♦ PAPER ABSTRACTS ♦■ Keynote Speech:
ILETO, Reynaldo C.
The American War and the Japanese War in Post-1946 Philippine Politics
One of the classic debates in Southeast Asian historiography concerned the significanceof World War II in the region. Was the Japanese occupation a catalyst for change,leading to anticolonial nationalist revolutions and the rise of independent states insubsequent decades? Or was this a relatively brief and insignificant moment in the long
duration of the region's history? Since the Philippines can be hooked on to either
argument, this paper reviews the main historiographical trends since the 1950s that
culminated in the persuasive turn towards the "continuity" thesis in the 1970s. This
paper goes on to argue that the dominant meaning of the "Japanese occupation" in
Philippine historiography rests on established and embedded histories of the earlier
occupation by the United States. These are premised on essential difference rather thansameness between the two wars of occupation, and are the basis of continued imperial
domination. Nevertheless, minority discourses have contested this construction of thepast and have attempted to at least place the U.S. on an equivalent plane to the Japanese.
This paper briefly discusses the construction of the dominant view after 1901 and thealternatives to it. The main focus is on how conflicting memories and histories of thetwo invasions have figured in Philippine politics since independence.

■ Plenary Session:
The Philippines and Japan under the US Shadow
GO, Julian
The Philippines and US Imperial Identity
This essay places US colonialism in the Philippines in the broader context of US
imperial practice to show the ways in which American global political identity waspredicated upon its colonial exchanges in the Philippines. After WWII the US shiftedfrom employing direct colonial rule to informal modes of imperial exercise while
claiming that its informal modes marked a unique, anti-colonial, and benevolent
American character. Throughout, the model was democratic tutelage in the Philippines.
Yet democratic tutelage did not stem from American unique anti-colonial and ostensibly
special democratic culture; it rather emerged from American officials' appropriations of
the discourses of the Filipino elite. This essay therefore shows how American identity
was dependent upon its appropriation of local discourses in the Philippines, even as
American identity elides its Philippine origins.

1

RIVERA, Temario C.
American Rule and Elite Restoration in Postwar Japan and the Philippines
After the Second World War, both Japan and the Philippines largely succeeded in
restoring and reconstituting the “old guard and traditional levers of elite rule”. In thecontext of the upheavals provoked by the war and the occupation period, by no means
was this outcome guaranteed. For both countries, the war and its immediate aftermath infact resulted in significant challenges to traditional elite rule. In Japan, this postwar
power realignment was initially generated by political reforms imposed by theAmerican occupation. Likewise in the Philippines, the war opened up new opportunities
for political formations and alliances that sought to challenge traditional oligarchic
control of national and local politics. This paper analyzes how American occupation
policies in fact undercut and redirected these opportunities for challenging traditional
elite rule resulting in the eventual entrenchment of conservative hegemonic rule inJapan and the perpetuation of oligarchic, dynastic rule in the Philippines.
SALMAN, Michael
Tortuous Memories and Prisons of Forgetting: From Water Cure to
Water Boarding, From Bilibid to Abu Ghraib
Prisons and the experience of torture remain endemic to modern colonialism and thewars that establish it. Prisons as places of trauma and torture as traumatic experience
connected the Philippines, Japan, and the U.S. in different ways at different times, andhave left a legacy as sites of memory and forgetting. The imprisonment ofrevolutionaries and nationalists was extensive in the American colonization ofPhilippines and so, too, was the use of torture. Imprisonment continued, but its history
took unusual turns. Bilibid Prison was a site of violence, rebellion, illness, and medical
experimentation on inmates, but then became a symbol of progress, disciplined order,and modern humanitarianism claimed by both colonizers and nationalists. Later, during
the Pacific War, Bilibid became a POW camp, along with cognate institutions likemilitary bases and the University of Santo Tomas. In 1945, the old Bilibid Prison
became home to the Philippine National Library, providing a new intersection of history
and memory. Another symbol of overlapping colonial histories would be Sugamo Prisonin Tokyo. Built for political prisoners in the 1920s, after the Pacific War Sugamo wascontrolled by the US Army, operated by a Japanese staff, and housed alleged andconvicted war criminals from trial to execution. In Sugamo one could see the close
congregation of the three occupations - the U.S. over the Philippines, Japan over thePhilippines, and the U.S. over Japan – brought together in one place. But then,afterwards, what would be remembered of this confluence? That is the question ofmemory, and forgetting.
NAKANO, Satoshi
Work of Mourning and Memories of Wars in the Post World War II
U.S. –Philippine -Japan Relations
As Reynaldo Ileto (2001) pointed out, the Filipino experiences under thePhilippine-American War and the Japanese Occupation might have been “the samebanana,” especially for the regions where the revolutionary forces and the anti-Japanese2guerrilla forces vigorously fought against the occupiers. This has naturally led us to ask
why the one (American war) was completely forgotten while the other (Japanese war) is
so well remembered. We have observed in recent years, however, amnesia has become
reality even in the latter war, while the war memories or the memories of past atrocities
in general could be reconstructed as well as revived at any time in any ways. The
underlying question therefore should be how the selective memories of and amnesia onpast wars and atrocities have interactively functioned in the social and national psycheof the three peoples across the Pacific, for which psychoanalytical concepts such as
work of mourning, object loss, manic defense and melancholia might be helpful asshown in such works as Alexander Mitschelich, An inability to Mourn (1967) and David
L. Eng and David Kazanjian, ed., Loss: The Politics of Mourning (2003) as well as
recent discussions on transitional justice (see http://www.ictj.org) .

■ Session 1:
The Philippines-US-Japan Relations in Historical Perspectives
CAMPOMANES, Oscar V.
The Japanese Analogy as Liminal Crisis-Effect in Initial Filipino-American
Encounters, 1899-1901
This paper examines the shadowy emergence and obsolescence of the “Japanese
Analogy” in contemporary accounts of the politics of encounter between representativesof the American Empire and the Philippine Republic during the first years of thePhilippine-American War. Arguing that this invocation and operation of the “Japanese
Analogy,” while seemingly insignificant, present a productive case of the semiotic of(imperial and nationalist) politics and the politics of expansionist and anti-imperialist
semiosis, this paper highlights the diplomatic offensives of Felipe Agoncillo and theHong Kong Junta/Comité Central Filipino in the fierce geopolitical struggle with US
imperialist emissaries for setting the terms of encounter/engagement both in the realmof war propaganda and in the domain of international relations. Likened by credulous
American writers to the Japanese in the absence of an adequate language ofrepresentation at the moment of initial US-Filipino contacts, Filipino revolutionists saw
a cleverly designed “diplomatic” campaign as their best and most effective weapon
against the formidable forces and resources of the emergent (American) New Empire.
QUIBUYEN, Floro C.
Imagining America and Japan: A Genealogy of Filipino National Consciousness
from the Revolution to W.W II.
A productive way to explore how we Filipinos have imagined ourselves as a nation is byexploring how we have imagined the two countries which have, for better or for worse,intervened in our modern history—Japan and America. Filipino revolutionary nationalists,from the late nineteenth century to the American conquest, looked up to Japan as theirmodel and ally. Under American rule, Japan was replaced by America in the popularimagination. The contrasting political biographies of Artemio Ricarte and Manuel Quezon
demonstrate this shift in the national consciousness. However, a comparative study of the3

nationalist politics of India, Indonesia and Burma during WWII shows that the behaviourof Ricarte was in fact the pattern in these countries. This underscores the peculiarity of thepost war issue of collaboration in the Philippines, and attests to the United States’
hegemonic success in creating the new postcolonial Filipino—evident even in today’s
school children.
OKADA, Taihei
American Colonial Education in the Philippines in the Context of"Progressive Education"
American colonialism emphasized public education as one of the most importantcomponents of its project. Although there have been a few notable studies on this topic,
almost all of them had a rather narrow focus on the educational ideology as it circulated
among the American colonial administrators and American teachers in the Philippines.
This research method falls short, partly because it disregards the effects of "progressive
education" as a global educational movement and concentrates too much on the ideas of
the American colonialists. In the early part of the 20th century, educational institutions
were rapidly expanding and teaching became more professionalized in the US as well as
in different parts of the globe. In addition to analyzing the ideology of "progressive
education," it is important to regard teachers as an occupational category and take into
account its place in society. By focusing on the socioeconomic aspect of the teachers in
the Philippines and making brief comparisons and contrasts with those in Japan and
Korea under the Japanese colonialism, I will argue that the colonial education in thePhilippines was an extension of "progressive education" and its implications are still
relevant in this age of globalism.
JOSE, Lydia Yu
The Philippines and the Beginnings of Japan's Soft Power
While scholars of Japan's foreign policy and foreign relations agree that in the decades
following World War II Japan engaged in economic diplomacy, it is not widely
acknowledged that side by side with this economic policy is a softly-launched cultural
policy. In the Philippines Japan tried the waters of cultural policy in the 1960s with the
opening of the Japan Information and Cultural Center and the first Japanese Studies
Program in Southeast Asia. This paper will trace the development of cultural relations
between the Philippines and Japan and analyze the significance of the opening of
cultural relations between the two countries much earlier than in most other Southeast
Asian countries. The paper argues that the sustained success of economic policy ispartly due to its being done side by side with cultural policy.

