The Place of Policy inApplied Health Care andTechnology with Special
Reference to African
Traditional Medicine

Daniel Noni Lantum

ATPS SPECIAL PAPER SERIES No. 31

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network, P.O. Box 10081, 00100
General Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya.

© 2007 African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS)

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ABOUT THE AFRICAN TECHNOLOGY POLICY STUDIES NETWORKThe African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multi-disciplinary network of researchers,
policy makers, actors in the private sector and other end users interested in generating, promoting
and strengthening innovative science and technology policies in Africa. With a regional secretariat in
Nairobi, the network operates through national chapters in 23 countries, with an expansion plan tocover the entire sub-Saharan Africa.
One of the objectives of the network is to disseminate research results to policy makers, legislators,
the organized private sector, civil society, mass media and farmers’ groups through publications,dialogue and advocacy. Among its range of publications are the Working Paper Series (WPS),
Research Paper Series (RPS), Special Paper Series (SPS) and the Technopolicy Briefs.
Papers published under the ATPS Special Paper Series are those commissioned as concept
papers, think pieces, leading conference papers and keynote addresses. In keeping with
our knowledge brokerage function, ATPS publishes, with permission of the author(s) or
journal editors, papers (published or unpublished) produced by distinguished academics/
researchers for a different purpose but judged by ATPS to be of excellent quality. Thesepapers address significant policy questions relevant to the work of ATPS and/or support
the Southern voice or an African perspective. We also consider theoretical papers that
advance our knowledge of science and technology policy issues.
ATPS is supported by a growing number of donors including the International Development ResearchCentre (IDRC), the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Rockefeller Foundation, the World Bank,
the OPEC Fund, Ford Foundation, Coca-Cola Eastern Africa, the African Development Bank, InfoDev,
European Union and the Royal Dutch Government.

Acronyms

AU
CAMES
CESAG
COHREDENHR
FEMNET
MDGs
NEPAD
PRSP
UNICEF
WHA
WHO

African Union
Conseil Africain et Malgache pour l’Enseignement Superieur
Centre African d’Etudes Superieures en Gestion
Council on Health Research for Development
Essential National Health Research
African Women’s Development and Communication Network
Millennium Development Goals
New Partnership for African Development
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers
United Nations International Children’s FundWorld Health AssemblyWorld Health Organizations

Table of Contents

1.

Introduction

1

2.

Raison D’etre of Policy

33.

Epistemology of Policy

5

4

The Role of International Policies in the Restoration of
Traditional Medicine of Africa

7

5

Recent Advances in Policy on Traditional Medicine in Africa

11

6More Policies for the Future

13

References

16

Introduction

George Rosen (1958) in his book, “A History of Public Health” wrote:“Throughout human history, the major problems of health that mankind
has faced have been concerned with community life, for instance, thecontrol of transmissible disease, the control and improvement of thephysical environment (sanitation), the provision of water and food of goodquality and in sufficient supply, the provision of medical care, and therelief of disability and destitution. The relative emphasis placed on eachof these problems has varied from time to time, but they are all closely
related, and from them has come public health as we know it today” (p.
25).
Further, in his preface, George Rosen asserts prescriptively that:“The protection and promotion of the health and welfare of its citizens is
considered to be one of the most important functions of the modern state.
This function is the embodiment of a public policy based on political,
economic, social, and ethical consideration;” p. 17 (emphasis, author’s)
and it determines the ethics, attitudes and actions of society towards
illness condition and its environment throughout history.
For the present meeting the author was assigned the task of addressing the role of policy in applied
health technology with special reference to African traditional medicine. Perhaps what is intriguingin this theme is that despite the fact that African traditional medicine is by its anthropological naturea heritage of African peoples and nations, it has paradoxically been the object of chains of successive
policies aimed at reviving and revitalizing it to regain its recognition and liberation for open practicein the context of socio-political and cultural modernization in emergent African society. As such thisparadox becomes the “problematique” or central thesis to be examined in this paper. Seen andsolidified in time and space dimensions, the paradox assumes the form of a dumb-bell-shaped
phenomenon with the first big bump representing the pre-colonial era - when it was the only medicineof the people; then follows the truncation representing the thinning down due to the squeeze ofcolonial policy pressures, which continued into the early independence era for many countries; andthen swells the second bump (not as big as the first), which represents the return or authorization of
Traditional medicine as a public utility in modern states. This dumb-bell-shaped phenomenon isveritably the creation of policies and counter-policies by the leadership or policy makers at the1

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international, national and local scenes, and it is the interaction of these policies, which we will
focus upon as the central theme of this discourse. However, it appears pertinent to first examine in
depth the raison d’être and the epistemology of policy; then study the role of international policy in therestoration of traditional medicine; following, we will review the recent advances of traditional medicine
in Africa; identify and highlight policies for the future; and conclude.

