Emerging Technologies for Climate
Change Adaptation: A Case Study in
Dangbe East District of Ghana
African Technology Policy Studies Network

RESEARCH PAPER | No. 9
Mahu Seth Agbeve
Atsu Titiati
Wilhemina Quaye

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change
Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East
District of Ghana

Mahu Seth Agbeve
TMT Energy Consult Ltd
Osu-Accra

Atsu Titiati
TMT Energy Consult Ltd
Osu-Accra

Wilhemina Quaye
Food Research InstituteAccra

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-7-6

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement

4

Abstract

5

1.

Introduction

6

2.

Literature Review

93.

Methodology

11

4.

Results & Finding

16

5.

Conclusions & Recommendations

37

References

39

Websites Consulted

40

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 3

Acknowledgement
This paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy Studies
Network (ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the
Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst
others. The authors hereby thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during theimplementation of the program. The Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program
Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and the Program Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua(ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Owusu Essegbey (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas Ozor (ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS)
for their technical support during the research process.
Contributions from staff of Energy Commission, Ministry of Energy, MoEn, SWERA, and Dangbe
East District Agriculture Development Unit of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture are very muchappreciated.

4 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Abstract
The conversion of the kinetic energy in wind into electrical energy offers unique solution to theoverall energy supply where resource exists as well as partial solution to the world's overdependence on exhaustible primary energy sources such as fossil fuel and their consequences
which include climate change, extinction of aquatic life during spillages and so on. The coastlines of
Ghana present significant wind potential which if properly harnessed could provide alternative
livelihood opportunities and speed up climate change adaptation processes among thosecommunities hard-hit by climate change effects.
To establish the technical and economic potential of wind resource for energy production andproductive application, there is the need to investigate the baseline frameworks and use optimized
wind energy tools to generate results for effective wind energy planning. Ground wind data search
and analysis, overall energy situation and energy policy environment formed the core ofestablishing the technical potentials and economic opportunities of wind energy in the Dangbe East
District.
A wind data analysis was done to establish the wind energy potential and a survey to identify
innovative mechanisms adopted for building resilience and track changes in behavioural practices
to adapt to climate change effect. Wind data covering a period of one year were analysed andinterviews were conducted for a total of 360 small-scale farmers from 12 farming communities.
Phenomenal changes in weather conditions and climate events observed by respondents include
erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns with poor distributions, high temperatures with hotsunshine conditions, drought and heavy precipitations/floods.
Key innovative technologies employed to adapt to climate change effects include soil management
practices that reduce fertilizer use and increase crop diversification; promotion of legumes in crop
rotations; use of quality seeds and integrated crop/livestock systems; avoidance of bush burning aswell as burning crop residues; introduction of drought, flood and saline-tolerant crops and using
improved, high yielding and drought resistant varieties. Less than 30% of farmers interviewed had
relocated close to water bodies (River Volta), especially for minor season farming while 42% had
diversified into other alternative livelihood options. Farmers strongly considered provision ofirrigation services by government and non-governmental organisation, credit and availability of
improved agro-technologies as well as education key in building resilience to climate change
effects.
Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 5

1. Introduction
1.1
Background Information
Climate change is the single most pressing issue facing the world today (IPCC, 2007). The poor are
becoming increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and their livelihoods aregradually being eroded. Millions of people are likely to be plunged into poverty and millions more
will die of its effects. Ghana has just tasted its share of climate change related catastrophes: the2007 energy crisis and the repeated patterns of droughts and floods in recent years are evidence oflooming climate change catastrophes. Over the past five years, climate change and its effects haveincreasingly taken centre-stage in the Ghanaian development agenda. Various stakeholders havebeen working to address the effects of climate change. Adaptation strategies are localized incontext and are gradually being developed to enable communities and individuals build resilienceto the effects of the change. Undoubtedly, agriculture is rainfall dependent in Ghana. A drop in theannual precipitation rates therefore negatively affects agricultural production. Small holder andsubsistence farmers in rural areas including those in Dangbe East District along the coastal plains
are mostly affected often resulting in increasing seasonal poverty levels. One classical adaptation
strategy that this project sought to explore is the use of renewable energy sources as an engine topush the drive for climate change adaptation among vulnerable rural communities along the coastof Ghana.
Wind energy can play a significant role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, fostering
sustainable economic development, enhancing energy security and accelerating adaptation toclimate change where sustainable energy requirement is key. Wind resource in these ruralcommunities could be harnessed to accelerate the adaptation process particularly in the use of new
agricultural technologies for pre-production, production and post production practices. This
resource could be used to develop irrigation potentials of the area. Ghana has an appreciable windresource for power generation and the government is actively working to realize this potential.
Energy is a primary requirement to drive every sector of the economy including rain-fed agriculture
which is the mainstay livelihood channel for these rural communities. The Government of Ghana,through its Strategic National Energy Plan (SNEP), has set a goal to increase non-hydro renewableenergy generation to 10% (~380MW) of the national generation capacity by 2020. To this end, theGovernment has launched initiatives to develop an appropriate regulatory and policy environment
to stimulate and woo investment.

6 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Specifically, the Ministry of Energy (MoEn) is currently preparing a renewable energy policy andregulatory framework and drafting a Renewable Energy Bill to facilitate commercial-scale
application of renewable energy technologies. Preliminary wind resource assessments results
give annual average wind speeds of ca 5.6 ms-1 at 12m in locations spread along the coastal areas.
It is estimated that gross wind electric potential is ca 5.6GW according to the SWERA Project (Table
1). About 2.6GW can be tapped and developed for energy production.
Table 1: Wind Resource in Ghana at 50 m

Wind
Resource
Designation

Wind
Class

Wind PowerWind Speed
at 50 m W/m2 at 50 mm/s*

Total
Area
km2

Percent
Windy
Land

Total Capacity
Installed MW

Moderate

3

300 – 400

6.4 – 7.0

715

0.3

3,575

Good

4

400 – 500

7.0 – 7.5

268

0.1

1,340

Very Good5

500 600–

7.5 8.0
–

82

<0.1

410

Excellent

6

600 – 800

8.0 – 8.8

63

<0.1

315

1,128

0.5

5,640

Total

Source: SWERA_UNEP Project Report 2002. Assumptions: Installed capacity per km2 = 5 MW; total land area of
Ghana = 230,940 km2

1.2
Problem Statement
Agriculture is the mainstay economic opportunity for many rural coastal communities in Ghana.
Due to changing climatic conditions, the economy of these communities is experiencing low
productivities resulting in diminishing living standards and rapid rural-urban migrations. The
development of clean sustainable energy could stimulate and speed up the climate change
adaptation processes and address the problems.
1.3
Objectives
The broader objective of the study is to examine the wind potential along the East Coast of Ghana,
how it could be use to stimulate and promote climate change adaptation process and makeinvestment opportunities more comprehensible to the quadruple helix, including policymakers,
scientists, the private sector and civil society. The specific objectives are to:> Identify and document effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations forclimate change adaptation in the study area;> Enhance behavioural changes towards climate change adaptation measures at individual andinstitutional levels in the study area;> Build the capacities of farming communities in the study area to adapt to climate change
impacts;> Make policy recommendations for building climate change resilience at the state and national
levels in Ghana;
Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 7

> Conduct wind data search and analysis for the selected community based on best industrial
practice to obtain data of good quality to stimulate and boost further exploration of wind energy
potential in the area;> Build capacity of five (5) ATPS members and/or allied institutions in the area of wind resource
assessment with emphasis on the youth wing of the Ghana chapter of the ATPS;> Raise awareness for investment in the environmentally sustainable energy generation for
Ghana and entire West Africa region; and> Engage communities through sensitization workshops to raise awareness of climate change
and the need for alternative livelihood opportunities through wind energy.
1.4
Organization/Structure of the Paper
This report covers largely the wind resource potential and policy framework; and effective
indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climate change adaptation in the
Dangbe East District of Ghana. It covers the capacity building of farming communities toward
behavioural change to climate change and adaptation strategies and the marketing of the windpotential to stimulate investment in further resource exploration.