■Session 2:
Filipino Diaspora: Local, Regional and Global Perspectives
ALEGADO, Dean T.
From an Archipelagic Nation-State to a Deterritorialized Global Nation:
The Philippine State’s Efforts to Re-Inscribe Overseas Filipino
4

While the dominant political ethic of the Philippines -- and most countries in the world-- continues to demand that citizens, both native born and naturalized, swear allegianceonly to a single nation-state and define their political identity within its borders, thetransnationalism of increasing numbers of its citizens promotes new politicalconstructions in labor-sending states. Facing situations of deepening economic
impoverishment and dependency, Philippine political leaders are developing
constructions of the nation-state that encompass those residing abroad as part of theircountry’s body politic. These constructions, which Basch, Glick Schiller and Szanton
Blanc (1994) have called “deterritorialized nation-states,” define state boundaries insocial rather than geographic terms. According to this reading of the nation-state, theborder of the state spread globally to encompass all migrants and their descendants
wherever they may settle and whatever legal citizenship they may have attained. This
paper attempts to explore some of the implications of transnationalism and the efforts of
the Philippine nation-state -- highlighted by the recent efforts of the Philippine Congress
to pass the Overseas Filipino Absentee Voting and the Dual Citizenship acts. -- tore-incorporate the transnational Filipino communities in its development strategy in theearly 21st century. The paradox of our times, and one that must be central to ourunderstanding of ethnic studies and of the identities and current dilemmas of current day
immigrants is that the “age of transnationalism” is a time of continuing and evenheightening nation-state building processes. In the current heightening of nationalist
sentiments in a globalized economy, transnational migration is playing a complex,
significant, yet little noted role. It lies as a silent subtext that contributes to the actions,motivations, and sensibilities of key players within the political processes and debatesof both states that have histories of population dispersal and states that have primarily
been and continue to be recipients of population flows. As national institutions havebecome eroded by transnational processes of the re- structured global economy, it is lesspossible to maintain the old national myths. Transnational immigrants and their multiple
connections furnish the political leadership of both countries that send migrants andcountries in the developed capitalist economies that receive migrants with new
possibilities of maintaining discourses of nationalism.
TSUJIMOTO, Toshiko
Migrant Women in a Crossing-Border and Value Space:
Transnational Experiences of Filipinas in Korea and Their Challenges
Migration is not merely a process of moving from one physical space to another but
even accompanying the transformation of one’s thoughts and behaviors. Moreover, theexperience of crossing-border renders a person to view her/his world or phenomenon
surrounded them in a comparative method that often provides them with critical insights.
The concern of this paper is in such a dynamic aspect of migration. Especially in the ageof women on migration in Asia, how the migrant women go through such a processinside migrant communities which are the crossing points with local and global as wellas traditional and evolutional factors. The paper tries to direct its attention on bilateral
aspects of Filipino migrant communities abroad as ‘home’ away home butreconstructing of nationhood through rules and norms back in the Philippines.
Specifically, the paper tries to illustrate the gendered discourses reproduced inside5Filipino community and experiences of Filipinas in Korea where is a site of
intra-regional and continuing migration in Asia as well as destination for both Filipinosand Filipina migrants. Many studies about Filipino migrant issue have tended to focus
on significant factors of Catholic Church as a source of networking and assistanceprovided for migrants. However, fewer studies have focused on contradicting aspects ofreligious based Filipino communities abroad. Especially these studies have not much
focused on differences narrated by Filipinas and Filipinos and gendered ideologies
manipulating those discourses. The paper also aims to look at how such transnational
experiences of Filipinas challenge to its traditional norms by propounding their new
insights and even they develop it as forming new spaces for women. These women’stransnational migration experiences are also translated as process of transferring fromthe limitation of nationhood to being a selfhood.
TAKAHATA, Sachi
The Filipino Community in Downtown Nagoya: Local and International
Networking
The paper aims to reconsider the mechanism of local as well as international networkingof a Filipino community in the city of Nagoya, which holds second largest Filipino
population among Japan’s cities. What is striking with the Filipino community is thatwhile confronting and handling various social problems of their countrymen that stemfrom their legal vulnerability, they try to establish a friendly relationship with the local
Japanese organizations of the area. Their awareness to give importance on theharmony with local people impressed even most conservative persons of the local
community. On the other hand, their networking with other overseas Filipino groups
strengthened their organization as well as extended their support to migrant groups ofother nationalities. Through the closer look at the Filipino community in downtown
Nagoya, the author will discuss the social mechanism that enabled the weakly fundedorganization’s survival, local/international networking and establishing the inter-ethnic
relationship.
ASIS, Maruja
Moving Terms of Reference: Engaging with Overseas Filipinosin the Time of Transnationalism
This paper focuses on the international migration of Filipinos since the 1970s andspecifically examines the implications of engaging with overseas Filipinos in a
globalizing and transnationalizing context. The realities, opportunities and problems
engendered by different migration flows have contributed to the formation of a richarray of organizations addressing the interests and concerns of Filipinos abroad. Various
migration contexts -- permanent migration, labor migration, forced displacement, legal
vs. unauthorized migration -- suggest a different nature and level of inclusion ofoverseas Filipinos in the Philippines and in countries of destination. Issues of protection,for example, are more salient for migrant workers, whereas for permanent settlers,
mobility concerns may be more important. As “migrants’ voices,” this paper advancesthat migrants’ associations and NGOs representing migrants’ concerns may have toreframe their agendas and approaches in light of transnational possibilities and other6emerging realities. This paper focuses on the international migration of Filipinos sincethe 1970s and specifically examines the implications of engaging with overseas
Filipinos in a globalizing and transnationalizing context. The realities, opportunities andproblems engendered by different migration flows have contributed to the formation ofa rich array of organizations addressing the interests and concerns of Filipinos abroad.
Various migration contexts –– permanent migration, labor migration, forced
displacement, legal vs. unauthorized migration –– suggest a different nature and level ofinclusion of overseas Filipinos in the Philippines and in countries of destination. Issuesof protection, for example, are more salient for migrant workers, whereas for permanent
settlers, mobility concerns may be more important.

■Session 3:
Filipinos and the Catholic Church in JapanKASUYA, Maria Carmelita
The Filipino Catholics in Japan: Learning their Faith, Living their Faith, Sharing
their Faith
Driven by poverty and/or the desire to improve the quality of life to ensure a brighter
uture for the family, Filipinos come to Japan. Once in Japan, they experience a lot ofadjustments related to culture, language, working styles and climate. Uprooted fromtheir own culture, Filipinos are faced with emotional problems like loneliness andhelplessness. One of the ways to cope is to find solace and comfort in the church –alone, or with friends. Not only do they find spiritual refuge and joy in being at homewith a community of the same faith, the church also gives them the opportunity to
express their talents and to be of service, hence increasing their self-worth and brings
about a new meaning to their existence with a stronger sense of identity. Coming from a
predominantly Catholic country, most of the Filipinos come to Japan with their faithintact. While some learn more about their faith in Japan, others continue living theirfaith and have taken the challenge of sharing their faith. However, the differences in theexpression of faith between the Japanese and Filipinos, the difficulty in integrating into
the local church, the language barrier and lack of programs and structure to support
migrants are among the problems that the Filipino Catholic in Japan need to overcome.
ZARATE, Robert PaulThe Filipino Catholics: Hand in Hand with the Church in Japan in Taking Care of
Bi-Cultural Children
Filipinos in Japan enjoy a sense of freedom and feel at home whenever they are in a
Catholic Church. It is in Church where they can be themselves, where they feel they can
do and give something to the Church and to society as well. Their presence in the
Church in Japan is a sign of faith, happiness and religious enthusiasm. However, there isa lingering worry on how this vivacity can be sustained. The hope lies on their children,born or raised here in Japan, but there are issues that the children themselves face within
the Church and within Japanese society. For those who can go to Church, they are asked
to mingle with other Japanese kids in Church like they do in school. This is good.
7However, the Church can give them more than just Sunday mass and Sunday school.
Many of them suffer a sense of identity-crisis, and there is a need for them to recognize,
appreciate and share the richness of the two cultures they are raised in. Filipino andCatholics must address this specific problem of bi-cultural children together, from its
awareness stage to the implementation of its solutions.
LAGDAMEO, Ressurecsion P.
The Filipino “Floating” Community in East Asia: Convergence aroundthe Catholic Churches
Economic resources determine the flow of migration; and this holds true to Filipinos
who have left the Philippines. The mid-1970s up to the present marks the third-wave ofFilipino migration mostly to Middle East and East Asia. Filipino men initiallydominated the labor force. However, in the recent development, Filipino women share a
substantial number dispatched as Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW).In the capitalist
economy of Hong Kong, hundreds of thousands of Filipino domestic helpers get a niche
to be helpers of Hong Kong residents and expatriates. Some of these women have beenworking in Hong Kong for more than 20 years. Every individual has a story to tell about
their sacrifices living away from family. And every Sunday, the Statue’s Square (alsoknown as “Black Man”) becomes the landmark of Filipino gatherings, where they cometo meet with fellow OFWs and hear mass in a nearby church. In South Korea on theother hand, it is a male dominated labor force of Filipinos. Their presence can strongly
be felt on Sundays as they meet fellow Filipinos (kababayan) who are to hear mass inHyehwa-dong and or in other Catholic Churches. In this inquiry, the presenter would
like to delve on the kind of Filipino communities being formed in Hong Kong andSouth Korea, the role of the Catholic Church in the formation of the community, and
how Filipinos living abroad perceive the Church.

