City Sanitation Strategies:
Wastewater Management Planning in JapanHow City Sanitation has progressed
In-Country Workshop for Developing Sanitation Strategy
Promoting Innovation Wastewater Management (ADB）
15-16 July 2013, Hanoi, Vietnam

Mitsuo Kitagawa
Japan Sanitation Consortium
1

CONTENTS; CITY SANITATION STRATEGY; The experience of Japan
I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS
I-1. Legal System for Sanitation Systems
I-2. Technology Options for Drainage and Treatment of WastewaterI-3. Institutional and Management Arrangements
I-4. Financial System for Sewerage Systems
II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-1. Project Planning

II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning
II-1-2. Concept of Cost Comparison between Off-site and On-site
II-1-3. Prefectural Plan for Appropriate Wastewater Treatment
II-1-4. Formulation of Project Plan
II-1-5. Technology Options; Technology Evaluation and Design ManualII-2. Operation and MaintenanceII-2-1. Institutional and Management Arrangement s(Human Resource Development, Capacity Development, R&D)
II-2-2. Financial System for Sanitation(Willingness To Pay, Public Awareness, Public Relation)
II-2-3. Management of Sanitation Systems
III. CONCLUSION

2

Objectives of CSS; City Sanitation Strategy(1) Improvement of Living Condition(2) Improvement of Public Health(3) Preservation of Water Quality in Public Water Bodies

I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS(1) Legal System: Basic Law for Environmental Protection
Water Quality Control Law
City Planning Law
Sewerage Law, Johkasou Law(2) Technology Options for Drainage and Treatment of Wastewater
Off-site Treatment, On-site Treatment(3) Institutional and Management Arrangements
Role of Central Government and Municipality
Project Implementation Organization , JS: Japan Sewage Works Agency
Private Sector Participation, Public Private Partnership(4) Finance System for Sanitation
Establishment of Construction and O&M Cost Sharing Principles
Construction Cost: Subsidy, Local Bond, User Charge
O&M Cost: User Charge, Public Sector Cost Burden
3

I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS
I-1. Legal System for Sanitation Systems
1. Basic Law for Environmental Protection(1) Sets up the Environmental Quality Standards
Items on Protection of Human Health
Items on Conservation of living Environment(Classified based on Water Usage)(2) Stipulates to Take Countermeasures for Pollution Control

2. Water Pollution Control Law(1) Sets the Effluent Wastewater Standards from Factories andPlaces of Business. (Specific Place of Business)
National Standards(2) Prefecture Government Can Set Several Effluent Standards
Wastewater Treatment plant; Specific Place of Business4

I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS
I-1. Legal System for Sanitation Systems
3. City Planning law
Sewerage System is defined as Urban Facility

4. Sewerage Law(1) Purpose of Sewerage
・ Prevention of Flood・ Improving the Surrounding Environment
・ Switching Flushing Toilet
・ Prevention of Water Quality in Public Water Bodies(2) Comprehensive Basin -wide Sewerage Development Program・ Basic Policy for the Development of Sewerage Systems
・ Areas for the Development of Sewerage Systems
・ Location, Structure and Capacity of Basic Sewerage Facilities
・ Stage Planning for the Execution of Sewerage Construction Projects
5

I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS

I-1. Legal System for Sanitation Systems
4. Sewerage Law(3) Administration of Sewage works
The installation, improvement, repair, maintenance and otherworks required for controlling public sewerage shall be
executed by the municipality concerned.
・ Municipalities; in charge of Public sewerage・Prefectures ; in charge of Regional sewerage system(More than 2 Cities)(4) Procedures for Development of Sewerage Systems
・ Approval of Sewerage Project Program by Ministry of Land
Infrastructure and Transport(5) Use of Sewer Systems
・ Obligation for house Connection
・ Switching to Flush Toilets
・ Users Charge

6I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS
I-2.Technology Options for Drainage and Treatment of Wastewater
Off-site Treatment; Sewerage Systems (Night Soil Treatment in Japan)
On-site Treatment; Johkasou,

WWTP

7

I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS
I-3. Institutional and Management Arrangement
Role of Central Government and Municipality
Table : Project Implementation Organizations
Type of
SystemProject Program

Project Implementation
Organization

Off-siteNight Soil Treatment Facility(MOE)

Municipality

On-siteJohkasou (MOE)

Individuals or
Municipality

Off-site

Sewerage System
Public Sewerage System (MLIT)
Rural Sewerage System (MAFF)
Community Plant (MOE)

Municipality[JS: Japan Sewage
Works Agency]