8 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

2. Literature Review
Climate change is the single most pressing issue facing the world today (IPCC, 2007). The poor are
becoming increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and their livelihoods aregradually being eroded. Millions of people are likely to be plunged into poverty and millions more
will die of its effects.
Ghana is no exception. Over the past five years, climate change and its effects have increasingly
taken centre-stage in the Ghanaian development agenda. Various stakeholders have been working
to address the effects of climate change. Adaptation strategies are localized in context and are
gradually being developed to enable communities and individuals build resilience to the effects ofthe change.
Undoubtedly, Ghana's agriculture is rainfall dependent. A drop in the annual precipitation rates
therefore adversely affects agriculture production. Small holder and subsistence farmers along thecoastal regions are mostly affected often resulting in high poverty levels.
However, these coastal regions have proven moderate to excellent wind resource. The country
records average wind speeds of about 5.6m/s at 12m in locations spread near and along thecoastal areas. Studies have shown that regions of excellent wind regimes are the mountainous
areas spread widely in the Volta, Northern and Eastern regions. Estimated 2.6GW of electricalenergy can be derived from wind1.
The interest in wind energy exploration for energy purposes in Ghana started in 1999 through thesolar wind energy resource assessment (SWERA 1999-2002) project. The relatively highinvestment cost in wind and other renewable technologies coupled with energy storage difficulties
accounts for the low uptake in many sub-Saharan Africa countries. In the coastal areas of Ghana
where agriculture is predominantly mainstay economic activity, wind energy development offers
utility-scale energy production and large-scale water storage for irrigation opportunities.The global
annual installed wind capacity continues to register record highs. In 2009, a total of 37,466 MW new
capacities were installed and the world cumulative installed capacity is 157,899MW. Ironically,
Africa continues to be the region with the lowest wind energy penetration-most of its share comefrom the North and Middle East regions.
1

EC/SWERA 2002
Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 9

By the end of 2009, total installed capacity of wind power on the continent and the Middle East was
nearly 900 MW mainly in North Africa and the Middle East. Sub-Saharan Africa SSA has notexperienced any significant growth in wind power development. Africa's share represents less thana percent of the total global installed capacity. Regarding wind data availability, precise information
about wind potential barely exists.
Several reasons account for the unprecedented low uptake of renewable energy technologies on
the continent. In Ghana, policy incentives, political resolves and capacity largely account for theslow development and utilization of renewable energy.
2.1
About the District Surveyed (Dangbe East)
The Dangme East District is located in the Eastern part of the Greater Accra Region within latitudes
5°45 south and 6°00 north and from Longitude 0°20 west to 0°35 East. Dangme East district sharescommon boundaries with Central Tongu, South Tongu and Dangme West Districts at the north, east
and west respectively. At the south is the Gulf of Guinea, which stretches over 45 kilometers (27.9
miles). The District covers a total land area of about 909 km2 (350 sq miles); about 28% of the total
area of the Greater Accra Region. In terms of vegetational characteristics, the district is coastal
savannah. A few stands of mangrove trees can also be found around the Songor lagoon and thetributaries of the Volta River where the soil is waterlogged and salty (Dickson & Benneh, 1980).
Dangbe East district consists of both farming and fishing communities and forms part of the eastern
coastal plains of Ghana. Heavy rainfall occurs between March and September with an average
distribution of 750mm but also have extreme dry spells during the harmattan. Humidity is about 60%
due to proximity to the sea, Volta River and other water bodies. In 2005, agriculture statistics on
Dangme district by Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) estimated 8519 males and 4592
females farmer holders .

Figure 1: Map of Ghana Showing the Dangbe East District
10 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

3. Methodology
3.1
Review of EC / SWERA Wind DataWind data was collected using NRG Wind Explorer logger, NRG 40 anemometer and 200P windvane (one each). The instruments were mounted on booms attached to tilt-up tubular towers (sameor similar to NRG “Tall Towers”). A total of one year data was collected, reviewed and analyzed todetermine basic wind parameters including annual average wind speeds, directional wind roses,
shearing to hub height of 80m, determination of energy yield, etc.
Details are presented in the subsequent sections. Any other geophysical data from themeasurement campaign was also obtained energy from the EC, reviewed for completeness andquality. It is important to note that this appraisal of the wind regime is for “prospecting” purposes
only; the data set described in this report is far from being “bankable”. It is important to understandand keep in mind the limitations of the existing data set for the study area. These include:> Minimal instrumentation (i.e. no redundant sensors to confirm measurements, no sensors at
multiple heights to determine wind shear) and Low tower heights;> No temperature sensor (thus not possible to calculate pressure and density adjustments forenergy yield estimates);> Very rudimentary “NRG Wind Explorer” data logger (many of the detailed wind parameters thatare captured as part of standard 'bankable' WRAs cannot be recorded) and lost or corrupted
data;> Missing or insufficient documentation trail and metadata for existing data.
3.2
Site Description
The Figures 2 presents photographs of the tower and site describing the topography of the region
where the wind data was measured. Tables 2 and 3 present descriptions of the Dangbe East District
which include the site coordinates and topography, access, extent and nature of habitation and/or
cultivation.

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 11

Figures 2: Ada Foah
Table 2: WRA Site Descriptions
Nature ofhabitation/cultivation

Coordinates
No.

1

Site
Name

Ada FoahLat

05° 79NLong

00° 55E

Anemometer Measurement
height [m] Period [date] Topography

12Flat, low
vegetative
growthJun 99-Sept 00

AccessGood access roadand about 1 hour
drive from Accra

Concentrated
settlements
fishing, crop farming

NB: The coordinates in Table 2 are those obtained from the Energy Commission. It is important to note that the EC
mast location/coordinate is today in or close to settlements or very near the sea. Hence, the exact position istherefore generally not suitable for further investigation and development.

Table 3: Summary of Sites Description
No. Name of Altitude above Anemo-meter Data periodSite
sea level [m] Height [m] (months)1

Ada Faoh

N/A

12

16

Annual mean
wind speed[ms-1]

Wind speed@ 80m*
[m/s]

5.3

7.6

Type of Recovery Overall
Tower Rate (%)
Data
Quality

Guyed
Tower

90.9

Good

Remarks

16 months ofrecorded data, Aug
99 data missing,tubular guyed tower.