2.

Raison D’etre of Policy

The quest for development and social welfare is instinctive in man. Anthropological investigations of
the most elementary human societies have revealed to us that human groups or societies always
sought and created leaders (either individuals – kings, princes, potentates – or collective groups) toserve as principal policy-planners and decision-makers to stir and guide their collective development
and welfare. This leadership later became institutionalized to what we call in modern terms‘government bodies’ or simply ‘governments’, and the institution was the depository or collective
authority, which was above that of any other within the jurisdiction of that society or community. The
totality of guidelines for regulation of collective development and social welfare constitute the policy
frame or laws of the group. As the global human society is quite vast and stratified, it is imaginable
that there must be several levels of policy, each carrying the weight of authority commensurate withthe status of the instance that issued it. However, we can summarize the diversity into a simple
hierarchy for our purpose as follows international community, national, local policy institutions. Theinternational community, represented by the United Nations Organizations and its agencies is thesupreme policy organ; the nation/state issues policies for its national territory and for citizens belonging
to it de juré, but national policies are subject to those of the global body; the local authorities within
the context of national policies re-interpret and adapt them in form of local policies or official orders
and decisions. As such, global policies are resolutions adopted at statutory meetings and conventions
held for specific purposes, and are always written and classified. National policies are derived
through ratification of international conventions by parliament and by laws adopted by parliamentand enacted by Heads of State. In respect for the National Constitution, the Head of State (or Chief
Executive) can issue decrees, ministers can issue Ministerial Orders, and local responsibles canissue local decisions to guide public behaviour and action for the public good. Occasionally, inpublic speeches, leaders of government may reveal their operative intentions and wishes (not yet
written), which carry the force of policy by dint of their authoritative source. Hence, those charged
with the responsibility of implementation of policy must be critical about the authority of its origin, thespirit and the context in which it was issued and the extent and limitation of the policy in terms ofjurisdiction, timing and the public good or welfare that was intended.
For purposes of development and advancement of human welfare, it is important, even imperativethat policies must be relevant; policies must be well conceived; best based on evidence; implementersmust be adequately knowledgeable and competent; programmes of implementation must follow a
stated management design with inbuilt monitoring systems and objectives. As such, it would appear
that a policy statement, which remains at the level of the desire or wish, is not yet complete until the3

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appropriate management implementation strategy has been formulated as its essential component.
Similarly a policy goal will not be achieved if the implementers lack the know-how and the
management capacity to implement it. Policy formulation rather than being the beginning ought tobe indeed the end of adequate studies and reflection, which have not only tested the methodology
and produced reproducible results, but discussed the findings in light of comparable experiences orexperiments elsewhere, and drawn logical conclusions. This is the scientific evidence basis.
Nevertheless, some characteristic and inspired individuals have occasionally come up with suggested
policy guidelines that saved the course of nations in face of catastrophes. These should be theexceptions rather than the rule, and consequences should be quickly studied and anticipated bythose to administer it. As the development process in organized human communities is indeed achain of development policies in time and place, all policies are inter-related; and their overlaps andlinkages must be clear to the planners during the planning and review processes.

3.

Epistemology of Policy

If Africa has come this far in the resurrection of its productive genius and know-how thanks to policy,
it was worth it and it is quite indicated to study the nature of policy to boost our future development
potential. It is now evident that good governance is the skillful management of policy pools, whichconstitute the raison d’être of governments as institutions for protection, inspiration, and coordinationof the development process for the promotion of the welfare of peoples. Policies are their eyes orsearch lights to see far into the darkness of universal possibilities of human advancement andprogress. By nature, policies are linked like chains and interwoven like a lace-fabric of the fisherman’s
net; and as such the end of one policy is the beginning of another, and the networks of policies arelike those of blood capillaries, which channel the flow of energy into the vital human organs, andeventually into the entire body system, to sustain life and vitality. Therefore, institutions that generate
policies and coordinate policy implementation ought to be polyvalent, multitalented, multidisciplinary,given to research, and inspired by history, which provides the meaningful understanding of the past
to provide solutions for the present and the future.
The wisdom of the ages has led peoples to define and encapsulate nation/state policy in their‘national constitution’ – the basic law of the land – the mother policy, from which derive sub-policies
that define socio-political institutions of governance. Frank Grad’s “Public Health Law Manual”
explains it well for the United States of America. The authority of the United Nations derives from thecollective submission to this global body to promote peace and security for all. There was a call for
total moral integrity and goodwill for those called to design and formulate policy at any level, with theobjectivity of fairness and, justice to all, and respect of fundamental rights of man – the raison d’êtreof the United Nations.
With regards the evolution of the traditional medicine, through the last century, we will observe howcolonial rash or biased theories influenced policy enactment targeted to its virtual elimination. We
will also observe how, based on sold evidence, these colonial policies were gradually dismantled
thanks to the superior policies of the international community. The lesson of solid evidence-basehas dawned on us as the modus operandi, and compelled us to adopt the scientific approach of
establishing evidence as the modern torch light, and it is this belief that led participants at Professor
Mohammed Khalil Timamy’s lecture on “Can Economic Recovery Occur Without Science andTechnology” at the ATPS conference in Nairobi to respond:
q Scientists should implement what they believe inq Scientists should sell their ideas to the government