Note; Project Implementation (construction, O&M, and renewal)

The responsible Ministry in each program

Key and fundamental organization for
nationwide budget, establishment of technical standards,
project evaluation, enactment of laws and regulations
basic frameworks, and long and middle-term plans

8I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS
I-4. Finance System for Sewerage Systems
Table : National Subsidy Ratio

Classification

Sewer Pipes

Ratio of
National
Subsidy

Cost Sharing
Ratio of Local
Governments

1/2

1/2

Granted Project
Unsubsidized Project

Wastewater
Treatment
PlantsGranted Project

10/10
5.5/104.5/10

Unsubsidized Project

10/10

Note : All of the costs shared by local governments are covered by local bonds
Table: Financial Sources of Sewage WorksNational Grant
Construction Cost

Maintenance Cost
Genera Account Budget

For Wastewater
Ｗａｓｔｅ

Local Government

User Charges(General Account Budget)

Local Bond Issue(Prefecture Subsidy)
Beneficially Payment

Maintenance Cost
For Stormwater
Ｗａｓｔｅ

Establishment of Construction and O&M Cost Sharing Principles“Stormwater at public burden and Wastewater at private burden”

General Account Budget
9II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
Establishment of Project Planning and O&M Concept
for City Sanitation(Drainage and Treatment ofWastewater)II-1 Project Planning
II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide PlanningIf rivers and other public water bodies or coastal areas, to which the‘environmental water quality standards’ is applied to maintain asound living environment in relation to water pollution as provided
for in the Basic Environmental Law,each prefecture shall set forth a comprehensive basic plan for the
installation or development of sewerage systems (‘comprehensive
basin-wide planning of sewerage system’)for the respective public water bodies or coastal areas
in order to bring the environmental conditions of the subject area
to environmental water quality standards
10Lakes (natural lakes and artificial reservoirs with 10 million m³ of water or above)
Standard values

Items
pH
Categoly

ChemicalSuspended

Dissolved

Number of

OxygenSolids

Oxygencoliform

Demand(SS)(DO)

groupsAA

6.5-8.5≦1mg/L≦1mg/L≧7.5mg/L≦50MPN/100mLA

6.5-8.5≦3mg/L≦5mg/L≧7.5mg/L≦1,000MPN/100mL

B

6.5-8.5≦5mg/L≦15mg/L≧5mg/LC

6.0 -8.5≦8mg/L

Floating matter≧2mg/Lsuch as garbage
should not be
observed
Items

Total

Total

Purpose of water use

NitrogenPhosphorus

Conservation of natural environment≦0.1mg/L≦ 0.005

Category
Ⅰ

Standard values

mg/LⅡ

Water supply. Fishery type 1. Bathing≦0.2 mg/L≦0.01mg/L

Ⅲ

Water supply class 3 (special types)≦0.4 mg/L≦0.03mg/L

Ⅳ

Fishery type 2≦0.6 mg/L≦0.05mg/L

Ⅴ

Fishery type 3. Industrial water.

≦1 mg/L≦0.1mg/L

AA: Water supply, class 1; Fishery,class 1 ; Conservation of naturalenvironment.
A : Water supply, class 2 and 3 ;Fishery, class 2 ; Bathing.
B : Fishery, class 3 ;Industrial water, class 1 ;Agricultural water.
C : Industrial water, class 2 ;Conservation of environment.

Agricultural water. Conservation of
the living environment11II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning
Location of Lake Biwa
andYodo River basin area

Kyoto

Otsu

Osaka

12

II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning
Catchment area of Lake Biwa in
Yodo River basin area

Size of a catchment area
・Yodo river :8,200km2
・Lake Biwa :3,800km2
13II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning
To meet the Environment Standards, allocation of pollution
load reduction in accordance with Pollution Source is necessary
Calculation and Allocation of Pollution Load in the River Basin
Present Pollutant Loads

Allowable Pollutant Load

Domestic Wastewater

Measures
Domestic WastewaterIndustrial WastewaterIndustrial WastewaterLive StockLivestock
Live Stock

OthersOthersNon Point Source

Non Point Source

Sewerage System
On-site Systems
Regulation
Treatment Facility

14

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS

II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning
Planning for Drainage and Treatment of Domestic Wastewater
to meet the Water Quality Standards
CONTENTS• Target Area, Coverage Area
Area-wide Sewerage System (more than 2 cities)
Number and Location of WWTPs in Administrative Area
Main Pipe Route, Number and Location of Pumping Stations
On-site Treatment Area

