The Society for Economic Studies
The University of Kitakyushu
Working Paper Series No.2014-5(accepted in March 30 2015)

Confusion of Japanese Case Particles ni and de that Mark Place of Existence:
Comparison of the Cases of JSL and JFL Chinese Learners
Authors
Miho Okada, Kyushu University
Minoru Hayashida, The University of Kitakyushu
Yuka Iwata, University of GuamContact Info.
Miho Okada, okada050914@hi.enjoy.ne.jp
Minoru Hayashida, hayashida@kitakyu-u.ac.jp
Yuka Iwata, iwata.yuka@gmail.com

Biography
Miho Okada
Part time teacher. MA. She conducts research about an acquisition of Japanese particle at theGraduate School of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University.
Minoru Hayashida
Born in 1959 in Goto Islands, Japan, he received Ph.D. in Statistics from Kyushu University(1990). His interests include not only economics but linguistics and history.
Yuka Iwata
Associate Professor and Japanese Language Coordinator at the University of Guam1

Abstract
Chinese JFL learners at the intermediate level often incorrectly apply the case particle de insituations requiring ni, which indicates place of existence in certain linguistic situations.
Okada, Shimizu, and Li (2012) report that confusion of de of limited use with ni causes such
errors.
The purpose of this study is to examine whether the above errors are also typical among
Chinese JSL learners. The investigators administered multiple-choice Japanese Particle Test
to intermediate-level JSL learners. The results of multiple regression analyses are consistent
with the case of JFL learners. This leads to the conclusion that, regardless of learner’s
learning environments, incorrect application of de in sentences of existence by Chinese
learners of L2 Japanese demonstrates a process of language acquisition by which they cannot
distinguish ni indicating place of existence from de of limited use.

2

要旨
本研究は、JFL 環境の「中位レベル」の中国語を母語とする日本語学習者に見られた、ある条
件の存在文における「に」と範囲限定の「で」との混同（岡田・志水・李 2012）が、JSL 環境の「中位レベル」の日本語学習者にも見られることを明らかにすることを目的とした。まず、JSL 環境の「中位レベル」の中国語を母語とする学習者を対象に格助詞選択テストを実施した。
次に、格助詞選択テストの回答をデータとして重回帰分析をした結果、ある条件を伴う存在文
における「で」の誤りは、JFL の誤りと同様に、動作場所の「で」ではなく範囲限定の「で」との混同によるものであることが分かった。学習環境の異なる中国語を母語とする日本語学習者に同一の結果が得られたことから、当該存在文に見られる「で」の誤用は、存在場所を表す「に」の習得の発達段階における、存在場所の「に」と範囲限定の「で」との区別がつかない段階を示すと思われる。