5

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6

The private sector should participate in national issues by setting up
performance benchmarks
q The link between policy makers and research and development institutions should be
strengthened
q The Kenyan government should have a clear policy on research and innovations
q Institutional networking should be encouraged.
q

As policy is goal-oriented and targets goals through objectives, it is by its nature limited in time andspace; that is, any policy does not last for ever. As such the formulation and implementation of policy
must have in-built provision for monitoring and evaluation of its course and effects so that theaccumulated evidence of outcomes should contribute to its end and new policy. When more than
one policy target the same common interest, there tends to be a conflict – a situation of conflicting
and antagonistic policies – and all should be reviewed and synchronized, or the baseless one
scrapped. As we have seen, if the people for whom policies are enacted were often duly involved in
the conception and enactment, policies would be more realistic and productive or effective inattaining the desired objectives. This remains for many developing African countries ruled by dictators,
self-proclaimed leaders of imperialism and neo-colonialism, and those who shunted up to power bycoup de force, a real challenge to lasting development in all fronts since the evidence-base, moral
rectitude of policy-makers, the summum bonum or supreme good of the people under that policy
jurisdiction, may not be considered at all.
We will see how the policies of colonialism were counter-policied by the international community toliberate the suffocating Traditional medicines.

4.

The Role of International Policies in the
Restoration of Traditional Medicine of Africa

Recalling to the dumb-bell-shaped evolution of African traditional medicine, we had stated that the
pre-colonial era witnessed African traditional medicine in its full bloom, as it was part of a people’s
culture without any alternative or competing medicinal system. The colonial rule, which was indeed
a cultural invasion brought along new ‘western culture’ of which allopathic or conventional medicine,developed on scientific basis, was an essential component to protect and heal its progenitors primarily
and then the colonized people subsequently. As of policy in all colonies, the imported medicinal
system was instituted as part and parcel of the government administration with a budget, to the utter
exclusion of indigenous medicine. Thus, whereas the former developed and expanded, the latter
declined and dwindled, and only certain hard and fast socio-economic and cultural factors sustained
elements of it in clandestiny, hence the truncation in the dumb-bell. One scientific minded European,
Dr Louis Paul Aujoulat, lamented aloud:“A form of indigenous medicine existed in Black Africa before the comingof Europeans; today it still carries on functioning but more or less in hiding——————— It is unfortunate that it has been reduced to the state ofheretical medicine, pitilessly harassed for its errors or its accidents, but
hardly ever honoured for its victories. Thus finally it will collapse to nothing,while its body of clinical knowledge and therapeutics should have profiteduniversal medicine”
It is worth observing that traditional medicine is largely based on empirical knowledge, and although
its health-promotive, diagnostic, therapeutic and rehabilitative powers have been proven over the
centuries, it could definitely improve its efficacy, safety, and scope if the rigors of scientific approachwere applied to it. It was the WHO Expert Committee in the African Region, which defined it as:“Traditional medicine is the totality of the knowledge and practices,
explicable or otherwise, for diagnosing, preventing or eliminating any(human) disequilibrium, be it physical, mental or social, and which isbased exclusively on the experiences lived, observed, and transmitted
from generation to generation, either by word of mouth or through writing.”
It is sustained in society by the authority of traditional rulers in the context of diverse customary
institutions of power sharing and governance. There is no question that it exists under some (usuallyunwritten) local policy frameworks, which determine its internal regulations and ethics concerning