■ Session 4:
Gender, Sexuality, and Filipino Global Migration: Wives, Nurses, Caregivers,and Entertainers
TOLENTINO, Rolando B.
Spectacles of Masculinity and the Commerce of Men’s Bodies
Philippine development uses especially young bodies as sites of exploitation andprogress. In more recent times, men’s bodies have become feminized spectacles of theindividual and nation’s mobility. This paper analyzes some of the cultural texts that use
men’s bodies as spectacles of national masculinity: macho dancing contests, Benchunderwear fashion show, and popular films. Such spectacles allow a more explicit
sexualization of men’s bodies in support of intensifying national development. The
paper connects the spectaculization of men’s bodies with issues of transnational
capitalism as especially effected and affected from within the nation-space.

8

CHOY, Catherine Ceniza
Caring Unbound: A Diasporic Perspective of Filipino Nurse Migration to theUnited States
Since the late 1960s, the Philippines has been the world’s leading exporter ofprofessional nurses. Although the leading destination for Filipino nurse migrants has
been the United States, in more recent decades, hospitals in the Middle East, United
Kingdom, Canada, and Singapore have also recruited nurses from the Philippines. A
new agreement between Japan and the Philippines, for example, will enable several
hundred nurses from the Philippines to work in Japan. Although the historical origins ofFilipino nurse migration overseas can be traced to the early twentieth century during the
U.S. colonial period in the Philippines, media reports throughout the world portray theirmigration as a contemporary phenomenon devoid of any history. This paper explores
how and why the Philippines became the world’s leading exporter of nurses in thesecond half of the twentieth century, and the challenges faced by sending and receiving
hospitals of Filipino nurse migrants as well as the migrants themselves. It will focus on
the changing dynamics of Filipino nurse migration overseas from the 1960s to thepresent, specifically the change from U.S.-bound professional immigrant to global
contract worker and the shifting gendered and class composition of the Philippine
professional nurse labor force.
ASATO, Wako
Globalization of Care and the Position of the Filipino Workers: Reconfigurationof Care Work and Migration
The purposes of this presentation are to clarify the mechanism of globalization of careand to clarify the strategic position of Philippines among competing sending nations,taking up cases of East Asian Economies in Asian countries: namely, Hong Kong,
Singapore, Taiwan as receiving societies and Philippines, Indonesia and Vietnam as
sending nations. Accordingly to the advent of aging, the demand for care work has been
increasing while the care has not been supplied enough due to decreasing labor force
and negative preference toward the job and lower wages for locals. This is the rationalof the introduction of foreign workers. From the standpoint of working conditions andbenefits given to foreign domestic/care workers, two sets of hierarchy are observed. One
is the hierarchy by workers’ nationality and the other is the hierarchy among receivingsocieties. Those hierarchies are reflected upon the strategy of sending countries, andimmigration and labor policies of receiving countries. Though the share of Filipino
workers in the labor market has been eroded due to aggressive strategy of emerging
sending nations like Indonesia and Vietnam by dumping workers’ working conditions,the Philippines Government has been trying to survive in the labor market competitionby emphasizing the “high quality” workers.
LOPEZ, MarioAnd God Walks in the Suburbs: On Affectivity and Dialogue within
Japanese-Filipino Marriages
From an anthropological perspective, ‘affect’ can be said to be the actualization ofvarious potentials. However, what is ‘affect’ when we deal with International Marriages
9

in Japan? Is the production of a transformation which is responding to certaintransnational and postcolonial conditions whereby gendered ‘bodies’ meet? Or is it
something more than this? This presentation probes the meanings of 'affect' within thecontext of Japanese/Filipino marriages, and how they deployed, shared and used withinlong term marriages. As part of transnational relations between Japan and thePhilippines, international marriages have continued to rise. In the context of thispresentation I will question what ‘affects’ are produced or discarded between
individuals who have met through such conditions. This presentation shares somenarratives of couples who are neighbours and whose stories are very much intertwined.
It is through the 'affects' of these individuals that I would like to comment on what binds
them together. These ‘affects’ are the sovereignty of a ‘masculine’ God and Christian
Dogma that resides within couples’ narratives. This presentation will tentatively suggestthat Christian faith and a transcendental God who walks the Japanese suburbs play
substantial roles in maintaining and creating dialogues between some couples.

■ Session 5:
Who are the Religious Others? : Process of Differentiation and Institutionalizationin the Philippines
KAWADA, Makito
Wonder in the Cave: Plurality of Local Contexts and Catholic Church
in the Philippines
Through the colonization and evangelism by Spain since 16th centuries, Filipino had
been converted voluntarily or forced to be Christians. Due to this historical background,
it seems to be no doubt that Filipino people, especially ‘lowlanders’, are well-trained
Christians which consist of majority of Filipino people until now. Of course, it goes
without saying that they are ‘real’ Christians, but is it really no way to sidestep
monolithic representation for them? In this paper, I explore a possibility to see plurality
in Filipino folk, which is usually regarded as ‘standard’ of Christian Filipino, and to findotherness for Catholicism in them. Led by splendid articles titled “The Woman in thecave” and “Stalking the Virgin” written by Resil Mojares, I adopt the practice ofworship for Virgin of Guadalupe in Cebu City as a case study. The Parish of Guadalupe
has a chapel of the cave in mountainous hinterland of the parish church. While the caveis directed as ‘holy/miraculous place’ in Catholic context, it has polysemic connotations
for the folk, such as wonder, fear, fertility, and so on. I will consider this context gap as
a production device of otherness in contemporary folk life of Filipino.
AZUMA, Kentaro
Rethinking “Folk Catholicism” in the Philippines
In this paper, I aim to rethink the concept of “folk Catholicism”, which is to analyze andto describe the religious situation in the lowland Christian Philippines. Folk Catholicism,
which was conceptualized by Frank Lynch, placed not only ‘official’ Catholic belief andpractice but also ‘non-official’ and ‘popular’ ones in the continuum of Catholicism.
Although some scholars have criticized the concept of folk Catholicism, I mainly pay
10attention to the criticism and objection raised by ordinary believers in this paper. In their
voice, elements of indigenous belief or syncretism in localized Catholicism are denied
and orthodoxy in the official Catholicism is emphasized. It is because the bearers of folk
Catholicism are not believers themselves but hegemonic discourses in the Philippines
such as Catholic Church, anthropologist and nation state. However, the potential of folk
Catholicism is still left. Originally, folk Catholicism was to shed light on the reality of
local practice against the universal but vague doctrine of Catholicism. Here, I introduce
the notion of “folk Catholicism from the below” in order to re-examine the conceptfrom the point of locality. Some case studies of popular belief and practice from myfieldwork will be shown to verify the validity of notion.
MIYAWAKI, Satoshi“Others” Described by the Philippine Catholic Church: Folk Catholicism,
Protestants, Fundamentalists, Muslims, and Other “Citizens of Good Will”
One of the most significant issues of Catholicism in the Philippines is that it is regarded
as "majority". Catholic Church authority's understanding on this Catholicism's being
majority and how it finds its place in that context has been one of the important factors
in this respect, especially since this is strongly connected to the dynamism of the
Church's involvement in socio-political issues. Inseparably related to this is that the
Church as a champion of democracy nowadays, is called to be major moral leader and at
the same time one of the equal participants of democratic process among many othersegments of the society. I will present here mainly the analyses on its official documents,
on how it deals with the difficult task of theoretically harmonizing the contradiction of
moral supremacy based on the Catholic majority and promotion of democracy, also inthe context of the various divisions inside the Church itself. Also presented here are
its categorization of non-Catholics, its characteristic approach to Protestants, Muslims,
Iglesia ni Kristo and Secularists, etc.
MORI, MasamiContested Religious Values and Practices: Legal Pluralism concerning Muslims
in the Philippines
Law has power to give the basis for a nation and a state and it also sets the boundaries insociety and categorizes the people. Legal postulates usually include the religious values
and these values come into the reality of life of the people through everyday practices.
Being minority in the Philippines, recognition and realization of the religious andcultural rights of Muslims have been one of the political considerations of both national
government and Muslims themselves. As a national institution, Muslim Personal Codeof the Philippines has been codified and implemented for almost 30 years but it stillcontains some problems and limitations. In this paper, I would like to discuss politicaland legal constellation concerning Muslims in the Philippines. For that purpose, bybriefly reviewing the regulations on marriages and divorces both in the Muslim
Personal Code of the Philippines and Family Code of the Philippines, some contested
issues are clarified. The problems and limitations of implementation of Muslim Personal
Code are also pointed out. Based on the legal anthropological research, I will, as well,present some conflict management cases in which both Muslims and Christians are11

involved to examine the possibility of a national institution.

