Distribution of respondents according to farming system(s) reduceusage in the past ten years due to climate change.
Finally, from figure 13 shows that 7% of the respondents stated that intercropping is the farming
system(s) they have reduced its usage in the past ten years due to climate change as only 6% of the
respondents in the study area said that mixed farming is the farming system(s) they have reduced
its usage in the past ten years due to climate change.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 33

Figure 14 shows that 61% of the respondents have adopted mixed cropping as farming due toclimate change effects in their community. Furthermore the same figure 14 indicated that 16% of the
respondents agreed that mixed farming is the farming system they adopted due to climate change
in their community and also 18% of the respondents reported that sole cropping is the farming
system they adopted due to climate change effects in the study area. The implication of the higher
percentage of the respondents that accepted that they adopted mixed cropping in the recent time
may be to avoid total crop failures in their farm especially as it relates to pest infestation.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 14: Distribution of respondents according to farming systems adopted
due to climate change effects
From figure 15 above, it shows that 24% of the respondents reported that changes they adopted infarming system toward climate change is changes in the planting date of crops. Meanwhile, thesame figure 15 indicated that 19% of respondents respectively agreed that changes adopted infarming systems toward climate change are in the areas of changes in cropping pattern andchanges in the harvesting date of crop(s). Finally, as 15% of the respondents stated that changes
adopted in farming system toward climate change is changes in planting distance; 14% of the
respondents said that introduction of new breeds of crop(s) are the changes they adopted infarming system toward climate change. The higher percentage of the respondents that reported
that changes they adopted in their farming system is changes in the planting dates of crops may be
attributable to the delay in rainfall commencement in the study area hence what is mainly practiced
in the study area is rain-fed agriculture.

34 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 15: Distribution of respondents according to changes adopted infarming system toward climate change.
Figure 16 above shows that 35% of the respondents in the study are reported that the kind(s) of
management technologies they use to combat climate change in their community is the use offertilizer. Furthermore, 20% of respondents agreed that use pesticides as the kind(s) of
management technologies to combat climate in their community. Critical analysis of the same figure
16 shows that 17% each of the respondents stated that they use weedicides and even tillage
operation with mechanized tools respectively as their own kind(s) of management technologies tocombat climate change in recent time in their area. Finally only 11% of the respondents reported
that the kind(s) of management technologies they use to combat climate change is other means likeuse of crude tools for both pre/post harvesting activities.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 16: Distribution of respondents according to the kind(s) of
management technologies use to combat climate change.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 35

4.4.
Farmers' patterns and manner of adjustment to climate change
Figure 17 contains the respondents according to recent adaptation pattern(s) toward climatechange in the study area. From the figure 17, 85% of the respondents stated that the recent
adaptation pattern(s) toward climate change which they are using is change in timing of planting ofcrops. Also the same figure 17 shows that 56%of the respondents agreed that the change in land
preparation practices (terracing, contouring, hedges, reservoirs, drainage) is the recent adaptation
pattern(s) toward climate change they apply in their community. Furthermore, as 22% of the
respondents reported that the recent adaptation pattern(s) toward climate change in the study area
which they use is improve forecast mechanism, as only 21% of the respondents said that what they
use as recent adaptation pattern(s) toward climate change in the study area is change in land use.
Lastly, 10% of the respondents reported that the recent adaptation pattern(s) toward climate in the
study area which they use is change in livestock management.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 17: Distribution of respondents according to recent adaptation available.
The result of the analysis in figure 18 indicates that 39% of the respondents reported that the major
impact of climate change in their farming activities is in the area of reduced productivity of their farm
produce. Also the same figure 18 shows that 21% of the respondents stated that the major impact ofclimate change in their farming activities is in the area of increased cost of labour. According tofigure 18 above, whereas 24% of the respondents stated that the major impact of climate change intheir farming activities is in the area of increased pest and disease manifestation, 15% of the
respondents in the study area said that increased in cost of farming is the major impact of climatechange on their farming activities. The scenario above which shows that higher percentage of the
respondents agreed that reduced productivity is the major impact of climate change in their farming
activities. This further confirms the reaction from the farmers in the study area during FGD that for
many years now that there is reduction in outputs from their farm due to climate change.

36 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 18: Distribution of respondents according to impact of climate change
on farming activities.
4.5.