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the informal training of its manpower, their initiation formalities, their practices and compensation,
their taboos and even their status in society.
As such, the over-riding policies of the conquering authorities simply swept to under bed theindigenous systems, and would have succeeded in completely suffocating traditional medicine todeath, if the allopathic system was 100 percent efficient and efficacious, and could assure coverage
for all the population sectors to palpably and satisfactorily reduce morbidity, mortality and prolong
life. Of course it failed woefully, and that was the loophole, which attracted international concern andpossibilities, thanks to the new conscience and ethic of the League of Nations and subsequently theUnited Nations from 1945.
A WHO/UNICEF combined study commissioned in 1973 came out with results in February 1975,
which were approved early in May 1975 by the UNICEF Executive Board as UNICEF policy, andadopted by the World Health Assembly as Resolution WHA 28.88 in May. The evidence content ofthese world policies were summarized as follows in “alternative approach to meeting basic healthneeds in developing countries”“Despite great efforts by governments and international organizations, thebasic health needs of vast numbers of the world’s people remain
unsatisfied. In many countries less than 15% of the rural population andother underprivileged groups have access to health services. More serious
still, these people are both partially exposed and particularly prone todisease. A hostile environment, poverty, ignorance of the causes of disease
and of protective measures, lack of health services or inability to seek anduse them – all may combine to produce this sorry situation.”…. The strategy
adopted to meet the main health needs of the underprivileged by many
developing countries has been modeled on that of the industrializedcountries, but as a strategy, it has been a failure”
On World Poverty and Health, the report states:“What we know as the developing world, far from being a single
homogeneous entity, is made up of a great variety of widely different
countries and areas at different stages of development. Nevertheless,their progress is conditioned by certain factors in common, and in somecases it may be possible to consider common solutions to their problems.
These problems have complex political, social, cultural and environmentalroots. Extremely limited resources, poor communications, vast distances,individual and community poverty, and lack of education act and react
upon one another in such a way as to maintain the developing countries
in a perpetual state of poverty.” (p. 10)
Of special relevance to Africa is that the above joint study included Niger, Nigeria and Tanzania in the
study sample. The Investigation of Village Health Workers and Traditional Birth Attendants in Niger;

THE PLACE OF POLICY IN APPLIED HEALTH CARE AND TECHNOLOGY

9the study of indigenous medicine (Ayuverda, Yoga, Inani Tibb) in India; the National Socio-economic
Development Policy of Tanzania enunciated in 1967 as the ARUSHA Declaration; and, the use of
two-way radio in health services delivery in Nigeria were all components of the world wide study. The
inclusion of China, where Mao Tsetung in the 1949 Great Liberation policy had imposed thevalorization, development and integration of Chinese traditional Medicine into the health care systemaffords us an opportunity to appreciate benevolent dictatorship as a possible source of healthdevelopment policy.
The harvest of these national policies to synthesize the above WHO and UNICEF Policies wereindeed distant precursors to another historic international health policy called “the Alma ata declarationof September 1978” whose immediate antecedent policies consisted of WHO Regional Committees
resolutions of 1976 on Primary Health Care, and the WHO policy on Health for all by the year 2000
passed in 1977 by the World Health Assembly. Thus the Alma ata declaration of primary health careas the universal approach to achieving health for all by 2000 was indeed the summit of the crescendoof international health policies. For our present purpose, among the components of the health caredelivery package, the declaration included traditional medicine and its applied technologies. Thiswas indeed a radical departure from the past repugnant repressions on traditional medicine andcountries, especially African, were called upon to resurrect and implement this necessary andavailable vital resource buried in dormancy by former colonial policy now enshrined in national
policies.
The policy battle thus won, the challenges of the near and distant future lay in the application or
implementation, and it is surprising to say, in light of the review of country policies on traditional
medicine as of 1985 that the reaction and implementation was slow. And this is quite understandable
because of standing impediments enshrined in long term bilateral conventions; the need to educate
the incumbent health personnel trained in scientific approaches and western technologies; andeven the need to awaken, retrain and empower the tradi-practitioners to assume their full functions
in a new environment of liberation created by the new public service policies. In other words, there
was great need for additional national policy re-orientation between 1978 and 1985, and even
thereafter, and this required further international policy assistance. These eventually emerged throughthe WHO Regional Committee Resolutions, African Union initiative called the New Partnership for
African Development (NEPAD), and the United Nations Third Millennium Goals.
We should be happy that the justification for the present conference and workshop “is premised on
the fact that in spite of the numerous national, regional and international efforts to address healthcare challenges in Africa, the continent seems highly unlikely to meet the health-related Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) as well as other targets set out in other key international initiatives, andfurther, the revealing information that, “Health has been adopted as a priority area for action by theAfrican Heads of States, and that the NEPAD Health Strategy underscores the centrality of health todevelopment and seeks to deepen ownership and responsibility by Africa for measures required toenhance health and the commitment by development partners.”

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As all public health care actions must be policy-driven and are policy-dependent, we will briefly lookat recent country health policies related to traditional medicine in Africa.

5.