• Wastewater Inflow Quantity and Quality•Required Treated Water Quality and Treatment Processes

15II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS

II-1-2. Concept of Cost Comparison between Off-site and On-site
Cost per capita
construction & operation and maintenance（

WWTPequilibrium point
Domestic wastewater treatment

Sewerage treatment

density of population）

Domestic wastewater treatment
Is cost-effective

Sewerage treatment system
is cost-effective
16

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-1-3. Prefectural Plan for Appropriate Wastewater Treatment

Rural Sewerage

Specific Environmental
Protection Sewerage

JoukasouSewerage(red)Domestic Wastewater
Treatment Tank (white)
Rural Sewerage

凡

例

公共下水道
整

特環公共下水道

備手

農業集落排水法
漁業集落排水合併処理浄化槽

17

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS

II-1-4. Formulation of Project Plan
Sewerage Law (Article 4)

The official in charge of managing public sewerage systems(general manager of public sewerage systems) shall formulate
a project plan, as specified by Cabinet Order, when he wishes
to implement a public sewerage system.
The general manager of public sewerage systems shall confer
with the prefectural governor (or the Minister of Land
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in the case of a planningspecified by Cabinet Order) when he formulates a project plan.
A project plan shall be suited to a comprehensive basin-wide
sewerage plan which has been initiated in the area of the
18
project.

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS

II-1-4. Formulation of Project Planning
Sewerage Law (Article 5)
Matters to be set forth in the Project Planning
In the project planning, each of the following matters shall bedefined.
1. Layout, structure and capacity of the sewer system (including
auxiliary facilities), and planned disposal areas.
2. Layout, structure and capacity of the sewage treatment plantof the location where it joins the regional sewerage system.
3. In installing treatment plants (including auxiliary facilities),
other than the sewage treatment, layout, structure andcapacity of such facilities shall be specified.
4. Scheduled date of initiating and completing the work
19

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS

II-1-4. Formulation of Project PlanningStandard of Approval, Sewerage Law (Article 6)
1. The location and capacity of the public sewerage system are properly
set up in consideration of precipitation, population, and other factorsthat may influence the amount and the water quality (including watertemperature and other conditions of water), of sewage in the area,
topography, land utility and situations of the area where the effluent
is to be discharged.
2. The structure of the public sewerage system meets the technicalstandards specified in the Sewerage Law.
3. The planned disposal area is suitable for the location and capacity ofthe sewer system and sewage treatment plant.
4. The working plan shall be suited to the comprehensive basin sewerageplan which has been initiated for the area.
20II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-1-5. Technology Options
Technical Standards for Wastewater Treatment Processes (Off-site)
Planning Final Effluent
Water Quality(mg/l)

Additional Treatment
Typical Wastewater Treatment Process

Item
ＢＯＤ

Ｔ-Ｎ

1

Ｔ-Ｐ

Addition
Addition
Rapid
of
of
Filtration
Organic
Caogulant
Mattter>0.5

Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic Process

○

○

○

0.5-1

Recycled Nitrification / Denitrification Process

○

○

○

3

1-3

Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic Process

○

○

4

−

Recycled Nitrification / Denitrification Process

○

○

>1

Recycled Nitrification / Denitrification Process○

1-3

Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic Process○−

Recycled Nitrification / Denitrification Process

○

2

5
6

>10

>10

10-20

7
8

−

>1

Anaerobic-Oxic Activated Sludge Process

○

9

−

1-3

Anaerobic-Oxic Activated Sludge Process

○

10

−

−

Conventional Activated Sludge Process○>3

Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic Process−

Recycled Nitrification / Denitrification Process−>3

Anaerobic-Oxic Activated Sludge Process−−

Conventional Activated Sludge Process

11
12
13
14

>20
10-15

Same Level of Conventional Activated Sludge Process: OD, SBR, BAF, etc

○

○

21

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS

II-1-5. Technology Options
Based on the Technology Evaluation and Design and O&M Manual
Types of Wastewater Treatment Processes in Japan (in 2008)
Maximum Daily Flow (×1000?/day)
5～10 10～50 50～100 100～500

Process
1. Secondary Treatment
Activated Sludge Processesa) Conventional Activated Sludge Process（Step Aeration Process)b) Oxidation Ditch Processc) Sequencing Batch Reactord) Extended Aeration Processe) Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge Process
Fixed-film processesa ) Aerobic Bioｆilter（Biological Anaerobic-Aeroxic Filter）
b ) Contact Aerationc ) Soil Covering-type Grabel Contactor
2. Advanced Treatmenta ) Recycled Nitrification/Denitrification Processb ) Nitrification/Endogenous Denitrification Processc ) Step-feed Multistage Nitrification/Denitrification Processd ) Anaerobic-oxic Activated Sludge Processe ) Anaerobic-anoxic-oxic Activated Sludge Processf ) Advanced Treatment Oxidation Ditch Process