3

Confusion of Japanese Case Particles ni and de that Mark Place of Existence: Comparison of
the Cases of JSL and JFL Chinese Learners
Introduction
Japanese L2 learners often confuse the case particle ni indicating place of existencewith de. Learners at the novice level confuse ni indicating place of existence with deindicating place of motion. Errors in applying de incorrectly in situations requiring ni
indicating place of existence are also observed among intermediate level learners; however,does the specific confusion of de indicating place of motion for ni indicating place ofexistence still remain even when learners have reached the intermediate level?
In L2 learning in general, there is a universal acquisition order that applies to alllearners regardless of their first languages or learning environments (e.g., Baidi, 1999; Ellis
1985; Scarcella & Oxford, 1992; Shirahata, Wakabayashi & Muranoi, 2010; Towell &Hawkins, 1994). Acquisition order means the common process that learners of a given
language experience when learning a certain grammatical feature of the language. Within theacquisition orders for Japanese case particles, there seem to be differences in the types ofconfusion that novice-level and intermediate-level learners face.
Okada and Hayashida (2007) and Okada, Shimizu, and Li (2012) report thatintermediate-level learners incorrectly apply de in place of ni in the sentence of existence, asentence that (1) contains one of the following entities--a quantifier, an interrogative, alocative noun or a collective noun, and (2) indicates existence of objects or people in twocontrastive locations. However, it cannot be ignored that subject’s various L1 backgrounds
might have some influence on the result that Okada and Hayashida (2007) report. Similarly,
Okada et al. (2012) investigate native speakers of Chinese living in China finding uncertainty
regarding whether or to what degree the L1 backgrounds of the subjects affect results.
Learning environment, a primary difference between JEF and JSL learners, is a crucial issuein L2 acquisition. As differences in learning environment may significantly influence theamount of input, it is not clear whether or not learning under JFL or JSL conditions affects
the process of acquisition (Ellis, 1985).
Therefore, this study, focusing on L2 Chinese learners of Japanese at intermediatelevel studying in Japan, investigates whether errors in applying the case particle de insituations requiring ni indicating place of existence is influenced by confusion with de oflimited use.
Review of Related LiteratureStudies on the acquisition of case particles by L2 learners of Japanese include, for4example, Haseike (2004), Kubota (1994), Matsuda and Saito (1992), Okada and Hayashida(2007), Sakota (2001), and Yagi (1996). It has been reported that both novice- andintermediate-level learners often incorrectly apply de in situations requiring ni indicating
place of existence (as illustrated in 1a below). Also, these errors emerge regardless of L1. For
studies that investigate application of particles by Korean, English, Thai and Malay,
Indonesian, and Tagalog speakers, please see Matsuda and Saito (1992), Kubota (1994), andYagi (1996).
1a. *(Shujin wa) ie de imashita.
[(My husband) was at home.](Matsuda & Saito, 1992)

There are some strategies that intermediate-level learners employ when they are
uncertain about using either ni or de. Sakota (2001) reports that Chinese and Korean learners
apply the “locative noun (e.g., naka [inside]) + ni” strategy. According to Iwasaki (2001) and
Masuda (2001), the same strategy is also used by university students in the U.S. whose L1 is
English. On the other hand, Hasuike (2004) finds that learners apply ni with the verb “iru/aru[to exist]” and argues that this is true especially of native speakers of Chinese whose
language does not share grammatical features equivalent to the case particles ni and de.
However, if learners apply ni by employing the above strategies, the following error
should be avoided:
2a. *Daigaku no naka de tomodachi ga imasu.
[I have friends in university.](Okada & Hayashida, 2007)

Okada and Hayashida (2007) contend that the error shown in 2a is typical for intermediatelevel learners and attribute this error to confusion of the particle ni indicating place ofexistence with the de of limited use.
The present study attempts to prove that errors in applying de of the typedemonstrated in 2a are caused by confusion of ni indicating place of existence with de oflimited use regardless of the learner’s learning environment (China or Japan in this study).
Then, it argues that making such errors is one step in the process of acquiring ni indicating
place of existence. The following section reviews existing studies relevant to the current
study.
Review of Studies Relevant to the Current Study
In example 2a, in spite of having a locative noun, naka [inside], in the sentence, thelearner does not apply the “locative noun + ni” strategy. Nor is the particle ni used, eventhough 2a contains the verb imasu (derivation of iru [to exist]). Does this imply the learner’s
total lack of understanding of the particle de? This must be false since other intermediate5