Recent Advances in Policy on Traditional
Medicine in Africa

Owing to the scarcity of data collection and of advanced research practices on the subject oftraditional medicine in many African countries, it is not possible to be precise on the progress onpolicy and practice for some countries. However, thanks to the continued effort of the World HealthOrganization (WHO), general trends for the continent and for some countries have been established.
The WHO (2001) “Legal Status of Traditional and Complementary medicine – a Worldwide Review”(15) includes information, though sketchy, on 43 countries. Of these at least 23 countries are quiteadvanced in their progressive policies, usually legislative or regulatory acts, on the practice of traditional
medicine and complementary alternative medicine. These include: Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso,
Congo, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria,
Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
It is quite probable that a lot of progress has also been made in the other unlisted countries. For
Cameroon, for example, since the Law 81/12 of 27 November 81 approving the Fifth Five Year
Social, Economic and Political Development Plan (1981-1986) provided measures to lay down ajoint strategy and method to effectively integrate traditional medicine into the national health plan,
there have been other developments in the domain. A service for traditional medicine in the Ministryof Health was created in 1985; an experimental center set up in the Yaounde Central Hospital in
1990; the Centre for the Study of MEDICINAL plants set up within the Institute for Medical research;
the authorization for the formation of Tradi-practitioners’ Associations since 1990; and the creationof a Direction for Health Services Organization (including Traditional medicine) in the Ministry of
Health and reorganized in since August 2002. This direction has already spearheaded the elaborationof a “National Strategic Plan for Traditional Medicine” and initiated a preliminary draft of the LAW
organizing the practice of Traditional medicine in Cameroon, as of 15 October 2005. Further, theCameroon authorities have since 1980 authorized the setting up of three chinese traditional medicine
hospitals in Guider, Mbalmayo and Yaounde. From these centers and other installations and clinics
for the sale of Chinese drugs are rampant all over the country. A special convention has been signed
between the University of Yaounde I and China to promote research valorization and development oftraditional medicine. Most significantly, since 31st August 2002, the Ministry of Public Health and the
WHO have jointly been organizing the official celebration of “African Days of Traditional Medicine”
as a national event.
Some research endeavours, since 1980 have yielded concrete evidence to buttress policy formulationin the traditional medicine domain. The Traditional Healers Census exercise resulted in the

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publication of “Traditional Medicine-Men of Cameroon – The Case of Bui Division in 1985;”“Traditional Medicine-Men of MFOUNDI and NYONG ET SOO Division in 1989;” the OAU Scientificand Technical Committee (1996) searched and published “Traditional Medicine andPharmacopoiea” “The Pros and Cons of Traditional Medicine in Cameroon” was published in(1978 and reprinted in 1984). We must acknowledge the contribution of international cooperation
research on traditional medicine in Cameroon even if the works were done principally for international
interest. Hence, Eric de Rosny (1974) « Ndimsi – Ceux qui soignent dans la nuit; » Paul Gebauer(1964) « Spider Divination; » Rosemaire Leiderer (1982), La medicine Traditionnelle chez les Bekpak(Bafia) du Cameroun ; The long series of « Les Flores du Cameroun » are worthy contributions to
Cameroon Traditional Medicine.
This very year 2005, the World Health Organization Centre for Health Development in Kobe, Japancame out with a “Text and a WHO Global Atlas on Traditional Complementary and Alternative
Medicine” in which the African region was well represented by Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya,
Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania. The accounts,
which all received official approval from their governments, provide an update on certain selectedparameters on the state of traditional medicine in these countries, and are indicative of the generalcontinental trends. For a world policy, the WHO (1998) has laid down prescriptively “la politique etactivités de l’OMS” which is a summary of policies developed since 1991 and we should consider
that document the road-map for now and the future.

6.

More Policies for the Future

The NEPAD/ATS structures have already indicated some health priority areas which need to betargeted by appropriate national health and technology policies. It is the personal experience of thepresent author that tons of useful research reports sit piling up on the listed subjects of malaria,
tuberculosis and even HIV/AIDS, which can provide evidence basis for short term policies on thefight against these diseases. The Council on Health Research for Development (COHRED) has,since March 1993, been promoting the concept of Essential National Health Research (ENHR),
which aims at assisting countries in identifying their health and research priorities as well as
strengthening their research capacities. These are resource institutions to inspire evidence-based
policy development, and Uganda, among other countries has made good use to them.
In the domain of African traditional medicine, the Conseil Africain et Malgache pour l’Enseignement
Superieur (CAMES), very much on the inspiration of late Professor Alfred Comlan Quenum – former
WHO Regional Director for Africa-organized a series of Seminars/workshops on several aspects:
ethno-botanical and physico-chemical studies and research on the physiology and chemistry of
immaterial aspects of traditional medicine. They held one meeting in 1988 at Bamako (Mali), andsubsequently another at Kigali, Rwanda, and in 2004 at Yaounde, Cameroon. Based on thesecollaborative studies, practical policies through effective legislation or reglementary acts have beenregaining its momentum as an important component of health care services, and hold great promisefor the future.
Again as the unchallenged forward-looking leader in the domain, the WHO at its fifty-sixth World
Health Assembly discussed the WHO Traditional medicine Strategy 2002-2005 and adopted
resolution WHO 56.30, setting out squarely as the major challenges: the lack of organized networksof tradi-practitioners; the lack of sound evidence of the safety, efficacy and quality of traditional
medicines; the need for measures to ensure proper use and to protect and preserve traditional andnatural resources necessary for sustainable application; and measures for training and licensing oftraditional practitioners. For action, the strategy details four directions for work with the countries:
areas of policy, concerns of safety, efficacy and quality; questions of access in availability andaffordability, and modalities of sustainable rational use.
The process of appropriate integration of traditional practitioners will require solid evidence similar
to that pioneered by Kenya in integrating women into the macro-economic development structures.
According to Mary Wandia of FEMNET, the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) process