* Wind speeds at 80m based on assumed shear exponent of 0.16

3.3
Methodology for Climate Change Adaptation Study
Farmer group identification and selection was done using pilot survey and focus group discussions(FGD). During the identification and selection processes, a total of 20 farmers (50% males and 50%
females) divided into two groups comprising 10 farmers per group were purposively selected toengage in the discussions that were held in two communities: Sege and Kasseh in the Dangbe East
district. A check list of questions was used to guide the discussions with the farmers. This was
supplemented with pieces of information gathered through informal interviews with key informantsin the farming communities. The following thematic areas were covered during the discussions:
12 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Physical Characteristics
Rainfall regime/pattern
Soil type and characteristics
General whether pattern
Socio-economic Characteristics
Type of crops grown
Yield
Disease and pest
Adaptation Strategies
Visible changes in the climatic conditions in the last 5 to 10 years
Perceived reasons for changes
Adaptation measures adopted by community
Impact of adaptation
Technologies employed to mitigate the effects of the perceived changes
Training needs (Capacity building requirement topics)
Impact of training
Extension services
Training and technical assistanceThe data was analysed to understand the basis of the issues raised by the discussants. The
emerging trends of climate change effects identified by the discussants include:> Erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns with poor seasonal distribution;> High temperatures with high sunshine intensity;> Drought;> Heavy precipitations/floods.
These phenomenal changes in weather conditions and climate dominated most of the discussions.
A number of the discussants also mentioned acid rainfall and strong wind conditions which they say
occur usually.
The discussants described some of the adaptation measures that are helping them cope with thesituation as follows:> Improved farm maintenance and cultural practices (timely planting, regular weeding, timely
harvesting);> Improved soil management practices (use of cover crops, mulching and application of organic
manure);> Varietals development (development of drought resistance varieties, high yielding varieties,
disease resistant varieties);> Additional livelihood options (cultivation of vegetables and fruits like okra and watermelon,
fishing, petty trading etc.)> Use of agro-chemicals;

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 13

> Use of neem extract to control pest and disease outbreaks and improved irrigation practices(Sinking tube wells for regular water supplies).
> Construction of drainage systems in the lowlands and construction of fence against sea breeze
to limit the flow of saline water on cultivable lands.
> Application of organic manure, planting of cover crops and legume cultivation,> Use of inorganic fertilizer and> Tree planting.
> Ploughing across slopes (Tractor operators change the direction of ploughing to minimize soil
erosion),> Sacks are also filled with soil to block the passage of water; trenches are constructed on theploughed fields.
Innovations/technologies adopted by farmers to contain drought conditions were largely irrigation,
construction of wells for water storage, mulching to improve water holding capacity of soils,
planting of soil covers crops, cultivation close to water bodies, cultural practices such as regular
weed control, early ploughing and planting.
The discussants also stressed that pest and disease outbreaks are prevalent in severe drought
conditions and also heavy precipitations (examples are leaf curl and blight diseases in tomatoes).
The most commonly used innovations or technologies adopted to reduce impact of pest anddisease outbreaks include:> Use of agrochemicals (fungicides, pesticides)> Use of “neem tree” extract> Crop rotation> Use of disease free seeds for planting> Some farmers also mentioned nursing of maize seed before transplanting because rodents
pick maize seeds sown directly. Maize seeds are nursed for 7-10days for the cotyledons toestablish before transplanting.
According to farmers these strategies worked well except that the use of agrochemicals have some
limitations like the health risks to users and also sometimes the efficacy is compromised by input
dealers. Innovative technologies adopted to reduce effects from heavy precipitation> Planting on raised beds
> Construction of drainage channels> Early planting of crops> Ploughing across slopes.
The discussants relate how sudden drought conditions often lead to crop failure and sometimes
lower yields. Commonly used innovations/technologies by farmers interviewed to reduce effects ofsevere drought include:> Storage of water for irrigation,> Mulching and application of organic manure to improve water holding capacity of soils,> Cultivation of short maturity crops and varieties as well as drought resistant crops and varieties.

14 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

3.4
Climate Change Adaptation Survey
Following the FGD pilot survey analyses, a structured survey tool was developed. Agricultural
Extension Officers, AEOs from the District Agriculture Development Unit, DADU of the Ministry ofFood and Agriculture were selected and trained to administer the tools in 12 selected communities
in the study area. A total sample size of 360 farmers (82% males; 18% females with an average
household size of 7) was interviewed in the Dangbe East District. This covered 12 community
agricultural operational areas (Table 4). Thirty (30) farmers each were randomly selected forinterview in each of the selected agricultural operational areas. The structured questionnaire wasused for one-on-one interview. This was supplemented with pieces of information gathered throughinformal interviews with key informants in the farming communities. Secondary data was sourced
mainly from the internet and in-house literature depot. Data collected was cleaned, validated andlater analysed using SPSS version 16 and in MS Excel.
Table 4: Operational Areas Surveyed

Operational
Area

Communities Surveyed

AKJ

Hwakpo, Addokope, Ebeneza, Luhour & Nuhaley

AB

Faithkope, Manaikpo & Dogo,

DTA

Agbedrafoh, Adjumanikope, Toflokpo, Bornikope, Sege, Kpotsum & Koluedor

FA

Talebanya, Cesarkope, Tugakope, Agbenyegakope & Adodogdjikope

GA

Mangoase-Kenya, Dorgobom, English Kenya, Mangoase-Kenya & CeasarKope & Panya

IKB

Koluedov & Matsekope

ML

Asigbekope, Fantevikope, Atiadenyigba, Tojeh, Aditcherekope & Zuenor

MEO

Kadja Dornya, Tamatoku, Amanikope, Kadja Sega, Kadja Juam

MA

Tsrikopey, Gorm, Mensahkope, Obane, Attortorkorpey, Kenonya & MacCarthykope

PD

Songutsokpa, Ocansekope, Anyakpor, Adedetsekope & Totimekope

RW

Gbanave, Aborsikope, Amlakpo & Kopehem

SJJ

Korleykope, Kasseh, Bedeku & Kunyenya

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 15

4. Result & Findings
4.1
Wind Data Search and Analysis
This section presents the results of the wind data search and analysis for the Dangbe East District. It
covers basically the wind resource assessment done by the Energy Commission and the market
potentials for wind energy investment.
4.1.1 Wind Distribution and Direction
Wind distribution and directions are shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. The prevailing winddirection is south-west.
Wind Rose, Ada Foah

Wind Speed Distribution, Ada Foah

Freq. Dist.

N

0.25

0.5
NNW

0.45

NNE

0.4
0.35

0.2

0.3
WNW

ENE

0.25
0.2
0.15

0.15

0.1
0.05
W

0

E

0.1

0.05
WSW

ESE

0
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

SSW

SSE

wind speed [m/s]S

Figure 3

Figure 4

Table 5: Monthly Data Recovery RateMonth
Jun-991
Jul-992
Aug-993
Sep-994
Oct-995
Nov-996
Dec-997
Jan-008
Feb-009Mar-0010
Apr-00
11
May-0012
Jun-0013
Jul-00
14
Aug-00
15
Sep-0016Overall Recovery

Monthly Data Recovery Rate
Sheared Wind Speed@ 80m
Count
CountA
Rate%
Mean Speed @ 12m
0.16
0.2
209.0
4320
4.8%
4.6
6.3
6.8
4257.04464.0
95.4%
4.8
6.6
7.1
0.0
4464
0.0%
0.0
0.0
0.0
3943.0
4320
91.3%
5.7
7.7
8.3
4323.0
4464
96.8%
6.3
8.5
9.2
4320.04320
100.0%
5.0
6.8
7.3
4464.04464
100.0%
4.2
5.7
6.2
4464
4464
100.0%
5.1
7.0
7.5
4032
4032
100.0%
5.0
6.7
7.2
4464
4464
100.0%
5.8
7.9
8.5
75
4320
1.7%
9.2
12.4
13.4
4431
4464
99.3%
4.9
6.7
7.2
4320
4320
100.0%
5.6
7.6
8.2
4464
4464
100.0%
5.3
7.2
7.8
4464
4464
100.0%
5.2
7.1
7.6
93
4320
2.2%
5.3
7.2
7.8
52323
70128
74.6%
5.3
7.0
7.5