＜
5

500＜

Total

41
0
804
61
36
1

53
0
93
9
7
2

325
1
33
2
3
3

119
2
0
0
0
2

126
2
0
0
0
2

12
0
0
0
0
0

676
5
930
72
46
10

24
42
12
29

5
2
0
0

0

0

0

0

1
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

29
44
13
29

5
1

4
0

11
1

1
0

7
0

0
0

28
2

2
14
0
47

2
0
4
10

9
5
7
0

4
3
9
0

6
10
15
0

0
0
1
0

23
32
36
57

10
0
0
1
32
1,162

6
2
0
0
9
208

1
2
0
1
12
417

1
0
1
0
2
144

0
0
0
0
8
176

0
18
0
4
0
1
0
2
0
63
13 2,120

3.Othersa) Rotating Biological Contractorb ) High-rate Trickling Filter(Trickling Filter)c) Primary Treatment (Sedimentation)d) Others
TOTAL

22

II-1-5. Technology Options
Technical Standards for Wastewater Treatment Processes (On-site)

Technology Evaluation and Design and O&M ManualII. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-2. Operation and MaintenanceII-2-1 Institutional and Management Arrangements• Role of Central Government and Municipality• Project Implementation Organization(Project Responsible Organization)• Private Sector Participation,• Public Private Partnership (Share of Responsibilities, Risk management)(Service Contract, Managing Contract, Lease, Concession, Privatization,etc.)•Human Resource Development: On-the-Job Training, Training Program•Capacity Development(JS Training Center)•Research and Technology Development (JS R&D Division)•Technical Support to Middle-Small Scale Municipalities(JS: Japan Sewage Works Agency)

24

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-2-2 Financial System for Sanitation•Establishment of Construction and O&M Cost Sharing Principles
Construction Cost: Subsidy, Local Bond, User Charge
O&M Cost: User Charge, Public Sector Cost BurdenCollection of User Charge (Sustainability) greatly depends on

User’s Willingness To Pay, (Affordability to pay)
In respect of(1) The need for a water supply and sewerage system(2) Awareness and understanding of residents for paying for thefacilities(3) A suitable payment system

25

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-2-2 Financial System for Sanitation• Willingness to pay greatly depends on how citizens are awareof and evaluate the benefits of sanitation systems (Importanceof Awareness and Understanding of Sanitation Systems Benefits)

1) Improvement of Surrounding Environments
Examples of benefits;
hygiene status, eradication of mesquites, flies,
People’s comfort, use of flush toilet, elimination of odor problems, etc.
Reduction of Waterborne Diseases

2) Water Quality Preservation in Public Water Bodies(1) Improvement of the value of water environment for citizens(2) Cost reduction to uptake the water for drinking, industrial use, agriculturaluse, etc.
(3) Damage cost of agriculture by discharging of untreated wastewater(4) Damage cost of fishery by discharging of untreated wastewater(5) Alternative method for dredging (without sewage works, dredging isrequired)

Necessary Viewpoints for Public Relation, Public Education

26

II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-2-3 Management of Sewerage Systems
Necessary Aspects for Rational Management of Sewerage Systems• Appropriate cost sharing between public and private financial resources• Long-term basis forecast of income and expenditures considering thelifespan of the facilities and the increased percentage of users• Appropriate economic management based on tangible businessobjectives, precise business analysis and future business prospects• Disclosure of management information to the citizens
as tax payers and users who bear user charge
Currently, Kyoto City, Yokosuka City, and other cities disclose management information
including Medium-range management planning,
Balance of payment of sewage works, andPI (Performance Indicators) proposed by the Japan Sewage Works Association.
27

CONCLUSION
Objectives of CSS; City Sanitation Strategy(1) Improvement of Living Condition(2) Improvement of Public Health(3) Preservation of Water Quality in Public Water Bodies

I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS(1) Legal System: Basic Law for Environmental Protection
Water Quality Control Law
City Planning Law
Sewerage Law, Johkasou Law(2) Technology Options for Drainage and Treatment of Wastewater
Off-site Treatment, On-site Treatment(3) Institutional and Management Arrangements
Role of Central Government and Municipality
Project Implementation Organization
Private Sector Participation, Public Private Partnership(4) Financial System for Sanitation
Establishment of Construction and O&M Cost Sharing Principles
Construction Cost: Subsidy, Local Bond, User Charge
O&M Cost: User Charge, Public Sector Cost Burden