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gave the poor an opportunity to give their opinion and share their experiences on poverty. It offeredwomen’s organizations an opportunity to work closely with the government for the first time on
macro-economic issues, appreciate their capacity and weakness, particularly the capacity on thelink between women’s poverty and macroeconomic framework and the lack of gender disaggregateddata. For ‘women’ and ‘gender’ representing a marginalized population sector, we just need to
substitute them with ‘Traditional practitioners.’ Maureen Were and Jane Kiringai in their “Gender
Mainstreaming in Macro economic Policies and Poverty reduction in Kenya” have beautifully
presented “Gender and Fiscal Policy” which is relevant for tradi-practitioners, as well as highlighted
parallel domains with policy implications for traditional medicine. It is pleasing to the author toobserve that in the formulation of the “Cameroon National Policy on Psycho-social Management of
HIV Infected Persons / AIDS Patients and their close associates,” the non-professional social groups
participating included religious persons, tradi-practitioners, community leaders, traditional birthattendants and family members.
The recent official adoption of an old Chinese traditional medicine plant – Artemesther or Qinghaosu
and its derivaties as the new strategy for both the preventive and curative treatment of malaria
following its growing resistance to common conventional drugs like Chloroquine, must be saluted
as a forward – looking policy, which paves the way for wider exploitation of natural traditional medicine
resources abundant in different African ecologic regions and industrially producing them. Plantationsof Artemesther now thrive in many African countries.
In the management of health services, the “Centre African d’Etudes Superieures en Gestion” (CESAG)
based in Dakar (Senegal) has already enshrined in their syllabus – a section: “Management ofMedicaments and Biomedical Equipments”. Health law, which treats the presentation and analysisof laws and regulations requiring the organization and functioning of health services in Africancountries and the administrative management of health delivery services, is offered as specialization
unit.
The above-cited cases must be considered in their just value as the tip of the iceberg, and with more
profound studies, one will definitely find mines of information on recent advances suitable for thehealth and technological policy development in African countries.

7.

Conclusion

It was George Rosen (1958) an eminent public health historian who observed:“For a variety of reasons, a large part of the world – in Asia, in Africa, in the
Middle East – stopped developing economically, politically, andscientifically around 1400, just about the time that the Western nations
entered upon a period of extraordinary growth in these areas. As a result,
it is only today that Asian and African peoples are beginning to effect the
far-reaching changes necessary to bridge the gap of centuries, and theimportance of this development for public health is considered in its
implications for the future.”p.18
Yes indeed, African people must be warned against the same errors of the middle ages whenimperial colonialism radically stopped their growth and creativity by making them consumers ofimported cultures and ideas, which carry different appellations in different epochs: modernism,
privileged partnership, paternalism and recently globalization. That is how Africa lost the establishedcivilization of the Nubians in the Nile Basin; the Kingdom of Munhumutapa in the Zambezi region ofCentral South Africa; the Ancient Congo Kingdoms ruled by Mani Dynasty in 15th Century; the Songhai,
Ghana and Mossi Empires of the sub-Saharan regions of tropical Africa. It was simply due to theabsence or loss of development policy and the adoption of the policy of consumerism of ideas,
goods and technology from the exterior. No matter how underdeveloped and backward, the policy
options of today for total African development must be comprehensive and supportive of creativity;that is, the investment of the entire native genius into conception, concretization and application ofsolutions to their life problems in their human ecologies. That is, Africans must resolve to participate
in globalization, in several domains, but particularly in health care services and technology. We havethe natural ecologic potential and need only correct policies such as those initiated by the World
Health Organization, to contribute more effectively in an improved scientific manner to health delivery
for AFRICA AND THE WORLD. This is the Third way in African Philosophy (according to Olisegun
Oladipo) (38)15