16 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Table 6: Simulation Results on Projected Annual Energy Output

Capacity per turbine

MW

No. of turbines

Hub Height 50 m

Hub Height 80 m

GE xleV82

GE xle

V82

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1

1

1

1

Site capacity

MW

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

Ideal energy production

GWh/yr

4.0

4.0

5.1

5.2

Topographic efficiency1

%

101.9

102

101.5

101.6

Array efficiency1

%

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Estimated gross annual energy output (AEO)

GWh/yr

4.1

4.1

5.2

5.3

89.6%

89.6%

89.6%

89.6%

3.6

3.7

4.7

4.8

27.7%

28.0%

35.5%

36.2%

Other Adjustments2
Estimated net AEO

GWh/yrEstimated capacity factor (net)

Taken into account 10% wind farm, aerodynamic, electrical, operational and power curve losses and wind shear of
0.16 at hub height (50m) and (80m) respectively.

The wind resource was simulated for the determination of energy output. Interestingly, two kinds of
a 1.5MW wind turbines were placed at the point (based on obtained coordinates) where the windmast was sited. The modelling was done at two different heights of 50m and 80m using the General
Electric GE xle and Vestas 82 turbines. Taking into account all uncertainty parameters, estimatednet annual energy output, AEO are shown in the table 4.1. And this is very encouraging. Figures 5
and 6 show monthly average wind speeds distribution and recovery rate

Recovery Rate %120.0%

Recovery rate %Monthly Recovery Rate/Mean Wind Speed @ 12m_Ada Foah

100.0%
80.0%

14.0

92.00%

12.0

90.00%

10.0

88.00%

8.0

86.00%

6.0

84.00%

4.0

82.00%

2.0

80.00%

Annual Recovery Rate/Mean Speed @ 12m, Ada Foah
5.4

5.3

60.0%
40.0%
20.0%

Monthly RR
Monthly Mean Speed

0.0%

Jun- Jul- Aug- Sep - Oct - Nov- Dec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- May- Jun- Jul- Aug- Sep99 99 99 99 99 99 99 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

0.0

Annual RR

78.00%
76.00%
74.00%Month

5.1
Jun 99 - May 00

Figure 5: annual average

5.2

Annual Mean Speed

July 99 -Jun 00 Aug 99 - Jul 00 Sept 99 - Aug 00 Oct 99 - Sept 00

Figure 6: Recovery Rates

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 17

4.1.2
Suggested potential wind project site
Based on the quality of available wind data, terrain and other parameters such as grid networks,
road infrastructure, etc., there are several spots stretching from Sege to Ada Foah that merit further
investigation. Table 4.2 shows a summary of the average wind speeds of the point of measurement
above 7 m/s at 80m hub heights while Table 7 presents the site that is suggested for further
investigation as potential utility-scale wind project sites.
Table 7: Source of Wind Data for Potential Sites

Site Name

Measurement
PeriodRecovery
Rate(%)

Annual
Turbulencemean wind intensity (%)
speed @
80m*

Remarks

Ada FoahSep 99-Aug 00

90.9

7.6

Good access roads,
11/33 kV grid
extension exist, fairly
good topography, not
far from mainindustrial hub

7.6*Based on assumed shear exponent of 0.16

Table 8: Suggested Potential Project Site
Name of Site

Coordinates*(NAD 83)

Note

Flat, exposed topography and excellent available land area for project
development
Site is 6km away from low/mediu m voltage distribution network andabout 25km away from high voltage transmission and sub-station at
Sogakofe

Tamino05° 47´ 27 N
00° 33´ 14 E

(closest wind data:
Ada Foah)

The community is willing to lease small parcel for WRA and any sizefor future project development
Conspicuous tree deformation by persistent wind
Main obstacle to nearest high voltage transmission line is the Volta
River, but a road bridge exists close to the SS at Sogakofe.
The soil condition for anchor selection is sand+clay
Site is about 1km away from the coast
Main use of land is farming* The coordinates shown are within a prospective project boundaries and represent preliminary suggested location where
standard meteorological mast could be installed to confirm the wind resource and, if necessary, to provide 'bankable' data.
18 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Some of the potential wind spots are shown in Figure 7. The yellow are the potential sites
investigated under the SWERA initiative and the purple colour show Meteorological sites for longterm wind data.

Source: GPCo/TMT Energy 2010

Figure 7: Potential wind spots
4.2
Policy Environment
Undoubtedly, the renewable energy component of Ghana's energy mix is receiving remarkableattention in recent time. Through the Strategic National Energy Policy, SNEP, 10% of total energy(electricity) generation must come from Renewable Energy by 2010. There is currently a bill before
cabinet for consideration and subsequent passage into law. To be able to inject renewable power
into the country's grid system, grid reinforcement programs are also underway and new lines arebeing constructed to make interconnectivity cost effective. With these developments, the market
outlook for renewable energy is positive. It is projected that wind energy would account for morethan 70% of the 10% target. Land reforms are also underway to make access and acquisition oflarge land mass for utility-scale renewable energy power generation systems possible.
The research work on the wind energy potential creates opportunities for the use of technologies
and innovations for climate change adaptation especially to tackle the critical issues presented in
the subsequent sections.
4.3

Emerging Indigenous Technologies and Innovations for Climate Change
Adaptation
This section presents the findings of the effective indigenous and emerging technologies andinnovations for climate change adaptation in the Dangbe East District of the Greater Accra Region,
Ghana
4.3.1 Climate Change Effects
Climate Change Effects as perceived by respondents include erratic and unpredictable rainfall
patterns with poor distributions, high temperatures with hot sunshine conditions, severe drought
Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 19

and heavy precipitations/floods. These phenomenal changes in weather conditions and climate
events had been observed by over 80% of the sample interviewed over the past 10 years.
Respondents had also experienced acid rainfall and strong wind (gust) conditions although very
limited in occurrence. Table 9 presents details of percentage response to climate change effects by
operational areas while Table 10 shows climate change effects on agriculture.
Table 9: Response to climate change effects% Responding to Climate Change Effects
Erratic andpoor rainfall
distribution

High
Temp.

Drought

Floods/Heavy
Precipitation

Hot
Sunshine

Acid
Rain
fall

Strong
Winds

AKJ

100

46.7

100

96.7

50

-

-

AB

100

50

86.7

83.3

10

-

-

DTA

100

93.1

100

13.3

65.5

-

-

FA

93.3

100

100

3.2

100

6.7

-

GA

100

100

90.0

73.3

-

-

-

IKB

100

100

83.3

70.0

3.3

-

-

ML

100

90

100

6.7

3.3

-

16.7

MEO

100

100

100

13.3

-

-

-

MA

100

96.7

100

100

100

-

3.3

PD

100

100

100

100

100

-

83.3

RW

100

83.3

-

-

50

-

-

SJJ

100

100

3.3

43.3

20

-

-

Overall

99.4

88.3

80.3

50.1

41.9

0.6

8.6

Operational
Area

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

20 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Table 10: Climate Change Effect on Agriculture Enumerated by Respondents in
the Surveyed Area
Climate change effects Observed/experienced impacts on agriculture
Insufficient rainfall
Erratic and unpredictable
Long period of drought
followed by excessive
rainfallAffects crop development, decreased yields; increased insect pest outbreaks cause delayed planting
time in some communities. Insufficient rainfall when crops actually need water and too much water
when the crops do not need that much water.
Cassava root formation is negatively affected by climate change effectFishing activities are reduced drasticallyLivestock production is negatively affected by climatechange (lack of water and graze/feed)

High temperatures

There are heat waves associated with high temperatures.
High temperatures cause bushfires, low yield and sometimes complete crop failure. High temperature
disrupts activity of living organisms in the soil, low soil fertility which negatively affect crop development
Crops wilt and die off especially tomatoes.