28

CONCLUSION
II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-1. Project Planning
II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning
Basic Concept for CSS
II-1-2. Concept of Cost Comparison between Off-site and On-site
Design Criteria for Selection of Off-site and On-site System
II-1-3. Prefectural Plan for Appropriate Wastewater treatment
Fundamental Plan for CSS Based on II-1-1 & II-1-2
II-1-4. Formulation of Project Plan
Location and Capacity of Sanitation Systems considering
several aspects (in Japan formulated in the Sewerage Law)
II-1-5. Technology Options
Technology Evaluation and Establishment of Design Manuals

Objectives of CSS; City Sanitation Strategy(1) Improvement of Living Conditions(2) Improvement of Public Health(3) Preservation of Water Quality in Public Water Bodies

29

CONCLUSION
II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-2. Operation and MaintenanceII-2-1. Institutional and Management Arrangement s (HRD, CD)
Role of Central Government and Municipalities,
Project Implementation Organization,
Private Sector Participation,
Human Resource Development: OJT, Training Program
Capacity Development(JS Training Center)Research and Technology Development (JS R&D Division)
Technical Support to Middle-Small Scale Municipalities
II-2-2. Financial System for Sanitation (WTP, Public Awareness)
Establishment of Construction and O&M Cost Sharing Principles
Construction Cost: Subsidy, Local Bond, User Charge
O&M Cost: User Charge, Public Sector Cost Burden
Willingness to pay greatly depends on how citizens are aware ofand evaluate the benefits of sanitation systems
Necessary Viewpoints for Public Relation, Public Education

30

CONCLUSION
II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-2. Operation and Maintenance

Percentage of Population Served by Wastewater Treatment (%)

II-2-3. Management of Sanitation Systems• Appropriate cost sharing between public and private
finance resources• Long-term basis forecast of income and expenditures• Appropriate economic management• Disclosure of management information to the citizens
as tax payers and users who bear user charge
As of end of fiscal year 1991

100

80

Sewerage：
92%
Sewerage：
59%

60

Sewerage：
53%

Sewerage：49%

40

National Average： 45%
Sewerage：34%

20

Sewerage：
10%0City/Town
population scale( X 1,000 )Total population( X 1,000 )Population served
by wastewater
treatment( X 1,000 )Number of cities &towns

1,000 or more

500 to lessthan 1,000

300 to lessthan 500

100 to less than 300

50 to lessthan 100less than 50

Total

24,8105,890

16,99024,53015,49035,880123,590

22,840

3,490

8,950

11,930

5,340

3,670

56,220

11

9

44

149

224

2,801

3,238

45%: Sewered Population Rate in 1991

88%: Wastewater Treated Population
31
Rate in 2011

CONCLUSION; SOLUTION for City Sanitation
I. BASIC FRAMEWORK for CSS
I-1. Legal System for Sanitation Systems
I-2. Technology Options for Drainage and Treatment of WastewaterI-3. Institutional and Management Arrangements
I-4. Financial System for Sewerage Systems
II. NECESSARY CONSIDERATION for CSS
II-1. Project Planning

II-1-1. Comprehensive Basin-wide Planning
II-1-2. Concept of Cost Comparison between Off-site and On-site
II-1-3. Prefectural Plan for Appropriate Wastewater Treatment
II-1-4. Formulation of Project Plan
II-1-5. Technology Options; Technology Evaluation and Design ManualII-2. Operation and MaintenanceII-2-1. Institutional and Management Arrangement s(Human Resource Development, Capacity Development, R&D)
II-2-2. Financial System for Sanitation(Willingness To Pay, Public Awareness, Public Relation)
II-2-3. Management of Sanitation Systems

For Formulation of City Sanitation Strategy

32

The Japan Sanitation Consortium (JSC) was launched on 16 October 2009
JSC ObjectivesPromote access to sanitation and sustainable improvement in the Asia-Pacific region
Promote sanitation policies, legal and institutional frameworks, and financing strategies
Develop human resource capacity and sanitation and hygiene awarenessThank you for your attention
JSC MEMBER ORGANIZATIONS OFF-SITE SANITATION
1.

Sewerage Business
Management Centre

2.

Japan Sewage Works
Association

3.

Japan Sewage Works Agency

 ON-SITE SANITATION
4. Japan Environmental
Sanitation Center
5. Japan Education Center ofEnvironmental Sanitation

33