■ Session 6:
New Discoveries of Philippine Archaeology in the Past Ten Years
RONQUILLO, Wilfredo P.
Significant Finds from a Decade of Philippine Archaeological Research: 1996-2006
Ten years after the last Philippine Prehistory Session at the International Philippine
Studies Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii Philippine archaeological researchcontinue to result in the generation of unique and important prehistoric data undertakenby the Archaeology Division of the National Museum of the Philippines. Still the only
institution undertaking archaeological research in the country on a year-round basis thedecade 1996-2006 has seen important advances in this field in spite of the limited
funding from the National Government due to the financial difficulties in the country.
The creation of the Archaeological Studies Program at the University of the Philippines,
Diliman, Quezon City in 1996 was a turning point in the history of archaeology in the
country. For the first time the academic arm of the discipline was instituted in thepremier university of the country ensuring additional archaeological researchundertakings, continued source of well-trained archaeologists some of whom arealready members of the Archaeology Division of the National Museum and a vibrantarchaeological community in the country. This paper presents a summary of theterrestrial archaeological research activities undertaken in the Philippines, data
generated to reinforce previous questionable C14 datings of important early man fossils
from the Tabon Caves and the important networks and linkages with foreignarchaeologists during this ten-year period and indicates their usefulness in the larger
Southeast Asian region archaeological community.
GARONG, Ame M.
Reconstruction of the Subsistence Strategies and Deciphering Shell Midden
Formation of the Prehistoric Shell-Gathering People in Northern Philippines
The Cagayan Valley Archaeological Project has been in existence for more than ten (10)years covering the three municipalities of Gatarran, Lal-lo and Camalaniugan. They
have been explored, surveyed and excavated focusing on shell midden sites andupland/open sites. The Cagayan River, the longest river in the Philippines runs throughthese three municipalities and it has been found out that the river has provided foodsuch as shells and fish for the inhabitants through time. Archaeological activities havebeen concentrated more in Lal-lo because of its huge and extensive shell midden
deposits. Fish and freshwater bivalve shells locally known as cabibi (Batissa sp.)abound from this river, as well as other gastropods. In 1985, twenty-one (21) shell
midden deposits were discovered by a team of archaeologists and geologists from the
National Museum of the Philippines and Japan. The sites explored were along theriverbank, limestone formation, inland and upland areas. From the 21 sites identified
thirteen (13) were systematically excavated yielding shells, animals and human bones,
potteries of different types and other cultural materials of great importance to Philippine12

archaeology. The middens ranged from 1 to 2 meters high and extended approximately
for 2 kilometers along the riverbank. Interestingly, the huge midden deposits werebasically made up of bivalve freshwater shells locally known as cabibi with minimal
number of freshwater gastropods. This present research project has studied 13 shell
midden sites including 2 upland-open sites. They have been excavated allowing for theestablishment of a local chronology. This present paper attempts to present and discuss
the possible changes in strategies and subsistence pattern of prehistoric people throughtime using the shell midden and the different cultural and faunal remains associatedwithin. The paper will also present findings that will lead to a better understanding andinterpretation of the formation of the shell midden deposit that is different from one site
to another.
TANAKA, Kazuhiko
Micro Sequence of the Iron Age Pottery of the Bangag I Shell-midden Site,
Lal-lo, Cagayan.
In prehistoric archaeology, it is very important to establish the pottery sequence as therelative time scale. The pottery sequence becomes the basis of all archaeologicaldiscussion. In the lower reaches of the Cagayan River, the large framework of thepottery sequence was established by efforts of Prof. Hidefumi Ogawa, myself and others.
However, the detail of the sequence is not yet totally clarified. My paper will give suchdetail of the sequence as the micro- sequence focusing on the Iron Age in Northern
Luzon. The Bangag I Shell-middle Site is revealed an iron fragment from Layer VI. So
it is possible to say it is the Iron Age site. It had a thick deposit of shells of thickness of
2m 80cm. This shell deposit was divided into 11 layers. All layers revealed the pottery.
On the basis of these layers, it is possible to establish the micro-sequence of thepottery. And the C14 dates are also available. The animal bone of Layer II revealed a
C14 date of 1750±30B.P. The animal bone of layer VI revealed a C14 date of 1915±50
B.P. The animal bone of layer XI revealed a 14 dating of 1965±40 B.P.
NOGAMI, Takenori
Hizen Porcelain Transported by Manila Galleon Trade
Hizen porcelain was exported from Nagasaki, Japan to Southeast Asia by the Dutch
VOC ships and Chinese junks between the late 17th century and the middle of the 18th
century. It is known that many pieces of Hizen porcelain were found at thearchaeological sites in Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia. But there
was no evidence that Hizen porcelain was exported to the Philippines before ourresearch. In March 2004, we examined the shards of porcelain unearthed at Intramuros
in Manila. Although they were mainly the shards of Chinese porcelain produced
between the late 16th century and the 19th century, we found several pieces of Hizen
porcelain for the first time. Then we have examined the shards unearthed at several
excavated sites in Manila, and we found about sixty pieces of Hizen porcelain. The
finding strongly supports that Hizen porcelain was imported to Manila, and it implies
that Hizen porcelain was transported from Manila to Acapulco by Spanish galleon ships,
because several shards of Hizen porcelain found at Intramuros were identical to theshards of blue and white plates unearthed in Mexico City and Guatemala.
13

■ Session 7:
Cross-Cultural Relationship between the Philippines and Japan
YONENO-REYES, MichiyoSongs of Modernity and “US” Shadow: Comparative Perspectives
on Salidummay and Shōka
This paper discusses the cultural impact of the “US shadow” to the northern Luzon
highland in the 20th century, as manifested by the history of the so-called salidummay
songs, a modern folk song genre of the region. The ethnographic knowledge on
salidummay is compared with secondary knowledge on shōka, Japanese pedagogicalsongs, as recent progress of Japanese musicology on Meiji era reveals. Bothsalidummay and shōka are characterized by metered rhythm and unhemitonic pentatonic
scales, thus to facilitate group singing – in unison or with simple tonal harmonization.
In other words, both reveal the traits of Anglo-Saxon Protestant hymns at the turn of the20th century which had tremendous impact at early stage of music education both in thePhilippines and Japan. Furthermore, largely because of aforementioned musical features,
the both eventually got utilized as war songs during World War II. The
ethnomusicological discourse on Westernization that hints on the trinity of church,
education and military (Nettl), interwoven with that on identity – of largely
Andersonean- serves as theoretical framework to the study.
ESPIRITU, Augusto
The Japanese in the Filipino American Imagination
My paper, "The Japanese in the Filipino American Imagination," explores the imagery
and imagining of Japan, the Japanese, and Japanese Americans in Filipino diasporic
literature in the USA, especially in the post-war (World War II) period. It will explore
the ways in which both pro-Japanese and anti-Japanese discourses were crucial to theconstruction of Filipino nationalism as well as ethnic and gender identities among
Filipinos in the United States, especially in relation to US neo-colonialism and racial
ideology.
SUZUKI, Nobue
Love Triangle: Filipinos, Japanese, and Locations of Colonial PowerIn Filipino national formation, as Vicente Rafael argues, the notion of translation has
played a vital role. Translation involves the double process of appropriating andreplacing what is foreign while keeping its foreignness in view. In this paper, I locate
the intermarriages of Filipinas and Japanese men in this translational and transnational
process in order to provide alternative views of their subject formation and spousal
power relations. While the work on Filipina-Japanese relationships predominantly
places them within the bounded gender roles and geopolitical spaces of the “North” and“South,” Filipinos’ and Japanese differential relations to the West does not actually
allow them to remain within such boundaries. In fact, Filipinos’ colonial heritages
have paradoxically empowered them with the English language and other cultural
14

capital, and to the eyes of some Japanese men their wives sometimes emerge as
powerful “Westerners.” The paper first offers some ways in which the previously
unambiguous boundaries of power are destabilized in the process of the men’stranslating Filipinos’ colonial history, as it is embodied and enacted by their wives. In
the second half of the paper, however, I explore the areas in which Filipinos’ “Western”
attributes are mistranslated, resulting in betrayals and violence.
TAKANO, Kunio
Ang Imahe ng Sudalong Hapon sa Napiling Akdang Pampanitikan
Sa apat na akda, Without Seeing the Dawn ni Stevan Javellana (1947), Mga Ibong
Mandaragit ni Amado Hernandez (1969), Pamulinawen ni Jose Bragado (1995) atWhen the Elephants Dance ni Holthe (2002), ipinapakita ang mga sundalong Hapon.
Bagamat higit na negatibo ang pagkakalarawan sa kanila, makikita natin ang sari-saring
papel na ginagampanan nila sa bawat akda. Inilarawan ni Javellana ang mga sundalong
Hapon bilang bahagi ng makasaysayang karanasan ng mga ordinaryong Pilipino na
dapat ipaalam sa susunod na henerasyon. Para kay Hernandez, ang mga sundalong
Hapon ay katumbas ng mga may-kapangyarihang Pilipinong nagsasamantala sa
kanilang mahihinang kapwa. Sa akda naman ni Bragado, si Kapitan Furikawa ay isa
ring bayani ng mga Hapon. Bagamat maaaring tingnan na isa siyang kontrabida
sapagkat sumasalungat siya sa pinuno ng gerilyang Pilipino, ipinapakita pa rin ni
Bragado ang makataong saloobin ni Furikawa, kung kaya naman, hindi nasasalamin na
mayroon siyang personal na poot dito. Sa kabilang banda, hindi man sinasadya, naisalin
sa kasalukuyang henerasyon ang mga dalumat ni Javellana sa pamamagitan ng akda ni
Holthe, isang Filipino-American na naninirahan sa California. Sa pagkakataong ito,
muling nabuo ang imahe ng mga sundalong Hapon ayon sa mga istoryang narinig niya
sa kanyang ama. Sa kabuuan, masasabing ang mga imahe ng sundalong Hapon ay
nanggagaling sa larangang pansemantiko at iniimpluwensiyahan ito ng kultural na yunit
at ideolohiya ng panahon. Ang nilikhang imahe ng manunulat ay muling nabubuo ng
mga mambabasa at ito’y nabubuo na naman sa mga taong nasa paligid hangggang
walang katapusan.
[English Translation]
The Images of Japanese Soldiers in Selected Literary Works
The Japanese soldiers are depicted in all the four literary works, which are Stevan
Javellana’s Without Seeing the Dawn (1947), Amado Hernandez’s Mga Ibong
Mandaragit (1969), Jose Bragado’s Pamulinawen (1995) and Holthe’s When the
Elephants Dance (2002). Although the delineation of the soldiers is relatively negative,
we can see their various characteristics in each works. Javellana depicted the Japanesesoldiers as a part of historical experiences among Filipino folks which should be takenover to the next generation. In Hernandez’s work, Japanese soldiers are positioned assame as Filipino capitalists and opportunists exploiting their own countrymen. Bragado
describes Captain Furikawa as another hero, but on the side of the Japanese. Although
Furikawa could be regarded as an antagonist, since he fights against Filipino guerillas,
Bragado still portrayed his humane side. Thus, there has not such personal hatred seen
in his work. On the other hand, Javellana’s thoughts and aspirations had been rendered15

to the present generation through the work of Holthe, a Filipino-American residing in
Carlifornia. This time, the images of Japanese soldiers had once again been formed
according to the stories she heard from her father. Therefore, it could be concluded thatthe images of Japanese soldiers come from the semantic field which is influenced by thecultural unit and the ideology of the time. The images created by the author are
re-formed by the readers and once again among people and so on.