Heavy precipitation/
FloodsDamage to crops; soil erosion; inability to cultivate land due to waterlogging of soils
A lot of pest and diseases emerged after heavy rains, heavy rains destroyed crops in the lowland areas
The swampy areas are no longer in use. Excess water render the swampy areas unproductive; Notmuch value for vegetable production
Heavy Precipitation caused rotting and dieback, root knots disease, flower abortion, cracks in water melon,
nematode diseases and fungal diseases

Strong winds

Strong winds that come along with heavy rains caused flowers and fruits to abort or drop. Dropping ofimmature flowers, vegetables and fruits.

Severe DroughtLand degradation and soil erosion; lower yields from crop damage and failure; increased livestock
deaths; increased risk of wildfire; loss of arable land

Sea levels increase

Salinization of irrigation water, estuaries and freshwater systems; loss of arable land and increase in alternative
livelihoods Most uplands and arable lands have become saline and no more suitable for crop production

Source: Survey compilation 2010.
4.3.2 Opportunities and Constraints
Although climate change effects and impacts present diverse challenges to small-scale farmers,
these farmers also appreciate some opportunities that come along with climate change. Climate
Change opportunities listed by respondents can be categorized into improved farm maintenanceand cultural practices (timely planting, regular weeding, timely harvesting); improved soil
management practices ( use of cover crops, mulching and application of organic manure,); varietal
development (development of drought resistance varieties, high yielding varieties, disease
resistant varieties); Additional livelihood options (cultivation of vegetables and fruits like okra andwatermelon, fishing, petty trading etc.) use of agro-chemicals; use of “neem extract” to control pest
and disease outbreaks and improved irrigation practices (Sinking tube wells for regular watersupplies). Others are construction of drainage systems in the lowlands and construction of fence
against sea breeze to limit the flow of saline water on cultivable lands. Table 11 presents percentage
responses to opportunities emerging as a result of climate change effects and impacts. Most ofthese opportunities are innovations or improved technological packages extended to farmers to
improve their local adaptive capacities to climate change impacts.

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 21

Table 11: Opportunities emerging from climate change effects% Response to innovative opportunities created as a result of climate change effectOperatio
nal Area

Use ofHigh
fertilizer
Yielding& Agrochemicals Seeds

Planting
Earlyof legumaturing minous
Varieties crops

Use ofdrought
Resistantcrops

Application oforganic
manurePlanting of
cover
crops

Timelyweeding

Timelyplanting

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

20
100
96.8
3.3
93.3
13.3
76.7
90
100
3.3
93.3

23.3
100
96.8
3.3
3.3
20
96.7
-

13.3
3.3
3.3
90
3.3
96.7
93.3
6.7

10.0
10.0
90.0
-

3.3
3.2
3.3
90.0
93.3
3.3
93.7
10.0

26.7
6.7
90
13.3
76.7
90
100
3.3
93.3

10
10
76.7
-

30
3.3
-

26.7
3.2
3.3
-

Overall

57.6

28.8

25.8

9.1

24.9

41.6

8.0

2.8

2.8

Table 12: Opportunities emerging from climate change effects% Response to innovative opportunities created as a result of climate change effectOperational Area

PloughingacrossslopesUse ofLivestock Weather
Rearing Forecast

Early
Vegetable
Tractor Row
Maturing & Fruit
Services Planting Crops
Cultivation

High
Irrigation Food
services Prices

80
93.3
3.3
6.7
3.3
6.7
-

3.3
6.7
23.3
3.3
100
56.7
10

6.7
6.7
30
3.3
-

16.1

16.9

3.9

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

6.7
3.3
-

3.2
3.3
3.3
93.3
30.0
3.3
-

3.2
-

6.5
3.3
-

6.5
-

Overall

0.8

11.4

0.3

0.8

0.6

6.7
6.7

1.1

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

22 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Despite the appreciable exposure level to the above listed innovative and improved technologicalpackages, there are challenges or constraints to their applications. As reported by Hazell and Wood
(2008), agricultural systems may have considerable capacity to adapt to climate change, but there
are challenges. The constraints and challenges include the high cost of production as a result of
escalating input prices, high prices of food crops as farmers switch from food crops production to
cash crops which contribute to market dependency for household food security (cultivation ofvegetables and fruits over cereals and tubers), price threats from over-supply of certain crops, post
harvest losses which aggravate poverty and health risks associated with agro-chemical
applications. Others are availability and accessibility of organic manure on relatively large farms. As
most farmers put it frankly animal droppings are not easily available; its application is also
constrained when farm size is large. Some of the technologies are actually beyond the reach ofresource poor farmers. Farmers lack the resources and money to enable them to apply corrective
measures effectively and efficiently. Examples cited are high cost of irrigation facilities, high costs ofdouble nursery establishment and cost of improved varieties.
Post harvest losses
Effect of agrochemicals on humans
High Prices of food crops
Seed Wastage(Double nursery)
Poverty and hunger
Scarcity of grass for animals
Market dependency for food stuffs
Threat to market prices of water melon
Farming is now risky
Pests and Diseases
High cost of production
Poor seed formation
Poor yields
Poor Rainfall
0

5

10

15
20
% Response (Overall)

25

30

35

Figure 8: Constraints Due to Climate Change Effects
4.3.3 Mechanisms for building resilience/adaptation to climate change
Fussel (2007) defines adaptation to climate change, as measures which moderate the adverse
effects of climate change through a wide range of actions that are targeted at the vulnerable systemor population. A variety of adaptation options contribute to building resilience. Among thesemeasures are: soil management practices that reduce fertilizer use and increase crop
diversification; promotion of legumes in crop rotations; increasing biodiversity, the availability ofquality seeds and integrated crop/livestock systems; promotion of low energy production systems;
improving the control of wildfires and avoiding burning of crop residues; as well as promoting
efficient energy use by commercial agriculture. Others are introducing drought, flood and salinetolerant crops, improving breeding and farming techniques, developing local food banks for people
and livestock, and improving local food preservation.
As elaborated in the earlier sections, climate change affected crop development and had caused
decrease in productivity of both crops and livestock. Crops badly affected included vegetables only
(44%) and vegetables and others like maize (56%). Therefore small-scale farmers need to build
Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 23

resilience/adaptive capacity to adapt to climate change impacts. Climate change effects are wide
spread and interrelated. As shown in Table 13, climate change effects experienced by farmers
interviewed include Pest & Disease outbreaks, changes in water availability, severe drought, andland degradation, reduction in arable lands, soil erosion and floods/heavy precipitation in
decreasing order of importance.
Table 13: Percentage Response to Experience with Climate Change Effect% Responding to Climate Change Effects
Operational
Area
Land
Soil
Degradation Erosion