level Chinese learners can correctly apply de in writing. For example,
2b. Aomori de okonawarete imasu.
[(Something) is being undertaken in Aomori.]
Therefore, learners seem to understand to some degree that de is used to mark the place of
motions and actions. According to Moriyama (2004), the particle de marks instruments,
causes, locations, manners, limitations, time, and doers. Among the above usages, locative
nouns can co-occur with de indicating locations and limitations: “Locative noun + de”
expresses the place of motions or actions (e.g., Shokudou de tabemasu. [I eat at a cafeteria.])
and limited use (e.g., Kankoku de yuumei na hito wa dare desu ka. [Who is famous in
Korea?]). If incorrect application of de for ni in a sentence of existence does not derive from
confusion of de indicating place of motion, then another possible source of explanation lies inde of limited use.
Okada and Hayashida (2007) therefore hypothesize that learner’s confusion of de forni derives from de of limited use as illustrated in 2a. To verify this hypothesis, theyadminister the Japanese Language Particle Test to 61 university students of various language
backgrounds and find that test-takers apply de incorrectly under the following linguistic
conditions:(1) The sentence contains a quantifier (e.g., Ryou ni san-nin imasu. [There are threepeople in the dormitory.]), an interrogative (e.g., Ryou ni nan-nin imasu ka. [Howmany people are in the dormitory?]), a locative noun (e.g., Ryou no naka ni dare moimasen. [No one is in the dormitory.]), or a collective noun (e.g, Ryou ni amerika-jin
ga imasu. [There are Americans in the dormitory.])(2) The sentence indicates existence of objects or people in two contrastive locations(e.g., Ryou no mae ni Lee-san ga iru ga, shokudou no naka niwa dare mo inai. [Mr.
Lee is in front of the dormitory, but no one is in the cafeteria.]).
Hereafter, the particle ni defined in (1) is called numeral ni and in (2) contrastive ni.
Furthermore, the study finds that test-takers who make frequent errors are intermediate-level
learners who have passed Level 3 but could not have reached Level 2 in the old version of theJapanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) due to scores insufficient by 20%. The study
concludes that the error in 2a arises due to learners’ confusion of ni indicating place ofexistence with de of limited use.
However, is it plausible to say that intermediate-level learners confuse ni indicating
place of existence exclusively with de of limited use, not with de indicating place of motion
instead? If so, is it possible to determine that there is an acquisition order by which learners
6normally first confuse ni indicating place of existence with de indicating place of motion
followed by confusion with de of limited use? If this is the sequence of acquisition, such
confusion should be common to all learners regardless of their learning environments whichshould be testable by examining learners who share the same L1 but learn L2 in either a JFL
or a JSL environment. To answer these questions, Okada et al. (2012) administered theJapanese Particle Test (see Appendix) to 179 Japanese language students learning in a JFL
environment at a university located in Dalian city in China in 2011.
Table 1 summarizes correct answer rates for the following particles: simple existenceni, motion de, contrastive ni, limited use de, and numeral ni. There are three items of simple
existence ni (ni indicating place of existence in a simple sentence), three items of motion de(de indicating place of motions and actions), seven items of contrastive ni (ni in two
sentences of existence that contain objects or people in two contrastive locations followed by
the verb iru/aru [to exist]), seven items of limited use de, and eight items of numeral ni (ni ina simple sentence of existence that contains a quantifier, a locative noun, an interrogative or acollective noun followed by the verb iru/aru [to exist]). Additionally, 14 distracter items areincluded in the test. Participants receive one point for each correct answer, and the highest
obtainable score is 42.
[Insert Table 1 Here]
Table 2 shows the mean and the standard deviation of the correct answer rates of thesame particle usage provided by the intermediate-level subjects.
[Insert Table 2 Here]Two subsequent multiple regression analyses predict error rates in selecting de for ni
indicating place of existence (an application that involves the numeral sense and thecontrastive sense) by using correct answer rates in applications of de indicating place of
motion and in application of de of limited use. The results indicate positive and reliableassociations between particular correct and incorrect applications of de. As Table 3 indicates,
participants who apply de of limited use correctly also more frequently apply de incorrectlyin place of the numeral ni and in place of the contrastive ni. In contrast, correct uses of deindicating place of motion do not correlate with errors involving substitution of de for thenumeral ni or contrastive ni. Thus, participants’ errors in applying de appear to be systematicand specific, rather than general.
[Insert Table 3 Here]
What do these results of the regression analyses suggest? The researchers attempted to use
the same test conducted in Table 3, to examine whether novice-level learners confuse ni
7