Impacts of climate change adaptation to farming communities'
livelihood
As can be deciphered from figure 19, only 39% of the respondents agreed that the indigenous
technologies which are in use in their farming community for climate change adaptation isindigenous weather calendar. From the same figure 19, 27% of the respondents reported that theindigenous technologies which are in use in their farming community are weather forecasting.
Furthermore, 17% of the respondents reported that the indigenous technologies which are in use in
their farming community for climate change adaptation is use of flood plain farming (fadama) as
10% of the respondents confirmed that use of bird scaring is the indigenous technologies which are
in use in their farming community for climate change adaptation. Finally, figure 18 shows thatrotational bush fallow and use of other methodologies as the indigenous technologies for climatechange adaptation recorded 4% and 3% respectively.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 19: Distribution of respondents according to indigenous technology inuse.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 37

According to figure 20, 63% of the respondents confirm that they use between 21-40% of theirindigenous technology to combat climate change in their community. Also the same figure 20
shows that 19% of the respondents said that the percentage of climate change adaptation
techniques which is attributable to indigenous technology in their farm is between 41-80%. Lastly,
only 13% of the respondents from figure 20 agreed that the percentage of climate change
adaptation techniques which is attributable to indigenous technology in their farm is less than oreqully to 20%; as 5% of the repondents in the study said that they use greather than 80% of theirindigenous technology to combat climate change in their community.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 20: Distribution of respondents according to indigenous technology inuse.
Figure 21 contains the distribution of respondents according to types of adaptation to climatechange in respondents farming community. From the figure 21, 70% of the respondents stated thatthe type of adaptation to cliamte change in their farming community is shorter growing season
crops. Also the same figure 21 shows that as 15% of the respondents said that the types ofadaptation to cliamte change in their farming community is dykes construction, 6% of the
respondents reported that chaning in architecture of farm buildings is the type of cliamte change
adapted for their faming community in the study area. Finally only 5% of the repsondents and 4% ofthem in the above figure 21 accepted that other means of climate change adapattion and longer
growing season crops respectively are their own ways of adaptation to climate change.

38 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 21: Distribution of respondents according to types of adaptation.
Figure 22 shows that 41% of the respondents reported that the modern technology used for climatechange adaptation techniques in their farming community is by changes in their occupational
system. Futhermore, 23% of the respondents stated that the modern technology use for climatechange adaptation techniques in their farming community is by use of drought resistant seeds. In
the same figure 22 above, as 11% of the respondents stated that the modern technology used forclimate change adaptation techniques in their farming community is by use of crops with smallerneed for water; 10% of the repsondents reported that the modern technology used for climatechange adaptation techniques in their farming community is by seek of advice from government
extension agents. Crtitical analysis of the figure 22 above shows that only 9% of the respondents
agreed that the modern technology used for climate change adaptation techniques in their farming
community is by use of crop rotational methods. The higher percentages of respondents that said
that the modern technology used for climate change adaptation techniques is by changes in
occupational system confirm the high cost of farming labour in the study area hence so many ablebodied men and women recently are involved in other means of livelihood other than farming due tochange in climate.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 22: Distribution of respondents according to modern technologies
adapted.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 39

Figure 23 shows that 35% of the respondents reported that roughening of the land surface is theadaptation mechanisms (toward change in land topography to improve water intake and reduce
erosion) used as climate change solution in study area. Also the same figure 23 above indicatedthat 33% of the respondents in Enugu state agreed that the adaptation mechanisms toward change
in land topography to improve water intake and reduce wind erosion (as climate change solution
used in their community) are subdvision of large field. Furthermore, as 13% of the respondents
stated that building of wind break is the adaptation mechanisms (toward change in land
topography to improve water intake and reduce erosion) used as climate change solution in study
area; 11% of the respondents reported that other means adaptation mechanism toward change inland topography to improve water intake and reduce wind erosion are in use by them in the stsudy
area. Finally, only 8% of the respondents stated that the adaptation mechanism toward change inland topography to improve water intake and reduce wind erosion (as climate change solution
used in their community) is by maintenance of grass waterways.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 23: Respondents distributions on adaptation mechanisms for improvewater intake and wind erosion reduction.
Figure 24 indicate that higher percentage of the respondents in the study area (57%) reported thatwater harvesting by the use of watering can(s) is the means they use in their community to improvewater use and availability in their farming system. Also the same figure shows that only 26% of the
respondents stated that they use construction of irrigation in peak crop growth as their means toimprove water use and availability in their farming system. Critical analysis of the figure 24 showsthat 7% of the respondents stated that they use drip irrigation as the method(s) to improve water use
and availability in the study area. The implication of the higher percentage of those respondents
that agreed that they use watering can(s) means that there is lack of improved modern ways ofwater application in farming system in the study area.

40 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 24: Distribution of respondents according to means used to improve water
use and availability.
Figure 25 above shows that 57% of the respondents stated that the use of mulch and straw are themeans they use to conserve soil mositure, nutrients and reduce run-off due to consequence ofclimate change in their farming community. Furthermore, 18% of the respondents reported that themean they use to conserve soil mositure, nutrients and reduce run-off due to consequence ofclimate change in their farming community is by avoidance of monocropping. But figure 25 also
shows that the use of crop rotation recorded 10% respondents; as the use of lower planting
densities recorded 15% in the same figure 25 above.