Changes inwater
Availability

Pest &
DiseaseoutbreakFloods/Heavy
Precipitation

SevereDrought

Reductionin arable
lands

AKJ

100

100

100

10

96.7

100

100

AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

50
33.3
100
100
100
20
100
100
100
23.3
100

73
63.3
100
96.7
93.3
100
50
93.3
53.3

86.7
70
100
13.3
63.3
96.6
100
100
100
100
66.7

96.7
76.7
100
100
100
96.6
100
100
100
53.3
100

83.3
13.3
3.2
73.3
70
6.7
13.3
100
100

40

43.3

86.7
100
100
90
83.3
100
100
100
100
3.3

Overall

77.3

68.7

83.1

93.6

50.1

80.3

70.9

100
96.7
70
90
100
100
100
53.3

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

Reduction in arable lands
Severe Drought
Floods/Heavy
Precipitation
Pest & Disease outbreak
Changes in water
Availability
Soil Erosion
Land Degradation
0

20

40

60

80

100

% Response

Figure 9: % Response to Experiences of Climate Change Effects
In the next section, details of adaptive options/innovative technologies adopted to build resilienceto specific climate change effects in the district surveyed are presented.

24 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

4.3.4
Land Degradation
The literature suggests, many and complex linkages between agriculture and land degradation.
Farming in areas of fragile soils, poor management of crop, soil and water interaction, andunsustainable exploitation of soil nutrients are some of the major causes of land degradation (Lal1997). According to Wood et al (2000) only some 16% of croplands globally are inherently free of soil
constraints, and that figure is as low as 6–7% in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. However
this survey focused on the climate change effects on land degradation and not causes fromagricultural practices although the two are highly interlinked.
Table 14 presents emerging innovations/technologies adopted by farmers interviewed to reduce
land degradation caused by climate change effects. The main innovations for land degradation
adaptation are application of organic manure, planting of cover crops and legume cultivation, use of
inorganic fertilizer and tree planting. According to the farmers interviewed, application of these
innovations/technologies worked if well managed.
Table 14: Innovations/Technologies adopted to reduce land degradation% Responding to innovations to mitigate land degradation from climate change effects

Operational Area

Planting of
cover
crops

Stop
cutting
Organic of
Tree
Manure trees &plant- applica- bushtion
ingburningLegumecultivation

PloughingacrossslopesStopovergrazing

Crop
Farrows
between Fallow- Rotationing
fieldsInorganic
fertilizer
application

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

63.3
6.7
100
100
100
3.3
96.7
93.3
20
-

93.3
3.3
100
3.3
96.7
-

33.3
50
3.3
100
100
96.7
13.3
96.7
96.7
100
23.3
96.7

43.3
20
-

16.7
3.3
100
100
96.7
3.3
20
-

3.3
33.3
6.7
3.3
6.7
20
6.7

3.3
16.7
-

10
10
96.8
6.7
3.3
-

17.2
3.3
6.7
6.7
3.3

6.7
3.3
13.3
-

100
96.7
10
100
96.7
23.3
90

Overall

48.8

24.9

67.6

5.3

28.5

6.6

1.7

10.8

3.1

1.9

42.9

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 25

Inorganic manure
Crop Rotation
Fallowing
Farrows b/n fields
Stop over grazing
Ploughing across slopes
Legume cultivation
Stop cutting of trees
Organic Manure
Tree planting
Planting of cover crops
0

20

40

60

80

% Response (overall)

Figure 10: % response to Corrective Measures Against Land Degradation
4.3.5 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is caused by a variety of factors including poor farming practices, deforestation, bushburning, and crop land encroachment into pastoral areas and over grazing. With particularreference to climate change effects, farmers interviewed adopted technologies such as ploughing
across slopes (tractor operators have changed the direction of ploughing to minimize soil erosion),mulching and cultivation of cover crops. Sacks are also filled with soil (sand bags) to block thepassage of water; trenches are constructed on the ploughed fields. Others are planting of trees
along farm boundaries and application of mulch to the soil. It is not the entire field that is mulched.
Usually, they are mulching around the plants and these are normally done during the early stages ofthe plants including transplanting. Fill sack with sand and place at the top edge of farm to prevent
soil erosion. Table 15 presents details of innovations/technologies used among farmers
interviewed in Dangbe East district.

26 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Table 15: Innovations/Technologies adopted to reduce Soil Erosion% Responding to innovations to mitigate soil erosion from climate change effects
Operati-onal
Area

Plantingof cover
crops

Plant
Mulching Immedia/organic tely After
manurePloughing

PloughAcrossSlopesPlantingof Deep
Construct Rooted
Trenches Crops

Plantingof Trees

Mixed
Farming

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

80
63.3
10
100
96.7
90
24.1
93.3
43.3

73.3
3.3
13.3
100
96.7
90
17.2
16.7
93.3
6.7

16.7
3.3
3.4
-

56.7
10
33.3
100
36.7
3.3
75.9
26.7
60.0
6.7

10
70
10
96.7
13.3
6.9
3.3
6.7
-

6.7
3.3
-

16.7
3.4
50
53.3
-

100
-

Overall

50.3

42.8

1.9

34.2

18.1

0.8

10.3

8.6

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

Mixed farming
Planting of trees
Planting of deep rooted crops
Construct trenches
Plough across slopes
Plant immediately after ploughing
Mulching /organic manure
Planting of cover crops
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

% Response (Over all)Figure 11: Measures to Mitigate Soil Erosion
4.3.6 Changes in Water availability
Innovations/technologies adopted by farmers to contain changes in water availability were largely
makeshift irrigation, construction of wells for water storage, mulching to improve water holding
capacity of soils, planting of soil covers crops, cultivation close to water bodies, cultural practices
such as regular weed control, early ploughing and planting as shown in Table 16. Water availability
is also improved by de-silting of surface wells.

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 27

Table 16: Innovations/Technologies adopted to reduce changes in water
availability% Responding to innovations to mitigate changes in water availability from climate change effects

Operational
Area

Construction
DoubleSoilofwells ploughing Cover

MulchCultivate
Constru- Regular
Early
ing/
Close toction of Weed- Early
Organic Irrig- Plough- Water
trenches ing
Planting manure ation ing
Bodies

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

23.3
30
3.3
60
93.3
100
16.7
6.7

80
96.8
3.3
-

46.7
73.3
71
3.3
6.9
3.3
3.3
100
-

30
3.3
6.7
3.3

16.7
16.7
93.5
100
-

13.3
10.3
6.7
3.3
100
-

70
73.3
80.6
10
10.3
10
100
100
-

10
10
10
13.3
50
31
10
93.3
100
96.7
20

87.1
-

3.3
-

Overall

27.8

15.3

25.8

3.6

19.2

11.1

38.1

36.9

7.5

0.3

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

Cultivate close to water bodies
Early ploughing
Irrigation
Mulching
Early planting
Regular Weeding
Construction of trenches
Soil Cover
Double ploughing
Construction of wells
0

10

20

30

40

50

% Response (Overall)