indicating place of existence with de indicating place of motion regardless of their first
language. Unfortunately, no novice-level learners of Japanese were included in the study
from the university located in Dalian city. Therefore, the researchers used the samples
collected from novice-level learners at universities located in Colorado and Guam to conduct
the regression analyses. Table 4 summarizes correct answer rates, and Table 5 presents resultsof the regression analyses.
[Insert Table 4 Here][Insert Table 5 Here]
Compared to the results summarized in Table 3, the results shown in Table 5 appear
to be quite opposite. That is, the coefficient of de indicating place of motion is positively
correlated, whereas no correlation is present for de of limited use. Contrasting the resultssummarized in Tables 3 and 5 confirms that if learners confuse ni with de indicating place of
motion, the coefficient of de indicating place of motion appears to be positively correlated1.
Furthermore, if they do not confuse ni with de of limited use, no correlation is found in thecoefficient of de of limited use.
This finding strongly supports the argument that JFL Chinese learners at theintermediate level incorrectly apply de in place of the numeral ni and/or the contrastive ni
because of confusion with de of limited use rather than with de indicating place of motion.
Purpose of This Study
Both locative particles ni and de share similar functions (Yagi, 1996). Therefore, froma psycholinguistic perspective, Japanese L2 learners apply locative particles ni, de, and oincorrectly due to insufficient semantic and pragmatic understanding of those particles(Moriyama, 2002). The order by which learners acquire locative particles ni, de, and o is still
unknown. One of the purposes of research in Second Language Acquisition is to establish
theories that explain why and how learners can acquire L2 through certain phases of learning
based on research evidence that investigates the process of acquisition (Shirohata,
Wakabayashi, & Muranoi, 2011). This study presents evidence contributig to acquisition
theory concerning how learners acquire the case particles ni that express place of existence.
If frequent errors by intermediate-level learners in applying de in place of thenumeral ni or the contrastive ni in the sentence of existence are attributed to confusion with
It may sound strange to see a plus (+) sign in the coefficient since a plus sign implies thatparticipants applying de indicating place of motion correctly also more frequently apply deincorrectly in place of ni in a simple sentence of existence. The researchers found that this ischangeable to learners in the process of acquisition; however, we propose to discuss thedetails of this finding in another paper.
18