■ Session 8:
Issues and Issues and Challenges of Political Reform in the Philippines and JapanTEEHANKEE, Julio C.
Comparative Electoral Reforms in the Philippines and Japan
Japan and the Philippines share a common history of extensive electoral politics.
Elections in these countries, however, have been long saddled by clientelism andpatronage politics. Hence, electoral reforms were introduced to broaden politicalparticipation and representation. Both countries adopted variations of a mixed electoral
system combining single member districts and proportional representation. The passageof the “Electoral Reform Law” in 1994 by the Japanese Diet replaced the archaic
electoral system of single non-transferable vote in multimember districts for the lower
chamber. The Philippine Congress passed the “Party List Law” in 1997 in accordancewith a constitutional provision that mandates the introduction of a list proportional
representation scheme of electing one-fifth of the members of the House ofRepresentatives. While these electoral reforms have yet to deliver on its objective offostering issue-based elections, the new systems have been tested in four elections inJapan (1996, 2000, 2003, and 2005) and three elections in the Philippines (1998, 2001,
and 2004). This paper will study the process and outcome of introducing electoral
reforms in Japan and the Philippines through a comparative institutional approach, andprovide an initial assessment of the new electoral systems adopted by these countries.
NISHIMURA, Kenichi
People’s Participation in the Local Governance in the Philippines
Fifteen years have passed since the Local Government of Code 1991 - the aims ofwhich are democratization, devolution, de-bureaucratization and decentralization - waspromulgated. To realize these aims, the law has provided several mechanisms such as
the Local Special Bodies, which include the Local Development Council. Among themain purposes of the Council is to enhance the people’s participation in the process of
local governance such as the developmental policy making and implementation. For
that purpose, the law provides that not less than one-fourth of the Council members
should be representatives of the NGOs and POs. Should the Local Development
Council have functioned as expected, the people’s participation in the local
developmental governance would have been successfully realized. However, the reality
has fallen short of expectations because the Councils have not been functioning as
provided by the law or not convened at all. With this fact as background, this paper first
explains the features of the Local Development Council and examines the way the16Council has been carried out. Then, based on the author’s field research in some of thelocal governments, the paper tries to identify the problems and discuss possible
remedies to improve the system.
IGARASHI, Seiichi
The Role of Civil Society toward Democratic Development in the Philippines
After more than a dozen years of authoritarian rule, the Philippines restored democracyby the overwhelming ‘people power’ uprising in 1986. According to some democratic
indicators, the Philippines have so far been generally evaluated as settled democracy. In
fact, surviving coups attempts, it has experienced the peaceful changes of government
via elections. But going into the details, it is often observed that democracy does not
function as expected. In spite of the 20 years’ experiences, there still remains the gap
between the democratic institutions and practices. Moreover, it is hard to say that thesubstantive dimension of democracy has been sufficiently attained. The words such as‘elite democracy,’ ‘partyless democracy,’ and ‘shallow democracy,’ seem to expose suchrealities. Hence one of the major tasks in post-Marcos era is how to transform defective
democracy into developed democracy. As leading actors in response to such need, I will
focus upon civic organizations empowered through ‘people power’ revolution. They
have tried to make restored democracy more deepened and consolidated by participatingin the decision-making processes. By overviewing their various activities, I will explore
the potentials and limits of civil society toward democratic development and prospect
the future direction of the Philippine democracy.
THOMPSON, Mark R.
Presidentas and People Power in Comparative Asian Perspective
The Philippines was not the first Asian country in modern history with a national female
leader. Sirimavo Bandanaraike became prime minister of Sri Lanka in 1960, Indira
Gandhi the leader of India in 1966. But Cory’s leadership of revolutionary andanti-authoritarian people power differed from the female-led dynastic democracies in
Sri Lanka and India. Her symbol as a moral alternative to a corrupt regime was far more
important than dynastic considerations. Cory can better be compared to former
Indonesian president Megawati Sukarnoputri who led a protest movement and was a
symbol of the opposition‘s moral ascendancy over corrupt dictatorship. Comparisons
can also be made in other Asian countries influenced by the Philippine example. The
revolutionary legacy of people power in the Philippines was evident when anotherfemale leader, Gloria Macapagal, arose during a popular, mass uprising against a
corrupt (although in this case elected) leader in 2001. But instead of establishing herself
as a moral leader, Arroyo has become a “neo-traditional politician,” mixing populist
appeals with clientelism (and her critics claim corruption and electoral fraud as well).
Female-led people power has thus come full circle: moral appeals against corrupt
autocrats have been replaced by efforts to preserve dynastic rule at all costs.

17

■ Session 9:
Dynamism of Diaspora in and out of the Philippines: History and Present
SUGAYA, Nariko
Chinese Immigrants in the Spanish Philippines: Looking through the Story of Hay
Bing or Juan Imbin of Caysasay, Taal, Batangas.
The Virgin of Caysasay is one of the well-known Catholic religious images that attract
devotees from different parts of the country. This image is unique in that it has also been
revered among Chinese Filipinos as their goddess Matzu, while Taal is the town known
to have no Chinese community. This paper shows how the Chinese immigrants in the
Spanish colony were perceived in the eyes of Spanish religious people and identifies thehistorical factors behind it. Among the miraculous stories attributed to the Virgin, themost notable is the story of Hay Bing or Juan Imbin, a Christian Chinese stonecutter,
who was killed by the local people in the massacre of 1639, but was brought back to lifeby the Virgin to continue the construction of her shrine. When his devotion to the Virginlapsed after many years, his water buffalo attacked him to death in the field. Recordedin the present form during the eighteenth century, the story suggests not only thepresence of Chinese devotion to the Virgin in the colony, but also the Spanish colonial
perception at the time of Chinese immigrants and their faith.
GYO, Miyabara
Locality beyond the Transnationality: The Biopolitics of Chinese in Cebu
In Soujourners and Settlers Jamie Mackie writes that Chinese diaspora in Southesast
Asia demonstrates cases of total integration into the host society, long-term coexistence
and competition with it, and of a variety of options in between [Mackie, 1996:xiii.]
The phrase “a variety of options in between” shows not only the history of Chinesetransnationality but also the multiplicity of the imagined Chinese overseas. Focusing on
gendered knowledge on intermarriage, reproduction, and interment, this essay illustrates
the biopolitics of the Chinese population in Cebu and the Philippines, allowing areconsideration of Chinese ethnicity. As they adapt to the global economy of the 1990s,
Anthropologists now see the mobility of the Chinese population not only in its modern
national context but also in its post-modern transnational context. Here Chinese agency
is de-territorialized, displaced, and disembodied. Furthermore, the Chinese aredescribed as essentialized beings, immediately reacting to and are even highly
vulnerable to the world’s political economy. Recently, however, a growing gap between
new-comers and old-timers has caused the Chinese in Cebu to revert back to their local
context. The politics of sexuality, reproduction, and interment provides a uniqueperspective into this re-localization of the Chinese in Cebu and in the Philippine
locality.
AFABLE, Patricia O.
Baguio's Early 20th Century Japanese Community: Culture, Society,and Work in an American Mountain Resort
Within a few years of the U.S. annexation of the Philippines, the colonial government
forged a regional space out of the northwest Luzon highlands, with the goal to exploit
18

its geographical and mineral resources. From the beginnings of a “hill station” at
Baguio, American, Chinese, and Japanese migrants and lowland Filipinos flocked there
in search of gold, commerce, and wage work. As participants in the building ofvehicular access routes into the mountains and an urban infrastructure for a summer
capital, Japanese construction workers, farmers and small merchants helped lay thefoundations of Baguio as Northern Luzon's economic and tourist capital. Improvements
in transportation in the 1910s spurred the expansion of American-sponsored forest,
mining, and agricultural industries. Alert to these opportunities, Japanese settlers moved
into commercial farming, while developing occupational and service niches in otherfields and augmenting their skilled work force with relatives from Japan. Marriages
with Cordillera women introduced them to local kin groups and to labor sources andtechnological and ritual exchange. This paper examines these initiatives within theJapanese community's broad cultural, social, and institutional responses to life and workin the multiethnic Baguio frontier. It is based on ethnographic materials, U.S. archival
sources, and oral history.
BALLESCAS, Maria Rosario Piquero
Understanding Filipino Migration to Japan
Filipino migration to Japan is analyzed within the context of history, globalization, andgender. The presentation intends to explain how, across time periods, Filipino migration
mirrors the world and the specific worlds of Japan and the Japanese as well as that of
the Philippines and the Filipinos. The presentation will also analyze the various waves
and stages of Filipino migration to Japan and the various implications of these for the 2
countries as well as for the rest of the world and for migration studies as well. The
so-called export of “care” culture, often associated with Filipino migrants, is also
included for discussion and reflection. Linking with the other discussants for this panel,the presentation hopes to ask and present initial reflections on the significance ofFilipino diaspora in today’s world. At the core of this presentation is the consultation
about and sharing of an integrative perspective of migration that highlights not only the
economic and structural but the human, social, cultural and personal dimensions of
migration as well.