References

George Rosen (1958), A History of Public Health, M.D. Monographs on Medical History No One, MD
Publications Inc. New York.
Michael Aletum: Introduction to General Sociology (Polycopy) See MAX Weber’s Rational Legitimacy
to Authority. University of Yaounde, faculty of Laws and Economics (p 57)
Charles B. Nam (1968) POPULATION AND SOCIETY, Houghton Mifflin Coy Boston, New York p 652
Unwritten Policies are sometimes referred to as officially expressed “interest” or concerns.
Moa Tsetung’s “Liberation in 1949” Policy brought a successful revolution, thanks to radical reforms,
reorganizing the value of traditional Chinese medicine (see Djukaviovic et all (1975) p 36.
Philippe Denis (2004) Dominicans in Africa: A History of the Dominican Friars Sub-Saharan” Cluster
Publications, Pietermaritzburg.
Dr Paul Aujulat, cited by Noah ZinguiJacques in his “Memoire poul la Maitrise en santé Publique,
Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1975-1976 p 183
OMS (1976) Medecine Traditionelle Africaine, Serie de rapports Techniques AFRO, No 1, Brazzaville,
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WHO (1975), Eds Djukanovic and Mac E.P., « Alternative Approach to Meeting Basic Health Needs
in Developing Countries – A Joint UNICEF/WHO Study, Geneve.
OMS/FISE (1978), Les Soins de Sante Primaires6rapport de la Conference Internationale ALMAATA, 6-12 SEPTEMBRE 1978, Geneve, p 70
WHO (1977) Regional Committees passed Resolutions on Primary Health care, long in preparation
for ALMA ATA. (see OMS/FISE 1978 p 12)
NEPAD (see Ajaga Nli (2004) Why People Remain Poor, De Scholar Press, p 114
UN Millennium Development Goals (see Ajaga Nli (2004) Why People Remain Poor, De Scholar
Press, p 112.
NEPAD/ATS – Proposal to Hold a Joint Conference and Workshop: Science and Technology and
Health Innovation Systems in Africa.
Frank P Grad (1965) Public Health Law Manual, American Public Health Association, Inc, USA.
WHO (2001) Legal Status of Traditional Medicine, and Complimentary/Alternative Medicine a World
Review, WHO, Geneva pp 5-42.
LAW No 81/12 of 27 November 1981 approving the fifth five year Social, Economic and Political
Development Plan (1981-1986) Section 16-1;3.1.5 on integrating Traditional medicine.
Decree No95/040 of 7 March 1995 organizing the Ministry of Public Health
MPH (October 2005) LAW on Recognition and Organization of Traditional Medicine In Cameroon
and Ethical Principles of Practice (First draft)16

THE PLACE OF POLICY IN APPLIED HEALTH CARE AND TECHNOLOGY

17

Universite” de Yaounde I (2005) Decision No 05-437 UYI/VR-RC of 23 May 2003, implementing theCreation and Organizing of a UNIT for Training Research and Valorization of Medicinal Plans
and for Traditional Medicine Applications.
Dr Daniel Lantum (1985) Traditional Medicine-Men of Cameroon: The Case of Bui Division P.H.
Unit, Univ of Yaounde I
Dr Daniel Lantum (1989) Traditional Medicine-Men of Mfoundi, Nyong et Soo, Divisions P.H. Unit,
Univ of Yaounde.
Comite Scientifique et Technique de OAU (1996) Traditional Medicine and Pharmacopoeia:
Contribution to Ethnobotanical and Floristic Studies In Cameroon, CNPM, PORTO – NOVA.
Daniel Lantum (1978) « The Pros and Cons of Traditional Medicine » ABBIA, Cameroon Culturalreview Nos34-35-36-37
ERIC de Rosny (1974) Ceux Qui Soignent dans la Nuit, Etudes et Documents Africains, EDITIONS
CLE, Yaounde.
Paul Gebauer, (1964) Spider Divination, Public Museum Publications in Anthropology, No 10 1964
Milwaukee
Rosemaire Leiderer (1982), la Medecine Traditionelle Chez les BEKPAK (Bafia) du cameroun, vol
I & II collectanea Instituti Anthropos, Haus Volker and Kulturen. D-5205 Sankt Augustin 1, 1982.
OMS (1998) Reglementation des Medicaments a Base de Plantes, la Situation dans le Monde
WHO/TRM/98.0 See Politique et Activités de l’OMS, pp 2-4.
WHO (2005) WHO Global Atlas on Complementary and Alternative Medicine; WHO Centre for Health
Development, Japan, Kobe (Text and Map volumes)
COHRED: Research into Action, No 13 April-June 1998, Capacity Development for Health Research
A Perspective from Uganda, by CD/ENHR Study Team.
UNHRO is reported in p 4 of COHRED, Issue 13 April-June 1998 p 4
CAMES (1985) Rapport D’activites du Cames, Bamako 4 – 6 Mars 1985.
CESAG, Centre Africain d’Etudes Supérieurs en Gestion, Dept Gestion des Services de santé,
CESAG, Dakar, Senegal p 8.
Mary Wandia (Eds L.M Wanyeki and A Patel ? 2004) The Process of Integrating Gender in the PRS
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Maureen Were and Jane Kiringai (2004), Gender Mainstreaming in Macro Economic Policies andPoverty Reduction Strategy in Kenya, FEMNET/GTZ
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Hope Publications, Ibadan, NIGERIA.