de of limited use (rather than de indicating place of motion), and moreover, if the errors anddegree of confusion are persistent among learners regardless of their learning environment,
whether L1 or L2 is spoken, this may demonstrate an aspect of the acquisition process that isin common to all learners.
The purpose of the present study, then, is to examine whether JFL learners’
confusion of de of limited use for ni indicating place of existence, found in Okada et al.
(2012), is also present in JSL learners, and therefore is independent of learning environment,
as elements of acquisition order are presumed to be.
The Present Study
To compare with JFL learners, the Japanese Particle Test (See appendix), the sametest used by Okada et al. (2012), is adopted by this study. It has 42 multiple-choice questionsin the sentences containing target particles and distracters. Participants are asked to select andcircle the most appropriate particle for each sentence from four options (ni, de, o, or kara).
They have already learned and become familiar with the words appearing in the test. Test
subjects consist of 80 learners of Japanese studying in a Japanese university located in
Fukuoka prefecture (60 freshmen, 18 sophomore, 1 junior, and 1 senior) in July 2011.
Subjects’ levels of Japanese proficiency range from N3 to N1 on the JLPT. Test completion
takes about 10 minutes. The order of the question items in the test shown in the Appendix
does not correspond to the order on the actual test.
Results and Discussion
The results are as follows.
Table 6 shows the descriptive statistics categorized by particle usage.
[Insert Table 6 Here]Among 80 participants, 37 participants who had scored between 26 and 37 and who
had not passed N1 level on the JLPT are classified as intermediate-level learners.
Table 7 summarizes the descriptive statistics provided by these intermediate-level
learners. The 29.6% gap between motion de and limited use de could imply that acquisitionof motion de has taken precedence over limited use de, the same trend demonstrated byintermediate-level JFL learners.
[Insert Table 7 Here]
Table 8 summarizes results of multiple regression analyses.
[Insert Table 8 Here]As Table 8 indicates, results on both multiple regression analyses are similar. First,
correct uses of de indicating place of motion do not correlate with errors of substituting de for9the numeral ni or for contrastive ni. That is, participants’ application of de indicating place of
motion correctly does not affect their incorrect application of de in place of both the numeralni and contrastive ni. This suggests that de indicating place of motion is not the source ofconfusion when incorrectly applying de in place of the numeral ni or contrastive ni.
As for correct application of de of limited use, it correlates positively with incorrect
application of de in place of numeral ni or contrastive ni, which indicates participants more
often applying de of limited use correctly also more frequently apply de incorrectly in placeof the numeral ni or contrastive ni. If acquisition of de of limited use is not related to that ofnumeral ni or contrastive ni, their correlations with correct use of de of limited use are
expected to be insignificant. If there is relationship, the coefficient becomes negatively
correlated, and participants should more often correctly apply de of limited use and less often
apply de incorrectly in place of the numeral ni and contrastive ni. However, the coefficient of
the correct answer rate of de of limited use is positively correlated with incorrect applicationof numeral ni and contrastive ni in this study. This unexpected yet strange phenomenon isconsistent with the case of JFL learners shown in Table 3 and the case of novice learners in
Table 5. In fact, this is evidence to support the hypothesis that incorrect use of de in place ofthe numeral ni or contrastive ni derives from confusion with de of limited use.
Below, we summarize and compare the results obtained from JFL and JSL learners.
The result of Table 3 indicates that it is de of limited use, not de indicating place of motion,that causes JFL learners to apply de incorrectly in place of the numeral ni and contrastive ni.
This also suggests that learners becoming more proficient in applying de of limited use arealso more likely to apply de incorrectly to substitute for numeral ni or contrastive ni.
As for JSL learners shown in Table 8, the results are mostly similar to those of the JFL
case summarized in Table 3. JSL participants applying de incorrectly also demonstrate errors
in applying de in place of the numeral ni or contrastive ni due to confusion of de of limiteduse.
Overall, the results of this study examining JSL learners are similar to those of JFL
learners investigated by Okada et al. (2012). Both studies find that it is de of limited use thatcauses errors in applying de in place of the numeral ni or contrastive ni. Thus, it can beconcluded that confusion of de of limited use with numeral ni or contrastive ni appearing inthe sentence of existence is a step in the process that learners at the intermediate level follow
in acquiring the particle ni that marks existence.
Conclusion
In this study, multiple-choice tests are administered to JSL learners of Chinese at the10intermediate level to examine the acquisition process for the case particle ni indicating placeof existence. The results reveal that JSL participants apply de of limited use incorrectly inplace of ni indicating place of existence, an application that involves the numeral sense andthe contrastive sense, due to confusion. This finding is consistent with the case of Chinese
speakers in JFL learning environments. Therefore, it is clear that in the process of acquiring
ni to mark place of existence, intermediate-level learners of Japanese, regardless of learning
environments, are likely to first experience confusion with de indicating place of motion, andthat this is likely to be followed by confusion with de of limited use.
This study focused on L2 Japanese learners of Chinese language background;however, it has been reported that different language groups may demonstrate the acquisition
process differently (Shirahata, Wakabayashi & Muranoi, 2010). In this regard similarities anddifferences in the process of acquiring case particles should be further investigated inlearners of various language backgrounds.

11References
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Okada, M & Hayashida, M. (2007). Nihongo gakushuu-sha ni yoru kakujyoshi no kondou-Sonzai basho no “ni” hani-gentei no “de” [L2 Japanese learner’s confusion of case particles-place of existence “ni” and limited use of “de”]. Nihongo Kyouiku Ronshuu, 23, 3-15.
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kankyou ni okeru chuugokugo o bokokugo to suru nihongo gakushuu-sha no baai12

[Acquisition of case particle “ni” that indicate place of existence: A case of JFL Chinese
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13