■ Session 10:
History and the Politics of the Philippine Nation-StateRAFAEL, Vicente L.
The Afterlife of Empire
The Philippine nation-state, like other postcolonial regimes, is marked by an imperial
inheritance. Both Spanish and US colonial rule have left behind a certain idea ofsovereignty rooted in Christian thinking. It is an idea of sovereignty that gives the ruler
the absolute freedom to take exception to the law. Whether embodied by the king, by
the state or, in its nationalist revolutionary moment, by the people, sovereignty entails
the power to define and decide upon what is exceptional, so exceptional as to warrant
the breaking of existing laws in view of establishing new ones. The sovereign as "he19

who takes exception" is thus one who has the power of life over death. He is invested
with the capacity to decide on who should live or who should die, who is a friend andwho is an enemy, who is a citizen and who a foreigner. It is the legacy of this absolutist
notion of sovereignty that constitutes the afterlife of empire. It haunts every articulationof democracy in postcolonial societies, the ghost that both enables and poisons thenationalist struggles for freedom and social justice. In this paper, I will ask how and towhat extent this paradoxical notion of sovereignty comes about in the Philippines by
way of the history of Spanish and American imperialism, looking especially at the roleof Christian conversion, nationalist revolution and counter-revolution.
SUZUKI, Nobutaka
Assimilation or Segregation: "Moro" Muslim Integration and Agricultural Colony
Project in Cotabato, Mindanao
This paper will examine the process on how the "Moro" Muslim were, politically andsocially, integrated into an agricultural colony project. This project, originally designed
as a part of Mindanao colonization programs during the American period, was more
widely known as "rice colony" project so as to alleviate food shortage and an unequal
distribution of population over the Philippines." With regard to Mindanao colonizationand its political complexity, a number of studies and works have been so far made toreveal the political integration of the "Moro" Muslim into American colonial system andits dynamics over a century. The authors like Ralph Thomas (1971), Samuel Tan (1973),
and, more recently, Patricio Abinales (2000), Thomas McKenna (2000), Michael
Salman (2001), have, partially or briefly, dealt in their works with "rice colony" as afirst step towards successful Mindanao colonization at the early American colonial
times, however, unfortunately little has been known about a fact that such the ricecolony was planned to accept applications from not only Christians immigrants, but also
the "Moro" Muslim residing in Cotabato as primary benefactors. The statistical data
demonstrates that a surprising fact that the number of the "Moro" Muslim, allowed tosettle in the colony and provided with a parcel of land for cultivation, excelled that of
the Christian settlers migrated from densely populated regions like Cebu. It deserves
close examination that why such a number of the "Moro" Muslim were so anxious toreside in the colony site, and how they came to be recruited under the circumstanceswhere the antagonism towards the American was so strong. In this paper, in order topresent a new account, more emphasis will be placed on two dimensions: 1)"Moro"integration into the colony project by a careful examination of primary roles played bythree "Moro" datus (Datu Pinag, Datu Almada, and Datu Ampatuan), and 2) the colonial
policy and its formation towards "Moro" Muslim by the American principal
administrator on Mindanao affairs (Frank Carpenter) and military officers (Jeff Gallman
as colonial agent). As for main source of information, Bureau of Insular Affairs Records(Record Group 350), kept in the National Archives of Washington, D.C. will be used as
primary data.
JOSE, Ricardo T.
The Philippines in Japanese Military Strategic Planning, 1941-1945
Various aspects of World War II in the Philippines have been examined in various
20

studies. However, the Japanese Army and Navy’s strategic plans for the Philippines
have not received much attention, particularly during the occupation proper. This paper
will examine the Japanese Army and Navy strategic plans for three distinct periods. The
first period is the outbreak of the war until the surrender of the USAFFE forces – thereasons for invasion and subsequent takeover. The second period is the occupation
proper, from June 1942 to July 1944, when the Philippines was placed under the directcommand of Tokyo as a supply base for operations in the South Pacific, and a center for
rest and recuperation of Japanese troops from the South Pacific battlegrounds. Domestic
military policy at this time was to subdue the guerrillas whilst adjusting military needs
with Philippine “independence.” The third period marks the change in planning after thefall of Saipan, in which the Philippines became the front line. Japanese strategic plansprovided for the serious defense of the Philippines, including airfield construction,
sending of reinforcements and reorganization of military units already in the Philippines.
The paper will also identify specific military and naval units in the Philippines (at least
on a preliminary level) and where they were assigned.
AQUINO, Belinda A.
Political Reform in the Philippines: Is Federalism the Answer?
In the past five years, various groups in the Philippines, especially the Congress, havebeen actively debating the need for political reform by amending the present
Constitution to establish a federal-parliamentary form of government to replace thepresidential-unitary system that has been in existence since the country regained its
independence in 1946 from the United States. This revolutionary move is favored by the
Arroyo administration and its supporters, not only in the Congress but also in local
governments, but opposed by a whole array of groups, which argue, among otherreasons, that it is too radical a change that the country may not be prepared for. The
timing of it is also seen as "suspect," coming at a time when President Arroyo is facedwith persistent pressures to step down, and needs to defuse the escalating politicaltension. At this writing, another impeachment move is being mounted by her opponents
in the Congress. This paper will attempt to present the major issues in the debate,
which can be summarized as follows: 1) Is federalism-parliamentarism the answer to thecountry's continuing social, economic and political problems? 2) Can the present
constitutional system remain but reformed to accommodate substantial doses of local
autonomy? 3) What have been the results of various local autonomy laws, such as the
Local Government Code, which have been passed by various Congresses over theyears? And finally, 4) In terms of the people, will they be better off in terms of standardof living under a federalized structure? I will present a cautionary perspective on theissue, and opt for the view that the political problems of the Philippines are "beyond
federalism," which is to say that a real understanding of the country's political culture
would add clarity and substance to the larger question of federalism.

21

■ Session 11:
Philippine Historical Emplotments and the Politics of Culture
BAUTISTA, Julius J.
Remembering the Past through the Santo Niño de Cebu
In what ways have Cebuanos constructed or ‘revived’ a glorious past autonomous fromcolonial-prescribed emplotments of their racial and ethnic origins? How is the oldest
religious icon in the Philippines, the Santo Niño de Cebu, involved in this process? This
paper addresses the discursive ‘localization’ of the Santo Niño by examining historicalaccounts that sought to deny its foreign affiliations while supplanting to it a distinctly“Filipino” or Asian provenance. Through this discussion, this paper shall also trace how
Cebuano devotion to the Santo Niño became allegorically and metaphorically associatedwith Cebu’s own claims to political legitimacy vis-à-vis the national capital and the
Asian region as a whole.
BRIONES, Nikki Serranilla
The Staging of Christian-Muslim Conflict
The Moro-Moro, a theater form that features Christian soldiers in combat with Muslims,
was a popular form of entertainment in Christianized parts of Spanish Philippines.
Discussions on the Moro-Moro, from Spanish scholars to present writers, make use of a
“Christian-Moro Conflict framework” for describing the origins and function of thisform of theater. The Moro-Moro is commonly seen to have emerged out of a historicalcontext of “Moro Wars,” and is believed to have been used by colonial authorities tocommemorate Spanish victory over Moros in promoting the superiority of their race andreligion. The continued staging of the Moro-Moro in contemporary times caused some
representatives of the Moro nation to call for the eradication of this type of theater as it
creates unfair portrayals of Muslims. The Moro-Moro is traditionally performed as anoffering to a town's patron saint and forms part of the fiesta rituals of Christiantownsfolk. This paper specifically looks at Christian performers’ portrayal of their“Muslim other.” Using data gathered from recent Moro-Moro performances, I shallpropose a counter-intuitive notion: that capacity for peace can be manifested in a theaterof war. I will endeavor to escape the “Christian-Moro Conflict framework” by revisiting
the question of origins and showing that Moro-Moro performances today, while
successfully retaining a lot of traditional elements, have slowly evolved toaccommodate growing sensitivity towards Moros, and now put Christians and Muslims
on a more equal footing on stage.
NAMIKI, Kanami
Japanese Influence on Philippine Theater Folkdance
Leonor Orosa Goquinco, a National Artist for Dance, pioneered a new genre oftheatricalized dance called Folkloric Ballet which paved the way for the development ofPhilippine Theater Folkdance in the late 1950's. I will analyze the historical emplotment
used by Orosa Goquinco in her production entitled “Trend: Return to the Native,” whichis the country's first theatricalized folkdance presentation. In “Trend,” the history ofPhilippine dance styles was traced in five segments, namely: Primitive (Cordillera),22

Morolandia (Muslim), Asalto (Spanish Influenced), American Jazz, and finally, the New
Native. I will show how the “New Native” meant a new creative Philippine theater
dance which was a mixture of foreign and local elements.This paper will also examine
the context in which “Trend” was created and explore two ways in which a Japaneseconnection could be established. First, Orosa Goquinco was part of the first Philippine
Cultural Mission to Japan in the late 1930's, right before she staged “Trends.” Second,
the Japanese Cultural Propaganda's emphasis on Asian heritage could have encouraged
the development of Folkdance Theater such that some historians claim that during theJapanese Occupation, there was a “golden age of theater,” a period when numerous
theater productions using native material were staged.