Other Publications in the ATPS Special Paper SeriesSpecial Paper Series 1
Globalization and Technology: Africa’s Participation and Perspectives: Concept Paper and Research Agenda by
Melvin Ayogu &Osita Ogbu (2002)
Special Paper Series 2
Globalization, Markets for Technology and the Relevance of Innovation Policies in Developing Economies by Sunil
Mani (2002)
Special Paper Series 3
Biotechnology in sub-Saharan Africa: Towards a Policy Research Agenda by John Mugabe (2000)
Special Paper Series 4
The Impact of Globalization in sub-Saharan Africa Countries by Mwindaace N. Siamwiza (2002)
Special Paper Series 5
A Blueprint for Developing National ICT Policy in Africa by Clement Dzidonu2002
Special Paper Series 6
Impact of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) on Technology Transfer in Africa by Moses M. Ikiara (2002)
Special Paper Series 7
Pursuing Technology Policy Research in sub-Saharan Africa: Reflections on the Dimensions, Applications and
Implications of a Methodological Framework by M.H. Khalil-Timamy (2002)
Special Paper Series 8
African Response to the Information Communication Technology Revolution by G. Olalere Ajayi (2002)
Special Paper Series 9
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs): Poverty Alleviation and Universal Access Policies by Andrew
Dymond & Sonja Oestmann (2002)
Special Paper Series 10
ICT Human Resource Development in Africa: Challenges, Strategies and Options by T.M. Waema (2002).
Special Paper Series 11
Applications of ICTs in Africa: Development of Knowledge Workers in Centres of Learning by John Muraguri
Waibochi (2002).
Special Paper Series 12
State of Science and Technology Capacity in sub-Saharan Africa by Khalil-Timamy (2002).
Special Paper Series 13
Strengthening National Information and Cmmunication Technology Policy in Africa: Governance, Equity andInstitutional Issues by Melvin Ayogu
Special Paper Series 14
A Science Agenda from An Afrian Perspective by Turner T. Isoun
Special Paper Series 15
International Trends in Modern Bio-technology: Entry by and Implications for African Countries by John Mugabe
Special Paper Series 16
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), technology Transfer and Poverty Alleviation: Africa’s Hopes and Dilemma by
Moses Ikiara
Special Paper Series 17
Global Governance of Technology and Africa’s Global Inclusion by Banji Oyeyinka

Special Paper Series 18
Science and Technology and Poverty Reduction Strategy in Sub-Saharan Africa byO. Akin Adubifa
Special Paper Series 19
An Assessment of Science and Technology Capacity Building in sub-Saharan Africa byO. Akin Adubifa
Special Paper Series 20
Network as Determinants of Manufacturing SME Cluster Growth in Nigeria Networking Technical Change andIndustrialization: The Case of Small and Medium Firm in Nigeria by Banji Oyelaran-Oyeyinka
Special Paper Series 21
Technology Transfer in a Globalizing World: Many Promises, Lack of Responsibility, and Challenges for Africa by
M.H. Khalil Timamy
Special Paper Series 22
Integrated Value Mapping for Sustainable River Basin Management by Kevin UramaSpecial Paper Series 23
Wastewater and Irrigated Agriculture Lessons Learned and Possible Applications in Africa by Frans Huibers, Lucas
Seghezzo and Adriaan Mels
Special Paper Series 24
Survey of Indigenous Water Management and Coping Mechanisms in Africa: Implications for Knowledge andTechnology Policy by Femi Olokesusi
Special Paper Series 25
Survey of Indigenous Water Management and Coping Mechanisms in Africa: Implications for Knowledge andTechnology Policy by Femi Olokesusi
Special Paper Series 26
Water Management and Conflict in Africa: The Role of Management and Technology by Chris Huggins
Special Paper Series 27
Markets, Institutions and Agricultural Performance in Africa by Julius Mangisoni
Special Paper Series 28
The Biotechnology Revolution and its Implication for Food Security in Africa by Victor Konde
Special Paper Series 29
Why Africa has Fallen Short of Building Dynamic Agro-processing Capabilities: Constrains, Options and Prospects
by Wellington A. Otieno and Ada Mwangola
Special Paper Series 30
Promotion of Public Health Care Using African Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Implications for IPR: Experiences from Southern and Eastern Africa by Hassan O. KayaFor more information on this series and ATPS Contact:

The Executive Director
The African Technology Policy Studies Network
3rd Floor, The Chancery, Valley Road
P.O. Box 10081 00100 General Post Office
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254-020-2714092/168/498
Fax: +254-020-2714028
Email: info@atpsnet.org
Website: http://www.atpsnet.org