Appendix
Questions in the Japanese Particle Test (Please note that the order of questions was randomly
assigned.)
1. simple existence ni
Three items examine correct use of ni in a simple sentence of existence.
1-1. 食堂（に、で、を、から）彼がいます。
Shokudou (ni, de, o, kara) kare ga imasu. [He is at the cafeteria.]
1-2. 中国（に、で、を、から）おばさんがいません。
Chuugoku (ni, de, o, kara) obasan ga imasen. [My aunt is not in China.]
1-3. 東京（に、で、を、から）大きな病院があります。
Toukyou (ni, de, o, kara) ookina byouin ga arimasu. [In Tokyo, there are big hospitals.]
2. motion deThree items examine correct use of de indicating place of motions and actions.
2-1. 食堂（に、で、を、から）ご飯を食べます。
Shokudou (ni, de, o, kara) gohan o tabemasu. [(I) eat at the cafeteria.]
2-2. 食堂（に、で、を、から）ご飯を食べています。
Shokudou (ni, de, o, kara) gohan o tabete imasu. [(I) am eating at the cafeteria.]
2-3. リーさんはいつも寮（に、で、を、から）ご飯を食べています。
Lee-san wa itsumo ryou (ni, de, o, kara) gohan o tabete imasu. [Mr. Lee always eats at thedormitory.]
3. limited use deSeven items examine correct use of de of limited use.
3-1. 韓国（に、で、を、から）有名な人は誰ですか。
Kankoku (ni, de, o, kara) yuumei na hito wa dare desu ka. [Who is famous in Korea?]
3-2. 中国（に、で、を、から）有名なところはどこですか。
Chuugoku (ni, de, o, kara) yuumei na tokoro wa doko desu ka. [What place is famous in
China?]
3-3. 大学の中（に、で、を、から）だれが一番テニスが上手ですか。
Daigaku no naka (ni, de, o, kara) dare ga ichiban tenisu ga jyouzu desu ka. [Who is the best
tennis player at a university?]
3-4. 東京（に、で、を、から）どこが一番好きですか。
Toukyou (ni, de, o, kara) doko ga ichiban suki desu ka. [Where in Tokyo do you like thebest?]
3-5. この店の中のもの（に、で、を、から）何がほしいですか。2
Kono mise no naka no mono (ni, de, o, kara) nani ga hoshii desu ka. [Which item in this store
do you want?]
3-6. 大学の 留学生の中（に、で、を、から）リーさんが一番背が高いです。
Daigaku no ryuugakusei no naka (ni, de, o, kara) Lee-san ga ichiban se ga takai desu. [Mr.
Lee is the tallest among foreign students in this university.]
3-7.日本の食べ物の中（に、で、を、から）おいしいのはラーメンです。
Nihon no tabemono no naka (ni, de, o, kara) oishii no wa raamen desu. [Among Japanese
foods, ramen noodle is delicious.]
4. contrastive ni