Figure 12: % response to Innovations to Check Changes in Water Availability
4.3.7 Pest and Disease outbreaks
From farmers interviewed, pest and disease outbreaks are prevalent in severe drought conditions
and also heavy precipitations (examples are leaf curl and blight diseases in tomatoes). In
decreasing order of importance, the most commonly used innovations or technologies adopted toreduce impact of pest and disease outbreaks include the use of agrochemicals (fungicides,
pesticides), use of “neem tree” extract, crop rotation and the use of disease free seeds for planting
as well as hygiene practices on farms. Table 17 presents details of innovations used to fight pest
and disease outbreaks. Some farmers also mentioned nursing of maize seed before transplanting
because rodents pick maize seeds sown directly. Maize seeds are nursed for 7-10 days for the
cotyledons to establish before transplanting.
28 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

According to farmers these strategies worked well except that the use of agrochemicals have some
limitations like the health risks to users and also sometimes the efficacy is compromised by the input
dealers.
Table 17: Innovations/Technologies adopted to reduce the effect of Pest andDisease outbreaks% Responding to innovations to check pest & disease outbreaks from climate change effects

Use ofSpray
Operatio- AgroSoapy
nal Area chemicals Water

Use
Crop
Plant
Neem
Rotation Disease
Tree
Resistant
Extract
Varieties

Use of
DiseaseFree
Seeds

Timely FalloPlanting wing

Removal of
Affected
Crops

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

86.7
96.7
73.3
100
100
100
86.2
100
100
100
53.3
100

3.3
26.7
-

23.3
13.3
100
100
100
3.4
96.7
100
-

40
13.3
3.3
44.8
96.7
100
2.3

30
3.3
20.7
50
3.3

30
16.7
3.3
24.1
50
-

6.7
-

3.3
-

20
6.7
3.4
6.7
-

Overall

91.4

2.5

45

25

8.9

10.3

0.6

0.3

3.1

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

Removal of affected crops
Fallowing
Timely planting
Use of disease free seeds
Plant disease resistant varieties
Crop Rotation
Use neem tree extract
Spray Soapy water
Use of Agro -chemicals
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

% Response (Overall)

Figure 13: % Response to Innovations to Check Pest & Disease Outbreak

4.3.8 Heavy Precipitation/floods
Heavy precipitation causes soil erosion, damage to crops, pest and disease outbreaks as well aswaterlogged of soils. Adaptive innovative technologies include the raising of plant beds,
construction of drainage channels and gutters, timely planting of crops, farming at hilly areas andEmerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 29

ploughing across slopes. Construction of surface wells and sinking of tube wells. Cultural practices
to prevent excessive rainfall interference are practiced. Most farmers interviewed did not have any
adaptive measures against heavy precipitation. Farmers therefore relocate their farming activities if
possible. Table 18 gives indication of the technologies adopted to prevent effects of heavy
precipitation.
Table 18: Innovations adopted to reduce the effects of Heavy Precipitation% Response to innovations to check heavy precipitation from climate change effects

Operational Area

Use of
cover
crops

Crop
Rotation

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

73.3
40
70
-

2.3
-

Overall

15.2

0.3

Mulching/
Ploughing
Organic Construction of Leveling AcrossManure Drainage/gutters of Fields Slopes

Leave
Land
to Fallow

70
6.7
46.7
6.7
96.7
18.8

26.7
66.7
10
3.2
30
3.3
6.7
100
100
26.7

20
-

6.7
3.3
3.3
3.3
-

100
-

33

1.7

1.4

8.3

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

4.3.9 Severe Drought
Severe drought conditions as a result of climate change effects cause land degradation, soil
erosion, increased risk of bush fires, loss of arable lands, crop damage and lower yields,
sometimes complete crop failure. Commonly adaptive innovations/technologies used by farmers
interviewed include storage of water for irrigation, mulching and application of organic manure to
improve water holding capacity of soils, cultivation of short maturity crops and varieties as well as
drought resistant crops and varieties. Other innovative adaptation strategies are the use of water
satchel rubber under crops as a check against severe drought. However most farmers considereddrought as natural and seasonal occurrence and therefore are not encouraged to apply adaptive
measures. At the community level tree planting on farmlands is encouraged to reduce severe
drought impact.

30 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Table 19: Innovations/Technologies Adopted to Reduce the Effects of Severe
Drought% Response to innovations against severe drought from climate change effects

Operarational
Area

CultivaCultivattion of
Planting
Mulch ing
Irrigation
Timely ing/or Drought /Store
Drought Early short
TimelyResistant Plant- duration weed- Timely Harve- ganic Resistant Water in Fallo- Earthcrops
Varieties ing
ing
Trenches wing ing Up
Planting sting Manure Crops

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

76.7
40
-

66.7
3.3
3.3
-

33.3
100
53.3
-

16.7
3.3
-

46.7
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
-

3.3
-

33.3
6.7
6.7
100
83.3
6.7
100
-

43.3
70
-

10
50
50
83.3
46.7
76.7
100
-

3.3
-

3.4
-

Overall

9.7

6.1

15.8

1.7

5.0

0.3

28.3

9.4

34.6

0.3

0.3

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

4.3.10 Reduction in Arable lands
About 71% of the farmers had experienced reduction in arable lands due to multiple stresses fromclimate change effects. Reduction in arable lands is also caused by salt seepage into lands.
Innovations/technologies adopted to maintain reduced arable lands include correct planting
techniques (row planting), use of organic manure and crop rotation as well as use of inorganic
fertilizer and planting of high yielding varieties since farm expansion strategies are constrained.
Farmers are also educated to minimize grazing activities.

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 31

Table 20: Innovations/Technologies Adopted to Maintain Reduced Arable
Lands% Response to innovations /technologies adopted due to reduction in arable lands

Operational
area

Correct
Planting
distance

Use of organic
manure and crop
rotation

Use ofInorganic
Fertilizer

Ploughing with
Vegetation

Planting ofHigh Yielding
Varieties

AKJ
AB
DTA
FA
GA
IKB
ML
MEO
MA
PD
RW
SJJ

43.3
0
0
0
0
53.3
0
0
6.7
0
0
3.3

90
40
0
100
76.7
70
33.3
100
100
100
0
40

80
30
0
0
96.7
63.3
33.3
100
100
100
0
40

23.3
0
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

36.7
0
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Overall

9.7

64.7

53.5

10.5

11.6

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

Planting of high yielding varieties

Ploughing with vegetation

Use of inorganic fertilizer

Use of organic manure and crop rotation

Correct Planting distance

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

% Response

Figure 14: Innovations/Technologies Adopted to Manage Reduced Arable Land32 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Overall

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

% response

Figure 15: % Response to Reduction in Arable Lands by Operational Area
4.4.1
Changes in Behavioural Practices to Adapt to Climate Change
In many cases people will adapt to climate change simply by changing their behavior. This may
involve relocation and/or changing occupation. Often farmers affected by climate change effects
and impacts will employ different forms of technologies such as new irrigation systems or droughtresistant seeds which are considered 'hard technologies', or 'soft' technologies, such crop rotation
patterns. In most situations a combination of hard and insurance schemes or soft technologies are
employed. Farmers interviewed in the district had either relocated their farms and/or diversified
into alternative livelihood options. None had changed occupation completely since they explainedthat farming is part of their culture. As some farmers put it 'farming is the only occupation we havethere is no other alternative'. However changes in crop type cultivated were observed. Currently
most farmers cultivate crops that do not need much water for growth like water melon. Less than
30% of the farmers interviewed had relocated close to water bodies (River Volta), especially forminor season farming. Farmers relocated to fertile lands and also moved to Yeiji (in the middle belt
regions of Ghana) to fish in addition to farming (seasonal migrants). Farmers relocate when there isflood or heavy precipitation but come back later (after a while; leave the land to fallow). Farmers
relocate from marshy areas to higher groundsa.

b.