■ Session 12:
Ecology, Environment and Socio-Economic Issues of the Philippines
BAUTISTA, Germelino M.
The Philippine Environmental Crisis, Ecological Losses, and Policy Frameworks
This article discusses depletion or loss of the country’s natural capital (its forests,
watersheds, rivers, mangroves, coral reefs and other habitats) and identifies theimmediate and underlying causes of deforestation, biodiversity loss, watershed andwater quality degradation, mangrove and coral reef destruction, and fishery depletion.
As a result, the natural provision of ecological services and their support to humancommunities is also curtailed. The article advances the need to evaluate theconsequences and costs of ecological losses and the need to address the limitations ofexisting policy frameworks. In particular, the state’s commodity bias and forestlandclassification and use policy, and the open-access system in marine and water resources
need to be reexamined. The article also discusses the groundwater depletion in major
cities, urban air pollution problem and its health impacts, and climate change and global
warming. The contribution of the American economy to the global warming problem
and the non-acceptance of the Kyoto protocol by the Bush administration cast an
ominous future for coastal areas and the global community as a whole.
SEKI, Yoshiki
Regenerating Tropical Forest in Complex Adaptive System: From Illegal
Logging to Sustainable Forestry
Commercial logging operations in the Philippines are almost end after heavy
exploitation of timber resources. However, illegal logging is still rampant. Many ofillegal loggers are previously logging workers employed by timber companies thosebecame jobless after logging ban. In this presentation, a case is analyzed that illegal
loggers choose to shift their livelihood to sustainable small-scale plantation forestry.
Loggers have been becoming planters. Complex Adaptive System theory is adopted toanalyze this historical phenomenon. Because this is a morphogenesis system emerged
through interactions of many elements such as depletion of natural resources, rise oftimber price, land tenure, community organization, people's consciousness, technology,
and other institutional arrangements by the government. Illegal loggers have tried to23adapt changes of external elements such as market, natural environmental condition,and institution by changing their internal cultural elements (meme). I will also point out
problems of present CBFM program that often becomes an obstacle of spontaneous
shift. Some recommendations will also be proposed how to revise CBFM program.
HAYAMA, Atsuko
Devolution in Forest Management: Creating New Space for Local Interests
or for Public Goods?
In the Philippines, the state forest management has been strong as well as weak. Whenthe country was then thickly forested, the State had been subsumed into strong market
drives, and with its laws and regulations, the State could easily replace local forest
management practices. However, it hardly been able to restore forests in extended
deforested state forest lands despite related laws and regulations as well as various
programs. Therefore, institutional arrangements such as those under Local Government
Code and Community-Based Forest Management policy in which state control over theforest lands are devolved into the local level are rational, enabling local communities
and civil society to take part in forest governance. Devolution in forest management is a
new challenge not only to local communities, local governments and civil society but
also to the central government which still doubts the managerial ability of the local
institutions. It is observed that many communities are still posited as mere participantsof the state programs blueprinted by the central government, eventually failing toachieve its goal. Whether devolution in forest management function well or not relies on
how much new space is created by the State for the process of reaching mutual
consensus among different stakeholders, especially the local communities, local
government and the State.
MAKABENTA-IKEDA, Maria P. & CARLOS, Maria Reinaruth
Filipino Migrant Location Decision: Effects of Market Potential, Qualityof Life and Information Networks
This paper analyzes market potential in the context of migrant location decision. Market
potential is a measure of likely demand for migrant labor given his individual skills andcharacteristics. New Economic Geography theories predict that the higher the market
potential in a region is, the more profitable the region is for businesses and the more
attractive it is for consumers to locate-- thus triggering agglomeration forces for
production and consumption activities to cluster in that region. The contribution of thispaper is twofold: 1) to empirically test the above relationship using data of Filipino
migrants and 2) to examine the effects of non-market income aspects by analyzing theeffects of perceived quality of life (such as community and family life, health, politicalstability and freedoms, etc.) on the migration decision. In addition to this, we also
explain the role of information networks as "drivers" (or catalysts) in the migration
process. The hypothesis is that these information networks have indirect feedback
effects on international migrant location decision by affecting the formation ofperceived overseas market potential and quality of life conditions.

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■ Session 13:
Individual Papers on Political Economy in the Philippines
TAKAGI, Yusuke
Breaking a Spell of Lande: Philippine Party Switching Revisited
The study of Philippine politics seems to have overestimated the works of Carl H.
Lande for decades. It is true that Lande has successfully traced party switching, act ofpoliticians who would switch to the likely or actual winning party before and after
election, to the disposition of political parties to seek economic profit without particularadherence to policy or ideology. This influential Lande’s framework on political parties,
however, deserves three fundamental questions. First, he fails to pay much attention to
the stability of two-major party system from 1946 to 1972. Second, his analysis on party
switching contradicts the fact that most politicians have not actually switched their party
affiliations. Under two-major party system with a total of seven elections, large-scale
party switching only occurred three times and pork-barrel motivations does not provide
full explanations to it. Finally, the total of party switching over a period of time doesn'treflect frequency. Unlike Lande’s theory, that party switching occurred only on rareoccasions explains the facts that the predominant one-party system did not emerge andthat the major opposition party did not significantly diminish its ability to seize power. I
tackle these points with using Lande’s as well as own-research data.
SAKUMA, Miho
Local Politics and Development in the Philippines
This study is an analysis of the relationship between Philippine local politics anddevelopment with great emphasis on the local government related laws. Economic
development has been elusive to the Philippines and it is often said that “too muchpolitics” is to blame. The local economy has often been discussed in association withthe rise and fall of political families/leaders. Some studies have emphasized the
predatory character of these political families/leaders. However, after the Aquino
administration introduced a set of decentralization laws, the emergence of creativity andinnovation at the local level has been observed. Through case studies on local
government-led export processing zone project, this paper shows that there have been
local governments that continue implementing these projects for almost ten consecutive
years. Such long-term local development efforts have not been reported before. The
paper aims to propose a framework that can accommodate developmental local
politicians/governments as well as predatory ones. The paper also analyzes what makes
failures and successes of the said development projects through case studies anddiscusses what makes local governments/politicians as developmental or predatory.
OTA, Kazuhiro
The Impact of Japan’s ODA on Philippine Politics
The paper examines how the Japan’s ODA influenced the decision making process in
Philippine politics, focusing on Metro Cebu Development Project. The dynamism ofPhilippine politics is determined not only by domestic factors but also by external
factors. It is the case especially in the era of liberal globalization. Metro Cebu
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Development Project funded by JBIC (formerly OECF) is unique in that a part of the
programs are planned and implemented directly by the local government based on thedecentralization policy. The main points to be considered here are: Firstly, to what
extent both of the national and local governments hold autonomy in the decision making
process with regard to the large ODA funded project, where there exist implicit
pressures by the donor government. Secondly, how the civil sectors like the urban poor
relate themselves to the decision making and implementation processes of the project.
In some cases, it is not the local government but the donor government that takes aninitiative to protect the rights claimed by the civil sectors affected by the project. The
power relation might be changing in this process.
KURITA, Hideyuki
Can the Philippines Overcome ‘Resource Curse’? Institution for Sustainable
Development of Natural Resources under the Context of Glocal Network
The correlation between abundant of natural resources and social instability, especially
economic stagnation is called ‘Resource Curse’. The Philippines is one of such trappedcountries. Richness of mineral resources was one of main reasons for debt crisis during
Marcos era. Moreover, from Spanish period up to now, development of natural
resources has always caused strong conflicts. The institution for sustainable
development of natural resources established by initiative of the World Bank and UNDP
aims to overcome social instability. The Philippines is one of the first countries which
introduced the institution. Under the institution, self-regulation of TNCs (Trans National
Corporations) including international financial organizations is the key to coverinsufficient ability of other stakeholders. Implementation of the institution soon
produced two aspects. In spite of principle in the institution, strong conflict and serious
damages still occur all over the Philippines. On the contrary, some cases where affected
people can gain negotiation power to mitigate their damages through NGO network hascome to be observed. This report focuses on these two aspects by two glocal networks,
both stretched from local to global level, to show that the institution should beanalyzed by glocal context, and to explicit the dilemma of development.