14Seven items examine correct use of ni followed by “iru/aru + contrastive location.”
4-1. 寮の中（に、で、を、から）みんないますが、リーさんは寮の外（に、で、を、から）います。
Ryou no naka (ni, de, o, kara) minna imasu ga Lee-san wa ryou no soto (ni, de, o, kara)imasu. [Everyone is in the dormitory but Mr. Lee is outside the dormitory.]
4-2. 父は韓国（に、で、を、から）いますが、母と兄は日本（に、で、を、から）います。
Chichi wa kankoku (ni, de, o, kara) imasu ga, haha to ani wa nihon (ni, de, o, kara) imasu.
[My father is in Korea, but my mother and older brother are in Japan.]4-3. 日本（に、で、を、から）ボーリング場がたくさんあります。中国（に、で、を、から）ボーリング場はあまりありません。
Nihon (ni, de, o, kara) booringu-jyou ga takusan arimasu. Chuugoku (ni, de, o, kara)
booringu-jyou wa amari arimasen. [There are many bowling alleys in Japan. There are nonein China.]
4-4. 食堂の前（に、で、を、から）はリーさんがいます。食堂の中（に、で、を、から）は誰もいません。
Shokudou no mae (ni, de, o, kara) wa Lee-san ga imasu. Shokudou no naka (ni, de, o, kara)
wa dare mo imasen. [Mr. Lee is in front of the cafeteria. No one is in the cafeteria.]
4-5. 家の中（に、で、を、から）ネコはいません。あそこ（に、で、を、から）います。
Ie no naka (ni, de, o, kara) neko wa imasen. Asoko (ni, de, o, kara) imasu. [There is no cat in
the house. It is over there.]
4-6. 家（に、で、を、から）お金がありません。銀行（に、で、を、から）お金があります。
Ie (ni, de, o, kara) okane ga arimasen. Ginkou (ni, de, o, kara) okane ga arimasu. [(I) haveno money in the house. (I) have money in the bank.]
4-7. 教室（に、で、を、から）テレビがありませんが、あそこ（に、で、を、から）あります。
Kyoushitsu (ni, de, o, kara) terebi ga arimasen ga asoko (ni, de, o, kara) arimasu. [There is
no TV in the classroom, but there is one over.]5. numeral ni
Seven items examine correct use of ni followed by “iru/aru + a quantifier (an interrogative, alocative noun, or a collective noun).”5-1. この家（に、で、を、から）入口が三つありますか。
Kono ie (ni, de, o, kara) iriguchi ga mittsu arimasu ka. [Are there three entrances in thishouse?]
5-2. きのう、カラオケパーティーがありました。私もその中（に、で、を、から）いました。
Kinou, karaoke paatii ga arimashita. Watashi mo sono naka (ni, de, o, kara) imashita. [There
was a karaoke party yesterday. I was one of the people there.]
5-3. 大きな病院は東京（に、で、を、から）いくつありますか。
Ookina byouin wa Toukyou (ni, de, o, kara) ikutsu arimasu ka. [How many big hospitals arein Tokyo?]
5-4. 寮（に、で、を、から）アメリカの人がいますか。
Ryou (ni, de, o, kara) amerika no hito ga imasu ka. [Are there any Americans in thedormitory?]
5-5. 銀行（に、で、を、から）お金が 100 万円あります。
15

Ginkou (ni, de, o, kara) okane ga hyaku-man en arimasu. [(I) have 1,000,000 yen in thebank.]
5-6. 寮（に、で、を、から）５人メキシコの人がいます。
Ryou (ni, de, o, kara) go-nin mekishiko no hito ga imasu. [There are five Mexicans in thedormitory.]
5-7. 留学生は大連外国語大学（に、で、を、から）何人いますか。
Ryuugakusei wa Darian-gaikokugo-daigaku (ni, de, o, kara) nan-nin imasu ka. [How many
foreign students are in Dalian Foreign Language University?]
5-8. いろいろな料理がありました。その中（に、で、を、から）中国料理もありました。
Iroiro na ryouri ga arimashita. Sono naka (ni, de, o, kara) chuugoku-ryouri mo arimashita.
[There were various cuisines. Chinese food was one of them.]
6. Distracters, particle o
6-1. 京都のホテル（に、で、を、から）予約します。
Kyouto no hoteru (ni, de, o, kara) yoyaku shimasu. [(I) will make a reservation in a hotel in
Kyoto.]
6-2. 来年、家（に、で、を、から）建てます。
Rainen, ie (ni, de, o, kara) tatemasu. [(I) will build a house next year.]
6-3. 電車（に、で、を、から）降りてから、歩いて行きました。
Densha (ni, de, o, kara) orite kara aruite ikimashita. [After getting off the train, (I) walked.]
6-4. 帰るとき、公園（に、で、を、から）通りました。
Kaeru toki kouen (ni, de, o, kara) tourimashita. [When (I was) going home, (I) passed thepark.]
6-5. 小さな橋（に、で、を、から）渡りました。
Chiisana hashi (ni, de, o, kara) watarimashita. [I crossed a small bridge.]
6-6. 私は大きな家（に、で、を、から）買いたいです。
Watashi wa ookina ie (ni, de, o, kara) kaitai desu. [I want to buy a big house.]
6-7. 飛行機が空（に、で、を、から）飛んでいます。
Hikouki ga sora (ni, de, o, kara) tonede imasu. [The airplane is flying in the sky.]
7. Distracters, particle kara
7-1. 大学（に、で、を、から）図書館まで自転車で行きます。
Daigaku (ni, de, o, kara) toshokan made jitensha de ikimasu. [(I) go to university library bybicycle.]7-2. きのう、大学（に、で、を、から）電話がありました。
Kinou daigaku (ni, de, o, kara) denwa ga arimashita. [(I) received a phone call fromuniversity yesterday.]
7-3. 家（に、で、を、から）大学まで歩いて 10 分かかります。
Ie (ni, de, o, kara) daigaku made aruite 10-pun kakarimasu. [From home to college takes 10
minutes on foot.]
7-4. どろぼうが家の 2 階（に、で、を、から）入りました。
Dorobou ga ie no ni-kai (ni, de, o, kara) hairimashita. [The burglar entered from the second
floor of the house.]
7-5. 勉強しているとき、窓（に、で、を、から）飛行機が見えました。
Benkyou shiteiru toki, mado (ni, de, o, kara) hikouki ga miemashita. [When (I was) studying,(I) saw the airplane through the window.]
7-6. ベッド（に、で、を、から）落ちたので、体が痛いです。
16