Yes, 27.4
N0, 57.9

Yes, 42.1

No, 72.6

Figure 16: a. Have You Relocated Your Farm; b. Have You Diversified Your
Economic Activities
Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 33

Majority (97.5%) indicated that their farmlands could not have supported crop development but
for the application of improved agricultural practices. Corrective measures applied include
organic manure (92%), use of inorganic fertilizer (90%) and Crop rotation (28%).
Diversified economic activities include fishing, mushroom cultivation, livestock rearing, grasscutter
rearing, salt mining and bee keeping. Others are petty trading, artisanal jobs, gari processing,hairdressing and soap making, basket weaving, bricks making. Some farmers migrate to urban
centres in search for off-farm jobs.
4.4.2
Organizational Innovation
The most effective adaptation approaches in developing countries, as highlighted in UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) meetings, are those that address a combination ofenvironmental stresses and factors. Strategies, policies and programmes that are most likely to
succeed need to link with coordinated efforts aimed at alleviating poverty, enhancing food security
and water availability, combating land degradation and soil erosion, reducing loss of biologicaldiversity and ecosystem services. Indeed farmers interviewed had benefited from organizational
support from various government and non-governmental agencies/organizations. Suchorganizations currently operational in the district includes Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA)
and Adventist Relief Agency (ADRA); both operational in almost all the communities surveyed andinvolved in technology dissemination. Others are forestry department (into afforestation
programmes), Wildlife (wildlife conservation), the media (Radio Ada) and other projects mostly
involved in food security issues. Unfortunately, the Ministry of Energy was not mentioned although it
has a major role to play since building resilience to climate change requires a dependable source ofenergy. However, a check with the Renewable Energy Directorate of the Ministry of Energy showedthat there are plans to rollout utility scale wind energy project in the Dangme East district to help
speed up the processes of addressing the impact of climate change and improve livelihoods in the
district.
Table 21 gives a summary of institutions/organizations supporting farmers to build resilience toclimate change effect and food security threats.

34 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

Table 21: Summary of Organisations/Institutions supporting farmers to build
resilience to Climate Change Effects
Name of
Organisation

Operatio- Innovation/
nal Area Services

Description

Advantages

Disadvantages

Forestry
Department

MA
PD

Tree planting

Planting of allies
Woodlots
Boundary trees

Improves soil
fertility
Fuel wood
Reduction inboundary disputes

Tree planting isconstrained by land
tenure system
Some farmers do not
own landLand tenure systemdoes not make it
favourable to most
farmers in the area

ADRA

Almost all
thecommunities
surveyed

Planting of Fruit
trees
Supply of tree
seedlings

Planting of fruit
trees like mangoes
and cashew in allies
Woodlots
establishment
Group formation for
effective support

Security for oldage
Fuel wood-doShattering of tree
seeds
Lack of market for
cashew

MOFA

All
communities
surveyed

Extensiondelivery

Dissemination of
improved
agricultural
practices throughFielddemonstrations
TrailsField days
Records keeping
Nursery
Management

Evidence ofeffective
technologies andenhanced
technology
adoption

Logistics for effective
extension delivery
inadequate
Compost takes toolong to decompose
Improved seeds are
too expensive
Dug-out too expensive
to contruct
Manure not readily
available
Organic manure
speeds weed growth
Staking of tomatesdifficultAgrochemicals
dangerous to health
Carting of manure iscumbersome/bulky
Correct planting
distance (Rowplanting) is time
consuming

Radio Ada
AFRI &
Christian
Aid
GTV/TV3

MA
PD
GA
MA
IKB

Disseminationof information
on innovativetechnologies
and market
pricesInformation on
the Weather

Weekly programmes
on improved
technologies
AFRI/Christian Aid
is an NGO that fundradio programmes
in the interest of
farmers

Educate alot of
farmers

NA

Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 35

4.4.3 Suggestions from farmers
Table 22 presents suggestions by farmers interviewed concerning climate change effects andadaptation.
Table 22: Suggestion from farmers about climate change issues
Suggestions

Percentage Response

Provision of irrigation facilities only

42.0

Availability of inputs, irrigation facilities and subsidies

13.0

Irrigation and credit facilities

12.1

Afforestation and irrigation

9.9

Public Education on climate change

7.6

Provision of alternative livelihoods

5.6

Supply of electricity to reduce high cost of fuel used for irrigation

3.4

Improved agricultural practices(organic manure application, use ofresistant varieties, early planting)

2.3

Provision of Tractor Services

1.1

Regular weather forecast

0.6

Other suggestions are bulleted below;> MOFA should encourage water melon cultivation it helps maintain soil moisture> De-silting of blocked and silted tributaries so that water can flow
> Reduction in arable lands also caused by salt invading lands; something has to be done about
salt lands> Land Degradation- education on the effect of cutting down trees for charcoal burning> Use of LPG instead of charcoal,> Application of cow dung and bat fecal matter> Increase use of organic manure and less of agro-chemicals and inorganic fertilizers> Development of sustainable irrigations infrastructure

36 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana

5. Conclusions & Recommendations
The District has fairly flat topography, low vegetative growth, relatively good infrastructure andsufficient land mass for wind energy development and agriculture. At 80m, the area has sheared
annual wind speed of 7.6m/s (based on available rudimentary wind data). The predominantwind direction is south-west.
Land mass around the site where data was collected has reduced in size as a result of persistent sea
erosion and new settlements. As a result, the development of utility scale wind energy project istechnically impossible within the measurement site.
However, towards the South-Western part of the Dangbe East (Pute,Alavanyo and Tamino) where
agricultural and fishing are mainstay economic activities, there is sufficient land area that can
support utility scale wind energy project.
As a matter of interest, since wind resource is site specific, the identified areas with good windresources should be properly demarcated and protected. This will help monitor and control the
uncoordinated use of potential wind sites for other economic activities in the district.
A wind energy project in the district would stimulate the development of the agriculture potential.
For instance, during idle times, the energy from the wind could be used to pump water from thelower Volta River (naturally flowing into the sea) into reservoirs for irrigation.
From the situational analysis of the climate change effects on agricultural practices in Dangbe East
district of Ghana, most farmers are challenged by the high cost involved in adaptation of innovativetechnologies to build resilience. Linked to constraints posed by climate change effects areopportunities mostly in the form of improved agro-technologies and economic diversification.
Some adaptation measures disrupt traditional food production systems thereby compromising
their community and household food security. Farmers strongly recommended provision ofirrigation services, availability of improved agro-technologies and education as key in building
resilience to climate change effects. The use of irrigation facilities and other agro-technologies isvery energy-dependent. Where there is potential for the generation and application of wind energy,
it has to be exploited. To promote climate change strategies, efficient agro-technologicalimprovement need to be strengthened substantially in Ghana as well as efficient interface between
Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 37

policy-makers, researchers and the farming community through regular dialogue and institutional
support.
The emerging agricultural production trend suggests that staple foods such maize and cassava inthe district are under intense stress and could pose food security challenges. Dialogues with thefarming communities to scale up some of the innovative technologies has to be strengthened
substantially as well as efficient interface between policy-makers, researchers and other supporting
institutions.

38 | Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of GhanaReferences
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Emerging Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of Ghana | 41

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