Source: Field survey 2010

Figure 25: Distribution of respondents according to farming practices uses toconserve soil moisture, nutrients and minimize run-off

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 41

5. Summary of Findings
Major findings from the research study indicate that recent reduction in agricultural productivity in
Enugu state is as a result of lack of adequate understanding of best farming practices. This may be
attributable to lower educational of respondents in the study area. Similarly, the research find outthat higher percentage of the farmers are engaged in crop farming than livestock farming althoughin small holding of 1 to 3 hectares. Most farmers were aware of cause(s) of climate change in Enugu
state, Nigeria. This awareness in their views are mainly through industrial process pollution, use offuel to generate energy, deforestation activities, use of various means of transportation and evenother causes from different means of agricultural activities. Farmers in the study area pointed outthat the manifestations of climate change are mainly through decrease in rainfall pattern, prematureripening of crops, and increase in pest infestation in both crops and animals. Also there is increase
in weed infestation, heavy loss of pasture land/vegetation, and occasional increase in rainfall
pattern which result to heavy flooding. They have variously described climate change phenomena
over the past ten years as changing/irregular rainfall patterns, increasing temperature, prolonged
harsh weather, higher pests' manifestation and recent land degradation.
Most farmers believe that climate change affect agriculture. This is because farmers in the area
depend on rain-fed agriculture which is now being thwarted by climate change catastrophes. The
farmers opted that the implications of climate change toward agriculture include; increase/intensityof drought, threat to wildlife/biodiversity, decrease in runoff of river/water availability, intensity inland usage and even rise in flooding/erosion. The notable activities stopped by farmers in the area
due to climate change effects include; bush fallow, shifting cultivation, sole cropping, and evencontinuous cropping. Meanwhile, the research find out that the farming system adopted by thefamers in the area due to climate change were both mixed farming/cropping, agro-forestry, andlastly tunguya farming. The most extensive commonly used indigenous farming system toward
climate change adaptation in the area are; change in planting date, change in cropping patterns,change in harvesting date of crops, change in planting distance, introduction of new breeds ofcrop(s), changes in the storage mechanism and change in the processing techniques. From theresearch, it was noticed that major kinds of management technologies use to combat climatechange in the area were use of pesticides, use of weedicides, use of fertilizers and carrying out
tillage operation with mechanized tools. It was further find out that impacts of climate change infarming activities in Enugu state are in the area of reduced productivity, increased in pest anddisease manifestation, and finally increase in the costs of farming and labour.
42 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

6. Conclusion & Recommendations
The research has shown that most farmers in Enugu state, Nigeria are aware that weather patterns
are changing as manifested in increasing flooding and changes in rainfall patterns, increase intemperature, high incidence of pests, diseases and weeds, and even decrease in crop yields etc.
But, their understanding of the concept of global climate change with regard to green houseemissions, ozone layer depletion is limited. Although farmers adopted numerous adaptation
strategies to climate change effects, they noted that most of the strategies are increasing tasking
and might not stand the test of time especially with the increasing negative impacts of climatechange in the recent time.
The major challenges to the farmers were lack of climate change information and extension
services, poor infrastructural development, and lack/high cost of factors of production like labour,
land and even capital. Notwithstanding that some farmers were aware of some government policies
aimed at environmental protection such as ban on indiscriminate deforestation and bush burning,they confirmed that these policies are not being effectively implemented in the state.
Based on the above key findings from this research study, the following recommendations areproffered:
There is need for increase in the awareness level of farmers and general public on climate change
issues. The people's ability to respond toward climate change challenges is determined by thequality of the information available to them and how easily they can be accessed. It is based on theinformation the people have that they can make informed decisions for climate change adaptation.
Therefore the role of awareness creation is that of everybody in Enugu state, but a responsive
government should take the first step.
There is need for a systematic collaborative approach involving all the stakeholders – science
experts and researchers, policy makers and governments at all levels, private sectors; nongovernmental and civil society organizations; farmers associations, youths and women groups towork together in turning the critical challenges posed by climate change into opportunities. The
systems will lead to development of effective climate change resilient capacity, knowing thatsystems thinking espouse the principles of collaboration which breeds innovation.

Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria | 43

Basically the indigenous technologies adopted by farmers in the area over the years have helped
them cope with the changing climate. It is vital to apply the most recent modern technologies andpractices for effective adaptation to take place. This is because, with time, some of the indigenous
methods and practices for adaptation will not be effective any long.
There is also need for climate policy at national, state, local government levels and even community
levels in this country. Such policies will streamline roles and responsibilities, strategies for climatechange adaptation, vulnerability scenarios, and stakeholder's involvements in a more systematicmanner. There is equally need for regular workshops, conferences, debates at all levels ofgovernments in the state to provide updated information on climate change activities.
Finally, the Enugu State government must adopt strategies and policies that will encourage
improved farming practices and agricultural methods, and that will protect our cherishedagricultural activities which is the mainstay of our economy. Furthermore, there is need for constantuse of both electronic and print media in strengthening climate change awareness and incommunicating effective response strategies.

44 | Study of Technological and Farming Systems Adaptation to Climate Change in Farming Communities of Enugu State, Nigeria

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