Beddo (ni, de, o, kara) ochita node, karada ga itai desu. [Because I fell from the bed, mybody hurts.]
7-7. 去年、福岡（に、で、を、から）東京へ行きました。
Kyonen, Fukuoka (ni, de, o, kara) Toukyou e ikimashita. [(I) went to Tokyo from Fukuoka
last year.]17

Table 1
Rates of Correct Answer (JFL Learners, n=179)
Correct Answer (%)
Particle Usage
Mean Standard deviation
Simple existence ni
68.5
31.9
Motion de
89.5
21.5
Contrastive ni
61.6
31.7
Limited use de
79.6
22.6
Numeral ni
61.0
25.0

Table 2Rates of Correct Answer (JFL Learners, Intermediate Level, n=104)
Correct Answer (%)
Particle Usage
Mean Standard deviation
Simple existence ni
72.4
0.306
Motion de
91.0
0.214
Contrastive ni
64.9
0.249
Limited use de
80.2
0.218
Numeral ni
62.5
0.193

Table 3
Summary of Regression Analyses, JFL (n=104)
Incorrect application of de in place of thenumeral ni
Explanatory
βpVariables
R2=.193 Motion de
-0.04
0.657
Limited use de
0.435 0.000****p<.01.

Incorrect application of de in place of thecontrastive ni
Explanatory
βpVariables
R2=.097 Motion de-0.0240.798
Limited use de
0.308
0.002****p<.01.

Table 4Rates of Correct Answer (Novice-Level Learners, n=51)
Correct Answer (%)
Particle Usage
Mean Standard deviation
Simple existence ni
50.6
0.144
Motion de
49.6
0.318
Contrastive ni
28.8
0.234
Limited use de
51.2
0.262
Numeral ni
46.8
0.253

Table 5
Summary of Regression Analyses, Novice-Level Learners, (n=51)
Incorrect application of de in place of ni in a simple sentence of existence

R2=.175

Explanatory Variables
Motion deLimited use de

β
0.391
0.053

p
0.011*
0.721*p<.05.

Table 6
Correct Answer Rates (JSL Learners, n=80)
Correct Answer (%)
Particle Usage
Mean Standard deviation
Simple existence ni
69.5
0.348
Motion de
89.1
0.196
Contrastive ni
58.3
0.326
Limited use de
69.4
0.233
Numeral ni
62.1
0.279

Table 7
Correct Answer Rates (JSL Intermediate-level Learners, n=37)
Correct Answer (%)
Particle Usage
Mean Standard deviation
Simple existence ni
84.6
0.230
Motion de
96.4
0.104
Contrastive ni
74.6
0.213
Limited use de
66.8
0.220
Numeral ni
71.9
0.194

Table 8
Summary of Regression Analyses, JSL Learners (n=37)
Incorrect application of de in place of thenumeral ni
Explanatory
βpVariables
R2=.120
Motion de
0.045 0.781
Limited use de
0.345
0.039**p<.05, **p<.01.

Incorrect application of de in place of thecontrastive ni
Explanatory
βpVariables
R2=.234 Motion de-0.035 0.816
Limited use de
0.482 0.003***p<.05,**p<.01.