■ Session 14:
Individual Papers on Labor and Migration of the Philippines
CHIBA, Yoshihiro
The Formation of Regional Zone: Labor Mobility in Manila and Central Luzon
from the 19th Century to the Early 20th Century
This study discusses the labor mobility in a regional zone of Manila and Central Luzon,
from the nineteenth to early twentieth century. From the late eighteenth century, thePhilippine islands were incorporated into the world capitalistic economy and the several
regions specialized the agricultural crops to sugar, abaca, tobacco, coconut and rice. Up
to the end of the nineteenth century, Manila, Iloilo and Cebu organized the flow of laborand goods, in addition to Sulu. Here it is important to regard Manila as a knot of theregional economy incorporating the Central Luzon. However, in the Central Luzon, the26

area including the provinces of Tarlac and Nueva Ecija absorbed many Filipino
immigrants northward from the provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan, and southward
form Ilocano region and Pangasinan province. Until the 1920s, in Manila and Central
Luzon, the village to village mobility had predominated rather than the village to city
mobility. Nevertheless, up to the end of the nineteenth century, Manila had accepted theimmigrants from a neighboring coastal area of Manila Bay including Bulacan andPampanga provinces. Such labor mobility made the employment structure that thepeople from the Central Luzon predominated in over American colonial times.
NORIMATSU, Suguru
Japanese Perception of Asia Reconstructed through Oriental Championship:
Focusing on the Boxing Exchanges between Japan and the Philippines in the
1950’s & 1960’s
This study considers how the games against the Filipino pugilists in the Boxing Oriental
Championship excited Japanese people. It is shown that these games foster Japanese a
new perception of Asia instead of “the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”. Most
scholars concluded the friendly dialogue between them must have been limited, because
the harsh occupational policy by Japanese army had provoked Filipino’s antipathies.
However, in 1952, four years before the Philippines ratified the reparations agreementwith Japan and their peace treaty, both promoters had already held the first Oriental
Championship in postwar Japan. The number of games for the belt amounted to 84
times in 1950’s (the Philippines vs. Japan games mainly). Boxing became important
contents prior to Pro-Wrestling at the dawn of TV broadcast. Therefore I interviewed
the people concerned “Flash” Elorde, ex-Oriental and ex-World Champion, who had led
the Japanese boxing to the world standard. The results are as follows. Oriental
championship was originally the pretense to draw audience to boxing game.
Nevertheless the title encouraged Japanese, and make them venerate the Philippines
produced many Oriental titleholders. It means the exchanges provided Japan with anelementary mutual understanding for a kind of reunion with Asia.
TESHIGAWARA, Kayoko
International Labor Migration of Filipino Nurse: The Commercialized Medical
Japanese government is planning to start to receive Filipino nurses from this year
through FTA in order to make up for the shortage of nurses in Japan. I, having beenworking as a nurse in Japan, am interested in what is connote in nurses immigration in
Japan. And I suspect that the government and investors are trying to hire Filipino nurses
with lower salary than Japanese nurses to arrange privatization of the public hospitals.
Thus I started to study. Generally, the studies about the exodus of nurses are focused on
the background of the exodus and the negative impact on the quality of the medical
skills in the Philippines. However this study will interpret the exodus of the nurses as
one of the maladies of the commercialized medical through the perspective of the peace
study. This study will focus on the people who are left in the shortage of health service
in the Philippines and reveal the existence of people who are deprived the health serviceof a human right by commercialized medical. Although, it is said that Filipino nurse
labor migration interrupt an improvement of the Philippines’ medical condition, I
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suppose that it is not appropriate. I mean that the privatization and the corruption wouldinterrupt the improvement of the medical condition in the Philippines. So this time, I
would like to report about this point.
SEO, Okja
Filipino “Entertainers” in US Military Camptowns in South Korea: Beyond theRepresentation of “Victims of Tafficking”
The focus of this paper is on the Filipino women working as “entertainers” in sex
industry around US military camptowns in South Korea. They are the largest group of
foreign women involved in the military prostitution. Thus, they are chosen for shedding
light on a relationship between US military bases and migration of women. This paper
examines the representation of Filipino entertainers, which is “victims of
trafficking”. Much of the existing scholarship on Filipino women working in overseas
sex industry focuses exclusively on the problems such as poor working conditions,
exploitation, human rights abuse etc., identifying this phenomenon as migration that has
been achieved through force or deception for the purpose of coerced prostitution orsexual slavery. In this sense, the Filipino entertainers appear as socio-structural“victims”, who have been forced out from their own country as well as “victims ofinternational trafficking”. However, I have found that they are not just “victims” rather
they are material subject making their own histories through the fieldwork. Fieldwork
research has been conducted in Kyeonggi-do area for 8months in 2005.

■ Session 15:
Individual Papers on Culture, Communication and Socio-Economic Issues
in the Philippines
SERIZAWA, Takamichi
The Exploitation of Mankayan Copper Mining during Japanese Occupation
Period: Focusing on Local Miners Cooperating with Mitsui Mining Company
I will examine the complicated “encounter” of Japanese occupation and modern mining
exploitation in the Philippines, by virtue of focusing on local miners cooperating with
Mitsui Mining Co. Mankayan copper mining is located in Cordillera Mountains innorthern Luzon where supply of mineral resources is abundant. When the Pacific War
has broke out in 1941, Japanese imperial government decided to send a detachment of
Mitsui Mining Co. to Mankayan for securing military supply exhausted by long wars in
China. Before the detachment arrived at January 1942, Mankayan was destructed by
USAFFE guerrilla. It is a well known fact that anti-Japanese movement was held more
intense in the Philippines than in other South East Asian nations. Destroying Mankayan
was also meant crucial issue for local miners becoming unemployed. Under Americancolonial period in the 1920’s, A large number of capitals has been invented in this area,and local people have been converted to low pay miners. Mitsui Mining Co. could
manage this mining around 2 and half years because of mobilization of, and cooperation
with local miners who once lost their job. But at the same time, these local miners alsoneeded to support guerrilla for not being target of guerrilla attacks. I will explore this28

complicated relationship among the detachment, local miners, and guerrilla, whilemainly analyzing a memoir of the detachment edited in Mistui Company in 1974.
FUJII, Miho
Social Relations in a Small Coconut Farming Community: A Case Study of"Itaas" in Laguna (Philippines)
This is a research on land-related activities in a rural community in the Philippines.
Research on land in the Philippines has mainly dealt with lowland rice farming andlandowner-tenant relationship. This research, on the other hand, focuses on small
coconut landholders in an upland area in Laguna province. It probes the history of socialand economic relations that arose from activities related to coconut land. The slopes ofMount Banahaw in Laguna province are called “itaas” by the people in the province.
The people who live in the “itaas” claim that they do not have land-tenancy
relationships unlike in lowland rice farming areas, and there is not much gap between
the economic and social classes. This research finds that the existing social relations inthis area revolves around the concept of “maylupa”. People respect those who are“maylupa” (literally, people who own land) who occupy a higher social rank. The
concept of “maylupa” does not seem to have mere economic meaning (in terms of landpossession, productivity, etc.) but underlies the basic values of the people. A “maylupa”
is a descendant of a person considered to be a “maylupa”, inherited most of the land,
and resides on it. Being a “maylupa” means having honor and prestige which should betranslated into everyday behavior. The “maylupa” has to manage the land well (keep it
clean and productive), celebrate village fiesta and religious events with much feasting,generously offer food and drink to others on ordinary occasions, and provide alms to thepoor for their daily needs. These community expectations on “maylupa” means that land
has a complex meaning, consisting of economic and social values. The ancestors of thevillagers started cultivating land on the slopes of Mount Banahaw in late 19th century.
Since then the village started to develop. This research explains the social relations thatdeveloped between the “maylupa” and those who are not. It also describes the conflicts
among members of the same family arising from land inheritance, the attempt of somevillagers to gain the social status of “maylupa”, the occasional disharmony in thecommunity, the history of the “bayan” (poblacion) where the village ancestors comefrom, and the influence on the village of social and economic changes in the province
and the country.
HIRAI, Akira
The Change in the People's Communication: From the Study of the Grass Root
Religious Activities in Negros Occidental, the Philippines
The present writer is continuing citizens’ own solidarity and survey through exposure in
Negros Occidental, the Philippines, as a practice of “Communication that surmounts
developmentalism”. A communication (the process of "conscientization") that thepeople recognizes the violence which threatens their subsistence is done and thecommunication to share that recognition among the community and to appeal a joint
struggle to outside is also done in “Kalbaryo”, a stage play of the Passion being done byyoung farmers there during every Holy Week. In other words, Kalbaryo is realized once29

as a process of the communication that surmounts developmentalism that protects
subsistence. But in the reality, far from getting over developmentalism, it is in theconditions pointed out even deterioration with Kalbaryo. The path of Kalbaryo, whichbegan as an autonomous movement of expression by the rural youth, is analyzed incomparison to the case of BCC (Basic Christian Community) activities in the urban
squatters area in this paper. Conscientization argued by Paulo Freire is possible to berealized between the people and the Catholic Church that has performed double roles in
the Philippine history, isn’t it? The problems of the grass root peoples’ religious
networking movement and possibility of conscientization are verified.
DOCOT, Ma. Ledda Brina
Cultural Diplomacy of Japan to the Philippines: The Case of Japan Foundation
Manila and its Eiga Sai Program
In the last decade, Japan Foundation Manila Office (JFMO) has been the primary andlegitimate institution that acts towards the delivery projects aimed at cultural diplomacy
of Japan to the Philippines. Japan Foundation, as an evolving organization, engages in acontinuous process of adjustment and readjustment of its annual cultural programs tosuit the similarly changing cultures of target countries. Like all other Japan Foundation
offices worldwide, the processes involved in the selection of activities that seek toshowcase Japanese culture to the Philippines, bring about discussions on how legitimate
organizations define and redefine representations of Japan and Japaneseness, howpatterns of selections are paralled to mainstream local culture, and how the selected
respresentations coincide with the popular Japanese culture that had already penetrated
local preferences. This paper considers JFMO’s sustained Eiga Sai (Film Festival)
project to identify its patterns of selection of cultural representations. By looking at theorganizational evolution of the Japan Foundation, the continued mainstreaming ofJapanese popular culture in the Philippines, while also considering thepolitical-economic atmosphere between the two countries, this paper seeks to discuss
the processes undertaken by the JFMO in the selection of projects targeting cultural
diplomacy.

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